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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 6
+(of 6), by Havelock Ellis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 6 (of 6)
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2004  [eBook #13615]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
+VOLUME 6 (OF 6)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME VI
+
+   Sex in Relation to Society
+
+by
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+1927
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+In the previous five volumes of these _Studies_, I have dealt mainly with
+the sexual impulse in relation to its object, leaving out of account the
+external persons and the environmental influences which yet may powerfully
+affect that impulse and its gratification. We cannot afford, however, to
+pass unnoticed this relationship of the sexual impulse to third persons
+and to the community at large with all its anciently established
+traditions. We have to consider sex in relation to society.
+
+In so doing, it will be possible to discuss more summarily than in
+preceding volumes the manifold and important problems that are presented
+to us. In considering the more special questions of sexual psychology we
+entered a neglected field and it was necessary to expend an analytic care
+and precision which at many points had never been expended before on these
+questions. But when we reach the relationships of sex to society we have
+for the most part no such neglect to encounter. The subject of every
+chapter in the present volume could easily form, and often has formed, the
+topic of a volume, and the literature of many of these subjects is already
+extremely voluminous. It must therefore be our main object here not to
+accumulate details but to place each subject by turn, as clearly and
+succinctly as may be, in relation to those fundamental principles of
+sexual psychology which--so far as the data at present admit--have been
+set forth in the preceding volumes.
+
+It may seem to some, indeed, that in this exposition I should have
+confined myself to the present, and not included so wide a sweep of the
+course of human history and the traditions of the race. It may especially
+seem that I have laid too great a stress on the influence of Christianity
+in moulding sexual ideals and establishing sexual institutions. That, I am
+convinced, is an error. It is because it is so frequently made that the
+movements of progress among us--movements that can never at any period of
+social history cease--are by many so seriously misunderstood. We cannot
+escape from our traditions. There never has been, and never can be, any
+"age of reason." The most ardent co-called "free-thinker," who casts aside
+as he imagines the authority of the Christian past, is still held by that
+past. If its traditions are not absolutely in his blood, they are
+ingrained in the texture of all the social institutions into which he was
+born and they affect even his modes of thinking. The latest modifications
+of our institutions are inevitably influenced by the past form of those
+institutions. We cannot realize where we are, nor whither we are moving,
+unless we know whence we came. We cannot understand the significance of
+the changes around us, nor face them with cheerful confidence, unless we
+are acquainted with the drift of the great movements that stir all
+civilization in never-ending cycles.
+
+In discussing sexual questions which are very largely matters of social
+hygiene we shall thus still be preserving the psychological point of view.
+Such a point of view in relation to these matters is not only legitimate
+but necessary. Discussions of social hygiene that are purely medical or
+purely juridical or purely moral or purely theological not only lead to
+conclusions that are often entirely opposed to each other but they
+obviously fail to possess complete applicability to the complex human
+personality. The main task before us must be to ascertain what best
+expresses, and what best satisfies, the totality of the impulses and ideas
+of civilized men and women. So that while we must constantly bear in mind
+medical, legal, and moral demands--which all correspond in some respects
+to some individual or social need--the main thing is to satisfy the
+demands of the whole human person.
+
+It is necessary to emphasize this point of view because it would seem
+that no error is more common among writers on the hygienic and moral
+problems of sex than the neglect of the psychological standpoint. They may
+take, for instance, the side of sexual restraint, or the side of sexual
+unrestraint, but they fail to realize that so narrow a basis is inadequate
+for the needs of complex human beings. From the wider psychological
+standpoint we recognize that we have to conciliate opposing impulses that
+are both alike founded on the human psychic organism.
+
+In the preceding volumes of these _Studies_ I have sought to refrain from
+the expression of any personal opinion and to maintain, so far as
+possible, a strictly objective attitude. In this endeavor, I trust, I have
+been successful if I may judge from the fact that I have received the
+sympathy and approval of all kinds of people, not less of the
+rationalistic free-thinker than of the orthodox believer, of those who
+accept, as well as of those who reject, our most current standards of
+morality. This is as it should be, for whatever our criteria of the worth
+of feelings and of conduct, it must always be of use to us to know what
+exactly are the feelings of people and how those feelings tend to affect
+their conduct. In the present volume, however, where social traditions
+necessarily come in for consideration and where we have to discuss the
+growth of those traditions in the past and their probable evolution in the
+future, I am not sanguine that the objectivity of my attitude will be
+equally clear to the reader. I have here to set down not only what people
+actually feel and do but what I think they are tending to feel and do.
+That is a matter of estimation only, however widely and however cautiously
+it is approached; it cannot be a matter of absolute demonstration. I trust
+that those who have followed me in the past will bear with me still, even
+if it is impossible for them always to accept the conclusions I have
+myself reached.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+Carbis Bay, Cornwall, England.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MOTHER AND HER CHILD.
+
+The Child's Right to Choose Its Ancestry--How This is Effected--The Mother
+the Child's Supreme Parent--Motherhood and the Woman Movement--The Immense
+Importance of Motherhood--Infant Mortality and Its Causes--The Chief Cause
+in the Mother--The Need of Rest During Pregnancy--Frequency of Premature
+Birth--The Function of the State--Recent Advance in Puericulture--The
+Question of Coitus During Pregnancy--The Need of Rest During
+Lactation--The Mother's Duty to Suckle Her Child--The Economic
+Question--The Duty of the State--Recent Progress in the Protection of the
+Mother--The Fallacy of State Nurseries.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION.
+
+Nurture Necessary as Well as Breed--Precocious Manifestations of the
+Sexual Impulse--Are they to be Regarded as Normal?--The Sexual Play of
+Children--The Emotion of Love in Childhood--Are Town Children More
+Precocious Sexually Than Country Children?--Children's Ideas Concerning
+the Origin of Babies--Need for Beginning the Sexual Education of Children
+in Early Years--The Importance of Early Training in Responsibility--Evil
+of the Old Doctrine of Silence in Matters of Sex--The Evil Magnified When
+Applied to Girls--The Mother the Natural and Best Teacher--The Morbid
+Influence of Artificial Mystery in Sex Matters--Books on Sexual
+Enlightenment of the Young--Nature of the Mother's Task--Sexual Education
+in the School--The Value of Botany--Zoölogy--Sexual Education After
+Puberty--The Necessity of Counteracting Quack Literature--Danger of
+Neglecting to Prepare for the First Onset of Menstruation--The Right
+Attitude Towards Woman's Sexual Life--The Vital Necessity of the Hygiene
+of Menstruation During Adolescence--Such Hygiene Compatible with the
+Educational and Social Equality of the Sexes--The Invalidism of Women
+Mainly Due to Hygienic Neglect--Good Influence of Physical Training on
+Women and Bad Influence of Athletics--The Evils of Emotional
+Suppression--Need of Teaching the Dignity of Sex--Influence of These
+Factors on a Woman's Fate in Marriage--Lectures and Addresses on Sexual
+Hygiene--The Doctor's Part in Sexual Education--Pubertal Initiation Into
+the Ideal World--The Place of the Religious and Ethical Teacher--The
+Initiation Rites of Savages Into Manhood and Womanhood--The Sexual
+Influence of Literature--The Sexual Influence of Art.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION AND NAKEDNESS.
+
+The Greek Attitude Towards Nakedness--How the Romans Modified That
+Attitude--The Influence of Christianity--Nakedness in Mediæval
+Times--Evolution of the Horror of Nakedness--Concomitant Change in the
+Conception of Nakedness--Prudery--The Romantic Movement--Rise of a New
+Feeling in Regard to Nakedness--The Hygienic Aspect of Nakedness--How
+Children May Be Accustomed to Nakedness--Nakedness Not Inimical to
+Modesty--The Instinct of Physical Pride--The Value of Nakedness in
+Education--The Æsthetic Value of Nakedness--The Human Body as One of the
+Prime Tonics of Life--How Nakedness May Be Cultivated--The Moral Value of
+Nakedness.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE VALUATION OF SEXUAL LOVE.
+
+The Conception of Sexual Love--The Attitude of Mediæval Asceticism--St.
+Bernard and St. Odo of Cluny--The Ascetic Insistence on the Proximity of
+the Sexual and Excretory Centres--Love as a Sacrament of Nature--The Idea
+of the Impurity of Sex in Primitive Religions Generally--Theories of the
+Origin of This Idea--The Anti-Ascetic Element in the Bible and Early
+Christianity--Clement of Alexandria--St. Augustine's Attitude--The
+Recognition of the Sacredness of the Body by Tertullian, Rufinus and
+Athanasius--The Reformation--The Sexual Instinct Regarded as Beastly--The
+Human Sexual Instinct Not Animal-like--Lust and Love--The Definition of
+Love--Love and Names for Love Unknown in Some Parts of the World--Romantic
+Love of Late Development in the White Race--The Mystery of Sexual
+Desire--Whether Love is a Delusion--The Spiritual as Well as the Physical
+Structure of the World in Part Built up on Sexual Love The Testimony of
+Men of Intellect to the Supremacy of Love.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FUNCTION OF CHASTITY.
+
+Chastity Essential to the Dignity of Love--The Eighteenth Century Revolt
+Against the Ideal of Chastity--Unnatural Forms of Chastity--The
+Psychological Basis of Asceticism--Asceticism and Chastity as Savage
+Virtues--The Significance of Tahiti--Chastity Among Barbarous
+Peoples--Chastity Among the Early Christians--Struggles of the Saints with
+the Flesh--The Romance of Christian Chastity--Its Decay in Mediæval
+Times--_Aucassin et Nicolette_ and the New Romance of Chaste Love--The
+Unchastity of the Northern Barbarians--The Penitentials--Influence of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation--The Revolt Against Virginity as a
+Virtue--The Modern Conception of Chastity as a Virtue--The Influences That
+Favor the Virtue of Chastity--Chastity as a Discipline--The Value of
+Chastity for the Artist--Potency and Impotence in Popular Estimation--The
+Correct Definitions of Asceticism and Chastity.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE.
+
+The Influence of Tradition--The Theological Conception of Lust--Tendency
+of These Influences to Degrade Sexual Morality--Their Result in Creating
+the Problem of Sexual Abstinence--The Protests Against Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence and Genius--Sexual Abstinence in Women--The
+Advocates of Sexual Abstinence--Intermediate Attitude--Unsatisfactory
+Nature of the Whole Discussion--Criticism of the Conception of Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence as Compared to Abstinence from Food--No
+Complete Analogy--The Morality of Sexual Abstinence Entirely Negative--Is
+It the Physician's Duty to Advise Extra-Conjugal Sexual
+Intercourse?--Opinions of Those Who Affirm or Deny This Duty--The
+Conclusion Against Such Advice--The Physician Bound by the Social and
+Moral Ideas of His Age--The Physician as Reformer--Sexual Abstinence and
+Sexual Hygiene--Alcohol--The Influence of Physical and Mental
+Exercise--The Inadequacy of Sexual Hygiene in This Field--The Unreal
+Nature of the Conception of Sexual Abstinence--The Necessity of Replacing
+It by a More Positive Ideal.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PROSTITUTION.
+
+I. _The Orgy:_--The Religious Origin of the Orgy--The Feast of
+Fools--Recognition of the Orgy by the Greeks and Romans--The Orgy Among
+Savages--The Drama--The Object Subserved by the Orgy.
+
+II. _The Origin and Development of Prostitution:_--The Definition of
+Prostitution--Prostitution Among Savages--The Conditions Under Which
+Professional Prostitution Arises--Sacred Prostitution--The Rite of
+Mylitta--The Practice of Prostitution to Obtain a Marriage Portion--The
+Rise of Secular Prostitution in Greece--Prostitution in the East--India,
+China, Japan, etc.--Prostitution in Rome--The Influence of Christianity on
+Prostitution--The Effort to Combat Prostitution--The Mediæval Brothel--The
+Appearance of the Courtesan--Tullia D'Aragona--Veronica Franco--Ninon de
+Lenclos--Later Attempts to Eradicate Prostitution--The Regulation of
+Prostitution--Its Futility Becoming Recognized.
+
+III. _The Causes of Prostitution:_--Prostitution as a Part of the Marriage
+System--The Complex Causation of Prostitution--The Motives Assigned by
+Prostitutes--(1) Economic Factor of Prostitution--Poverty Seldom the Chief
+Motive for Prostitution--But Economic Pressure Exerts a Real
+Influence--The Large Proportion of Prostitutes Recruited from Domestic
+Service--Significance of This Fact--(2) The Biological Factor of
+Prostitution--The So-called Born-Prostitute--Alleged Identity with the
+Born-Criminal--The Sexual Instinct in Prostitutes--The Physical and
+Psychic Characters of Prostitutes--(3) Moral Necessity as a Factor in the
+Existence of Prostitution--The Moral Advocates of Prostitution--The Moral
+Attitude of Christianity Towards Prostitution--The Attitude of
+Protestantism--Recent Advocates of the Moral Necessity of
+Prostitution--(4) Civilizational Value as a Factor of Prostitution--The
+Influence of Urban Life--The Craving for Excitement--Why Servant-girls so
+Often Turn to Prostitution--The Small Part Played by Seduction--Prostitutes
+Come Largely from the Country--The Appeal of Civilization Attracts Women
+to Prostitution--The Corresponding Attraction Felt by Men--The Prostitute
+as Artist and Leader of Fashion--The Charm of Vulgarity.
+
+IV. _The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution:_--The Decay of the
+Brothel--The Tendency to the Humanization of Prostitution--The Monetary
+Aspects of Prostitution--The Geisha--The Hetaira--The Moral Revolt Against
+Prostitution--Squalid Vice Based on Luxurious Virtue--The Ordinary
+Attitude Towards Prostitutes--Its Cruelty Absurd--The Need of Reforming
+Prostitution--The Need of Reforming Marriage--These Two Needs Closely
+Correlated--The Dynamic Relationships Involved.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE CONQUEST OF THE VENEREAL DISEASES.
+
+The Significance of the Venereal Diseases--The History of Syphilis--The
+Problem of Its Origin--The Social Gravity of Syphilis--The Social Dangers
+of Gonorrhoea--The Modern Change in the Methods of Combating Venereal
+Diseases--Causes of the Decay of the System of Police Regulation--Necessity
+of Facing the Facts--The Innocent Victims of Venereal Diseases--Diseases
+Not Crimes--The Principle of Notification--The Scandinavian
+System--Gratuitous Treatment--Punishment For Transmitting
+Venereal Diseases--Sexual Education in Relation to Venereal
+Diseases--Lectures, Etc.--Discussion in Novels and on the Stage--The
+"Disgusting" Not the "Immoral".
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SEXUAL MORALITY.
+
+Prostitution in Relation to Our Marriage System--Marriage and
+Morality--The Definition of the Term "Morality"--Theoretical Morality--Its
+Division Into Traditional Morality and Ideal Morality--Practical
+Morality--Practical Morality Based on Custom--The Only Subject of
+Scientific Ethics--The Reaction Between Theoretical and Practical
+Morality--Sexual Morality in the Past an Application of Economic
+Morality--The Combined Rigidity and Laxity of This Morality--The
+Growth of a Specific Sexual Morality and the Evolution of Moral
+Ideals--Manifestations of Sexual Morality--Disregard of the Forms of
+Marriage--Trial Marriage--Marriage After Conception of Child--Phenomena in
+Germany, Anglo-Saxon Countries, Russia, etc.--The Status of Woman--The
+Historical Tendency Favoring Moral Equality of Women with Men--The Theory
+of the Matriarchate--Mother-Descent--Women in Babylonia--Egypt--Rome--The
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries--The Historical Tendency
+Favoring Moral Inequality of Woman--The Ambiguous Influence of
+Christianity--Influence of Teutonic Custom and Feudalism--Chivalry--Woman
+in England--The Sale of Wives--The Vanishing Subjection of
+Woman--Inaptitude of the Modern Man to Domineer--The Growth of Moral
+Responsibility in Women--The Concomitant Development of Economic
+Independence--The Increase of Women Who Work--Invasion of the Modern
+Industrial Field by Women--In How Far This Is Socially Justifiable--The
+Sexual Responsibility of Women and Its Consequences--The Alleged Moral
+Inferiority of Women--The "Self-Sacrifice" of Women--Society Not
+Concerned with Sexual Relationships--Procreation the Sole Sexual Concern
+of the State--The Supreme Importance of Maternity.
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+MARRIAGE.
+
+The Definition of Marriage--Marriage Among Animals--The Predominance of
+Monogamy--The Question of Group Marriage--Monogamy a Natural Fact, Not
+Based on Human Law--The Tendency to Place the Form of Marriage Above the
+Fact of Marriage--The History of Marriage--Marriage in Ancient
+Rome--Germanic Influence on Marriage--Bride-Sale--The Ring--The Influence
+of Christianity on Marriage--The Great Extent of this Influence--The
+Sacrament of Matrimony--Origin and Growth of the Sacramental
+Conception--The Church Made Marriage a Public Act--Canon Law--Its Sound
+Core--Its Development--Its Confusions and Absurdities--Peculiarities of
+English Marriage Law--Influence of the Reformation on Marriage--The
+Protestant Conception of Marriage as a Secular Contract--The Puritan
+Reform of Marriage--Milton as the Pioneer of Marriage Reform--His Views on
+Divorce--The Backward Position of England in Marriage Reform--Criticism of
+the English Divorce Law--Traditions of the Canon Law Still Persistent--The
+Question of Damages for Adultery--Collusion as a Bar to
+Divorce--Divorce in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, etc.--The United
+States--Impossibility of Deciding by Statute the Causes for
+Divorce--Divorce by Mutual Consent--Its Origin and Development--Impeded by
+the Traditions of Canon Law--Wilhelm von Humboldt--Modern Pioneer
+Advocates of Divorce by Mutual Consent--The Arguments Against Facility of
+Divorce--The Interests of the Children--The Protection of Women--The
+Present Tendency of the Divorce Movement--Marriage Not a Contract--The
+Proposal of Marriage for a Term of Years--Legal Disabilities and
+Disadvantages in the Position of the Husband and the Wife--Marriage Not a
+Contract But a Fact--Only the Non-Essentials of Marriage, Not the
+Essentials, a Proper Matter for Contract--The Legal Recognition of
+Marriage as a Fact Without Any Ceremony--Contracts of the Person Opposed
+to Modern Tendencies--The Factor of Moral Responsibility--Marriage as an
+Ethical Sacrament--Personal Responsibility Involves Freedom--Freedom the
+Best Guarantee of Stability--False Ideas of Individualism--Modern Tendency
+of Marriage--With the Birth of a Child Marriage Ceases to be a Private
+Concern--Every Child Must Have a Legal Father and Mother--How This Can be
+Effected--The Firm Basis of Monogamy--The Question of Marriage
+Variations--Such Variations Not Inimical to Monogamy--The Most Common
+Variations--The Flexibility of Marriage Holds Variations in
+Check--Marriage Variations _versus_ Prostitution--Marriage on a Reasonable
+and Humane Basis--Summary and Conclusion.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE ART OF LOVE.
+
+Marriage Not Only for Procreation--Theologians on the _Sacramentum
+Solationis_--Importance of the _Art of Love_--The Basis of Stability in
+Marriage and the Condition for Right Procreation--The Art of Love the
+Bulwark Against Divorce--The Unity of Love and Marriage a Principle of
+Modern Morality--Christianity and the Art of Love--Ovid--The Art of Love
+Among Primitive Peoples--Sexual Initiation in Africa and Elsewhere--The
+Tendency to Spontaneous Development of the Art of Love in Early
+Life--Flirtation--Sexual Ignorance in Women--The Husband's Place in Sexual
+Initiation--Sexual Ignorance in Men--The Husband's Education for
+Marriage--The Injury Done by the Ignorance of Husbands--The Physical and
+Mental Results of Unskilful Coitus--Women Understand the Art of Love
+Better Than Men--Ancient and Modern Opinions Concerning Frequency of
+Coitus--Variation in Sexual Capacity--The Sexual Appetite--The Art of Love
+Based on the Biological Facts of Courtship--The Art of Pleasing Women--The
+Lover Compared to the Musician--The Proposal as a Part of
+Courtship--Divination in the Art of Love--The Importance of the
+Preliminaries in Courtship--The Unskilful Husband Frequently the Cause of
+the Frigid Wife--The Difficulty of Courtship--Simultaneous Orgasm--The
+Evils of Incomplete Gratification in Women--Coitus Interruptus--Coitus
+Reservatus--The Human Method of Coitus--Variations in Coitus--Posture in
+Coitus--The Best Time for Coitus--The Influence of Coitus in Marriage--The
+Advantages of Absence in Marriage--The Risks of Absence--Jealousy--The
+Primitive Function of Jealousy--Its Predominance Among Animals, Savages,
+etc, and in Pathological States--An Anti-Social Emotion--Jealousy
+Incompatible With the Progress of Civilization--The Possibility of Loving
+More Than One Person at a Time--Platonic Friendship--The Conditions Which
+Make It Possible--The Maternal Element in Woman's Love--The Final
+Development of Conjugal Love--The Problem of Love One of the Greatest Of
+Social Questions.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SCIENCE OF PROCREATION.
+
+The Relationship of the Science of Procreation to the Art of Love--Sexual
+Desire and Sexual Pleasure as the Conditions of Conception--Reproduction
+Formerly Left to Caprice and Lust--The Question of Procreation as a
+Religious Question--The Creed of Eugenics--Ellen Key and Sir Francis
+Galton--Our Debt to Posterity--The Problem of Replacing Natural
+Selection--The Origin and Development of Eugenics--The General Acceptance
+of Eugenical Principles To-day--The Two Channels by Which Eugenical
+Principles are Becoming Embodied in Practice--The Sense of Sexual
+Responsibility in Women--The Rejection of Compulsory Motherhood--The
+Privilege of Voluntary Motherhood--Causes of the Degradation of
+Motherhood--The Control of Conception--Now Practiced by the Majority of
+the Population in Civilized Countries--The Fallacy of "Racial
+Suicide"--Are Large Families a Stigma of Degeneration?--Procreative
+Control the Outcome of Natural and Civilized Progress--The Growth of
+Neo-Malthusian Beliefs and Practices--Facultative Sterility as Distinct
+from Neo-Malthusianism--The Medical and Hygienic Necessity of Control of
+Conception--Preventive Methods--Abortion--The New Doctrine of the Duty to
+Practice Abortion--How Far is this Justifiable?--Castration as a Method of
+Controlling Procreation--Negative Eugenics and Positive Eugenics--The
+Question of Certificates for Marriage--The Inadequacy of Eugenics by Act
+of Parliament--The Quickening of the Social Conscience in Regard to
+Heredity--Limitations to the Endowment of Motherhood--The Conditions
+Favorable to Procreation--Sterility--The Question of Artificial
+Fecundation--The Best Age of Procreation--The Question of Early
+Motherhood--The Best Time for Procreation--The Completion of the Divine
+Cycle of Life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MOTHER AND HER CHILD.
+
+The Child's Right to Choose Its Ancestry--How This is Effected--The Mother
+the Child's Supreme Parent--Motherhood and the Woman Movement--The Immense
+Importance of Motherhood--Infant Mortality and Its Causes--The Chief Cause
+in the Mother--The Need of Rest During Pregnancy--Frequency of Premature
+Birth--The Function of the State--Recent Advance in Puericulture--The
+Question of Coitus During Pregnancy--The Need of Rest During
+Lactation--The Mother's Duty to Suckle Her Child--The Economic
+Question--The Duty of the State--Recent Progress in the Protection of the
+Mother--The Fallacy of State Nurseries.
+
+
+A man's sexual nature, like all else that is most essential in him, is
+rooted in a soil that was formed very long before his birth. In this, as
+in every other respect, he draws the elements of his life from his
+ancestors, however new the recombination may be and however greatly it may
+be modified by subsequent conditions. A man's destiny stands not in the
+future but in the past. That, rightly considered, is the most vital of all
+vital facts. Every child thus has a right to choose his own ancestors.
+Naturally he can only do this vicariously, through his parents. It is the
+most serious and sacred duty of the future father to choose one half of
+the ancestral and hereditary character of his future child; it is the most
+serious and sacred duty of the future mother to make a similar choice.[1]
+In choosing each other they have between them chosen the whole ancestry of
+their child. They have determined the stars that will rule his fate.
+
+In the past that fateful determination has usually been made helplessly,
+ignorantly, almost unconsciously. It has either been guided by an
+instinct which, on the whole, has worked out fairly well, or controlled by
+economic interests of the results of which so much cannot be said, or left
+to the risks of lower than bestial chances which can produce nothing but
+evil. In the future we cannot but have faith--for all the hope of humanity
+must rest on that faith--that a new guiding impulse, reinforcing natural
+instinct and becoming in time an inseparable accompaniment of it, will
+lead civilized man on his racial course. Just as in the past the race has,
+on the whole, been moulded by a natural, and in part sexual, selection,
+that was unconscious of itself and ignorant of the ends it made towards,
+so in the future the race will be moulded by deliberate selection, the
+creative energy of Nature becoming self-conscious in the civilized brain
+of man. This is not a faith which has its source in a vague hope. The
+problems of the individual life are linked on to the fate of the racial
+life, and again and again we shall find as we ponder the individual
+questions we are here concerned with, that at all points they ultimately
+converge towards this same racial end.
+
+Since we have here, therefore, to follow out the sexual relationships of
+the individual as they bear on society, it will be convenient at this
+point to put aside the questions of ancestry and to accept the individual
+as, with hereditary constitution already determined, he lies in his
+mother's womb.
+
+It is the mother who is the child's supreme parent. At various points in
+zoölogical evolution it has seemed possible that the functions that we now
+know as those of maternity would be largely and even equally shared by the
+male parent. Nature has tried various experiments in this direction, among
+the fishes, for instance, and even among birds. But reasonable and
+excellent as these experiments were, and though they were sufficiently
+sound to secure their perpetuation unto this day, it remains true that it
+was not along these lines that Man was destined to emerge. Among all the
+mammal predecessors of Man, the male is an imposing and important figure
+in the early days of courtship, but after conception has once been secured
+the mother plays the chief part in the racial life. The male must be
+content to forage abroad and stand on guard when at home in the
+ante-chamber of the family. When she has once been impregnated the female
+animal angrily rejects the caresses she had welcomed so coquettishly
+before, and even in Man the place of the father at the birth of his child
+is not a notably dignified or comfortable one. Nature accords the male but
+a secondary and comparatively humble place in the home, the breeding-place
+of the race; he may compensate himself if he will, by seeking adventure
+and renown in the world outside. The mother is the child's supreme parent,
+and during the period from conception to birth the hygiene of the future
+man can only be affected by influences which work through her.
+
+Fundamental and elementary as is the fact of the predominant position of
+the mother in relation to the life of the race, incontestable as it must
+seem to all those who have traversed the volumes of these _Studies_ up to
+the present point, it must be admitted that it has sometimes been
+forgotten or ignored. In the great ages of humanity it has indeed been
+accepted as a central and sacred fact. In classic Rome at one period the
+house of the pregnant woman was adorned with garlands, and in Athens it
+was an inviolable sanctuary where even the criminal might find shelter.
+Even amid the mixed influences of the exuberantly vital times which
+preceded the outburst of the Renaissance, the ideally beautiful woman, as
+pictures still show, was the pregnant woman. But it has not always been
+so. At the present time, for instance, there can be no doubt that we are
+but beginning to emerge from a period during which this fact was often
+disputed and denied, both in theory and in practice, even by women
+themselves. This was notably the case both in England and America, and it
+is probably owing in large part to the unfortunate infatuation which led
+women in these lands to follow after masculine ideals that at the present
+moment the inspirations of progress in women's movements come mainly
+to-day from the women of other lands. Motherhood and the future of the
+race were systematically belittled. Paternity is but a mere incident, it
+was argued, in man's life: why should maternity be more than a mere
+incident in woman's life? In England, by a curiously perverted form of
+sexual attraction, women were so fascinated by the glamour that surrounded
+men that they desired to suppress or forget all the facts of organic
+constitution which made them unlike men, counting their glory as their
+shame, and sought the same education as men, the same occupations as men,
+even the same sports. As we know, there was at the origin an element of
+rightness in this impulse.[2] It was absolutely right in so far as it was
+a claim for freedom from artificial restriction, and a demand for economic
+independence. But it became mischievous and absurd when it developed into
+a passion for doing, in all respects, the same things as men do; how
+mischievous and how absurd we may realize if we imagine men developing a
+passion to imitate the ways and avocations of women. Freedom is only good
+when it is a freedom to follow the laws of one's own nature; it ceases to
+be freedom when it becomes a slavish attempt to imitate others, and would
+be disastrous if it could be successful.[3]
+
+At the present day this movement on the theoretical side has ceased to
+possess any representatives who exert serious influence. Yet its practical
+results are still prominently exhibited in England and the other countries
+in which it has been felt. Infantile mortality is enormous, and in England
+at all events is only beginning to show a tendency to diminish; motherhood
+is without dignity, and the vitality of mothers is speedily crushed, so
+that often they cannot so much as suckle their infants; ignorant
+girl-mothers give their infants potatoes and gin; on every hand we are
+told of the evidence of degeneracy in the race, or if not in the race, at
+all events, in the young individuals of to-day.
+
+    It would be out of place, and would lead us too far, to discuss
+    here these various practical outcomes of the foolish attempt to
+    belittle the immense racial importance of motherhood. It is
+    enough here to touch on the one point of the excess of infantile
+    mortality.
+
+    In England--which is not from the social point of view in a very
+    much worse condition than most countries, for in Austria and
+    Russia the infant mortality is higher still, though in Australia
+    and New Zealand much lower, but still excessive--more than
+    one-fourth of the total number of deaths every year is of infants
+    under one year of age. In the opinion of medical officers of
+    health who are in the best position to form an opinion, about
+    one-half of this mortality, roughly speaking, is absolutely
+    preventable. Moreover, it is doubtful whether there is any real
+    movement of decrease in this mortality; during the past half
+    century it has sometimes slightly risen and sometimes slightly
+    fallen, and though during the past few years the general movement
+    of mortality for children under five in England and Wales has
+    shown a tendency to decrease, in London (according to J.F.J.
+    Sykes, although Sir Shirley Murphy has attempted to minimize the
+    significance of these figures) the infantile mortality rate for
+    the first three months of life actually rose from 69 per 1,000 in
+    the period 1888-1892 to 75 per 1,000 in the period 1898-1901.
+    (This refers, it must be remembered, to the period before the
+    introduction of the Notification of Births Act.) In any case,
+    although the general mortality shows a marked tendency to
+    improvement there is certainly no adequately corresponding
+    improvement in the infantile mortality. This is scarcely
+    surprising, when we realize that there has been no change for the
+    better, but rather for the worse, in the conditions under which
+    our infants are born and reared. Thus William Hall, who has had
+    an intimate knowledge extending over fifty-six years of the slums
+    of Leeds, and has weighed and measured many thousands of slum
+    children, besides examining over 120,000 boys and girls as to
+    their fitness for factory labor, states (_British Medical
+    Journal_, October 14, 1905) that "fifty years ago the slum mother
+    was much more sober, cleanly, domestic, and motherly than she is
+    to-day; she was herself better nourished and she almost always
+    suckled her children, and after weaning they received more
+    nutritious bone-making food, and she was able to prepare more
+    wholesome food at home." The system of compulsory education has
+    had an unfortunate influence in exerting a strain on the parents
+    and worsening the conditions of the home. For, excellent as
+    education is in itself, it is not the primary need of life, and
+    has been made compulsory before the more essential things of life
+    have been made equally compulsory. How absolutely unnecessary
+    this great mortality is may be shown, without evoking the good
+    example of Australia and New Zealand, by merely comparing small
+    English towns; thus while in Guildford the infantile death rate
+    is 65 per thousand, in Burslem it is 205 per thousand.
+
+    It is sometimes said that infantile mortality is an economic
+    question, and that with improvement in wages it would cease. This
+    is only true to a limited extent and under certain conditions. In
+    Australia there is no grinding poverty, but the deaths of infants
+    under one year of age are still between 80 and 90 per thousand,
+    and one-third of this mortality, according to Hooper (_British
+    Medical Journal_, 1908, vol. ii, p. 289), being due to the
+    ignorance of mothers and the dislike to suckling, is easily
+    preventable. The employment of married women greatly diminishes
+    the poverty of a family, but nothing can be worse for the welfare
+    of the woman as mother, or for the welfare of her child. Reid,
+    the medical officer of health for Staffordshire, where there are
+    two large centres of artisan population with identical health
+    conditions, has shown that in the northern centre, where a very
+    large number of women are engaged in factories, still-births are
+    three times as frequent as in the southern centre, where there
+    are practically no trade employments for women; the frequency of
+    abnormalities is also in the same ratio. The superiority of
+    Jewish over Christian children, again, and their lower infantile
+    mortality, seem to be entirely due to the fact that Jewesses are
+    better mothers. "The Jewish children in the slums," says William
+    Hall (_British Medical Journal_, October 14, 1905), speaking from
+    wide and accurate knowledge, "were superior in weight, in teeth,
+    and in general bodily development, and they seemed less
+    susceptible to infectious disease. Yet these Jews were
+    overcrowded, they took little exercise, and their unsanitary
+    environment was obvious. The fact was, their children were much
+    better nourished. The pregnant Jewess was more cared for, and no
+    doubt supplied better nutriment to the foetus. After the children
+    were born 90 per cent. received breast-milk, and during later
+    childhood they were abundantly fed on bone-making material; eggs
+    and oil, fish, fresh vegetables, and fruit entered largely into
+    their diet." G. Newman, in his important and comprehensive book
+    on _Infant Mortality_, emphasizes the conclusion that "first of
+    all we need a higher standard of physical motherhood." The
+    problem of infantile mortality, he declares (page 259), is not
+    one of sanitation alone, or housing, or indeed of poverty as
+    such, "_but is mainly a question of motherhood_."
+
+The fundamental need of the pregnant woman is _rest_. Without a large
+degree of maternal rest there can be no puericulture.[4] The task of
+creating a man needs the whole of a woman's best energies, more especially
+during the three months before birth. It cannot be subordinated to the tax
+on strength involved by manual or mental labor, or even strenuous social
+duties and amusements. The numerous experiments and observations which
+have been made during recent years in Maternity Hospitals, more especially
+in France, have shown conclusively that not only the present and future
+well-being of the mother and the ease of her confinement, but the fate of
+the child, are immensely influenced by rest during the last month of
+pregnancy. "Every working woman is entitled to rest during the last three
+months of her pregnancy." This formula was adopted by the International
+Congress of Hygiene in 1900, but it cannot be practically carried out
+except by the coöperation of the whole community. For it is not enough to
+say that a woman ought to rest during pregnancy; it is the business of the
+community to ensure that that rest is duly secured. The woman herself, and
+her employer, we may be certain, will do their best to cheat the
+community, but it is the community which suffers, both economically and
+morally, when a woman casts her inferior children into the world, and in
+its own interests the community is forced to control both employer and
+employed. We can no longer allow it to be said, in Bouchacourt's words,
+that "to-day the dregs of the human species--the blind, the deaf-mute, the
+degenerate, the nervous, the vicious, the idiotic, the imbecile, the
+cretins and epileptics--are better protected than pregnant women."[5]
+
+    Pinard, who must always be honored as one of the founders of
+    eugenics, has, together with his pupils, done much to prepare the
+    way for the acceptance of this simple but important principle by
+    making clear the grounds on which it is based. From prolonged
+    observations on the pregnant women of all classes Pinard has
+    shown conclusively that women who rest during pregnancy have
+    finer children than women who do not rest. Apart from the more
+    general evils of work during pregnancy, Pinard found that during
+    the later months it had a tendency to press the uterus down into
+    the pelvis, and so cause the premature birth of undeveloped
+    children, while labor was rendered more difficult and dangerous
+    (see, e.g., Pinard, _Gazette des Hôpitaux_, Nov. 28, 1895, Id.,
+    _Annales de Gynécologie_, Aug., 1898).
+
+    Letourneux has studied the question whether repose during
+    pregnancy is necessary for women whose professional work is only
+    slightly fatiguing. He investigated 732 successive confinements
+    at the Clinique Baudelocque in Paris. He found that 137 women
+    engaged in fatiguing occupations (servants, cooks, etc.) and not
+    resting during pregnancy, produced children with an average
+    weight of 3,081 grammes; 115 women engaged in only slightly
+    fatiguing occupations (dressmakers, milliners, etc.) and also not
+    resting during pregnancy, had children with an average weight of
+    3,130 grammes, a slight but significant difference, in view of
+    the fact that the women of the first group were large and robust,
+    while those of the second group were of slight and elegant build.
+    Again, comparing groups of women who rested during pregnancy, it
+    was found that the women accustomed to fatiguing work had
+    children with an average weight of 3,319 grammes, while those
+    accustomed to less fatiguing work had children with an average
+    weight of 3,318 grammes. The difference between repose and
+    non-repose is thus considerable, while it also enables robust
+    women exercising a fatiguing occupation to catch up, though not
+    to surpass, the frailer women exercising a less fatiguing
+    occupation. We see, too, that even in the comparatively
+    unfatiguing occupations of milliners, etc., rest during pregnancy
+    still remains important, and cannot safely be dispensed with.
+    "Society," Letourneux concludes, "must guarantee rest to women
+    not well off during a part of pregnancy. It will be repaid the
+    cost of doing so by the increased vigor of the children thus
+    produced" (Letourneux, _De l'Influence de la Profession de la
+    Mère sur le Poids de l'Enfant_, Thèse de Paris, 1897).
+
+    Dr. Dweira-Bernson (_Revue Pratique d'Obstétrique et de
+    Pédiatrie_, 1903, p. 370), compared four groups of pregnant women
+    (servants with light work, servants with heavy work, farm girls,
+    dressmakers) who rested for three months before confinement with
+    four groups similarly composed who took no rest before
+    confinement. In every group he found that the difference in the
+    average weight of the child was markedly in favor of the women
+    who rested, and it was notable that the greatest difference was
+    found in the case of the farm girls who were probably the most
+    robust and also the hardest worked.
+
+    The usual time of gestation ranges between 274 and 280 days (or
+    280 to 290 days from the last menstrual period), and occasionally
+    a few days longer, though there is dispute as to the length of
+    the extreme limit, which some authorities would extend to 300
+    days, or even to 320 days (Pinard, in Richet's _Dictionnaire de
+    Physiologie_, vol. vii, pp. 150-162; Taylor, _Medical
+    Jurisprudence_, fifth edition, pp. 44, 98 et seq.; L.M. Allen,
+    "Prolonged Gestation," _American Journal Obstetrics_, April,
+    1907). It is possible, as Müller suggested in 1898 in a Thèse de
+    Nancy, that civilization tends to shorten the period of
+    gestation, and that in earlier ages it was longer than it is now.
+    Such a tendency to premature birth under the exciting nervous
+    influences of civilization would thus correspond, as Bouchacourt
+    has pointed out (_La Grossesse_, p. 113), to the similar effect
+    of domestication in animals. The robust countrywoman becomes
+    transformed into the more graceful, but also more fragile, town
+    woman who needs a degree of care and hygiene which the
+    countrywoman with her more resistant nervous system can to some
+    extent dispense with, although even she, as we see, suffers in
+    the person of her child, and probably in her own person, from the
+    effects of work during pregnancy. The serious nature of this
+    civilized tendency to premature birth--of which lack of rest in
+    pregnancy is, however, only one of several important causes--is
+    shown by the fact that Séropian (_Fréquence Comparée des Causes
+    de l'Accouchement Prémature_, Thèse de Paris, 1907) found that
+    about one-third of French births (32.28 per cent.) are to a
+    greater or less extent premature. Pregnancy is not a morbid
+    condition; on the contrary, a pregnant woman is at the climax of
+    her most normal physiological life, but owing to the tension thus
+    involved she is specially liable to suffer from any slight shock
+    or strain.
+
+    It must be remarked that the increased tendency to premature
+    birth, while in part it may be due to general tendencies of
+    civilization, is also in part due to very definite and
+    preventable causes. Syphilis, alcoholism, and attempts to produce
+    abortion are among the not uncommon causes of premature birth
+    (see, e.g., G.F. McCleary, "The Influence of Antenatal Conditions
+    on Infantile Mortality," _British Medical Journal_, Aug. 13,
+    1904).
+
+    Premature birth ought to be avoided, because the child born too
+    early is insufficiently equipped for the task before him.
+    Astengo, dealing with nearly 19,000 cases at the Lariboisière
+    Hospital in Paris and the Maternité, found, that reckoning from
+    the date of the last menstruation, there is a direct relation
+    between the weight of the infant at birth and the length of the
+    pregnancy. The longer the pregnancy, the finer the child
+    (Astengo, _Rapport du Poids des Enfants à la Durée de la
+    Grossesse_, Thèse de Paris, 1905).
+
+    The frequency of premature birth is probably as great in England
+    as in France. Ballantyne states (_Manual of Antenatal Pathology;
+    The Foetus_, p. 456) that for practical purposes the frequency
+    of premature labors in maternity hospitals may be put at 20 per
+    cent., but that if all infants weighing less than 3,000 grammes
+    are to be regarded as premature, it rises to 41.5 per cent. That
+    premature birth is increasing in England seems to be indicated by
+    the fact that during the past twenty-five years there has been a
+    steady rise in the mortality rate from premature birth. McCleary,
+    who discusses this point and considers the increase real,
+    concludes that "it would appear that there has been a diminution
+    in the quality as well as in the quantity of our output of
+    babies" (see also a discussion, introduced by Dawson Williams, on
+    "Physical Deterioration," _British Medical Journal_, Oct. 14,
+    1905).
+
+    It need scarcely be pointed out that not only is immaturity a
+    cause of deterioration in the infants that survive, but that it
+    alone serves enormously to decrease the number of infants that
+    are able to survive. Thus G. Newman states (loc. cit.) that in
+    most large English urban districts immaturity is the chief cause
+    of infant mortality, furnishing about 30 per cent. of the infant
+    deaths; even in London (Islington) Alfred Harris (_British
+    Medical Journal_, Dec. 14, 1907) finds that it is responsible for
+    nearly 17 per cent. of the infantile deaths. It is estimated by
+    Newman that about half of the mothers of infants dying of
+    immaturity suffer from marked ill-health and poor physique; they
+    are not, therefore, fitted to be mothers.
+
+    Rest during pregnancy is a very powerful agent in preventing
+    premature birth. Thus Dr. Sarraute-Lourié has compared 1,550
+    pregnant women at the Asile Michelet who rested before
+    confinement with 1,550 women confined at the Hôpital Lariboisière
+    who had enjoyed no such period of rest. She found that the
+    average duration of pregnancy was at least twenty days shorter in
+    the latter group (Mme. Sarraute-Lourié, _De l'Influence du Repos
+    sur la Durée de la Gestation_, Thèse de Paris, 1899).
+
+    Leyboff has insisted on the absolute necessity of rest during
+    pregnancy, as well for the sake of the woman herself as the
+    burden she carries, and shows the evil results which follow when
+    rest is neglected. Railway traveling, horse-riding, bicycling,
+    and sea-voyages are also, Leyboff believes, liable to be
+    injurious to the course of pregnancy. Leyboff recognizes the
+    difficulties which procreating women are placed under by present
+    industrial conditions, and concludes that "it is urgently
+    necessary to prevent women, by law, from working during the last
+    three months of pregnancy; that in every district there should be
+    a maternity fund; that during this enforced rest a woman should
+    receive the same salary as during work." He adds that the
+    children of unmarried mothers should be cared for by the State,
+    that there should be an eight-hours' day for all workers, and
+    that no children under sixteen should be allowed to work (E.
+    Leyboff, _L'Hygiène de la Grossesse_, Thèse de Paris, 1905).
+
+    Perruc states that at least two months' rest before confinement
+    should be made compulsory, and that during this period the woman
+    should receive an indemnity regulated by the State. He is of
+    opinion that it should take the form of compulsory assurance, to
+    which the worker, the employer, and the State alike contributed
+    (Perruc, _Assistance aux Femmes Enceintes_, Thèse de Paris,
+    1905).
+
+    It is probable that during the earlier months of pregnancy, work,
+    if not excessively heavy and exhausting, has little or no bad
+    effect; thus Bacchimont (_Documents pour servir a l'Histoire de
+    la Puériculture Intra-utérine_, Thèse de Paris, 1898) found that,
+    while there was a great gain in the weight of children of mothers
+    who had rested for three months, there was no corresponding gain
+    in the children of those mothers who had rested for longer
+    periods. It is during the last three months that freedom, repose,
+    the cessation of the obligatory routine of employment become
+    necessary. This is the opinion of Pinard, the chief authority on
+    this matter. Many, however, fearing that economic and industrial
+    conditions render so long a period of rest too difficult of
+    practical attainment, are, with Clappier and G. Newman, content
+    to demand two months as a minimum; Salvat only asks for one
+    month's rest before confinement, the woman, whether married or
+    not, receiving a pecuniary indemnity during this period, with
+    medical care and drugs free. Ballantyne (_Manual of Antenatal
+    Pathology: The Foetus_, p. 475), as well as Niven, also asks only
+    for one month's compulsory rest during pregnancy, with indemnity.
+    Arthur Helme, however, taking a more comprehensive view of all
+    the factors involved, concludes in a valuable paper on "The
+    Unborn Child: Its Care and Its Rights" (_British Medical
+    Journal_, Aug. 24, 1907), "The important thing would be to
+    prohibit pregnant women from going to work at all, and it is as
+    important from the standpoint of the child that this prohibition
+    should include the early as the late months of pregnancy."
+
+    In England little progress has yet been made as regards this
+    question of rest during pregnancy, even as regards the education
+    of public opinion. Sir William Sinclair, Professor of Obstetrics
+    at the Victoria University of Manchester, has published (1907) _A
+    Plea for Establishing Municipal Maternity Homes_. Ballantyne, a
+    great British authority on the embryology of the child, has
+    published a "Plea for a Pre-Maternity Hospital" (_British Medical
+    Journal_, April 6, 1901), has since given an important lecture on
+    the subject (_British Medical Journal_, Jan. 11, 1908), and has
+    further discussed the matter in his _Manual of Ante-Natal
+    Pathology: The Foetus_ (Ch. XXVII); he is, however, more
+    interested in the establishment of hospitals for the diseases of
+    pregnancy than in the wider and more fundamental question of rest
+    for all pregnant women. In England there are, indeed, a few
+    institutions which receive unmarried women, with a record of good
+    conduct, who are pregnant for the first time, for, as
+    Bouchacourt remarks, ancient British prejudices are opposed to
+    any mercy being shown to women who are recidivists in committing
+    the crime of conception.
+
+    At present, indeed, it is only in France that the urgent need of
+    rest during the latter months of pregnancy has been clearly
+    realized, and any serious and official attempts made to provide
+    for it. In an interesting Paris thesis (_De la Puériculture avant
+    le Naissance_, 1907) Clappier has brought together much
+    information bearing on the efforts now being made to deal
+    practically with this question. There are many _Asiles_ in Paris
+    for pregnant women. One of the best is the Asile Michelet,
+    founded in 1893 by the Assistance Publique de Paris. This is a
+    sanatorium for pregnant women who have reached a period of seven
+    and a half months. It is nominally restricted to the admission of
+    French women who have been domiciled for a year in Paris, but, in
+    practice, it appears that women from all parts of France are
+    received. They are employed in light and occasional work for the
+    institution, being paid for this work, and are also occupied in
+    making clothes for the expected baby. Married and unmarried women
+    are admitted alike, all women being equal from the point of view
+    of motherhood, and indeed the majority of the women who come to
+    the Asile Michelet are unmarried, some being girls who have even
+    trudged on foot from Brittany and other remote parts of France,
+    to seek concealment from their friends in the hospitable
+    seclusion of these refuges in the great city. It is not the least
+    advantage of these institutions that they shield unmarried
+    mothers and their offspring from the manifold evils to which they
+    are exposed, and thus tend to decrease crime and suffering. In
+    addition to the maternity refuges, there are institutions in
+    France for assisting with help and advice those pregnant women
+    who prefer to remain at home, but are thus enabled to avoid the
+    necessity for undue domestic labor.
+
+    There ought to be no manner of doubt that when, as is the case
+    to-day in our own and some other supposedly civilized countries,
+    motherhood outside marriage is accounted as almost a crime, there
+    is the very greatest need for adequate provision for unmarried
+    women who are about to become mothers, enabling them to receive
+    shelter and care in secrecy, and to preserve their self-respect
+    and social position. This is necessary not only in the interests
+    of humanity and public economy, but also, as is too often
+    forgotten, in the interests of morality, for it is certain that
+    by the neglect to furnish adequate provision of this nature women
+    are driven to infanticide and prostitution. In earlier, more
+    humane days, the general provision for the secret reception and
+    care of illegitimate infants was undoubtedly most beneficial. The
+    suppression of the mediæval method, which in France took place
+    gradually between 1833 and 1862, led to a great increase in
+    infanticide and abortion, and was a direct encouragement to crime
+    and immorality. In 1887 the Conseil Général of the Seine sought
+    to replace the prevailing neglect of this matter by the adoption
+    of more enlightened ideas and founded a _bureau secret
+    d'admission_ for pregnant women. Since then both the abandonment
+    of infants and infanticide have greatly diminished, though they
+    are increasing in those parts of France which possess no
+    facilities of this kind. It is widely held that the State should
+    unify the arrangements for assuring secret maternity, and should,
+    in its own interests, undertake the expense. In 1904 French law
+    ensured the protection of unmarried mothers by guaranteeing their
+    secret, but it failed to organize the general establishment of
+    secret maternities, and has left to doctors the pioneering part
+    in this great and humane public work (A. Maillard-Brune,
+    _Refuges, Maternités, Bureaux d'Admission Secrets, comme Moyens
+    Préservatives des Infanticide_, Thèse de Paris, 1908). It is not
+    among the least benefits of the falling birth rate that it has
+    helped to stimulate this beneficent movement.
+
+The development of an industrial system which subordinates the human body
+and the human soul to the thirst for gold, has, for a time, dismissed from
+social consideration the interests of the race and even of the individual,
+but it must be remembered that this has not been always and everywhere so.
+Although in some parts of the world the women of savage peoples work up to
+the time of confinement, it must be remarked that the conditions of work
+in savage life do not resemble the strenuous and continuous labor of
+modern factories. In many parts of the world, however, women are not
+allowed to work hard during pregnancy and every consideration is shown to
+them. This is so, for instance, among the Pueblo Indians, and among the
+Indians of Mexico. Similar care is taken in the Carolines and the Gilbert
+Islands and in many other regions all over the world. In some places,
+women are secluded during pregnancy, and in others are compelled to
+observe many more or less excellent rules. It is true that the assigned
+cause for these rules is frequently the fear of evil spirits, but they
+nevertheless often preserve a hygienic value. In many parts of the world
+the discovery of pregnancy is the sign for a festival of more or less
+ritual character, and much good advice is given to the expectant mother.
+The modern Musselmans are careful to guard the health of their women when
+pregnant, and so are the Chinese.[6] Even in Europe, in the thirteenth
+century, as Clappier notes, industrial corporations sometimes had regard
+to this matter, and would not allow women to work during pregnancy. In
+Iceland, where much of the primitive life of Scandinavian Europe is still
+preserved, great precautions are taken with pregnant women. They must lead
+a quiet life, avoid tight garments, be moderate in eating and drinking,
+take no alcohol, be safeguarded from all shocks, while their husbands and
+all others who surround them must treat them with consideration, save them
+from worry and always bear with them patiently.[7]
+
+It is necessary to emphasize this point because we have to realize that
+the modern movement for surrounding the pregnant woman with tenderness and
+care, so far from being the mere outcome of civilized softness and
+degeneracy, is, in all probability, the return on a higher plane to the
+sane practice of those races which laid the foundations of human
+greatness.
+
+While rest is the cardinal virtue imposed on a woman during the later
+months of pregnancy, there are other points in her regimen that are far
+from unimportant in their bearing on the fate of the child. One of these
+is the question of the mother's use of alcohol. Undoubtedly alcohol has
+been a cause of much fanaticism. But the declamatory extravagance of
+anti-alcoholists must not blind us to the fact that the evils of alcohol
+are real. On the reproductive process especially, on the mammary glands,
+and on the child, alcohol has an arresting and degenerative influence
+without any compensatory advantages. It has been proved by experiments on
+animals and observations on the human subject that alcohol taken by the
+pregnant woman passes freely from the maternal circulation to the foetal
+circulation. Féré has further shown that, by injecting alcohol and
+aldehydes into hen's eggs during incubation, it is possible to cause
+arrest of development and malformation in the chick.[8] The woman who is
+bearing her child in her womb or suckling it at her breast would do well
+to remember that the alcohol which may be harmless to herself is little
+better than poison to the immature being who derives nourishment from her
+blood. She should confine herself to the very lightest of alcoholic
+beverages in very moderate amounts and would do better still to abandon
+these entirely and drink milk instead. She is now the sole source of the
+child's life and she cannot be too scrupulous in creating around it an
+atmosphere of purity and health. No after-influence can ever compensate
+for mistakes made at this time.[9]
+
+What is true of alcohol is equally true of other potent drugs and poisons,
+which should all be avoided so far as possible during pregnancy because of
+the harmful influence they may directly exert on the embryo. Hygiene is
+better than drugs, and care should be exercised in diet, which should by
+no means be excessive. It is a mistake to suppose that the pregnant woman
+needs considerably more food than usual, and there is much reason to
+believe not only that a rich meat diet tends to cause sterility but that
+it is also unfavorable to the development of the child in the womb.[10]
+
+How far, if at all, it is often asked, should sexual intercourse be
+continued after fecundation has been clearly ascertained? This has not
+always been found an easy question to answer, for in the human couple many
+considerations combine to complicate the answer. Even the Catholic
+theologians have not been entirely in agreement on this point. Clement of
+Alexandria said that when the seed had been sown the field must be left
+till harvest. But it may be concluded that, as a rule, the Church was
+inclined to regard intercourse during pregnancy as at most a venial sin,
+provided there was no danger of abortion. Augustine, Gregory the Great,
+Aquinas, Dens, for instance, seem to be of this mind; for a few, indeed,
+it is no sin at all.[11] Among animals the rule is simple and uniform; as
+soon as the female is impregnated at the period of oestrus she absolutely
+rejects all advance of the male until, after birth and lactation are over,
+another period of oestrus occurs. Among savages the tendency is less
+uniform, and sexual abstinence, when it occurs during pregnancy, tends to
+become less a natural instinct than a ritual observance, or a custom now
+chiefly supported by superstitions. Among many primitive peoples
+abstinence during the whole of pregnancy is enjoined because it is
+believed that the semen would kill the foetus.[12]
+
+    The Talmud is unfavorable to coitus during pregnancy, and the
+    Koran prohibits it during the whole of the period, as well as
+    during suckling. Among the Hindus, on the other hand, intercourse
+    is continued up to the last fortnight of pregnancy, and it is
+    even believed that the injected semen helps to nourish the embryo
+    (W.D. Sutherland, "Ueber das Alltagsleben und die Volksmedizin
+    unter den Bauern Britischostindiens," _Münchener Medizinische
+    Wochenschrift_, Nos. 12 and 13, 1906). The great Indian physician
+    Susruta, however, was opposed to coitus during pregnancy, and the
+    Chinese are emphatically on the same side.
+
+As men have emerged from barbarism in the direction of civilization, the
+animal instinct of refusal after impregnation has been completely lost in
+women, while at the same time both sexes tend to become indifferent to
+those ritual restraints which at an earlier period were almost as binding
+as instinct. Sexual intercourse thus came to be practiced after
+impregnation, much the same as before, as part of ordinary "marital
+rights," though sometimes there has remained a faint suspicion, reflected
+in the hesitating attitude of the Catholic Church already alluded to, that
+such intercourse may be a sinful indulgence. Morality is, however, called
+in to fortify this indulgence. If the husband is shut out from marital
+intercourse at this time, it is argued, he will seek extra-marital
+intercourse, as indeed in some parts of the world it is recognized that he
+legitimately may; therefore the interests of the wife, anxious to retain
+her husband's fidelity, and the interests of Christian morality, anxious
+to uphold the institution of monogamy, combine to permit the continuation
+of coitus during pregnancy. The custom has been furthered by the fact
+that, in civilized women at all events, coitus during pregnancy is usually
+not less agreeable than at other times and by some women is felt indeed to
+be even more agreeable.[13] There is also the further consideration, for
+those couples who have sought to prevent conception, that now intercourse
+may be enjoyed with impunity. From a higher point of view such intercourse
+may also be justified, for if, as all the finer moralists of the sexual
+impulse now believe, love has its value not only in so far as it induces
+procreation but also in so far as it aids individual development and the
+mutual good and harmony of the united couple, it becomes morally right
+during pregnancy.
+
+From an early period, however, great authorities have declared themselves
+in opposition to the custom of practicing coitus during pregnancy. At the
+end of the first century, Soranus, the first of great gynæcologists,
+stated, in his treatise on the diseases of women, that sexual intercourse
+is injurious throughout pregnancy, because of the movement imparted to the
+uterus, and especially injurious during the latter months. For more than
+sixteen hundred years the question, having fallen into the hands of the
+theologians, seems to have been neglected on the medical side until in
+1721 a distinguished French obstetrician, Mauriceau, stated that no
+pregnant woman should have intercourse during the last two months and that
+no woman subject to miscarriage should have intercourse at all during
+pregnancy. For more than a century, however, Mauriceau remained a pioneer
+with few or no followers. It would be inconvenient, the opinion went, even
+if it were necessary, to forbid intercourse during pregnancy.[14]
+
+During recent years, nevertheless, there has been an increasingly strong
+tendency among obstetricians to speak decisively concerning intercourse
+during pregnancy, either by condemning it altogether or by enjoining great
+prudence. It is highly probable that, in accordance with the classical
+experiments of Dareste on chicken embryos, shocks and disturbances to the
+human embryo may also produce injurious effects on growth. The disturbance
+due to coitus in the early stages of pregnancy may thus tend to produce
+malformation. When such conditions are found in the children of perfectly
+healthy, vigorous, and generally temperate parents who have indulged
+recklessly in coitus during the early stages of pregnancy it is possible
+that such coitus has acted on the embryo in the same way as shocks and
+intoxications are known to act on the embryo of lower organisms. However
+this may be, it is quite certain that in predisposed women, coitus during
+pregnancy causes premature birth; it sometimes happens that labor pains
+begin a few minutes after the act.[15] The natural instinct of animals
+refuses to allow intercourse during pregnancy; the ritual observance of
+primitive peoples very frequently points in the same direction; the voice
+of medical science, so far as it speaks at all, is beginning to utter the
+same warning, and before long will probably be in a position to do so on
+the basis of more solid and coherent evidence.
+
+    Pinard, the greatest of authorities on puericulture, asserts that
+    there must be complete cessation of sexual intercourse during the
+    whole of pregnancy, and in his consulting room at the Clinique
+    Baudelocque he has placed a large placard with an "Important
+    Notice" to this effect. Féré was strongly of opinion that sexual
+    relations during pregnancy, especially when recklessly carried
+    out, play an important part in the causation of nervous troubles
+    in children who are of sound heredity and otherwise free from all
+    morbid infection during gestation and development; he recorded in
+    detail a case which he considered conclusive ("L'Influence de
+    l'Incontinence Sexuelle pendant la Gestation sur la Descendance,"
+    _Archives de Neurologie_, April, 1905). Bouchacourt discusses the
+    subject fully (_La Grossesse_, pp. 177-214), and thinks that
+    sexual intercourse during pregnancy should be avoided as much as
+    possible. Fürbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 226) recommends abstinence from
+    the sixth or seventh month, and throughout the whole of pregnancy
+    where there is any tendency to miscarriage, while in all cases
+    much care and gentleness should be exercised.
+
+    The whole subject has been investigated in a Paris Thesis by H.
+    Brénot (_De L'Influence de la Copulation pendant la Grossesse_,
+    1903); he concludes that sexual relations are dangerous
+    throughout pregnancy, frequently provoking premature confinement
+    or abortion, and that they are more dangerous in primiparæ than
+    in multiparæ.
+
+Nearly everything that has been said of the hygiene of pregnancy, and the
+need for rest, applies also to the period immediately following the birth
+of the child. Rest and hygiene on the mother's part continue to be
+necessary alike in her own interests and in the child's. This need has
+indeed been more generally and more practically recognized than the need
+for rest during pregnancy. The laws of several countries make compulsory a
+period of rest from employment after confinement, and in some countries
+they seek to provide for the remuneration of the mother during this
+enforced rest. In no country, indeed, is the principle carried out so
+thoroughly and for so long a period as is desirable. But it is the right
+principle, and embodies the germ which, in the future, will be developed.
+There can be little doubt that whatever are the matters, and they are
+certainly many, which may be safely left to the discretion of the
+individual, the care of the mother and her child is not among them. That
+is a matter which, more than any other, concerns the community as a whole,
+and the community cannot afford to be slack in asserting its authority
+over it. The State needs healthy men and women, and by any negligence in
+attending to this need it inflicts serious charges of all sorts upon
+itself, and at the same time dangerously impairs its efficiency in the
+world. Nations have begun to recognize the desirability of education, but
+they have scarcely yet begun to realize that the nationalization of health
+is even more important than the nationalization of education. If it were
+necessary to choose between the task of getting children educated and the
+task of getting them well-born and healthy it would be better to abandon
+education. There have been many great peoples who never dreamed of
+national systems of education; there has been no great people without the
+art of producing healthy and vigorous children.
+
+This matter becomes of peculiar importance in great industrial states like
+England, the United States, and Germany, because in such states a tacit
+conspiracy tends to grow up to subordinate national ends to individual
+ends, and practically to work for the deterioration of the race. In
+England, for instance, this tendency has become peculiarly well marked
+with disastrous results. The interest of the employed woman tends to
+become one with that of her employer; between them they combine to crush
+the interests of the child who represents the race, and to defeat the laws
+made in the interests of the race which are those of the community as a
+whole. The employed woman wishes to earn as much wages as she can and with
+as little interruption as she can; in gratifying that wish she is, at the
+same time, acting in the interests of the employer, who carefully avoids
+thwarting her.
+
+This impulse on the employed woman's part is by no means always and
+entirely the result of poverty, and would not, therefore, be removed by
+raising her wages. Long before marriage, when little more than a child,
+she has usually gone out to work, and work has become a second nature. She
+has mastered her work, she enjoys a certain position and what to her are
+high wages; she is among her friends and companions; the noise and bustle
+and excitement of the work-room or the factory have become an agreeable
+stimulant which she can no longer do without. On the other hand, her home
+means nothing to her; she only returns there to sleep, leaving it next
+morning at day-break or earlier; she is ignorant even of the simplest
+domestic arts; she moves about in her own home like a strange and awkward
+child. The mere act of marriage cannot change this state of things;
+however willing she may be at marriage to become a domesticated wife, she
+is destitute alike of the inclination or the skill for domesticity. Even
+in spite of herself she is driven back to the work-shop, to the one place
+where she feels really at home.
+
+    In Germany women are not allowed to work for four weeks after
+    confinement, nor during the following two weeks except by medical
+    certificate. The obligatory insurance against disease which
+    covers women at confinement assures them an indemnity at this
+    time equivalent to a large part of their wages. Married and
+    unmarried mothers benefit alike. The Austrian law is founded on
+    the same model. This measure has led to a very great decrease in
+    infantile mortality, and, therefore, a great increase in health
+    among those who survive. It is, however, regarded as very
+    inadequate, and there is a movement in Germany for extending the
+    time, for applying the system to a larger number of women, and
+    for making it still more definitely compulsory.
+
+    In Switzerland it has been illegal since 1877 for any woman to be
+    received into a factory after confinement, unless she has rested
+    in all for eight weeks, six weeks at least of this period being
+    after confinement. Since 1898 Swiss working women have been
+    protected by law from exercising hard work during pregnancy, and
+    from various other influences likely to be injurious. But this
+    law is evaded in practice, because it provides no compensatory
+    indemnity for the woman. An attempt, in 1899, to amend the law by
+    providing for such indemnity was rejected by the people.
+
+    In Belgium and Holland there are laws against women working
+    immediately after confinement, but no indemnity is provided, so
+    that employers and employed combine to evade the law. In France
+    there is no such law, although its necessity has often been
+    emphatically asserted (see, e.g., Salvat, _La Dépopulation de la
+    France_, Thèse de Lyon, 1903).
+
+    In England it is illegal to employ a woman "knowingly" in a
+    work-shop within four weeks of the birth of her child, but no
+    provision is made by the law for the compensation of the woman
+    who is thus required to sacrifice herself to the interests of the
+    State. The woman evades the law in tacit collusion with her
+    employers, who can always avoid "knowing" that a birth has taken
+    place, and so escape all responsibility for the mother's
+    employment. Thus the factory inspectors are unable to take
+    action, and the law becomes a dead letter; in 1906 only one
+    prosecution for this offense could be brought into court. By the
+    insertion of this "knowingly" a premium is placed on ignorance.
+    The unwisdom of thus beforehand placing a premium on ignorance
+    has always been more or less clearly recognized by the framers of
+    legal codes even as far back as the days of the Ten Commandments
+    and the laws of Hamurabi. It is the business of the Court, of
+    those who administer the law, to make allowance for ignorance
+    where such allowance is fairly called for; it is not for the
+    law-maker to make smooth the path of the law-breaker. There are
+    evidently law-makers nowadays so scrupulous, or so simple-minded,
+    that they would be prepared to exact that no pickpocket should be
+    prosecuted if he was able to declare on oath that he had no
+    "knowledge" that the purse he had taken belonged to the person he
+    extracted it from.
+
+    The annual reports of the English factory inspectors serve to
+    bring ridicule on this law, which looks so wisely humane and yet
+    means nothing, but have so far been powerless to effect any
+    change. These reports show, moreover, that the difficulty is
+    increasing in magnitude. Thus Miss Martindale, a factory
+    inspector, states that in all the towns she visits, from a quiet
+    cathedral city to a large manufacturing town, the employment of
+    married women is rapidly increasing; they have worked in mills or
+    factories all their lives and are quite unaccustomed to cooking,
+    housework and the rearing of children, so that after marriage,
+    even when not compelled by poverty, they prefer to go on working
+    as before. Miss Vines, another factory inspector, repeats the
+    remark of a woman worker in a factory. "I do not need to work,
+    but I do not like staying at home," while another woman said, "I
+    would rather be at work a hundred times than at home. I get lost
+    at home" (_Annual Report Chief Inspector of Factories and
+    Workshops for 1906_, pp. 325, etc.).
+
+    It may be added that not only is the English law enjoining four
+    weeks' rest on the mother after childbirth practically
+    inoperative, but the period itself is absurdly inadequate. As a
+    rest for the mother it is indeed sufficient, but the State is
+    still more interested in the child than in its mother, and the
+    child needs the mother's chief care for a much longer period than
+    four weeks. Helme advocates the State prohibition of women's work
+    for at least six months after confinement. Where nurseries are
+    attached to factories, enabling the mother to suckle her infant
+    in intervals of work, the period may doubtless be shortened.
+
+    It is important to remember that it is by no means only the women
+    in factories who are induced to work as usual during the whole
+    period of pregnancy, and to return to work immediately after the
+    brief rest of confinement. The Research Committee of the
+    Christian Social Union (London Branch) undertook, in 1905, an
+    inquiry into the employment of women after childbirth. Women in
+    factories and workshops were excluded from the inquiry which only
+    had reference to women engaged in household duties, in home
+    industries, and in casual work. It was found that the majority
+    carry on their employment right up to the time of confinement and
+    resume it from ten to fourteen days later. The infantile death
+    rate for the children of women engaged only in household duties
+    was greatly lower than that for the children of the other women,
+    while, as ever, the hand-fed infants had a vastly higher death
+    rate than the breast-fed infants (_British Medical Journal_, Oct.
+    24, 1908, p. 1297).
+
+    In the great French gun and armour-plate works at Creuzot (Saône
+    et Loire) the salaries of expectant mothers among the employees
+    are raised; arrangements are made for giving them proper advice
+    and medical attendance; they are not allowed to work after the
+    middle of pregnancy or to return to work after confinement
+    without a medical certificate of fitness. The results are said to
+    be excellent, not only on the health of the mothers, but in the
+    diminution of premature births, the decrease of infantile deaths,
+    and the general prevalence of breast-feeding. It would probably
+    be hopeless to expect many employers in Anglo-Saxon lands to
+    adopt this policy. They are too "practical," they know how small
+    is the money-value of human lives. With us it is necessary for
+    the State to intervene.
+
+    There can be no doubt that, on the whole, modern civilized
+    communities are beginning to realize that under the social and
+    economic conditions now tending more and more to prevail, they
+    must in their own interests insure that the mother's best energy
+    and vitality are devoted to the child, both before and after its
+    birth. They are also realizing that they cannot carry out their
+    duty in this respect unless they make adequate provision for the
+    mothers who are thus compelled to renounce their employment in
+    order to devote themselves to their children. We here reach a
+    point at which Individualism is at one with Socialism. The
+    individualist cannot fail to see that it is at all cost necessary
+    to remove social conditions which crush out all individuality;
+    the Socialist cannot fail to see that a society which neglects to
+    introduce order at this central and vital point, the production
+    of the individual, must speedily perish.
+
+It is involved in the proper fulfilment of a mother's relationship to her
+infant child that, provided she is healthy, she should suckle it. Of
+recent years this question has become a matter of serious gravity. In the
+middle of the eighteenth century, when the upper-class women of France had
+grown disinclined to suckle their own children, Rousseau raised so loud
+and eloquent a protest that it became once more the fashion for a woman to
+fulfil her natural duties. At the present time, when the same evil is
+found once more, and in a far more serious form, for now it is not the
+small upper-class but the great lower-class that is concerned, the
+eloquence of a Rousseau would be powerless, for it is not fashion so much
+as convenience, and especially an intractable economic factor, that is
+chiefly concerned. Not the least urgent reason for putting women, and
+especially mothers, upon a sounder economic basis, is the necessity of
+enabling them to suckle their children.
+
+    No woman is sound, healthy, and complete unless she possesses
+    breasts that are beautiful enough to hold the promise of being
+    functional when the time for their exercise arrives, and nipples
+    that can give suck. The gravity of this question to-day is shown
+    by the frequency with which women are lacking in this essential
+    element of womanhood, and the young man of to-day, it has been
+    said, often in taking a wife, "actually marries but part of a
+    woman, the other part being exhibited in the chemist's shop
+    window, in the shape of a glass feeding-bottle." Blacker found
+    among a thousand patients from the maternity department of
+    University College Hospital that thirty-nine had never suckled at
+    all, seven hundred and forty-seven had suckled all their
+    children, and two hundred and fourteen had suckled only some.
+    The chief reason given for not suckling was absence or
+    insufficiency of milk; other reasons being inability or
+    disinclination to suckle, and refusal of the child to take the
+    breast (Blacker, _Medical Chronicle_, Feb., 1900). These results
+    among the London poor are certainly very much better than could
+    be found in many manufacturing towns where women work after
+    marriage. In the other large countries of Europe equally
+    unsatisfactory results are found. In Paris Madame Dluska has
+    shown that of 209 women who came for their confinement to the
+    Clinique Baudelocque, only 74 suckled their children; of the 135
+    who did not suckle, 35 were prevented by pathological causes or
+    absence of milk, 100 by the necessities of their work. Even those
+    who suckled could seldom continue more than seven months on
+    account of the physiological strain of work (Dluska,
+    _Contribution à l'Etude de l'Allaitement Maternel_, Thèse de
+    Paris, 1894). Many statistics have been gathered in the German
+    countries. Thus Wiedow (_Centralblatt für Gynäkologie_, No. 29,
+    1895) found that of 525 women at the Freiburg Maternity only half
+    could suckle thoroughly during the first two weeks; imperfect
+    nipples were noted in 49 cases, and it was found that the
+    development of the nipple bore a direct relation to the value of
+    the breast as a secretory organ. At Munich Escherich and Büller
+    found that nearly 60 per cent. of women of the lower class were
+    unable to suckle their children, and at Stuttgart three-quarters
+    of the child-bearing women were in this condition.
+
+The reasons why children should be suckled at their mothers' breasts are
+larger than some may be inclined to believe. In the first place the
+psychological reason is one of no mean importance. The breast with its
+exquisitely sensitive nipple, vibrating in harmony with the sexual organs,
+furnishes the normal mechanism by which maternal love is developed. No
+doubt the woman who never suckles her child may love it, but such love is
+liable to remain defective on the fundamental and instinctive side. In
+some women, indeed, whom we may hesitate to call abnormal, maternal love
+fails to awaken at all until brought into action through this mechanism by
+the act of suckling.
+
+A more generally recognized and certainly fundamental reason for suckling
+the child is that the milk of the mother, provided she is reasonably
+healthy, is the infant's only ideally fit food. There are some people
+whose confidence in science leads them to believe that it is possible to
+manufacture foods that are as good or better than mother's milk; they
+fancy that the milk which is best for the calf is equally best for so
+different an animal as the baby. These are delusions. The infant's best
+food is that elaborated in his own mother's body. All other foods are more
+or less possible substitutes, which require trouble to prepare properly
+and are, moreover, exposed to various risks from which the mother's milk
+is free.
+
+A further reason, especially among the poor, against the use of any
+artificial foods is that it accustoms those around the child to try
+experiments with its feeding and to fancy that any kind of food they eat
+themselves may be good for the infant. It thus happens that bread and
+potatoes, brandy and gin, are thrust into infants' mouths. With the infant
+that is given the breast it is easier to make plain that, except by the
+doctor's orders, nothing else must be given.
+
+An additional reason why the mother should suckle her child is the close
+and frequent association with the child thus involved. Not only is the
+child better cared for in all respects, but the mother is not deprived of
+the discipline of such care, and is also enabled from the outset to learn
+and to understand the child's nature.
+
+    The inability to suckle acquires great significance if we realize
+    that it is associated, probably in a large measure as a direct
+    cause, with infantile mortality. The mortality of
+    artificially-fed infants during the first year of life is seldom
+    less than double that of the breast-fed, sometimes it is as much
+    as three times that of the breast-fed, or even more; thus at
+    Derby 51.7 per cent. of hand-fed infants die under the age of
+    twelve months, but only 8.6 per cent. of breast-fed infants.
+    Those who survive are by no means free from suffering. At the end
+    of the first year they are found to weigh about 25 per cent. less
+    than the breast-fed, and to be much shorter; they are more liable
+    to tuberculosis and rickets, with all the evil results that flow
+    from these diseases; and there is some reason to believe that the
+    development of their teeth is injuriously affected. The
+    degenerate character of the artificially-fed is well indicated by
+    the fact that of 40,000 children who were brought for treatment
+    to the Children's Hospital in Munich, 86 per cent. had been
+    brought up by hand, and the few who had been suckled had usually
+    only had the breast for a short time. The evil influence persists
+    even up to adult life. In some parts of France where the
+    wet-nurse industry flourishes so greatly that nearly all the
+    children are brought up by hand, it has been found that the
+    percentage of rejected conscripts is nearly double that for
+    France generally. Corresponding results have been found by
+    Friedjung in a large German athletic association. Among 155
+    members, 65 per cent. were found on inquiry to have been
+    breast-fed as infants (for an average of six months); but among
+    the best athletes the percentage of breast-fed rose to 72 per
+    cent. (for an average period of nine or ten months), while for
+    the group of 56 who stood lowest in athletic power the percentage
+    of breast-fed fell to 57 (for an average of only three months).
+
+    The advantages for an infant of being suckled by its mother are
+    greater than can be accounted for by the mere fact of being
+    suckled rather than hand-fed. This has been shown by Vitrey (_De
+    la Mortalité Infantile_, Thèse de Lyon, 1907), who found from the
+    statistics of the Hôtel-Dieu at Lyons, that infants suckled by
+    their mothers have a mortality of only 12 per cent., but if
+    suckled by strangers, the mortality rises to 33 per cent. It may
+    be added that, while suckling is essential to the complete
+    well-being of the child, it is highly desirable for the sake of
+    the mother's health also. (Some important statistics are
+    summarized in a paper on "Infantile Mortality" in _British
+    Medical Journal_, Nov. 2, 1907), while the various aspects of
+    suckling have been thoroughly discussed by Bollinger, "Ueber
+    Säuglings-Sterblichkeit und die Erbliche functionelle Atrophie
+    der menschlichen Milchdrüse" (_Correspondenzblatt Deutschen
+    Gesellschaft Anthropologie_, Oct., 1899).
+
+    It appears that in Sweden, in the middle of the eighteenth
+    century, it was a punishable offense for a woman to give her baby
+    the bottle when she was able to suckle it. In recent years Prof.
+    Anton von Menger, of Vienna, has argued (in his _Burgerliche
+    Recht und die Besitzlosen Klassen_) that the future generation
+    has the right to make this claim, and he proposes that every
+    mother shall be legally bound to suckle her child unless her
+    inability to do so has been certified by a physician. E.A.
+    Schroeder (_Das Recht in der Geschlechtlichen Ordnung_, 1893, p.
+    346) also argued that a mother should be legally bound to suckle
+    her infant for at least nine months, unless solid grounds could
+    be shown to the contrary, and this demand, which seems reasonable
+    and natural, since it is a mother's privilege as well as her duty
+    to suckle her infant when able to do so, has been insistently
+    made by others also. It has been supported from the legal side by
+    Weinberg (_Mutterschutz_, Sept., 1907). In France the Loi Roussel
+    forbids a woman to act as a wet-nurse until her child is seven
+    months old, and this has had an excellent effect in lowering
+    infantile mortality (A. Allée, _Puériculture et la Loi Roussel_,
+    Thèse de Paris, 1908). In some parts of Germany manufacturers are
+    compelled to set up a suckling-room in the factory, where mothers
+    can give the breast to the child in the intervals of work. The
+    control and upkeep of these rooms, with provision of doctors and
+    nurses, is undertaken by the municipality (_Sexual-Probleme_,
+    Sept., 1908, p. 573).
+
+As things are to-day in modern industrial countries the righting of these
+wrongs cannot be left to Nature, that is, to the ignorant and untrained
+impulses of persons who live in a whirl of artificial life where the voice
+of instinct is drowned. The mother, we are accustomed to think, may be
+trusted to see to the welfare of her child, and it is unnecessary, or even
+"immoral," to come to her assistance. Yet there are few things, I think,
+more pathetic than the sight of a young Lancashire mother who works in the
+mills, when she has to stay at home to nurse her sick child. She is used
+to rise before day-break to go to the mill; she has scarcely seen her
+child by the light of the sun, she knows nothing of its necessities, the
+hands that are so skilful to catch the loom cannot soothe the child. The
+mother gazes down at it in vague, awkward, speechless misery. It is not a
+sight one can ever forget.
+
+It is France that is taking the lead in the initiation of the scientific
+and practical movements for the care of the young child before and after
+birth, and it is in France that we may find the germs of nearly all the
+methods now becoming adopted for arresting infantile mortality. The
+village system of Villiers-le-Duc, near Dijon in the Côte d'Or, has proved
+a germ of this fruitful kind. Here every pregnant woman not able to secure
+the right conditions for her own life and that of the child she is
+bearing, is able to claim the assistance of the village authorities; she
+is entitled, without payment, to the attendance of a doctor and midwife
+and to one franc a day during her confinement. The measures adopted in
+this village have practically abolished both maternal and infantile
+mortality. A few years ago Dr. Samson Moore, the medical officer of health
+for Huddersfield, heard of this village, and Mr. Benjamin Broadbent, the
+Mayor of Huddersfield, visited Villiers-le-Duc. It was resolved to
+initiate in Huddersfield a movement for combating infant mortality.
+Henceforth arose what is known as the Huddersfield scheme, a scheme which
+has been fruitful in splendid results. The points of the Huddersfield
+scheme are: (1) compulsory notification of births within forty-eight
+hours; (2) the appointment of lady assistant medical officers of help to
+visit the home, inquire, advise, and assist; (3) the organized aid of
+voluntary lady workers in subordination to the municipal part of the
+scheme; (4) appeal to the medical officer of help when the baby, not being
+under medical care, fails to thrive. The infantile mortality of
+Huddersfield has been very greatly reduced by this scheme.[16]
+
+    The Huddersfield scheme may be said to be the origin of the
+    English Notification of Births Act, which came into operation in
+    1908. This Act represents, in England, the national inauguration
+    of a scheme for the betterment of the race, the ultimate results
+    of which it is impossible to foresee. When this Act comes into
+    universal action every baby of the land will be entitled--legally
+    and not by individual caprice or philanthropic condescension--to
+    medical attention from the day of birth, and every mother will
+    have at hand the counsel of an educated woman in touch with the
+    municipal authorities. There could be no greater triumph for
+    medical science, for national efficiency, and the cause of
+    humanity generally. Even on the lower financial plane, it is easy
+    to see that an enormous saving of public and private money will
+    thus be effected. The Act is adoptive, and not compulsory. This
+    was a wise precaution, for an Act of this kind cannot be
+    effectual unless it is carried out thoroughly by the community
+    adopting it, and it will not be adopted until a community has
+    clearly realized its advantages and the methods of attaining
+    them.
+
+    An important adjunct of this organization is the School for
+    Mothers. Such schools, which are now beginning to spring up
+    everywhere, may be said to have their origins in the
+    _Consultations de Nourrissons_ (with their offshoot the _Goutte
+    de Lait_), established by Professor Budin in 1892, which have
+    spread all over France and been widely influential for good. At
+    the _Consultations_ infants are examined and weighed weekly, and
+    the mothers advised and encouraged to suckle their children. The
+    _Gouttes_ are practically milk dispensaries where infants for
+    whom breast-feeding is impossible are fed with milk under medical
+    supervision. Schools for Mothers represent an enlargement of the
+    same scheme, covering a variety of subjects which it is necessary
+    for a mother to know. Some of the first of these schools were
+    established at Bonn, at the Bavarian town of Weissenberg, and in
+    Ghent. At some of the Schools for Mothers, and notably at Ghent
+    (described by Mrs. Bertrand Russell in the _Nineteenth Century_,
+    1906), the important step has been taken of giving training to
+    young girls from fourteen to eighteen; they receive instruction
+    in infant anatomy and physiology, in the preparation of
+    sterilized milk, in weighing children, in taking temperatures and
+    making charts, in managing crêches, and after two years are able
+    to earn a salary. In various parts of England, schools for young
+    mothers and girls on these lines are now being established, first
+    in London, under the auspices of Dr. F.J. Sykes, Medical Officer
+    of Health for St. Pancreas (see, e.g., _A School For Mothers_,
+    1908, describing an establishment of this kind at Somers Town,
+    with a preface by Sir Thomas Barlow; an account of recent
+    attempts to improve the care of infants in London will also be
+    found in the _Lancet_, Sept. 26, 1908). It may be added that some
+    English municipalities have established depôts for supplying
+    mothers cheaply with good milk. Such depôts are, however, likely
+    to be more mischievous than beneficial if they promote the
+    substitution of hand-feeding for suckling. They should never be
+    established except in connection with Schools for Mothers, where
+    an educational influence may be exerted, and no mother should be
+    supplied with milk unless she presents a medical certificate
+    showing that she is unable to nourish her child (Byers, "Medical
+    Women and Public Health Questions," _British Medical Journal_,
+    Oct. 6, 1906). It is noteworthy that in England the local
+    authorities will shortly be empowered by law to establish Schools
+    for Mothers.
+
+    The great benefits produced by these institutions in France, both
+    in diminishing the infant mortality and in promoting the
+    education of mothers and their pride and interest in their
+    children, have been set forth in two Paris theses by G. Chaignon
+    (_Organisation des Consultations de Nourrissons à la Campagne_,
+    1908), and Alcide Alexandre (_Consultation de Nourrissons et
+    Goutte de Lait d'Arques_, 1908).
+
+    The movement is now spreading throughout Europe, and an
+    International Union has been formed, including all the
+    institutions specially founded for the protection of child life
+    and the promotion of puericulture. The permanent committee is in
+    Brussels, and a Congress of Infant Protection (_Goutte de Lait_)
+    is held every two years.
+
+It will be seen that all the movements now being set in action for the
+improvement of the race through the child and the child's mother,
+recognize the intimacy of the relation between the mother and her child
+and are designed to aid her, even if necessary by the exercise of some
+pressure, in performing her natural functions in relation to her child. To
+the theoretical philanthropist, eager to reform the world on paper,
+nothing seems simpler than to cure the present evils of child-rearing by
+setting up State nurseries which are at once to relieve mothers of
+everything connected with the production of the men of the future beyond
+the pleasure--if such it happens to be--of conceiving them and the trouble
+of bearing them, and at the same time to rear them up independently of the
+home, in a wholesome, economical, and scientific manner.[17] Nothing seems
+simpler, but from the fundamental psychological standpoint nothing is
+falser. The idea of a State which is outside the community is but a
+survival in another form of that antiquated notion which compelled Louis
+XIV to declare "L'Etat c'est moi!" A State which admits that the
+individuals composing it are incompetent to perform their own most sacred
+and intimate functions, and takes upon itself to perform them instead,
+attempts a task which would be undesirable, even if it were possible of
+achievement. It must always be remembered that a State which proposes to
+relieve its constituent members of their natural functions and
+responsibilities attempts something quite different from the State which
+seeks to aid its members to fulfil their own biological and social
+functions more adequately. A State which enables its mothers to rest when
+they are child-bearing is engaged in a reasonable task; a State which
+takes over its mothers' children is reducing philanthropy to absurdity. It
+is easy to realize this if we consider the inevitable course of
+circumstances under a system of "State-nurseries." The child would be
+removed from its natural mother at the earliest age, but some one has to
+perform the mother's duties; the substitute must therefore be properly
+trained for such duties; and in exercising them under favorable
+circumstances a maternal relationship is developed between the child and
+the "mother," who doubtless possesses natural maternal instincts but has
+no natural maternal bond to the child she is mothering. Such a
+relationship tends to become on both sides practically and emotionally the
+real relationship. We very often have opportunity of seeing how
+unsatisfactory such a relationship becomes. The artificial mother is
+deprived of a child she had begun to feel her own; the child's emotional
+relationships are upset, split and distorted; the real mother has the
+bitterness of feeling that for her child she is not the real mother. Would
+it not have been much better for all if the State had encouraged the vast
+army of women it had trained for the position of mothering other women's
+children, to have, instead, children of their own? The women who are
+incapable of mothering their own children could then be trained to refrain
+from bearing them.
+
+    Ellen Key (in her _Century of the Child_, and elsewhere) has
+    advocated for all young women a year of compulsory "service,"
+    analogous to the compulsory military service imposed in most
+    countries on young men. During this period the girl would be
+    trained in rational housekeeping, in the principles of hygiene,
+    in the care of the sick, and especially in the care of infants
+    and all that concerns the physical and psychic development of
+    children. The principle of this proposal has since been widely
+    accepted. Marie von Schmid (in her _Mutterdienst_, 1907) goes so
+    far as to advocate a general training of young women in such
+    duties, carried on in a kind of enlarged and improved midwifery
+    school. The service would last a year, and the young woman would
+    then be for three years in the reserves, and liable to be called
+    up for duty. There is certainly much to be said for such a
+    proposal, considerably more than is to be said for compulsory
+    military service. For while it is very doubtful whether a man
+    will ever be called on to fight, most women are liable to be
+    called on to exercise household duties or to look after children,
+    whether for themselves or for other people.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It is not, of course, always literally true that each parent supplies
+exactly half the heredity, for, as we see among animals generally, the
+offspring may sometimes approach more nearly to one parent, sometimes to
+the other, while among plants, as De Vries and others have shown, the
+heredity may be still more unequally divided.
+
+[2] It should scarcely be necessary to say that to assert that motherhood
+is a woman's supreme function is by no means to assert that her activities
+should be confined to the home. That is an opinion which may now be
+regarded as almost extinct even among those who most glorify the function
+of woman as mother. As Friedrich Naumann and others have very truly
+pointed out, a woman is not adequately equipped to fulfil her functions as
+mother and trainer of children unless she has lived in the world and
+exercised a vocation.
+
+[3] "Were the capacities of the brain and the heart equal in the sexes,"
+Lily Braun (_Die Frauenfrage_, page 207) well says, "the entry of women
+into public life would be of no value to humanity, and would even lead to
+a still wilder competition. Only the recognition that the entire nature of
+woman is different from that of man, that it signifies a new vivifying
+principle in human life, makes the women's movement, in spite of the
+misconception of its enemies and its friends, a social revolution" (see
+also Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth edition, 1904, especially Ch.
+XVIII).
+
+[4] The word "puericulture" was invented by Dr. Caron in 1866 to signify
+the culture of children after birth. It was Pinard, the distinguished
+French obstetrician, who, in 1895, gave it a larger and truer significance
+by applying it to include the culture of children before birth. It is now
+defined as "the science which has for its end the search for the knowledge
+relative to the reproduction, the preservation, and the amelioration of
+the human race" (Péchin, _La Puériculture avant la Naissance_, Thèse de
+Paris, 1908).
+
+[5] In _La Grossesse_ (pp. 450 et seq.) Bouchacourt has discussed the
+problems of puericulture at some length.
+
+[6] The importance of antenatal puericulture was fully recognized in China
+a thousand years ago. Thus Madame Cheng wrote at that time concerning the
+education of the child: "Even before birth his education may begin; and,
+therefore, the prospective mother of old, when lying down, lay straight;
+when sitting down, sat upright; and when standing, stood erect. She would
+not taste strange flavors, nor have anything to do with spiritualism; if
+her food were not cut straight she would not eat it, and if her mat were
+not set straight, she would not sit upon it. She would not look at any
+objectionable sight, nor listen to any objectionable sound, nor utter any
+rude word, nor handle any impure thing. At night she studied some
+canonical work, by day she occupied herself with ceremonies and music.
+Therefore, her sons were upright and eminent for their talents and
+virtues; such was the result of antenatal training" (H.A. Giles, "Woman in
+Chinese Literature," _Nineteenth Century_, Nov., 1904).
+
+[7] Max Bartels, "Isländischer Brauch," etc., _Zeitschrift für
+Ethnologie_, 1900, p. 65. A summary of the customs of various peoples in
+regard to pregnancy is given by Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_, Sect. XXIX.
+
+[8] On the influence of alcohol during pregnancy on the embryo, see, e.g.,
+G. Newman, _Infant Mortality_, pp. 72-77. W.C. Sullivan (_Alcoholism_,
+1906, Ch. XI), summarizes the evidence showing that alcohol is a factor in
+human degeneration.
+
+[9] There is even reason to believe that the alcoholism of the mother's
+father may impair her ability as a mother. Bunge (_Die Zunehmende
+Unfähigkeit der Frauen ihre Kinder zu Stillen_, fifth edition, 1907), from
+an investigation extending over 2,000 families, finds that chronic
+alcoholic poisoning in the father is the chief cause of the daughter's
+inability to suckle, this inability not usually being recovered in
+subsequent generations. Bunge has, however, been opposed by Dr. Agnes
+Bluhm, "Die Stillungsnot," _Zeitschrift für Soziale Medizin_, 1908 (fully
+summarized by herself in _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan., 1909).
+
+[10] See, e.g., T. Arthur Helme, "The Unborn Child," _British Medical
+Journal_, Aug. 24, 1907. Nutrition should, of course, be adequate. Noel
+Paton has shown (_Lancet_, July 4, 1903) that defective nutrition of the
+pregnant woman diminishes the weight of the offspring.
+
+[11] Debreyne, _Moechialogie_, p. 277. And from the Protestant side see
+Northcote (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, Ch. IX), who permits sexual
+intercourse during pregnancy.
+
+[12] See Appendix A to the third volume of these _Studies_; also Ploss and
+Bartels, loc. cit.
+
+[13] Thus one lady writes: "I have only had one child, but I may say that
+during pregnancy the desire for union was much stronger, for the whole
+time, than at any other period." Bouchacourt (_La Grossesse_, pp. 180-183)
+states that, as a rule, sexual desire is not diminished by pregnancy, and
+is occasionally increased.
+
+[14] This "inconvenience" remains to-day a stumbling-block with many
+excellent authorities. "Except when there is a tendency to miscarriage,"
+says Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to
+Marriage_, vol. i, p. 257), "we must be very guarded in ordering
+abstinence from intercourse during pregnancy," and Ballantyne (_The
+Foetus_, p. 475) cautiously remarks that the question is difficult to
+decide. Forel also (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, fourth edition, p. 81), who is
+not prepared to advocate complete sexual abstinence during a normal
+pregnancy, admits that it is a rather difficult question.
+
+[15] This point is discussed, for instance, by Séropian in a Paris Thesis
+(_Fréquence comparée des Causes de l'Accouchement Prémature_, 1907); he
+concludes that coitus during pregnancy is a more frequent cause of
+premature confinement than is commonly supposed, especially in primiparæ,
+and markedly so by the ninth month.
+
+[16] "Infantile Mortality: The Huddersfield Scheme," _British Medical
+Journal_, Dec., 1907; Samson Moore, "Infant Mortality," ib., August 29,
+1908.
+
+[17] Ellen Key has admirably dealt with proposals of this kind (as put
+forth by C.P. Stetson) in her Essays "On Love and Marriage." In opposition
+to such proposals Ellen Key suggests that such women as have been properly
+trained for maternal duties and are unable entirely to support themselves
+while exercising them should be subsidized by the State during the child's
+first three years of life. It may be added that in Leipzig the plan of
+subsidizing mothers who (under proper medical and other supervision)
+suckle their infants has already been introduced.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION.
+
+Nurture Necessary as Well as Breed--Precocious Manifestations of the
+Sexual Impulse--Are They to be Regarded as Normal?--The Sexual Play of
+Children--The Emotion of Love in Childhood--Are Town Children More
+Precocious Sexually Than Country Children?--Children's Ideas Concerning
+the Origin of Babies--Need for Beginning the Sexual Education of Children
+in Early Years--The Importance of Early Training in Responsibility--Evil
+of the Old Doctrine of Silence in Matters of Sex--The Evil Magnified When
+Applied to Girls--The Mother the Natural and Best Teacher--The Morbid
+Influence of Artificial Mystery in Sex Matters--Books on Sexual
+Enlightenment of the Young--Nature of the Mother's Task--Sexual Education
+in the School--The Value of Botany--Zoölogy--Sexual Education After
+Puberty--The Necessity of Counteracting Quack Literature--Danger of
+Neglecting to Prepare for the First Onset of Menstruation--The Right
+Attitude Towards Woman's Sexual Life--The Vital Necessity of the Hygiene
+of Menstruation During Adolescence--Such Hygiene Compatible with the
+Educational and Social Equality of the Sexes--The Invalidism of Women
+Mainly Due to Hygienic Neglect--Good Influence of Physical Training on
+Women and Bad Influence of Athletics--The Evils of Emotional
+Suppression--Need of Teaching the Dignity of Sex--Influence of These
+Factors on a Woman's Fate in Marriage--Lectures and Addresses on Sexual
+Hygiene--The Doctor's Part in Sexual Education--Pubertal Initiation Into
+the Ideal World--The Place of the Religious and Ethical Teacher--The
+Initiation Rites of Savages Into Manhood and Womanhood--The Sexual
+Influence of Literature--The Sexual Influence of Art.
+
+
+It may seem to some that in attaching weight to the ancestry, the
+parentage, the conception, the gestation, even the first infancy, of the
+child we are wandering away from the sphere of the psychology of sex. That
+is far from being the case. We are, on the contrary, going to the root of
+sex. All our growing knowledge tends to show that, equally with his
+physical nature, the child's psychic nature is based on breed and nurture,
+on the quality of the stocks he belongs to, and on the care taken at the
+early moments when care counts for most, to preserve the fine quality of
+those stocks.
+
+    It must, of course, be remembered that the influences of both
+    breed and nurture are alike influential on the fate of the
+    individual. The influence of nurture is so obvious that few are
+    likely to under-rate it. The influence of breed, however, is less
+    obvious, and we may still meet with persons so ill informed, and
+    perhaps so prejudiced, as to deny it altogether. The growth of
+    our knowledge in this matter, by showing how subtle and
+    penetrative is the influence of heredity, cannot fail to dispel
+    this mischievous notion. No sound civilization is possible except
+    in a community which in the mass is not only well-nurtured but
+    well-bred. And in no part of life so much as in the sexual
+    relationships is the influence of good breeding more decisive. An
+    instructive illustration may be gleaned from the minute and
+    precise history of his early life furnished to me by a highly
+    cultured Russian gentleman. He was brought up in childhood with
+    his own brothers and sisters and a little girl of the same age
+    who had been adopted from infancy, the child of a prostitute who
+    had died soon after the infant's birth. The adopted child was
+    treated as one of the family, and all the children supposed that
+    she was a real sister. Yet from early years she developed
+    instincts unlike those of the children with whom she was
+    nurtured; she lied, she was cruel, she loved to make mischief,
+    and she developed precociously vicious sexual impulses; though
+    carefully educated, she adopted the occupation of her mother, and
+    at the age of twenty-two was exiled to Siberia for robbery and
+    attempt to murder. The child of a chance father and a prostitute
+    mother is not fatally devoted to ruin; but such a child is
+    ill-bred, and that fact, in some cases, may neutralize all the
+    influences of good nurture.
+
+When we reach the period of infancy we have already passed beyond the
+foundations and potentialities of the sexual life; we are in some cases
+witnessing its actual beginnings. It is a well-established fact that
+auto-erotic manifestations may sometimes be observed even in infants of
+less than twelve months. We are not now called upon to discuss the
+disputable point as to how far such manifestations at this age can be
+called normal.[18] A slight degree of menstrual and mammary activity
+sometimes occurs at birth.[19] It seems clear that nervous and psychic
+sexual activity has its first springs at this early period, and as the
+years go by an increasing number of individuals join the stream until at
+puberty practically all are carried along in the great current.
+
+While, therefore, it is possibly, even probably, true that the soundest
+and healthiest individuals show no definite signs of nervous and psychic
+sexuality in childhood, such manifestations are still sufficiently
+frequent to make it impossible to say that sexual hygiene may be
+completely ignored until puberty is approaching.
+
+    Precocious physical development occurs as a somewhat rare
+    variation. W. Roger Williams ("Precocious Sexual Development with
+    Abstracts of over One Hundred Cases," _British Gynæcological
+    Journal_, May, 1902) has furnished an important contribution to
+    the knowledge of this anomaly which is much commoner in girls
+    than in boys. Roger Williams's cases include only twenty boys to
+    eighty girls, and precocity is not only more frequent but more
+    pronounced in girls, who have been known to conceive at eight,
+    while thirteen is stated to be the earliest age at which boys
+    have proved able to beget children. This, it may be remarked, is
+    also the earliest age at which spermatozoa are found in the
+    seminal fluid of boys; before that age the ejaculations contain
+    no spermatozoa, and, as Fürbringer and Moll have found, they may
+    even be absent at sixteen, or later. In female children
+    precocious sexual development is less commonly associated with
+    general increase of bodily development than in boys. (An
+    individual case of early sexual development in a girl of five has
+    been completely described and figured in the _Zeitschrift für
+    Ethnologie_, 1896, Heft 4, p. 262.)
+
+    Precocious sexual impulses are generally vague, occasional, and
+    more or less innocent. A case of rare and pronounced character,
+    in which a child, a boy, from the age of two had been sexually
+    attracted to girls and women, and directed all his thoughts and
+    actions to sexual attempts on them, has been described by Herbert
+    Rich, of Detroit (_Alienist and Neurologist_, Nov., 1905).
+    General evidence from the literature of the subject as to sexual
+    precocity, its frequency and significance, has been brought
+    together by L.M. Terman ("A Study in Precocity," _American
+    Journal Psychology_, April, 1905).
+
+    The erections that are liable to occur in male infants have
+    usually no sexual significance, though, as Moll remarks, they may
+    acquire it by attracting the child's attention; they are merely
+    reflex. It is believed by some, however, and notably by Freud,
+    that certain manifestations of infant activity, especially
+    thumb-sucking, are of sexual causation, and that the sexual
+    impulse constantly manifests itself at a very early age. The
+    belief that the sexual instinct is absent in childhood, Freud
+    regards as a serious error, so easy to correct by observation
+    that he wonders how it can have arisen. "In reality," he remarks,
+    "the new-born infant brings sexuality with it into the world,
+    sexual sensations accompany it through the days of lactation and
+    childhood, and very few children can fail to experience sexual
+    activities and feelings before the period of puberty" (Freud,
+    "Zur Sexuellen Aufklärung der Kinder," _Soziale Medizin und
+    Hygiene_, Bd. ii, 1907; cf., for details, the same author's _Drei
+    Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905). Moll, on the other hand,
+    considers that Freud's views on sexuality in infancy are
+    exaggerations which must be decisively rejected, though he admits
+    that it is difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate the
+    feelings in childhood (Moll, _Das Sexualleben des Kindes_, p.
+    154). Moll believes also that psycho-sexual manifestations
+    appearing after the age of eight are not pathological; children
+    who are weakly or of bad heredity are not seldom sexually
+    precocious, but, on the other hand, Moll has known children of
+    eight or nine with strongly developed sexual impulses, who yet
+    become finely developed men.
+
+    Rudimentary sexual activities in childhood, accompanied by sexual
+    feelings, must indeed--when they are not too pronounced or too
+    premature--be regarded as coming within the normal sphere, though
+    when they occur in children of bad heredity they are not without
+    serious risks. But in healthy children, after the age of seven or
+    eight, they tend to produce no evil results, and are strictly of
+    the nature of play. Play, both in animals and men, as Groos has
+    shown with marvelous wealth of illustration, is a beneficent
+    process of education; the young creature is thereby preparing
+    itself for the exercise of those functions which in later life it
+    must carry out more completely and more seriously. In his _Spiele
+    der Menschen_, Groos applies this idea to the sexual play of
+    children, and brings forward quotations from literature in
+    evidence. Keller, in his "Romeo und Juliet auf dem Dorfe," has
+    given an admirably truthful picture of these childish
+    love-relationships. Emil Schultze-Malkowsky (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, p. 370) reproduces some scenes from the
+    life of a little girl of seven clearly illustrating the exact
+    nature of the sexual manifestation at this age.
+
+    A kind of rudimentary sexual intercourse between children, as
+    Bloch has remarked (_Beiträge_, etc., Bd. ii, p. 254), occurs in
+    many parts of the world, and is recognized by their elders as
+    play. This is, for instance, the case among the Bawenda of the
+    Transvaal (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1896, Heft 4, p. 364),
+    and among the Papuans of Kaiser-Wilhelms-Land, with the approval
+    of the parents, although much reticence is observed (id., 1889,
+    Heft 1, p. 16). Godard (_Egypte et Palestine_, 1867, p. 105)
+    noted the sexual play of the boys and girls in Cairo. In New
+    Mexico W.A. Hammond (_Sexual Impotence_, p. 107) has seen boys
+    and girls attempting a playful sexual conjunction with the
+    encouragement of men and women, and in New York he has seen boys
+    and girls of three and four doing the same in the presence of
+    their parents, with only a laughing rebuke. "Playing at pa and
+    ma" is indeed extremely common among children in genuine
+    innocence, and with a complete absence of viciousness; and is by
+    no means confined to children of low social class. Moll remarks
+    on its frequency (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. i, p. 277), and the
+    committee of evangelical pastors, in their investigation of
+    German rural morality (_Die Geschlechtliche-sittliche
+    Verhältnisse_, Bd. i, p. 102) found that children who are not yet
+    of school age make attempts at coitus. The sexual play of
+    children is by no means confined to father and mother games;
+    frequently there are games of school with the climax in exposure
+    and smackings, and occasionally there are games of being doctors
+    and making examinations. Thus a young English woman says: "Of
+    course, when we were at school [at the age of twelve and earlier]
+    we used to play with one another, several of us girls; we used to
+    go into a field and pretend we were doctors and had to examine
+    one another, and then we used to pull up one another's clothes
+    and feel each other."
+
+    These games do not necessarily involve the coöperation of the
+    sexual impulse, and still less have they any element of love. But
+    emotions of love, scarcely if at all distinguishable from adult
+    sexual love, frequently appear at equally early ages. They are of
+    the nature of play, in so far as play is a preparation for the
+    activities of later life, though, unlike the games, they are not
+    felt as play. Ramdohr, more than a century ago (_Venus Urania_,
+    1798), referred to the frequent love of little boys for women.
+    More usually the love is felt towards individuals of the opposite
+    or the same sex who are not widely different in age, though
+    usually older. The most comprehensive study of the matter has
+    been made by Sanford Bell in America on a basis of as many as
+    2,300 cases (S. Bell, "A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love
+    Between the Sexes," _American Journal Psychology_, July, 1902).
+    Bell finds that the presence of the emotion between three and
+    eight years of age is shown by such actions as hugging, kissing,
+    lifting each other, scuffling, sitting close to each other,
+    confessions to each other and to others, talking about each other
+    when apart, seeking each other and excluding the rest, grief at
+    separation, giving gifts, showing special courtesies to each
+    other, making sacrifices for each other, exhibiting jealousy. The
+    girls are, on the whole, more aggressive than the boys, and less
+    anxious to keep the matter secret. After the age of eight, the
+    girls increase in modesty and the boys become still more
+    secretive. The physical sensations are not usually located in the
+    sexual organs; erection of the penis and hyperæmia of the female
+    sexual parts Bell regards as marking undue precocity. But there
+    is diffused vascular and nervous tumescence and a state of
+    exaltation comparable, though not equal, to that experienced in
+    adolescent and adult age. On the whole, as Bell soundly
+    concludes, "love between children of opposite sex bears much the
+    same relation to that between adults as the flower does to the
+    fruit, and has about as little of physical sexuality in it as an
+    apple-blossom has of the apple that develops from it." Moll also
+    (op. cit. p. 76) considers that kissing and other similar
+    superficial contacts, which he denominates the phenomena of
+    contrectation, constitute most frequently the first and sole
+    manifestation of the sexual impulse in childhood.
+
+    It is often stated that it is easier for children to preserve
+    their sexual innocence in the country than in the town, and that
+    only in cities is sexuality rampant and conspicuous. This is by
+    no means true, and in some respects it is the reverse of the
+    truth. Certainly, hard work, a natural and simple life, and a
+    lack of alert intelligence often combine to keep the rural lad
+    chaste in thought and act until the period of adolescence is
+    completed. Ammon, for instance, states, though without giving
+    definite evidence, that this is common among the Baden
+    conscripts. Certainly, also, all the multiple sensory excitements
+    of urban life tend to arouse the nervous and cerebral
+    excitability of the young at a comparatively early age in the
+    sexual as in other fields, and promote premature desires and
+    curiosities. But, on the other hand, urban life offers the young
+    no gratification for their desires and curiosities. The publicity
+    of a city, the universal surveillance, the studied decorum of a
+    population conscious that it is continually exposed to the gaze
+    of strangers, combine to spread a veil over the esoteric side of
+    life, which, even when at last it fails to conceal from the young
+    the urban stimuli of that life, effectually conceals, for the
+    most part, the gratifications of those stimuli. In the country,
+    however, these restraints do not exist in any corresponding
+    degree; animals render the elemental facts of sexual life clear
+    to all; there is less need or regard for decorum; speech is
+    plainer; supervision is impossible, and the amplest opportunities
+    for sexual intimacy are at hand. If the city may perhaps be said
+    to favor unchastity of thought in the young, the country may
+    certainly be said to favor unchastity of act.
+
+    The elaborate investigations of the Committee of Lutheran pastors
+    into sexual morality (_Die Geschlechtich-sittliche Verhältnisse
+    im Deutschen Reiche_), published a few years ago, demonstrate
+    amply the sexual freedom in rural Germany, and Moll, who is
+    decidedly of opinion that the country enjoys no relative freedom
+    from sexuality, states (op. cit., pp. 137-139, 239) that even the
+    circulation of obscene books and pictures among school-children
+    seems to be more frequent in small towns and the country than in
+    large cities. In Russia, where it might be thought that urban and
+    rural conditions offered less contrast than in many countries,
+    the same difference has been observed. "I do not know," a Russian
+    correspondent writes, "whether Zola in _La Terre_ correctly
+    describes the life of French villages. But the ways of a Russian
+    village, where I passed part of my childhood, fairly resemble
+    those described by Zola. In the life of the rural population into
+    which I was plunged everything was impregnated with erotism. One
+    was surrounded by animal lubricity in all its immodesty. Contrary
+    to the generally received opinion, I believe that a child may
+    preserve his sexual innocence more easily in a town than in the
+    country. There are, no doubt, many exceptions to this rule. But
+    the functions of the sexual life are generally more concealed in
+    the towns than in the fields. Modesty (whether or not of the
+    merely superficial and exterior kind) is more developed among
+    urban populations. In speaking of sexual things in the towns
+    people veil their thought more; even the lower class in towns
+    employ more restraint, more euphemisms, than peasants. Thus in
+    the towns a child may easily fail to comprehend when risky
+    subjects are talked of in his presence. It may be said that the
+    corruption of towns, though more concealed, is all the deeper.
+    Maybe, but that concealment preserves children from it. The town
+    child sees prostitutes in the street every day without
+    distinguishing them from other people. In the country he would
+    every day hear it stated in the crudest terms that such and such
+    a girl has been found at night in a barn or a ditch making love
+    with such and such a youth, or that the servant girl slips every
+    night into the coachman's bed, the facts of sexual intercourse,
+    pregnancy, and childbirth being spoken of in the plainest terms.
+    In towns the child's attention is solicited by a thousand
+    different objects; in the country, except fieldwork, which fails
+    to interest him, he hears only of the reproduction of animals and
+    the erotic exploits of girls and youths. When we say that the
+    urban environment is more exciting we are thinking of adults, but
+    the things which excite the adult have usually no erotic effect
+    on the child, who cannot, however, long remain asexual when he
+    sees the great peasant girls, as ardent as mares in heat,
+    abandoning themselves to the arms of robust youths. He cannot
+    fail to remark these frank manifestations of sexuality, though
+    the subtle and perverse refinements of the town would escape his
+    notice. I know that in the countries of exaggerated prudery there
+    is much hidden corruption, more, one is sometimes inclined to
+    think, than in less hypocritical countries. But I believe that
+    that is a false impression, and am persuaded that precisely
+    because of all these little concealments which excite the
+    malicious amusement of foreigners, there are really many more
+    young people in England who remain chaste than in the countries
+    which treat sexual relations more frankly. At all events, if I
+    have known Englishmen who were very debauched and very refined in
+    vice, I have also known young men of the same nation, over
+    twenty, who were as innocent as children, but never a young
+    Frenchman, Italian, or Spaniard of whom this could be said."
+    There is undoubtedly truth in this statement, though it must be
+    remembered that, excellent as chastity is, if it is based on mere
+    ignorance, its possessor is exposed to terrible dangers.
+
+The question of sexual hygiene, more especially in its special aspect of
+sexual enlightenment, is not, however, dependent on the fact that in some
+children the psychic and nervous manifestation of sex appears at an
+earlier age than in others. It rests upon the larger general fact that in
+all children the activity of intelligence begins to work at a very early
+age, and that this activity tends to manifest itself in an inquisitive
+desire to know many elementary facts of life which are really dependent on
+sex. The primary and most universal of these desires is the desire to know
+where children come from. No question could be more natural; the question
+of origins is necessarily a fundamental one in childish philosophies as,
+in more ultimate shapes, it is in adult philosophies. Most children,
+either guided by the statements, usually the misstatements, of their
+elders, or by their own intelligence working amid such indications as are
+open to them, are in possession of a theory of the origin of babies.
+
+    Stanley Hall ("Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School,"
+    _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891) has collected some of the
+    beliefs of young children as to the origin of babies. "God makes
+    babies in heaven, though the Holy Mother and even Santa Claus
+    make some. He lets them down and drops them, and the women or
+    doctors catch them, or He leaves them on the sidewalk, or brings
+    them down a wooden ladder backwards and pulls it up again, or
+    mamma or the doctor or the nurse go up and fetch them, sometimes
+    in a balloon, or they fly down and lose off their wings in some
+    place or other and forget it, and jump down to Jesus, who gives
+    them around. They were also often said to be found in
+    flour-barrels, and the flour sticks ever so long, you know, or
+    they grew in cabbages, or God puts them in water, perhaps in the
+    sewer, and the doctor gets them out and takes them to sick folks
+    that want them, or the milkman brings them early in the morning;
+    they are dug out of the ground, or bought at the baby store."
+
+    In England and America the inquisitive child is often told that
+    the baby was found in the garden, under a gooseberry bush or
+    elsewhere; or more commonly it is said, with what is doubtless
+    felt to be a nearer approach to the truth, that the doctor
+    brought it. In Germany the common story told to children is that
+    the stork brings the baby. Various theories, mostly based on
+    folk-lore, have been put forward to explain this story, but none
+    of them seem quite convincing (see, e.g., G. Herman,
+    "Sexual-Mythen," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. i, Heft 5,
+    1906, p. 176, and P. Näcke, _Neurologische Centralblatt_, No. 17,
+    1907). Näcke thinks there is some plausibility in Professor
+    Petermann's suggestion that a frog writhing in a stork's bill
+    resembles a tiny human creature.
+
+    In Iceland, according to Max Bartels ("Isländischer Brauch und
+    Volksglaube," etc., _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1900, Heft 2
+    and 3) we find a transition between the natural and the fanciful
+    in the stories told to children of the origin of babies (the
+    stork is here precluded, for it only extends to the southern
+    border of Scandinavian lands). In North Iceland it is said that
+    God made the baby and the mother bore it, and on that account is
+    now ill. In the northwest it is said that God made the baby and
+    gave it to the mother. Elsewhere it is said that God sent the
+    baby and the midwife brought it, the mother only being in bed to
+    be near the baby (which is seldom placed in a cradle). It is also
+    sometimes said that a lamb or a bird brought the baby. Again it
+    is said to have entered during the night through the window.
+    Sometimes, however, the child is told that the baby came out of
+    the mother's breasts, or from below her breasts, and that is why
+    she is not well.
+
+    Even when children learn that babies come out of the mother's
+    body this knowledge often remains very vague and inaccurate. It
+    very commonly happens, for instance, in all civilized countries
+    that the navel is regarded as the baby's point of exit from the
+    body. This is a natural conclusion, since the navel is seemingly
+    a channel into the body, and a channel for which there is no
+    obvious use, while the pudendal cleft would not suggest itself to
+    girls (and still less to boys) as the gate of birth, since it
+    already appears to be monopolized by the urinary excretion. This
+    belief concerning the navel is sometimes preserved through the
+    whole period of adolescence, especially in girls of the so-called
+    educated class, who are too well-bred to discuss the matter with
+    their married friends, and believe indeed that they are already
+    sufficiently well informed. At this age the belief may not be
+    altogether harmless, in so far as it leads to the real gate of
+    sex being left unguarded. In Elsass where girls commonly believe,
+    and are taught, that babies come through the navel, popular
+    folk-tales are current (_Anthropophyteia_, vol. iii, p. 89)
+    which represent the mistakes resulting from this belief as
+    leading to the loss of virginity.
+
+    Freud, who believes that children give little credit to the stork
+    fable and similar stories invented for their mystification, has
+    made an interesting psychological investigation into the real
+    theories which children themselves, as the result of observation
+    and thought, reach concerning the sexual facts of life (S. Freud,
+    "Ueber Infantile Sexualtheorien," _Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908).
+    Such theories, he remarks, correspond to the brilliant, but
+    defective hypotheses which primitive peoples arrive at concerning
+    the nature and origin of the world. There are three theories,
+    which, as Freud quite truly concludes, are very commonly formed
+    by children. The first, and the most widely disseminated, is that
+    there is no real anatomical difference between boys and girls; if
+    the boy notices that his little sister has no obvious penis he
+    even concludes that it is because she is too young, and the
+    little girl herself takes the same view. The fact that in early
+    life the clitoris is relatively larger and more penis-like helps
+    to confirm this view which Freud connects with the tendency in
+    later life to erotic dream of women furnished with a penis. This
+    theory, as Freud also remarks, favors the growth of homosexuality
+    when its germs are present. The second theory is the fæcal theory
+    of the origin of babies. The child, who perhaps thinks his mother
+    has a penis, and is in any case ignorant of the vagina, concludes
+    that the baby is brought into the world by an action analogous to
+    the action of the bowels. The third theory, which is perhaps less
+    prevalent than the others, Freud terms the sadistic theory of
+    coitus. The child realizes that his father must have taken some
+    sort of part in his production. The theory that sexual
+    intercourse consists in violence has in it a trace of truth, but
+    seems to be arrived at rather obscurely. The child's own sexual
+    feelings are often aroused for the first time when wrestling or
+    struggling with a companion; he may see his mother, also,
+    resisting more or less playfully a sudden caress from his father,
+    and if a real quarrel takes place, the impression may be
+    fortified. As to what the state of marriage consists in, Freud
+    finds that it is usually regarded as a state which abolishes
+    modesty; the most prevalent theory being that marriage means that
+    people can make water before each other, while another common
+    childish theory is that marriage is when people can show each
+    other their private parts.
+
+Thus it is that at a very early stage of the child's life we are brought
+face to face with the question how we may most wisely begin his initiation
+into the knowledge of the great central facts of sex. It is perhaps a
+little late in the day to regard it as a question, but so it is among us,
+although three thousand five hundred years ago, the Egyptian father spoke
+to his child: "I have given you a mother who has carried you within her, a
+heavy burden, for your sake, and without resting on me. When at last you
+were born, she indeed submitted herself to the yoke, for during three
+years were her nipples in your mouth. Your excrements never turned her
+stomach, nor made her say, 'What am I doing?' When you were sent to school
+she went regularly every day to carry the household bread and beer to your
+master. When in your turn you marry and have a child, bring up your child
+as your mother brought you up."[20]
+
+I take it for granted, however, that--whatever doubt there may be as to
+the how or the when--no doubt is any longer possible as to the absolute
+necessity of taking deliberate and active part in this sexual initiation,
+instead of leaving it to the chance revelation of ignorant and perhaps
+vicious companions or servants. It is becoming more and more widely felt
+that the risks of ignorant innocence are too great.
+
+    "All the love and solicitude parental yearning can bestow,"
+    writes Dr. G.F. Butler, of Chicago (_Love and its Affinities_,
+    1899, p. 83), "all that the most refined religious influence can
+    offer, all that the most cultivated associations can accomplish,
+    in one fatal moment may be obliterated. There is no room for
+    ethical reasoning, indeed oftentimes no consciousness of wrong,
+    but only Margaret's 'Es war so süss'." The same writer adds (as
+    had been previously remarked by Mrs. Craik and others) that among
+    church members it is the finer and more sensitive organizations
+    that are the most susceptible to sexual emotions. So far as boys
+    are concerned, we leave instruction in matters of sex, the most
+    sacred and central fact in the world, as Canon Lyttelton remarks,
+    to "dirty-minded school-boys, grooms, garden-boys, anyone, in
+    short, who at an early age may be sufficiently defiled and
+    sufficiently reckless to talk of them." And, so far as girls are
+    concerned, as Balzac long ago remarked, "a mother may bring up
+    her daughter severely, and cover her beneath her wings for
+    seventeen years; but a servant-girl can destroy that long work by
+    a word, even by a gesture."
+
+    The great part played by servant-girls of the lower class in the
+    sexual initiation of the children of the middle class has been
+    illustrated in dealing with "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in vol.
+    iii, of these _Studies_, and need not now be further discussed.
+    I would only here say a word, in passing, on the other side.
+    Often as servant-girls take this part, we must not go so far as
+    to say that it is the case with the majority. As regards Germany,
+    Dr. Alfred Kind has lately put on record his experience: "I have
+    _never_, in youth, heard a bad or improper word on
+    sex-relationships from a servant-girl, although servant-girls
+    followed one another in our house like sunshine and showers in
+    April, and there was always a relation of comradeship between us
+    children and the servants." As regards England, I can add that my
+    own youthful experiences correspond to Dr. Kind's. This is not
+    surprising, for one may say that in the ordinary well-conditioned
+    girl, though her virtue may not be developed to heroic
+    proportions, there is yet usually a natural respect for the
+    innocence of children, a natural sexual indifference to them, and
+    a natural expectation that the male should take the active part
+    when a sexual situation arises.
+
+It is also beginning to be felt that, especially as regards women,
+ignorant innocence is not merely too fragile a possession to be worth
+preservation, but that it is positively mischievous, since it involves the
+lack of necessary knowledge. "It is little short of criminal," writes Dr.
+F.M. Goodchild,[21] "to send our young people into the midst of the
+excitements and temptations of a great city with no more preparation than
+if they were going to live in Paradise." In the case of women, ignorance
+has the further disadvantage that it deprives them of the knowledge
+necessary for intelligent sympathy with other women. The unsympathetic
+attitude of women towards women is often largely due to sheer ignorance of
+the facts of life. "Why," writes in a private letter a married lady who
+keenly realizes this, "are women brought up with such a profound ignorance
+of their own and especially other women's natures? They do not know half
+as much about other women as a man of the most average capacity learns in
+his day's march." We try to make up for our failure to educate women in
+the essential matters of sex by imposing upon the police and other
+guardians of public order the duty of protecting women and morals. But, as
+Moll insists, the real problem of chastity lies, not in the multiplication
+of laws and policemen, but largely in women's knowledge of the dangers of
+sex and in the cultivation of their sense of responsibility.[22] We are
+always making laws for the protection of children and setting the police
+on guard. But laws and the police, whether their activities are good or
+bad, are in either case alike ineffectual. They can for the most part only
+be invoked when the damage is already done. We have to learn to go to the
+root of the matter. We have to teach children to be a law to themselves.
+We have to give them that knowledge which will enable them to guard their
+own personalities.[23] There is an authentic story of a lady who had
+learned to swim, much to the horror of her clergyman, who thought that
+swimming was unfeminine. "But," she said, "suppose I was drowning." "In
+that case," he replied, "you ought to wait until a man comes along and
+saves you." There we have the two methods of salvation which have been
+preached to women, the old method and the new. In no sea have women been
+more often in danger of drowning than that of sex. There ought to be no
+question as to which is the better method of salvation.
+
+    It is difficult nowadays to find any serious arguments against
+    the desirability of early sexual enlightenment, and it is almost
+    with amusement that we read how the novelist Alphonse Daudet,
+    when asked his opinion of such enlightenment, protested--in a
+    spirit certainly common among the men of his time--that it was
+    unnecessary, because boys could learn everything from the streets
+    and the newspapers, while "as to young girls--no! I would teach
+    them none of the truths of physiology. I can only see
+    disadvantages in such a proceeding. These truths are ugly,
+    disillusioning, sure to shock, to frighten, to disgust the mind,
+    the nature, of a girl." It is as much as to say that there is no
+    need to supply sources of pure water when there are puddles in
+    the street that anyone can drink of. A contemporary of Daudet's,
+    who possessed a far finer spiritual insight, Coventry Patmore,
+    the poet, in the essay on "Ancient and Modern Ideas of Purity" in
+    his beautiful book, _Religio Poetæ_, had already finely protested
+    against that "disease of impurity" which comes of "our modern
+    undivine silences" for which Daudet pleaded. And Metchnikoff,
+    more recently, from the scientific side, speaking especially as
+    regards women, declares that knowledge is so indispensable for
+    moral conduct that "ignorance must be counted the most immoral of
+    acts" (_Essais Optimistes_, p. 420).
+
+    The distinguished Belgian novelist, Camille Lemonnier, in his
+    _L'Homme en Amour_, deals with the question of the sexual
+    education of the young by presenting the history of a young man,
+    brought up under the influence of the conventional and
+    hypocritical views which teach that nudity and sex are shameful
+    and disgusting things. In this way he passes by the opportunities
+    of innocent and natural love, to become hopelessly enslaved at
+    last to a sensual woman who treats him merely as the instrument
+    of her pleasure, the last of a long succession of lovers. The
+    book is a powerful plea for a sane, wholesome, and natural
+    education in matters of sex. It was, however, prosecuted at
+    Bruges, in 1901, though the trial finally ended in acquittal.
+    Such a verdict is in harmony with the general tendency of feeling
+    at the present time.
+
+    The old ideas, expressed by Daudet, that the facts of sex are
+    ugly and disillusioning, and that they shock the mind of the
+    young, are both alike entirely false. As Canon Lyttelton remarks,
+    in urging that the laws of the transmission of life should be
+    taught to children by the mother: "The way they receive it with
+    native reverence, truthfulness of understanding and guileless
+    delicacy, is nothing short of a revelation of the never-ceasing
+    beauty of nature. People sometimes speak of the indescribable
+    beauty of children's innocence. But I venture to say that no one
+    quite knows what it is who has foregone the privilege of being
+    the first to set before them the true meaning of life and birth
+    and the mystery of their own being. Not only do we fail to build
+    up sound knowledge in them, but we put away from ourselves the
+    chance of learning something that must be divine." In the same
+    way, Edward Carpenter, stating that it is easy and natural for
+    the child to learn from the first its physical relation to its
+    mother, remarks (_Love's Coming of Age_, p. 9): "A child at the
+    age of puberty, with the unfolding of its far-down emotional and
+    sexual nature, is eminently capable of the most sensitive,
+    affectional and serene appreciation of what _sex_ means
+    (generally more so as things are to-day, than its worldling
+    parent or guardian); and can absorb the teaching, if
+    sympathetically given, without any shock or disturbance to its
+    sense of shame--that sense which is so natural and valuable a
+    safeguard of early youth."
+
+    How widespread, even some years ago, had become the conviction
+    that the sexual facts of life should be taught to girls as well
+    as boys, was shown when the opinions of a very miscellaneous
+    assortment of more or less prominent persons were sought on the
+    question ("The Tree of Knowledge," _New Review_, June, 1894). A
+    small minority of two only (Rabbi Adler and Mrs. Lynn Lynton)
+    were against such knowledge, while among the majority in favor of
+    it were Mme. Adam, Thomas Hardy, Sir Walter Besant, Björnson,
+    Hall Caine, Sarah Grand, Nordau, Lady Henry Somerset, Baroness
+    von Suttner, and Miss Willard. The leaders of the woman's
+    movement are, of course, in favor of such knowledge. Thus a
+    meeting of the Bund für Mutterschutz at Berlin, in 1905, almost
+    unanimously passed a resolution declaring that the early sexual
+    enlightenment of children in the facts of the sexual life is
+    urgently necessary (_Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 2, p. 91). It may
+    be added that medical opinion has long approved of this
+    enlightenment. Thus in England it was editorially stated in the
+    _British Medical Journal_ some years ago (June 9, 1894): "Most
+    medical men of an age to beget confidence in such affairs will be
+    able to recall instances in which an ignorance, which would have
+    been ludicrous if it had not been so sad, has been displayed on
+    matters regarding which every woman entering on married life
+    ought to have been accurately informed. There can, we think, be
+    little doubt that much unhappiness and a great deal of illness
+    would be prevented if young people of both sexes possessed a
+    little accurate knowledge regarding the sexual relations, and
+    were well impressed with the profound importance of selecting
+    healthy mates. Knowledge need not necessarily be nasty, but even
+    if it were, it certainly is not comparable in that respect with
+    the imaginings of ignorance." In America, also, where at an
+    annual meeting of the American Medical Association, Dr. Denslow
+    Lewis, of Chicago, eloquently urged the need of teaching sexual
+    hygiene to youths and girls, all the subsequent nine speakers,
+    some of them physicians of worldwide fame, expressed their
+    essential agreement (_Medico-Legal Journal_, June-Sept., 1903).
+    Howard, again, at the end of his elaborate _History of
+    Matrimonial Institutions_ (vol. iii, p. 257) asserts the
+    necessity for education in matters of sex, as going to the root
+    of the marriage problem. "In the future educational programme,"
+    he remarks, "sex questions must hold an honorable place."
+
+While, however, it is now widely recognized that children are entitled to
+sexual enlightenment, it cannot be said that this belief is widely put
+into practice. Many persons, who are fully persuaded that children should
+sooner or later be enlightened concerning the sexual sources of life, are
+somewhat nervously anxious as to the precise age at which this
+enlightenment should begin. Their latent feeling seems to be that sex is
+an evil, and enlightenment concerning sex also an evil, however necessary,
+and that the chief point is to ascertain the latest moment to which we can
+safely postpone this necessary evil. Such an attitude is, however,
+altogether wrong-headed. The child's desire for knowledge concerning the
+origin of himself is a perfectly natural, honest, and harmless desire, so
+long as it is not perverted by being thwarted. A child of four may ask
+questions on this matter, simply and spontaneously. As soon as the
+questions are put, certainly as soon as they become at all insistent, they
+should be answered, in the same simple and spontaneous spirit, truthfully,
+though according to the measure of the child's intelligence and his
+capacity and desire for knowledge. This period should not, and, if these
+indications are followed, naturally would not, in any case, be delayed
+beyond the sixth year. After that age even the most carefully guarded
+child is liable to contaminating communications from outside. Moll points
+out that the sexual enlightenment of girls in its various stages ought to
+be always a little ahead of that of boys, and as the development of girls
+up to the pubertal age is more precocious than that of boys, this demand
+is reasonable.
+
+If the elements of sexual education are to be imparted in early childhood,
+it is quite clear who ought to be the teacher. There should be no question
+that this privilege belongs by every right to the mother. Except where a
+child is artificially separated from his chief parent it is indeed only
+the mother who has any natural opportunity of receiving and responding to
+these questions. It is unnecessary for her to take any initiative in the
+matter. The inevitable awakening of the child's intelligence and the
+evolution of his boundless curiosity furnish her love and skill with all
+opportunities for guiding her child's thoughts and knowledge. Nor is it
+necessary for her to possess the slightest technical information at this
+stage. It is only essential that she should have the most absolute faith
+in the purity and dignity of her physical relationship to her child, and
+be able to speak of it with frankness and tenderness. When that essential
+condition is fulfilled every mother has all the knowledge that her young
+child needs.
+
+    Among the best authorities, both men and women, in all the
+    countries where this matter is attracting attention, there seems
+    now to be unanimity of opinion in favor of the elementary facts
+    of the baby's relationship to its mother being explained to the
+    child by the mother as soon as the child begins to ask questions.
+    Thus in Germany Moll has repeatedly argued in this sense; he
+    insists that sexual enlightenment should be mainly a private and
+    individual matter; that in schools there should be no general and
+    personal warnings about masturbation, etc. (though at a later age
+    he approves of instruction in regard to venereal diseases), but
+    that the mother is the proper person to impart intimate knowledge
+    to the child, and that any age is suitable for the commencement
+    of such enlightenment, provided it is put into a form fitted for
+    the age (Moll, op. cit., p. 264).
+
+    At the Mannheim meeting of the Congress of the German Society for
+    Combating Venereal Disease, when the question of sexual
+    enlightenment formed the sole subject of discussion, the opinion
+    in favor of early teaching by the mother prevailed. "It is the
+    mother who must, in the first place, be made responsible for the
+    child's clear understanding of sexual things, so often lacking,"
+    said Frau Krukenberg ("Die Aufgabe der Mutter,"
+    _Sexualpädagogik_, p. 13), while Max Enderlin, a teacher, said on
+    the same occasion ("Die Sexuelle Frage in die Volksschule," id.,
+    p. 35): "It is the mother who has to give the child his first
+    explanations, for it is to his mother that he first naturally
+    comes with his questions." In England, Canon Lyttelton, who is
+    distinguished among the heads of public schools not least by his
+    clear and admirable statements on these questions, states
+    (_Mothers and Sons_, p. 99) that the mother's part in the sexual
+    enlightenment and sexual guardianship of her son is of paramount
+    importance, and should begin at the earliest years. J.H. Badley,
+    another schoolmaster ("The Sex Difficulty," _Broad Views_, June,
+    1904), also states that the mother's part comes first. Northcote
+    (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 25) believes that the duty
+    of the parents is primary in this matter, the family doctor and
+    the schoolmaster coming in at a later stage. In America, Dr. Mary
+    Wood Allen, who occupies a prominent and influential position in
+    women's social movements, urges (in _Child-Confidence Rewarded_,
+    and other pamphlets) that a mother should begin to tell her child
+    these things as soon as he begins to ask questions, the age of
+    four not being too young, and explains how this may be done,
+    giving examples of its happy results in promoting a sweet
+    confidence between the child and his mother.
+
+If, as a few believe should be the case, the first initiation is delayed
+to the tenth year or even later, there is the difficulty that it is no
+longer so easy to talk simply and naturally about such things; the mother
+is beginning to feel too shy to speak for the first time about these
+difficult subjects to a son or a daughter who is nearly as big as herself.
+She feels that she can only do it awkwardly and ineffectively, and she
+probably decides not to do it at all. Thus an atmosphere of mystery is
+created with all the embarrassing and perverting influences which mystery
+encourages.
+
+    There can be no doubt that, more especially in highly intelligent
+    children with vague and unspecialized yet insistent sexual
+    impulses, the artificial mystery with which sex is too often
+    clothed not only accentuates the natural curiosity but also tends
+    to favor the morbid intensity and even prurience of the sexual
+    impulse. This has long been recognized. Dr. Beddoes wrote at the
+    beginning of the nineteenth century: "It is in vain that we
+    dissemble to ourselves the eagerness with which children of
+    either sex seek to satisfy themselves concerning the conformation
+    of the other. No degree of reserve in the heads of families, no
+    contrivances, no care to put books of one description out of
+    sight and to garble others, has perhaps, with any one set of
+    children, succeeded in preventing or stifling this kind of
+    curiosity. No part of the history of human thought would perhaps
+    be more singular than the stratagems devised by young people in
+    different situations to make themselves masters or witnesses of
+    the secret. And every discovery, due to their own inquiries, can
+    but be so much oil poured upon an imagination in flames" (T.
+    Beddoes, _Hygeia_, 1802, vol. iii, p. 59). Kaan, again, in one of
+    the earliest books on morbid sexuality, sets down mystery as one
+    of the causes of _psychopathia sexualis_. Marro (_La Pubertà_, p.
+    299) points out how the veil of mystery thrown over sexual
+    matters merely serves to concentrate attention on them. The
+    distinguished Dutch writer Multatuli, in one of his letters
+    (quoted with approval by Freud), remarks on the dangers of hiding
+    things from boys and girls in a veil of mystery, pointing out
+    that this must only heighten the curiosity of children, and so
+    far from keeping them pure, which mere ignorance can never do,
+    heats and perverts their imaginations. Mrs. Mary Wood Allen,
+    also, warns the mother (op. cit., p. 5) against the danger of
+    allowing any air of embarrassing mystery to creep over these
+    things. "If the instructor feels any embarrassment in answering
+    the queries of the child, he is not fitted to be the teacher, for
+    the feeling of embarrassment will, in some subtle way,
+    communicate itself to the child, and he will experience an
+    indefinable sense of offended delicacy which is both unnecessary
+    and undesirable. Purification of one's own thought is, then, the
+    first step towards teaching the truth purely. Why," she adds, "is
+    death, the gateway out of life, any more dignified or pathetic
+    than birth, the gateway into life? Or why is the taking of
+    earthly life a more awful fact than the giving of life?" Mrs.
+    Ennis Richmond, in a book of advice to mothers which contains
+    many wise and true things, says: "I want to insist, more strongly
+    than upon anything else, that it is the _secrecy_ that surrounds
+    certain parts of the body and their functions that gives them
+    their danger in the child's thought. Little children, from
+    earliest years, are taught to think of these parts of their body
+    as mysterious, and not only so, but that they are mysterious
+    because they are unclean. Children have not even a name for them.
+    If you have to speak to your child, you allude to them
+    mysteriously and in a half-whisper as 'that little part of you
+    that you don't speak of,' or words to that effect. Before
+    everything it is important that your child should have a good
+    working name for these parts of his body, and for their
+    functions, and that he should be taught to use and to hear the
+    names, and that as naturally and openly as though he or you were
+    speaking of his head or his foot. Convention has, for various
+    reasons, made it impossible to speak in this way in public. But
+    you can, at any rate, break through this in the nursery. There
+    this rule of convention has no advantage, and many a serious
+    disadvantage. It is easy to say to a child, the first time he
+    makes an 'awkward' remark in public: 'Look here, laddie, you may
+    say what you like to me or to daddy, but, for some reason or
+    other, one does not talk about these' (only say _what_ things)
+    'in public.' Only let your child make the remark in public
+    _before_ you speak (never mind the shock to your caller's
+    feelings), don't warn him against doing so" (Ennis Richmond,
+    _Boyhood_, p. 60). Sex must always be a mystery, but, as Mrs.
+    Richmond rightly says, "the real and true mysteries of generation
+    and birth are very different from the vulgar secretiveness with
+    which custom surrounds them."
+
+    The question as to the precise names to be given to the more
+    private bodily parts and functions is sometimes a little
+    difficult to solve. Every mother will naturally follow her own
+    instincts, and probably her own traditions, in this matter. I
+    have elsewhere pointed out (in the study of "The Evolution of
+    Modesty") how widespread and instinctive is the tendency to adopt
+    constantly new euphemisms in this field. The ancient and simple
+    words, which in England a great poet like Chaucer could still use
+    rightly and naturally, are so often dropped in the mud by the
+    vulgar that there is an instinctive hesitation nowadays in
+    applying them to beautiful uses. They are, however,
+    unquestionably the best, and, in their origin, the most dignified
+    and expressive words. Many persons are of opinion that on this
+    account they should be rescued from the mud, and their sacredness
+    taught to children. A medical friend writes that he always taught
+    his son that the vulgar sex names are really beautiful words of
+    ancient origin, and that when we understand them aright we cannot
+    possibly see in them any motive for low jesting. They are simple,
+    serious and solemn words, connoting the most central facts of
+    life, and only to ignorant and plebeian vulgarity can they cause
+    obscene mirth. An American man of science, who has privately and
+    anonymously printed some pamphlets on sex questions, also takes
+    this view, and consistently and methodically uses the ancient
+    and simple words. I am of opinion that this is the ideal to be
+    sought, but that there are obvious difficulties at present in the
+    way of attaining it. In any case, however, the mother should be
+    in possession of a very precise vocabulary for all the bodily
+    parts and acts which it concerns her children to know.
+
+It is sometimes said that at this early age children should not be told,
+even in a simple and elementary form, the real facts of their origin but
+should, instead, hear a fairy-tale having in it perhaps some kind of
+symbolic truth. This contention may be absolutely rejected, without
+thereby, in any degree, denying the important place which fairy-tales hold
+in the imagination of young children. Fairy-tales have a real value to the
+child; they are a mental food he needs, if he is not to be spiritually
+starved; to deprive him of fairy-tales at this age is to do him a wrong
+which can never be made up at any subsequent age. But not only are sex
+matters too vital even in childhood to be safely made matter for a
+fairy-tale, but the real facts are themselves as wonderful as any
+fairy-tale, and appeal to the child's imagination with as much force as a
+fairy-tale.
+
+Even, however, if there were no other reasons against telling children
+fairy-tales of sex instead of the real facts, there is one reason which
+ought to be decisive with every mother who values her influence over her
+child. He will very quickly discover, either by information from others or
+by his own natural intelligence, that the fairy-tale, that was told him in
+reply to a question about a simple matter of fact, was a lie. With that
+discovery his mother's influence over him in all such matters vanishes for
+ever, for not only has a child a horror of being duped, but he is
+extremely sensitive about any rebuff of this kind, and never repeats what
+he has been made to feel was a mistake to be ashamed of. He will not
+trouble his mother with any more questions on this matter; he will not
+confide in her; he will himself learn the art of telling "fairy-tales"
+about sex matters. He had turned to his mother in trust; she had not
+responded with equal trust, and she must suffer the punishment, as
+Henriette Fürth puts it, of seeing "the love and trust of her son stolen
+from her by the first boy he makes friends with in the street." When, as
+sometimes happens (Moll mentions a case), a mother goes on repeating these
+silly stories to a girl or boy of seven who is secretly well-informed, she
+only degrades herself in her child's eyes. It is this fatal mistake, so
+often made by mothers, which at first leads them to imagine that their
+children are so innocent, and in later years causes them many hours of
+bitterness because they realize they do not possess their children's
+trust. In the matter of trust it is for the mother to take the first step;
+the children who do not trust their mothers are, for the most part, merely
+remembering the lesson they learned at their mother's knee.
+
+    The number of little books and pamphlets dealing with the
+    question of the sexual enlightenment of the young--whether
+    intended to be read by the young or offering guidance to mothers
+    and teachers in the task of imparting knowledge--has become very
+    large indeed during recent years in America, England, and
+    especially Germany, where there has been of late an enormous
+    production of such literature. The late Ben Elmy, writing under
+    the pseudonym of "Ellis Ethelmer," published two booklets, _Baby
+    Buds_, and _The Human Flower_ (issued by Mrs. Wolstenholme Elmy,
+    Buxton House, Congleton), which state the facts in a simple and
+    delicate manner, though the author was not a notably reliable
+    guide on the scientific aspects of these questions. A charming
+    conversation between a mother and child, from a French source, is
+    reprinted by Edward Carpenter at the end of his _Love's Coming of
+    Age. How We Are Born_, by Mrs. N.J. (apparently a Russian lady
+    writing in English), prefaced by J.H. Badley, is satisfactory.
+    Mention may also be made of _The Wonder of Life_, by Mary Tudor
+    Pole. Margaret Morley's _Song of Life_, an American book, which I
+    have not seen, has been highly praised. Most of these books are
+    intended for quite young children, and while they explain more or
+    less clearly the origin of babies, nearly always starting with
+    the facts of plant life, they touch very slightly, if at all, on
+    the relations of the sexes.
+
+    Mrs. Ennis Richmond's books, largely addressed to mothers, deal
+    with these questions in a very sane, direct, and admirable
+    manner, and Canon Lyttelton's books, discussing such questions
+    generally, are also excellent. Most of the books now to be
+    mentioned are intended to be read by boys and girls who have
+    reached the age of puberty. They refer more or less precisely to
+    sexual relationships, and they usually touch on masturbation.
+    _The Story of Life_, written by a very accomplished woman, the
+    late Ellice Hopkins, is somewhat vague, and introduces too many
+    exalted religious ideas. Arthur Trewby's _Healthy Boyhood_ is a
+    little book of wholesome tendency; it deals specially with
+    masturbation. _A Talk with Boys About Themselves_ and _A Talk
+    with Girls About Themselves_, both by Edward Bruce Kirk (the
+    latter book written in conjunction with a lady) deal with general
+    as well as sexual hygiene. There could be no better book to put
+    into the hands of a boy or girl at puberty than M.A. Warren's
+    _Almost Fourteen_, written by an American school teacher in 1892.
+    It was a most charming and delicately written book, which could
+    not have offended the innocence of the most sensitive maiden.
+    Nothing, however, is sacred to prurience, and it was easy for the
+    prurient to capture the law and obtain (in 1897) legal
+    condemnation of this book as "obscene." Anything which sexually
+    excites a prurient mind is, it is true, "obscene" for that mind,
+    for, as Mr. Theodore Schroeder remarks, obscenity is "the
+    contribution of the reading mind," but we need such books as this
+    in order to diminish the number of prurient minds, and the
+    condemnation of so entirely admirable a book makes, not for
+    morality, but for immorality. I am told that the book was
+    subsequently issued anew with most of its best portions omitted,
+    and it is stated by Schroeder (_Liberty of Speech and Press
+    Essential to Purity Propaganda_, p. 34) that the author was
+    compelled to resign his position as a public school principal.
+    Maria Lischnewska's _Geschlechtliche Belehrung der Kinder_
+    (reprinted from _Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 4 and 5) is a most
+    admirable and thorough discussion of the whole question of sexual
+    education, though the writer is more interested in the teacher's
+    share in this question than in the mother's. Suggestions to
+    mothers are contained in Hugo Salus, _Wo kommen die Kinder her?_,
+    E. Stiehl, _Eine Mutterpflicht_, and many other books. Dr. Alfred
+    Kind strongly recommends Ludwig Gurlitt's _Der Verkehr mit meinem
+    Kindern_, more especially in its combination of sexual education
+    with artistic education. Many similar books are referred to by
+    Bloch, in his _Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. xxvi.
+
+    I have enumerated the names of these little books because they
+    are frequently issued in a semi-private manner, and are seldom
+    easy to procure or to hear of. The propagation of such books
+    seems to be felt to be almost a disgraceful action, only to be
+    performed by stealth. And such a feeling seems not unnatural when
+    we see, as in the case of the author of _Almost Fourteen_, that a
+    nominally civilized country, instead of loading with honors a man
+    who has worked for its moral and physical welfare, seeks so far
+    as it can to ruin him.
+
+    I may add that while it would usually be very helpful to a mother
+    to be acquainted with a few of the booklets I have named, she
+    would do well, in actually talking to her children, to rely
+    mainly on her own knowledge and inspiration.
+
+The sexual education which it is the mother's duty and privilege to
+initiate during her child's early years cannot and ought not to be
+technical. It is not of the nature of formal instruction but is a private
+and intimate initiation. No doubt the mother must herself be taught.[24]
+But the education she needs is mainly an education in love and insight.
+The actual facts which she requires to use at this early stage are very
+simple. Her main task is to make clear the child's own intimate relations
+to herself and to show that all young things have a similar intimate
+relation to their mothers; in generalizing on this point the egg is the
+simplest and most fundamental type to explain the origin of the individual
+life, for the idea of the egg--in its widest sense as the seed--not only
+has its truth for the human creature but may be applied throughout the
+animal and vegetable world. In this explanation the child's physical
+relationship to his father is not necessarily at first involved; it may be
+left to a further stage or until the child's questions lead up to it.
+
+Apart from his interest in his origin, the child is also interested in his
+sexual, or as they seem to him exclusively, his excretory organs, and in
+those of other people, his sisters and parents. On these points, at this
+age, his mother may simply and naturally satisfy his simple and natural
+curiosity, calling things by precise names, whether the names used are
+common or uncommon being a matter in regard to which she may exercise her
+judgment and taste. In this manner the mother will, indirectly, be able to
+safeguard her child at the outset against the prudish and prurient notions
+alike which he will encounter later. She will also without unnatural
+stress be able to lead the child into a reverential attitude towards his
+own organs and so exert an influence against any undesirable tampering
+with them. In talking with him about the origin of life and about his own
+body and functions, in however elementary a fashion, she will have
+initiated him both in sexual knowledge and in sexual hygiene.
+
+The mother who establishes a relationship of confidence with her child
+during these first years will probably, if she possesses any measure of
+wisdom and tact, be able to preserve it even after the epoch of puberty
+into the difficult years of adolescence. But as an educator in the
+narrower sense her functions will, in most cases, end at or before
+puberty. A somewhat more technical and completely impersonal acquaintance
+with the essential facts of sex then becomes desirable, and this would
+usually be supplied by the school.
+
+    The great though capricious educator, Basedow, to some extent a
+    pupil of Rousseau, was an early pioneer in both the theory and
+    the practice of giving school children instruction in the facts
+    of the sexual life, from the age of ten onwards. He insists much
+    on this subject in his great treatise, the _Elementarwerk_
+    (1770-1774). The questions of children are to be answered
+    truthfully, he states, and they must be taught never to jest at
+    anything so sacred and serious as the sexual relations. They are
+    to be shown pictures of childbirth, and the dangers of sexual
+    irregularities are to be clearly expounded to them at the outset.
+    Boys are to be taken to hospitals to see the results of venereal
+    disease. Basedow is aware that many parents and teachers will be
+    shocked at his insistence on these things in his books and in his
+    practical pedagogic work, but such people, he declares, ought to
+    be shocked at the Bible (see, e.g., Pinloche, _La Rèforme de
+    l'Education en Allemagne au dixhuitième siècle: Basedow et le
+    Philanthropinisme_, pp. 125, 256, 260, 272). Basedow was too far
+    ahead of his own time, and even of ours, to exert much influence
+    in this matter, and he had few immediate imitators.
+
+    Somewhat later than Basedow, a distinguished English physician,
+    Thomas Beddoes, worked on somewhat the same lines, seeking to
+    promote sexual knowledge by lectures and demonstrations. In his
+    remarkable book, _Hygeia_, published in 1802 (vol. i, Essay IV)
+    he sets forth the absurdity of the conventional requirement that
+    "discretion and ignorance should lodge in the same bosom," and
+    deals at length with the question of masturbation and the need of
+    sexual education. He insists on the great importance of lectures
+    on natural history which, he had found, could be given with
+    perfect propriety to a mixed audience. His experiences had shown
+    that botany, the amphibia, the hen and her eggs, human anatomy,
+    even disease and sometimes the sight of it, are salutary from
+    this point of view. He thinks it is a happy thing for a child to
+    gain his first knowledge of sexual difference from anatomical
+    subjects, the dignity of death being a noble prelude to the
+    knowledge of sex and depriving it forever of morbid prurience.
+    It is scarcely necessary to remark that this method of teaching
+    children the elements of sexual anatomy in the _post-mortem_ room
+    has not found many advocates or followers; it is undesirable, for
+    it fails to take into account the sensitiveness of children to
+    such impressions, and it is unnecessary, for it is just as easy
+    to teach the dignity of life as the dignity of death.
+
+    The duty of the school to impart education in matters of sex to
+    children has in recent years been vigorously and ably advocated
+    by Maria Lischnewska (op. cit.), who speaks with thirty years'
+    experience as a teacher and an intimate acquaintance with
+    children and their home life. She argues that among the mass of
+    the population to-day, while in the home-life there is every
+    opportunity for coarse familiarity with sexual matters, there is
+    no opportunity for a pure and enlightened introduction to them,
+    parents being for the most part both morally and intellectually
+    incapable of aiding their children here. That the school should
+    assume the leading part in this task is, she believes, in
+    accordance with the whole tendency of modern civilized life. She
+    would have the instruction graduated in such a manner that during
+    the fifth or sixth year of school life the pupil would receive
+    instruction, with the aid of diagrams, concerning the sexual
+    organs and functions of the higher mammals, the bull and cow
+    being selected by preference. The facts of gestation would of
+    course be included. When this stage was reached it would be easy
+    to pass on to the human species with the statement: "Just in the
+    same way as the calf develops in the cow so the child develops in
+    the mother's body."
+
+    It is difficult not to recognize the force of Maria Lischnewska's
+    argument, and it seems highly probable that, as she asserts, the
+    instruction proposed lies in the course of our present path of
+    progress. Such instruction would be formal, unemotional, and
+    impersonal; it would be given not as specific instruction in
+    matters of sex, but simply as a part of natural history. It would
+    supplement, so far as mere knowledge is concerned, the
+    information the child had already received from its mother. But
+    it would by no means supplant or replace the personal and
+    intimate relationship of confidence between mother and child.
+    That is always to be aimed at, and though it may not be possible
+    among the ill-educated masses of to-day, nothing else will
+    adequately take its place.
+
+There can be no doubt, however, that while in the future the school will
+most probably be regarded as the proper place in which to teach the
+elements of physiology--and not as at present a merely emasculated and
+effeminated physiology--the introduction of such reformed teaching is as
+yet impracticable in many communities. A coarse and ill-bred community
+moves in a vicious circle. Its members are brought up to believe that sex
+matters are filthy, and when they become adults they protest violently
+against their children being taught this filthy knowledge. The teacher's
+task is thus rendered at the best difficult, and under democratic
+conditions impossible. We cannot, therefore, hope for any immediate
+introduction of sexual physiology into schools, even in the unobtrusive
+form in which alone it could properly be introduced, that is to say as a
+natural and inevitable part of general physiology.
+
+This objection to animal physiology by no means applies, however, to
+botany. There can be little doubt that botany is of all the natural
+sciences that which best admits of this incidental instruction in the
+fundamental facts of sex, when we are concerned with children below the
+age of puberty. There are at least two reasons why this should be so. In
+the first place botany really presents the beginnings of sex, in their
+most naked and essential forms; it makes clear the nature, origin, and
+significance of sex. In the second place, in dealing with plants the facts
+of sex can be stated to children of either sex or any age quite plainly
+and nakedly without any reserve, for no one nowadays regards the botanical
+facts of sex as in any way offensive. The expounder of sex in plants also
+has on his side the advantage of being able to assert, without question,
+the entire beauty of the sexual process. He is not confronted by the
+ignorance, bad education, and false associations which have made it so
+difficult either to see or to show the beauty of sex in animals. From the
+sex-life of plants to the sex-life of the lower animals there is, however,
+but a step which the teacher, according to his discretion, may take.
+
+    An early educational authority, Salzmann, in 1785 advocated the
+    sexual enlightenment of children by first teaching them botany,
+    to be followed by zoölogy. In modern times the method of
+    imparting sex knowledge to children by means, in the first place,
+    of botany, has been generally advocated, and from the most
+    various quarters. Thus Marro (_La Pubertà_, p. 300) recommends
+    this plan. J. Hudrey-Menos ("La Question du Sexe dans
+    l'Education," _Revue Socialiste_, June, 1895), gives the same
+    advice. Rudolf Sommer, in a paper entitled "Mädchenerziehung oder
+    Menschenbildung?" (_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I,
+    Heft 3) recommends that the first introduction of sex knowledge
+    to children should be made by talking to them on simple natural
+    history subjects; "there are endless opportunities," he remarks,
+    "over a fairy-tale, or a walk, or a fruit, or an egg, the sowing
+    of seed or the nest-building of birds." Canon Lyttelton
+    (_Training of the Young in Laws of Sex_, pp. 74 et seq.) advises
+    a somewhat similar method, though laying chief stress on personal
+    confidence between the child and his mother; "reference is made
+    to the animal world just so far as the child's knowledge extends,
+    so as to prevent the new facts from being viewed in isolation,
+    but the main emphasis is laid on his feeling for his mother and
+    the instinct which exists in nearly all children of reverence due
+    to the maternal relation;" he adds that, however difficult the
+    subject may seem, the essential facts of paternity must also be
+    explained to boys and girls alike. Keyes, again (_New York
+    Medical Journal_, Feb. 10, 1906), advocates teaching children
+    from an early age the sexual facts of plant life and also
+    concerning insects and other lower animals, and so gradually
+    leading up to human beings, the matter being thus robbed of its
+    unwholesome mystery. Mrs. Ennis Richmond (_Boyhood_, p. 62)
+    recommends that children should be sent to spend some of their
+    time upon a farm, so that they may not only become acquainted
+    with the general facts of the natural world, but also with the
+    sexual lives of animals, learning things which it is difficult to
+    teach verbally. Karina Karin ("Wie erzieht man ein Kind zür
+    wissenden Keuschheit?" _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I,
+    Heft 4), reproducing some of her talks with her nine-year old
+    son, from the time that he first asked her where children came
+    from, shows how she began with telling him about flowers, to pass
+    on to fish and birds, and finally to the facts of human
+    pregnancy, showing him pictures from an obstetrical manual of the
+    child in its mother's body. It may be added that the advisability
+    of beginning the sex teaching of children with the facts of
+    botany was repeatedly emphasized by various speakers at the
+    special meeting of the German Congress for Combating Venereal
+    Disease devoted to the subject of sexual instruction
+    (_Sexualpädagogik_, especially pp. 36, 47, 76).
+
+The transition from botany to the elementary zoölogy of the lower animals,
+to human anatomy and physiology, and to the science of anthropology based
+on these, is simple and natural. It is not likely to be taken in detail
+until the age of puberty. Sex enters into all these subjects and should
+not be artificially excluded from them in the education of either boys or
+girls. The text-books from which the sexual system is entirely omitted
+ought no longer to be tolerated. The nature and secretion of the
+testicles, the meaning of the ovaries and of menstruation, as well as the
+significance of metabolism and the urinary excretion, should be clear in
+their main lines to all boys and girls who have reached the age of
+puberty.
+
+At puberty there arises a new and powerful reason why boys and girls
+should receive definite instruction in matters of sex. Before that age it
+is possible for the foolish parent to imagine that a child may be
+preserved in ignorant innocence.[25] At puberty that belief is obviously
+no longer possible. The efflorescence of puberty with the development of
+the sexual organs, the appearance of hair in unfamiliar places, the
+general related organic changes, the spontaneous and perhaps alarming
+occurrence in boys of seminal emissions, and in girls of menstruation, the
+unaccustomed and sometimes acute recognition of sexual desire accompanied
+by new sensations in the sexual organs and leading perhaps to
+masturbation; all these arouse, as we cannot fail to realize, a new
+anxiety in the boy's or girl's mind, and a new curiosity, all the more
+acute in many cases because it is carefully concealed as too private, and
+even too shameful, to speak of to anyone. In boys, especially if of
+sensitive temperament, the suffering thus caused may be keen and
+prolonged.
+
+    A doctor of philosophy, prominent in his profession, wrote to
+    Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 452): "My entire youth,
+    from six to eighteen, was made miserable from lack of knowledge
+    that any one who knew anything of the nature of puberty might
+    have given; this long sense of defect, dread of operation, shame
+    and worry, has left an indelible mark." There are certainly many
+    men who could say the same. Lancaster ("Psychology and Pedagogy
+    of Adolescence," _Pedagogical Seminary_, July, 1897, pp. 123-5)
+    speaks strongly regarding the evils of ignorance of sexual
+    hygiene, and the terrible fact that millions of youths are always
+    in the hands of quacks who dupe them into the belief that they
+    are on the road to an awful destiny merely because they have
+    occasional emissions during sleep. "This is not a light matter,"
+    Lancaster declares. "It strikes at the very foundation of our
+    inmost life. It deals with the reproductory part of our natures,
+    and must have a deep hereditary influence. It is a natural result
+    of the foolish false modesty shown regarding all sex instruction.
+    Every boy should be taught the simple physiological facts before
+    his life is forever blighted by this cause." Lancaster has had in
+    his hands one thousand letters, mostly written by young people,
+    who were usually normal, and addressed to quacks who were duping
+    them. From time to time the suicides of youths from this cause
+    are reported, and in many mysterious suicides this has
+    undoubtedly been the real cause. "Week after week," writes the
+    _British Medical Journal_ in an editorial ("Dangerous Quack
+    Literature: The Moral of a Recent Suicide," Oct. 1, 1892), "we
+    receive despairing letters from those victims of foul birds of
+    prey who have obtained their first hold on those they rob,
+    torture and often ruin, by advertisements inserted by newspapers
+    of a respectable, nay, even of a valuable and respected,
+    character." It is added that the wealthy proprietors of such
+    newspapers, often enjoying a reputation for benevolence, even
+    when the matter is brought before them, refuse to interfere as
+    they would thereby lose a source of income, and a censorship of
+    advertisements is proposed. This, however, is difficult, and
+    would be quite unnecessary if youths received proper
+    enlightenment from their natural guardians.
+
+    Masturbation, and the fear that by an occasional and perhaps
+    outgrown practice of masturbation they have sometimes done
+    themselves irreparable injury, is a common source of anxiety to
+    boys. It has long been a question whether a boy should be warned
+    against masturbation. At a meeting of the Section of Psychology
+    of the British Medical Association some years ago, four speakers,
+    including the President (Dr. Blandford), were decidedly in favor
+    of parents warning their children against masturbation, while
+    three speakers were decidedly against that course, mainly on the
+    ground that it was possible to pass through even a public school
+    life without hearing of masturbation, and also that the warning
+    against masturbation might encourage the practice. It is,
+    however, becoming more and more clearly realized that ignorance,
+    even if it can be maintained, is a perilous possession, while the
+    teaching that consists, as it should, in a loving mother's
+    counsel to the child from his earliest years to treat his sexual
+    parts with care and respect, can only lead to masturbation in the
+    child who is already irresistibly impelled to it. Most of the sex
+    manuals for boys touch on masturbation, sometimes exaggerating
+    its dangers; such exaggeration should be avoided, for it leads to
+    far worse evils than those it attempts to prevent. It seems
+    undesirable that any warnings about masturbation should form part
+    of school instruction, unless under very special circumstances.
+    The sexual instruction imparted in the school on sexual as on
+    other subjects should be absolutely impersonal and objective.
+
+    At this point we approach one of the difficulties in the way of
+    sexual enlightenment: the ignorance or unwisdom of the would-be
+    teachers. This difficulty at present exists both in the home and
+    the school, while it destroys the value of many manuals written
+    for the sexual instruction of the young. The mother, who ought to
+    be the child's confidant and guide in matters of sexual
+    education, and could naturally be so if left to her own healthy
+    instincts, has usually been brought up in false traditions which
+    it requires a high degree of intelligence and character to escape
+    from; the school-teacher, even if only called upon to give
+    instruction in natural history, is oppressed by the same
+    traditions, and by false shame concerning the whole subject of
+    sex; the writer of manuals on sex has often only freed himself
+    from these bonds in order to advocate dogmatic, unscientific, and
+    sometimes mischievous opinions which have been evolved in entire
+    ignorance of the real facts. As Moll says (Das _Sexualleben des
+    Kindes_, p. 276), necessary as sexual enlightenment is, we cannot
+    help feeling a little skeptical as to its results so long as
+    those who ought to enlighten are themselves often in need of
+    enlightenment. He refers also to the fact that even among
+    competent authorities there is difference of opinion concerning
+    important matters, as, for instance, whether masturbation is
+    physiological at the first development of the sexual impulse and
+    how far sexual abstinence is beneficial. But it is evident that
+    the difficulties due to false tradition and ignorance will
+    diminish as sound traditions and better knowledge become more
+    widely diffused.
+
+The girl at puberty is usually less keenly and definitely conscious of her
+sexual nature than the boy. But the risks she runs from sexual ignorance,
+though for the most part different, are more subtle and less easy to
+repair. She is often extremely inquisitive concerning these matters; the
+thoughts of adolescent girls, and often their conversation among
+themselves, revolve much around sexual and allied mysteries. Even in the
+matter of conscious sexual impulse the girl is often not so widely
+different from her brother, nor so much less likely to escape the
+contamination of evil communications, so that the scruples of foolish and
+ignorant persons who dread to "sully her purity" by proper instruction are
+exceedingly misplaced.
+
+    Conversations dealing with the important mysteries of human
+    nature, Obici and Marchesini were told by ladies who had formerly
+    been pupils in Italian Normal Schools, are the order of the day
+    in schools and colleges, and specially circle around procreation,
+    the most difficult mystery of all. In England, even in the best
+    and most modern colleges, in which games and physical exercise
+    are much cultivated, I am told that "the majority of the girls
+    are entirely ignorant of all sexual matters, and understand
+    nothing whatever about them. But they do wonder about them, and
+    talk about them constantly" (see Appendix D, "The School
+    Friendships of Girls," in the second volume of these _Studies_).
+    "The restricted life and fettered mind of girls," wrote a
+    well-known physician some years ago (J. Milner Fothergill,
+    _Adolescence_, 1880, pp. 20, 22) "leave them with less to
+    actively occupy their thoughts than is the case with boys. They
+    are studiously taught concealment, and a girl may be a perfect
+    model of outward decorum and yet have a very filthy mind. The
+    prudishness with which she is brought up leaves her no
+    alternative but to view her passions from the nasty side of human
+    nature. All healthy thought on the subject is vigorously
+    repressed. Everything is done to darken her mind and foul her
+    imagination by throwing her back on her own thoughts and a
+    literature with which she is ashamed to own acquaintance. It is
+    opposed to a girl's best interests to prevent her from having
+    fair and just conceptions about herself and her nature. Many a
+    fair young girl is irredeemably ruined on the very threshold of
+    life, herself and her family disgraced, from ignorance as much as
+    from vice. When the moment of temptation comes she falls without
+    any palpable resistance; she has no trained educated power of
+    resistance within herself; her whole future hangs, not upon
+    herself, but upon the perfection of the social safeguards by
+    which she is hedged and surrounded." Under the free social order
+    of America to-day much the same results are found. In an
+    instructive article ("Why Girls Go Wrong," _Ladies' Home
+    Journal_, Jan., 1907) B.B. Lindsey, who, as Judge of the Juvenile
+    Court of Denver, is able to speak with authority, brings forward
+    ample evidence on this head. Both girls and boys, he has found,
+    sometimes possess manuscript books in which they had written down
+    the crudest sexual things. These children were often sweet-faced,
+    pleasant, refined and intelligent, and they had respectable
+    parents; but no one had ever spoken to them of sex matters,
+    except the worst of their school-fellows or some coarse-minded
+    and reckless adult. By careful inquiry Lindsey found that only in
+    one in twenty cases had the parents ever spoken to the children
+    of sexual subjects. In nearly every case the children
+    acknowledged that it was not from their parents, but in the
+    street or from older companions, that they learnt the facts of
+    sex. The parents usually imagined that their children were
+    absolutely ignorant of these matters, and were astonished to
+    realize their mistake; "parents do not know their children, nor
+    have they the least idea of what their children know, or what
+    their children talk about and do when away from them." The
+    parents guilty of this neglect to instruct their children, are,
+    Lindsey declares, traitors to their children. From his own
+    experience he judges that nine-tenths of the girls who "go
+    wrong," whether or not they sink in the world, do so owing to the
+    inattention of their parents, and that in the case of most
+    prostitutes the mischief is really done before the age of twelve;
+    "every wayward girl I have talked to has assured me of this
+    truth." He considers that nine-tenths of school-boys and
+    school-girls, in town or country, are very inquisitive regarding
+    matters of sex, and, to his own amazement, he has found that in
+    the girls this is as marked as in the boys.
+
+It is the business of the girl's mother, at least as much as of the boy's,
+to watch over her child from the earliest years and to win her confidence
+in all the intimate and personal matters of sex. With these aspects the
+school cannot properly meddle. But in matters of physical sexual hygiene,
+notably menstruation, in regard to which all girls stand on the same
+level, it is certainly the duty of the teacher to take an actively
+watchful part, and, moreover, to direct the general work of education
+accordingly, and to ensure that the pupil shall rest whenever that may
+seem to be desirable. This is part of the very elements of the education
+of girls. To disregard it should disqualify a teacher from taking further
+share in educational work. Yet it is constantly and persistently
+neglected. A large number of girls have not even been prepared by their
+mothers or teachers for the first onset of the menstrual flow, sometimes
+with disastrous results both to their bodily and mental health.[26]
+
+    "I know of no large girl's school," wrote a distinguished
+    gynæcologist, Sir W.S. Playfair ("Education and Training of Girls
+    at Puberty," _British Medical Journal_, Dec. 7, 1895), "in which
+    the absolute distinction which exists between boys and girls as
+    regards the dominant menstrual function is systematically cared
+    for and attended to. Indeed, the feeling of all schoolmistresses
+    is distinctly antagonistic to such an admission. The contention
+    is that there is no real difference between an adolescent male
+    and female, that what is good for one is good for the other, and
+    that such as there is is due to the evil customs of the past
+    which have denied to women the ambitions and advantages open to
+    men, and that this will disappear when a happier era is
+    inaugurated. If this be so, how comes it that while every
+    practical physician of experience has seen many cases of anæmia
+    and chlorosis in girls, accompanied by amenorrhæa or menorrhagia,
+    headaches, palpitations, emaciation, and all the familiar
+    accompaniments of breakdown, an analogous condition in a
+    school-boy is so rare that it may well be doubted if it is ever
+    seen at all?"
+
+    It is, however, only the excuses for this almost criminal
+    negligence, as it ought to be considered, which are new; the
+    negligence itself is ancient. Half a century earlier, before the
+    new era of feminine education, another distinguished
+    gynæcologist, Tilt (_Elements of Health and Principles of Female
+    Hygiene_, 1852, p. 18) stated that from a statistical inquiry
+    regarding the onset of menstruation in nearly one thousand women
+    he found that "25 per cent. were totally unprepared for its
+    appearance; that thirteen out of the twenty-five were much
+    frightened, screamed, or went into hysterical fits; and that six
+    out of the thirteen thought themselves wounded and washed with
+    cold water. Of those frightened ... the general health was
+    seriously impaired."
+
+    Engelmann, after stating that his experience in America was
+    similar to Tilt's in England, continues ("The Health of the
+    American Girl," _Transactions of the Southern Surgical and
+    Gynæcological Society_, 1890): "To innumerable women has fright,
+    nervous and emotional excitement, exposure to cold, brought
+    injury at puberty. What more natural than that the anxious girl,
+    surprised by the sudden and unexpected loss of the precious
+    life-fluid, should seek to check the bleeding wound--as she
+    supposes? For this purpose the use of cold washes and
+    applications is common, some even seek to stop the flow by a cold
+    bath, as was done by a now careful mother, who long lay at the
+    point of death from the result of such indiscretion, and but
+    slowly, by years of care, regained her health. The terrible
+    warning has not been lost, and mindful of her own experience she
+    has taught her children a lesson which but few are fortunate
+    enough to learn--the individual care during periods of functional
+    activity which is needful for the preservation of woman's
+    health."
+
+    In a study of one hundred and twenty-five American high school
+    girls Dr. Helen Kennedy refers to the "modesty" which makes it
+    impossible even for mothers and daughters to speak to each other
+    concerning the menstrual functions. "Thirty-six girls in this
+    high school passed into womanhood with no knowledge whatever,
+    from a proper source, of all that makes them women. Thirty-nine
+    were probably not much wiser, for they stated that they had
+    received some instruction, but had not talked freely on the
+    matter. From the fact that the curious girl did not talk freely
+    on what naturally interested her, it is possible she was put off
+    with a few words as to personal care, and a reprimand for her
+    curiosity. Less than half of the girls felt free to talk with
+    their mothers of this most important matter!" (Helen Kennedy,
+    "Effects of High School Work upon Girls During Adolescence,"
+    _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1896.)
+
+    The same state of things probably also prevails in other
+    countries. Thus, as regards France, Edmond de Goncourt in
+    _Chérie_ (pp. 137-139) described the terror of his young heroine
+    at the appearance of the first menstrual period for which she
+    had never been prepared. He adds: "It is very seldom, indeed,
+    that women speak of this eventuality. Mothers fear to warn their
+    daughters, elder sisters dislike confidences with their younger
+    sisters, governesses are generally mute with girls who have no
+    mothers or sisters."
+
+    Sometimes this leads to suicide or to attempts at suicide. Thus a
+    few years ago the case was reported in the French newspapers of a
+    young girl of fifteen, who threw herself into the Seine at
+    Saint-Ouen. She was rescued, and on being brought before the
+    police commissioner said that she had been attacked by an
+    "unknown disease" which had driven her to despair. Discreet
+    inquiry revealed that the mysterious malady was one common to all
+    women, and the girl was restored to her insufficiently punished
+    parents.
+
+Half a century ago the sexual life of girls was ignored by their parents
+and teachers from reasons of prudishness; at the present time, when quite
+different ideas prevail regarding feminine education, it is ignored on the
+ground that girls should be as independent of their physiological sexual
+life as boys are. The fact that this mischievous neglect has prevailed
+equally under such different conditions indicates clearly that the varying
+reasons assigned for it are merely the cloaks of ignorance. With the
+growth of knowledge we may reasonably hope that one of the chief evils
+which at present undermine in early life not only healthy motherhood but
+healthy womanhood generally, may be gradually eliminated. The data now
+being accumulated show not only the extreme prevalence of painful,
+disordered, and absent menstruation in adolescent girls and young women,
+but also the great and sometimes permanent evils inflicted upon even
+healthy girls when at the beginning of sexual life they are subjected to
+severe strain of any kind. Medical authorities, whichever sex they belong
+to, may now be said to be almost or quite unanimous on this point. Some
+years ago, indeed, Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, in a very able book, _The
+Question of Rest for Women_, concluded that "ordinarily healthy" women may
+disregard the menstrual period, but she admitted that forty-six per cent,
+of women are not "ordinarily healthy," and a minority which comes so near
+to being a majority can by no means be dismissed as a negligible quantity.
+Girls themselves, indeed, carried away by the ardor of their pursuit of
+work or amusement, are usually recklessly and ignorantly indifferent to
+the serious risks they run. But the opinions of teachers are now tending
+to agree with medical opinion in recognizing the importance of care and
+rest during the years of adolescence, and teachers are even prepared to
+admit that a year's rest from hard work during the period that a girl's
+sexual life is becoming established, while it may ensure her health and
+vigor, is not even a disadvantage from the educational point of view. With
+the growth of knowledge and the decay of ancient prejudices, we may
+reasonably hope that women will be emancipated from the traditions of a
+false civilization, which have forced her to regard her glory as her
+shame,--though it has never been so among robust primitive peoples,--and
+it is encouraging to find that so distinguished an educator as Principal
+Stanley Hall looks forward with confidence to such a time. In his
+exhaustive work on _Adolescence_ he writes: "Instead of shame of this
+function girls should be taught the greatest reverence for it, and should
+help it to normality by regularly stepping aside at stated times for a few
+years till it is well established and normal. To higher beings that looked
+down upon human life as we do upon flowers, these would be the most
+interesting and beautiful hours of blossoming. With more self-knowledge
+women will have more self-respect at this time. Savagery reveres this
+state and it gives to women a mystic awe. The time may come when we must
+even change the divisions of the year for women, leaving to man his week
+and giving to her the same number of Sabbaths per year, but in groups of
+four successive days per month. When woman asserts her true physiological
+rights she will begin here, and will glory in what, in an age of
+ignorance, man made her think to be her shame. The pathos about the
+leaders of woman's so-called emancipation, is that they, even more than
+those they would persuade, accept man's estimate of this state."[27]
+
+These wise words cannot be too deeply pondered. The pathos of the
+situation has indeed been--at all events in the past for to-day a more
+enlightened generation is growing up--that the very leaders of the woman's
+movement have often betrayed the cause of women. They have adopted the
+ideals of men, they have urged women to become second-rate men, they have
+declared that the healthy natural woman disregards the presence of her
+menstrual functions. This is the very reverse of the truth. "They claim,"
+remarks Engelmann, "that woman in her natural state is the physical equal
+of man, and constantly point to the primitive woman, the female of savage
+peoples, as an example of this supposed axiom. Do they know how well this
+same savage is aware of the weakness of woman and her susceptibility at
+certain periods of her life? And with what care he protects her from harm
+at these periods? I believe not. The importance of surrounding women with
+certain precautions during the height of these great functional waves of
+her existence was appreciated by all peoples living in an approximately
+natural state, by all races at all times; and among their comparatively
+few religious customs this one, affording rest to women, was most
+persistently adhered to." It is among the white races alone that the
+sexual invalidism of women prevails, and it is the white races alone,
+which, outgrowing the religious ideas with which the menstrual seclusion
+of women was associated, have flung away that beneficent seclusion itself,
+throwing away the baby with the bath in an almost literal sense.[28]
+
+    In Germany Tobler has investigated the menstrual histories of
+    over one thousand women (_Monatsschrift für Geburtshülfe und
+    Gynäkologie_, July, 1905). He finds that in the great majority of
+    women at the present day menstruation is associated with
+    distinct deterioration of the general health, and diminution of
+    functional energy. In 26 per cent. local pain, general malaise,
+    and mental and nervous anomalies coexisted; in larger proportion
+    come the cases in which local pain, general weak health or
+    psychic abnormality was experienced alone at this period. In 16
+    per cent. only none of these symptoms were experienced. In a very
+    small separate group the physical and mental functions were
+    stronger during this period, but in half of these cases there was
+    distinct disturbance during the intermenstrual period. Tobler
+    concludes that, while menstruation itself is physiological, all
+    these disturbances are pathological.
+
+    As far as England is concerned, at a discussion of normal and
+    painful menstruation at a meeting of the British Association of
+    Registered Medical Women on the 7th of July, 1908, it was stated
+    by Miss Bentham that 50 per cent. of girls in good position
+    suffered from painful menstruation. Mrs. Dunnett said it usually
+    occurred between the ages of twenty-four and thirty, being
+    frequently due to neglect to rest during menstruation in the
+    earlier years, and Mrs. Grainger Evans had found that this
+    condition was very common among elementary school teachers who
+    had worked hard for examinations during early girlhood.
+
+    In America various investigations have been carried out, showing
+    the prevalence of disturbance in the sexual health of school
+    girls and young women. Thus Dr. Helen P. Kennedy obtained
+    elaborate data concerning the menstrual life of one hundred and
+    twenty-five high school girls of the average age of eighteen
+    ("Effect of High School Work upon Girls During Adolescence,"
+    _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1896). Only twenty-eight felt no
+    pain during the period; half the total number experienced
+    disagreeable symptoms before the period (such as headache,
+    malaise, irritability of temper), while forty-four complained of
+    other symptoms besides pain during the period (especially
+    headache and great weakness). Jane Kelley Sabine (quoted in
+    _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, Sept. 15, 1904) found in
+    New England schools among two thousand girls that 75 per cent.
+    had menstrual troubles, 90 per cent. had leucorrhoea and ovarian
+    neuralgia, and 60 per cent. had to give up work for two days
+    during each month. These results seem more than usually
+    unfavorable, but are significant, as they cover a large number of
+    cases. The conditions in the Pacific States are not much better.
+    Dr. Mary Ritter (in a paper read before the California State
+    Medical Society in 1903) stated that of 660 Freshmen girls at the
+    University of California, 67 per cent. were subject to menstrual
+    disorders, 27 per cent. to headaches, 30 per cent. to backaches,
+    29 per cent. were habitually constipated, 16 per cent. had
+    abnormal heart sounds; only 23 per cent. were free from
+    functional disturbances. Dr. Helen MacMurchey, in an interesting
+    paper on "Physiological Phenomena Preceding or Accompanying
+    Menstruation" (_Lancet_, Oct. 5, 1901), by inquiries among one
+    hundred medical women, nurses, and women teachers in Toronto
+    concerning the presence or absence of twenty-one different
+    abnormal menstrual phenomena, found that between 50 and 60 per
+    cent. admitted that they were liable at this time to disturbed
+    sleep, to headache, to mental depression, to digestive
+    disturbance, or to disturbance of the special senses, while about
+    25 to 50 per cent. were liable to neuralgia, to vertigo, to
+    excessive nervous energy, to defective nervous and muscular
+    power, to cutaneous hyperæsthesia, to vasomotor disturbances, to
+    constipation, to diarrhoea, to increased urination, to cutaneous
+    eruption, to increased liability to take cold, or to irritating
+    watery discharges before or after the menstrual discharge. This
+    inquiry is of much interest, because it clearly brings out the
+    marked prevalence at menstruation of conditions which, though not
+    necessarily of any gravity, yet definitely indicate decreased
+    power of resistance to morbid influences and diminished
+    efficiency for work.
+
+    How serious an impediment menstrual troubles are to a woman is
+    indicated by the fact that the women who achieve success and fame
+    seem seldom to be greatly affected by them. To that we may, in
+    part, attribute the frequency with which leaders of the women's
+    movement have treated menstruation as a thing of no importance in
+    a woman's life. Adele Gerhard, and Helene Simon, also, in their
+    valuable and impartial work, _Mutterschaft und Geistige Arbeit_
+    (p. 312), failed to find, in their inquiries among women of
+    distinguished ability, that menstruation was regarded as
+    seriously disturbing to work.
+
+    Of late the suggestion that adolescent girls shall not only rest
+    from work during two days of the menstrual period, but have an
+    entire holiday from school during the first year of sexual life,
+    has frequently been put forward, both from the medical and the
+    educational side. At the meeting of the Association of Registered
+    Medical Women, already referred to, Miss Sturge spoke of the good
+    results obtained in a school where, during the first two years
+    after puberty, the girls were kept in bed for the first two days
+    of each menstrual period. Some years ago Dr. G.W. Cook ("Some
+    Disorders of Menstruation," _American Journal of Obstetrics_,
+    April, 1896), after giving cases in point, wrote: "It is my
+    deliberate conviction that no girl should be confined at study
+    during the year of her puberty, but she should live an outdoor
+    life." In an article on "Alumna's Children," by "An Alumna"
+    (_Popular Science Monthly_, May, 1904), dealing with the sexual
+    invalidism of American women and the severe strain of motherhood
+    upon them, the author, though she is by no means hostile to
+    education, which is not, she declares, at fault, pleads for rest
+    for the pubertal girl. "If the brain claims her whole vitality,
+    how can there be any proper development? Just as very young
+    children should give all their strength for some years solely to
+    physical growth before the brain is allowed to make any
+    considerable demands, so at this critical period in the life of
+    the woman nothing should obstruct the right of way of this
+    important system. A year at the least should be made especially
+    easy for her, with neither mental nor nervous strain; and
+    throughout the rest of her school days she should have her
+    periodical day of rest, free from any study or overexertion." In
+    another article on the same subject in the same journal ("The
+    Health of American Girls," Sept., 1907), Nellie Comins Whitaker
+    advocates a similar course. "I am coming to be convinced,
+    somewhat against my wish, that there are many cases when the girl
+    ought to be taken out of school entirely for some months or for a
+    year _at the period of puberty_." She adds that the chief
+    obstacle in the way is the girl's own likes and dislikes, and the
+    ignorance of her mother who has been accustomed to think that
+    pain is a woman's natural lot.
+
+    Such a period of rest from mental strain, while it would fortify
+    the organism in its resistance to any reasonable strain later,
+    need by no means be lost for education in the wider sense of the
+    word, for the education required in classrooms is but a small
+    part of the education required for life. Nor should it by any
+    means be reserved merely for the sickly and delicate girl. The
+    tragic part of the present neglect to give girls a really sound
+    and fitting education is that the best and finest girls are
+    thereby so often ruined. Even the English policeman, who
+    admittedly belongs in physical vigor and nervous balance to the
+    flower of the population, is unable to bear the strain of his
+    life, and is said to be worn out in twenty-five years. It is
+    equally foolish to submit the finest flowers of girlhood to a
+    strain which is admittedly too severe.
+
+It seems to be clear that the main factor in the common sexual and general
+invalidism of girls and young women is bad hygiene, in the first place
+consisting in neglect of the menstrual functions and in the second place
+in faulty habits generally. In all the more essential matters that concern
+the hygiene of the body the traditions of girls--and this seems to be more
+especially the case in the Anglo-Saxon countries--are inferior to those of
+youths. Women are much more inclined than men to subordinate these things
+to what seems to them some more urgent interest or fancy of the moment;
+they are trained to wear awkward and constricting garments, they are
+indifferent to regular and substantial meals, preferring innutritious and
+indigestible foods and drinks; they are apt to disregard the demands of
+the bowels and the bladder out of laziness or modesty; they are even
+indifferent to physical cleanliness.[29] In a great number of minor ways,
+which separately may seem to be of little importance, they play into the
+hands of an environment which, not always having been adequately adjusted
+to their special needs, would exert a considerable stress and strain even
+if they carefully sought to guard themselves against it. It has been found
+in an American Women's College in which about half the scholars wore
+corsets and half not, that nearly all the honors and prizes went to the
+non-corset-wearers. McBride, in bringing forward this fact, pertinently
+remarks, "If the wearing of a single style of dress will make this
+difference in the lives of young women, and that, too, in their most
+vigorous and resistive period, how much difference will a score of
+unhealthy habits make, if persisted in for a life-time?"[30]
+
+    "It seems evident," A.E. Giles concludes ("Some Points of
+    Preventive Treatment in the Diseases of Women," _The Hospital_,
+    April 10, 1897) "that dysmenorrhoea might be to a large extent
+    prevented by attention to general health and education. Short
+    hours of work, especially of standing; plenty of outdoor
+    exercise--tennis, boating, cycling, gymnastics, and walking for
+    those who cannot afford these; regularity of meals and food of
+    the proper quality--not the incessant tea and bread and butter
+    with variation of pastry; the avoidance of overexertion and
+    prolonged fatigue; these are some of the principal things which
+    require attention. Let girls pursue their study, but more
+    leisurely; they will arrive at the same goal, but a little
+    later." The benefit of allowing free movement and exercise to the
+    whole body is undoubtedly very great, both as regards the sexual
+    and general physical health and the mental balance; in order to
+    insure this it is necessary to avoid heavy and constricting
+    garments, more especially around the chest, for it is in
+    respiratory power and chest expansion more than in any other
+    respect that girls fall behind boys (see, e.g., Havelock Ellis,
+    _Man and Woman_, Ch. IX). In old days the great obstacle to the
+    free exercise of girls lay in an ideal of feminine behavior which
+    involved a prim restraint on every natural movement of the body.
+    At the present day that ideal is not so fervently preached as of
+    old, but its traditional influence still to some extent persists,
+    while there is the further difficulty that adequate time and
+    opportunity and encouragement are by no means generally afforded
+    to girls for the cultivation and training of the romping
+    instincts which are really a serious part of education, for it is
+    by such free exercise of the whole body that the neuro-muscular
+    system, the basis of all vital activity, is built up. The neglect
+    of such education is to-day clearly visible in the structure of
+    our women. Dr. F. May Dickinson Berry, Medical Examiner to the
+    Technical Education Board of the London County Council, found
+    (_British Medical Journal_, May 28, 1904) among over 1,500 girls,
+    who represent the flower of the schools, since they had obtained
+    scholarships enabling them to proceed to higher grade schools,
+    that 22 per cent, presented some degree, not always pronounced,
+    of lateral curvature of the spine, though such cases were very
+    rare among the boys. In the same way among a very similar class
+    of select girls at the Chicago Normal School, Miss Lura Sanborn
+    (_Doctors' Magazine_, Dec., 1900) found 17 per cent, with spinal
+    curvature, in some cases of a very pronounced degree. There is no
+    reason why a girl should not have as straight a back as a boy,
+    and the cause can only lie in the defective muscular development
+    which was found in most of the cases, sometimes accompanied by
+    anæmia. Here and there nowadays, among the better social classes,
+    there is ample provision for the development of muscular power in
+    girls, but in any generalized way there is no adequate
+    opportunity for such exercise, and among the working class, above
+    all, in the section of it which touches the lower middle class,
+    although their lives are destined to be filled with a constant
+    strain on the neuro-muscular system from work at home or in
+    shops, etc., there is usually a minimum of healthy exercise and
+    physical development. Dr. W.A.B. Sellman, of Baltimore ("Causes
+    of Painful Menstruation in Unmarried Women," _American Journal
+    Obstetrics_, Nov., 1907), emphasizes the admirable results
+    obtained by moderate physical exercise for young women, and in
+    training them to care for their bodies and to rest their nervous
+    systems, while Dr. Charlotte Brown, of San Francisco, rightly
+    insists on the establishment in all towns and villages alike of
+    outdoor gymnastic fields for women and girls, and of a building,
+    in connection with every large school, for training in physical,
+    manual, and domestic science. The provision of special
+    playgrounds is necessary where the exercising of girls is so
+    unfamiliar as to cause an embarrassing amount of attention from
+    the opposite sex, though when it is an immemorial custom it can
+    be carried out on the village green without attracting the
+    slightest attention, as I have seen in Spain, where one cannot
+    fail to connect it with the physical vigor of the women. In boys'
+    schools games are not only encouraged, but made compulsory; but
+    this is by no means a universal rule in girls' schools. It is not
+    necessary, and is indeed highly undesirable, that the games
+    adopted should be those of boys. In England especially, where the
+    movements of women are so often marked by awkwardness, angularity
+    and lack of grace, it is essential that nothing should be done to
+    emphasize these characteristics, for where vigor involves
+    violence we are in the presence of a lack of due neuro-muscular
+    coördination. Swimming, when possible, and especially some forms
+    of dancing, are admirably adapted to develop the bodily movements
+    of women both vigorously and harmoniously (see, e.g., Havelock
+    Ellis, _Man and Woman_, Ch. VII). At the International Congress
+    of School Hygiene in 1907 (see, e.g., _British Medical Journal_,
+    Aug. 24, 1907) Dr. L.H. Gulick, formerly Director of Physical
+    Training in the Public Schools of New York City, stated that
+    after many experiments it had been found in the New York
+    elementary and high schools that folk-dancing constituted the
+    very best exercise for girls. "The dances selected involved many
+    contractions of the large muscular masses of the body and had
+    therefore a great effect on respiration, circulation and
+    nutrition. Such movements, moreover, when done as dances, could
+    be carried on three or four times as long without producing
+    fatigue as formal gymnastics. Many folk-dances were imitative,
+    sowing and reaping dance, dances expressing trade movements (the
+    shoemaker's dance), others illustrating attack and defense, or
+    the pursuit of game. Such neuro-muscular movements were racially
+    old and fitted in with man's expressive life, and if it were
+    accepted that the folk-dances really expressed an epitome of
+    man's neuro-muscular history, as distinguished from mere
+    permutation of movements, the folk-dance combinations should be
+    preferred on these biological grounds to the unselected, or even
+    the physiologically selected. From the æsthetic point of view the
+    sense of beauty as shown in dancing was far commoner than the
+    power to sing, paint or model."
+
+It must always be remembered that in realizing the especial demands of
+woman's nature, we do not commit ourselves to the belief that higher
+education is unfitted for a woman. That question may now be regarded as
+settled. There is therefore no longer any need for the feverish anxiety of
+the early leaders of feminine education to prove that girls can be
+educated exactly as if they were boys, and yield at least as good
+educational results. At the present time, indeed, that anxiety is not only
+unnecessary but mischievous. It is now more necessary to show that women
+have special needs just as men have special needs, and that it is as bad
+for women, and therefore, for the world, to force them to accept the
+special laws and limitations of men as it would be bad for men, and
+therefore, for the world, to force men to accept the special laws and
+limitations of women. Each sex must seek to reach the goal by following
+the laws of its own nature, even although it remains desirable that, both
+in the school and in the world, they should work so far as possible side
+by side. The great fact to be remembered always is that, not only are
+women, in physical size and physical texture, slighter and finer than men,
+but that to an extent altogether unknown among men, their centre of
+gravity is apt to be deflected by the series of rhythmic sexual curves on
+which they are always living. They are thus more delicately poised and any
+kind of stress or strain--cerebral, nervous, or muscular--is more likely
+to produce serious disturbance and requires an accurate adjustment to
+their special needs.
+
+    The fact that it is stress and strain in general, and not
+    necessarily educational studies, that are injurious to adolescent
+    women, is sufficiently proved, if proof is necessary, by the fact
+    that sexual arrest, and physical or nervous breakdown, occur with
+    extreme frequency in girls who work in shops or mills, even in
+    girls who have never been to school at all. Even excesses in
+    athletics--which now not infrequently occur as a reaction against
+    woman's indifference to physical exercise--are bad. Cycling is
+    beneficial for women who can ride without pain or discomfort,
+    and, according to Watkins, it is even beneficial in many diseased
+    and disordered pelvic conditions, but excessive cycling is evil
+    in its results on women, more especially by inducing rigidity of
+    the perineum to an extent which may even prevent childbirth and
+    necessitate operation. I may add that the same objection applies
+    to much horse-riding. In the same way everything which causes
+    shocks to the body is apt to be dangerous to women, since in the
+    womb they possess a delicately poised organ which varies in
+    weight at different times, and it would, for instance, be
+    impossible to commend football as a game for girls. "I do not
+    believe," wrote Miss H. Ballantine, Director of Vassar College
+    Gymnasium, to Prof. W. Thomas (_Sex and Society_, p. 22) "women
+    can ever, no matter what the training, approach men in their
+    physical achievements; and," she wisely adds, "I see no reason
+    why they should." There seem, indeed, as has already been
+    indicated, to be reasons why they should not, especially if they
+    look forward to becoming mothers. I have noticed that women who
+    have lived a very robust and athletic outdoor life, so far from
+    always having the easy confinements which we might anticipate,
+    sometimes have very seriously difficult times, imperilling the
+    life of the child. On making this observation to a distinguished
+    obstetrician, the late Dr. Engelmann, who was an ardent advocate
+    of physical exercise for women (in e.g. his presidential address,
+    "The Health of the American Girl," _Transactions Southern
+    Surgical and Gynæcological Association_, 1890), he replied that
+    he had himself made the same observation, and that instructors in
+    physical training, both in America and England, had also told him
+    of such cases among their pupils. "I hold," he wrote, "precisely
+    the opinion you express [as to the unfavorable influence of
+    muscular development in women]. _Athletics_, i.e., overdone
+    physical training, causes the girl's system to approximate to the
+    masculine; this is so whether due to sport or necessity. The
+    woman who indulges in it approximates to the male in her
+    attributes; this is marked in diminished sexual intensity, and in
+    increased difficulty of childbirth, with, in time, lessened
+    fecundity. Healthy habits improve, but masculine muscular
+    development diminishes, womanly qualities, although it is true
+    that the peasant and the laboring woman have easy labor. I have
+    never advocated muscular development for girls, only physical
+    training, but have perhaps said too much for it and praised it
+    too unguardedly. In schools and colleges, so far, however, it is
+    insufficient rather than too much; only the wealthy have too much
+    golf and athletic sports. I am collecting new material, but from
+    what I already have seen I am impressed with the truth of what
+    you say. I am studying the point, and shall elaborate the
+    explanation." Any publication on this subject was, however,
+    prevented by Engelmann's death a few years later.
+
+A proper recognition of the special nature of woman, of her peculiar needs
+and her dignity, has a significance beyond its importance in education and
+hygiene. The traditions and training to which she is subjected in this
+matter have a subtle and far-reaching significance, according as they are
+good or evil. If she is taught, implicitly or explicitly, contempt for the
+characteristics of her own sex, she naturally develops masculine ideals
+which may permanently discolor her vision of life and distort her
+practical activities; it has been found that as many as fifty per cent. of
+American school girls have masculine ideals, while fifteen per cent.
+American and no fewer than thirty-four per cent. English school girls
+wished to be men, though scarcely any boys wished to be women.[31] With
+the same tendency may be connected that neglect to cultivate the emotions,
+which, by a mischievously extravagant but inevitable reaction from the
+opposite extreme, has sometimes marked the modern training of women. In
+the finely developed woman, intelligence is interpenetrated with emotion.
+If there is an exaggerated and isolated culture of intelligence a tendency
+shows itself to disharmony which breaks up the character or impairs its
+completeness. In this connection Reibmayr has remarked that the American
+woman may serve as a warning.[32] Within the emotional sphere itself, it
+may be added, there is a tendency to disharmony in women owing to the
+contradictory nature of the feelings which are traditionally impressed
+upon her, a contradiction which dates back indeed to the identification of
+sacredness and impurity at the dawn of civilization. "Every girl and
+woman," wrote Hellmann, in a pioneering book which pushed a sound
+principle to eccentric extremes, "is taught to regard her sexual parts as
+a precious and sacred spot, only to be approached by a husband or in
+special circumstances a doctor. She is, at the same time, taught to regard
+this spot as a kind of water-closet which she ought to be extremely
+ashamed to possess, and the mere mention of which should cause a painful
+blush."[33] The average unthinking woman accepts the incongruity of this
+opposition without question, and grows accustomed to adapt herself to each
+of the incompatibles according to circumstances. The more thoughtful woman
+works out a private theory of her own. But in very many cases this
+mischievous opposition exerts a subtly perverting influence on the whole
+outlook towards Nature and life. In a few cases, also, in women of
+sensitive temperament, it even undermines and ruins the psychic
+personality.
+
+    Thus Boris Sidis has recorded a case illustrating the disastrous
+    results of inculcating on a morbidly sensitive girl the doctrine
+    of the impurity of women. She was educated in a convent. "While
+    there she was impressed with the belief that woman is a vessel of
+    vice and impurity. This seemed to have been imbued in her by one
+    of the nuns who was very holy and practiced self-mortification.
+    With the onset of her periods, and with the observation of the
+    same in the other girls, this doctrine of female impurity was all
+    the stronger impressed on her sensitive mind." It lapsed,
+    however, from conscious memory and only came to the foreground in
+    subsequent years with the exhaustion and fatigue of prolonged
+    office work. Then she married. Now "she has an extreme abhorrence
+    of women. Woman, to the patient, is impurity, filth, the very
+    incarnation of degradation and vice. The house wash must not be
+    given to a laundry where women work. Nothing must be picked up in
+    the street, not even the most valuable object, perchance it might
+    have been dropped by a woman" (Boris Sidis, "Studies in
+    Psychopathology," _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, April 4,
+    1907). That is the logical outcome of much of the traditional
+    teaching which is given to girls. Fortunately, the healthy mind
+    offers a natural resistance to its complete acceptation, yet it
+    usually, in some degree, persists and exerts a mischievous
+    influence.
+
+It is, however, not only in her relations to herself and to her sex that a
+girl's thoughts and feelings tend to be distorted by the ignorance or the
+false traditions by which she is so often carefully surrounded. Her
+happiness in marriage, her whole future career, is put in peril. The
+innocent young woman must always risk much in entering the door of
+indissoluble marriage; she knows nothing truly of her husband, she knows
+nothing of the great laws of love, she knows nothing of her own
+possibilities, and, worse still, she is even ignorant of her ignorance.
+She runs the risk of losing the game while she is still only beginning to
+learn it. To some extent that is quite inevitable if we are to insist
+that a woman should bind herself to marry a man before she has experienced
+the nature of the forces that marriage may unloose in her. A young girl
+believes she possesses a certain character; she arranges her future in
+accordance with that character; she marries. Then, in a considerable
+proportion of cases (five out of six, according to the novelist Bourget),
+within a year or even a week, she finds she was completely mistaken in
+herself and in the man she has married; she discovers within her another
+self, and that self detests the man to whom she is bound. That is a
+possible fate against which only the woman who has already been aroused to
+love is entitled to regard herself as fairly protected.
+
+There is, however, a certain kind of protection which it is possible to
+afford the bride, even without departing from our most conventional
+conceptions of marriage. We can at least insist that she shall be
+accurately informed as to the exact nature of her physical relations to
+her future husband and be safeguarded from the shocks or the disillusions
+which marriage might otherwise bring. Notwithstanding the decay of
+prejudices, it is probable that even to-day the majority of women of the
+so-called educated class marry with only the vaguest and most inaccurate
+notions, picked up more or less clandestinely, concerning the nature of
+the sexual relationships. So highly intelligent a woman as Madame Adam has
+stated that she believed herself bound to marry a man who had kissed her
+on the mouth, imagining that to be the supreme act of sexual union,[34]
+and it has frequently happened that women have married sexually inverted
+persons of their own sex, not always knowingly, but believing them to be
+men, and never discovering their mistake; it is not long indeed since in
+America three women were thus successively married to the same woman, none
+of them apparently ever finding out the real sex of the "husband." "The
+civilized girl," as Edward Carpenter remarks, "is led to the 'altar'
+often in uttermost ignorance and misunderstanding of the sacrificial rites
+about to be consummated." Certainly more rapes have been effected in
+marriage than outside it.[35] The girl is full of vague and romantic faith
+in the promises of love, often heightened by the ecstasies depicted in
+sentimental novels from which every touch of wholesome reality has been
+carefully omitted. "All the candor of faith is there," as Sénancour puts
+it in his book _De l'Amour_, "the desires of inexperience, the needs of a
+new life, the hopes of an upright heart. She has all the faculties of
+love, she must love; she has all the means of pleasure, she must be loved.
+Everything expresses love and demands love: this hand formed for sweet
+caresses, an eye whose resources are unknown if it must not say that it
+consents to be loved, a bosom which is motionless and useless without
+love, and will fade without having been worshipped; these feelings that
+are so vast, so tender, so voluptuous, the ambition of the heart, the
+heroism of passion! She needs must follow the delicious rule which the law
+of the world has dictated. That intoxicating part, which she knows so
+well, which everything recalls, which the day inspires and the night
+commands, what young, sensitive, loving woman can imagine that she shall
+not play it?" But when the actual drama of love begins to unroll before
+her, and she realizes the true nature of the "intoxicating part" she has
+to play, then, it has often happened, the case is altered; she finds
+herself altogether unprepared, and is overcome with terror and alarm. All
+the felicity of her married life may then hang on a few chances, her
+husband's skill and consideration, her own presence of mind. Hirschfeld
+records the case of an innocent young girl of seventeen--in this case, it
+eventually proved, an invert--who was persuaded to marry but on
+discovering what marriage meant energetically resisted her husband's
+sexual approaches. He appealed to her mother to explain to her daughter
+the nature of "wifely duties." But the young wife replied to her mother's
+expostulations, "If that is my wifely duty then it was your parental duty
+to have told me beforehand, for, if I had known, I should never have
+married." The husband in this case, much in love with his wife, sought for
+eight years to over-persuade her, but in vain, and a separation finally
+took place.[36] That, no doubt, is an extreme case, but how many innocent
+young inverted girls never realize their true nature until after marriage,
+and how many perfectly normal girls are so shocked by the too sudden
+initiation of marriage that their beautiful early dreams of love never
+develop slowly and wholesomely into the acceptance of its still more
+beautiful realities?
+
+Before the age of puberty it would seem that the sexual initiation of the
+child--apart from such scientific information as would form part of school
+courses in botany and zoölogy--should be the exclusive privilege of the
+mother, or whomever it may be to whom the mother's duties are delegated.
+At puberty more authoritative and precise advice is desirable than the
+mother may be able or willing to give. It is at this age that she should
+put into her son's or daughter's hands some one or other of the very
+numerous manuals to which reference has already been made (page 53),
+expounding the physical and moral aspects of the sexual life and the
+principles of sexual hygiene. The boy or girl is already, we may take it,
+acquainted with the facts of motherhood, and the origin of babies, as well
+as, more or less precisely, with the father's part in their procreation.
+Whatever manual is now placed in his or her hands should at least deal
+summarily, but definitely, with the sexual relationship, and should also
+comment, warningly but in no alarmist spirit, with the chief auto-erotic
+phenomena, and by no means exclusively with masturbation. Nothing but good
+can come of the use of such a manual, if it has been wisely selected; it
+will supplant what the mother has already done, what the teacher may still
+be doing, and what later may be done by private interview with a doctor.
+It has indeed been argued that the boy or girl to whom such literature is
+presented will merely make it an opportunity for morbid revelry and
+sensual enjoyment. It can well be believed that this may sometimes happen
+with boys or girls from whom all sexual facts have always been
+mysteriously veiled, and that when at last they find the opportunity of
+gratifying their long-repressed and perfectly natural curiosity they are
+overcome by the excitement of the event. It could not happen to children
+who have been naturally and wholesomely brought up. At a later age, during
+adolescence, there is doubtless great advantage in the plan, now
+frequently adopted, especially in Germany, of giving lectures, addresses,
+or quiet talks to young people of each sex separately. The speaker is
+usually a specially selected teacher, a doctor or other qualified person
+who may be brought in for this special purpose.
+
+    Stanley Hall, after remarking that sexual education should be
+    chiefly from fathers to sons and from mothers to daughters, adds:
+    "It may be that in the future this kind of initiation will again
+    become an art, and experts will tell us with more confidence how
+    to do our duty to the manifold exigencies, types and stages of
+    youth, and instead of feeling baffled and defeated, we shall see
+    that this age and theme is the supreme opening for the highest
+    pedagogy to do its best and most transforming work, as well as
+    being the greatest of all opportunities for the teacher of
+    religion" (Stanley Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 469). "At
+    Williams College, Harvard, Johns Hopkins and Clark," the same
+    distinguished teacher observes (ib., p. 465), "I have made it a
+    duty in my departmental teaching to speak very briefly, but
+    plainly to young men under my instruction, personally if I deemed
+    it wise, and often, though here only in general terms, before
+    student bodies, and I believe I have nowhere done more good, but
+    it is a painful duty. It requires tact and some degree of hard
+    and strenuous common sense rather than technical knowledge."
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to say that the ordinary teacher of
+    either sex is quite incompetent to speak of sexual hygiene. It is
+    a task to which all, or some, teachers must be trained. A
+    beginning in this direction has been made in Germany by the
+    delivery to teachers of courses of lectures on sexual hygiene in
+    education. In Prussia the first attempt was made in Breslau when
+    the central school authorities requested Dr. Martin Chotzen to
+    deliver such a course to one hundred and fifty teachers who took
+    the greatest interest in the lectures, which covered the anatomy
+    of the sexual organs, the development of the sexual instinct, its
+    chief perversions, venereal diseases, and the importance of the
+    cultivation of self-control. In _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_
+    (Bd. i, Heft 7) Dr. Fritz Reuther gives the substance of lectures
+    which he has delivered to a class of young teachers; they cover
+    much the same ground as Chotzen's.
+
+    There is no evidence that in England the Minister of Education
+    has yet taken any steps to insure the delivery of lectures on
+    sexual hygiene to the pupils who are about to leave school. In
+    Prussia, however, the Ministry of Education has taken an active
+    interest in this matter, and such lectures are beginning to be
+    commonly delivered, though attendance at them is not usually
+    obligatory. Some years ago (in 1900), when it was proposed to
+    deliver a series of lectures on sexual hygiene to the advanced
+    pupils in Berlin schools, under the auspices of a society for the
+    improvement of morals, the municipal authorities withdrew their
+    permission to use the classrooms, on the ground that "such
+    lectures would be extremely dangerous to the moral sense of an
+    audience of the young." The same objection has been made by
+    municipal officials in France. In Germany, at all events,
+    however, opinion is rapidly growing more enlightened. In England
+    little or no progress has yet been made, but in America steps are
+    being taken in this direction, as by the Chicago Society for
+    Social Hygiene. It must, indeed, be said that those who oppose
+    the sexual enlightenment of youth in large cities are directly
+    allying themselves, whether or not they know it, with the
+    influences that make for vice and immorality.
+
+    Such lectures are also given to girls on leaving school, not only
+    girls of the well-to-do, but also those of the poor class, who
+    need them fully as much, and in some respects more. Thus Dr. A.
+    Heidenhain has published a lecture (_Sexuelle Belehrung der aus
+    den Volksschule entlassenen Mädchen_, 1907), accompanied by
+    anatomical tables, which he has delivered to girls about to leave
+    school, and which is intended to be put into their hands at this
+    time. Salvat, in a Lyons thesis (_La Dépopulation de la France_,
+    1903), insists that the hygiene of pregnancy and the care of
+    infants should form part of the subject of such lectures. These
+    subjects might well be left, however, to a somewhat later period.
+
+Something is clearly needed beyond lectures on these matters. It should be
+the business of the parents or other guardians of every adolescent youth
+and girl to arrange that, once at least at this period of life, there
+should be a private, personal interview with a medical man to afford an
+opportunity for a friendly and confidential talk concerning the main
+points of sexual hygiene. The family doctor would be the best for this
+duty because he would be familiar with the personal temperament of the
+youth and the family tendencies.[37] In the case of girls a woman doctor
+would often be preferred. Sex is properly a mystery; and to the unspoilt
+youth, it is instinctively so; except in an abstract and technical form it
+cannot properly form the subject of lectures. In a private and
+individualized conversation between the novice in life and the expert, it
+is possible to say many necessary things that could not be said in public,
+and it is possible, moreover, for the youth to ask questions which shyness
+and reserve make it impossible to put to parents, while the convenient
+opportunity of putting them naturally to the expert otherwise seldom or
+never occurs. Most youths have their own special ignorances, their own
+special difficulties, difficulties and ignorances that could sometimes be
+resolved by a word. Yet it by no means infrequently happens that they
+carry them far on into adult life because they have lacked the
+opportunity, or the skill and assurance to create the opportunity, of
+obtaining enlightenment.
+
+It must be clearly understood that these talks are of medical, hygienic,
+and physiological character; they are not to be used for retailing moral
+platitudes. To make them that would be a fatal mistake. The young are
+often very hostile to merely conventional moral maxims, and suspect their
+hollowness, not always without reason. The end to be aimed at here is
+enlightenment. Certainly knowledge can never be immoral, but nothing is
+gained by jumbling up knowledge and morality together.
+
+In emphasizing the nature of the physician's task in this matter as purely
+and simply that of wise practical enlightenment, nothing is implied
+against the advantages, and indeed the immense value in sexual hygiene, of
+the moral, religious, ideal elements of life. It is not the primary
+business of the physician to inspire these, but they have a very intimate
+relation with the sexual life, and every boy and girl at puberty, and
+never before puberty, should be granted the privilege--and not the duty or
+the task--of initiation into those elements of the world's life which are,
+at the same time, natural functions of the adolescent soul. Here, however,
+is the sphere of the religious or ethical teacher. At puberty he has his
+great opportunity, the greatest he can ever obtain. The flower of sex that
+blossoms in the body at puberty has its spiritual counterpart which at the
+same moment blossoms in the soul. The churches from of old have recognized
+the religious significance of this moment, for it is this period of life
+that they have appointed as the time of confirmation and similar rites.
+With the progress of the ages, it is true, such rites become merely formal
+and apparently meaningless fossils. But they have a meaning nevertheless,
+and are capable of being again vitalized. Nor in their spirit and essence
+should they be confined to those who accept supernaturally revealed
+religion. They concern all ethical teachers, who must realize that it is
+at puberty that they are called upon to inspire or to fortify the great
+ideal aspirations which at this period tend spontaneously to arise in the
+youth's or maiden's soul.[38]
+
+The age of puberty, I have said, marks the period at which this new kind
+of sexual initiation is called for. Before puberty, although the psychic
+emotion of love frequently develops, as well as sometimes physical sexual
+emotions that are mostly vague and diffused, definite and localized sexual
+sensations are rare. For the normal boy or girl love is usually an
+unspecialized emotion; it is in Guyau's words "a state in which the body
+has but the smallest place." At the first rising of the sun of sex the
+boy or girl sees, as Blake said he saw at sunrise, not a round yellow body
+emerging above the horizon, or any other physical manifestation, but a
+great company of singing angels. With the definite eruption of physical
+sexual manifestation and desire, whether at puberty or later in
+adolescence, a new turbulent disturbing influence appears. Against the
+force of this influence, mere intellectual enlightenment, or even loving
+maternal counsel--the agencies we have so far been concerned with--may be
+powerless. In gaining control of it we must find our auxiliary in the fact
+that puberty is the efflorescence not only of a new physical but a new
+psychic force. The ideal world naturally unfolds itself to the boy or girl
+at puberty. The magic of beauty, the instinct of modesty, the naturalness
+of self-restraint, the idea of unselfish love, the meaning of duty, the
+feeling for art and poetry, the craving for religious conceptions and
+emotions--all these things awake spontaneously in the unspoiled boy or
+girl at puberty. I say "unspoiled," for if these things have been thrust
+on the child before puberty when they have yet no meaning for him--as is
+unfortunately far too often done, more especially as regards religious
+notions--then it is but too likely that he will fail to react properly at
+that moment of his development when he would otherwise naturally respond
+to them. Under natural conditions this is the period for spiritual
+initiation. Now, and not before, is the time for the religious or ethical
+teacher as the case may be--for all religions and ethical systems may
+equally adapt themselves to this task--to take the boy or girl in hand,
+not with any special and obtrusive reference to the sexual impulses but
+for the purpose of assisting the development and manifestation of this
+psychic puberty, of indirectly aiding the young soul to escape from sexual
+dangers by harnessing his chariot to a star that may help to save it from
+sticking fast in any miry ruts of the flesh.
+
+Such an initiation, it is important to remark, is more than an
+introduction to the sphere of religious sentiment. It is an initiation
+into manhood, it must involve a recognition of the masculine even more
+than of the feminine virtues. This has been well understood by the finest
+primitive races. They constantly give their boys and girls an initiation
+at puberty; it is an initiation that involves not merely education in the
+ordinary sense, but a stern discipline of the character, feats of
+endurance, the trial of character, the testing of the muscles of the soul
+as much as of the body.
+
+    Ceremonies of initiation into manhood at puberty--involving
+    physical and mental discipline, as well as instruction, lasting
+    for weeks or months, and never identical for both sexes--are
+    common among savages in all parts of the world. They nearly
+    always involve the endurance of a certain amount of pain and
+    hardship, a wise measure of training which the softness of
+    civilization has too foolishly allowed to drop, for the ability
+    to endure hardness is an essential condition of all real manhood.
+    It is as a corrective to this tendency to flabbiness in modern
+    education that the teaching of Nietzsche is so invaluable.
+
+    The initiation of boys among the natives of Torres Straits has
+    been elaborately described by A.C. Haddon (_Reports
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v, Chs. VII
+    and XII). It lasts a month, involves much severe training and
+    power of endurance, and includes admirable moral instruction.
+    Haddon remarks that it formed "a very good discipline," and adds,
+    "it is not easy to conceive of a more effectual means for a rapid
+    training."
+
+    Among the aborigines of Victoria, Australia, the initiatory
+    ceremonies, as described by R.H. Mathews ("Some Initiation
+    Ceremonies," _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1905, Heft 6), last
+    for seven months, and constitute an admirable discipline. The
+    boys are taken away by the elders of the tribe, subjected to many
+    trials of patience and endurance of pain and discomfort,
+    sometimes involving even the swallowing of urine and excrement,
+    brought into contact with strange tribes, taught the laws and
+    folk-lore, and at the end meetings are held at which betrothals
+    are arranged.
+
+    Among the northern tribes of Central Australia the initiation
+    ceremonies involve circumcision and urethral subincision, as well
+    as hard manual labor and hardships. The initiation of girls into
+    womanhood is accompanied by cutting open of the vagina. These
+    ceremonies have been described by Spencer and Gillen (_Northern
+    Tribes of Central Australia_, Ch. XI). Among various peoples in
+    British East Africa (including the Masai) pubertal initiation is
+    a great ceremonial event extending over a period of many months,
+    and it includes circumcision in boys, and in girls
+    clitoridectomy, as well as, among some tribes, removal of the
+    nymphæ. A girl who winces or cries out during the operation is
+    disgraced among the women and expelled from the settlement. When
+    the ceremony has been satisfactorily completed the boy or girl is
+    marriageable (C. Marsh Beadnell, "Circumcision and Clitoridectomy
+    as Practiced by the Natives of British East Africa," _British
+    Medical Journal_, April 29, 1905).
+
+    Initiation among the African Bawenda, as described by a
+    missionary, is in three stages: (1) A stage of instruction and
+    discipline during which the traditions and sacred things of the
+    tribe are revealed, the art of warfare taught, self-restraint and
+    endurance borne; then the youths are counted as full-grown. (2)
+    In the next stage the art of dancing is practiced, by each sex
+    separately, during the day. (3) In the final stage, which is that
+    of complete sexual initiation, the two sexes dance together by
+    night; the scene, in the opinion of the good missionary, "does
+    not bear description;" the initiated are now complete adults,
+    with all the privileges and responsibilities of adults (Rev. E.
+    Gottschling, "The Bawenda," _Journal Anthropological
+    Institution_, July to Dec., 1905, p. 372. Cf., an interesting
+    account of the Bawenda Tondo schools by another missionary,
+    Wessmann, _The Bawenda_, pp. 60 et seq.).
+
+    The initiation of girls in Azimba Land, Central Africa, has been
+    fully and interestingly described by H. Crawford Angus ("The
+    Chensamwali' or Initiation Ceremony of Girls," _Zeitschrift für
+    Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 6). At the first sign of menstruation the
+    girl is taken by her mother out of the village to a grass hut
+    prepared for her where only the women are allowed to visit her.
+    At the end of menstruation she is taken to a secluded spot and
+    the women dance round her, no men being present. It was only with
+    much difficulty that Angus was enabled to witness the ceremony.
+    The girl is then informed in regard to the hygiene of
+    menstruation. "Many songs about the relations between men and
+    women are sung, and the girl is instructed as to all her duties
+    when she becomes a wife.... The girl is taught to be faithful to
+    her husband, and to try and bear children. The whole matter is
+    looked upon as a matter of course, and not as a thing to be
+    ashamed of or to hide, and being thus openly treated of and no
+    secrecy made about it, you find in this tribe that the women are
+    very virtuous, because the subject of married life has no glamour
+    for them. When a woman is pregnant she is again danced; this time
+    all the dancers are naked, and she is taught how to behave and
+    what to do when the time of her delivery arrives."
+
+    Among the Yuman Indians of California, as described by Horatio
+    Rust ("A Puberty Ceremony of the Mission Indians," _American
+    Anthropologist_, Jan. to March, 1906, p. 28) the girls are at
+    puberty prepared for marriage by a ceremony. They are wrapped in
+    blankets and placed in a warm pit, where they lie looking very
+    happy as they peer out through their covers. For four days and
+    nights they lie here (occasionally going away for food), while
+    the old women of the tribe dance and sing round the pit
+    constantly. At times the old women throw silver coins among the
+    crowd to teach the girls to be generous. They also give away
+    cloth and wheat, to teach them to be kind to the old and needy;
+    and they sow wild seeds broadcast over the girls to cause them to
+    be prolific. Finally, all strangers are ordered away, garlands
+    are placed on the girls' heads, and they are led to a hillside
+    and shown the large and sacred stone, symbolical of the female
+    organs of generation and resembling them, which is said to
+    protect women. Then grain is thrown over all present, and the
+    ceremony is over.
+
+    The Thlinkeet Eskimo women were long noted for their fine
+    qualities. At puberty they were secluded, sometimes for a whole
+    year, being kept in darkness, suffering, and filth. Yet defective
+    and unsatisfactory as this initiation was, "Langsdorf suggests,"
+    says Bancroft (_Native Races of Pacific_, vol. i, p. 110),
+    referring to the virtues of the Thlinkeet woman, "that it may be
+    during this period of confinement that the foundation of her
+    influence is laid; that in modest reserve and meditation her
+    character is strengthened, and she comes forth cleansed in mind
+    as well as body."
+
+We have lost these ancient and invaluable rites of initiation into manhood
+and womanhood, with their inestimable moral benefits; at the most we have
+merely preserved the shells of initiation in which the core has decayed.
+In time, we cannot doubt, they will be revived in modern forms. At present
+the spiritual initiation of youths and maidens is left to the chances of
+some happy accident, and usually it is of a purely cerebral character
+which cannot be perfectly wholesome, and is at the best absurdly
+incomplete.
+
+This cerebral initiation commonly occurs to the youth through the medium
+of literature. The influence of literature in sexual education thus
+extends, in an incalculable degree, beyond the narrow sphere of manuals on
+sexual hygiene, however admirable and desirable these may be. The greater
+part of literature is more or less distinctly penetrated by erotic and
+auto-erotic conceptions and impulses; nearly all imaginative literature
+proceeds from the root of sex to flower in visions of beauty and ecstasy.
+The Divine Comedy of Dante is herein the immortal type of the poet's
+evolution. The youth becomes acquainted with the imaginative
+representations of love before he becomes acquainted with the reality of
+love, so that, as Leo Berg puts it, "the way to love among civilized
+peoples passes through imagination." All literature is thus, to the
+adolescent soul, a part of sexual education.[39] It depends, to some
+extent, though fortunately not entirely, on the judgment of those in
+authority over the young soul whether the literature to which the youth or
+girl is admitted is or is not of the large and humanizing order.
+
+    All great literature touches nakedly and sanely on the central
+    facts of sex. It is always consoling to remember this in an age
+    of petty pruderies. And it is a satisfaction to know that it
+    would not be possible to emasculate the literature of the great
+    ages, however desirable it might seem to the men of more
+    degenerate ages, or to close the avenues to that literature
+    against the young. All our religious and literary traditions
+    serve to fortify the position of the Bible and of Shakespeare.
+    "So many men and women," writes a correspondent, a literary man,
+    "gain sexual ideas in childhood from reading the Old Testament,
+    that the Bible may be called an erotic text-book. Most persons of
+    either sex with whom I have conversed on the subject, say that
+    the Books of Moses, and the stories of Amnon and Tamar, Lot and
+    his daughters, Potiphar's wife and Joseph, etc., caused
+    speculation and curiosity, and gave them information of the
+    sexual relationship. A boy and girl of fifteen, both friends of
+    the writer, and now over thirty years of age, used to find out
+    erotic passages in the Bible on Sunday mornings, while in a
+    Dissenting chapel, and pass their Bibles to one another, with
+    their fingers on the portions that interested them." In the same
+    way many a young woman has borrowed Shakespeare in order to read
+    the glowing erotic poetry of _Venus and Adonis_, which her
+    friends have told her about.
+
+    The Bible, it may be remarked, is not in every respect, a model
+    introduction for the young mind to the questions of sex. But even
+    its frank acceptance, as of divine origin, of sexual rules so
+    unlike those that are nominally our own, such as polygamy and
+    concubinage, helps to enlarge the vision of the youthful mind by
+    showing that the rules surrounding the child are not those
+    everywhere and always valid, while the nakedness and realism of
+    the Bible cannot but be a wholesome and tonic corrective to
+    conventional pruderies.
+
+    We must, indeed, always protest against the absurd confusion
+    whereby nakedness of speech is regarded as equivalent to
+    immorality, and not the less because it is often adopted even in
+    what are regarded as intellectual quarters. When in the House of
+    Lords, in the last century, the question of the exclusion of
+    Byron's statue from Westminster Abbey was under discussion, Lord
+    Brougham "denied that Shakespeare was more moral than Byron. He
+    could, on the contrary, point out in a single page of Shakespeare
+    more grossness than was to be found in all Lord Byron's works."
+    The conclusion Brougham thus reached, that Byron is an
+    incomparably more moral writer than Shakespeare, ought to have
+    been a sufficient _reductio ad absurdum_ of his argument, but it
+    does not appear that anyone pointed out the vulgar confusion into
+    which he had fallen.
+
+    It may be said that the special attractiveness which the
+    nakedness of great literature sometimes possesses for young minds
+    is unwholesome. But it must be remembered that the peculiar
+    interest of this element is merely due to the fact that elsewhere
+    there is an inveterate and abnormal concealment. It must also be
+    said that the statements of the great writers about natural
+    things are never degrading, nor even erotically exciting to the
+    young, and what Emilia Pardo Bazan tells of herself and her
+    delight when a child in the historical books of the Old
+    Testament, that the crude passages in them failed to send the
+    faintest cloud of trouble across her young imagination, is
+    equally true of most children. It is necessary, indeed, that
+    these naked and serious things should be left standing, even if
+    only to counterbalance the lewdly comic efforts to besmirch love
+    and sex, which are visible to all in every low-class bookseller's
+    shop window.
+
+    This point of view was vigorously championed by the speakers on
+    sexual education at the Third Congress of the German Gesellschaft
+    zur Bekämpfung der Geschlechtskrankheiten in 1907. Thus Enderlin,
+    speaking as a headmaster, protested against the custom of
+    bowdlerizing poems and folk-songs for the use of children, and
+    thus robbing them of the finest introduction to purified sexual
+    impulses and the highest sphere of emotion, while at the same
+    time they are recklessly exposed to the "psychic infection" of
+    the vulgar comic papers everywhere exposed for sale. "So long as
+    children are too young to respond to erotic poetry it cannot hurt
+    them; when they are old enough to respond it can only benefit
+    them by opening to them the highest and purest channels of human
+    emotion" (_Sexualpädagogik_, p. 60). Professor Schäfenacker (id.,
+    p. 98) expresses himself in the same sense, and remarks that "the
+    method of removing from school-books all those passages which, in
+    the opinion of short-sighted and narrow-hearted schoolmasters,
+    are unsuited for youth, must be decisively condemned." Every
+    healthy boy and girl who has reached the age of puberty may be
+    safely allowed to ramble in any good library, however varied its
+    contents. So far from needing guidance they will usually show a
+    much more refined taste than their elders. At this age, when the
+    emotions are still virginal and sensitive, the things that are
+    realistic, ugly, or morbid, jar on the young spirit and are cast
+    aside, though in adult life, with the coarsening of mental
+    texture which comes of years and experience, this repugnance,
+    doubtless by an equally sound and natural instinct, may become
+    much less acute.
+
+    Ellen Key in Ch. VI of her _Century of the Child_ well summarizes
+    the reasons against the practice of selecting for children books
+    that are "suitable" for them, a practice which she considers one
+    of the follies of modern education. The child should be free to
+    read all great literature, and will himself instinctively put
+    aside the things he is not yet ripe for. His cooler senses are
+    undisturbed by scenes that his elders find too exciting, while
+    even at a later stage it is not the nakedness of great
+    literature, but much more the method of the modern novel, which
+    is likely to stain the imagination, falsify reality and injure
+    taste. It is concealment which misleads and coarsens, producing a
+    state of mind in which even the Bible becomes a stimulus to the
+    senses. The writings of the great masters yield the imaginative
+    food which the child craves, and the erotic moment in them is too
+    brief to be overheating. It is the more necessary, Ellen Key
+    remarks, for children to be introduced to great literature, since
+    they often have little opportunity to occupy themselves with it
+    in later life. Many years earlier Ruskin, in _Sesame and Lilies_,
+    had eloquently urged that even young girls should be allowed to
+    range freely in libraries.
+
+What has been said about literature applies equally to art. Art, as well
+as literature, and in the same indirect way, can be made a valuable aid in
+the task of sexual enlightenment and sexual hygiene. Modern art may,
+indeed, for the most part, be ignored from this point of view, but
+children cannot be too early familiarized with the representations of the
+nude in ancient sculpture and in the paintings of the old masters of the
+Italian school. In this way they may be immunized, as Enderlin expresses
+it, against those representations of the nude which make an appeal to the
+baser instincts. Early familiarity with nudity in art is at the same time
+an aid to the attainment of a proper attitude towards purity in nature.
+"He who has once learnt," as Höller remarks, "to enjoy peacefully
+nakedness in art, will be able to look on nakedness in nature as on a work
+of art."
+
+    Casts of classic nude statues and reproductions of the pictures
+    of the old Venetian and other Italian masters may fittingly be
+    used to adorn schoolrooms, not so much as objects of instruction
+    as things of beauty with which the child cannot too early become
+    familiarized. In Italy it is said to be usual for school classes
+    to be taken by their teachers to the art museums with good
+    results; such visits form part of the official scheme of
+    education.
+
+    There can be no doubt that such early familiarity with the beauty
+    of nudity in classic art is widely needed among all social
+    classes and in many countries. It is to this defect of our
+    education that we must attribute the occasional, and indeed in
+    America and England frequent, occurrence of such incidents as
+    petitions and protests against the exhibition of nude statuary in
+    art museums, the display of pictures so inoffensive as Leighton's
+    "Bath of Psyche" in shop windows, and the demand for the draping
+    of the naked personifications of abstract virtues in
+    architectural street decoration. So imperfect is still the
+    education of the multitude that in these matters the ill-bred
+    fanatic of pruriency usually gains his will. Such a state of
+    things cannot but have an unwholesome reaction on the moral
+    atmosphere of the community in which it is possible. Even from
+    the religious point of view, prurient prudery is not justifiable.
+    Northcote has very temperately and sensibly discussed the
+    question of the nude in art from the standpoint of Christian
+    morality. He points out that not only is the nude in art not to
+    be condemned without qualification, and that the nude is by no
+    means necessarily the erotic, but he also adds that even erotic
+    art, in its best and purest manifestations, only arouses emotions
+    that are the legitimate object of man's aspirations. It would be
+    impossible even to represent Biblical stories adequately on
+    canvas or in marble if erotic art were to be tabooed (Rev. H.
+    Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_, Ch. XIV).
+
+    Early familiarity with the nude in classic and early Italian art
+    should be combined at puberty with an equal familiarity with
+    photographs of beautiful and naturally developed nude models. In
+    former years books containing such pictures in a suitable and
+    attractive manner to place before the young were difficult to
+    procure. Now this difficulty no longer exists. Dr. C.H. Stratz,
+    of The Hague, has been the pioneer in this matter, and in a
+    series of beautiful books (notably in _Der Körper des Kindes, Die
+    Schönheit des Weiblichen Körpers_ and _Die Rassenschönheit des
+    Weibes_, all published by Enke in Stuttgart), he has brought
+    together a large number of admirably selected photographs of nude
+    but entirely chaste figures. More recently Dr. Shufeldt, of
+    Washington (who dedicates his work to Stratz), has published his
+    _Studies of the Human Form_ in which, in the same spirit, he has
+    brought together the results of his own studies of the naked
+    human form during many years. It is necessary to correct the
+    impressions received from classic sources by good photographic
+    illustrations on account of the false conventions prevailing in
+    classic works, though those conventions were not necessarily
+    false for the artists who originated them. The omission of the
+    pudendal hair, in representations of the nude was, for instance,
+    quite natural for the people of countries still under Oriental
+    influence are accustomed to remove the hair from the body. If,
+    however, under quite different conditions, we perpetuate that
+    artistic convention to-day, we put ourselves into a perverse
+    relation to nature. There is ample evidence of this. "There is
+    one convention so ancient, so necessary, so universal," writes
+    Mr. Frederic Harrison (_Nineteenth Century and After_, Aug.,
+    1907), "that its deliberate defiance to-day may arouse the bile
+    of the least squeamish of men and should make women withdraw at
+    once." If boys and girls were brought up at their mother's knees
+    in familiarity with pictures of beautiful and natural nakedness,
+    it would be impossible for anyone to write such silly and
+    shameful words as these.
+
+    There can be no doubt that among ourselves the simple and direct
+    attitude of the child towards nakedness is so early crushed out
+    of him that intelligent education is necessary in order that he
+    may be enabled to discern what is and what is not obscene. To the
+    plough-boy and the country servant-girl all nakedness, including
+    that of Greek statuary, is alike shameful or lustful. "I have a
+    picture of women like that," said a countryman with a grin, as he
+    pointed to a photograph of one of Tintoret's most beautiful
+    groups, "smoking cigarettes." And the mass of people in most
+    northern countries have still passed little beyond this stage of
+    discernment; in ability to distinguish between the beautiful and
+    the obscene they are still on the level of the plough-boy and the
+    servant-girl.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] These manifestations have been dealt with in the study of Autoerotism
+in vol. i of the present _Studies_. It may be added that the sexual life
+of the child has been exhaustively investigated by Moll, _Das Sexualleben
+des Kindes_, 1909.
+
+[19] This genital efflorescence in the sexual glands and breasts at birth
+or in early infancy has been discussed in a Paris thesis, by Camille
+Renouf (_La Crise Génital et les Manifestations Connexes chez le Foetus et
+le Nouveau-né_, 1905); he is unable to offer a satisfactory explanation of
+these phenomena.
+
+[20] Amélineau, _La Morale des Egyptiens_, p. 64.
+
+[21] "The Social Evil in Philadelphia," _Arena_, March, 1896.
+
+[22] Moll, _Konträre Sexualempfindung_, third edition, p. 592.
+
+[23] This powerlessness of the law and the police is well recognized by
+lawyers familiar with the matter. Thus F. Werthauer (_Sittlichkeitsdelikte
+der Grosstadt_, 1907) insists throughout on the importance of parents and
+teachers imparting to children from their early years a progressively
+increasing knowledge of sexual matters.
+
+[24] "Parents must be taught how to impart information," remarks E.L.
+Keyes ("Education upon Sexual Matters," _New York Medical Journal_, Feb.
+10, 1906), "and this teaching of the parent should begin when he is
+himself a child."
+
+[25] Moll (op. cit., p. 224) argues well how impossible it is to preserve
+children from sights and influence connected with the sexual life.
+
+[26] Girls are not even prepared, in many cases, for the appearance of the
+pubic hair. This unexpected growth of hair frequently causes young girls
+much secret worry, and often they carefully cut it off.
+
+[27] G.S. Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 511. Many years ago, in 1875,
+the late Dr. Clarke, in his _Sex in Education_, advised menstrual rest for
+girls, and thereby aroused a violent opposition which would certainly not
+be found nowadays, when the special risks of womanhood are becoming more
+clearly understood.
+
+[28] For a summary of the physical and mental phenomena of the menstrual
+period, see Havelock Ellis: _Man and Woman_, Ch. XI. The primitive
+conception of menstruation is briefly discussed in Appendix A to the first
+volume of these _Studies_, and more elaborately by J.G. Frazer in _The
+Golden Bough_. A large collection of facts with regard to the menstrual
+seclusion of women throughout the world will be found in Ploss and
+Bartels, _Das Weib_. The pubertal seclusion of girls at Torres Straits has
+been especially studied by Seligmann, _Reports Anthropological Expedition
+to Torres Straits_, vol. v, Ch. VI.
+
+[29] Thus Miss Lura Sanborn, Director of Physical Training at the Chicago
+Normal School, found that a bath once a fortnight was not unusual. At the
+menstrual period especially there is still a superstitious dread of water.
+Girls should always be taught that at this period, above all, cleanliness
+is imperatively necessary. There should be a tepid hip bath night and
+morning, and a vaginal douche (which should never be cold) is always
+advantageous, both for comfort as well as cleanliness. There is not the
+slightest reason to dread water during menstruation. This point was
+discussed a few years ago in the _British Medical Journal_ with complete
+unanimity of opinion. A distinguished American obstetrician, also, Dr. J.
+Clifton Edgar, after a careful study of opinion and practice in this
+matter ("Bathing During the Menstrual Period," _American Journal
+Obstetrics_, Sept., 1900), concludes that it is possible and beneficial to
+take cold baths (though not sea-baths) during the period, provided due
+precautions are observed, and that there are no sudden changes of habits.
+Such a course should not be indiscriminately adopted, but there can be no
+doubt that in sturdy peasant women who are inured to it early in life even
+prolonged immersion in the sea in fishing has no evil results, and is even
+beneficial. Houzel (_Annales de Gynécologie_, Dec., 1894) has published
+statistics of the menstrual life of 123 fisherwomen on the French coast.
+They were accustomed to shrimp for hours at a time in the sea, often to
+above the waist, and then walk about in their wet clothes selling the
+shrimps. They all insisted that their menstruation was easier when they
+were actively at work. Their periods are notably regular, and their
+fertility is high.
+
+[30] J.H. McBride, "The Life and Health of Our Girls in Relation to Their
+Future," _Alienist and Neurologist_, Feb., 1904.
+
+[31] W.G. Chambers, "The Evolution of Ideals," _Pedagogical Seminary_,
+March, 1903; Catherine Dodd, "School Children's Ideals," _National
+Review_, Feb. and Dec., 1900, and June, 1901. No German girls acknowledged
+a wish to be men; they said it would be wicked. Among Flemish girls,
+however, Varendonck found at Ghent (_Archives de Psychologie_, July, 1908)
+that 26 per cent. had men as their ideals.
+
+[32] A. Reibmayr, _Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies_,
+1908, Bd. i, p. 70.
+
+[33] R. Hellmann, _Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit_, p. 14.
+
+[34] This belief seems frequent among young girls in Continental Europe.
+It forms the subject of one of Marcel Prevost's _Lettres de Femmes_. In
+Austria, according to Freud, it is not uncommon, exclusively among girls.
+
+[35] Yet, according to English law, rape is a crime which it is impossible
+for a husband to commit on his wife (see, e.g., Nevill Geary, _The Law of
+Marriage_, Ch. XV, Sect. V). The performance of the marriage ceremony,
+however, even if it necessarily involved a clear explanation of marital
+privileges, cannot be regarded as adequate justification for an act of
+sexual intercourse performed with violence or without the wife's consent.
+
+[36] Hirschfeld, _Jahrbuch für Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, 1903, p. 88. It
+may be added that a horror of coitus is not necessarily due to bad
+education, and may also occur in hereditarily degenerate women, whose
+ancestors have shown similar or allied mental peculiarities. A case of
+such "functional impotence" has been reported in a young Italian wife of
+twenty-one, who was otherwise healthy, and strongly attached to her
+husband. The marriage was annulled on the ground that "rudimentary sexual
+or emotional paranoia, which renders a wife invincibly refractory to
+sexual union, notwithstanding the integrity of the sexual organs,
+constitutes psychic functional impotence" (_Archivio di Psichiatria_,
+1906, fasc. vi, p. 806).
+
+[37] The reasonableness of this step is so obvious that it should scarcely
+need insistence. "The instruction of school-boys and school-girls is most
+adequately effected by an elderly doctor," Näcke remarks, "sometimes
+perhaps the school-doctor." "I strongly advocate," says Clouston (_The
+Hygiene of Mind_, p. 249), "that the family doctor, guided by the parent
+and the teacher, is by far the best instructor and monitor." Moll is of
+the same opinion.
+
+[38] I have further developed this argument in "Religion and the Child,"
+_Nineteenth Century and After_, 1907.
+
+[39] The intimate relation of art and poetry to the sexual impulse has
+been realized in a fragmentary way by many who have not attained to any
+wide vision of auto-erotic activity in life. "Poetry is necessarily
+related to the sexual function," says Metchnikoff (_Essais Optimistes_, p.
+352), who also quotes with approval the statement of Möbius (previously
+made by Ferrero and many others) that "artistic aptitudes must probably be
+considered as secondary sexual characters."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION AND NAKEDNESS.
+
+The Greek Attitude Towards Nakedness--How the Romans Modified That
+Attitude--The Influence of Christianity--Nakedness in Mediæval
+Times--Evolution of the Horror of Nakedness--Concomitant Change in the
+Conception of Nakedness--Prudery--The Romantic Movement--Rise of a New
+Feeling in Regard to Nakedness--The Hygienic Aspect of Nakedness--How
+Children May Be Accustomed to Nakedness--Nakedness Not Inimical to
+Modesty--The Instinct of Physical Pride--The Value of Nakedness in
+Education--The Æsthetic Value of Nakedness--The Human Body as One of the
+Prime Tonics of Life--How Nakedness May Be Cultivated--The Moral Value of
+Nakedness.
+
+
+The discussion of the value of nakedness in art leads us on to the allied
+question of nakedness in nature. What is the psychological influence of
+familiarity with nakedness? How far should children be made familiar with
+the naked body? This is a question in regard to which different opinions
+have been held in different ages, and during recent years a remarkable
+change has begun to come over the minds of practical educationalists in
+regard to it.
+
+In Sparta, in Chios, and elsewhere in Greece, women at one time practiced
+gymnastic feats and dances in nakedness, together with the men, or in
+their presence.[40] Plato in his _Republic_ approved of such customs and
+said that the ridicule of those who laughed at them was but "unripe fruit
+plucked from the tree of knowledge." On many questions Plato's opinions
+changed, but not on this. In the _Laws_, which are the last outcome of his
+philosophic reflection in old age, he still advocates (Bk. viii) a similar
+co-education of the sexes and their coöperation in all the works of life,
+in part with a view to blunt the over-keen edge of sexual appetite; with
+the same object he advocated the association together of youths and girls
+without constraint in costumes which offered no concealment to the form.
+
+It is noteworthy that the Romans, a coarser-grained people than the Greeks
+and in our narrow modern sense more "moral," showed no perception of the
+moralizing and refining influence of nakedness. Nudity to them was merely
+a licentious indulgence, to be treated with contempt even when it was
+enjoyed. It was confined to the stage, and clamored for by the populace.
+In the Floralia, especially, the crowd seem to have claimed it as their
+right that the actors should play naked, probably, it has been thought, as
+a survival of a folk-ritual. But the Romans, though they were eager to run
+to the theatre, felt nothing but disdain for the performers. "Flagitii
+principium est, nudare inter cives corpora." So thought old Ennius, as
+reported by Cicero, and that remained the genuine Roman feeling to the
+last. "Quanta perversitas!" as Tertullian exclaimed. "Artem magnificant,
+artificem notant."[41] In this matter the Romans, although they aroused
+the horror of the Christians, were yet in reality laying the foundation of
+Christian morality.
+
+Christianity, which found so many of Plato's opinions congenial, would
+have nothing to do with his view of nakedness and failed to recognize its
+psychological correctness. The reason was simple, and indeed
+simple-minded. The Church was passionately eager to fight against what it
+called "the flesh," and thus fell into the error of confusing the
+subjective question of sexual desire with the objective spectacle of the
+naked form. "The flesh" is evil; therefore, "the flesh" must be hidden.
+And they hid it, without understanding that in so doing they had not
+suppressed the craving for the human form, but, on the contrary, had
+heightened it by imparting to it the additional fascination of a forbidden
+mystery.
+
+    Burton, in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_ (Part III, Sect II, Mem.
+    II, Subs. IV), referring to the recommendations of Plato, adds:
+    "But _Eusebius_ and _Theodoret_ worthily lash him for it; and
+    well they might: for as one saith, the very sight of naked
+    parts, _causeth enormous, exceeding concupiscences, and stirs up
+    both men and women to burning lust_." Yet, as Burton himself adds
+    further on in the same section of his work (Mem. V, Subs. III),
+    without protest, "some are of opinion, that to see a woman naked,
+    is able of itself to alter his affection; and it is worthy of
+    consideration, saith _Montaigne_, the Frenchman, in his Essays,
+    that the skilfullest masters of amorous dalliance appoint for a
+    remedy of venereous passions, a full survey of the body."
+
+    There ought to be no question regarding the fact that it is the
+    adorned, the partially concealed body, and not the absolutely
+    naked body, which acts as a sexual excitant. I have brought
+    together some evidence on this point in the study of "The
+    Evolution of Modesty." "In Madagascar, West Africa, and the
+    Cape," says G.F. Scott Elliot (_A Naturalist in Mid-Africa_, p.
+    36), "I have always found the same rule. Chastity varies
+    inversely as the amount of clothing." It is now indeed generally
+    held that one of the chief primary objects of ornament and
+    clothing was the stimulation of sexual desire, and artists'
+    models are well aware that when they are completely unclothed,
+    they are most safe from undesired masculine advances. "A favorite
+    model of mine told me," remarks Dr. Shufeldt (_Medical Brief_,
+    Oct., 1904), the distinguished author of _Studies of the Human
+    Form_, "that it was her practice to disrobe as soon after
+    entering the artist's studio as possible, for, as men are not
+    always responsible for their emotions, she felt that she was far
+    less likely to arouse or excite them when entirely nude than when
+    only semi-draped." This fact is, indeed, quite familiar to
+    artists' models. If the conquest of sexual desire were the first
+    and last consideration of life it would be more reasonable to
+    prohibit clothing than to prohibit nakedness.
+
+When Christianity absorbed the whole of the European world this strict
+avoidance of even the sight of "the flesh," although nominally accepted by
+all as the desirable ideal, could only be carried out, thoroughly and
+completely, in the cloister. In the practice of the world outside,
+although the original Christian ideals remained influential, various pagan
+and primitive traditions in favor of nakedness still persisted, and were,
+to some extent, allowed to manifest themselves, alike in ordinary custom
+and on special occasions.
+
+    How widespread is the occasional or habitual practice of
+    nakedness in the world generally, and how entirely concordant it
+    is with even a most sensitive modesty, has been set forth in "The
+    Evolution of Modesty," in vol. i of these _Studies_.
+
+    Even during the Christian era the impulse to adopt nudity, often
+    with the feeling that it was an especially sacred practice, has
+    persisted. The Adamites of the second century, who read and
+    prayed naked, and celebrated the sacrament naked, according to
+    the statement quoted by St. Augustine, seem to have caused little
+    scandal so long as they only practiced nudity in their sacred
+    ceremonies. The German Brethren of the Free Spirit, in the
+    thirteenth century, combined so much chastity with promiscuous
+    nakedness that orthodox Catholics believed they were assisted by
+    the Devil. The French Picards, at a much later date, insisted on
+    public nakedness, believing that God had sent their leader into
+    the world as a new Adam to reestablish the law of Nature; they
+    were persecuted and were finally exterminated by the Hussites.
+
+    In daily life, however, a considerable degree of nakedness was
+    tolerated during mediæval times. This was notably so in the
+    public baths, frequented by men and women together. Thus Alwin
+    Schultz remarks (in his _Höfische Leben zur Zeit der
+    Minnesänger_), that the women of the aristocratic classes, though
+    not the men, were often naked in these baths except for a hat and
+    a necklace.
+
+    It is sometimes stated that in the mediæval religious plays Adam
+    and Eve were absolutely naked. Chambers doubts this, and thinks
+    they wore flesh-colored tights, or were, as in a later play of
+    this kind, "apparelled in white leather" (E.K. Chambers, _The
+    Mediæval Stage_, vol. i, p. 5). It may be so, but the public
+    exposure even of the sexual organs was permitted, and that in
+    aristocratic houses, for John of Salisbury (in a passage quoted
+    by Buckle, _Commonplace Book_, 541) protests against this custom.
+
+    The women of the feminist sixteenth century in France, as R. de
+    Maulde la Clavière remarks (_Revue de l'Art_, Jan., 1898), had no
+    scruple in recompensing their adorers by admitting them to their
+    toilette, or even their bath. Late in the century they became
+    still less prudish, and many well-known ladies allowed themselves
+    to be painted naked down to the waist, as we see in the portrait
+    of "Gabrielle d'Estrées au Bain" at Chantilly. Many of these
+    pictures, however, are certainly not real portraits.
+
+    Even in the middle of the seventeenth century in England
+    nakedness was not prohibited in public, for Pepys tells us that
+    on July 29, 1667, a Quaker came into Westminster Hall, crying,
+    "Repent! Repent!" being in a state of nakedness, except that he
+    was "very civilly tied about the privities to avoid scandal."
+    (This was doubtless Solomon Eccles, who was accustomed to go
+    about in this costume, both before and after the Restoration. He
+    had been a distinguished musician, and, though eccentric, was
+    apparently not insane.)
+
+    In a chapter, "De la Nudité," and in the appendices of his book,
+    _De l'Amour_ (vol. i, p. 221), Sénancour gives instances of the
+    occasional practice of nudity in Europe, and adds some
+    interesting remarks of his own; so, also, Dulaure (_Des Divinités
+    Génératrices_, Ch. XV). It would appear, as a rule, that though
+    complete nudity was allowed in other respects, it was usual to
+    cover the sexual parts.
+
+The movement of revolt against nakedness never became completely
+victorious until the nineteenth century. That century represented the
+triumph of all the forces that banned public nakedness everywhere and
+altogether. If, as Pudor insists, nakedness is aristocratic and the
+slavery of clothes a plebeian characteristic imposed on the lower classes
+by an upper class who reserved to themselves the privilege of physical
+culture, we may perhaps connect this with the outburst of democratic
+plebeianism which, as Nietzsche pointed out, reached its climax in the
+nineteenth century. It is in any case certainly interesting to observe
+that by this time the movement had entirely changed its character. It had
+become general, but at the same time its foundation had been undermined.
+It had largely lost its religious and moral character, and instead was
+regarded as a matter of convention. The nineteenth century man who
+encountered the spectacle of white limbs flashing in the sunlight no
+longer felt like the mediæval ascetic that he was risking the salvation of
+his immortal soul or even courting the depravation of his morals; he
+merely felt that it was "indecent" or, in extreme cases, "disgusting."
+That is to say he regarded the matter as simply a question of conventional
+etiquette, at the worst, of taste, of æsthetics. In thus bringing down his
+repugnance to nakedness to so low a plane he had indeed rendered it
+generally acceptable, but at the same time he had deprived it of high
+sanction. His profound horror of nakedness was out of relation to the
+frivolous grounds on which he based it.
+
+    We must not, however, under-rate the tenacity with which this
+    horror of nakedness was held. Nothing illustrates more vividly
+    the deeply ingrained hatred which the nineteenth century felt of
+    nakedness than the ferocity--there is no other word for it--with
+    which Christian missionaries to savages all over the world, even
+    in the tropics, insisted on their converts adopting the
+    conventional clothing of Northern Europe. Travellers' narratives
+    abound in references to the emphasis placed by missionaries on
+    this change of custom, which was both injurious to the health of
+    the people and degrading to their dignity. It is sufficient to
+    quote one authoritative witness, Lord Stanmore, formerly Governor
+    of Fiji, who read a long paper to the Anglican Missionary
+    Conference in 1894 on the subject of "Undue Introduction of
+    Western Ways." "In the centre of the village," he remarked in
+    quoting a typical case (and referring not to Fiji but to Tonga),
+    "is the church, a wooden barn-like building. If the day be
+    Sunday, we shall find the native minister arrayed in a
+    greenish-black swallow-tail coat, a neckcloth, once white, and a
+    pair of spectacles, which he probably does not need, preaching to
+    a congregation, the male portion of which is dressed in much the
+    same manner as himself, while the women are dizened out in old
+    battered hats or bonnets, and shapeless gowns like bathing
+    dresses, or it may be in crinolines of an early type. Chiefs of
+    influence and women of high birth, who in their native dress
+    would look, and do look, the ladies and gentlemen they are, are,
+    by their Sunday finery, given the appearance of attendants upon
+    Jack-in-the-Green. If a visit be paid to the houses of the town,
+    after the morning's work of the people is over, the family will
+    be found sitting on chairs, listless and uncomfortable, in a room
+    full of litter. In the houses of the superior native clergy there
+    will be a yet greater aping of the manners of the West. There
+    will be chairs covered with hideous antimacassars, tasteless
+    round worsted-work mats for absent flower jars, and a lot of ugly
+    cheap and vulgar china chimney ornaments, which, there being no
+    fireplace, and consequently no chimney-piece, are set out in
+    order on a rickety deal table. The whole life of these village
+    folk is one piece of unreal acting. They are continually asking
+    themselves whether they are incurring any of the penalties
+    entailed by infraction of the long table of prohibitions, and
+    whether they are living up to the foreign garments they wear.
+    Their faces have, for the most part, an expression of sullen
+    discontent, they move about silently and joylessly, rebels in
+    heart to the restrictive code on them, but which they fear to
+    cast off, partly from a vague apprehension of possible secular
+    results, and partly because they suppose they will cease to be
+    good Christians if they do so. They have good ground for their
+    dissatisfaction. At the time when I visited the villages I have
+    specially in my eye, it was punishable by fine and imprisonment
+    to wear native clothing, punishable by fine and imprisonment to
+    wear long hair or a garland of flowers; punishable by fine or
+    imprisonment to wrestle or to play at ball; punishable by fine
+    and imprisonment to build a native-fashioned house; punishable
+    not to wear shirt and trousers, and in certain localities coat
+    and shoes also; and, in addition to laws enforcing a strictly
+    puritanical observation of the Sabbath, it was punishable by fine
+    and imprisonment to bathe on Sundays. In some other places
+    bathing on Sunday was punishable by flogging; and to my
+    knowledge women have been flogged for no other offense. Men in
+    such circumstances are ripe for revolt, and sometimes the revolt
+    comes."
+
+    An obvious result of reducing the feeling about nakedness to an
+    unreasoning but imperative convention is the tendency to
+    prudishness. This, as we know, is a form of pseudo-modesty which,
+    being a convention, and not a natural feeling, is capable of
+    unlimited extension. It is by no means confined to modern times
+    or to Christian Europe. The ancient Hebrews were not entirely
+    free from prudishness, and we find in the Old Testament that by a
+    curious euphemism the sexual organs are sometimes referred to as
+    "the feet." The Turks are capable of prudishness. So, indeed,
+    were even the ancient Greeks. "Dion the philosopher tells us,"
+    remarks Clement of Alexandria (_Stromates_, Bk. IV, Ch. XIX)
+    "that a certain woman, Lysidica, through excess of modesty,
+    bathed in her clothes, and that Philotera, when she was to enter
+    the bath, gradually drew back her tunic as the water covered her
+    naked parts; and then rising by degrees, put it on." Mincing
+    prudes were found among the early Christians, and their ways are
+    graphically described by St. Jerome in one of his letters to
+    Eustochium: "These women," he says, "speak between their teeth or
+    with the edge of the lips, and with a lisping tongue, only half
+    pronouncing their words, because they regard as gross whatever is
+    natural. Such as these," declares Jerome, the scholar in him
+    overcoming the ascetic, "corrupt even language." Whenever a new
+    and artificial "modesty" is imposed upon savages prudery tends to
+    arise. Haddon describes this among the natives of Torres Straits,
+    where even the children now suffer from exaggerated prudishness,
+    though formerly absolutely naked and unashamed (_Cambridge
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v, p. 271).
+
+The nineteenth century, which witnessed the triumph of timidity and
+prudery in this matter, also produced the first fruitful germ of new
+conceptions of nakedness. To some extent these were embodied in the great
+Romantic movement. Rousseau, indeed, had placed no special insistence on
+nakedness as an element of the return to Nature which he preached so
+influentially. A new feeling in this matter emerged, however, with
+characteristic extravagance, in some of the episodes of the Revolution,
+while in Germany in the pioneering _Lucinde_ of Friedrich Schlegel, a
+characteristic figure in the Romantic movement, a still unfamiliar
+conception of the body was set forth in a serious and earnest spirit.
+
+In England, Blake with his strange and flaming genius, proclaimed a
+mystical gospel which involved the spiritual glorification of the body and
+contempt for the civilized worship of clothes ("As to a modern man," he
+wrote, "stripped from his load of clothing he is like a dead corpse");
+while, later, in America, Thoreau and Whitman and Burroughs asserted,
+still more definitely, a not dissimilar message concerning the need of
+returning to Nature.
+
+    We find the importance of the sight of the body--though very
+    narrowly, for the avoidance of fraud in the preliminaries of
+    marriage--set forth as early as the sixteenth century by Sir
+    Thomas More in his _Utopia_, which is so rich in new and fruitful
+    ideas. In Utopia, according to Sir Thomas More, before marriage,
+    a staid and honest matron "showeth the woman, be she maid or
+    widow, naked to the wooer. And likewise a sage and discreet man
+    exhibiteth the wooer naked to the woman. At this custom we
+    laughed and disallowed it as foolish. But they, on their part, do
+    greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations which, in buying
+    a colt where a little money is in hazard, be so chary and
+    circumspect that though he be almost all bare, yet they will not
+    buy him unless the saddle and all the harness be taken off, lest
+    under these coverings be hid some gall or sore. And yet, in
+    choosing a wife, which shall be either pleasure or displeasure to
+    them all their life after, they be so reckless that all the
+    residue of the woman's body being covered with clothes, they
+    estimate her scarcely by one handsbreadth (for they can see no
+    more but her face) and so join her to them, not without great
+    jeopardy of evil agreeing together, if anything in her body
+    afterward should chance to offend or mislike them. Verily, so
+    foul deformity may be hid under these coverings that it may quite
+    alienate and take away the man's mind from his wife, when it
+    shall not be lawful for their bodies to be separate again. If
+    such deformity happen by any chance after the marriage is
+    consummate and finished, well, there is no remedy but patience.
+    But it were well done that a law were made whereby all such
+    deceits were eschewed and avoided beforehand."
+
+    The clear conception of what may be called the spiritual value of
+    nakedness--by no means from More's point of view, but as a part
+    of natural hygiene in the widest sense, and as a high and special
+    aspect of the purifying and ennobling function of beauty--is of
+    much later date. It is not clearly expressed until the time of
+    the Romantic movement at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+    We have it admirably set forth in Sénancour's _De l'Amour_ (first
+    edition, 1806; fourth and enlarged edition, 1834), which still
+    remains one of the best books on the morality of love. After
+    remarking that nakedness by no means abolishes modesty, he
+    proceeds to advocate occasional partial or complete nudity. "Let
+    us suppose," he remarks, somewhat in the spirit of Plato, "a
+    country in which at certain general festivals the women should be
+    absolutely free to be nearly or even quite naked. Swimming,
+    waltzing, walking, those who thought good to do so might remain
+    unclothed in the presence of men. No doubt the illusions of love
+    would be little known, and passion would see a diminution of its
+    transports. But is it passion that in general ennobles human
+    affairs? We need honest attachments and delicate delights, and
+    all these we may obtain while still preserving our
+    common-sense.... Such nakedness would demand corresponding
+    institutions, strong and simple, and a great respect for those
+    conventions which belong to all times" (Sénancour, _De l'Amour_,
+    vol. i, p. 314).
+
+    From that time onwards references to the value and desirability
+    of nakedness become more and more frequent in all civilized
+    countries, sometimes mingled with sarcastic allusions to the
+    false conventions we have inherited in this matter. Thus Thoreau
+    writes in his journal on June 12, 1852, as he looks at boys
+    bathing in the river: "The color of their bodies in the sun at a
+    distance is pleasing. I hear the sound of their sport borne over
+    the water. As yet we have not man in Nature. What a singular fact
+    for an angel visitant to this earth to carry back in his
+    note-book, that men were forbidden to expose their bodies under
+    the severest penalties."
+
+    Iwan Bloch, in Chapter VII of his _Sexual Life of Our Time_,
+    discusses this question of nakedness from the modern point of
+    view, and concludes: "A natural conception of nakedness: that is
+    the watchword of the future. All the hygienic, æsthetic, and
+    moral efforts of our time are pointing in that direction."
+
+    Stratz, as befits one who has worked so strenuously in the cause
+    of human health and beauty, admirably sets forth the stage which
+    we have now attained in this matter. After pointing out (_Die
+    Frauenkleidung_, third edition, 1904, p. 30) that, in opposition
+    to the pagan world which worshipped naked gods, Christianity
+    developed the idea that nakedness was merely sexual, and
+    therefore immoral, he proceeds: "But over all glimmered on the
+    heavenly heights of the Cross, the naked body of the Saviour.
+    Under that protection there has gradually disengaged itself from
+    the confusion of ideas a new transfigured form of nakedness made
+    free after long struggle. I would call this _artistic nakedness_,
+    for as it was immortalized by the old Greeks through art, so also
+    among us it has been awakened to new life by art. Artistic
+    nakedness is, in its nature, much higher than either the natural
+    or the sensual conception of nakedness. The simple child of
+    Nature sees in nakedness nothing at all; the clothed man sees in
+    the uncovered body only a sensual irritation. But at the highest
+    standpoint man consciously returns to Nature, and recognizes that
+    under the manifold coverings of human fabrication there is
+    hidden the most splendid creature that God has created. One may
+    stand in silent, worshipping wonder before the sight; another may
+    be impelled to imitate and show to his fellow-man what in that
+    holy moment he has seen. But both enjoy the spectacle of human
+    beauty with full consciousness and enlightened purity of
+    thought."
+
+It was not, however, so much on these more spiritual sides, but on the
+side of hygiene, that the nineteenth century furnished its chief practical
+contribution to the new attitude towards nakedness.
+
+    Lord Monboddo, the Scotch judge, who was a pioneer in regard to
+    many modern ideas, had already in the eighteenth century realized
+    the hygienic value of "air-baths," and he invented that now
+    familiar name. "Lord Monboddo," says Boswell, in 1777 (_Life of
+    Johnson_, edited by Hill, vol. iii, p. 168) "told me that he
+    awaked every morning at four, and then for his health got up and
+    walked in his room naked, with the window open, which he called
+    taking _an air-bath_." It is said also, I know not on what
+    authority, that he made his beautiful daughters take an air-bath
+    naked on the terrace every morning. Another distinguished man of
+    the same century, Benjamin Franklin, used sometimes to work naked
+    in his study on hygienic grounds, and, it is recorded, once
+    affrighted a servant-girl by opening the door in an absent-minded
+    moment, thus unattired.
+
+    Rikli seems to have been the apostle of air-baths and sun-baths
+    regarded as a systematic method. He established light-and
+    air-baths over half a century ago at Trieste and elsewhere in
+    Austria. His motto was: "Light, Truth, and Freedom are the motive
+    forces towards the highest development of physical and moral
+    health." Man is not a fish, he declared; light and air are the
+    first conditions of a highly organized life. Solaria for the
+    treatment of a number of different disordered conditions are now
+    commonly established, and most systems of natural therapeutics
+    attach prime importance to light and air, while in medicine
+    generally it is beginning to be recognized that such influences
+    can by no means be neglected. Dr. Fernand Sandoz, in his
+    _Introduction à la Thérapeutique Naturiste par les agents
+    Physiques et Dietétiques_ (1907) sets forth such methods
+    comprehensively. In Germany sun-baths have become widely common;
+    thus Lenkei (in a paper summarized in _British Medical Journal_,
+    Oct. 31, 1908) prescribes them with much benefit in tuberculosis,
+    rheumatic conditions, obesity, anæmia, neurasthenia, etc. He
+    considers that their peculiar value lies in the action of light.
+    Professor J.N. Hyde, of Chicago, even believes ("Light-Hunger in
+    the Production of Psoriasis," _British Medical Journal_, Oct. 6,
+    1906), that psoriasis is caused by deficiency of sunlight, and
+    is best cured by the application of light. This belief, which has
+    not, however, been generally accepted in its unqualified form, he
+    ingeniously supports by the fact that psoriasis tends to appear
+    on the most exposed parts of the body, which may be held to
+    naturally receive and require the maximum of light, and by the
+    absence of the disease in hot countries and among negroes.
+
+    The hygienic value of nakedness is indicated by the robust health
+    of the savages throughout the world who go naked. The vigor of
+    the Irish, also, has been connected with the fact that (as Fynes
+    Moryson's _Itinerary_ shows) both sexes, even among persons of
+    high social class, were accustomed to go naked except for a
+    mantle, especially in more remote parts of the country, as late
+    as the seventeenth century. Where-ever primitive races abandon
+    nakedness for clothing, at once the tendency to disease,
+    mortality, and degeneracy notably increases, though it must be
+    remembered that the use of clothing is commonly accompanied by
+    the introduction of other bad habits. "Nakedness is the only
+    condition universal among vigorous and healthy savages; at every
+    other point perhaps they differ," remarks Frederick Boyle in a
+    paper ("Savages and Clothes," _Monthly Review_, Sept., 1905) in
+    which he brings together much evidence concerning the hygienic
+    advantages of the natural human state in which man is "all face."
+
+    It is in Germany that a return towards nakedness has been most
+    ably and thoroughly advocated, notably by Dr. H. Pudor in his
+    _Nackt-Cultur_, and by R. Ungewitter in _Die Nacktheit_ (first
+    published in 1905), a book which has had a very large circulation
+    in many editions. These writers enthusiastically advocate
+    nakedness, not only on hygienic, but on moral and artistic
+    grounds. Pudor insists more especially that "nakedness, both in
+    gymnastics and in sport, is a method of cure and a method of
+    regeneration;" he advocates co-education in this culture of
+    nakedness. Although he makes large claims for
+    nakedness--believing that all the nations which have disregarded
+    these claims have rapidly become decadent--Pudor is less hopeful
+    than Ungewitter of any speedy victory over the prejudices opposed
+    to the culture of nakedness. He considers that the immediate task
+    is education, and that a practical commencement may best be made
+    with the foot which is specially in need of hygiene and exercise;
+    a large part of the first volume of his book is devoted to the
+    foot.
+
+As the matter is to-day viewed by those educationalists who are equally
+alive to sanitary and sexual considerations, the claims of nakedness, so
+far as concerns the young, are regarded as part alike of physical and
+moral hygiene. The free contact of the naked body with air and water and
+light makes for the health of the body; familiarity with the sight of the
+body abolishes petty pruriencies, trains the sense of beauty, and makes
+for the health of the soul. This double aspect of the matter has
+undoubtedly weighed greatly with those teachers who now approve of customs
+which, a few years ago, would have been hastily dismissed as "indecent."
+There is still a wide difference of opinion as to the limits to which the
+practice of nakedness may be carried, and also as to the age when it
+should begin to be restricted. The fact that the adult generation of
+to-day grew up under the influence of the old horror of nakedness is an
+inevitable check on any revolutionary changes in these matters.
+
+    Maria Lischnewska, one of the ablest advocates of the methodical
+    enlightenment of children in matters of sex (op. cit.), clearly
+    realizes that a sane attitude towards the body lies at the root
+    of a sound education for life. She finds that the chief objection
+    encountered in such education, as applied in the higher classes
+    of schools, is "the horror of the civilized man at his own body."
+    She shows that there can be no doubt that those who are engaged
+    in the difficult task of working towards the abolition of that
+    superstitious horror have taken up a moral task of the first
+    importance.
+
+    Walter Gerhard, in a thoughtful and sensible paper on the
+    educational question ("Ein Kapitel zur Erziehungsfrage,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. i, Heft 2), points out that
+    it is the adult who needs education in this matter--as in so many
+    other matters of sexual enlightenment--considerably more than the
+    child. Parents educate their children from the earliest years in
+    prudery, and vainly flatter themselves that they have thereby
+    promoted their modesty and morality. He records his own early
+    life in a tropical land and accustomed to nakedness from the
+    first. "It was not till I came to Germany when nearly twenty that
+    I learnt that the human body is indecent, and that it must not be
+    shown because that 'would arouse bad impulses.' It was not till
+    the human body was entirely withdrawn from my sight and after I
+    was constantly told that there was something improper behind
+    clothes, that I was able to understand this.... Until then I had
+    not known that a naked body, by the mere fact of being naked,
+    could arouse erotic feelings. I had known erotic feelings, but
+    they had not arisen from the sight of the naked body, but
+    gradually blossomed from the union of our souls." And he draws
+    the final moral that, if only for the sake of our children, we
+    must learn to educate ourselves.
+
+    Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, p. 140), speaking in entirely the
+    same sense as Gerhard, remarks that prudery may be either caused
+    or cured in children. It may be caused by undue anxiety in
+    covering their bodies and hiding from them the bodies of others.
+    It may be cured by making them realize that there is nothing in
+    the body that is unnatural and that we need be ashamed of, and by
+    encouraging bathing of the sexes in common. He points out (p.
+    512) the advantages of allowing children to be acquainted with
+    the adult forms which they will themselves some day assume, and
+    condemns the conduct of those foolish persons who assume that
+    children already possess the adult's erotic feelings about the
+    body. That is so far from being the case that children are
+    frequently unable to distinguish the sex of other children apart
+    from their clothes.
+
+    At the Mannheim Congress of the German Society for Combating
+    Venereal Diseases, specially devoted to sexual hygiene, the
+    speakers constantly referred to the necessity of promoting
+    familiarity with the naked body. Thus Eulenburg and Julian
+    Marcuse (_Sexualpädagogik_, p. 264) emphasize the importance of
+    air-baths, not only for the sake of the physical health of the
+    young, but in the interests of rational sexual training. Höller,
+    a teacher, speaking at the same congress (op. cit., p. 85), after
+    insisting on familiarity with the nude in art and literature, and
+    protesting against the bowdlerising of poems for the young,
+    continues: "By bathing-drawers ordinances no soul was ever yet
+    saved from moral ruin. One who has learnt to enjoy peacefully the
+    naked in art is only stirred by the naked in nature as by a work
+    of art." Enderlin, another teacher, speaking in the same sense
+    (p. 58), points out that nakedness cannot act sexually or
+    immorally on the child, since the sexual impulse has not yet
+    become pronounced, and the earlier he is introduced to the naked
+    in nature and in art, as a matter of course, the less likely are
+    the sexual feelings to be developed precociously. The child thus,
+    indeed, becomes immune to impure influences, so that later, when
+    representations of the nude are brought before him for the object
+    of provoking his wantonness, they are powerless to injure him. It
+    is important, Enderlin adds, for familiarity with the nude in art
+    to be learnt at school, for most of us, as Siebert remarks, have
+    to learn purity through art.
+
+    Nakedness in bathing, remarks Bölsche in his _Liebesleben in der
+    Natur_ (vol. iii, pp. 139 et seq.), we already in some measure
+    possess; we need it in physical exercises, at first for the sexes
+    separately; then, when we have grown accustomed to the idea,
+    occasionally for both sexes together. We need to acquire the
+    capacity to see the bodies of individuals of the other sex with
+    such self-control and such natural instinct that they become
+    non-erotic to us and can be gazed at without erotic feeling. Art,
+    he says, shows that this is possible in civilization. Science, he
+    adds, comes to the aid of the same view.
+
+    Ungewitter (_Die Nacktheit_, p. 57) also advocates boys and girls
+    engaging in play and gymnastics together, entirely naked in
+    air-baths. "In this way," he believes, "the gymnasium would
+    become a school of morality, in which young growing things would
+    be able to retain their purity as long as possible through
+    becoming naturally accustomed to each other. At the same time
+    their bodies would be hardened and developed, and the perception
+    of beautiful and natural forms awakened." To those who have any
+    "moral" doubts on the matter, he mentions the custom in remote
+    country districts of boys and girls bathing together quite naked
+    and without any sexual consciousness. Rudolf Sommer, similarly,
+    in an excellent article entitled "Mädchenerziehung oder
+    Menschenbildung?" (_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, Heft 3)
+    advises that children should be made accustomed to each other's
+    nakedness from an early age in the family life of the house or
+    the garden, in games, and especially in bathing; he remarks that
+    parents having children of only one sex should cultivate for
+    their children's sake intimate relations with a family having
+    children of like age of the opposite sex, so that they may grow
+    up together.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to add that the cultivation of nakedness must
+always be conciliated with respect for the natural instincts of modesty.
+If the practice of nakedness led the young to experience a diminished
+reverence for their own or others' personalities the advantages of it
+would be too dearly bought. This is, in part, a matter of wholesome
+instinct, in part of wise training. We now know that the absence of
+clothes has little relation with the absence of modesty, such relation as
+there is being of the inverse order, for the savage races which go naked
+are usually more modest than those which wear clothes. The saying quoted
+by Herodotus in the early Greek world that "A woman takes off her modesty
+with her shift" was a favorite text of the Christian Fathers. But
+Plutarch, who was also a moralist, had already protested against it at the
+close of the Greek world: "By no means," he declared, "she who is modest
+clothes herself with modesty when she lays aside her tunic." "A woman may
+be naked," as Mrs. Bishop, the traveller, remarked to Dr. Baelz, in Japan,
+"and yet behave like a lady."[42]
+
+The question is complicated among ourselves because established
+traditions of rigid concealment have fostered a pruriency which is an
+offensive insult to naked modesty. In many lands the women who are
+accustomed to be almost or quite naked in the presence of their own people
+cover themselves as soon as they become conscious of the lustful
+inquisitive eyes of Europeans. Stratz refers to the prevalence of this
+impulse of offended modesty in Japan, and mentions that he himself failed
+to arouse it simply because he was a physician, and, moreover, had long
+lived in another land (Java) where also the custom of nakedness
+prevails.[43] So long as this unnatural prurience exists a free
+unqualified nakedness is rendered difficult.
+
+Modesty is not, however, the only natural impulse which has to be
+considered in relation to the custom of nakedness. It seems probable that
+in cultivating the practice of nakedness we are not merely carrying out a
+moral and hygienic prescription but allowing legitimate scope to an
+instinct which at some periods of life, especially in adolescence, is
+spontaneous and natural, even, it may be, wholesomely based in the
+traditions of the race in sexual selection. Our rigid conventions make it
+impossible for us to discover the laws of nature in this matter by
+stifling them at the outset. It may well be that there is a rhythmic
+harmony and concordance between impulses of modesty and impulses of
+ostentation, though we have done our best to disguise the natural law by
+our stupid and perverse by-laws.
+
+    Stanley Hall, who emphasizes the importance of nakedness, remarks
+    that at puberty we have much reason to assume that in a state of
+    nature there is a certain instinctive pride and ostentation that
+    accompanies the new local development, and quotes the observation
+    of Dr. Seerley that the impulse to conceal the sexual organs is
+    especially marked in young men who are underdeveloped, but not
+    evident in those who are developed beyond the average. Stanley
+    Hall (_Adolescence_, vol. ii, p. 97), also refers to the
+    frequency with which not only "virtuous young men, but even
+    women, rather glory in occasions when they can display the beauty
+    of their forms without reserve, not only to themselves and to
+    loved ones, but even to others with proper pretexts."
+
+    Many have doubtless noted this tendency, especially in women, and
+    chiefly in those who are conscious of beautiful physical
+    development. Madame Céline Renooz believes that the tendency
+    corresponds to a really deep-rooted instinct in women, little or
+    not at all manifested in men who have consequently sought to
+    impose artificially on women their own masculine conceptions of
+    modesty. "In the actual life of the young girl to-day there is a
+    moment when, by a secret atavism, she feels the pride of her sex,
+    the intuition of her moral superiority and cannot understand why
+    she must hide its cause. At this moment, wavering between the
+    laws of Nature and social conventions, she scarcely knows if
+    nakedness should, or should not, affright her. A sort of confused
+    atavistic memory recalls to her a period before clothing was
+    known, and reveals to her as a paradisaical ideal the customs of
+    that human epoch" (Céline Renooz, _Psychologie Comparée de
+    l'Homme et de la Femme_, pp. 85-87). Perhaps this was obscurely
+    felt by the German girl (mentioned in Kalbeck's _Life of
+    Brahms_), who said: "One enjoys music twice as much
+    _décolletée_."
+
+From the point of view with which we are here essentially concerned there
+are three ways in which the cultivation of nakedness--so far as it is
+permitted by the slow education of public opinion--tends to exert an
+influence: (1) It is an important element in the sexual hygiene of the
+young, introducing a wholesome knowledge and incuriosity into a sphere
+once given up to prudery and pruriency. (2) The effect of nakedness is
+beneficial on those of more mature age, also, in so far as it tends to
+cultivate the sense of beauty and to furnish the tonic and consoling
+influences of natural vigor and grace. (3) The custom of nakedness, in its
+inception at all events, has a dynamic psychological influence also on
+morals, an influence exerted in the substitution of a strenuous and
+positive morality for the merely negative and timid morality which has
+ruled in this sphere.
+
+Perhaps there are not many adults who realize the intense and secret
+absorption of thought in the minds of many boys and some girls concerning
+the problem of the physical conformation of the other sex, and the time,
+patience, and intellectual energy which they are willing to expend on the
+solution of this problem. This is mostly effected in secret, but not
+seldom the secret impulse manifests itself with a sudden violence which in
+the blind eyes of the law is reckoned as crime. A German lawyer, Dr.
+Werthauer, has lately stated that if there were a due degree of
+familiarity with the natural organs and functions of the opposite sex
+ninety per cent. of the indecent acts of youths with girl children would
+disappear, for in most cases these are not assaults but merely the
+innocent, though uncontrollable, outcome of a repressed natural curiosity.
+It is quite true that not a few children boldly enlist each others'
+coöperation in the settlement of the question and resolve it to their
+mutual satisfaction. But even this is not altogether satisfactory, for the
+end is not attained openly and wholesomely, with a due subordination of
+the specifically sexual, but with a consciousness of wrong-doing and an
+exclusive attentiveness to the merely physical fact which tend directly to
+develop sexual excitement. When familiarity with the naked body of the
+other sex is gained openly and with no consciousness of indecorum, in the
+course of work and of play, in exercise or gymnastics, in running or in
+bathing, from a child's earliest years, no unwholesome results accompany
+the knowledge of the essential facts of physical conformation thus
+naturally acquired. The prurience and prudery which have poisoned sexual
+life in the past are alike rendered impossible.
+
+Nakedness has, however, a hygienic value, as well as a spiritual
+significance, far beyond its influences in allaying the natural
+inquisitiveness of the young or acting as a preventative of morbid
+emotion. It is an inspiration to adults who have long outgrown any
+youthful curiosities. The vision of the essential and eternal human form,
+the nearest thing to us in all the world, with its vigor and its beauty
+and its grace, is one of the prime tonics of life. "The power of a woman's
+body," said James Hinton, "is no more bodily than the power of music is a
+power of atmospheric vibrations." It is more than all the beautiful and
+stimulating things of the world, than flowers or stars or the sea. History
+and legend and myth reveal to us the sacred and awful influence of
+nakedness, for, as Stanley Hall says, nakedness has always been "a
+talisman of wondrous power with gods and men." How sorely men crave for
+the spectacle of the human body--even to-day after generations have
+inculcated the notion that it is an indecorous and even disgusting
+spectacle--is witnessed by the eagerness with which they seek after the
+spectacle of even its imperfect and meretricious forms, although these
+certainly possess a heady and stimulating quality which can never be found
+in the pathetic simplicity of naked beauty. It was another spectacle when
+the queens of ancient Madagascar at the annual Fandroon, or feast of the
+bath, laid aside their royal robes and while their subjects crowded the
+palace courtyard, descended the marble steps to the bath in complete
+nakedness. When we make our conventions of clothing rigid we at once
+spread a feast for lust and deny ourselves one of the prime tonics of
+life.
+
+    "I was feeling in despair and walking despondently along a
+    Melbourne street," writes the Australian author of a yet
+    unpublished autobiography, "when three children came running out
+    of a lane and crossed the road in full daylight. The beauty and
+    texture of their legs in the open air filled me with joy, so that
+    I forgot all my troubles whilst looking at them. It was a bright
+    revelation, an unexpected glimpse of Paradise, and I have never
+    ceased to thank the happy combination of shape, pure blood, and
+    fine skin of these poverty-stricken children, for the wind seemed
+    to quicken their golden beauty, and I retained the rosy vision of
+    their natural young limbs, so much more divine than those always
+    under cover. Another occasion when naked young limbs made me
+    forget all my gloom and despondency was on my first visit to
+    Adelaide. I came on a naked boy leaning on the railing near the
+    Baths, and the beauty of his face, torso, fair young limbs and
+    exquisite feet filled me with joy and renewed hope. The tears
+    came to my eyes, and I said to myself, 'While there is beauty in
+    the world I will continue to struggle,'"
+
+    We must, as Bölsche declares (loc. cit.), accustom ourselves to
+    gaze on the naked human body exactly as we gaze at a beautiful
+    flower, not merely with the pity with which the doctor looks at
+    the body, but with joy in its strength and health and beauty. For
+    a flower, as Bölsche truly adds, is not merely "naked body," it
+    is the most sacred region of the body, the sexual organs of the
+    plant.
+
+    "For girls to dance naked," said Hinton, "is the only truly pure
+    form of dancing, and in due time it must therefore come about.
+    This is certain: girls will dance naked and men will be pure
+    enough to gaze on them." It has already been so in Greece, he
+    elsewhere remarks, as it is to-day in Japan (as more recently
+    described by Stratz). It is nearly forty years since these
+    prophetic words were written, but Hinton himself would probably
+    have been surprised at the progress which has already been made
+    slowly (for all true progress must be slow) towards this goal.
+    Even on the stage new and more natural traditions are beginning
+    to prevail in Europe. It is not many years since an English
+    actress regarded as a calumny the statement that she appeared on
+    the stage bare-foot, and brought an action for libel, winning
+    substantial damages. Such a result would scarcely be possible
+    to-day. The movement in which Isadora Duncan was a pioneer has
+    led to a partial disuse among dancers of the offensive device of
+    tights, and it is no longer considered indecorous to show many
+    parts of the body which it was formerly usual to cover.
+
+    It should, however, be added at the same time that, while
+    dancers, in so far as they are genuine artists, are entitled to
+    determine the conditions most favorable to their art, nothing
+    whatever is gained for the cause of a wholesome culture of
+    nakedness by the "living statues" and "living pictures" which
+    have obtained an international vogue during recent years. These
+    may be legitimate as variety performances, but they have nothing
+    whatever to do with either Nature or art. Dr. Pudor, writing as
+    one of the earliest apostles of the culture of nakedness, has
+    energetically protested against these performances
+    (_Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908, p. 828). He rightly points out
+    that nakedness, to be wholesome, requires the open air, the
+    meadows, the sunlight, and that nakedness at night, in a music
+    hall, by artificial light, in the presence of spectators who are
+    themselves clothed, has no element of morality about it. Attempts
+    have here and there been quietly made to cultivate a certain
+    amount of mutual nakedness as between the sexes on remote country
+    excursions. It is significant to find a record of such an
+    experiment in Ungewitter's _Die Nacktheit_. In this case a party
+    of people, men and women, would regularly every Sunday seek
+    remote spots in woods or meadows where they would settle down,
+    picnic, and enjoy games. "They made themselves as comfortable as
+    possible, the men laying aside their coats, waistcoats, boots and
+    socks; the women their blouses, skirts, shoes and stockings.
+    Gradually, as the moral conception of nakedness developed in
+    their minds, more and more clothing fell away, until the men wore
+    nothing but bathing-drawers and the women only their chemises. In
+    this 'costume' games were carried out in common, and a regular
+    camp-life led. The ladies (some of whom were unmarried) would
+    then lie in hammocks and we men on the grass, and the intercourse
+    was delightful. We felt as members of one family, and behaved
+    accordingly. In an entirely natural and unembarrassed way we gave
+    ourselves up entirely to the liberating feelings aroused by this
+    light- and air-bath, and passed these splendid hours in joyous
+    singing and dancing, in wantonly childish fashion, freed from the
+    burden of a false civilization. It was, of course, necessary to
+    seek spots as remote as possible from high-roads, for fear of
+    being disturbed. At the same time we by no means failed in
+    natural modesty and consideration towards one another. Children,
+    who can be entirely naked, may be allowed to take part in such
+    meetings of adults, and will thus be brought up free from morbid
+    prudery" (R. Ungewitter, _Die Nacktheit_, p. 58).
+
+    No doubt it may be said that the ideal in this matter is the
+    possibility of permitting complete nakedness. This may be
+    admitted, and it is undoubtedly true that our rigid police
+    regulations do much to artificially foster a concealment in this
+    matter which is not based on any natural instinct. Dr. Shufeldt
+    narrates in his _Studies of the Human Form_ that once in the
+    course of a photographic expedition in the woods he came upon two
+    boys, naked except for bathing-drawers, engaged in getting water
+    lilies from a pond. He found them a good subject for his camera,
+    but they could not be induced to remove their drawers, by no
+    means out of either modesty or mock-modesty, but simply because
+    they feared they might possibly be caught and arrested. We have
+    to recognize that at the present day the general popular
+    sentiment is not yet sufficiently educated to allow of public
+    disregard for the convention of covering the sexual centres, and
+    all attempts to extend the bounds of nakedness must show a due
+    regard for this requirement. As concerns women, Valentin Lehr, of
+    Freiburg, in Breisgau, has invented a costume (figured in
+    Ungewitter's _Die Nacktheit_) which is suitable for either public
+    water-baths or air-baths, because it meets the demand of those
+    whose minimum requirement is that the chief sexual centres of the
+    body should be covered in public, while it is otherwise fairly
+    unobjectionable. It consists of two pieces, made of porous
+    material, one covering the breasts with a band over the
+    shoulders, and the other covering the abdomen below the navel and
+    drawn between the legs. This minimal costume, while neither ideal
+    nor æsthetic, adequately covers the sexual regions of the body,
+    while leaving the arms, waist, hips, and legs entirely free.
+
+There finally remains the moral aspect of nakedness. Although this has
+been emphasized by many during the past half century it is still
+unfamiliar to the majority. The human body can never be a little thing.
+The wise educator may see to it that boys and girls are brought up in a
+natural and wholesome familiarity with each other, but a certain terror
+and beauty must always attach to the spectacle of the body, a mixed
+attraction and repulsion. Because it has this force it naturally calls out
+the virtue of those who take part in the spectacle, and makes impossible
+any soft compliance to emotion. Even if we admit that the spectacle of
+nakedness is a challenge to passion it is still a challenge that calls
+out the ennobling qualities of self-control. It is but a poor sort of
+virtue that lies in fleeing into the desert from things that we fear may
+have in them a temptation. We have to learn that it is even worse to
+attempt to create a desert around us in the midst of civilization. We
+cannot dispense with passions if we would; reason, as Holbach said, is the
+art of choosing the right passions, and education the art of sowing and
+cultivating them in human hearts. The spectacle of nakedness has its moral
+value in teaching us to learn to enjoy what we do not possess, a lesson
+which is an essential part of the training for any kind of fine social
+life. The child has to learn to look at flowers and not pluck them; the
+man has to learn to look at a woman's beauty and not desire to possess it.
+The joyous conquest over that "erotic kleptomania," as Ellen Key has well
+said, reveals the blossoming of a fine civilization. We fancy the conquest
+is difficult, even impossibly difficult. But it is not so. This impulse,
+like other human impulses, tends under natural conditions to develop
+temperately and wholesomely. We artificially press a stupid and brutal
+hand on it, and it is driven into the two unnatural extremes of repression
+and license, one extreme as foul as the other.
+
+To those who have been bred under bad conditions, it may indeed seem
+hopeless to attempt to rise to the level of the Greeks and the other finer
+tempered peoples of antiquity in realizing the moral, as well as the
+pedagogic, hygienic, and æsthetic advantages[44] of admitting into life
+the spectacle of the naked human body. But unless we do we hopelessly
+fetter ourselves in our march along the road of civilization, we deprive
+ourselves at once of a source of moral strength and of joyous inspiration.
+Just as Wesley once asked why the devil should have all the best tunes, so
+to-day men are beginning to ask why the human body, the most divine melody
+at its finest moments that creation has yielded, should be allowed to
+become the perquisite of those who lust for the obscene. And some are,
+further, convinced that by enlisting it on the side of purity and strength
+they are raising the most powerful of all bulwarks against the invasion of
+a vicious conception of life and the consequent degradation of sex. These
+are considerations which we cannot longer afford to neglect, however great
+the opposition they arouse among the unthinking.
+
+    "Folk are afraid of such things rousing the passions," Edward
+    Carpenter remarks. "No doubt the things may act that way. But
+    why, we may ask, should people be afraid of rousing passions
+    which, after all, are the great driving forces of human life?" It
+    is true, the same writer continues, our conventional moral
+    formulæ are no longer strong enough to control passion
+    adequately, and that we are generating steam in a boiler that is
+    cankered with rust. "The cure is not to cut off the passions, or
+    to be weakly afraid of them, but to find a new, sound, healthy
+    engine of general morality and common sense within which they
+    will work" (Edward Carpenter, _Albany Review_, Sept., 1907).
+
+    So far as I am aware, however, it was James Hinton who chiefly
+    sought to make clear the possibility of a positive morality on
+    the basis of nakedness, beauty, and sexual influence, regarded as
+    dynamic forces which, when suppressed, make for corruption and
+    when wisely used serve to inspire and ennoble life. He worked out
+    his thoughts on this matter in MSS., written from about 1870 to
+    his death two years later, which, never having been prepared for
+    publication, remain in a fragmentary state and have not been
+    published. I quote a few brief characteristic passages: "Is not,"
+    he wrote, "the Hindu refusal to see a woman eating strangely like
+    ours to see one naked? The real sensuality of the thought is
+    visibly identical.... Suppose, because they are delicious to eat,
+    pineapples were forbidden to be seen, except in pictures, and
+    about that there was something dubious. Suppose no one might have
+    sight of a pineapple unless he were rich enough to purchase one
+    for his particular eating, the sight and the eating being so
+    indissolubly joined. What lustfulness would surround them, what
+    constant pruriency, what stealing!... Miss ---- told us of her
+    Syrian adventures, and how she went into a wood-carver's shop and
+    he would not look at her; and how she took up a tool and worked,
+    till at last he looked, and they both burst out laughing. Will it
+    not be even so with our looking at women altogether? There will
+    come a _work_--and at last we shall look up and both burst out
+    laughing.... When men see truly what is amiss, and act with
+    reason and forethought in respect to the sexual relations, will
+    they not insist on the enjoyment of women's beauty by youths, and
+    from the earliest age, that the first feeling may be of beauty?
+    Will they not say, 'We must not allow the false purity, we must
+    have the true.' The false has been tried, and it is not good
+    enough; the power purely to enjoy beauty must be gained;
+    attempting to do with less is fatal. Every instructor of youth
+    shall say: 'This beauty of woman, God's chief work of beauty, it
+    is good you see it; it is a pleasure that serves good; all beauty
+    serves it, and above all this, for its office is to make you
+    pure. Come to it as you come to daily bread, or pure air, or the
+    cleansing bath: this is pure to you if you be pure, it will aid
+    you in your effort to be so. But if any of you are impure, and
+    make of it the feeder of impurity, then you should be ashamed and
+    pray; it is not for you our life can be ordered; it is for men
+    and not for beasts.' This must come when men open their eyes, and
+    act coolly and with reason and forethought, and not in mere panic
+    in respect to the sexual passion in its moral relations."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[40] Thus Athenæus (Bk. xiii, Ch. XX) says: "In the Island of Chios it is
+a beautiful sight to go to the gymnasia and the race-courses, and to see
+the young men wrestling naked with the maidens who are also naked."
+
+[41] Augustine (_De civitate Dei_, lib. ii, cap. XIII) refers to the same
+point, contrasting the Romans with the Greeks who honored their actors.
+
+[42] See "The Evolution of Modesty" in the first volume of these
+_Studies_, where this question of the relationship of nakedness to modesty
+is fully discussed.
+
+[43] C.H. Stratz, _Die Körperformen in Kunst und Leben der Japaner_,
+Second edition, Ch. III; id., _Frauenkleidung_, Third edition, pp. 22, 30.
+
+[44] I have not considered it in place here to emphasize the æsthetic
+influence of familiarity with nakedness. The most æsthetic nations
+(notably the Greeks and the Japanese) have been those that preserved a
+certain degree of familiarity with the naked body. "In all arts,"
+Maeterlinck remarks, "civilized peoples have approached or departed from
+pure beauty according as they approached or departed from the habit of
+nakedness." Ungewitter insists on the advantage to the artist of being
+able to study the naked body in movement, and it may be worth mentioning
+that Fidus (Hugo Höppener), the German artist of to-day who has exerted
+great influence by his fresh, powerful and yet reverent delineation of the
+naked human form in all its varying aspects, attributes his inspiration
+and vision to the fact that, as a pupil of Diefenbach, he was accustomed
+with his companions to work naked in the solitudes outside Munich which
+they frequented (F. Enzensberger, "Fidus," _Deutsche Kultur_, Aug., 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE VALUATION OF SEXUAL LOVE.
+
+The Conception of Sexual Love--The Attitude of Mediæval Asceticism--St.
+Bernard and St. Odo of Cluny--The Ascetic Insistence on the Proximity of
+the Sexual and Excretory Centres--Love as a Sacrament of Nature--The Idea
+of the Impurity of Sex in Primitive Religions Generally--Theories of the
+Origin of This Idea--The Anti-Ascetic Element in the Bible and Early
+Christianity--Clement of Alexandria--St. Augustine's Attitude--The
+Recognition of the Sacredness of the Body by Tertullian, Rufinus and
+Athanasius--The Reformation--The Sexual Instinct regarded as Beastly--The
+Human Sexual Instinct Not Animal-like--Lust and Love--The Definition of
+Love--Love and Names for Love Unknown in Some Parts of the World--Romantic
+Love of Late Development in the White Race--The Mystery of Sexual
+Desire--Whether Love is a Delusion--The Spiritual as Well as the Physical
+Structure of the World in Part Built up on Sexual Love--The Testimony of
+Men of Intellect to the Supremacy of Love.
+
+
+It will be seen that the preceding discussion of nakedness has a
+significance beyond what it appeared to possess at the outset. The
+hygienic value, physically and mentally, of familiarity with nakedness
+during the early years of life, however considerable it may be, is not the
+only value which such familiarity possesses. Beyond its æsthetic value,
+also, there lies in it a moral value, a source of dynamic energy. And now,
+taking a still further step, we may say that it has a spiritual value in
+relation to our whole conception of the sexual impulse. Our attitude
+towards the naked human body is the test of our attitude towards the
+instinct of sex. If our own and our fellows' bodies seem to us
+intrinsically shameful or disgusting, nothing will ever really ennoble or
+purify our conceptions of sexual love. Love craves the flesh, and if the
+flesh is shameful the lover must be shameful. "Se la cosa amata è vile,"
+as Leonardo da Vinci profoundly said, "l'amante se fa vile." However
+illogical it may have been, there really was a justification for the old
+Christian identification of the flesh with the sexual instinct. They stand
+or fall together; we cannot degrade the one and exalt the other. As our
+feelings towards nakedness are, so will be our feelings towards love.
+
+"Man is nothing else than fetid sperm, a sack of dung, the food of
+worms.... You have never seen a viler dung-hill." Such was the outcome of
+St. Bernard's cloistered _Meditationes Piissimæ_.[45] Sometimes, indeed,
+these mediæval monks would admit that the skin possessed a certain
+superficial beauty, but they only made that admission in order to
+emphasize the hideousness of the body when deprived of this film of
+loveliness, and strained all their perverse intellectual acumen, and their
+ferocious irony, as they eagerly pointed the finger of mockery at every
+detail of what seemed to them the pitiful figure of man. St. Odo of
+Cluny--charming saint as he was and a pioneer in his appreciation of the
+wild beauty of the Alps he had often traversed--was yet an adept in this
+art of reviling the beauty of the human body. That beauty only lies in the
+skin, he insists; if we could see beneath the skin women would arouse
+nothing but nausea. Their adornments are but blood and mucus and bile. If
+we refuse to touch dung and phlegm even with a fingertip, how can we
+desire to embrace a sack of dung?[46] The mediæval monks of the more
+contemplative order, indeed, often found here a delectable field of
+meditation, and the Christian world generally was content to accept their
+opinions in more or less diluted versions, or at all events never made any
+definite protest against them.
+
+Even men of science accepted these conceptions and are, indeed, only now
+beginning to emancipate themselves from such ancient superstitions. R. de
+Graef in the Preface to his famous treatise on the generative organs of
+women, _De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus_, dedicated to
+Cosmo III de Medici in 1672, considered it necessary to apologize for the
+subject of his work. Even a century later, Linnæus in his great work, _The
+System of Nature_, dismissed as "abominable" the exact study of the female
+genitals, although he admitted the scientific interest of such
+investigations. And if men of science have found it difficult to attain an
+objective vision of women we cannot be surprised that medieval and still
+more ancient conceptions have often been subtly mingled with the views of
+philosophical and semi-philosophical writers.[47]
+
+We may regard as a special variety of the ascetic view of sex,--for the
+ascetics, as we see, freely but not quite legitimately, based their
+asceticism largely on æsthetic considerations,--that insistence on the
+proximity of the sexual to the excretory centres which found expression in
+the early Church in Augustine's depreciatory assertion: "Inter fæces et
+urinam nascimur," and still persists among many who by no means always
+associate it with religious asceticism.[48] "As a result of what
+ridiculous economy, and of what Mephistophilian irony," asks Tarde,[49]
+"has Nature imagined that a function so lofty, so worthy of the poetic and
+philosophical hymns which have celebrated it, only deserved to have its
+exclusive organ shared with that of the vilest corporal functions?"
+
+It may, however, be pointed out that this view of the matter, however
+unconsciously, is itself the outcome of the ascetic depreciation of the
+body. From a scientific point of view, the metabolic processes of the
+body from one end to the other, whether regarded chemically or
+psychologically, are all interwoven and all of equal dignity. We cannot
+separate out any particular chemical or biological process and declare:
+This is vile. Even what we call excrement still stores up the stuff of our
+lives. Eating has to some persons seemed a disgusting process. But yet it
+has been possible to say, with Thoreau, that "the gods have really
+intended that men should feed divinely, as themselves, on their own nectar
+and ambrosia.... I have felt that eating became a sacrament, a method of
+communion, an ecstatic exercise, and a sitting at the communion table of
+the world."
+
+The sacraments of Nature are in this way everywhere woven into the texture
+of men's and women's bodies. Lips good to kiss with are indeed first of
+all chiefly good to eat and drink with. So accumulated and overlapped have
+the centres of force become in the long course of development, that the
+mucous membranes of the natural orifices, through the sensitiveness gained
+in their own offices, all become agents to thrill the soul in the contact
+of love; it is idle to discriminate high or low, pure or impure; all alike
+are sanctified already by the extreme unction of Nature. The nose receives
+the breath of life; the vagina receives the water of life. Ultimately the
+worth and loveliness of life must be measured by the worth and loveliness
+for us of the instruments of life. The swelling breasts are such divinely
+gracious insignia of womanhood because of the potential child that hangs
+at them and sucks; the large curves of the hips are so voluptuous because
+of the potential child they clasp within them; there can be no division
+here, we cannot cut the roots from the tree. The supreme function of
+manhood--the handing on of the lamp of life to future races--is carried
+on, it is true, by the same instrument that is the daily conduit of the
+bladder. It has been said in scorn that we are born between urine and
+excrement; it may be said, in reverence, that the passage through this
+channel of birth is a sacrament of Nature's more sacred and significant
+than men could ever invent.
+
+These relationships have been sometimes perceived and their meaning
+realized by a sort of mystical intuition. We catch glimpses of such an
+insight now and again, first among the poets and later among the
+physicians of the Renaissance. In 1664 Rolfincius, in his _Ordo et Methods
+Generationi Partium etc._, at the outset of the second Part devoted to the
+sexual organs of women, sets forth what ancient writers have said of the
+Eleusinian and other mysteries and the devotion and purity demanded of
+those who approached these sacred rites. It is so also with us, he
+continues, in the rites of scientific investigation. "We also operate with
+sacred things. The organs of sex are to be held among sacred things. They
+who approach these altars must come with devout minds. Let the profane
+stand without, and the doors be closed." In those days, even for science,
+faith and intuition were alone possible. It is only of recent years that
+the histologist's microscope and the physiological chemist's test-tube
+have furnished them with a rational basis. It is no longer possible to cut
+Nature in two and assert that here she is pure and there impure.[50]
+
+    There thus appears to be no adequate ground for agreeing with
+    those who consider that the proximity of the generative and
+    excretory centres is "a stupid bungle of Nature's." An
+    association which is so ancient and primitive in Nature can only
+    seem repulsive to those whose feelings have become morbidly
+    unnatural. It may further be remarked that the anus, which is the
+    more æsthetically unattractive of the excretory centres, is
+    comparatively remote from the sexual centre, and that, as R.
+    Hellmann remarked many years ago in discussing this question
+    (_Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit_, p. 82): "In the first place,
+    freshly voided urine has nothing specially unpleasant about it,
+    and in the second place, even if it had, we might reflect that a
+    rosy mouth by no means loses its charm merely because it fails to
+    invite a kiss at the moment when its possessor is vomiting."
+
+    A clergyman writes suggesting that we may go further and find a
+    positive advantage in this proximity: "I am glad that you do not
+    agree with the man who considered that Nature had bungled by
+    using the genitals for urinary purposes; apart from teleological
+    or theological grounds I could not follow that line of reasoning.
+    I think there is no need for disgust concerning the urinary
+    organs, though I feel that the anus can never be attractive to
+    the normal mind; but the anus is quite separate from the
+    genitals. I would suggest that the proximity serves a good end in
+    making the organs more or less secret except at times of sexual
+    emotion or to those in love. The result is some degree of
+    repulsion at ordinary times and a strong attraction at times of
+    sexual activity. Hence, the ordinary guarding of the parts, from
+    fear of creating disgust, greatly increases their attractiveness
+    at other times when sexual emotion is paramount. Further, the
+    feeling of disgust itself is merely the result of habit and
+    sentiment, however useful it may be, and according to Scripture
+    everything is clean and good. The ascetic feeling of repulsion,
+    if we go back to origin, is due to other than Christian
+    influence. Christianity came out of Judaism which had no sense of
+    the impurity of marriage, for 'unclean' in the Old Testament
+    simply means 'sacred.' The ascetic side of the religion of
+    Christianity is no part of the religion of Christ as it came from
+    the hands of its Founder, and the modern feeling on this matter
+    is a lingering remnant of the heresy of the Manichæans." I may
+    add, however, that, as Northcote points out (_Christianity and
+    Sex Problems_, p. 14), side by side in the Old Testament with the
+    frank recognition of sexuality, there is a circle of ideas
+    revealing the feeling of impurity in sex and of shame in
+    connection with it. Christianity inherited this mixed feeling. It
+    has really been a widespread and almost universal feeling among
+    the ancient and primitive peoples that there is something impure
+    and sinful in the things of sex, so that those who would lead a
+    religious life must avoid sexual relationships; even in India
+    celibacy has commanded respect (see, e.g., Westermarck,
+    _Marriage_, pp. 150 et seq.). As to the original foundation of
+    this notion--which it is unnecessary to discuss more fully
+    here--many theories have been put forward; St. Augustine, in his
+    _De Civitate Dei_, sets forth the ingenious idea that the penis,
+    being liable to spontaneous movements and erections that are not
+    under the control of the will, is a shameful organ and involves
+    the whole sphere of sex in its shame. Westermarck argues that
+    among nearly all peoples there is a feeling against sexual
+    relationship with members of the same family or household, and as
+    sex was thus banished from the sphere of domestic life a notion
+    of its general impurity arose; Northcote points out that from the
+    first it has been necessary to seek concealment for sexual
+    intercourse, because at that moment the couple would be a prey to
+    hostile attacks, and that it was by an easy transition that sex
+    came to be regarded as a thing that ought to be concealed, and,
+    therefore, a sinful thing. (Diderot, in his _Supplément au Voyage
+    de Bougainville_, had already referred to this motive for
+    seclusion as "the only natural element in modesty.") Crawley has
+    devoted a large part of his suggestive work, _The Mystic Rose_,
+    to showing that, to savage man, sex is a perilous, dangerous, and
+    enfeebling element in life, and, therefore, sinful.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to think that such men as St. Bernard and
+St. Odo of Cluny, admirably as they represented the ascetic and even the
+general Christian views of their own time, are to be regarded as
+altogether typical exponents of the genuine and primitive Christian view.
+So far as I have been able to discover, during the first thousand years of
+Christianity we do not find this concentrated intellectual and emotional
+ferocity of attack on the body; it only developed at the moment when, with
+Pope Gregory VII, mediæval Christianity reached the climax of its conquest
+over the souls of European men, in the establishment of the celibacy of
+the secular clergy, and the growth of the great cloistered communities of
+monks in severely regulated and secluded orders.[51] Before that the
+teachers of asceticism were more concerned to exhort to chastity and
+modesty than to direct a deliberate and systematic attack on the whole
+body; they concentrated their attention rather on spiritual virtues than
+on physical imperfections. And if we go back to the Gospels we find little
+of the mediæval ascetic spirit in the reported sayings and doings of
+Jesus, which may rather indeed be said to reveal, on the whole,
+notwithstanding their underlying asceticism, a certain tenderness and
+indulgence to the body, while even Paul, though not tender towards the
+body, exhorts to reverence towards it as a temple of the Holy Spirit.
+
+We cannot expect to find the Fathers of the Church sympathetic towards the
+spectacle of the naked human body, for their position was based on a
+revolt against paganism, and paganism had cultivated the body. Nakedness
+had been more especially associated with the public bath, the gymnasium,
+and the theatre; in profoundly disapproving of these pagan institutions
+Christianity discouraged nakedness. The fact that familiarity with
+nakedness was favorable, rather than opposed, to the chastity to which it
+attached so much importance, the Church--though indeed at one moment it
+accepted nakedness in the rite of baptism--was for the most part unable to
+see if it was indeed a fact which the special conditions of decadent
+classic life had tended to disguise. But in their decided preference for
+the dressed over the naked human body the early Christians frequently
+hesitated to take the further step of asserting that the body is a focus
+of impurity and that the physical organs of sex are a device of the devil.
+On the contrary, indeed, some of the most distinguished of the Fathers,
+especially those of the Eastern Church who had felt the vivifying breath
+of Greek thought, occasionally expressed themselves on the subject of
+Nature, sex, and the body in a spirit which would have won the approval of
+Goethe or Whitman.
+
+Clement of Alexandria, with all the eccentricities of his over-subtle
+intellect, was yet the most genuinely Greek of all the Fathers, and it is
+not surprising that the dying ray of classic light reflected from his mind
+shed some illumination over this question of sex. He protested, for
+instance, against that prudery which, as the sun of the classic world set,
+had begun to overshadow life. "We should not be ashamed to name," he
+declared, "what God has not been ashamed to create."[52] It was a
+memorable declaration because, while it accepted the old classic feeling
+of no shame in the presence of nature, it put that feeling on a new and
+religious basis harmonious to Christianity. Throughout, though not always
+quite consistently, Clement defends the body and the functions of sex
+against those who treated them with contempt. And as the cause of sex is
+the cause of women he always strongly asserts the dignity of women, and
+also proclaims the holiness of marriage, a state which he sometimes places
+above that of virginity.[53]
+
+Unfortunately, it must be said, St. Augustine--another North African, but
+of Roman Carthage and not of Greek Alexandria--thought that he had a
+convincing answer to the kind of argument which Clement presented, and so
+great was the force of his passionate and potent genius that he was able
+in the end to make his answer prevail. For Augustine sin was hereditary,
+and sin had its special seat and symbol in the sexual organs; the fact of
+sin has modified the original divine act of creation, and we cannot treat
+sex and its organs as though there had been no inherited sin. Our sexual
+organs, he declares, have become shameful because, through sin, they are
+now moved by lust. At the same time Augustine by no means takes up the
+mediæval ascetic position of contemptuous hatred towards the body. Nothing
+can be further from Odo of Cluny than Augustine's enthusiasm about the
+body, even about the exquisite harmony of the parts beneath the skin. "I
+believe it may be concluded," he even says, "that in the creation of the
+human body beauty was more regarded than necessity. In truth, necessity is
+a transitory thing, and the time is coming when we shall be able to enjoy
+one another's beauty without any lust."[54] Even in the sphere of sex he
+would be willing to admit purity and beauty, apart from the inherited
+influence of Adam's sin. In Paradise, he says, had Paradise continued, the
+act of generation would have been as simple and free from shame as the act
+of the hand in scattering seed on to the earth. "Sexual conjugation would
+have been under the control of the will without any sexual desire. The
+semen would be injected into the vagina in as simple a manner as the
+menstrual fluid is now ejected. There would not have been any words which
+could be called obscene, but all that might be said of these members would
+have been as pure as what is said of the other parts of the body."[55]
+That, however, for Augustine, is what might have been in Paradise where,
+as he believed, sexual desire had no existence. As things are, he held, we
+are right to be ashamed, we do well to blush. And it was natural that, as
+Clement of Alexandria mentions, many heretics should have gone further on
+this road and believed that while God made man down to the navel, the rest
+was made by another power; such heretics have their descendants among us
+even to-day.
+
+Alike in the Eastern and Western Churches, however, both before and after
+Augustine, though not so often after, great Fathers and teachers have
+uttered opinions which recall those of Clement rather than of Augustine.
+We cannot lay very much weight on the utterance of the extravagant and
+often contradictory Tertullian, but it is worth noting that, while he
+declared that woman is the gate of hell, he also said that we must
+approach Nature with reverence and not with blushes. "Natura veneranda
+est, non erubescenda." "No Christian author," it has indeed been said,
+"has so energetically spoken against the heretical contempt of the body as
+Tertullian. Soul and body, according to Tertullian, are in the closest
+association. The soul is the life-principle of the body, but there is no
+activity of the soul which is not manifested and conditioned by the
+flesh."[56] More weight attaches to Rufinus Tyrannius, the friend and
+fellow-student of St. Jerome, in the fourth century, who wrote a
+commentary on the Apostles' Creed, which was greatly esteemed by the early
+and mediæval Church, and is indeed still valued even to-day. Here, in
+answer to those who declared that there was obscenity in the fact of
+Christ's birth through the sexual organs of a woman, Rufinus replies that
+God created the sexual organs, and that "it is not Nature but merely human
+opinion which teaches that these parts are obscene. For the rest, all the
+parts of the body are made from the same clay, whatever differences there
+may be in their uses and functions."[57] He looks at the matter, we see,
+piously indeed, but naturally and simply, like Clement, and not, like
+Augustine, through the distorting medium of a theological system.
+Athanasius, in the Eastern Church, spoke in the same sense as Rufinus in
+the Western Church. A certain monk named Amun had been much grieved by the
+occurrence of seminal emissions during sleep, and he wrote to Athanasius
+to inquire if such emissions are a sin. In the letter he wrote in reply,
+Athanasius seeks to reassure Amun. "All things," he tells him, "are pure
+to the pure. For what, I ask, dear and pious friend, can there be sinful
+or naturally impure in excrement? Man is the handwork of God. There is
+certainly nothing in us that is impure."[58] We feel as we read these
+utterances that the seeds of prudery and pruriency are already alive in
+the popular mind, but yet we see also that some of the most distinguished
+thinkers of the early Christian Church, in striking contrast to the more
+morbid and narrow-minded mediæval ascetics, clearly stood aside from the
+popular movement. On the whole, they were submerged because Christianity,
+like Buddhism, had in it from the first a germ that lent itself to ascetic
+renunciation, and the sexual life is always the first impulse to be
+sacrificed to the passion for renunciation. But there were other germs
+also in Christianity, and Luther, who in his own plebeian way asserted the
+rights of the body, although he broke with mediæval asceticism, by no
+means thereby cast himself off from the traditions of the early Christian
+Church.
+
+I have thought it worth while to bring forward this evidence, although I
+am perfectly well aware that the facts of Nature gain no additional
+support from the authority of the Fathers or even of the Bible. Nature and
+humanity existed before the Bible and would continue to exist although the
+Bible should be forgotten. But the attitude of Christianity on this point
+has so often been unreservedly condemned that it seems as well to point
+out that at its finest moments, when it was a young and growing power in
+the world, the utterances of Christianity were often at one with those of
+Nature and reason. There are many, it may be added, who find it a matter
+of consolation that in following the natural and rational path in this
+matter they are not thereby altogether breaking with the religious
+traditions of their race.
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to remark that when we turn from
+    Christianity to the other great world-religions, we do not
+    usually meet with so ambiguous an attitude towards sex. The
+    Mahommedans were as emphatic in asserting the sanctity of sex as
+    they were in asserting physical cleanliness; they were prepared
+    to carry the functions of sex into the future life, and were
+    never worried, as Luther and so many other Christians have been,
+    concerning the lack of occupation in Heaven. In India, although
+    India is the home of the most extreme forms of religious
+    asceticism, sexual love has been sanctified and divinized to a
+    greater extent than in any other part of the world. "It seems
+    never to have entered into the heads of the Hindu legislators,"
+    said Sir William Jones long since (_Works_, vol. ii, p. 311),
+    "that anything natural could be offensively obscene, a
+    singularity which pervades all their writings, but is no proof of
+    the depravity of their morals." The sexual act has often had a
+    religious significance in India, and the minutest details of the
+    sexual life and its variations are discussed in Indian erotic
+    treatises in a spirit of gravity, while nowhere else have the
+    anatomical and physiological sexual characters of women been
+    studied with such minute and adoring reverence. "Love in India,
+    both as regards theory and practice," remarks Richard Schmidt
+    (_Beiträge zur Indischen Erotik_, p. 2) "possesses an importance
+    which it is impossible for us even to conceive."
+
+In Protestant countries the influence of the Reformation, by
+rehabilitating sex as natural, indirectly tended to substitute in popular
+feeling towards sex the opprobrium of sinfulness by the opprobrium of
+animality. Henceforth the sexual impulse must be disguised or adorned to
+become respectably human. This may be illustrated by a passage in Pepys's
+_Diary_ in the seventeenth century. On the morning after the wedding day
+it was customary to call up new married couples by music; the absence of
+this music on one occasion (in 1667) seemed to Pepys "as if they had
+married like dog and bitch." We no longer insist on the music, but the
+same feeling still exists in the craving for other disguises and
+adornments for the sexual impulse. We do not always realize that love
+brings its own sanctity with it.
+
+Nowadays indeed, whenever the repugnance to the sexual side of life
+manifests itself, the assertion nearly always made is not so much that it
+is "sinful" as that it is "beastly." It is regarded as that part of man
+which most closely allies him to the lower animals. It should scarcely be
+necessary to point out that this is a mistake. On whichever side, indeed,
+we approach it, the implication that sex in man and animals is identical
+cannot be borne out. From the point of view of those who accept this
+identity it would be much more correct to say that men are inferior,
+rather than on a level with animals, for in animals under natural
+conditions the sexual instinct is strictly subordinated to reproduction
+and very little susceptible to deviation, so that from the standpoint of
+those who wish to minimize sex, animals are nearer to the ideal, and such
+persons must say with Woods Hutchinson: "Take it altogether, our animal
+ancestors have quite as good reason to be ashamed of us as we of them."
+But if we look at the matter from a wider biological standpoint of
+development, our conclusion must be very different.
+
+So far from being animal-like, the human impulses of sex are among the
+least animal-like acquisitions of man. The human sphere of sex differs
+from the animal sphere of sex to a singularly great extent.[59] Breathing
+is an animal function and here we cannot compete with birds; locomotion is
+an animal function and here we cannot equal quadrupeds; we have made no
+notable advance in our circulatory, digestive, renal, or hepatic
+functions. Even as regards vision and hearing, there are many animals that
+are more keen-sighted than man, and many that are capable of hearing
+sounds that to him are inaudible. But there are no animals in whom the
+sexual instinct is so sensitive, so highly developed, so varied in its
+manifestations, so constantly alert, so capable of irradiating the highest
+and remotest parts of the organism. The sexual activities of man and woman
+belong not to that lower part of our nature which degrades us to the level
+of the "brute," but to the higher part which raises us towards all the
+finest activities and ideals we are capable of. It is true that it is
+chiefly in the mouths of a few ignorant and ill-bred women that we find
+sex referred to as "bestial" or "the animal part of our nature."[60] But
+since women are the mothers and teachers of the human race this is a piece
+of ignorance and ill-breeding which cannot be too swiftly eradicated.
+
+There are some who seem to think that they have held the balance evenly,
+and finally stated the matter, if they admit that sexual love may be
+either beautiful or disgusting, and that either view is equally normal and
+legitimate. "Listen in turn," Tarde remarks, "to two men who, one cold,
+the other ardent, one chaste, the other in love, both equally educated and
+large-minded, are estimating the same thing: one judges as disgusting,
+odious, revolting, and bestial what the other judges to be delicious,
+exquisite, ineffable, divine. What, for one, is in Christian phraseology,
+an unforgivable sin, is, for the other, the state of true grace. Acts that
+for one seem a sad and occasional necessity, stains that must be carefully
+effaced by long intervals of continence, are for the other the golden
+nails from which all the rest of conduct and existence is suspended, the
+things that alone give human life its value."[61] Yet we may well doubt
+whether both these persons are "equally well-educated and broad-minded."
+The savage feels that sex is perilous, and he is right. But the person who
+feels that the sexual impulse is bad, or even low and vulgar, is an
+absurdity in the universe, an anomaly. He is like those persons in our
+insane asylums, who feel that the instinct of nutrition is evil and so
+proceed to starve themselves. They are alike spiritual outcasts in the
+universe whose children they are. It is another matter when a man declares
+that, personally, in his own case, he cherishes an ascetic ideal which
+leads him to restrain, so far as possible, either or both impulses. The
+man, who is sanely ascetic seeks a discipline which aids the ideal he has
+personally set before himself. He may still remain theoretically in
+harmony with the universe to which he belongs. But to pour contempt on
+the sexual life, to throw the veil of "impurity" over it, is, as Nietzsche
+declared, the unpardonable sin against the Holy Ghost of Life.
+
+There are many who seek to conciliate prejudice and reason in their
+valuation of sex by drawing a sharp distinction between "lust" and "love,"
+rejecting the one and accepting the other. It is quite proper to make such
+a distinction, but the manner in which it is made will by no means usually
+bear examination. We have to define what we mean by "lust" and what we
+mean by "love," and this is not easy if they are regarded as mutually
+exclusive. It is sometimes said that "lust" must be understood as meaning
+a reckless indulgence of the sexual impulse without regard to other
+considerations. So understood, we are quite safe in rejecting it. But that
+is an entirely arbitrary definition of the word. "Lust" is really a very
+ambiguous term; it is a good word that has changed its moral values, and
+therefore we need to define it very carefully before we venture to use it.
+Properly speaking, "lust" is an entirely colorless word[62] and merely
+means desire in general and sexual desire in particular; it corresponds to
+"hunger" or "thirst"; to use it in an offensive sense is much the same as
+though we should always assume that the word "hungry" had the offensive
+meaning of "greedy." The result has been that sensitive minds indignantly
+reject the term "lust" in connection with love.[63] In the early use of
+our language, "lust," "lusty," and "lustful" conveyed the sense of
+wholesome and normal sexual vigor; now, with the partial exception of
+"lusty," they have been so completely degraded to a lower sense that
+although it would be very convenient to restore them to their original
+and proper place, which still remains vacant, the attempt at such a
+restoration scarcely seems a hopeful task. We have so deeply poisoned the
+springs of feeling in these matters with mediæval ascetic crudities that
+all our words of sex tend soon to become bespattered with filth; we may
+pick them up from the mud into which they have fallen and seek to purify
+them, but to many eyes they will still seem dirty. One result of this
+tendency is that we have no simple, precise, natural word for the love of
+the sexes, and are compelled to fall back on the general term, which is so
+extensive in its range that in English and French and most of the other
+leading languages of Europe, it is equally correct to "love" God or to
+"love" eating.
+
+Love, in the sexual sense, is, summarily considered, a synthesis of lust
+(in the primitive and uncolored sense of sexual emotion) and friendship.
+It is incorrect to apply the term "love" in the sexual sense to elementary
+and uncomplicated sexual desire; it is equally incorrect to apply it to
+any variety or combination of varieties of friendship. There can be no
+sexual love without lust; but, on the other hand, until the currents of
+lust in the organism have been so irradiated as to affect other parts of
+the psychic organism--at the least the affections and the social
+feelings--it is not yet sexual love. Lust, the specific sexual impulse, is
+indeed the primary and essential element in this synthesis, for it alone
+is adequate to the end of reproduction, not only in animals but in men.
+But it is not until lust is expanded and irradiated that it develops into
+the exquisite and enthralling flower of love. We may call to mind what
+happens among plants: on the one hand we have the lower organisms in which
+sex is carried on summarily and cryptogamically, never shedding any shower
+of gorgeous blossoms on the world, and on the other hand the higher plants
+among whom sex has become phanersgamous and expanded enormously into form
+and color and fragrance.
+
+    While "lust" is, of course, known all over the world, and there
+    are everywhere words to designate it, "love" is not universally
+    known, and in many languages there are no words for "love." The
+    failures to find love are often remarkable and unexpected. We may
+    find it where we least expect it. Sexual desire became idealized
+    (as Sergi has pointed out) even by some animals, especially
+    birds, for when a bird pines to death for the loss of its mate
+    this cannot be due to the uncomplicated instinct of sex, but must
+    involve the interweaving of that instinct with the other elements
+    of life to a degree which is rare even among the most civilized
+    men. Some savage races seem to have no fundamental notion of
+    love, and (like the American Nahuas) no primary word for it,
+    while, on the other hand, in Quichua, the language of the ancient
+    Peruvians, there are nearly six hundred combinations of the verb
+    _munay_, to love. Among some peoples love seems to be confined to
+    the women. Letourneau (_L'Evolution Littéraire_, p. 529) points
+    out that in various parts of the world women have taken a leading
+    part in creating erotic poetry. It may be mentioned in this
+    connection that suicide from erotic motives among primitive
+    peoples occurs chiefly among women (_Zeitschrift für
+    Sozialwissenschaft_, 1899, p. 578). Not a few savages possess
+    love-poems, as, for instance, the Suahali (Velten, in his _Prosa
+    und Poesie der Suahali_, devotes a section to love-poems
+    reproduced in the Suahali language). D.G. Brinton, in an
+    interesting paper on "The Conception of Love in Some American
+    Languages" (_Proceedings American Philosophical Society_, vol.
+    xxiii, p. 546, 1886) states that the words for love in these
+    languages reveal four main ways of expressing the conception: (1)
+    inarticulate cries of emotion; (2) assertions of sameness or
+    similarity; (3) assertions of conjunction or union; (4)
+    assertions of a wish, desire, a longing. Brinton adds that "these
+    same notions are those which underlie the majority of the words
+    of love in the great Aryan family of languages." The remarkable
+    fact emerges, however, that the peoples of Aryan tongue were slow
+    in developing their conception of sexual love. Brinton remarks
+    that the American Mayas must be placed above the peoples of early
+    Aryan culture, in that they possessed a radical word for the joy
+    of love which was in significance purely psychical, referring
+    strictly to a mental state, and neither to similarity nor desire.
+    Even the Greeks were late in developing any ideal of sexual love.
+    This has been well brought out by E.F.M. Benecke in his
+    _Antimachus of Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek
+    Poetry_, a book which contains some hazardous assertions, but is
+    highly instructive from the present point of view. The Greek
+    lyric poets wrote practically no love poems at all to women
+    before Anacreon, and his were only written in old age. True love
+    for the Greeks was nearly always homosexual. The Ionian lyric
+    poets of early Greece regarded woman as only an instrument of
+    pleasure and the founder of the family. Theognis compares
+    marriage to cattle-breeding; Alcman, when he wishes to be
+    complimentary to the Spartan girls, speaks of them as his "female
+    boy-friends." Æschylus makes even a father assume that his
+    daughters will misbehave if left to themselves. There is no
+    sexual love in Sophocles, and in Euripides it is only the women
+    who fall in love. Benecke concludes (p. 67) that in Greece sexual
+    love, down to a comparatively later period, was looked down on,
+    and held to be unworthy of public discussion and representation.
+    It was in Magna Græcia rather than in Greece itself that men took
+    interest in women, and it was not until the Alexandrian period,
+    and notably in Asclepiades, Benecke maintains, that the love of
+    women was regarded as a matter of life and death. Thereafter the
+    conception of sexual love, in its romantic aspects, appears in
+    European life. With the Celtic story of Tristram, as Gaston Paris
+    remarks, it finally appears in the Christian European world of
+    poetry as the chief point in human life, the great motive force
+    of conduct.
+
+    Romantic love failed, however, to penetrate the masses in Europe.
+    In the sixteenth century, or whenever it was that the ballad of
+    "Glasgerion" was written, we see it is assumed that a churl's
+    relation to his mistress is confined to the mere act of sexual
+    intercourse; he fails to kiss her on arriving or departing; it is
+    only the knight, the man of upper class, who would think of
+    offering that tender civility. And at the present day in, for
+    instance, the region between East Friesland and the Alps, Bloch
+    states (_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, p. 29), following E.H. Meyer,
+    that the word "love" is unknown among the masses, and only its
+    coarse counterpart recognized.
+
+    On the other side of the world, in Japan, sexual love seems to be
+    in as great disrepute as it was in ancient Greece; thus Miss
+    Tsuda, a Japanese head-mistress, and herself a Christian, remarks
+    (as quoted by Mrs. Eraser in _World's Work and Play_, Dec.,
+    1906): "That word 'love' has been hitherto a word unknown among
+    our girls, in the foreign sense. Duty, submission,
+    kindness--these were the sentiments which a girl was expected to
+    bring to the husband who had been chosen for her--and many happy,
+    harmonious marriages were the result. Now, your dear sentimental
+    foreign women say to our girls: 'It is wicked to marry without
+    love; the obedience to parents in such a case is an outrage
+    against nature and Christianity. If you love a man you must
+    sacrifice everything to marry him.'"
+
+    When, however, love is fully developed it becomes an enormously
+    extended, highly complex emotion, and lust, even in the best
+    sense of that word, becomes merely a coördinated element among
+    many other elements. Herbert Spencer, in an interesting passage
+    of his _Principles of Psychology_ (Part IV, Ch. VIII), has
+    analyzed love into as many as nine distinct and important
+    elements: (1) the physical impulse of sex; (2) the feeling for
+    beauty; (3) affection; (4) admiration and respect; (5) love of
+    approbation; (6) self-esteem; (7) proprietary feeling; (8)
+    extended liberty of action from the absence of personal barriers;
+    (9) exaltation of the sympathies. "This passion," he concludes,
+    "fuses into one immense aggregate most of the elementary
+    excitations of which we are capable."
+
+It is scarcely necessary to say that to define sexual love, or even to
+analyze its components, is by no means to explain its mystery. We seek to
+satisfy our intelligence by means of a coherent picture of love, but the
+gulf between that picture and the emotional reality must always be
+incommensurable and impassable. "There is no word more often pronounced
+than that of love," wrote Bonstetten many years ago, "yet there is no
+subject more mysterious. Of that which touches us most nearly we know
+least. We measure the march of the stars and we do not know how we love."
+And however expert we have become in detecting and analyzing the causes,
+the concomitants, and the results of love, we must still make the same
+confession to-day. We may, as some have done, attempt to explain love as a
+form of hunger and thirst, or as a force analogous to electricity, or as a
+kind of magnetism, or as a variety of chemical affinity, or as a vital
+tropism, but these explanations are nothing more than ways of expressing
+to ourselves the magnitude of the phenomenon we are in the presence of.
+
+What has always baffled men in the contemplation of sexual love is the
+seeming inadequacy of its cause, the immense discrepancy between the
+necessarily circumscribed region of mucous membrane which is the final
+goal of such love and the sea of world-embracing emotions to which it
+seems as the door, so that, as Remy de Gourmont has said, "the mucous
+membranes, by an ineffable mystery, enclose in their obscure folds all the
+riches of the infinite." It is a mystery before which the thinker and the
+artist are alike overcome. Donnay, in his play _L'Escalade_, makes a cold
+and stern man of science, who regards love as a mere mental disorder which
+can be cured like other disorders, at last fall desperately in love
+himself. He forces his way into the girl's room, by a ladder, at dead of
+night, and breaks into a long and passionate speech: "Everything that
+touches you becomes to me mysterious and sacred. Ah! to think that a thing
+so well known as a woman's body, which sculptors have modelled, which
+poets have sung of, which men of science like myself have dissected, that
+such a thing should suddenly become an unknown mystery and an infinite joy
+merely because it is the body of one particular woman--what insanity! And
+yet that is what I feel."[64]
+
+That love is a natural insanity, a temporary delusion which the individual
+is compelled to suffer for the sake of the race, is indeed an explanation
+that has suggested itself to many who have been baffled by this mystery.
+That, as we know, was the explanation offered by Schopenhauer. When a
+youth and a girl fall into each other's arms in the ecstacy of love they
+imagine that they are seeking their own happiness. But it is not so, said
+Schopenhauer; they are deluded by the genius of the race into the belief
+that they are seeking a personal end in order that they may be induced to
+effect a far greater impersonal end: the creation of the future race. The
+intensity of their passion is not the measure of the personal happiness
+they will secure but the measure of their aptitude for producing
+offspring. In accepting passion and renouncing the counsels of cautious
+prudence the youth and the girl are really sacrificing their chances of
+selfish happiness and fulfilling the larger ends of Nature. As
+Schopenhauer saw the matter, there was here no vulgar illusion. The lovers
+thought that they were reaching towards a boundlessly immense personal
+happiness; they were probably deceived. But they were deceived not because
+the reality was less than their imagination, but because it was more;
+instead of pursuing, as they thought, a merely personal end they were
+carrying on the creative work of the world, a task better left undone, as
+Schopenhauer viewed it, but a task whose magnitude he fully
+recognized.[65]
+
+It must be remembered that in the lower sense of deception, love may be,
+and frequently is, a delusion. A man may deceive himself, or be deceived
+by the object of his attraction, concerning the qualities that she
+possesses or fails to possess. In first love, occurring in youth, such
+deception is perhaps entirely normal, and in certain suggestible and
+inflammable types of people it is peculiarly apt to occur. This kind of
+deception, although far more frequent and conspicuous in matters of
+love--and more serious because of the tightness of the marriage bond--is
+liable to occur in any relation of life. For most people, however, and
+those not the least sane or the least wise, the memory of the exaltation
+of love, even when the period of that exaltation is over, still remains
+as, at the least, the memory of one of the most real and essential facts
+of life.[66]
+
+    Some writers seem to confuse the liability in matters of love to
+    deception or disappointment with the larger question of a
+    metaphysical illusion in Schopenhauer's sense. To some extent
+    this confusion perhaps exists in the discussion of love by
+    Renouvier and Prat in _La Nouvelle Monadologie_ (pp. 216 _et
+    seq._). In considering whether love is or is not a delusion, they
+    answer that it is or is not according as we are, or are not,
+    dominated by selfishness and injustice. "It was not an essential
+    error which presided over the creation of the _idol_, for the
+    idol is only what in all things the _ideal_ is. But to realize
+    the ideal in love two persons are needed, and therein is the
+    great difficulty. We are never justified," they conclude, "in
+    casting contempt on our love, or even on its object, for if it is
+    true that we have not gained possession of the sovereign beauty
+    of the world it is equally true that we have not attained a
+    degree of perfection that would have entitled us justly to claim
+    so great a prize." And perhaps most of us, it may be added, must
+    admit in the end, if we are honest with ourselves, that the
+    prizes of love we have gained in the world, whatever their flaws,
+    are far greater than we deserved.
+
+We may well agree that in a certain sense not love alone but all the
+passions and desires of men are illusions. In that sense the Gospel of
+Buddha is justified, and we may recognize the inspiration of Shakespeare
+(in the _Tempest_) and of Calderon (in _La Vida es Sueño_), who felt that
+ultimately the whole world is an insubstantial dream. But short of that
+large and ultimate vision we cannot accept illusion; we cannot admit that
+love is a delusion in some special and peculiar sense that men's other
+cravings and aspirations escape. On the contrary, it is the most solid of
+realities. All the progressive forms of life are built up on the
+attraction of sex. If we admit the action of sexual selection--as we can
+scarcely fail to do if we purge it from its unessential
+accretions[67]--love has moulded the precise shape and color, the
+essential beauty, alike of animal and human life.
+
+If we further reflect that, as many investigators believe, not only the
+physical structure of life but also its spiritual structure--our social
+feelings, our morality, our religion, our poetry and art--are, in some
+degree at least, also built up on the impulse of sex, and would have been,
+if not non-existent, certainly altogether different had other than sexual
+methods of propagation prevailed in the world, we may easily realize that
+we can only fall into confusion by dismissing love as a delusion. The
+whole edifice of life topples down, for as the idealist Schiller long
+since said, it is entirely built up on hunger and on love. To look upon
+love as in any special sense a delusion is merely to fall into the trap of
+a shallow cynicism. Love is only a delusion in so far as the whole of life
+is a delusion, and if we accept the fact of life it is unphilosophical to
+refuse to accept the fact of love.
+
+    It is unnecessary here to magnify the functions of love in the
+    world; it is sufficient to investigate its workings in its own
+    proper sphere. It may, however, be worth while to quote a few
+    expressions of thinkers, belonging to various schools, who have
+    pointed out what seemed to them the far-ranging significance of
+    the sexual emotions for the moral life. "The passions are the
+    heavenly fire which gives life to the moral world," wrote
+    Helvétius long since in _De l'Esprit_. "The activity of the mind
+    depends on the activity of the passions, and it is at the period
+    of the passions, from the age of twenty-five to thirty-five or
+    forty that men are capable of the greatest efforts of virtue or
+    of genius." "What touches sex," wrote Zola, "touches the centre
+    of social life." Even our regard for the praise and blame of
+    others has a sexual origin, Professor Thomas argues
+    (_Psychological Review_, Jan., 1904, pp. 61-67), and it is love
+    which is the source of susceptibility generally and of the
+    altruistic side of life. "The appearance of sex," Professor Woods
+    Hutchinson attempts to show ("Love as a Factor in Evolution,"
+    _Monist_, 1898), "the development of maleness and femaleness, was
+    not only the birthplace of affection, the well-spring of all
+    morality, but an enormous economic advantage to the race and an
+    absolute necessity of progress. In it first we find any conscious
+    longing for or active impulse toward a fellow creature." "Were
+    man robbed of the instinct of procreation, and of all that
+    spiritually springs therefrom," exclaimed Maudsley in his
+    _Physiology of Mind_, "that moment would all poetry, and perhaps
+    also his whole moral sense, be obliterated from his life." "One
+    seems to oneself transfigured, stronger, richer, more complete;
+    one _is_ more complete," says Nietzsche (_Der Wille zur Macht_,
+    p. 389), "we find here art as an organic function: we find it
+    inlaid in the most angelic instinct of 'love:' we find it as the
+    greatest stimulant of life.... It is not merely that it changes
+    the feeling of values: the lover _is_ worth more, is stronger. In
+    animals this condition produces new weapons, pigments, colors,
+    and forms, above all new movements, new rhythms, a new seductive
+    music. It is not otherwise in man.... Even in art the door is
+    opened to him. If we subtract from lyrical work in words and
+    sounds the suggestions of that intestinal fever, what is left
+    over in poetry and music? _L'Art pour l'art_ perhaps, the
+    quacking virtuosity of cold frogs who perish in their marsh. All
+    the rest is created by love."
+
+    It would be easy to multiply citations tending to show how many
+    diverse thinkers have come to the conclusion that sexual love
+    (including therewith parental and especially maternal love) is
+    the source of the chief manifestations of life. How far they are
+    justified in that conclusion, it is not our business now to
+    inquire.
+
+It is undoubtedly true that, as we have seen when discussing the erratic
+and imperfect distribution of the conception of love, and even of words
+for love, over the world, by no means all people are equally apt for
+experiencing, even at any time in their lives, the emotions of sexual
+exaltation. The difference between the knight and the churl still
+subsists, and both may sometimes be found in all social strata. Even the
+refinements of sexual enjoyment, it is unnecessary to insist, quite
+commonly remain on a merely physical basis, and have little effect on the
+intellectual and emotional nature.[68] But this is not the case with the
+people who have most powerfully influenced the course of the world's
+thought and feeling. The personal reality of love, its importance for the
+individual life, are facts that have been testified to by some of the
+greatest thinkers, after lives devoted to the attainment of intellectual
+labor. The experience of Renan, who toward the end of his life set down in
+his remarkable drama _L'Abbesse de Jouarre_, his conviction that, even
+from the point of view of chastity, love is, after all, the supreme thing
+in the world, is far from standing alone. "Love has always appeared as an
+inferior mode of human music, ambition as the superior mode," wrote Tarde,
+the distinguished sociologist, at the end of his life. "But will it always
+be thus? Are there not reasons for thinking that the future perhaps
+reserves for us the ineffable surprise of an inversion of that secular
+order?" Laplace, half an hour before his death, took up a volume of his
+own _Mécanique Celeste_, and said: "All that is only trifles, there is
+nothing true but love." Comte, who had spent his life in building up a
+Positive Philosophy which should be absolutely real, found (as indeed it
+may be said the great English Positivist Mill also found) the culmination
+of all his ideals in a woman, who was, he said, Egeria and Beatrice and
+Laura in one, and he wrote: "There is nothing real in the world but love.
+One grows tired of thinking, and even of acting; one never grows tired of
+loving, nor of saying so. In the worst tortures of affection I have never
+ceased to feel that the essential of happiness is that the heart should be
+worthily filled--even with pain, yes, even with pain, the bitterest pain."
+And Sophie Kowalewsky, after intellectual achievements which have placed
+her among the most distinguished of her sex, pathetically wrote: "Why can
+no one love me? I could give more than most women, and yet the most
+insignificant women are loved and I am not." Love, they all seem to say,
+is the one thing that is supremely worth while. The greatest and most
+brilliant of the world's intellectual giants, in their moments of final
+insight, thus reach the habitual level of the humble and almost anonymous
+persons, cloistered from the world, who wrote _The Imitation of Christ_ or
+_The Letters of a Portuguese Nun_. And how many others!
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] _Meditationes Piissimæ de Cognitione Humanæ Conditionis_, Migne's
+_Patrologia_, vol. clxxiv, p. 489, cap. III, "De Dignitate Animæ et
+Vilitate Corporis." It may be worth while to quote more at length the
+vigorous language of the original. "Si diligenter consideres quid per os
+et nares cæterosque corporis meatus egrediatur, vilius sterquilinum
+numquam vidisti.... Attende, homo, quid fuisti ante ortum, et quid es ab
+ortu usque ad occasum, atque quid eris post hanc vitam. Profecto fuit
+quand non eras: postea de vili materia factus, et vilissimo panno
+involutus, menstruali sanguine in utero materno fuisti nutritus, et tunica
+tua fuit pellis secundina. Nihil aliud est homo quam sperma fetidum,
+saccus stercorum, cibus vermium.... Quid superbis, pulvis et cinis, cujus
+conceptus cula, nasci miseria, vivere poena, mori angustia?"
+
+[46] See (in Mignes' edition) _S. Odonis abbatis Cluniacensis
+Collationes_, lib. ii, cap. IX.
+
+[47] Dühren (_Neue Forshungen über die Marquis de Sade_, pp. 432 et seq.)
+shows how the ascetic view of woman's body persisted, for instance, in
+Schopenhauer and De Sade.
+
+[48] In "The Evolution of Modesty," in the first volume of these
+_Studies_, and again in the fifth volume in discussing urolagnia in the
+study of "Erotic Symbolism," the mutual reactions of the sexual and
+excretory centres were fully dealt with.
+
+[49] "La Morale Sexuelle," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Jan.,
+1907.
+
+[50] The above passage, now slightly modified, originally formed an
+unpublished part of an essay on Walt Whitman in _The New Spirit_, first
+issued in 1889.
+
+[51] Even in the ninth century, however, when the monastic movement was
+rapidly developing, there were some who withstood the tendencies of the
+new ascetics. Thus, in 850, Ratramnus, the monk of Corbie, wrote a
+treatise (_Liber de eo quod Christus ex Virgine natus est_) to prove that
+Mary really gave birth to Jesus through her sexual organs, and not, as
+some high-strung persons were beginning to think could alone be possible,
+through the more conventionally decent breasts. The sexual organs were
+sanctified. "Spiritus sanctus ... et thalamum tanto dignum sponso
+sanctificavit et portam" (Achery, _Spicilegium_, vol. i, p. 55).
+
+[52] _Pædagogus_, lib. ii, cap. X. Elsewhere (id., lib. ii, Ch. VI) he
+makes a more detailed statement to the same effect.
+
+[53] See, e.g., Wilhelm Capitaine, _Die Moral des Clemens von
+Alexandrien_, pp. 112 et seq.
+
+[54] _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xxii, cap. XXIV. "There is no need," he says
+again (id., lib. xiv, cap. V) "that in our sins and vices we accuse the
+nature of the flesh to the injury of the Creator, for in its own kind and
+degree the flesh is good."
+
+[55] St. Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xiv, cap. XXIII-XXVI.
+Chrysostom and Gregory, of Nyssa, thought that in Paradise human beings
+would have multiplied by special creation, but such is not the accepted
+Catholic doctrine.
+
+[56] W. Capitaine, _Die Moral des Clemens von Alexandrien_, pp. 112 et
+seq. Without the body, Tertullian declared, there could be no virginity
+and no salvation. The soul itself is corporeal. He carries, indeed, his
+idea of the omnipresence of the body to the absurd.
+
+[57] Rufinus, _Commentarius in Symbolum Apostolorum_, cap. XII.
+
+[58] Migne, _Patrologia Græca_, vol. xxvi, pp. 1170 et seq.
+
+[59] Even in physical conformation the human sexual organs, when compared
+with those of the lower animals, show marked differences (see "The
+Mechanism of Detumescence," in the fifth volume of these _Studies_).
+
+[60] It may perhaps be as well to point out, with Forel (_Die Sexuelle
+Frage_, p. 208), that the word "bestial" is generally used quite
+incorrectly in this connection. Indeed, not only for the higher, but also
+for the lower manifestation of the sexual impulse, it would usually be
+more correct to use instead the qualification "human."
+
+[61] _Loc. cit._, _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Jan., 1907.
+
+[62] It has, however, become colored and suspect from an early period in
+the history of Christianity. St. Augustine (_De Civitate Dei_, lib. xiv,
+cap. XV), while admitting that libido or lust is merely the generic name
+for all desire, adds that, as specially applied to the sexual appetite, it
+is justly and properly mixed up with ideas of shame.
+
+[63] Hinton well illustrates this feeling. "We call by the name of lust,"
+he declares in his MSS., "the most simple and natural desires. We might as
+well term hunger and thirst 'lust' as so call sex-passion, when expressing
+simply Nature's prompting. We miscall it 'lust,' cruelly libelling those
+to whom we ascribe it, and introduce absolute disorder. For, by foolishly
+confounding Nature's demands with lust, we insist upon restraint upon
+her."
+
+[64] Several centuries earlier another French writer, the distinguished
+physician, A. Laurentius (Des Laurens) in his _Historia Anatomica Humani
+Corporis_ (lib. viii, Quæstio vii) had likewise puzzled over "the
+incredible desire of coitus," and asked how it was that "that divine
+animal, full of reason and judgment, which we call Man, should be
+attracted to those obscene parts of women, soiled with filth, which are
+placed, like a sewer, in the lowest part of the body." It is noteworthy
+that, from the first, and equally among men of religion, men of science,
+and men of letters, the mystery of this problem has peculiarly appealed to
+the French mind.
+
+[65] Schopenhauer, _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_, vol. ii, pp. 608
+et seq.
+
+[66] "Perhaps there is scarcely a man," wrote Malthus, a clergyman as well
+as one of the profoundest thinkers of his day (_Essay on the Principle of
+Population_, 1798, Ch. XI), "who has once experienced the genuine delight
+of virtuous love, however great his intellectual pleasures may have been,
+that does not look back to the period as the sunny spot in his whole life,
+where his imagination loves to bask, which he recollects and contemplates
+with the fondest regrets, and which he would most wish to live over again.
+The superiority of intellectual to sexual pleasures consists rather in
+their filling up more time, in their having a larger range, and in their
+being less liable to satiate, than in their being more real and
+essential."
+
+[67] The whole argument of the fourth volume of these _Studies_, on
+"Sexual Selection in Man," points in this direction.
+
+[68] "Perhaps most average men," Forel remarks (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, p.
+307), "are but slightly receptive to the intoxication of love; they are at
+most on the level of the _gourmet_, which is by no means necessarily an
+immoral plane, but is certainly not that of poetry."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FUNCTION OF CHASTITY.
+
+Chastity Essential to the Dignity of Love--The Eighteenth Century Revolt
+Against the Ideal of Chastity--Unnatural Forms of Chastity--The
+Psychological Basis of Asceticism--Asceticism and Chastity as Savage
+Virtues--The Significance of Tahiti--Chastity Among Barbarous
+Peoples--Chastity Among the Early Christians--Struggles of the Saints with
+the Flesh--The Romance of Christian Chastity--Its Decay in Mediæval
+Times--_Aucassin et Nicolette_ and the new Romance of Chaste Love--The
+Unchastity of the Northern Barbarians--The Penitentials--Influence of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation--The Revolt Against Virginity as a
+Virtue--The Modern Conception of Chastity as a Virtue--The Influences That
+Favor the Virtue of Chastity--Chastity as a Discipline--The Value of
+Chastity for the Artist--Potency and Impotence in Popular Estimation--The
+Correct Definitions of Asceticism and Chastity.
+
+
+The supreme importance of chastity, and even of asceticism, has never at
+any time, or in any greatly vital human society, altogether failed of
+recognition. Sometimes chastity has been exalted in human estimation,
+sometimes it has been debased; it has frequently changed the nature of its
+manifestations; but it has always been there. It is even a part of the
+beautiful vision of all Nature. "The glory of the world is seen only by a
+chaste mind," said Thoreau with his fine extravagance. "To whomsoever this
+fact is not an awful but beautiful mystery there are no flowers in
+Nature." Without chastity it is impossible to maintain the dignity of
+sexual love. The society in which its estimation sinks to a minimum is in
+the last stages of degeneration. Chastity has for sexual love an
+importance which it can never lose, least of all to-day.
+
+It is quite true that during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries many
+men of high moral and intellectual distinction pronounced very decidedly
+their condemnation of the ideal of chastity. The great Buffon refused to
+recognize chastity as an ideal and referred scornfully to "that kind of
+insanity which has turned a girl's virginity into a thing with a real
+existence," while William Morris, in his downright manner, once declared
+at a meeting of the Fellowship of the New Life, that asceticism is "the
+most disgusting vice that afflicted human nature." Blake, though he seems
+always to have been a strictly moral man in the most conventional sense,
+felt nothing but contempt for chastity, and sometimes confers a kind of
+religious solemnity on the idea of unchastity. Shelley, who may have been
+unwise in sexual matters but can scarcely be called unchaste, also often
+seems to associate religion and morality, not with chastity, but with
+unchastity, and much the same may be said of James Hinton.[69]
+
+But all these men--with other men of high character who have pronounced
+similar opinions--were reacting against false, decayed, and conventional
+forms of chastity. They were not rebelling against an ideal; they were
+seeking to set up an ideal in a place where they realized that a
+mischievous pretense was masquerading as a moral reality.
+
+We cannot accept an ideal of chastity unless we ruthlessly cast aside all
+the unnatural and empty forms of chastity. If chastity is merely a
+fatiguing effort to emulate in the sexual sphere the exploits of
+professional fasting men, an effort using up all the energies of the
+organism and resulting in no achievement greater than the abstinence it
+involves, then it is surely an unworthy ideal. If it is a feeble
+submission to an external conventional law which there is no courage to
+break, then it is not an ideal at all. If it is a rule of morality imposed
+by one sex on the opposite sex, then it is an injustice and provocative of
+revolt. If it is an abstinence from the usual forms of sexuality, replaced
+by more abnormal or more secret forms, then it is simply an unreality
+based on misconception. And if it is merely an external acceptance of
+conventions without any further acceptance, even in act, then it is a
+contemptible farce. These are the forms of chastity which during the past
+two centuries many fine-souled men have vigorously rejected.
+
+The fact that chastity, or asceticism, is a real virtue, with fine uses,
+becomes evident when we realize that it has flourished at all times, in
+connection with all kinds of religions and the most various moral codes.
+We find it pronounced among savages, and the special virtues of
+savagery--hardness, endurance, and bravery--are intimately connected with
+the cultivation of chastity and asceticism.[70] It is true that savages
+seldom have any ideal of chastity in the degraded modern sense, as a state
+of permanent abstinence from sexual relationships having a merit of its
+own apart from any use. They esteem chastity for its values, magical or
+real, as a method of self-control which contributes towards the attainment
+of important ends. The ability to bear pain and restraint is nearly always
+a main element in the initiation of youths at puberty. The custom of
+refraining from sexual intercourse before expeditions of war and hunting,
+and other serious concerns involving great muscular and mental strain,
+whatever the motives assigned, is a sagacious method of economizing
+energy. The extremely widespread habit of avoiding intercourse during
+pregnancy and suckling, again, is an admirable precaution in sexual
+hygiene which it is extremely difficult to obtain the observance of in
+civilization. Savages, also, are perfectly well aware how valuable sexual
+continence is, in combination with fasting and solitude, to acquire the
+aptitude for abnormal spiritual powers.
+
+    Thus C. Hill Tout (_Journal Anthropological Institute_,
+    Jan.-June, 1905, pp. 143-145) gives an interesting account of the
+    self-discipline undergone by those among the Salish Indians of
+    British Columbia, who seek to acquire shamanistic powers. The
+    psychic effects of such training on these men, says Hill Tout,
+    is undoubted. "It enables them to undertake and accomplish feats
+    of abnormal strength, agility, and endurance; and gives them at
+    times, besides a general exaltation of the senses, undoubted
+    clairvoyant and other supernormal mental and bodily powers." At
+    the other end of the world, as shown by the _Reports of the
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_ (vol. v, p. 321),
+    closely analogous methods of obtaining supernatural powers are
+    also customary.
+
+    There are fundamental psychological reasons for the wide
+    prevalence of asceticism and for the remarkable manner in which
+    it involves self-mortification, even acute physical suffering.
+    Such pain is an actual psychic stimulant, more especially in
+    slightly neurotic persons. This is well illustrated by a young
+    woman, a patient of Janet's, who suffered from mental depression
+    and was accustomed to find relief by slightly burning her hands
+    and feet. She herself clearly understood the nature of her
+    actions. "I feel," she said, "that I make an effort when I hold
+    my hands on the stove, or when I pour boiling water on my feet;
+    it is a violent act and it awakens me: I feel that it is really
+    done by myself and not by another.... To make a mental effort by
+    itself is too difficult for me; I have to supplement it by
+    physical efforts. I have not succeeded in any other way; that is
+    all: when I brace myself up to burn myself I make my mind freer,
+    lighter and more active for several days. Why do you speak of my
+    desire for mortification? My parents believe that, but it is
+    absurd. It would be a mortification if it brought any suffering,
+    but I enjoy this suffering, it gives me back my mind; it prevents
+    my thoughts from stopping: what would one not do to attain such
+    happiness?" (P. Janet, "The Pathogenesis of Some Impulsions,"
+    _Journal of Abnormal Psychology_, April, 1906.) If we understand
+    this psychological process we may realize how it is that even in
+    the higher religions, however else they may differ, the practical
+    value of asceticism and mortification as the necessary door to
+    the most exalted religious state is almost universally
+    recognized, and with complete cheerfulness. "Asceticism and
+    ecstacy are inseparable," as Probst-Biraben remarks at the outset
+    of an interesting paper on Mahommedan mysticism ("L'Extase dans
+    le Mysticisme Musulman," _Revue Philosophique_, Nov., 1906).
+    Asceticism is the necessary ante-chamber to spiritual perfection.
+
+It thus happens that savage peoples largely base their often admirable
+enforcement of asceticism not on the practical grounds that would justify
+it, but on religious grounds that with the growth of intelligence fall
+into discredit.[71] Even, however, when the scrupulous observances of
+savages, whether in sexual or in non-sexual matters, are without any
+obviously sound basis it cannot be said that they are entirely useless if
+they tend to encourage self-control and the sense of reverence.[72] The
+would-be intelligent and practical peoples who cast aside primitive
+observances because they seem baseless or even ridiculous, need a still
+finer practical sense and still greater intelligence in order to realize
+that, though the reasons for the observances have been wrong, yet the
+observances themselves may have been necessary methods of attaining
+personal and social efficiency. It constantly happens in the course of
+civilization that we have to revive old observances and furnish them with
+new reasons.
+
+    In considering the moral quality of chastity among savages, we
+    must carefully separate that chastity which among semi-primitive
+    peoples is exclusively imposed upon women. This has no moral
+    quality whatever, for it is not exercised as a useful discipline,
+    but merely enforced in order to heighten the economic and erotic
+    value of the women. Many authorities believe that the regard for
+    women as property furnishes the true reason for the widespread
+    insistence on virginity in brides. Thus A.B. Ellis, speaking of
+    the West Coast of Africa (_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_, pp. 183 _et
+    seq._), says that girls of good class are betrothed as mere
+    children, and are carefully guarded from men, while girls of
+    lower class are seldom betrothed, and may lead any life they
+    choose. "In this custom of infant or child betrothals we probably
+    find the key to that curious regard for ante-nuptial chastity
+    found not only among the tribes of the Gold and Slave Coasts, but
+    also among many other uncivilized peoples in different parts of
+    the world." In a very different part of the world, in Northern
+    Siberia, "the Yakuts," Sieroshevski states (_Journal
+    Anthropological Institute_, Jan.-June, 1901, p. 96), "see
+    nothing immoral in illicit love, providing only that nobody
+    suffers material loss by it. It is true that parents will scold a
+    daughter if her conduct threatens to deprive them of their gain
+    from the bride-price; but if once they have lost hope of marrying
+    her off, or if the bride-price has been spent, they manifest
+    complete indifference to her conduct. Maidens who no longer
+    expect marriage are not restrained at all, if they observe
+    decorum it is only out of respect to custom." Westermarck
+    (_History of Human Marriage_, pp. 123 et seq.) also shows the
+    connection between the high estimates of virginity and the
+    conception of woman as property, and returning to the question in
+    his later work, _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_
+    (vol. ii, Ch. XLII), after pointing out that "marriage by
+    purchase has thus raised the standard of female chastity," he
+    refers (p. 437) to the significant fact that the seduction of an
+    unmarried girl "is chiefly, if not exclusively, regarded as an
+    offense against the parents or family of the girl," and there is
+    no indication that it is ever held by savages that any wrong has
+    been done to the woman herself. Westermarck recognizes at the
+    same time that the preference given to virgins has also a
+    biological basis in the instinctive masculine feeling of jealousy
+    in regard to women who have had intercourse with other men, and
+    especially in the erotic charm for men of the emotional state of
+    shyness which accompanies virginity. (This point has been dealt
+    with in the discussion of Modesty in vol. i of these _Studies_.)
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to add that the insistence on the
+    virginity of brides is by no means confined, as A.B. Ellis seems
+    to imply, to uncivilized peoples, nor is it necessary that
+    wife-purchase should always accompany it. The preference still
+    persists, not only by virtue of its natural biological basis, but
+    as a refinement and extension of the idea of woman as property,
+    among those civilized peoples who, like ourselves, inherit a form
+    of marriage to some extent based on wife-purchase. Under such
+    conditions a woman's chastity has an important social function to
+    perform, being, as Mrs. Mona Caird has put it (_The Morality of
+    Marriage_, 1897, p. 88), the watch-dog of man's property. The
+    fact that no element of ideal morality enters into the question
+    is shown by the usual absence of any demand for ante-nuptial
+    chastity in the husband.
+
+    It must not be supposed that when, as is most usually the case,
+    there is no complete and permanent prohibition of extra-nuptial
+    intercourse, mere unrestrained license prevails. That has
+    probably never happened anywhere among uncontaminated savages.
+    The rule probably is that, as among the tribes at Torres Straits
+    (_Reports Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 275),
+    there is no complete continence before marriage, but neither is
+    there any unbridled license.
+
+    The example of Tahiti is instructive as regards the prevalence of
+    chastity among peoples of what we generally consider low grades
+    of civilization. Tahiti, according to all who have visited it,
+    from the earliest explorers down to that distinguished American
+    surgeon, the late Dr. Nicholas Senn, is an island possessing
+    qualities of natural beauty and climatic excellence, which it is
+    impossible to rate too highly. "I seemed to be transported into
+    the garden of Eden," said Bougainville in 1768. But, mainly under
+    the influence of the early English missionaries who held ideas of
+    theoretical morality totally alien to those of the inhabitants of
+    the islands, the Tahitians have become the stock example of a
+    population given over to licentiousness and all its awful
+    results. Thus, in his valuable _Polynesian Researches_ (second
+    edition, 1832, vol. i, Ch. IX) William Ellis says that the
+    Tahitians practiced "the worst pollutions of which it was
+    possible for man to be guilty," though not specifying them. When,
+    however, we carefully examine the narratives of the early
+    visitors to Tahiti, before the population became contaminated by
+    contact with Europeans, it becomes clear that this view needs
+    serious modification. "The great plenty of good and nourishing
+    food," wrote an early explorer, J.R. Forster (_Observations Made
+    on a Voyage Round the World_, 1778, pp. 231, 409, 422), "together
+    with the fine climate, the beauty and unreserved behavior of
+    their females, invite them powerfully to the enjoyments and
+    pleasures of love. They begin very early to abandon themselves to
+    the most libidinous scenes. Their songs, their dances, and
+    dramatic performances, breathe a spirit of luxury." Yet he is
+    over and over again impelled to set down facts which bear
+    testimony to the virtues of these people. Though rather
+    effeminate in build, they are athletic, he says. Moreover, in
+    their wars they fight with great bravery and valor. They are, for
+    the rest, hospitable. He remarks that they treat their married
+    women with great respect, and that women generally are nearly the
+    equals of men, both in intelligence and in social position; he
+    gives a charming description of the women. "In short, their
+    character," Forster concludes, "is as amiable as that of any
+    nation that ever came unimproved out of the hands of Nature," and
+    he remarks that, as was felt by the South Sea peoples generally,
+    "whenever we came to this happy island we could evidently
+    perceive the opulence and happiness of its inhabitants." It is
+    noteworthy also, that, notwithstanding the high importance which
+    the Tahitians attached to the erotic side of life, they were not
+    deficient in regard for chastity. When Cook, who visited Tahiti
+    many times, was among "this benevolent humane" people, he noted
+    their esteem for chastity, and found that not only were betrothed
+    girls strictly guarded before marriage, but that men also who had
+    refrained from sexual intercourse for some time before marriage
+    were believed to pass at death immediately into the abode of the
+    blessed. "Their behavior, on all occasions, seems to indicate a
+    great openness and generosity of disposition. I never saw them,
+    in any misfortune, labor under the appearance of anxiety, after
+    the critical moment was past. Neither does care ever seem to
+    wrinkle their brow. On the contrary, even the approach of death
+    does not appear to alter their usual vivacity" (_Third Voyage of
+    Discovery_, 1776-1780). Turnbull visited Tahiti at a later period
+    (_A Voyage Round the World in 1800_, etc., pp. 374-5), but while
+    finding all sorts of vices among them, he is yet compelled to
+    admit their virtues: "Their manner of addressing strangers, from
+    the king to the meanest subject, is courteous and affable in the
+    extreme.... They certainly live amongst each other in more
+    harmony than is usual amongst Europeans. During the whole time I
+    was amongst them I never saw such a thing as a battle.... I never
+    remember to have seen an Otaheitean out of temper. They jest upon
+    each other with greater freedom than the Europeans, but these
+    jests are never taken in ill part.... With regard to food, it is,
+    I believe, an invariable law in Otaheite that whatever is
+    possessed by one is common to all." Thus we see that even among a
+    people who are commonly referred to as the supreme example of a
+    nation given up to uncontrolled licentiousness, the claims of
+    chastity were admitted, and many other virtues vigorously
+    flourished. The Tahitians were brave, hospitable,
+    self-controlled, courteous, considerate to the needs of others,
+    chivalrous to women, even appreciative of the advantages of
+    sexual restraint, to an extent which has rarely, if ever, been
+    known among those Christian nations which have looked down upon
+    them as abandoned to unspeakable vices.
+
+As we turn from savages towards peoples in the barbarous and civilized
+stages we find a general tendency for chastity, in so far as it is a
+common possession of the common people, to be less regarded, or to be
+retained only as a traditional convention no longer strictly observed. The
+old grounds for chastity in primitive religions and _tabu_ have decayed
+and no new grounds have been generally established. "Although the progress
+of civilization," wrote Gibbon long ago, "has undoubtedly contributed to
+assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have been less
+favorable to the virtue of chastity," and Westermarck concludes that
+"irregular connections between the sexes have, on the whole, exhibited a
+tendency to increase along with the progress of civilization."
+
+The main difference in the social function of chastity as we pass from
+savagery to higher stages of culture seems to be that it ceases to exist
+as a general hygienic measure or a general ceremonial observance, and, for
+the most part, becomes confined to special philosophic or religious sects
+which cultivate it to an extreme degree in a more or less professional
+way. This state of things is well illustrated by the Roman Empire during
+the early centuries of the Christian era.[73] Christianity itself was at
+first one of these sects enamored of the ideal of chastity; but by its
+superior vitality it replaced all the others and finally imposed its
+ideals, though by no means its primitive practices, on European society
+generally.
+
+Chastity manifested itself in primitive Christianity in two different
+though not necessarily opposed ways. On the one hand it took a stern and
+practical form in vigorous men and women who, after being brought up in a
+society permitting a high degree of sexual indulgence, suddenly found
+themselves convinced of the sin of such indulgence. The battle with the
+society they had been born into, and with their own old impulses and
+habits, became so severe that they often found themselves compelled to
+retire from the world altogether. Thus it was that the parched solitudes
+of Egypt were peopled with hermits largely occupied with the problem of
+subduing their own flesh. Their pre-occupation, and indeed the
+pre-occupation of much early Christian literature, with sexual matters,
+may be said to be vastly greater than was the case with the pagan society
+they had left. Paganism accepted sexual indulgence and was then able to
+dismiss it, so that in classic literature we find very little insistence
+on sexual details except in writers like Martial, Juvenal and Petronius
+who introduce them mainly for satirical ends. But the Christians could not
+thus escape from the obsession of sex; it was ever with them. We catch
+interesting glimpses of their struggles, for the most part barren
+struggles, in the Epistles of St. Jerome, who had himself been an athlete
+in these ascetic contests.
+
+    "Oh, how many times," wrote St. Jerome to Eustochium, the virgin
+    to whom he addressed one of the longest and most interesting of
+    his letters, "when in the desert, in that vast solitude which,
+    burnt up by the heart of the sun, offers but a horrible dwelling
+    to monks, I imagined myself among the delights of Rome! I was
+    alone, for my soul was full of bitterness. My limbs were covered
+    by a wretched sack and my skin was as black as an Ethiopian's.
+    Every day I wept and groaned, and if I was unwillingly overcome
+    by sleep my lean body lay on the bare earth. I say nothing of my
+    food and drink, for in the desert even invalids have no drink but
+    cold water, and cooked food is regarded as a luxury. Well, I,
+    who, out of fear of hell, had condemned myself to this prison,
+    companion of scorpions and wild beasts, often seemed in
+    imagination among bands of girls. My face was pale with fasting
+    and my mind within my frigid body was burning with desire; the
+    fires of lust would still flare up in a body that already seemed
+    to be dead. Then, deprived of all help, I threw myself at the
+    feet of Jesus, washing them with my tears and drying them with my
+    hair, subjugating my rebellious flesh by long fasts. I remember
+    that more than once I passed the night uttering cries and
+    striking my breast until God sent me peace." "Our century," wrote
+    St. Chrysostom in his _Discourse to Those Who Keep Virgins in
+    Their Houses_, "has seen many men who have bound their bodies
+    with chains, clothed themselves in sacks, retired to the summits
+    of mountains where they have lived in constant vigil and fasting,
+    giving the example of the most austere discipline and forbidding
+    all women to cross the thresholds of their humble dwellings; and
+    yet, in spite of all the severities they have exercised on
+    themselves, it was with difficulty they could repress the fury of
+    their passions." Hilarion, says Jerome, saw visions of naked
+    women when he lay down on his solitary couch and delicious meats
+    when he sat down to his frugal table. Such experiences rendered
+    the early saints very scrupulous. "They used to say," we are told
+    in an interesting history of the Egyptian anchorites, Palladius's
+    _Paradise of the Holy Fathers_, belonging to the fourth century
+    (A.W. Budge, _The Paradise_, vol. ii, p. 129), "that Abbâ Isaac
+    went out and found the footprint of a woman on the road, and he
+    thought about it in his mind and destroyed it saying, 'If a
+    brother seeth it he may fall.'" Similarly, according to the rules
+    of St. Cæsarius of Aries for nuns, no male clothing was to be
+    taken into the convent for the purpose of washing or mending.
+    Even in old age, a certain anxiety about chastity still remained.
+    One of the brothers, we are told in _The Paradise_ (p. 132) said
+    to Abbâ Zeno, "Behold thou hast grown old, how is the matter of
+    fornication?" The venerable saint replied, "It knocketh, but it
+    passeth on."
+
+    As the centuries went by the same strenuous anxiety to guard
+    chastity still remained, and the old struggle constantly
+    reappeared (see, e.g., Migne's _Dictionnaire d'Ascétisme_, art.
+    "Démon, Tentation du"). Some saints, it is true, like Luigi di
+    Gonzaga, were so angelically natured that they never felt the
+    sting of sexual desire. These seem to have been the exception.
+    St. Benedict and St. Francis experienced the difficulty of
+    subduing the flesh. St. Magdalena de Pozzi, in order to dispel
+    sexual desires, would roll on thorny bushes till the blood came.
+    Some saints kept a special cask of cold water in their cells to
+    stand in (Lea, _Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol. i, p. 124). On the
+    other hand, the Blessed Angela de Fulginio tells us in her
+    _Visiones_ (cap. XIX) that, until forbidden by her confessor, she
+    would place hot coals in her secret parts, hoping by material
+    fire to extinguish the fire of concupiscence. St. Aldhelm, the
+    holy Bishop of Sherborne, in the eighth century, also adopted a
+    homeopathic method of treatment, though of a more literal kind,
+    for William of Malmsbury states that when tempted by the flesh he
+    would have women to sit and lie by him until he grew calm again;
+    the method proved very successful, for the reason, it was
+    thought, that the Devil felt he had been made a fool of.
+
+    In time the Catholic practice and theory of asceticism became
+    more formalized and elaborated, and its beneficial effects were
+    held to extend beyond the individual himself. "Asceticism from
+    the Christian point of view," writes Brénier de Montmorand in an
+    interesting study ("Ascétisme et Mysticisme," _Revue
+    Philosophique_, March, 1904) "is nothing else than all the
+    therapeutic measures making for moral purification. The Christian
+    ascetic is an athlete struggling to transform his corrupt nature
+    and make a road to God through the obstacles due to his passions
+    and the world. He is not working in his own interests alone,
+    but--by virtue of the reversibility of merit which compensates
+    that of solidarity in error--for the good and for the salvation
+    of the whole of society."
+
+This is the aspect of early Christian asceticism most often emphasized.
+But there is another aspect which may be less familiar, but has been by no
+means less important. Primitive Christian chastity was on one side a
+strenuous discipline. On another side it was a romance, and this indeed
+was its most specifically Christian side, for athletic asceticism has been
+associated with the most various religious and philosophic beliefs. If,
+indeed, it had not possessed the charm of a new sensation, of a delicious
+freedom, of an unknown adventure, it would never have conquered the
+European world. There are only a few in that world who have in them the
+stuff of moral athletes; there are many who respond to the attraction of
+romance.
+
+The Christians rejected the grosser forms of sexual indulgence, but in
+doing so they entered with a more delicate ardor into the more refined
+forms of sexual intimacy. They cultivated a relationship of brothers and
+sisters to each other, they kissed one another; at one time, in the
+spiritual orgy of baptism, they were not ashamed to adopt complete
+nakedness.[74]
+
+A very instructive picture of the forms which chastity assumed among the
+early Christians is given us in the treatise of Chrysostom _Against Those
+who Keep Virgins in their Houses_. Our fathers, Chrysostom begins, only
+knew two forms of sexual intimacy, marriage and fornication. Now a third
+form has appeared: men introduce young girls into their houses and keep
+them there permanently, respecting their virginity. "What," Chrysostom
+asks, "is the reason? It seems to me that life in common with a woman is
+sweet, even outside conjugal union and fleshly commerce. That is my
+feeling; and perhaps it is not my feeling alone; it may also be that of
+these men. They would not hold their honor so cheap nor give rise to such
+scandals if this pleasure were not violent and tyrannical.... That there
+should really be a pleasure in this which produces a love more ardent than
+conjugal union may surprise you at first. But when I give you the proofs
+you will agree that it is so." The absence of restraint to desire in
+marriage, he continues, often leads to speedy disgust, and even apart from
+this, sexual intercourse, pregnancy, delivery, lactation, the bringing up
+of children, and all the pains and anxieties that accompany these things
+soon destroy youth and dull the point of pleasure. The virgin is free from
+these burdens. She retains her vigor and youthfulness, and even at the age
+of forty may rival the young nubile girl. "A double ardor thus burns in
+the heart of him who lives with her, and the gratification of desire never
+extinguishes the bright flame which ever continues to increase in
+strength." Chrysostom describes minutely all the little cares and
+attentions which the modern girls of his time required, and which these
+men delighted to expend on their virginal sweethearts whether in public or
+in private. He cannot help thinking, however, that the man who lavishes
+kisses and caresses on a woman whose virginity he retains is putting
+himself somewhat in the position of Tantalus. But this new refinement of
+tender chastity, which came as a delicious discovery to the early
+Christians who had resolutely thrust away the licentiousness of the pagan
+world, was deeply rooted, as we discover from the frequency with which the
+grave Fathers of the Church, apprehensive of scandal, felt called upon to
+reprove it, though their condemnation is sometimes not without a trace of
+secret sympathy.[75]
+
+There was one form in which the new Christian chastity flourished
+exuberantly and unchecked: it conquered literature. The most charming,
+and, we may be sure, the most popular literature of the early Church lay
+in the innumerable romances of erotic chastity--to some extent, it may
+well be, founded on fact--which are embodied to-day in the _Acta
+Sanctorum_. We can see in even the most simple and non-miraculous early
+Christian records of the martyrdom of women that the writers were fully
+aware of the delicate charm of the heroine who, like Perpetua at Carthage,
+tossed by wild cattle in the arena, rises to gather her torn garment
+around her and to put up her disheveled hair.[76] It was an easy step to
+the stories of romantic adventure. Among these delightful stories I may
+refer especially to the legend of Thekla, which has been placed,
+incorrectly it may be, as early as the first century, "The Bride and
+Bridegroom of India" in _Judas Thomas's Acts_, "The Virgin of Antioch" as
+narrated by St. Ambrose, the history of "Achilleus and Nereus," "Mygdonia
+and Karish," and "Two Lovers of Auvergne" as told by Gregory of Tours.
+Early Christian literature abounds in the stories of lovers who had indeed
+preserved their chastity, and had yet discovered the most exquisite
+secrets of love.
+
+    Thekla's day is the twenty-third of September. There is a very
+    good Syriac version (by Lipsius and others regarded as more
+    primitive than the Greek version) of the _Acts of Paul and
+    Thekla_ (see, e.g., Wright's _Apocryphal Acts_). These _Acts_
+    belong to the latter part of the second century. The story is
+    that Thekla, refusing to yield to the passion of the high priest
+    of Syria, was put, naked but for a girdle (_subligaculum_) into
+    the arena on the back of a lioness, which licked her feet and
+    fought for her against the other beasts, dying in her defense.
+    The other beasts, however, did her no harm, and she was finally
+    released. A queen loaded her with money, she modified her dress
+    to look like a man, travelled to meet Paul, and lived to old age.
+    Sir W.M. Ramsay has written an interesting study of these _Acts_
+    (_The Church in the Roman Empire_, Ch. XVI). He is of opinion
+    that the _Acts_ are based on a first century document, and is
+    able to disentangle many elements of truth from the story. He
+    states that it is the only evidence we possess of the ideas and
+    actions of women during the first century in Asia Minor, where
+    their position was so high and their influence so great. Thekla
+    represents the assertion of woman's rights, and she administered
+    the rite of baptism, though in the existing versions of the
+    _Acts_ these features are toned down or eliminated.
+
+    Some of the most typical of these early Christian romances are
+    described as Gnostical in origin, with something of the germs of
+    Manichæan dualism which were held in the rich and complex matrix
+    of Gnosticism, while the spirit of these romances is also largely
+    Montanist, with the combined chastity and ardor, the pronounced
+    feminine tone due to its origin in Asia Minor, which marked
+    Montanism. It cannot be denied, however, that they largely passed
+    into the main stream of Christian tradition, and form an
+    essential and important part of that tradition. (Renan, in his
+    _Marc-Aurèle_, Chs. IX and XV, insists on the immense debt of
+    Christianity to Gnostic and Montanist contributions). A
+    characteristic example is the story of "The Betrothed of India"
+    in _Judas Thomas's Acts_ (Wright's _Apocryphal Acts_). Judas
+    Thomas was sold by his master Jesus to an Indian merchant who
+    required a carpenter to go with him to India. On disembarking at
+    the city of Sandaruk they heard the sounds of music and singing,
+    and learnt that it was the wedding-feast of the King's daughter,
+    which all must attend, rich and poor, slaves and freemen,
+    strangers and citizens. Judas Thomas went, with his new master,
+    to the banquet and reclined with a garland of myrtle placed on
+    his head. When a Hebrew flute-player came and stood over him and
+    played, he sang the songs of Christ, and it was seen that he was
+    more beautiful than all that were there and the King sent for him
+    to bless the young couple in the bridal chamber. And when all
+    were gone out and the door of the bridal chamber closed, the
+    bridegroom approached the bride, and saw, as it were, Judas
+    Thomas still talking with her. But it was our Lord who said to
+    him, "I am not Judas, but his brother." And our Lord sat down on
+    the bed beside the young people and began to say to them:
+    "Remember, my children, what my brother spake with you, and know
+    to whom he committed you, and know that if ye preserve yourselves
+    from this filthy intercourse ye become pure temples, and are
+    saved from afflictions manifest and hidden, and from the heavy
+    care of children, the end whereof is bitter sorrow. For their
+    sakes ye will become oppressors and robbers, and ye will be
+    grievously tortured for their injuries. For children are the
+    cause of many pains; either the King falls upon them or a demon
+    lays hold of them, or paralysis befalls them. And if they be
+    healthy they come to ill, either by adultery, or theft, or
+    fornication, or covetousness, or vain-glory. But if ye will be
+    persuaded by me, and keep yourselves purely unto God, ye shall
+    have living children to whom not one of these blemishes and hurts
+    cometh nigh; and ye shall be without care and without grief and
+    without sorrow, and ye shall hope for the time when ye shall see
+    the true wedding-feast." The young couple were persuaded, and
+    refrained from lust, and our Lord vanished. And in the morning,
+    when it was dawn, the King had the table furnished early and
+    brought in before the bridegroom and bride. And he found them
+    sitting the one opposite the other, and the face of the bride was
+    uncovered and the bridegroom was very cheerful. The mother of the
+    bride saith to her: "Why art thou sitting thus, and art not
+    ashamed, but art as if, lo, thou wert married a long time, and
+    for many a day?" And her father, too, said; "Is it thy great love
+    for thy husband that prevents thee from even veiling thyself?"
+    And the bride answered and said: "Truly, my father, I am in great
+    love, and am praying to my Lord that I may continue in this love
+    which I have experienced this night. I am not veiled, because the
+    veil of corruption is taken from me, and I am not ashamed,
+    because the deed of shame has been removed far from me, and I am
+    cheerful and gay, and despise this deed of corruption and the
+    joys of this wedding-feast, because I am invited to the true
+    wedding-feast. I have not had intercourse with a husband, the end
+    whereof is bitter repentance, because I am betrothed to the true
+    Husband." The bridegroom answered also in the same spirit, very
+    naturally to the dismay of the King, who sent for the sorcerer
+    whom he had asked to bless his unlucky daughter. But Judas Thomas
+    had already left the city and at his inn the King's stewards
+    found only the flute-player, sitting and weeping because he had
+    not taken her with him. She was glad, however, when she heard
+    what had happened, and hastened to the young couple, and lived
+    with them ever afterwards. The King also was finally reconciled,
+    and all ended chastely, but happily.
+
+    In these same _Judas Thomas's Acts_, which are not later than the
+    fourth century, we find (eighth act) the story of Mygdonia and
+    Karish. Mygdonia, the wife of Karish, is converted by Thomas and
+    flees from her husband, naked save for the curtain of the chamber
+    door which she has wrapped around her, to her old nurse. With the
+    nurse she goes to Thomas, who pours holy oil over her head,
+    bidding the nurse to anoint her all over with it; then a cloth is
+    put round her loins and he baptizes her; then she is clothed and
+    he gives her the sacrament. The young rapture of chastity grows
+    lyrical at times, and Judas Thomas breaks out: "Purity is the
+    athlete who is not overcome. Purity is the truth that blencheth
+    not. Purity is worthy before God of being to Him a familiar
+    handmaiden. Purity is the messenger of concord which bringeth the
+    tidings of peace."
+
+    Another romance of chastity is furnished by the episode of
+    Drusiana in _The History of the Apostles_ traditionally
+    attributed to Abdias, Bishop of Babylon (Bk. v, Ch. IV, _et
+    seq._). Drusiana is the wife of Andronicus, and is so pious that
+    she will not have intercourse with him. The youth Callimachus
+    falls madly in love with her, and his amorous attempts involve
+    many exciting adventures, but the chastity of Drusiana is finally
+    triumphant.
+
+    A characteristic example of the literature we are here concerned
+    with is St. Ambrose's story of "The Virgin in the Brothel"
+    (narrated in his _De Virginibus_, Migne's edition of Ambrose's
+    Works, vols. iii-iv, p. 211). A certain virgin, St. Ambrose tells
+    us, who lately lived at Antioch, was condemned either to
+    sacrifice to the gods or to go to the brothel. She chose the
+    latter alternative. But the first man who came in to her was a
+    Christian soldier who called her "sister," and bade her have no
+    fear. He proposed that they should exchange clothes. This was
+    done and she escaped, while the soldier was led away to death. At
+    the place of execution, however, she ran up and exclaimed that it
+    was not death she feared but shame. He, however, maintained that
+    he had been condemned to death in her place. Finally the crown of
+    martyrdom for which they contended was adjudged to both.
+
+    We constantly observe in the early documents of this romantic
+    literature of chastity that chastity is insisted on by no means
+    chiefly because of its rewards after death, nor even because the
+    virgin who devotes herself to it secures in Christ an ever-young
+    lover whose golden-haired beauty is sometimes emphasized. Its
+    chief charm is represented as lying in its own joy and freedom
+    and the security it involves from all the troubles,
+    inconveniences and bondages of matrimony. This early Christian
+    movement of romantic chastity was clearly, in large measure, a
+    revolt of women against men and marriage. This is well brought
+    out in the instructive story, supposed to be of third century
+    origin, of the eunuchs Achilleus and Nereus, as narrated in the
+    _Acta Sanctorum_, May 12th. Achilleus and Nereus were Christian
+    eunuchs of the bedchamber to Domitia, a virgin of noble birth,
+    related to the Emperor Domitian and betrothed to Aurelian, son
+    of a Consul. One day, as their mistress was putting on her jewels
+    and her purple garments embroidered with gold, they began in turn
+    to talk to her about all the joys and advantages of virginity, as
+    compared to marriage with a mere man. The conversation is
+    developed at great length and with much eloquence. Domitia was
+    finally persuaded. She suffered much from Aurelian in
+    consequence, and when he obtained her banishment to an island she
+    went thither with Achilleus and Nereus, who were put to death.
+    Incidentally, the death of Felicula, another heroine of chastity,
+    is described. When elevated on the rack because she would not
+    marry, she constantly refused to deny Jesus, whom she called her
+    lover. "Ego non nego amatorem meum!"
+
+    A special department of this literature is concerned with stories
+    of the conversions or the penitence of courtesans. St.
+    Martinianus, for instance (Feb. 13), was tempted by the courtesan
+    Zoe, but converted her. The story of St. Margaret of Cortona
+    (Feb. 22), a penitent courtesan, is late, for she belongs to the
+    thirteenth century. The most delightful document in this
+    literature is probably the latest, the fourteenth century Italian
+    devotional romance called _The Life of Saint Mary Magdalen_,
+    commonly associated with the name of Frate Domenico Cavalca. (It
+    has been translated into English). It is the delicately and
+    deliciously told romance of the chaste and passionate love of the
+    sweet sinner, Mary Magdalene, for her beloved Master.
+
+    As time went on the insistence on the joys of chastity in this
+    life became less marked, and chastity is more and more regarded
+    as a state only to be fully rewarded in a future life. Even,
+    however, in Gregory of Tours's charming story of "The Two Lovers
+    of Auvergne," in which this attitude is clear, the pleasures of
+    chaste love in this life are brought out as clearly as in any of
+    the early romances (_Historia Francorum_, lib. i, cap. XLII). Two
+    senators of Auvergne each had an only child, and they betrothed
+    them to each other. When the wedding day came and the young
+    couple were placed in bed, the bride turned to the wall and wept
+    bitterly. The bridegroom implored her to tell him what was the
+    matter, and, turning towards him, she said that if she were to
+    weep all her days she could never wash away her grief for she had
+    resolved to give her little body immaculate to Christ, untouched
+    by men, and now instead of immortal roses she had only had on her
+    brow faded roses, which deformed rather than adorned it, and
+    instead of the dowry of Paradise which Christ had promised her
+    she had become the consort of a merely mortal man. She deplored
+    her sad fate at considerable length and with much gentle
+    eloquence. At length the bridegroom, overcome by her sweet words,
+    felt that eternal life had shone before him like a great light,
+    and declared that if she wished to abstain from carnal desires he
+    was of the same mind. She was grateful, and with clasped hands
+    they fell asleep. For many years they thus lived together,
+    chastely sharing the same bed. At length she died and was buried,
+    her lover restoring her immaculate to the hands of Christ. Soon
+    afterwards he died also, and was placed in a separate tomb. Then
+    a miracle happened which made manifest the magnitude of this
+    chaste love, for the two bodies were found mysteriously placed
+    together. To this day, Gregory concludes (writing in the sixth
+    century), the people of the place call them "The Two Lovers."
+
+    Although Renan (_Marc-Aurèle_, Ch. XV) briefly called attention
+    to the existence of this copious early Christian literature
+    setting forth the romance of chastity, it seems as yet to have
+    received little or no study. It is, however, of considerable
+    importance, not merely for its own sake, but on account of its
+    psychological significance in making clear the nature of the
+    motive forces which made chastity easy and charming to the people
+    of the early Christian world, even when it involved complete
+    abstinence from sexual intercourse. The early Church
+    anathematized the eroticism of the Pagan world, and exorcized it
+    in the most effectual way by setting up a new and more exquisite
+    eroticism of its own.
+
+During the Middle Ages the primitive freshness of Christian chastity began
+to lose its charm. No more romances of chastity were written, and in
+actual life men no longer sought daring adventures in the field of
+chastity. So far as the old ideals survived at all it was in the secular
+field of chivalry. The last notable figure to emulate the achievements of
+the early Christians was Robert of Arbrissel in Normandy.
+
+    Robert of Arbrissel, who founded, in the eleventh century, the
+    famous and distinguished Order of Fontevrault for women, was a
+    Breton. This Celtic origin is doubtless significant, for it may
+    explain his unfailing ardor and gaiety, and his enthusiastic
+    veneration for womanhood. Even those of his friends who
+    deprecated what they considered his scandalous conduct bear
+    testimony to his unfailing and cheerful temperament, his
+    alertness in action, his readiness for any deed of humanity, and
+    his entire freedom from severity. He attracted immense crowds of
+    people of all conditions, especially women, including
+    prostitutes, and his influence over women was great. Once he went
+    into a brothel to warm his feet, and, incidentally, converted all
+    the women there. "Who are you?" asked one of them, "I have been
+    here twenty-five years and nobody has ever come here to talk
+    about God." Robert's relation with his nuns at Fontevrault was
+    very intimate, and he would often sleep with them. This is set
+    forth precisely in letters written by friends of his, bishops and
+    abbots, one of whom remarks that Robert had "discovered a new
+    but fruitless form of martyrdom." A royal abbess of Fontevrault
+    in the seventeenth century, pretending that the venerated founder
+    of the order could not possibly have been guilty of such
+    scandalous conduct, and that the letters must therefore be
+    spurious, had the originals destroyed, so far as possible. The
+    Bollandists, in an unscholarly and incomplete account of the
+    matter (_Acta Sanctorum_, Feb. 25), adopted this view. J. von
+    Walter, however, in a recent and thorough study of Robert of
+    Arbrissel (_Die Ersten Wanderprediger Frankreichs_, Theil I),
+    shows that there is no reason whatever to doubt the authentic and
+    reliable character of the impugned letters.
+
+The early Christian legends of chastity had, however, their successors.
+_Aucassin et Nicolette_, which was probably written in Northern France
+towards the end of the twelfth century, is above all the descendant of the
+stories in the _Acta Sanctorum_ and elsewhere. It embodied their spirit
+and carried it forward, uniting their delicate feeling for chastity and
+purity with the ideal of monogamic love. _Aucassin et Nicolette_ was the
+death-knell of the primitive Christian romance of chastity. It was the
+discovery that the chaste refinements of delicacy and devotion were
+possible within the strictly normal sphere of sexual love.
+
+There were at least two causes which tended to extinguish the primitive
+Christian attraction to chastity, even apart from the influence of the
+Church authorities in repressing its romantic manifestations. In the first
+place, the submergence of the old pagan world, with its practice and, to
+some extent, ideal of sexual indulgence, removed the foil which had given
+grace and delicacy to the tender freedom of the young Christians. In the
+second place, the austerities which the early Christians had gladly
+practised for the sake of their soul's health, were robbed of their charm
+and spontaneity by being made a formal part of codes of punishment for
+sin, first in the Penitentials and afterwards at the discretion of
+confessors. This, it may be added, was rendered the more necessary because
+the ideal of Christian chastity was no longer largely the possession of
+refined people who had been rendered immune to Pagan license by being
+brought up in its midst, and even themselves steeped in it. It was clearly
+from the first a serious matter for the violent North Africans to maintain
+the ideal of chastity, and when Christianity spread to Northern Europe it
+seemed almost a hopeless task to acclimatize its ideals among the wild
+Germans. Hereafter it became necessary for celibacy to be imposed on the
+regular clergy by the stern force of ecclesiastical authority, while
+voluntary celibacy was only kept alive by a succession of religious
+enthusiasts perpetually founding new Orders. An asceticism thus enforced
+could not always be accompanied by the ardent exaltation necessary to
+maintain it, and in its artificial efforts at self-preservation it
+frequently fell from its insecure heights to the depths of unrestrained
+license.[77] This fatality of all hazardous efforts to overpass humanity's
+normal limits begun to be realized after the Middle Ages were over by
+clear-sighted thinkers. "Qui veut faire l'ange," said Pascal, pungently
+summing up this view of the matter, "fait la bête." That had often been
+illustrated in the history of the Church.
+
+    The Penitentials began to come into use in the seventh century,
+    and became of wide prevalence and authority during the ninth and
+    tenth centuries. They were bodies of law, partly spiritual and
+    partly secular, and were thrown into the form of catalogues of
+    offences with the exact measure of penance prescribed for each
+    offence. They represented the introduction of social order among
+    untamed barbarians, and were codes of criminal law much more than
+    part of a system of sacramental confession and penance. In France
+    and Spain, where order on a Christian basis already existed, they
+    were little needed. They had their origin in Ireland and England,
+    and especially flourished in Germany; Charlemagne supported them
+    (see, e.g., Lea, _History of Auricular Confession_, vol. ii, p.
+    96, also Ch. XVII; Hugh Williams, edition of Gildas, Part II,
+    Appendix 3; the chief Penitentials are reproduced in
+    Wasserschleben's _Bussordnungen_).
+
+    In 1216 the Lateran Council, under Innocent III, made confession
+    obligatory. The priestly prerogative of regulating the amount of
+    penance according to circumstances, with greater flexibility than
+    the rigid Penitentials admitted, was first absolutely asserted by
+    Peter of Poitiers. Then Alain de Lille threw aside the
+    Penitentials as obsolete, and declared that the priest himself
+    must inquire into the circumstances of each sin and weigh
+    precisely its guilt (Lea, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 171).
+
+    Long before this period, however, the ideals of chastity, so far
+    as they involved any considerable degree of continence, although
+    they had become firmly hardened into the conventional traditions
+    and ideals of the Christian Church, had ceased to have any great
+    charm or force for the people living in Christendom. Among the
+    Northern barbarians, with different traditions of a more vigorous
+    and natural order behind them, the demands of sex were often
+    frankly exhibited. The monk Ordericus Vitalis, in the eleventh
+    century, notes what he calls the "lasciviousness" of the wives of
+    the Norman conquerors of England who, when left alone at home,
+    sent messages that if their husbands failed to return speedily
+    they would take new ones. The celibacy of the clergy was only
+    established with the very greatest difficulty, and when it was
+    established, priests became unchaste. Archbishop Odo of Rouen, in
+    the thirteenth century, recorded in the diary of his diocesan
+    visitations that there was one unchaste priest in every five
+    parishes, and even as regards the Italy of the same period the
+    friar Salimbene in his remarkable autobiography shows how little
+    chastity was regarded in the religious life. Chastity could now
+    only be maintained by force, usually the moral force of
+    ecclesiastical authority, which was itself undermined by
+    unchastity, but sometimes even physical force. It was in the
+    thirteenth century, in the opinion of some, that the girdle of
+    chastity (_cingula castitatis_) first begins to appear, but the
+    chief authority, Caufeynon (_La Ceinture de Chasteté_, 1904)
+    believes it only dates from the Renaissance (Schultz, _Das
+    Höfische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesänger_, vol. i, p. 595; Dufour,
+    _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. v, p. 272; Krauss,
+    _Anthropophyteia_, vol. iii, p. 247). In the sixteenth century
+    convents were liable to become almost brothels, as we learn on
+    the unimpeachable authority of Burchard, a Pope's secretary, in
+    his _Diarium_, edited by Thuasne who brings together additional
+    authorities for this statement in a footnote (vol. ii, p. 79);
+    that they remained so in the eighteenth century we see clearly in
+    the pages of Casanova's _Mémoires_, and in many other documents
+    of the period.
+
+The Renaissance and the rise of humanism undoubtedly affected the feeling
+towards asceticism and chastity. On the one hand a new and ancient
+sanction was found for the disregard of virtues which men began to look
+upon as merely monkish, and on the other hand the finer spirits affected
+by the new movement began to realize that chastity might be better
+cultivated and observed by those who were free to do as they would than by
+those who were under the compulsion of priestly authority. That is the
+feeling that prevails in Montaigne, and that is the idea of Rabelais when
+he made it the only rule of his Abbey of Thelème: "Fay ce que vouldras."
+
+    A little later this doctrine was repeated in varying tones by
+    many writers more or less tinged by the culture brought into
+    fashion by the Renaissance. "As long as Danae was free," remarks
+    Ferrand in his sixteenth century treatise, _De la Maladie
+    d'Amour_, "she was chaste." And Sir Kenelm Digby, the latest
+    representative of the Renaissance spirit, insists in his _Private
+    Memoirs_ that the liberty which Lycurgus, "the wisest human
+    law-maker that ever was," gave to women to communicate their
+    bodies to men to whom they were drawn by noble affection, and the
+    hope of generous offspring, was the true cause why "real chastity
+    flourished in Sparta more than in any other part of the world."
+
+In Protestant countries the ascetic ideal of chastity was still further
+discredited by the Reformation movement which was in considerable part a
+revolt against compulsory celibacy. Religion was thus no longer placed on
+the side of chastity. In the eighteenth century, if not earlier, the
+authority of Nature also was commonly invoked against chastity. It has
+thus happened that during the past two centuries serious opinion
+concerning chastity has only been partially favorable to it. It began to
+be felt that an unhappy and injurious mistake had been perpetrated by
+attempting to maintain a lofty ideal which encouraged hypocrisy. "The
+human race would gain much," as Sénancour wrote early in the nineteenth
+century in his remarkable book on love, "if virtue were made less
+laborious. The merit would not be so great, but what is the use of an
+elevation which can rarely be sustained?"[78]
+
+There can be no doubt that the undue discredit into which the idea of
+chastity began to fall from the eighteenth century onwards was largely
+due to the existence of that merely external and conventional physical
+chastity which was arbitrarily enforced so far as it could be
+enforced,--and is indeed in some degree still enforced, nominally or
+really,--upon all respectable women outside marriage. The conception of
+the physical virtue of virginity had degraded the conception of the
+spiritual virtue of chastity. A mere routine, it was felt, prescribed to a
+whole sex, whether they would or not, could never possess the beauty and
+charm of a virtue. At the same time it began to be realized that, as a
+matter of fact, the state of compulsory virginity is not only not a state
+especially favorable to the cultivation of real virtues, but that it is
+bound up with qualities which are no longer regarded as of high value.[79]
+
+    "How arbitrary, artificial, contrary to Nature, is the life now
+    imposed upon women in this matter of chastity!" wrote James
+    Hinton forty years ago. "Think of that line: 'A woman who
+    deliberates is lost.' We _make_ danger, making all womanhood hang
+    upon a point like this, and surrounding it with unnatural and
+    preternatural dangers. There is a wanton unreason embodied in the
+    life of woman now; the present 'virtue' is a morbid unhealthy
+    plant. Nature and God never poised the life of a woman upon such
+    a needle's point. The whole modern idea of chastity has in it
+    sensual exaggeration, surely, in part, remaining to us from other
+    times, with what was good in it in great part gone."
+
+    "The whole grace of virginity," wrote another philosopher,
+    Guyau, "is ignorance. Virginity, like certain fruits, can only
+    be preserved by a process of desiccation."
+
+    Mérimée pointed out the same desiccating influence of virginity.
+    In a letter dated 1859 he wrote: "I think that nowadays people
+    attach far too much importance to chastity. Not that I deny that
+    chastity is a virtue, but there are degrees in virtues just as
+    there are in vices. It seems to be absurd that a woman should be
+    banished from society for having had a lover, while a woman who
+    is miserly, double-faced and spiteful goes everywhere. The
+    morality of this age is assuredly not that which is taught in the
+    Gospel. In my opinion it is better to love too much than not
+    enough. Nowadays dry hearts are stuck up on a pinnacle" (_Revue
+    des Deux Mondes_, April, 1896).
+
+    Dr. H. Paul has developed an allied point. She writes: "There are
+    girls who, even as children, have prostituted themselves by
+    masturbation and lascivious thoughts. The purity of their souls
+    has long been lost and nothing remains unknown to them, but--they
+    have preserved their hymens! That is for the sake of the future
+    husband. Let no one dare to doubt their innocence with that
+    unimpeachable evidence! And if another girl, who has passed her
+    childhood in complete purity, now, with awakened senses and warm
+    impetuous womanliness, gives herself to a man in love or even
+    only in passion, they all stand up and scream that she is
+    'dishonored!' And, not least, the prostituted girl with the
+    hymen. It is she indeed who screams loudest and throws the
+    biggest stones. Yet the 'dishonored' woman, who is sound and
+    wholesome, need not fear to tell what she has done to the man who
+    desires her in marriage, speaking as one human being to another.
+    She has no need to blush, she has exercised her human rights, and
+    no reasonable man will on that account esteem her the less" (Dr.
+    H. Paul, "Die Ueberschätzung der Jungfernschaft," _Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, p. 14, 1907).
+
+    In a similar spirit writes F. Erhard (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, p. 408): "Virginity in one sense has its
+    worth, but in the ordinary sense it is greatly overestimated.
+    Apart from the fact that a girl who possesses it may yet be
+    thoroughly perverted, this over-estimation of virginity leads to
+    the girl who is without it being despised, and has further
+    resulted in the development of a special industry for the
+    preparation, by means of a prudishly cloistral education, of
+    girls who will bring to their husbands the peculiar dainty of a
+    bride who knows nothing about anything. Naturally, this can only
+    be achieved at the expense of any rational education. What the
+    undeveloped little goose may turn into, no man can foresee."
+
+    Freud (_Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908) also points out the evil
+    results of the education for marriage which is given to girls on
+    the basis of this ideal of virginity. "Education undertakes the
+    task of repressing the girl's sensuality until the time of
+    betrothal. It not only forbids sexual relations and sets a high
+    premium on innocence, but it also withdraws the ripening womanly
+    individuality from temptation, maintaining a state of ignorance
+    concerning the practical side of the part she is intended to play
+    in life, and enduring no stirring of love which cannot lead to
+    marriage. The result is that when she is suddenly permitted to
+    fall in love by the authority of her elders, the girl cannot
+    bring her psychic disposition to bear, and goes into marriage
+    uncertain of her own feelings. As a consequence of this
+    artificial retardation of the function of love she brings nothing
+    but deception to the husband who has set all his desires upon
+    her, and manifests frigidity in her physical relations with him."
+
+    Sénancour (_De l'Amour_, vol. i, p. 285) even believes that, when
+    it is possible to leave out of consideration the question of
+    offspring, not only will the law of chastity become equal for the
+    two sexes, but there will be a tendency for the situation of the
+    sexes to be, to some extent, changed. "Continence becomes a
+    counsel rather than a precept, and it is in women that the
+    voluptuous inclination will be regarded with most indulgence. Man
+    is made for work; he only meets pleasure in passing; he must be
+    content that women should occupy themselves with it more than he.
+    It is men whom it exhausts, and men must always, in part,
+    restrain their desires."
+
+As, however, we liberate ourselves from the bondage of a compulsory
+physical chastity, it becomes possible to rehabilitate chastity as a
+virtue. At the present day it can no longer be said that there is on the
+part of thinkers and moralists any active hostility to the idea of
+chastity; there is, on the contrary, a tendency to recognize the value of
+chastity. But this recognition has been accompanied by a return to the
+older and sounder conception of chastity. The preservation of a rigid
+sexual abstinence, an empty virginity, can only be regarded as a
+pseudo-chastity. The only positive virtue which Aristotle could have
+recognized in this field was a temperance involving restraint of the lower
+impulses, a wise exercise and not a non-exercise.[80] The best thinkers of
+the Christian Church adopted the same conception; St. Basil in his
+important monastic rules laid no weight on self-discipline as an end in
+itself, but regarded it as an instrument for enabling the spirit to gain
+power over the flesh. St. Augustine declared that continence is only
+excellent when practised in the faith of the highest good,[81] and he
+regarded chastity as "an orderly movement of the soul subordinating lower
+things to higher things, and specially to be manifested in conjugal
+relationships"; Thomas Aquinas, defining chastity in much the same way,
+defined impurity as the enjoyment of sexual pleasure not according to
+right reason, whether as regards the object or the conditions.[82] But for
+a time the voices of the great moralists were unheard. The virtue of
+chastity was swamped in the popular Christian passion for the annihilation
+of the flesh, and that view was, in the sixteenth century, finally
+consecrated by the Council of Trent, which formally pronounced an anathema
+upon anyone who should declare that the state of virginity and celibacy
+was not better than the state of matrimony. Nowadays the pseudo-chastity
+that was of value on the simple ground that any kind of continence is of
+higher spiritual worth than any kind of sexual relationship belongs to the
+past, except for those who adhere to ancient ascetic creeds. The mystic
+value of virginity has gone; it seems only to arouse in the modern man's
+mind the idea of a piquancy craved by the hardened rake;[83] it is men who
+have themselves long passed the age of innocence who attach so much
+importance to the innocence of their brides. The conception of life-long
+continence as an ideal has also gone; at the best it is regarded as a mere
+matter of personal preference. And the conventional simulation of
+universal chastity, at the bidding of respectability, is coming to be
+regarded as a hindrance rather than a help to the cultivation of any real
+chastity.[84]
+
+The chastity that is regarded by the moralist of to-day as a virtue has
+its worth by no means in its abstinence. It is not, in St. Theresa's
+words, the virtue of the tortoise which withdraws its limbs under its
+carapace. It is a virtue because it is a discipline in self-control,
+because it helps to fortify the character and will, and because it is
+directly favorable to the cultivation of the most beautiful, exalted, and
+effective sexual life. So viewed, chastity may be opposed to the demands
+of debased mediæval Catholicism, but it is in harmony with the demands of
+our civilized life to-day, and by no means at variance with the
+requirements of Nature.
+
+There is always an analogy between the instinct of reproduction and the
+instinct of nutrition. In the matter of eating it is the influence of
+science, of physiology, which has finally put aside an exaggerated
+asceticism, and made eating "pure." The same process, as James Hinton well
+pointed out, has been made possible in the sexual relationships; "science
+has in its hands the key to purity."[85]
+
+Many influences have, however, worked together to favor an insistence on
+chastity. There has, in the first place, been an inevitable reaction
+against the sexual facility which had come to be regarded as natural. Such
+facility was found to have no moral value, for it tended to relaxation of
+moral fibre and was unfavorable to the finest sexual satisfaction. It
+could not even claim to be natural in any broad sense of the word, for, in
+Nature generally, sexual gratification tends to be rare and difficult.[86]
+Courtship is arduous and long, the season of love is strictly delimited,
+pregnancy interrupts sexual relationships. Even among savages, so long as
+they have been untainted by civilization, virility is usually maintained
+by a fine asceticism; the endurance of hardship, self-control and
+restraint, tempered by rare orgies, constitute a discipline which covers
+the sexual as well as every other department of savage life. To preserve
+the same virility in civilized life, it may well be felt, we must
+deliberately cultivate a virtue which under savage conditions of life is
+natural.[87]
+
+The influence of Nietzsche, direct and indirect, has been on the side of
+the virtue of chastity in its modern sense. The command: "Be hard," as
+Nietzsche used it, was not so much an injunction to an unfeeling
+indifference towards others as an appeal for a more strenuous attitude
+towards one's self, the cultivation of a self-control able to gather up
+and hold in the forces of the soul for expenditure on deliberately
+accepted ends. "A relative chastity," he wrote, "a fundamental and wise
+foresight in the face of erotic things, even in thought, is part of a fine
+reasonableness in life, even in richly endowed and complete natures."[88]
+In this matter Nietzsche is a typical representative of the modern
+movement for the restoration of chastity to its proper place as a real and
+beneficial virtue, and not a mere empty convention. Such a movement could
+not fail to make itself felt, for all that favors facility and luxurious
+softness in sexual matters is quickly felt to degrade character as well as
+to diminish the finest erotic satisfaction. For erotic satisfaction, in
+its highest planes, is only possible when we have secured for the sexual
+impulse a high degree of what Colin Scott calls "irradiation," that is to
+say a wide diffusion through the whole of the psychic organism. And that
+can only be attained by placing impediments in the way of the swift and
+direct gratification of sexual desire, by compelling it to increase its
+force, to take long circuits, to charge the whole organism so highly that
+the final climax of gratified love is not the trivial detumescence of a
+petty desire but the immense consummation of a longing in which the whole
+soul as well as the whole body has its part. "Only the chaste can be
+really obscene," said Huysmans. And on a higher plane, only the chaste can
+really love.
+
+    "Physical purity," remarks Hans Menjago ("Die Ueberschätzung der
+    Physischen Reinheit," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. ii,
+    Part VIII) "was originally valued as a sign of greater strength
+    of will and firmness of character, and it marked a rise above
+    primitive conditions. This purity was difficult to preserve in
+    those unsure days; it was rare and unusual. From this rarity rose
+    the superstition of supernatural power residing in the virgin.
+    But this has no meaning as soon as such purity becomes general
+    and a specially conspicuous degree of firmness of character is no
+    longer needed to maintain it.... Physical purity can only possess
+    value when it is the result of individual strength of character,
+    and not when it is the result of compulsory rules of morality."
+
+    Konrad Höller, who has given special attention to the sexual
+    question in schools, remarks in relation to physical exercise:
+    "The greatest advantage of physical exercises, however, is not
+    the development of the active and passive strength of the body
+    and its skill, but the establishment and fortification of the
+    authority of the will over the body and its needs, so much given
+    up to indolence. He who has learnt to endure and overcome, for
+    the sake of a definite aim, hunger and thirst and fatigue, will
+    be the better able to withstand sexual impulses and the
+    temptation to gratify them, when better insight and æsthetic
+    feeling have made clear to him, as one used to maintain authority
+    over his body, that to yield would be injurious or disgraceful"
+    (K. Höller, "Die Aufgabe der Volksschule," _Sexualpädagogik_, p.
+    70). Professor Schäfenacker (id., p. 102), who also emphasizes
+    the importance of self-control and self-restraint, thinks a youth
+    must bear in mind his future mission, as citizen and father of a
+    family.
+
+    A subtle and penetrative thinker of to-day, Jules de Gaultier,
+    writing on morals without reference to this specific question,
+    has discussed what new internal inhibitory motives we can appeal
+    to in replacing the old external inhibition of authority and
+    belief which is now decayed. He answers that the state of feeling
+    on which old faiths were based still persists. "May not," he
+    asks, "the desire for a thing that we love and wish for
+    beneficently replace the belief that a thing is by divine will,
+    or in the nature of things? Will not the presence of a bridle on
+    the frenzy of instinct reveal itself as a useful attitude adopted
+    by instinct itself for its own conservation, as a symptom of the
+    force and health of instinct? Is not empire over oneself, the
+    power of regulating one's acts, a mark of superiority and a
+    motive for self-esteem? Will not this joy of pride have the same
+    authority in preserving the instincts as was once possessed by
+    religious fear and the pretended imperatives of reason?" (Jules
+    de Gaultier, _La Dépendance de la Morale et l'Indépendance des
+    Moeurs_, p. 153.)
+
+    H.G. Wells (in _A Modern Utopia_), pointing out the importance of
+    chastity, though rejecting celibacy, invokes, like Jules de
+    Gaultier, the motive of pride. "Civilization has developed far
+    more rapidly than man has modified. Under the unnatural
+    perfection of security, liberty, and abundance our civilization
+    has attained, the normal untrained human being is disposed to
+    excess in almost every direction; he tends to eat too much and
+    too elaborately, to drink too much, to become lazy faster than
+    his work can be reduced, to waste his interest upon displays, and
+    to make love too much and too elaborately. He gets out of
+    training, and concentrates upon egoistic or erotic broodings. Our
+    founders organized motives from all sorts of sources, but I think
+    the chief force to give men self-control is pride. Pride may not
+    be the noblest thing in the soul, but it is the best king there,
+    for all that. They looked to it to keep a man clean and sound and
+    sane. In this matter, as in all matters of natural desire, they
+    held no appetite must be glutted, no appetite must have
+    artificial whets, and also and equally that no appetite should be
+    starved. A man must come from the table satisfied, but not
+    replete. And, in the matter of love, a straight and clean desire
+    for a clean and straight fellow-creature was our founders' ideal.
+    They enjoined marriage between equals as the duty to the race,
+    and they framed directions of the precisest sort to prevent that
+    uxorious inseparableness, that connubiality, that sometimes
+    reduces a couple of people to something jointly less than
+    either."
+
+    With regard to chastity as an element of erotic satisfaction,
+    Edward Carpenter writes (_Love's Coming of Age_, p. 11): "There
+    is a kind of illusion about physical desire similar to that which
+    a child suffers from when, seeing a beautiful flower, it
+    instantly snatches the same, and destroys in a few moments the
+    form and fragrance which attracted it. He only gets the full
+    glory who holds himself back a little, and truly possesses, who
+    is willing, if need be, not to possess. He is indeed a master of
+    life who, accepting the grosser desires as they come to his body,
+    and not refusing them, knows how to transform them at will into
+    the most rare and fragrant flowers of human emotion."
+
+Beyond its functions in building up character, in heightening and
+ennobling the erotic life, and in subserving the adequate fulfilment of
+family and social duties, chastity has a more special value for those who
+cultivate the arts. We may not always be inclined to believe the writers
+who have declared that their verse alone is wanton, but their lives
+chaste. It is certainly true, however, that a relationship of this kind
+tends to occur. The stuff of the sexual life, as Nietzsche says, is the
+stuff of art; if it is expended in one channel it is lost for the other.
+The masters of all the more intensely emotional arts have frequently
+cultivated a high degree of chastity. This is notably the case as regards
+music; one thinks of Mozart,[89] of Beethoven, of Schubert, and many
+lesser men. In the case of poets and novelists chastity may usually seem
+to be less prevalent but it is frequently well-marked, and is not seldom
+disguised by the resounding reverberations which even the slightest
+love-episode often exerts on the poetic organism. Goethe's life seems, at
+a first glance, to be a long series of continuous love-episodes. Yet when
+we remember that it was the very long life of a man whose vigor remained
+until the end, that his attachments long and profoundly affected his
+emotional life and his work, and that with most of the women he has
+immortalized he never had actual sexual relationships at all, and when we
+realize, moreover, that, throughout, he accomplished an almost
+inconceivably vast amount of work, we shall probably conclude that sexual
+indulgence had a very much smaller part in Goethe's life than in that of
+many an average man on whom it leaves no obvious emotional or intellectual
+trace whatever. Sterne, again, declared that he must always have a
+Dulcinea dancing in his head, yet the amount of his intimate relations
+with women appears to have been small. Balzac spent his life toiling at
+his desk and carrying on during many years a love correspondence with a
+woman he scarcely ever saw and at the end only spent a few months of
+married life with. The like experience has befallen many artistic
+creators. For, in the words of Landor, "absence is the invisible and
+incorporeal mother of ideal beauty."
+
+We do well to remember that, while the auto-erotic manifestations through
+the brain are of infinite variety and importance, the brain and the
+sexual organs are yet the great rivals in using up bodily energy, and that
+there is an antagonism between extreme brain vigor and extreme sexual
+vigor, even although they may sometimes both appear at different periods
+in the same individual.[90] In this sense there is no paradox in the
+saying of Ramon Correa that potency is impotence and impotence potency,
+for a high degree of energy, whether in athletics or in intellect or in
+sexual activity, is unfavorable to the display of energy in other
+directions. Every high degree of potency has its related impotencies.
+
+    It may be added that we may find a curiously inconsistent proof
+    of the excessive importance attached to sexual function by a
+    society which systematically tries to depreciate sex, in the
+    disgrace which is attributed to the lack of "virile" potency.
+    Although civilized life offers immense scope for the activities
+    of sexually impotent persons, the impotent man is made to feel
+    that, while he need not be greatly concerned if he suffers from
+    nervous disturbances of digestion, if he should suffer just as
+    innocently from nervous disturbances of the sexual impulse, it is
+    almost a crime. A striking example of this was shown, a few years
+    ago, when it was plausibly suggested that Carlyle's relations
+    with his wife might best be explained by supposing that he
+    suffered from some trouble of sexual potency. At once admirers
+    rushed forward to "defend" Carlyle from this "disgraceful"
+    charge; they were more shocked than if it had been alleged that
+    he was a syphilitic. Yet impotence is, at the most, an infirmity,
+    whether due to some congenital anatomical defect or to a
+    disturbance of nervous balance in the delicate sexual mechanism,
+    such as is apt to occur in men of abnormally sensitive
+    temperament. It is no more disgraceful to suffer from it than
+    from dyspepsia, with which, indeed, it may be associated. Many
+    men of genius and high moral character have been sexually
+    deformed. This was the case with Cowper (though this significant
+    fact is suppressed by his biographers); Ruskin was divorced for a
+    reason of this kind; and J.S. Mill, it is said, was sexually of
+    little more than infantile development.
+
+Up to this point I have been considering the quality of chastity and the
+quality of asceticism in their most general sense and without any attempt
+at precise differentiation.[91] But if we are to accept these as modern
+virtues, valid to-day, it is necessary that we should be somewhat more
+precise in defining them. It seems most convenient, and most strictly
+accordant also with etymology, if we agree to mean by asceticism or
+_ascesis_, the athlete quality of self-discipline, controlling, by no
+means necessarily for indefinitely prolonged periods, the gratification of
+the sexual impulse. By chastity, which is primarily the quality of purity,
+and secondarily that of holiness, rather than of abstinence, we may best
+understand a due proportion between erotic claims and the other claims of
+life. "Chastity," as Ellen Key well says, "is harmony between body and
+soul in relation to love." Thus comprehended, asceticism is the virtue of
+control that leads up to erotic gratification, and chastity is the virtue
+which exerts its harmonizing influence in the erotic life itself.
+
+It will be seen that asceticism by no means necessarily involves perpetual
+continence. Properly understood, asceticism is a discipline, a training,
+which has reference to an end not itself. If it is compulsorily perpetual,
+whether at the dictates of a religious dogma, or as a mere fetish, it is
+no longer on a natural basis, and it is no longer moral, for the restraint
+of a man who has spent his whole life in a prison is of no value for life.
+If it is to be natural and to be moral asceticism must have an end outside
+itself, it must subserve the ends of vital activity, which cannot be
+subserved by a person who is engaged in a perpetual struggle with his own
+natural instincts. A man may, indeed, as a matter of taste or preference,
+live his whole life in sexual abstinence, freely and easily, but in that
+case he is not an ascetic, and his abstinence is neither a subject for
+applause nor for criticism.
+
+In the same way chastity, far from involving sexual abstinence, only has
+its value when it is brought within the erotic sphere. A purity that is
+ignorance, when the age of childish innocence is once passed, is mere
+stupidity; it is nearer to vice than to virtue. Nor is purity consonant
+with effort and struggle; in that respect it differs from asceticism. "We
+conquer the bondage of sex," Rosa Mayreder says, "by acceptance, not by
+denials, and men can only do this with the help of women." The would-be
+chastity of cold calculation is equally unbeautiful and unreal, and
+without any sort of value. A true and worthy chastity can only be
+supported by an ardent ideal, whether, as among the early Christians, this
+is the erotic ideal of a new romance, or, as among ourselves, a more
+humanly erotic ideal. "Only erotic idealism," says Ellen Key, "can arouse
+enthusiasm for chastity." Chastity in a healthily developed person can
+thus be beautifully exercised only in the actual erotic life; in part it
+is the natural instinct of dignity and temperance; in part it is the art
+of touching the things of sex with hands that remember their aptness for
+all the fine ends of life. Upon the doorway of entrance to the inmost
+sanctuary of love there is thus the same inscription as on the doorway to
+the Epidaurian Sanctuary of Aesculapius: "None but the pure shall enter
+here."
+
+    It will be seen that the definition of chastity remains somewhat
+    lacking in precision. That is inevitable. We cannot grasp purity
+    tightly, for, like snow, it will merely melt in our hands.
+    "Purity itself forbids too minute a system of rules for the
+    observance of purity," well says Sidgwick (_Methods of Ethics_,
+    Bk. iii, Ch. IX). Elsewhere (op. cit., Bk. iii, Ch. XI) he
+    attempts to answer the question: What sexual relations are
+    essentially impure? and concludes that no answer is possible.
+    "There appears to be no distinct principle, having any claim to
+    self-evidence, upon which the question can be answered so as to
+    command general assent." Even what is called "Free Love," he
+    adds, "in so far as it is earnestly advocated as a means to a
+    completer harmony of sentiment between men and women, cannot be
+    condemned as impure, for it seems paradoxical to distinguish
+    purity from impurity merely by less rapidity of transition."
+
+    Moll, from the standpoint of medical psychology, reaches the same
+    conclusion as Sidgwick from that of ethics. In a report on the
+    "Value of Chastity for Men," published as an appendix to the
+    third edition (1899) of his _Konträre Sexualempfindung_, the
+    distinguished Berlin physician discusses the matter with much
+    vigorous common sense, insisting that "chaste and unchaste are
+    _relative ideas_." We must not, he states, as is so often done,
+    identify "chaste" with "sexually abstinent." He adds that we are
+    not justified in describing all extra-marital sexual intercourse
+    as unchaste, for, if we do so, we shall be compelled to regard
+    nearly all men, and some very estimable women, as unchaste. He
+    rightly insists that in this matter we must apply the same rule
+    to women as to men, and he points out that even when it involves
+    what may be technically adultery sexual intercourse is not
+    necessarily unchaste. He takes the case of a girl who, at
+    eighteen, when still mentally immature, is married to a man with
+    whom she finds it impossible to live and a separation
+    consequently occurs, although a divorce may be impossible to
+    obtain. If she now falls passionately in love with a man her love
+    may be entirely chaste, though it involves what is technically
+    adultery.
+
+In thus understanding asceticism and chastity, and their beneficial
+functions in life, we see that they occupy a place midway between the
+artificially exaggerated position they once held and that to which they
+were degraded by the inevitable reaction of total indifference or actual
+hostility which followed. Asceticism and chastity are not rigid
+categorical imperatives; they are useful means to desirable ends; they are
+wise and beautiful arts. They demand our estimation, but not our
+over-estimation. For in over-estimating them, it is too often forgotten,
+we over-estimate the sexual instinct. The instinct of sex is indeed
+extremely important. Yet it has not that all-embracing and supereminent
+importance which some, even of those who fight against it, are accustomed
+to believe. That artificially magnified conception of the sexual impulse
+is fortified by the artificial emphasis placed upon asceticism. We may
+learn the real place of the sexual impulse in learning how we may
+reasonably and naturally view the restraints on that impulse.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[69] For Blake and for Shelley, as well as, it may be added, for Hinton,
+chastity, as Todhunter remarks in his _Study of Shelley_, is "a type of
+submission to the actual, a renunciation of the infinite, and is therefore
+hated by them. The chaste man, i.e., the man of prudence and self-control,
+is the man who has lost the nakedness of his primitive innocence."
+
+[70] For evidence of the practices of savages in this matter, see Appendix
+_A_ to the third volume of these _Studies_, "The Sexual Instinct in
+Savages." Cf. also Chs. IV and VII of Westermarck's _History of Human
+Marriage_, and also Chs. XXXVIII and XLI of the same author's _Origin and
+Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii; Frazer's _Golden Bough_ contains
+much bearing on this subject, as also Crawley's _Mystic Rose_.
+
+[71] See, e.g., Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
+vol. ii, pp. 412 et seq.
+
+[72] Thus an old Maori declared, a few years ago, that the decline of his
+race has been entirely due to the loss of the ancient religious faith in
+the _tabu_. "For," said he (I quote from an Auckland newspaper), "in the
+olden-time our _tapu_ ramified the whole social system. The head, the
+hair, spots where apparitions appeared, places which the _tohungas_
+proclaimed as sacred, we have forgotten and disregarded. Who nowadays
+thinks of the sacredness of the head? See when the kettle boils, the young
+man jumps up, whips the cap off his head, and uses it for a kettle-holder.
+Who nowadays but looks on with indifference when the barber of the
+village, if he be near the fire, shakes the loose hair off his cloth into
+it, and the joke and the laughter goes on as if no sacred operation had
+just been concluded. Food is consumed on places which, in bygone days, it
+dared not even be carried over."
+
+[73] Thus, long before Christian monks arose, the ascetic life of the
+cloister on very similar lines existed in Egypt in the worship of Serapis
+(Dill, _Roman Society_, p. 79).
+
+[74] At night, in the baptistry, with lamps dimly burning, the women were
+stripped even of their tunics, plunged three times in the pool, then
+anointed, dressed in white, and kissed.
+
+[75] Thus Jerome, in his letter to Eustochium, refers to those couples who
+"share the same room, often even the same bed, and call us suspicious if
+we draw any conclusions," while Cyprian (_Epistola_, 86) is unable to
+approve of those men he hears of, one a deacon, who live in familiar
+intercourse with virgins, even sleeping in the same bed with them, for, he
+declares, the feminine sex is weak and youth is wanton.
+
+[76] Perpetua (_Acta Sanctorum_, March 7) is termed by Hort and Mayor
+"that fairest flower in the garden of post-Apostolic Christendom." She was
+not, however, a virgin, but a young mother with a baby at her breast.
+
+[77] The strength of early Christian asceticism lay in its spontaneous and
+voluntary character. When, in the ninth century, the Carlovingians
+attempted to enforce monastic and clerical celibacy, the result was a
+great outburst of unchastity and crime; nunneries became brothels, nuns
+were frequently guilty of infanticide, monks committed unspeakable
+abominations, the regular clergy formed incestuous relations with their
+nearest female relatives (Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol. i,
+pp, 155 et seq.).
+
+[78] Sénancour, _De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 233. Islam has placed much less
+stress on chastity than Christianity, but practically, it would appear,
+there is often more regard for chastity under Mohammedan rule than under
+Christian rule. Thus it is stated by "Viator" (_Fortnightly Review_, Dec.,
+1908) that formerly, under Turkish Moslem rule, it was impossible to buy
+the virtue of women in Bosnia, but that now, under the Christian rule of
+Austria, it is everywhere possible to buy women near the Austrian
+frontier.
+
+[79] The basis of this feeling was strengthened when it was shown by
+scholars that the physical virtue of "virginity" had been masquerading
+under a false name. To remain a virgin seems to have meant at the first,
+among peoples of early Aryan culture, by no means to take a vow of
+chastity, but to refuse to submit to the yoke of patriarchal marriage. The
+women who preferred to stand outside marriage were "virgins," even though
+mothers of large families, and Æschylus speaks of the Amazons as
+"virgins," while in Greek the child of an unmarried girl was always "the
+virgin's son." The history of Artemis, the most primitive of Greek
+deities, is instructive from this point of view. She was originally only
+virginal in the sense that she rejected marriage, being the goddess of a
+nomadic and matriarchal hunting people who had not yet adopted marriage,
+and she was the goddess of childbirth, worshipped with orgiastic dances
+and phallic emblems. It was by a late transformation that Artemis became
+the goddess of chastity (Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, vol. ii,
+pp. 442 et seq.; Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Cities of Phrygia_, vol. i, p. 96; Paul
+Lafargue, "Les Mythes Historiques," _Revue des Idées_, Dec., 1904).
+
+[80] See, e.g., Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. iii, Ch. XIII.
+
+[81] _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xv, cap. XX. A little further on (lib. xvi,
+cap. XXV) he refers to Abraham as a man able to use women as a man should,
+his wife temperately, his concubine compliantly, neither immoderately.
+
+[82] _Summa_, Migne's edition, vol. iii, qu. 154, art. I.
+
+[83] See the Study of Modesty in the first volume of these _Studies_.
+
+[84] The majority of chaste youths, remarks an acute critic of modern life
+(Hellpach, _Nervosität und Kultur_, p. 175), are merely actuated by
+traditional principles, or by shyness, fear of venereal infections, lack
+of self-confidence, want of money, very seldom by any consideration for a
+future wife, and that indeed would be a tragi-comic error, for a woman
+lays no importance on intact masculinity. Moreover, he adds, the chaste
+man is unable to choose a wife wisely, and it is among teachers and
+clergymen--the chastest class--that most unhappy marriages are made.
+Milton had already made this fact an argument for facility of divorce.
+
+[85] "In eating," said Hinton, "we have achieved the task of combining
+pleasure with an absence of 'lust.' The problem for man and woman is so to
+use and possess the sexual passion as to make it the minister to higher
+things, with no restraint on it but that. It is essentially connected with
+things of the spiritual order, and would naturally revolve round them. To
+think of it as merely bodily is a mistake."
+
+[86] See "Analysis of the Sexual Impulse," and Appendix, "The Sexual
+Instinct in Savages," in vol. iii of these _Studies_.
+
+[87] I have elsewhere discussed more at length the need in modern
+civilized life of a natural and sincere asceticism (see _Affirmations_,
+1898) "St. Francis and Others."
+
+[88] _Der Wille zur Macht_, p. 392.
+
+[89] At the age of twenty-five, when he had already produced much fine
+work, Mozart wrote in his letters that he had never touched a woman,
+though he longed for love and marriage. He could not afford to marry, he
+would not seduce an innocent girl, a venial relation was repulsive to him.
+
+[90] Reibmayr, _Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies._, Bd.
+i, p. 437.
+
+[91] We may exclude altogether, it is scarcely necessary to repeat, the
+quality of virginity--that is to say, the possession of an intact
+hymen--since this is a merely physical quality with no necessary ethical
+relationships. The demand for virginity in women is, for the most part,
+either the demand for a better marketable article, or for a more powerful
+stimulant to masculine desire. Virginity involves no moral qualities in
+its possessor. Chastity and asceticism, on the other hand, are meaningless
+terms, except as demands made by the spirit on itself or on the body it
+controls.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE.
+
+The Influence of Tradition--The Theological Conception of Lust--Tendency
+of These Influences to Degrade Sexual Morality--Their Result in Creating
+the Problem of Sexual Abstinence--The Protests Against Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence and Genius--Sexual Abstinence in Women--The
+Advocates of Sexual Abstinence--Intermediate Attitude--Unsatisfactory
+Nature of the Whole Discussion--Criticism of the Conception of Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence as Compared to Abstinence from Food--No
+Complete Analogy--The Morality of Sexual Abstinence Entirely Negative--Is
+It the Physician's Duty to Advise Extra-Conjugal Sexual
+Intercourse?--Opinions of Those Who Affirm or Deny This Duty--The
+Conclusion Against Such Advice--The Physician Bound by the Social and
+Moral Ideas of His Age--The Physician as Reformer--Sexual Abstinence and
+Sexual Hygiene--Alcohol--The Influence of Physical and Mental
+Exercise--The Inadequacy of Sexual Hygiene in This Field--The Unreal
+Nature of the Conception of Sexual Abstinence--The Necessity of Replacing
+It by a More Positive Ideal.
+
+
+When we look at the matter from a purely abstract or even purely
+biological point of view, it might seem that in deciding that asceticism
+and chastity are of high value for the personal life we have said all that
+is necessary to say. That, however, is very far from being the case. We
+soon realize here, as at every point in the practical application of
+sexual psychology, that it is not sufficient to determine the abstractly
+right course along biological lines. We have to harmonize our biological
+demands with social demands. We are ruled not only by natural instincts
+but by inherited traditions, that in the far past were solidly based on
+intelligible grounds, and that even still, by the mere fact of their
+existence, exert a force which we cannot and ought not to ignore.
+
+In discussing the valuation of the sexual impulse we found that we had
+good ground for making a very high estimate of love. In discussing
+chastity and asceticism we found that they also are highly to be valued.
+And we found that, so far from any contradiction being here involved,
+love and chastity are intertwined in all their finest developments, and
+that there is thus a perfect harmony in apparent opposition. But when we
+come to consider the matter in detail, in its particular personal
+applications, we find that a new factor asserts itself. We find that our
+inherited social and religious traditions exert a pressure, all on one
+side, which makes it impossible to place the relations of love and
+chastity simply on the basis of biology and reason. We are confronted at
+the outset by our traditions. On the one side these traditions have
+weighted the word "lust"--considered as expressing all the manifestations
+of the sexual impulse which are outside marriage or which fail to have
+marriage as their direct and ostentatious end--with deprecatory and
+sinister meanings. And on the other side these traditions have created the
+problem of "sexual abstinence," which has nothing to do with either
+asceticism or chastity as these have been defined in the previous chapter,
+but merely with the purely negative pressure on the sexual impulse,
+exerted, independently of the individual's wishes, by his religious and
+social environment.
+
+The theological conception of "lust," or "libido," as sin, followed
+logically the early Christian conception of "the flesh," and became
+inevitable as soon as that conception was firmly established. Not only,
+indeed, had early Christian ideals a degrading influence on the estimation
+of sexual desire _per se_, but they tended to depreciate generally the
+dignity of the sexual relationship. If a man made sexual advances to a
+woman outside marriage, and thus brought her within the despised circle of
+"lust," he was injuring her because he was impairing her religious and
+moral value.[92] The only way he could repair the damage done was by
+paying her money or by entering into a forced and therefore probably
+unfortunate marriage with her. That is to say that sexual relationships
+were, by the ecclesiastical traditions, placed on a pecuniary basis, on
+the same level as prostitution. By its well-meant intentions to support
+the theological morality which had developed on an ascetic basis, the
+Church was thus really undermining even that form of sexual relationship
+which it sanctified.
+
+    Gregory the Great ordered that the seducer of a virgin shall
+    marry her, or, in case of refusal, be severely punished
+    corporally and shut up in a monastery to perform penance.
+    According to other ecclesiastical rules, the seducer of a virgin,
+    though held to no responsibility by the civil forum, was required
+    to marry her, or to find a husband and furnish a dowry for her.
+    Such rules had their good side, and were especially equitable
+    when seduction had been accomplished by deceit. But they largely
+    tended in practice to subordinate all questions of sexual
+    morality to a money question. The reparation to the woman, also,
+    largely became necessary because the ecclesiastical conception of
+    lust caused her value to be depreciated by contact with lust, and
+    the reparation might be said to constitute a part of penance.
+    Aquinas held that lust, in however slight a degree, is a mortal
+    sin, and most of the more influential theologians took a view
+    nearly or quite as rigid. Some, however, held that a certain
+    degree of delectation is possible in these matters without mortal
+    sin, or asserted, for instance, that to feel the touch of a soft
+    and warm hand is not mortal sin so long as no sexual feeling is
+    thereby aroused. Others, however, held that such distinctions are
+    impossible, and that all pleasures of this kind are sinful. Tomás
+    Sanchez endeavored at much length to establish rules for the
+    complicated problems of delectation that thus arose, but he was
+    constrained to admit that no rules are really possible, and that
+    such matters must be left to the judgment of a prudent man. At
+    that point casuistry dissolves and the modern point of view
+    emerges (see, e.g., Lea, _History of Auricular Confession_, vol.
+    ii, pp. 57, 115, 246, etc.).
+
+Even to-day the influence of the old traditions of the Church still
+unconsciously survives among us. That is inevitable as regards religious
+teachers, but it is found also in men of science, even in Protestant
+countries. The result is that quite contradictory dogmas are found side by
+side, even in the same writer. On the one hand, the manifestations of the
+sexual impulse are emphatically condemned as both unnecessary and evil; on
+the other hand, marriage, which is fundamentally (whatever else it may
+also be) a manifestation of the sexual impulse, receives equally emphatic
+approval as the only proper and moral form of living.[93] There can be no
+reasonable doubt whatever that it is to the surviving and pervading
+influence of the ancient traditional theological conception of _libido_
+that we must largely attribute the sharp difference of opinions among
+physicians on the question of sexual abstinence and the otherwise
+unnecessary acrimony with which these opinions have sometimes been stated.
+
+On the one side, we find the emphatic statement that sexual intercourse is
+necessary and that health cannot be maintained unless the sexual
+activities are regularly exercised.
+
+"All parts of the body which are developed for a definite use are kept in
+health, and in the enjoyment of fair growth and of long youth, by the
+fulfilment of that use, and by their appropriate exercise in the
+employment to which they are accustomed." In that statement, which occurs
+in the great Hippocratic treatise "On the Joints," we have the classic
+expression of the doctrine which in ever varying forms has been taught by
+all those who have protested against sexual abstinence. When we come down
+to the sixteenth century outbreak of Protestantism we find that Luther's
+revolt against Catholicism was in part a protest against the teaching of
+sexual abstinence. "He to whom the gift of continence is not given," he
+said in his _Table Talk_, "will not become chaste by fasting and vigils.
+For my own part I was not excessively tormented [though elsewhere he
+speaks of the great fires of lust by which he had been troubled], but all
+the same the more I macerated myself the more I burnt." And three hundred
+years later, Bebel, the would-be nineteenth century Luther of a different
+Protestantism, took the same attitude towards sexual abstinence, while
+Hinton the physician and philosopher, living in a land of rigid sexual
+conventionalism and prudery, and moved by keen sympathy for the sufferings
+he saw around him, would break into passionate sarcasm when confronted by
+the doctrine of sexual abstinence. "There are innumerable ills--terrible
+destructions, madness even, the ruin of lives--for which the embrace of
+man and woman would be a remedy. No one thinks of questioning it.
+Terrible evils and a remedy in a delight and joy! And man has chosen so to
+muddle his life that he must say: 'There, that would be a remedy, but I
+cannot use it. I _must be virtuous!_'"
+
+    If we confine ourselves to modern times and to fairly precise
+    medical statements, we find in Schurig's _Spermatologia_ (1720,
+    pp. 274 et seq.), not only a discussion of the advantages of
+    moderate sexual intercourse in a number of disorders, as
+    witnessed by famous authorities, but also a list of
+    results--including anorexia, insanity, impotence, epilepsy, even
+    death--which were believed to have been due to sexual abstinence.
+    This extreme view of the possible evils of sexual abstinence
+    seems to have been part of the Renaissance traditions of medicine
+    stiffened by a certain opposition between religion and science.
+    It was still rigorously stated by Lallemand early in the
+    nineteenth century. Subsequently, the medical statements of the
+    evil results of sexual abstinence became more temperate and
+    measured, though still often pronounced. Thus Gyurkovechky
+    believes that these results may be as serious as those of sexual
+    excess. Krafft-Ebing showed that sexual abstinence could produce
+    a state of general nervous excitement (_Jahrbuch für
+    Psychiatrie_, Bd. viii, Heft 1 and 2). Schrenck-Notzing regards
+    sexual abstinence as a cause of extreme sexual hyperæsthesia and
+    of various perversions (in a chapter on sexual abstinence in his
+    _Kriminalpsychologische und Psychopathologische Studien_, 1902,
+    pp. 174-178). He records in illustration the case of a man of
+    thirty-six who had masturbated in moderation as a boy, but
+    abandoned the practice entirely, on moral grounds, twenty years
+    ago, and has never had sexual intercourse, feeling proud to enter
+    marriage a chaste man, but now for years has suffered greatly
+    from extreme sexual hyperæsthesia and concentration of thought on
+    sexual subjects, notwithstanding a strong will and the resolve
+    not to masturbate or indulge in illicit intercourse. In another
+    case a vigorous and healthy man, not inverted, and with strong
+    sexual desires, who remained abstinent up to marriage, suffers
+    from psychic impotence, and his wife remains a virgin
+    notwithstanding all her affection and caresses. Ord considered
+    that sexual abstinence might produce many minor evils. "Most of
+    us," he wrote (_British Medical Journal_, Aug. 2, 1884) "have, no
+    doubt, been consulted by men, chaste in act, who are tormented by
+    sexual excitement. They tell one stories of long-continued local
+    excitement, followed by intense muscular weariness, or by severe
+    aching pain in the back and legs. In some I have had complaints
+    of swelling and stiffness in the legs, and of pains in the
+    joints, particularly in the knees;" he gives the case of a man
+    who suffered after prolonged chastity from inflammatory
+    conditions of knees and was only cured by marriage. Pearce
+    Gould, it may be added, finds that "excessive ungratified sexual
+    desire" is one of the causes of acute orchitis. Remondino ("Some
+    Observations on Continence as a Factor in Health and Disease,"
+    _Pacific Medical Journal_, Jan., 1900) records the case of a
+    gentleman of nearly seventy who, during the prolonged illness of
+    his wife, suffered from frequent and extreme priapism, causing
+    insomnia. He was very certain that his troubles were not due to
+    his continence, but all treatment failed and there were no
+    spontaneous emissions. At last Remondino advised him to, as he
+    expresses it, "imitate Solomon." He did so, and all the symptoms
+    at once disappeared. This case is of special interest, because
+    the symptoms were not accompanied by any conscious sexual desire.
+    It is no longer generally believed that sexual abstinence tends
+    to produce insanity, and the occasional cases in which prolonged
+    and intense sexual desire in young women is followed by insanity
+    will usually be found to occur on a basis of hereditary
+    degeneration. It is held by many authorities, however, that minor
+    mental troubles, of a more or less vague character, as well as
+    neurasthenia and hysteria, are by no means infrequently due to
+    sexual abstinence. Thus Freud, who has carefully studied
+    angstneurosis, the obsession of anxiety, finds that it is a
+    result of sexual abstinence, and may indeed be considered as a
+    vicarious form of such abstinence (Freud, _Sammlung Kleiner
+    Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, 1906, pp. 76 et seq.).
+
+    The whole subject of sexual abstinence has been discussed at
+    length by Nyström, of Stockholm, in _Das Geschlechtsleben und
+    seine Gesetze_, Ch. III. He concludes that it is desirable that
+    continence should be preserved as long as possible in order to
+    strengthen the physical health and to develop the intelligence
+    and character. The doctrine of permanent sexual abstinence,
+    however, he regards as entirely false, except in the case of a
+    small number of religious or philosophic persons. "Complete
+    abstinence during a long period of years cannot be borne without
+    producing serious results both on the body and the mind....
+    Certainly, a young man should repress his sexual impulses as long
+    as possible and avoid everything that may artificially act as a
+    sexual stimulant. If, however, he has done so, and still suffers
+    from unsatisfied normal sexual desires, and if he sees no
+    possibility of marriage within a reasonable time, no one should
+    dare to say that he is committing a sin if, with mutual
+    understanding, he enters into sexual relations with a woman
+    friend, or forms temporary sexual relationships, provided, that
+    is, that he takes the honorable precaution of begetting no
+    children, unless his partner is entirely willing to become a
+    mother, and he is prepared to accept all the responsibilities of
+    fatherhood." In an article of later date ("Die Einwirkung der
+    Sexuellen Abstinenz auf die Gesundheit," _Sexual-Probleme_, July,
+    1908) Nyström vigorously sums up his views. He includes among the
+    results of sexual abstinence orchitis, frequent involuntary
+    seminal emissions, impotence, neurasthenia, depression, and a
+    great variety of nervous disturbances of vaguer character,
+    involving diminished power of work, limited enjoyment of life,
+    sleeplessness, nervousness, and pre-occupation with sexual
+    desires and imaginations. More especially there is heightened
+    sexual irritability with erections, or even seminal emissions on
+    the slightest occasion, as on gazing at an attractive woman or in
+    social intercourse with her, or in the presence of works of art
+    representing naked figures. Nyström has had the opportunity of
+    investigating and recording ninety cases of persons who have
+    presented these and similar symptoms as the result, he believes,
+    of sexual abstinence. He has published some of these cases
+    (_Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, Oct., 1908), but it may be
+    added that Rohleder ("Die Abstinentia Sexualis," ib., Nov., 1908)
+    has criticized these cases, and doubts whether any of them are
+    conclusive. Rohleder believes that the bad results of sexual
+    abstinence are never permanent, and also that no anatomically
+    pathological states (such as orchitis) can be thereby produced.
+    But he considers, nevertheless, that even incomplete and
+    temporary sexual abstinence may produce fairly serious results,
+    and especially neurasthenic disturbances of various kinds, such
+    as nervous irritability, anxiety, depression, disinclination for
+    work; also diurnal emissions, premature ejaculations, and even a
+    state approaching satyriasis; and in women hysteria,
+    hystero-epilepsy, and nymphomaniacal manifestations; all these
+    symptoms may, however, he believes, be cured when the abstinence
+    ceases.
+
+    Many advocates of sexual abstinence have attached importance to
+    the fact that men of great genius have apparently been completely
+    continent throughout life. This is certainly true (see _ante_, p.
+    173). But this fact can scarcely be invoked as an argument in
+    favor of the advantages of sexual abstinence among the ordinary
+    population. J.F. Scott selects Jesus, Newton, Beethoven, and Kant
+    as "men of vigor and mental acumen who have lived chastely as
+    bachelors." It cannot, however, be said that Dr. Scott has been
+    happy in the four figures whom he has been able to select from
+    the whole history of human genius as examples of life-long sexual
+    abstinence. We know little with absolute certainty of Jesus, and
+    even if we reject the diagnosis which Professor Binet-Sanglé (in
+    his _Folie de Jesus_) has built up from a minute study of the
+    Gospels, there are many reasons why we should refrain from
+    emphasizing the example of his sexual abstinence; Newton, apart
+    from his stupendous genius in a special field, was an incomplete
+    and unsatisfactory human being who ultimately reached a condition
+    very like insanity; Beethoven was a thoroughly morbid and
+    diseased man, who led an intensely unhappy existence; Kant, from
+    first to last, was a feeble valetudinarian. It would probably be
+    difficult to find a healthy normal man who would voluntarily
+    accept the life led by any of these four, even as the price of
+    their fame. J.A. Godfrey (_Science of Sex_, pp. 139-147)
+    discusses at length the question whether sexual abstinence is
+    favorable to ordinary intellectual vigor, deciding that it is
+    not, and that we cannot argue from the occasional sexual
+    abstinence of men of genius, who are often abnormally
+    constituted, and physically below the average, to the normally
+    developed man. Sexual abstinence, it may be added, is by no means
+    always a favorable sign, even in men who stand intellectually
+    above the average. "I have not obtained the impression," remarks
+    Freud (_Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908), "that sexual abstinence
+    is helpful to energetic and independent men of action or original
+    thinkers, to courageous liberators or reformers. The sexual
+    conduct of a man is often symbolic of his whole method of
+    reaction in the world. The man who energetically grasps the
+    object of his sexual desire may be trusted to show a similarly
+    relentless energy in the pursuit of other aims."
+
+Many, though not all, who deny that prolonged sexual abstinence is
+harmless, include women in this statement. There are some authorities
+indeed who believe that, whether or not any conscious sexual desire is
+present, sexual abstinence is less easily tolerated by women than by
+men.[94]
+
+    Cabanis, in his famous and pioneering work, _Rapports du Physique
+    et du Moral_, said in 1802, that women not only bear sexual
+    excess more easily than men, but sexual privations with more
+    difficulty, and a cautious and experienced observer of to-day,
+    Löwenfeld (_Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, 1899, p. 53), while
+    not considering that normal women bear sexual abstinence less
+    easily than men, adds that this is not the case with women of
+    neuropathic disposition, who suffer much more from this cause,
+    and either masturbate when sexual intercourse is impossible or
+    fall into hystero-neurasthenic states. Busch stated (_Das
+    Geschlechtsleben des Weibes_, 1839, vol. i, pp. 69, 71) that not
+    only is the working of the sexual functions in the organism
+    stronger in women than in men, but that the bad results of sexual
+    abstinence are more marked in women. Sir Benjamin Brodie said
+    long ago that the evils of continence to women are perhaps
+    greater than those of incontinence, and to-day Hammer (_Die
+    Gesundheitlichen Gefahren der Geschlechtlichen Enthaltsamkeit_,
+    1904) states that, so far as reasons of health are concerned,
+    sexual abstinence is no more to be recommended to women than to
+    men. Nyström is of the same opinion, though he thinks that women
+    bear sexual abstinence better than men, and has discussed this
+    special question at length in a section of his _Geschlechtsleben
+    und seine Gesetze_. He agrees with the experienced Erb that a
+    large number of completely chaste women of high character, and
+    possessing distinguished qualities of mind and heart, are more or
+    less disordered through their sexual abstinence; this is
+    specially often the case with women married to impotent men,
+    though it is frequently not until they approach the age of
+    thirty, Nyström remarks, that women definitely realize their
+    sexual needs.
+
+    A great many women who are healthy, chaste, and modest, feel at
+    times such powerful sexual desire that they can scarcely resist
+    the temptation to go into the street and solicit the first man
+    they meet. Not a few such women, often of good breeding, do
+    actually offer themselves to men with whom they may have perhaps
+    only the slightest acquaintance. Routh records such cases
+    (_British Gynæcological Journal_, Feb., 1887), and most men have
+    met with them at some time. When a woman of high moral character
+    and strong passions is subjected for a very long period to the
+    perpetual strain of such sexual craving, especially if combined
+    with love for a definite individual, a chain of evil results,
+    physical and moral, may be set up, and numerous distinguished
+    physicians have recorded such cases, which terminated at once in
+    complete recovery as soon as the passion was gratified. Lauvergne
+    long since described a case. A fairly typical case of this kind
+    was reported in detail by Brachet (_De l'Hypochondrie_, p. 69)
+    and embodied by Griesinger in his classic work on "Mental
+    Pathology." It concerned a healthy married lady, twenty-six years
+    old, having three children. A visiting acquaintance completely
+    gained her affections, but she strenuously resisted the seducing
+    influence, and concealed the violent passion that he had aroused
+    in her. Various serious symptoms, physical and mental, slowly
+    began to appear, and she developed what seemed to be signs of
+    consumption. Six months' stay in the south of France produced no
+    improvement, either in the bodily or mental symptoms. On
+    returning home she became still worse. Then she again met the
+    object of her passion, succumbed, abandoned her husband and
+    children, and fled with him. Six months later she was scarcely
+    recognizable; beauty, freshness and plumpness had taken the place
+    of emaciation; while the symptoms of consumption and all other
+    troubles had entirely disappeared. A somewhat similar case is
+    recorded by Camill Lederer, of Vienna (_Monatsschrift für
+    Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906, Heft 3). A widow, a
+    few months after her husband's death, began to cough, with
+    symptoms of bronchial catarrh, but no definite signs of lung
+    disease. Treatment and change of climate proved entirely
+    unavailing to effect a cure. Two years later, as no signs of
+    disease had appeared in the lungs, though the symptoms continued,
+    she married again. Within a very few weeks all symptoms had
+    disappeared, and she was entirely fresh and well.
+
+    Numerous distinguished gynæcologists have recorded their belief
+    that sexual excitement is a remedy for various disorders of the
+    sexual system in women, and that abstinence is a cause of such
+    disorders. Matthews Duncan said that sexual excitement is the
+    only remedy for amenorrhoea; "the only emmenagogue medicine that
+    I know of," he wrote (_Medical Times_, Feb. 2, 1884), "is not to
+    be found in the Pharmacopoeia: it is erotic excitement. Of the
+    value of erotic excitement there is no doubt." Anstie, in his
+    work on _Neuralgia_, refers to the beneficial effect of sexual
+    intercourse on dysmenorrhoea, remarking that the necessity of the
+    full natural exercise of the sexual function is shown by the
+    great improvement in such cases after marriage, and especially
+    after childbirth. (It may be remarked that not all authorities
+    find dysmenorrhoea benefited by marriage, and some consider that
+    the disease is often thereby aggravated; see, e.g., Wythe Cook,
+    _American Journal Obstetrics_, Dec., 1893.) The distinguished
+    gynæcologist, Tilt, at a somewhat earlier date (_On Uterine and
+    Ovarian Inflammation_, 1862, p. 309), insisted on the evil
+    results of sexual abstinence in producing ovarian irritation, and
+    perhaps subacute ovaritis, remarking that this was specially
+    pronounced in young widows, and in prostitutes placed in
+    penitentiaries. Intense desire, he pointed out, determines
+    organic movements resembling those required for the gratification
+    of the desire. These burning desires, which can only be quenched
+    by their legitimate satisfaction, are still further heightened by
+    the erotic influence of thoughts, books, pictures, music, which
+    are often even more sexually stimulating than social intercourse
+    with men, but the excitement thus produced is not relieved by
+    that natural collapse which should follow a state of vital
+    turgescence. After referring to the biological facts which show
+    the effect of psychic influences on the formative powers of the
+    ovario-uterine organs in animals, Tilt continues: "I may fairly
+    infer that similar incitements on the mind of females may have a
+    stimulating effect on the organs of ovulation. I have frequently
+    known menstruation to be irregular, profuse, or abnormal in type
+    during courtship in women in whom nothing similar had previously
+    occurred, and that this protracted the treatment of chronic
+    ovaritis and of uterine inflammation." Bonnifield, of Cincinnati
+    (_Medical Standard_, Dec., 1896), considers that unsatisfied
+    sexual desire is an important cause of catarrhal endometritis. It
+    is well known that uterine fibroids bear a definite relation to
+    organic sexual activity, and that sexual abstinence, more
+    especially the long-continued deprivation of pregnancy, is a very
+    important cause of the disease. This is well shown by an analysis
+    by A.E. Giles (_Lancet_, March 2, 1907) of one hundred and fifty
+    cases. As many as fifty-six of these cases, more than a third,
+    were unmarried women, though nearly all were over thirty years of
+    age. Of the ninety-four married women, thirty-four had never been
+    pregnant; of those who had been pregnant, thirty-six had not been
+    so for at least ten years. Thus eighty-four per cent, had either
+    not been pregnant at all, or had had no pregnancy for at least
+    ten years. It is, therefore, evident that deprivation of sexual
+    function, whether or not involving abstinence from sexual
+    intercourse, is an important cause of uterine fibroid tumors.
+    Balls-Headley, of Victoria (_Evolution of the Diseases of Women_,
+    1894, and "Etiology of Diseases of Female Genital Organs,"
+    Allbutt and Playfair, _System of Gynæcology_,) believes that
+    unsatisfied sexual desire is a factor in very many disorders of
+    the sexual organs in women. "My views," he writes in a private
+    letter, "are founded on a really special gynæcological practice
+    of twenty years, during which I have myself taken about seven
+    thousand most careful records. The normal woman is sexually
+    well-formed and her sexual feelings require satisfaction in the
+    direction of the production of the next generation, but under the
+    restrictive and now especially abnormal conditions of
+    civilization some women undergo hereditary atrophy, and the
+    uterus and sexual feelings are feeble; in others of good average
+    local development the feeling is in restraint; in others the
+    feelings, as well as the organs, are strong, and if normal use be
+    withheld evils ensue. Bearing in mind these varieties of
+    congenital development in relation to the respective condition of
+    virginity, or sterile or parous married life, the mode of
+    occurrence and of progress of disease grows on the physician's
+    mind, and there is no more occasion for bewilderment than to the
+    mathematician studying conic sections, when his knowledge has
+    grown from the basis of the science. The problem is suggested:
+    Has a crowd of unassociated diseases fallen as through a sieve on
+    woman, or have these affections almost necessarily ensued from
+    the circumstances of her unnatural environment?" It may be added
+    that Kisch (_Sexual Life of Woman_), while protesting against any
+    exaggerated estimate of the effects of sexual abstinence,
+    considers that in women it may result, not only in numerous local
+    disorders, but also in nervous disturbance, hysteria, and even
+    insanity, while in neurasthenic women "regulated sexual
+    intercourse has an actively beneficial effect which is often
+    striking."
+
+    It is important to remark that the evil results of sexual
+    abstinence in women, in the opinion of many of those who insist
+    upon their importance, are by no means merely due to unsatisfied
+    sexual desire. They may be pronounced even when the woman herself
+    has not the slightest consciousness of sexual needs. This was
+    clearly pointed out forty years ago by the sagacious Anstie (_op.
+    cit._) In women, especially, he remarks, "a certain restless
+    hyperactivity of mind, and perhaps of body also, seems to be the
+    expression of Nature's unconscious resentment of the _neglect of
+    sexual functions_." Such women, he adds, have kept themselves
+    free from masturbation "at the expense of a perpetual and almost
+    fierce activity of mind and muscle." Anstie had found that some
+    of the worst cases of the form of nervosity and neurasthenia
+    which he termed "spinal irritation," often accompanied by
+    irritable stomach and anæmia, get well on marriage. "There can be
+    no question," he continues, "that a very large proportion of
+    these cases in single women (who form by far the greater number
+    of subjects of spinal irritation) are due to this conscious or
+    unconscious irritation kept up by an unsatisfied sexual want. It
+    is certain that very many young persons (women more especially)
+    are tormented by the irritability of the sexual organs without
+    having the least consciousness of sexual desire, and present the
+    sad spectacle of a _vie manquée_ without ever knowing the true
+    source of the misery which incapacitates them for all the active
+    duties of life. It is a singular fact that in occasional
+    instances one may even see two sisters, inheriting the same kind
+    of nervous organization, both tormented with the symptoms of
+    spinal irritation and both probably suffering from repressed
+    sexual functions, but of whom one shall be pure-minded and
+    entirely unconscious of the real source of her troubles, while
+    the other is a victim to conscious and fruitless sexual
+    irritation." In this matter Anstie may be regarded as a
+    forerunner of Freud, who has developed with great subtlety and
+    analytic power the doctrine of the transformation of repressed
+    sexual instinct in women into morbid forms. He considers that the
+    nervosity of to-day is largely due to the injurious action on the
+    sexual life of that repression of natural instincts on which our
+    civilization is built up. (Perhaps the clearest brief statement
+    of Freud's views on the matter is to be found in a very
+    suggestive article, "Die 'Kulturelle' Sexualmoral und die Moderne
+    Nervosität," in _Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908, reprinted in the
+    second series of Freud's _Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur
+    Neurosenlehre_, 1909). We possess the aptitude, he says, of
+    sublimating and transforming our sexual activities into other
+    activities of a psychically related character, but non-sexual.
+    This process cannot, however, be carried out to an unlimited
+    extent any more than can the conversion of heat into mechanical
+    work in our machines. A certain amount of direct sexual
+    satisfaction is for most organizations indispensable, and the
+    renunciation of this individually varying amount is punished by
+    manifestations which we are compelled to regard as morbid. The
+    process of sublimation, under the influence of civilization,
+    leads both to sexual perversions and to psycho-neuroses. These
+    two conditions are closely related, as Freud views the process of
+    their development; they stand to each other as positive and
+    negative, sexual perversions being the positive pole and
+    psycho-neuroses the negative. It often happens, he remarks, that
+    a brother may be sexually perverse, while his sister, with a
+    weaker sexual temperament, is a neurotic whose symptoms are a
+    transformation of her brother's perversion; while in many
+    families the men are immoral, the women pure and refined but
+    highly nervous. In the case of women who have no defect of sexual
+    impulse there is yet the same pressure of civilized morality
+    pushing them into neurotic states. It is a terribly serious
+    injustice, Freud remarks, that the civilized standard of sexual
+    life is the same for all persons, because though some, by their
+    organization, may easily accept it, for others it involves the
+    most difficult psychic sacrifices. The unmarried girl, who has
+    become nervously weak, cannot be advised to seek relief in
+    marriage, for she must be strong in order to "bear" marriage,
+    while we urge a man on no account to marry a girl who is not
+    strong. The married woman who has experienced the deceptions of
+    marriage has usually no way of relief left but by abandoning her
+    virtue. "The more strenuously she has been educated, and the more
+    completely she has been subjected to the demands of civilization,
+    the more she fears this way of escape, and in the conflict
+    between her desires and her sense of duty, she also seeks
+    refuge--in neurosis. Nothing protects her virtue so surely as
+    disease." Taking a still wider view of the influence of the
+    narrow "civilized" conception of sexual morality on women, Freud
+    finds that it is not limited to the production of neurotic
+    conditions; it affects the whole intellectual aptitude of women.
+    Their education denies them any occupation with sexual problems,
+    although such problems are so full of interest to them, for it
+    inculcates the ancient prejudice that any curiosity in such
+    matters is unwomanly and a proof of wicked inclinations. They are
+    thus terrified from thinking, and knowledge is deprived of worth.
+    The prohibition to think extends, automatically and inevitably,
+    far beyond the sexual sphere. "I do not believe," Freud
+    concludes, "that there is any opposition between intellectual
+    work and sexual activity such as was supposed by Möbius. I am of
+    opinion that the unquestionable fact of the intellectual
+    inferiority of so many women is due to the inhibition of thought
+    imposed upon them for the purpose of sexual repression."
+
+    It is only of recent years that this problem has been realized
+    and faced, though solitary thinkers, like Hinton, have been
+    keenly conscious of its existence; for "sorrowing virtue," as
+    Mrs. Ella Wheeler Wilcox puts it, "is more ashamed of its woes
+    than unhappy sin, because the world has tears for the latter and
+    only ridicule for the former." "It is an almost cynical trait of
+    our age," Hellpach wrote a few years ago, "that it is constantly
+    discussing the theme of prostitution, of police control, of the
+    age of consent, of the 'white slavery,' and passes over the moral
+    struggle of woman's soul without an attempt to answer her burning
+    questions."
+
+On the other hand we find medical writers not only asserting with much
+moral fervor that sexual intercourse outside marriage is always and
+altogether unnecessary, but declaring, moreover, the harmlessness or even
+the advantages of sexual abstinence.
+
+    Ribbing, the Swedish professor, in his _Hygiène Sexuelle_,
+    advocates sexual abstinence outside marriage, and asserts its
+    harmlessness. Gilles de la Tourette, Féré, and Augagneur in
+    France agree. In Germany Fürbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health
+    and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 228) asserts
+    that continence is possible and necessary, though admitting that
+    it may, however, mean serious mischief in exceptional cases.
+    Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 14) doubts whether anyone,
+    who otherwise lived a reasonable life, ever became ill, or more
+    precisely neurasthenic, through sexual abstinence. Hegar,
+    replying to the arguments of Bebel in his well-known book on
+    women, denies that sexual abstinence can ever produce satyriasis
+    or nymphomania. Näcke, who has frequently discussed the problem
+    of sexual abstinence (e.g., _Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie_,
+    1903, Heft 1, and _Sexual-Probleme_, June, 1908), maintains that
+    sexual abstinence can, at most, produce rare and slight
+    unfavorable results, and that it is no more likely to produce
+    insanity, even in predisposed individuals, than are the opposite
+    extremes of sexual excess and masturbation. He adds that, so far
+    as his own observations are concerned, the patients in asylums
+    suffer scarcely at all from their compulsory sexual abstinence.
+
+    It is in England, however, that the virtues of sexual abstinence
+    have been most loudly and emphatically proclaimed, sometimes
+    indeed with considerable lack of cautious qualification. Acton,
+    in his _Reproductive Organs_, sets forth the traditional English
+    view, as well as Beale in his _Morality and the Moral Question_.
+    A more distinguished representative of the same view was Paget,
+    who, in his lecture on "Sexual Hypochondriasis," coupled sexual
+    intercourse with "theft or lying." Sir William Gowers (_Syphilis
+    and the Nervous System_, 1892, p. 126) also proclaims the
+    advantages of "unbroken chastity," more especially as a method of
+    avoiding syphilis. He is not hopeful, however, even as regards
+    his own remedy, for he adds: "We can trace small ground for hope
+    that the disease will thus be materially reduced." He would
+    still, however, preach chastity to the individual, and he does so
+    with all the ascetic ardor of a mediæval monk. "With all the
+    force that any knowledge I possess, and any authority I have, can
+    give, I assert that no man ever yet was in the slightest degree
+    or way the worse for continence or better for incontinence. From
+    the latter all are worse morally; a clear majority are worse
+    physically; and in no small number the result is, and ever will
+    be, utter physical shipwreck on one of the many rocks, sharp,
+    jagged-edged, which beset the way, or on one of the many beds of
+    festering slime which no care can possibly avoid." In America the
+    same view widely prevails, and Dr. J.F. Scott, in his
+    _Sexual-Instinct_ (second edition, 1908, Ch. III), argues very
+    vigorously and at great length in favor of sexual abstinence. He
+    will not even admit that there are two sides to the question,
+    though if that were the case, the length and the energy of his
+    arguments would be unnecessary.
+
+    Among medical authorities who have discussed the question of
+    sexual abstinence at length it is not, indeed, usually possible
+    to find such unqualified opinions in its favor as those I have
+    quoted. There can be no doubt, however, that a large proportion
+    of physicians, not excluding prominent and distinguished
+    authorities, when casually confronted with the question whether
+    sexual abstinence is harmless, will at once adopt the obvious
+    path of least resistance and reply: Yes. In only a few cases will
+    they even make any qualification of this affirmative answer. This
+    tendency is very well illustrated by an inquiry made by Dr.
+    Ludwig Jacobsohn, of St. Petersburgh ("Die Sexuelle
+    Enthaltsamkeit im Lichte der Medizin," _St. Petersburger
+    Medicinische Wochenschrift_, March 17, 1907). He wrote to over
+    two hundred distinguished Russian and German professors of
+    physiology, neurology, psychiatry, etc., asking them if they
+    regarded sexual abstinence as harmless. The majority returned no
+    answer; eleven Russian and twenty-eight Germans replied, but four
+    of them merely said that "they had no personal experience," etc.;
+    there thus remained thirty-five. Of these E. Pflüger, of Bonn,
+    was skeptical of the advantage of any propaganda of abstinence:
+    "if all the authorities in the world declared the harmlessness of
+    abstinence that would have no influence on youth. Forces are here
+    in play that break through all obstacles." The harmlessness of
+    abstinence was affirmed by Kräpelin, Cramer, Gärtner, Tuczek,
+    Schottelius, Gaffky, Finkler, Selenew, Lassar, Seifert, Gruber;
+    the last, however, added that he knew very few abstinent young
+    men, and himself only considered abstinence good before full
+    development, and intercourse not dangerous in moderation even
+    before then. Brieger knew cases of abstinence without harmful
+    results, but himself thought that no general opinion could be
+    given. Jürgensen said that abstinence _in itself_ is not harmful,
+    but that in some cases intercourse exerts a more beneficial
+    influence. Hoffmann said that abstinence is harmless, adding that
+    though it certainly leads to masturbation, that is better than
+    gonorrhoea, to say nothing of syphilis, and is easily kept within
+    bounds. Strümpell replied that sexual abstinence is harmless, and
+    indirectly useful as preserving from the risk of venereal
+    disease, but that sexual intercourse, being normal, is always
+    more desirable. Hensen said that abstinence is not to be
+    unconditionally approved. Rumpf replied that abstinence was not
+    harmful for most before the age of thirty, but after that age
+    there was a tendency to mental obsessions, and marriage should
+    take place at twenty-five. Leyden also considered abstinence
+    harmless until towards thirty, when it leads to psychic
+    anomalies, especially states of anxiety, and a certain
+    affectation. Hein replied that abstinence is harmless for most,
+    but in some leads to hysterical manifestations and indirectly to
+    bad results from masturbation, while for the normal man
+    abstinence cannot be directly beneficial, since intercourse is
+    natural. Grützner thought that abstinence is almost never
+    harmful. Nescheda said it is harmless in itself, but harmful in
+    so far as it leads to unnatural modes of gratification. Neisser
+    believes that more prolonged abstinence than is now usual would
+    be beneficial, but admitted the sexual excitations of our
+    civilization; he added that of course he saw no harm for healthy
+    men in intercourse. Hoche replied that abstinence is quite
+    harmless in normal persons, but not always so in abnormal
+    persons. Weber thought it had a useful influence in increasing
+    will-power. Tarnowsky said it is good in early manhood, but
+    likely to be unfavorable after twenty-five. Orlow replied that,
+    especially in youth, it is harmless, and a man should be as
+    chaste as his wife. Popow said that abstinence is good at all
+    ages and preserves the energy. Blumenau said that in adult age
+    abstinence is neither normal nor beneficial, and generally leads
+    to masturbation, though not generally to nervous disorders; but
+    that even masturbation is better than syphilis. Tschiriew saw no
+    harm in abstinence up to thirty, and thought sexual weakness more
+    likely to follow excess than abstinence. Tschish regarded
+    abstinence as beneficial rather than harmful up to twenty-five or
+    twenty-eight, but thought it difficult to decide after that age
+    when nervous alterations seem to be caused. Darkschewitcz
+    regarded abstinence as harmless up to twenty-five. Fränkel said
+    it was harmless for most, but that for a considerable proportion
+    of people intercourse is a necessity. Erb's opinion is regarded
+    by Jacobsohn as standing alone; he placed the age below which
+    abstinence is harmless at twenty; after that age he regarded it
+    as injurious to health, seriously impeding work and capacity,
+    while in neurotic persons it leads to still more serious results.
+    Jacobsohn concludes that the general opinion of those answering
+    the inquiry may thus be expressed: "Youth should be abstinent.
+    Abstinence can in no way injure them; on the contrary, it is
+    beneficial. If our young people will remain abstinent and avoid
+    extra-conjugal intercourse they will maintain a high ideal of
+    love and preserve themselves from venereal diseases."
+
+    The harmlessness of sexual abstinence was likewise affirmed in
+    America in a resolution passed by the American Medical
+    Association in 1906. The proposition thus formally accepted was
+    thus worded: "Continence is not incompatible with health." It
+    ought to be generally realized that abstract propositions of this
+    kind are worthless, because they mean nothing. Every sane person,
+    when confronted by the demand to boldly affirm or deny the
+    proposition, "Continence is not incompatible with health," is
+    bound to affirm it. He might firmly believe that continence is
+    incompatible with the health of most people, and that prolonged
+    continence is incompatible with anyone's health, and yet, if he
+    is to be honest in the use of language, it would be impossible
+    for him to deny the vague and abstract proposition that
+    "Continence is not incompatible with health." Such propositions
+    are therefore not only without value, but actually misleading.
+
+    It is obvious that the more extreme and unqualified opinions in
+    favor of sexual abstinence are based not on medical, but on what
+    the writers regard as moral considerations. Moreover, as the same
+    writers are usually equally emphatic in regard to the advantages
+    of sexual intercourse in marriage, it is clear that they have
+    committed themselves to a contradiction. The same act, as Näcke
+    rightly points out, cannot become good or bad according as it is
+    performed in or out of marriage. There is no magic efficacy in a
+    few words pronounced by a priest or a government official.
+
+    Remondino (loc. cit.) remarks that the authorities who have
+    committed themselves to declarations in favor of the
+    unconditional advantages of sexual abstinence tend to fall into
+    three errors: (1) they generalize unduly, instead of considering
+    each case individually, on its own merits; (2) they fail to
+    realize that human nature is influenced by highly mixed and
+    complex motives and cannot be assumed to be amenable only to
+    motives of abstract morality; (3) they ignore the great army of
+    masturbators and sexual perverts who make no complaint of sexual
+    suffering, but by maintaining a rigid sexual abstinence, so far
+    as normal relationships are concerned, gradually drift into
+    currents whence there is no return.
+
+Between those who unconditionally affirm or deny the harmlessness of
+sexual abstinence we find an intermediate party of authorities whose
+opinions are more qualified. Many of those who occupy this more guarded
+position are men whose opinions carry much weight, and it is probable that
+with them rather than with the more extreme advocates on either side the
+greater measure of reason lies. So complex a question as this cannot be
+adequately investigated merely in the abstract, and settled by an
+unqualified negative or affirmative. It is a matter in which every case
+requires its own special and personal consideration.
+
+    "Where there is such a marked opposition of opinion truth is not
+    exclusively on one side," remarks Löwenfeld (_Sexualleben und
+    Nervenleiden_, second edition, p. 40). Sexual abstinence is
+    certainly often injurious to neuropathic persons. (This is now
+    believed by a large number of authorities, and was perhaps first
+    decisively stated by Krafft-Ebing, "Ueber Neurosen durch
+    Abstinenz," _Jahrbuch für Psychiatrie_, 1889, p. 1). Löwenfeld
+    finds no special proclivity to neurasthenia among the Catholic
+    clergy, and when it does occur, there is no reason to suppose a
+    sexual causation. "In healthy and not hereditarily neuropathic
+    men complete abstinence is possible without injury to the nervous
+    system." Injurious effects, he continues, when they appear,
+    seldom occur until between twenty-four and thirty-six years of
+    age, and even then are not usually serious enough to lead to a
+    visit to a doctor, consisting mainly in frequency of nocturnal
+    emissions, pain in testes or rectum, hyperæsthesia in the
+    presence of women or of sexual ideas. If, however, conditions
+    arise which specially stimulate the sexual emotions, neurasthenia
+    may be produced. Löwenfeld agrees with Freud and Gattel that the
+    neurosis of anxiety tends to occur in the abstinent, careful
+    examination showing that the abstinence is a factor in its
+    production in both sexes. It is common among young women married
+    to much older men, often appearing during the first years of
+    marriage. Under special circumstances, therefore, abstinence can
+    be injurious, but on the whole the difficulties due to such
+    abstinence are not severe, and they only exceptionally call forth
+    actual disturbance in the nervous or psychic spheres. Moll takes
+    a similar temperate and discriminating view. He regards sexual
+    abstinence before marriage as the ideal, but points out that we
+    must avoid any doctrinal extremes in preaching sexual abstinence,
+    for such preaching will merely lead to hypocrisy. Intercourse
+    with prostitutes, and the tendency to change a woman like a
+    garment, induce loss of sensitiveness to the spiritual and
+    personal element in woman, while the dangers of sexual abstinence
+    must no more be exaggerated than the dangers of sexual
+    intercourse (Moll, _Libido Sexualis_, 1898, vol. i, p. 848; id.,
+    _Konträre Sexualempfindung_, 1899, p. 588). Bloch also (in a
+    chapter on the question of sexual abstinence in his _Sexualleben
+    unserer Zeit_, 1908) takes a similar standpoint. He advocates
+    abstention during early life and temporary abstention in adult
+    life, such abstention being valuable, not only for the
+    conservation and transformation of energy, but also to emphasize
+    the fact that life contains other matters to strive for beyond
+    the ends of sex. Redlich (_Medizinische Klinik_, 1908, No. 7)
+    also, in a careful study of the medical aspects of the question,
+    takes an intermediate standpoint in relation to the relative
+    advantages and disadvantages of sexual abstinence. "We may say
+    that sexual abstinence is not a condition which must, under all
+    circumstances and at any price, be avoided, though it is true
+    that for the majority of healthy adult persons regular sexual
+    intercourse is advantageous, and sometimes is even to be
+    recommended."
+
+    It may be added that from the standpoint of Christian religious
+    morality this same attitude, between the extremes of either
+    party, recognizing the advantages of sexual abstinence, but not
+    insisting that they shall be purchased at any price, has also
+    found representation. Thus, in England, an Anglican clergyman,
+    the Rev. H. Northcote (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, pp. 58,
+    60) deals temperately and sympathetically with the difficulties
+    of sexual abstinence, and is by no means convinced that such
+    abstinence is always an unmixed advantage; while in Germany a
+    Catholic priest, Karl Jentsch (_Sexualethik, Sexualjustiz,
+    Sexualpolizei_, 1900) sets himself to oppose the rigorous and
+    unqualified assertions of Ribbing in favor of sexual abstinence.
+    Jentsch thus expresses what he conceives ought to be the attitude
+    of fathers, of public opinion, of the State and the Church
+    towards the young man in this matter: "Endeavor to be abstinent
+    until marriage. Many succeed in this. If you can succeed, it is
+    good. But, if you cannot succeed, it is unnecessary to cast
+    reproaches on yourself and to regard yourself as a scoundrel or a
+    lost sinner. Provided that you do not abandon yourself to mere
+    enjoyment or wantonness, but are content with what is necessary
+    to restore your peace of mind, self-possession, and cheerful
+    capacity for work, and also that you observe the precautions
+    which physicians or experienced friends impress upon you."
+
+When we thus analyze and investigate the the three main streams of expert
+opinions in regard to this question of sexual abstinence--the opinions in
+favor of it, the opinions in opposition to it, and the opinions which take
+an intermediate course--we can scarcely fail to conclude how
+unsatisfactory the whole discussion is. The state of "sexual abstinence"
+is a completely vague and indefinite state. The indefinite and even
+meaningless character of the expression "sexual abstinence" is shown by
+the frequency with which those who argue about it assume that it can, may,
+or even must, involve masturbation. That fact alone largely deprives it of
+value as morality and altogether as abstinence. At this point, indeed, we
+reach the most fundamental criticism to which the conception of "sexual
+abstinence" lies open. Rohleder, an experienced physician and a recognized
+authority on questions of sexual pathology, has submitted the current
+views on "sexual abstinence" to a searching criticism in a lengthy and
+important paper.[95] He denies altogether that strict sexual abstinence
+exists at all. "Sexual abstinence," he points out, in any strict scenes of
+the term, must involve abstinence not merely from sexual intercourse but
+from auto-erotic manifestations, from masturbation, from homosexual acts,
+from all sexually perverse practices. It must further involve a permanent
+abstention from indulgence in erotic imaginations and voluptuous reverie.
+When, however, it is possible thus to render the whole psychic field a
+_tabula rasa_ so far as sexual activity is concerned--and if it fails to
+be so constantly and consistently there is no strict sexual
+abstinence--then, Rohleder points out, we have to consider whether we are
+not in presence of a case of sexual anæsthesia, of _anaphrodisia
+sexualis_. That is a question which is rarely, if ever, faced by those who
+discuss sexual abstinence. It is, however, an extremely pertinent
+question, because, as Rohleder insists, if sexual anæsthesia exists the
+question of sexual abstinence falls to the ground, for we can only
+"abstain" from actions that are in our power. Complete sexual anæsthesia
+is, however, so rare a state that it may be practically left out of
+consideration, and as the sexual impulse, if it exists, must by
+physiological necessity sometimes become active in some shape--even if
+only, according to Freud's view, by transformation into some morbid
+neurotic condition--we reach the conclusion that "sexual abstinence" is
+strictly impossible. Rohleder has met with a few cases in which there
+seemed to him no escape from the conclusion that sexual abstinence
+existed, but in all of these he subsequently found that he was mistaken,
+usually owing to the practice of masturbation, which he believes to be
+extremely common and very frequently accompanied by a persistent attempt
+to deceive the physician concerning its existence. The only kind of
+"sexual abstinence" that exists is a partial and temporary abstinence.
+Instead of saying, as some say, "Permanent abstinence is unnatural and
+cannot exist without physical and mental injury," we ought to say,
+Rohleder believes, "Permanent abstinence is unnatural and has never
+existed."
+
+It is impossible not to feel as we contemplate this chaotic mass of
+opinions, that the whole discussion is revolving round a purely negative
+idea, and that fundamental fact is responsible for what at first seem to
+be startling conflicts of statement. If indeed we were to eliminate what
+is commonly regarded as the religious and moral aspect of the matter--an
+aspect, be it remembered, which has no bearing on the essential natural
+facts of the question--we cannot fail to perceive that these ostentatious
+differences of conviction would be reduced within very narrow and trifling
+limits.
+
+We cannot strictly coordinate the impulse of reproduction with the impulse
+of nutrition. There are very important differences between them, more
+especially the fundamental difference that while the satisfaction of the
+one impulse is absolutely necessary both to the life of the individual and
+of the race, the satisfaction of the other is absolutely necessary only to
+the life of the race. But when we reduce this question to one of "sexual
+abstinence" we are obviously placing it on the same basis as that of
+abstinence from food, that is to say at the very opposite pole to which we
+place it when (as in the previous chapter) we consider it from the point
+of view of asceticism and chastity. It thus comes about that on this
+negative basis there really is an interesting analogy between nutritive
+abstinence, though necessarily only maintained incompletely and for a
+short time, and sexual abstinence, maintained more completely and for a
+longer time. A patient of Janet's seems to bring out clearly this
+resemblance. Nadia, whom Janet was able to study during five years, was a
+young woman of twenty-seven, healthy and intelligent, not suffering from
+hysteria nor from anorexia, for she had a normal appetite. But she had an
+idea; she was anxious to be slim and to attain this end she cut down her
+meals to the smallest size, merely a little soup and a few eggs. She
+suffered much from the abstinence she thus imposed on herself, and was
+always hungry, though sometimes her hunger was masked by the inevitable
+stomach trouble caused by so long a persistence in this _régime_. At
+times, indeed, she had been so hungry that she had devoured greedily
+whatever she could lay her hands on, and not infrequently she could not
+resist the temptation to eat a few biscuits in secret. Such actions caused
+her horrible remorse, but, all the same, she would be guilty of them
+again. She realized the great efforts demanded by her way of life, and
+indeed looked upon herself as a heroine for resisting so long.
+"Sometimes," she told Janet, "I passed whole hours in thinking about food,
+I was so hungry. I swallowed my saliva, I bit my handkerchief, I rolled
+on the ground, I wanted to eat so badly. I searched books for descriptions
+of meals and feasts, I tried to deceive my hunger by imagining that I too
+was enjoying all these good things. I was really famished, and in spite of
+a few weaknesses for biscuits I know that I showed much courage."[96]
+Nadia's motive idea, that she wished to be slim, corresponds to the
+abstinent man's idea that he wishes to be "moral," and only differs from
+it by having the advantage of being somewhat more positive and personal,
+for the idea of the person who wishes to avoid sexual indulgence because
+it is "not right" is often not merely negative but impersonal and imposed
+by the social and religious environment. Nadia's occasional outbursts of
+reckless greediness correspond to the sudden impulses to resort to
+prostitution, and her secret weaknesses for biscuits, followed by keen
+remorse, to lapses into the habit of masturbation. Her fits of struggling
+and rolling on the ground are precisely like the outbursts of futile
+desire which occasionally occur to young abstinent men and women in health
+and strength. The absorption in thoughts about meals and in literary
+descriptions of meals is clearly analogous to the abstinent man's
+absorption in wanton thoughts and erotic books. Finally, Nadia's
+conviction that she is a heroine corresponds exactly to the attitude of
+self-righteousness which often marks the sexually abstinent.
+
+If we turn to Freud's penetrating and suggestive study of the problem of
+sexual abstinence in relation to "civilized" sexual morality, we find
+that, though he makes no reference to the analogy with abstinence from
+food, his words would for the most part have an equal application to both
+cases. "The task of subduing so powerful an instinct as the sexual
+impulse, otherwise than by giving it satisfaction," he writes, "is one
+which may employ the whole strength of a man. Subjugation through
+sublimation, by guiding the sexual forces into higher civilizational
+paths, may succeed with a minority, and even with these only for a time,
+least easily during the years of ardent youthful energy. Most others
+become neurotic or otherwise come to grief. Experience shows that the
+majority of people constituting our society are constitutionally unequal
+to the task of abstinence. We say, indeed, that the struggle with this
+powerful impulse and the emphasis the struggle involves on the ethical and
+æsthetic forces in the soul's life 'steels' the character, and for a few
+favorably organized natures this is true; it must also be acknowledged
+that the differentiation of individual character so marked in our time
+only becomes possible through sexual limitations. But in by far the
+majority of cases the struggle with sensuality uses up the available
+energy of character, and this at the very time when the young man needs
+all his strength in order to win his place in the world."[97]
+
+When we have put the problem on this negative basis of abstinence it is
+difficult to see how we can dispute the justice of Freud's conclusions.
+They hold good equally for abstinence from food and abstinence from sexual
+love. When we have placed the problem on a more positive basis, and are
+able to invoke the more active and fruitful motives of asceticism and
+chastity this unfortunate fight against a natural impulse is abolished. If
+chastity is an ideal of the harmonious play of all the organic impulses of
+the soul and body, if asceticism, properly understood, is the athletic
+striving for a worthy object which causes, for the time, an indifference
+to the gratification of sexual impulses, we are on wholesome and natural
+ground, and there is no waste of energy in fruitless striving for a
+negative end, whether imposed artificially from without, as it usually is,
+or voluntarily chosen by the individual himself.
+
+For there is really no complete analogy between sexual desire and hunger,
+between abstinence from sexual relations and abstinence from food. When we
+put them both on the basis of abstinence we put them on a basis which
+covers the impulse for food but only half covers the impulse for sexual
+love. We confer no pleasure and no service on our food when we eat it. But
+the half of sexual love, perhaps the most important and ennobling half,
+lies in what we give and not in what we take. To reduce this question to
+the low level of abstinence, is not only to centre it in a merely negative
+denial but to make it a solely self-regarding question. Instead of asking:
+How can I bring joy and strength to another? we only ask: How can I
+preserve my empty virtue?
+
+Therefore it is that from whatever aspect we consider the
+question,--whether in view of the flagrant contradiction between the
+authorities who have discussed this question, or of the illegitimate
+mingling here of moral and physiological considerations, or of the merely
+negative and indeed unnatural character of the "virtue" thus set up, or of
+the failure involved to grasp the ennoblingly altruistic and mutual side
+of sexual love,--from whatever aspect we approach the problem of "sexual
+abstinence" we ought only to agree to do so under protest.
+
+If we thus decide to approach it, and if we have reached the
+conviction--which, in view of all the evidence we can scarcely
+escape--that, while sexual abstinence in so far as it may be recognized as
+possible is not incompatible with health, there are yet many adults for
+whom it is harmful, and a very much larger number for whom when prolonged
+it is undesirable, we encounter a serious problem. It is a problem which
+confronts any person, and especially the physician, who may be called upon
+to give professional advice to his fellows on this matter. If sexual
+relationships are sometimes desirable for unmarried persons, or for
+married persons who, for any reason, are debarred from conjugal union, is
+a physician justified in recommending such sexual relationships to his
+patient? This is a question that has frequently been debated and decided
+in opposing senses.
+
+    Various distinguished physicians, especially in Germany, have
+    proclaimed the duty of the doctor to recommend sexual intercourse
+    to his patient whenever he considers it desirable. Gyurkovechky,
+    for instance, has fully discussed this question, and answered it
+    in the affirmative. Nyström (_Sexual-Probleme_, July, 1908, p.
+    413) states that it is the physician's duty, in some cases of
+    sexual weakness, when all other methods of treatment have failed,
+    to recommend sexual intercourse as the best remedy. Dr. Max
+    Marcuse stands out as a conspicuous advocate of the unconditional
+    duty of the physician to advocate sexual intercourse in some
+    cases, both to men and to women, and has on many occasions argued
+    in this sense (e.g., _Darf der Arzt zum Ausserehelichen
+    Geschlechtsverkehr raten?_ 1904). Marcuse is strongly of opinion
+    that a physician who, allowing himself to be influenced by moral,
+    sociological, or other considerations, neglects to recommend
+    sexual intercourse when he considers it desirable for the
+    patient's health, is unworthy of his profession, and should
+    either give up medicine or send his patients to other doctors.
+    This attitude, though not usually so emphatically stated, seems
+    to be widely accepted. Lederer goes even further when he states
+    (_Monatsschrift für Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906,
+    Heft 3) that it is the physician's duty in the case of a woman
+    who is suffering from her husband's impotence, to advise her to
+    have intercourse with another man, adding that "whether she does
+    so with her husband's consent is no affair of the physician's,
+    for he is not the guardian of morality, but the guardian of
+    health." The physicians who publicly take this attitude are,
+    however, a small minority. In England, so far as I am aware, no
+    physician of eminence has openly proclaimed the duty of the
+    doctor to advise sexual intercourse outside marriage, although,
+    it is scarcely necessary to add, in England, as elsewhere, it
+    happens that doctors, including women doctors, from time to time
+    privately point out to their unmarried and even married patients,
+    that sexual intercourse would probably be beneficial.
+
+    The duty of the physician to recommend sexual intercourse has
+    been denied as emphatically as it has been affirmed. Thus
+    Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 43), would by no means
+    advise extra-conjugal relations to his patient; "such advice is
+    quite outside the physician's competence." It is, of course,
+    denied by those who regard sexual abstinence as always harmless,
+    if not beneficial. But it is also denied by many who consider
+    that, under some circumstances, sexual intercourse would do good.
+
+    Moll has especially, and on many occasions, discussed the duty of
+    the physician in relation to the question of advising sexual
+    intercourse outside marriage (e.g., in his comprehensive work,
+    _Aerztliche Ethik_, 1902; also _Zeitschrift für Aerztliche
+    Fortbildung_, 1905, Nos. 12-15; _Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 3;
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. ii, Heft 8). At the outset
+    Moll had been disposed to assert the right of the physician to
+    recommend sexual intercourse under some circumstances; "so long
+    as marriage is unduly delayed and sexual intercourse outside
+    marriage exists," he wrote (_Die Conträre Sexualempfindung_,
+    second edition, p. 287), "so long, I think, we may use such
+    intercourse therapeutically, provided that the rights of no third
+    person (husband or wife) are injured." In all his later writings,
+    however, Moll ranges himself clearly and decisively on the
+    opposite side. He considers that the physician has no right to
+    overlook the possible results of his advice in inflicting
+    venereal disease, or, in the case of a woman, pregnancy, on his
+    patient, and he believes that these serious results are far more
+    likely to happen than is always admitted by those who defend the
+    legitimacy of such advice. Nor will Moll admit that the physician
+    is entitled to overlook the moral aspects of the question. A
+    physician may know that a poor man could obtain many things good
+    for his health by stealing, but he cannot advise him to steal.
+    Moll takes the case of a Catholic priest who is suffering from
+    neurasthenia due to sexual abstinence. Even although the
+    physician feels certain that the priest may be able to avoid all
+    the risks of disease as well as of publicity, he is not entitled
+    to urge him to sexual intercourse. He has to remember that in
+    thus causing a priest to break his vows of chastity he may induce
+    a mental conflict and a bitter remorse which may lead to the
+    worst results, even on his patient's physical health. Similar
+    results, Moll remarks, may follow such advice when given to a
+    married man or woman, to say nothing of possible divorce
+    proceedings and accompanying evils.
+
+    Rohleder (_Vorlesungen über Geschlechtstrieb und Gesamtes
+    Geschlechtsleben der Menschen_) adopts a somewhat qualified
+    attitude in this matter. As a general rule he is decidedly
+    against recommending sexual intercourse outside marriage to those
+    who are suffering from partial or temporary abstinence (the only
+    form of abstinence he recognizes), partly on the ground that the
+    evils of abstinence are not serious or permanent, and partly
+    because the patient is fairly certain to exercise his own
+    judgment in the matter. But in some classes of cases he
+    recommends such intercourse, and notably to bisexual persons, on
+    the ground that he is thus preserving his patient from the
+    criminal risks of homosexual practices.
+
+It seems to me that there should be no doubt whatever as to the correct
+professional attitude of the physician in relation to this question of
+advice concerning sexual intercourse. The physician is never entitled to
+advise his patient to adopt sexual intercourse outside marriage nor any
+method of relief which is commonly regarded as illegitimate. It is said
+that the physician has nothing to do with considerations of conventional
+morality. If he considers that champagne would be good for a poor patient
+he ought to recommend him to take champagne; he is not called upon to
+consider whether the patient will beg, borrow, or steal the champagne.
+But, after all, even if that be admitted, it must still be said that the
+physician knows that the champagne, however obtained, is not likely to be
+poisonous. When, however, he prescribes sexual intercourse, with the same
+lofty indifference to practical considerations, he has no such knowledge.
+In giving such a prescription the physician has in fact not the slightest
+knowledge of what he may be prescribing. He may be giving his patient a
+venereal disease; he may be giving the anxieties and responsibilities of
+an illegitimate child; the prescriber is quite in the dark. He is in the
+same position as if he had prescribed a quack medicine of which the
+composition was unknown to him, with the added disadvantage that the
+medicine may turn out to be far more potently explosive than is the case
+with the usually innocuous patent medicine. The utmost that a physician
+can properly permit himself to do is to put the case impartially before
+his patient and to present to him all the risks. The solution must be for
+the patient himself to work out, as best he can, for it involves social
+and other considerations which, while they are indeed by no means outside
+the sphere of medicine, are certainly entirely outside the control of the
+individual private practitioner of medicine.
+
+    Moll also is of opinion that this impartial presentation of the
+    case for and against sexual intercourse corresponds to the
+    physician's duty in the matter. It is, indeed, a duty which can
+    scarcely be escaped by the physician in many cases. Moll points
+    out that it can by no means be assimilated, as some have
+    supposed, with the recommendation of sexual intercourse. It is,
+    on the contrary, he remarks, much more analogous to the
+    physician's duty in reference to operations. He puts before the
+    patient the nature of the operation, its advantages and its
+    risks, but he leaves it to the patient's judgment to accept or
+    reject the operation. Lewitt also (_Geschlechtliche
+    Enthaltsamkeit und Gesundheitsstörungen_, 1905), after discussing
+    the various opinions on this question, comes to the conclusion
+    that the physician, if he thinks that intercourse outside
+    marriage might be beneficial, should explain the difficulties and
+    leave the patient himself to decide.
+
+There is another reason why, having regard to the prevailing moral
+opinions at all events among the middle classes, a physician should
+refrain from advising extra-conjugal intercourse: he places himself in a
+false relation to his social environment. He is recommending a remedy the
+nature of which he could not publicly avow, and so destroying the public
+confidence in himself. The only physician who is morally entitled to
+advise his patients to enter into extra-conjugal relationships is one who
+openly acknowledges that he is prepared to give such advice. The doctor
+who is openly working for social reform has perhaps won the moral right to
+give advice in accordance with the tendency of his public activity, but
+even then his advice may be very dubiously judicious, and he would be
+better advised to confine his efforts at social reform to his public
+activities. The voice of the physician, as Professor Max Flesch of
+Frankfort observes, is more and more heard in the development and new
+growth of social institutions; he is a natural leaders in such movements,
+and proposals for reform properly come from him. "But," as Flesch
+continues, "publicly to accept the excellence of existing institutions and
+in the privacy of the consulting-room to give advice which assumes the
+imperfection of those institutions is illogical and confusing. It is the
+physician's business to give advice which is in accordance with the
+interests of the community as a whole, and those interests require that
+sexual relationships should be entered into between healthy men and women
+who are able and willing to accept the results of their union. That should
+be the physician's rule of conduct. Only so can he become, what to-day he
+is often proclaimed to be, the leader of the nation."[98] This view is
+not, as we see, entirely in accord with that which assumes that the
+physician's duty is solely and entirely to his patient, without regard to
+the bearing of his advice on social conduct. The patient's interests are
+primary, but they are not entitled to be placed in antagonism to the
+interests of society. The advice given by the wise physician must always
+be in harmony with the social and moral tone of his age. Thus it is that
+the tendency among the younger generation of physicians to-day to take an
+active interest in raising that tone and in promoting social reform--a
+tendency which exists not only in Germany where such interests have long
+been acute, but also in so conservative a land as England--is full of
+promise for the future.
+
+The physician is usually content to consider his duty to his patient in
+relationship to sexual abstinence as sufficiently fulfilled when he
+attempts to allay sexual hyperæsthesia by medical or hygienic treatment.
+It can scarcely be claimed, however, that the results of such treatment
+are usually satisfactory, and sometimes indeed the treatment has a result
+which is the reverse of that intended. The difficulty generally is that in
+order to be efficacious the treatment must be carried to an extreme which
+exhausts or inhibits not only the genital activities alone but the
+activities of the whole organism, and short of that it may prove a
+stimulant rather than a sedative. It is difficult and usually impossible
+to separate out a man's sexual activities and bring influence to bear on
+these activities alone. Sexual activity is so closely intertwined with the
+other organic activities, erotic exuberance is so much a flower which is
+rooted in the whole organism, that the blow which crushes it may strike
+down the whole man. The bromides are universally recognized as powerful
+sexual sedatives, but their influence in this respect only makes itself
+felt when they have dulled all the finest energies of the organism.
+Physical exercise is universally recommended to sexually hyperæsthetic
+patients. Yet most people, men and women, find that physical exercise is a
+positive stimulus to sexual activity. This is notably so as regards
+walking, and exuberantly energetic young women who are troubled by the
+irritant activity of their healthy sexual emotions sometimes spend a large
+part of their time in the vain attempt to lull their activity by long
+walks. Physical exercise only proves efficacious in this respect when it
+is carried to an extent which produces general exhaustion. Then indeed the
+sexual activity is lulled; but so are all the mental and physical
+activities. It is undoubtedly true that exercises and games of all sorts
+for young people of both sexes have a sexually hygienic as well as a
+generally hygienic influence which is undoubtedly beneficial. They are, on
+all grounds, to be preferred to prolonged sedentary occupations. But it is
+idle to suppose that games and exercises will suppress the sexual
+impulses, for in so far as they favor health, they favor all the impulses
+that are the result of health. The most that can be expected is that they
+may tend to restrain the manifestations of sex by dispersing the energy
+they generate.
+
+There are many physical rules and precautions which are advocated, not
+without reason, as tending to inhibit or diminish sexual activity. The
+avoidance of heat and the cultivation of cold is one of the most important
+of these. Hot climates, a close atmosphere, heavy bed-clothing, hot baths,
+all tend powerfully to excite the sexual system, for that system is a
+peripheral sensory organ, and whatever stimulates the skin generally,
+stimulates the sexual system.[99] Cold, which contracts the skin, also
+deadens the sexual feelings, a fact which the ascetics of old knew and
+acted upon. The garments and the posture of the body are not without
+influence. Constriction or pressure in the neighborhood of the sexual
+region, even tight corsets, as well as internal pressure, as from a
+distended bladder, are sources of sexual irritation. Sleeping on the back,
+which congests the spinal centres, also acts in the same way, as has long
+been known by those who attend to sexual hygiene; thus it is stated that
+in the Franciscan order it is prohibited to lie on the back. Food and
+drink are, further, powerful sexual stimulants. This is true even of the
+simplest and most wholesome nourishment, but it is more especially true of
+flesh meat, and, above all, of alcohol in its stronger forms such as
+spirits, liqueurs, sparkling and heavy wines, and even many English beers.
+This has always been clearly realized by those who cultivate asceticism,
+and it is one of the powerful reasons why alcohol should not be given in
+early youth. As St. Jerome wrote, when telling Eustochium that she must
+avoid wine like poison, "wine and youth are the two fires of lust. Why
+add oil to the flame?"[100] Idleness, again, especially when combined with
+rich living, promotes sexual activity, as Burton sets forth at length in
+his _Anatomy of Melancholy_, and constant occupation, on the other hand,
+concentrates the wandering activities.
+
+Mental exercise, like physical exercise, has sometimes been advocated as a
+method of calming sexual excitement, but it seems to be equally equivocal
+in its action. If it is profoundly interesting and exciting it may stir up
+rather than lull the sexual emotions. If it arouses little interest it is
+unable to exert any kind of influence. This is true even of mathematical
+occupations which have been advocated by various authorities, including
+Broussais, as aids to sexual hygiene.[101] "I have tried mechanical mental
+work," a lady writes, "such as solving arithmetical or algebraic problems,
+but it does no good; in fact it seems only to increase the excitement." "I
+studied and especially turned my attention to mathematics," a clergyman
+writes, "with a view to check my sexual tendencies. To a certain extent I
+was successful. But at the approach of an old friend, a voice or a touch,
+these tendencies came back again with renewed strength. I found
+mathematics, however, the best thing on the whole to take off my attention
+from women, better than religious exercises which I tried when younger
+(twenty-two to thirty)." At the best, however, such devices are of merely
+temporary efficacy.
+
+It is easier to avoid arousing the sexual impulses than to impose silence
+on them by hygienic measures when once they are aroused. It is,
+therefore, in childhood and youth that all these measures may be most
+reasonably observed in order to avoid any premature sexual excitement. In
+one group of stolidly normal children influences that might be expected to
+act sexually pass away unperceived. At the other extreme, another group of
+children are so neurotically and precociously sensitive that no
+precautions will preserve them from such influences. But between these
+groups there is another, probably much the largest, who resist slight
+sexual suggestions but may succumb to stronger or longer influences, and
+on these the cares of sexual hygiene may profitably be bestowed.[102]
+
+After puberty, when the spontaneous and inner voice of sex may at any
+moment suddenly make itself heard, all hygienic precautions are liable to
+be flung to the winds, and even the youth or maiden most anxious to retain
+the ideals of chastity can often do little but wait till the storm has
+passed. It sometimes happens that a prolonged period of sexual storm and
+stress occurs soon after puberty, and then dies away although there has
+been little or no sexual gratification, to be succeeded by a period of
+comparative calm. It must be remembered that in many, and perhaps most,
+individuals, men and women, the sexual appetite, unlike hunger or thirst,
+can after a prolonged struggle, be reduced to a more or less quiescent
+state which, far from injuring, may even benefit the physical and psychic
+vigor generally. This may happen whether or not sexual gratification has
+been obtained. If there has never been any such gratification, the
+struggle is less severe and sooner over, unless the individual is of
+highly erotic temperament. If there has been gratification, if the mind
+is filled not merely with desires but with joyous experience to which the
+body also has grown accustomed, then the struggle is longer and more
+painfully absorbing. The succeeding relief, however, if it comes, is
+sometimes more complete and is more likely to be associated with a state
+of psychic health. For the fundamental experiences of life, under normal
+conditions, bring not only intellectual sanity, but emotional
+pacification. A conquest of the sexual appetites which has never at any
+period involved a gratification of these appetites seldom produces results
+that commend themselves as rich and beautiful.
+
+In these combats there are, however, no permanent conquests. For a very
+large number of people, indeed, though there may be emotional changes and
+fluctuations dependent on a variety of circumstances, there can scarcely
+be said to be any conquest at all. They are either always yielding to the
+impulses that assail them, or always resisting those impulses, in the
+first case with remorse, in the second with dissatisfaction. In either
+case much of their lives, at the time when life is most vigorous, is
+wasted. With women, if they happen to be of strong passions and reckless
+impulses to abandonment, the results may be highly enervating, if not
+disastrous to the general psychic life. It is to this cause, indeed, that
+some have been inclined to attribute the frequent mediocrity of women's
+work in artistic and intellectual fields. Women of intellectual force are
+frequently if not generally women of strong passions, and if they resist
+the tendency to merge themselves in the duties of maternity their lives
+are often wasted in emotional conflict and their psychic natures
+impoverished.[103]
+
+    The extent to which sexual abstinence and the struggles it
+    involves may hamper and absorb the individual throughout life is
+    well illustrated in the following case. A lady, vigorous, robust,
+    and generally healthy, of great intelligence and high character,
+    has reached middle life without marrying, or ever having sexual
+    relationships. She was an only child, and when between three and
+    four years of age, a playmate some six years older, initiated her
+    into the habit of playing with her sexual parts. She was,
+    however, at this age quite devoid of sexual feelings, and the
+    habit dropped naturally, without any bad effects, as soon as she
+    left the neighborhood of this girl a year or so later. Her health
+    was good and even brilliant, and she developed vigorously at
+    puberty. At the age of sixteen, however, a mental shock caused
+    menstruation to diminish in amount during some years, and
+    simultaneously with this diminution persistent sexual excitement
+    appeared spontaneously, for the first time. She regarded such
+    feelings as abnormal and unhealthy, and exerted all her powers of
+    self-control in resisting them. But will power had no effect in
+    diminishing the feelings. There was constant and imperious
+    excitement, with the sense of vibration, tension, pressure,
+    dilatation and tickling, accompanied, it may be, by some ovarian
+    congestion, for she felt that on the left side there was a
+    network of sexual nerves, and retroversion of the uterus was
+    detected some years later. Her life was strenuous with many
+    duties, but no occupation could be pursued without this
+    undercurrent of sexual hyperæsthesia involving perpetual
+    self-control. This continued more or less acutely for many years,
+    when menstruation suddenly stopped altogether, much before the
+    usual period of the climacteric. At the same time the sexual
+    excitement ceased, and she became calm, peaceful, and happy.
+    Diminished menstruation was associated with sexual excitement,
+    but abundant menstruation and its complete absence were both
+    accompanied by the relief of excitement. This lasted for two
+    years. Then, for the treatment of a trifling degree of anæmia,
+    she was subjected to a long, and, in her case, injudicious course
+    of hypodermic injections of strychnia. From that time, five years
+    ago, up to the present, there has been constant sexual
+    excitement, and she has always to be on guard lest she should be
+    overtaken by a sexual spasm. Her torture is increased by the fact
+    that her traditions make it impossible for her (except under very
+    exceptional circumstances) to allude to the cause of her
+    sufferings. "A woman is handicapped," she writes. "She may never
+    speak to anyone on such a subject. She must live her tragedy
+    alone, smiling as much as she can under the strain of her
+    terrible burden." To add to her trouble, two years ago, she felt
+    impelled to resort to masturbation, and has done so about once a
+    month since; this not only brings no real relief, and leaves
+    irritability, wakefulness, and dark marks under the eyes, but is
+    a cause of remorse to her, for she regards masturbation as
+    entirely abnormal and unnatural. She has tried to gain benefit,
+    not merely by the usual methods of physical hygiene, but by
+    suggestion, Christian Science, etc., but all in vain. "I may
+    say," she writes, "that it is the most passionate desire of my
+    heart to be freed from this bondage, that I may relax the
+    terrible years-long tension of resistance, and be happy in my own
+    way. If I had this affliction once a month, once a week, even
+    twice a week, to stand against it would be child's play. I should
+    scorn to resort to unnatural means, however moderately. But
+    self-control itself has its revenges, and I sometimes feel as if
+    it is no longer to be borne."
+
+Thus while it is an immense benefit in physical and psychic development if
+the eruption of the disturbing sexual emotions can be delayed until
+puberty or adolescence, and while it is a very great advantage, after that
+eruption has occurred, to be able to gain control of these emotions, to
+crush altogether the sexual nature would be a barren, if not, indeed, a
+perilous victory, bringing with it no satisfaction. "If I had only had
+three weeks' happiness," said a woman, "I would not quarrel with Fate, but
+to have one's whole life so absolutely empty is horrible." If such vacuous
+self-restraint may, by courtesy, be termed a virtue, it is but a negative
+virtue. The persons who achieve it, as the result of congenitally feeble
+sexual aptitudes, merely (as Gyurkovechky, Fürbringer, and Löwenfeld have
+all alike remarked) made a virtue of their weakness. Many others, whose
+instincts were less weak, when they disdainfully put to flight the desires
+of sex in early life, have found that in later life that foe returns in
+tenfold force and perhaps in unnatural shapes.[104]
+
+The conception of "sexual abstinence" is, we see, an entirely false and
+artificial conception. It is not only ill-adjusted to the hygienic facts
+of the case but it fails even to invoke any genuinely moral motive, for it
+is exclusively self-regarding and self-centred. It only becomes genuinely
+moral, and truly inspiring, when we transform it into the altruistic
+virtue of self-sacrifice. When we have done so we see that the element of
+abstinence in it ceases to be essential, "Self-sacrifice," writes the
+author of a thoughtful book on the sexual life, "is acknowledged to be the
+basis of virtue; the noblest instances of self-sacrifice are those
+dictated by sexual affection. Sympathy is the secret of altruism; nowhere
+is sympathy more real and complete than in love. Courage, both moral and
+physical, the love of truth and honor, the spirit of enterprise, and the
+admiration of moral worth, are all inspired by love as by nothing else in
+human nature. Celibacy denies itself that inspiration or restricts its
+influence, according to the measure of its denial of sexual intimacy. Thus
+the deliberate adoption of a consistently celibate life implies the
+narrowing down of emotional and moral experience to a degree which is,
+from the broad scientific standpoint, unjustified by any of the advantages
+piously supposed to accrue from it."[105]
+
+In a sane natural order all the impulses are centred in the fulfilment of
+needs and not in their denial. Moreover, in this special matter of sex, it
+is inevitable that the needs of others, and not merely the needs of the
+individual himself, should determine action. It is more especially the
+needs of the female which are the determining factor; for those needs are
+more various, complex and elusive, and in his attentiveness to their
+gratification the male finds a source of endless erotic satisfaction. It
+might be thought that the introduction of an altruistic motive here is
+merely the claim of theoretical morality insisting that there shall be a
+firm curb on animal instinct. But, as we have again and again seen
+throughout the long course of these _Studies_, it is not so. The animal
+instinct itself makes this demand. It is a biological law that rules
+throughout the zoölogical world and has involved the universality of
+courtship. In man it is only modified because in man sexual needs are not
+entirely concentrated in reproduction, but more or less penetrate the
+whole of life.
+
+While from the point of view of society, as from that of Nature, the end
+and object of the sexual impulse is procreation, and nothing beyond
+procreation, that is by no means true for the individual, whose main
+object it must be to fulfil himself harmoniously with that due regard for
+others which the art of living demands. Even if sexual relationships had
+no connection with procreation whatever--as some Central Australian tribes
+believe--they would still be justifiable, and are, indeed, an
+indispensable aid to the best moral development of the individual, for it
+is only in so intimate a relationship as that of sex that the finest
+graces and aptitudes of life have full scope. Even the saints cannot
+forego the sexual side of life. The best and most accomplished saints from
+Jerome to Tolstoy--even the exquisite Francis of Assisi--had stored up in
+their past all the experiences that go to the complete realization of
+life, and if it were not so they would have been the less saints.
+
+The element of positive virtue thus only enters when the control of the
+sexual impulse has passed beyond the stage of rigid and sterile abstinence
+and has become not merely a deliberate refusal of what is evil in sex, but
+a deliberate acceptance of what is good. It is only at that moment that
+such control becomes a real part of the great art of living. For the art
+of living, like any other art, is not compatible with rigidity, but lies
+in the weaving of a perpetual harmony between refusing and accepting,
+between giving and taking.[106]
+
+The future, it is clear, belongs ultimately to those who are slowly
+building up sounder traditions into the structure of life. The "problem of
+sexual abstinence" will more and more sink into insignificance. There
+remain the great solid fact of love, the great solid fact of chastity.
+Those are eternal. Between them there is nothing but harmony. The
+development of one involves the development of the other.
+
+It has been necessary to treat seriously this problem of "sexual
+abstinence" because we have behind us the traditions of two thousand years
+based on certain ideals of sexual law and sexual license, together with
+the long effort to build up practices more or less conditioned by those
+ideals. We cannot immediately escape from these traditions even when we
+question their validity for ourselves. We have not only to recognize their
+existence, but also to accept the fact that for some time to come they
+must still to a considerable extent control the thoughts and even in some
+degree the actions of existing communities.
+
+It is undoubtedly deplorable. It involves the introduction of an
+artificiality into a real natural order. Love is real and positive;
+chastity is real and positive. But sexual abstinence is unreal and
+negative, in the strict sense perhaps impossible. The underlying feelings
+of all those who have emphasized its importance is that a physiological
+process can be good or bad according as it is or is not carried out under
+certain arbitrary external conditions, which render it licit or illicit.
+An act of sexual intercourse under the name of "marriage" is beneficial;
+the very same act, under the name of "incontinence," is pernicious. No
+physiological process, and still less any spiritual process, can bear such
+restriction. It is as much as to say that a meal becomes good or bad,
+digestible or indigestible, according as a grace is or is not pronounced
+before the eating of it.
+
+It is deplorable because, such a conception being essentially unreal, an
+element of unreality is thus introduced into a matter of the gravest
+concern alike to the individual and to society. Artificial disputes have
+been introduced where no matter of real dispute need exist. A contest has
+been carried on marked by all the ferocity which marks contests about
+metaphysical or pseudo-metaphysical differences having no concrete basis
+in the actual world. As will happen in such cases, there has, after all,
+been no real difference between the disputants because the point they
+quarreled over was unreal. In truth each side was right and each side was
+wrong.
+
+It is necessary, we see, that the balance should be held even. An absolute
+license is bad; an absolute abstinence--even though some by nature or
+circumstances are urgently called to adopt it--is also bad. They are both
+alike away from the gracious equilibrium of Nature. And the force, we see,
+which naturally holds this balance even is the biological fact that the
+act of sexual union is the satisfaction of the erotic needs, not of one
+person, but of two persons.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[92] This view was an ambiguous improvement on the view, universally
+prevalent, as Westermarck has shown, among primitive peoples, that the
+sexual act involves indignity to a woman or depreciation of her only in so
+far as she is the property of another person who is the really injured
+party.
+
+[93] This implicit contradiction has been acutely pointed out from the
+religious side by the Rev. H. Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_,
+p. 53.
+
+[94] It has already been necessary to discuss this point briefly in "The
+Sexual Impulse in Women," vol. iii of these _Studies_.
+
+[95] "Die Abstinentia Sexualis," _Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_,
+Nov., 1908.
+
+[96] P. Janet, "La Maladie du Scrupule," _Revue Philosophique_, May, 1901.
+
+[97] S. Freud, _Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908. As Adele Schreiber also
+points out (_Mutterschutz_, Jan., 1907, p. 30), it is not enough to prove
+that abstinence is not dangerous; we have to remember that the spiritual
+and physical energy used up in repressing this mighty instinct often
+reduces a joyous and energetic nature to a weary and faded shadow.
+Similarly, Helene Stöcker (_Die Liebe und die Frauen_, p. 105) says: "The
+question whether abstinence is harmful is, to say the truth, a ridiculous
+question. One needs to be no nervous specialist to know, as a matter of
+course, that a life of happy love and marriage is the healthy life, and
+its complete absence cannot fail to lead to severe psychic depression,
+even if no direct physiological disturbances can be demonstrated."
+
+[98] Max Flesch, "Ehe, Hygine und Sexuelle Moral," _Mutterschutz_, 1905,
+Heft 7.
+
+[99] See the Section on Touch in the fourth volume of these _Studies_.
+
+[100] "I have had two years' close experience and connexion with the
+Trappists," wrote Dr. Butterfield, of Natal (_British Medical Journal_,
+Sept. 15, 1906, p. 668), "both as medical attendant and as being a
+Catholic in creed myself. I have studied them and investigated their life,
+habits and diet, and though I should be very backward in adopting it
+myself, as not suited to me individually, the great bulk of them are in
+absolute ideal health and strength, seldom ailing, capable of vast work,
+mental and physical. Their life is very simple and very regular. A
+healthier body of men and women, with perfect equanimity of temper--this
+latter I lay great stress on--it would be difficult to find. Health beams
+in their eyes and countenance and actions. Only in sickness or prolonged
+journeys are they allowed any strong foods--meats, eggs, etc.--or any
+alcohol."
+
+[101] Féré, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, second edition, p. 332.
+
+[102] Rural life, as we have seen when discussing its relation to sexual
+precocity, _is_ on one side the reverse of a safeguard against sexual
+influences. But, on the other hand, in so far as it involves hard work and
+simple living under conditions that are not nervously stimulating, it is
+favorable to a considerably delayed sexual activity in youth and to a
+relative continence. Ammon, in the course of his anthropological
+investigations of Baden conscripts, found that sexual intercourse was rare
+in the country before twenty, and even sexual emissions during sleep rare
+before nineteen or twenty. It is said, also, he repeats, that no one has a
+right to run after girls who does not yet carry a gun, and the elder lads
+sometimes brutally ill-treat any younger boy found going about with a
+girl. No doubt this is often preliminary to much license later.
+
+[103] The numerical preponderance which celibate women teachers have now
+gained in the American school system has caused much misgiving among many
+sagacious observers, and is said to be unsatisfactory in its results on
+the pupils of both sexes. A distinguished authority, Professor McKeen
+Cattell ("The School and the Family," _Popular Science Monthly_, Jan.,
+1909), referring to this preponderance of "devitalized and unsexed
+spinsters," goes so far as to say that "the ultimate result of letting the
+celibate female be the usual teacher has been such as to make it a
+question whether it would not be an advantage to the country if the whole
+school plant could be scrapped."
+
+[104] Corre (_Les Criminels_, p. 351) mentions that of thirteen priests
+convicted of crime, six were guilty of sexual attempts on children, and of
+eighty-three convicted lay teachers, forty-eight had committed similar
+offenses. This was at a time when lay teachers were in practice almost
+compelled to live a celibate life; altered conditions have greatly
+diminished this class of offense among them. Without going so far as
+crime, many moral and religious men, clergymen and others, who have led
+severely abstinent lives in youth, sometimes experience in middle age or
+later the eruption of almost uncontrollable sexual impulses, normal or
+abnormal. In women such manifestations are apt to take the form of
+obsessional thoughts of sexual character, as e.g., the case
+(_Comptes-Rendus Congrès International de Médecine_, Moscow, 1897, vol.
+iv, p. 27) of a chaste woman who was compelled to think about and look at
+the sexual organs of men.
+
+[105] J.A. Godfrey, _The Science of Sex_, p. 138.
+
+[106] See, e.g., Havelock Ellis, "St. Francis and Others," _Affirmations_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PROSTITUTION.
+
+I. _The Orgy:_--The Religious Origin of the Orgy--The Feast of
+Fools--Recognition of the Orgy by the Greeks and Romans--The Orgy Among
+Savages--The Drama--The Object Subserved by the Orgy.
+
+II. _The Origin and Development of Prostitution:_--The Definition of
+Prostitution--Prostitution Among Savages--The Conditions Under Which
+Professional Prostitution Arises--Sacred Prostitution--The Rite of
+Mylitta--The Practice of Prostitution to Obtain a Marriage Portion--The
+Rise of Secular Prostitution in Greece--Prostitution in the East--India,
+China, Japan, etc.--Prostitution in Rome--The Influence of Christianity on
+Prostitution--The Effort to Combat Prostitution--The Mediæval Brothel--The
+Appearance of the Courtesan--Tullia D'Aragona--Veronica Franco--Ninon de
+Lenclos--Later Attempts to Eradicate Prostitution--The Regulation of
+Prostitution--Its Futility Becoming Recognized.
+
+III. _The Causes of Prostitution:_--Prostitution as a Part of the Marriage
+System--The Complex Causation of Prostitution--The Motives Assigned by
+Prostitutes--(1) Economic Factor of Prostitution--Poverty Seldom the Chief
+Motive for Prostitution--But Economic Pressure Exerts a Real
+Influence--The Large Proportion of Prostitutes Recruited from Domestic
+Service--Significance of This Fact--(2) The Biological Factor of
+Prostitution--The So-called Born-Prostitute--Alleged Identity with the
+Born-Criminal--The Sexual Instinct in Prostitutes--The Physical and
+Psychic Characters of Prostitutes--(3) Moral Necessity as a Factor in the
+Existence of Prostitution--The Moral Advocates of Prostitution--The Moral
+Attitude of Christianity Towards Prostitution--The Attitude of
+Protestantism--Recent Advocates of the Moral Necessity of
+Prostitution--(4) Civilizational Value as a Factor of Prostitution--The
+Influence of Urban Life--The Craving for Excitement--Why Servant-girls
+so Often Turn to Prostitution--The Small Part Played by
+Seduction--Prostitutes Come Largely from the Country--The Appeal of
+Civilization Attracts Women to Prostitution--The Corresponding Attraction
+Felt by Men--The Prostitute as Artist and Leader of Fashion--The Charm of
+Vulgarity.
+
+IV. _The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution:_--The Decay of the
+Brothel--The Tendency to the Humanization of Prostitution--The Monetary
+Aspects of Prostitution--The Geisha--The Hetaira--The Moral Revolt
+Against Prostitution--Squalid Vice Based on Luxurious Virtue--The Ordinary
+Attitude Towards Prostitutes--Its Cruelty Absurd--The Need of Reforming
+Prostitution--The Need of Reforming Marriage--These These Two Needs
+Closely Correlated--The Dynamic Relationships Involved.
+
+
+_I. The Orgy_.
+
+Traditional morality, religion, and established convention combine to
+promote not only the extreme of rigid abstinence but also that of reckless
+license. They preach and idealize the one extreme; they drive those who
+cannot accept it to adopt the opposite extreme. In the great ages of
+religion it even happens that the severity of the rule of abstinence is
+more or less deliberately tempered by the permission for occasional
+outbursts of license. We thus have the orgy, which flourished in mediæval
+days and is, indeed, in its largest sense, a universal manifestation,
+having a function to fulfil in every orderly and laborious civilization,
+built up on natural energies that are bound by more or less inevitable
+restraints.
+
+The consideration of the orgy, it may be said, lifts us beyond the merely
+sexual sphere, into a higher and wider region which belongs to religion.
+The Greek _orgeia_ referred originally to ritual things done with a
+religious purpose, though later, when dances of Bacchanals and the like
+lost their sacred and inspiring character, the idea was fostered by
+Christianity that such things were immoral.[107] Yet Christianity was
+itself in its origin an orgy of the higher spiritual activities released
+from the uncongenial servitude of classic civilization, a great festival
+of the poor and the humble, of the slave and the sinner. And when, with
+the necessity for orderly social organization, Christianity had ceased to
+be this it still recognized, as Paganism had done, the need for an
+occasional orgy. It appears that in 743 at a Synod held in Hainault
+reference was made to the February debauch (_de Spurcalibus in februario_)
+as a pagan practice; yet it was precisely this pagan festival which was
+embodied in the accepted customs of the Christian Church as the chief orgy
+of the ecclesiastical year, the great Carnival prefixed to the long fast
+of Lent. The celebration on Shrove Tuesday and the previous Sunday
+constituted a Christian Bacchanalian festival in which all classes joined.
+The greatest freedom and activity of physical movement was encouraged;
+"some go about naked without shame, some crawl on all fours, some on
+stilts, some imitate animals."[108] As time went on the Carnival lost its
+most strongly marked Bacchanalian features, but it still retains its
+essential character as a permitted and temporary relaxation of the tension
+of customary restraints and conventions. The Mediæval Feast of Fools--a
+New Year's Revel well established by the twelfth century, mainly in
+France--presented an expressive picture of a Christian orgy in its extreme
+form, for here the most sacred ceremonies of the Church became the subject
+of fantastic parody. The Church, according to Nietzsche's saying, like all
+wise legislators, recognized that where great impulses and habits have to
+be cultivated, intercalary days must be appointed in which these impulses
+and habits may be denied, and so learn to hunger anew.[109] The clergy
+took the leading part in these folk-festivals, for to the men of that age,
+as Méray remarks, "the temple offered the complete notes of the human
+gamut; they found there the teaching of all duties, the consolation of all
+sorrows, the satisfaction of all joys. The sacred festivals of mediæval
+Christianity were not a survival from Roman times; they leapt from the
+very heart of Christian society."[110] But, as Méray admits, all great and
+vigorous peoples, of the East and the West, have found it necessary
+sometimes to play with their sacred things.
+
+Among the Greeks and Romans this need is everywhere visible, not only in
+their comedy and their literature generally, but in everyday life. As
+Nietzsche truly remarks (in his _Geburt der Tragödie_) the Greeks
+recognized all natural impulses, even those that are seemingly unworthy,
+and safeguarded them from working mischief by providing channels into
+which, on special days and in special rites, the surplus of wild energy
+might harmlessly flow. Plutarch, the last and most influential of the
+Greek moralists, well says, when advocating festivals (in his essay "On
+the Training of Children"), that "even in bows and harps we loosen their
+strings that we may bend and wind them up again." Seneca, perhaps the most
+influential of Roman if not of European moralists, even recommended
+occasional drunkenness. "Sometimes," he wrote in his _De Tranquillilate_,
+"we ought to come even to the point of intoxication, not for the purpose
+of drowning ourselves but of sinking ourselves deep in wine. For it washes
+away cares and raises our spirits from the lowest depths. The inventor of
+wine is called _Liber_ because he frees the soul from the servitude of
+care, releases it from slavery, quickens it, and makes it bolder for all
+undertakings." The Romans were a sterner and more serious people than the
+Greeks, but on that very account they recognized the necessity of
+occasionally relaxing their moral fibres in order to preserve their tone,
+and encouraged the prevalence of festivals which were marked by much more
+abandonment than those of Greece. When these festivals began to lose
+their moral sanction and to fall into decay the decadence of Rome had
+begun.
+
+All over the world, and not excepting the most primitive savages--for even
+savage life is built up on systematic constraints which sometimes need
+relaxation--the principle of the orgy is recognized and accepted. Thus
+Spencer and Gillen describe[111] the Nathagura or fire-ceremony of the
+Warramunga tribe of Central Australia, a festival taken part in by both
+sexes, in which all the ordinary rules of social life are broken, a kind
+of Saturnalia in which, however, there is no sexual license, for sexual
+license is, it need scarcely be said, no essential part of the orgy, even
+when the orgy lightens the burden of sexual constraints. In a widely
+different part of the world, in British Columbia, the Salish Indians,
+according to Hill Tout,[112] believed that, long before the whites came,
+their ancestors observed a Sabbath or seventh day ceremony for dancing and
+praying, assembling at sunrise and dancing till noon. The Sabbath, or
+periodically recurring orgy,--not a day of tension and constraint but a
+festival of joy, a rest from all the duties of everyday life,--has, as we
+know, formed an essential part of many of the orderly ancient
+civilizations on which our own has been built;[113] it is highly probable
+that the stability of these ancient civilizations was intimately
+associated with their recognition of the need of a Sabbath orgy. Such
+festivals are, indeed, as Crawley observes, processes of purification and
+reinvigoration, the effort to put off "the old man" and put on "the new
+man," to enter with fresh energy on the path of everyday life.[114]
+
+The orgy is an institution which by no means has its significance only for
+the past. On the contrary, the high tension, the rigid routine, the gray
+monotony of modern life insistently call for moments of organic relief,
+though the precise form that that orgiastic relief takes must necessarily
+change with other social changes. As Wilhelm von Humboldt said, "just as
+men need suffering in order to become strong so they need joy in order to
+become good." Charles Wagner, insisting more recently (in his _Jeunesse_)
+on the same need of joy in our modern life, regrets that dancing in the
+old, free, and natural manner has gone out of fashion or become
+unwholesome. Dancing is indeed the most fundamental and primitive form of
+the orgy, and that which most completely and healthfully fulfils its
+object. For while it is undoubtedly, as we see even among animals, a
+process by which sexual tumescence is accomplished,[115] it by no means
+necessarily becomes focused in sexual detumescence but it may itself
+become a detumescent discharge of accumulated energy. It was on this
+account that, at all events in former days, the clergy in Spain, on moral
+grounds, openly encouraged the national passion for dancing. Among
+cultured people in modern times, the orgy tends to take on a purely
+cerebral form, which is less wholesome because it fails to lead to
+harmonious discharge along motor channels. In these comparatively passive
+forms, however, the orgy tends to become more and more pronounced under
+the conditions of civilization. Aristotle's famous statement concerning
+the function of tragedy as "purgation" seems to be a recognition of the
+beneficial effects of the orgy.[116] Wagner's music-dramas appeal
+powerfully to this need; the theatre, now as ever, fulfils a great
+function of the same kind, inherited from the ancient days when it was the
+ordered expression of a sexual festival.[117] The theatre, indeed, tends
+at the present time to assume a larger importance and to approximate to
+the more serious dramatic performances of classic days by being
+transferred to the day-time and the open-air. France has especially taken
+the initiative in these performances, analogous to the Dionysiac festivals
+of antiquity and the Mysteries and Moralities of the Middle Ages. The
+movement began some years ago at Orange. In 1907 there were, in France, as
+many as thirty open-air theatres ("Théâtres de la Nature," "Théâtres du
+Soleil," etc.,) while it is in Marseilles that the first formal open-air
+theatre has been erected since classic days.[118] In England, likewise,
+there has been a great extension of popular interest in dramatic
+performances, and the newly instituted Pageants, carried out and taken
+part in by the population of the region commemorated in the Pageant, are
+festivals of the same character. In England, however, at the present time,
+the real popular orgiastic festivals are the Bank holidays, with which may
+be associated the more occasional celebrations, "Maffekings," etc., often
+called out by comparatively insignificant national events but still
+adequate to arouse orgiastic emotions as genuine as those of antiquity,
+though they are lacking in beauty and religious consecration. It is easy
+indeed for the narrowly austere person to view such manifestations with a
+supercilious smile, but in the eyes of the moralist and the philosopher
+these orgiastic festivals exert a salutary and preservative function. In
+every age of dull and monotonous routine--and all civilization involves
+such routine--many natural impulses and functions tend to become
+suppressed, atrophied, or perverted. They need these moments of joyous
+exercise and expression, moments in which they may not necessarily attain
+their full activity but in which they will at all events be able, as
+Cyples expresses it, to rehearse their great possibilities.[119]
+
+
+_II. The Origin and Development of Prostitution_.
+
+The more refined forms of the orgy flourish in civilization, although on
+account of their mainly cerebral character they are not the most
+beneficent or the most effective. The more primitive and muscular forms of
+the orgy tend, on the other hand, under the influence of civilization, to
+fall into discredit and to be so far as possible suppressed altogether. It
+is partly in this way that civilization encourages prostitution. For the
+orgy in its primitive forms, forbidden to show itself openly and
+reputably, seeks the darkness, and allying itself with a fundamental
+instinct to which civilized society offers no complete legitimate
+satisfaction, it firmly entrenches itself in the very centre of civilized
+life, and thereby constitutes a problem of immense difficulty and
+importance.[120]
+
+It is commonly said that prostitution has existed always and everywhere.
+That statement is far from correct. A kind of amateur prostitution is
+occasionally found among savages, but usually it is only when barbarism is
+fully developed and is already approaching the stage of civilization that
+well developed prostitution is found. It exists in a systematic form in
+every civilization.
+
+What is prostitution? There has been considerable discussion as to the
+correct definition of prostitution.[121] The Roman Ulpian said that a
+prostitute was one who openly abandons her body to a number of men without
+choice, for money.[122] Not all modern definitions have been so
+satisfactory. It is sometimes said a prostitute is a woman who gives
+herself to numerous men. To be sound, however, a definition must be
+applicable to both sexes alike and we should certainly hesitate to
+describe a man who had sexual intercourse with many women as a prostitute.
+The idea of venality, the intention to sell the favors of the body, is
+essential to the conception of prostitution. Thus Guyot defines a
+prostitute as "any person for whom sexual relationships are subordinated
+to gain."[123] It is not, however, adequate to define a prostitute simply
+as a woman who sells her body. That is done every day by women who become
+wives in order to gain a home and a livelihood, yet, immoral as this
+conduct may be from any high ethical standpoint, it would be inconvenient
+and even misleading to call it prostitution.[124] It is better, therefore,
+to define a prostitute as a woman who temporarily sells her sexual favors
+to various persons. Thus, according to Wharton's _Law-lexicon_ a
+prostitute is "a woman who indiscriminately consorts with men for hire";
+Bonger states that "those women are prostitutes who sell their bodies for
+the exercise of sexual acts and make of this a profession";[125] Richard
+again states that "a prostitute is a woman who publicly gives herself to
+the first comer in return for a pecuniary remuneration."[126] As, finally,
+the prevalence of homosexuality has led to the existence of male
+prostitutes, the definition must be put in a form irrespective of sex, and
+we may, therefore, say that a prostitute is a person who makes it a
+profession to gratify the lust of various persons of the opposite sex or
+the same sex.
+
+    It is essential that the act of prostitution should be habitually
+    performed with "various persons." A woman who gains her living by
+    being mistress to a man, to whom she is faithful, is not a
+    prostitute, although she often becomes one afterwards, and may
+    have been one before. The exact point at which a woman begins to
+    be a prostitute is a question of considerable importance in
+    countries in which prostitutes are subject to registration. Thus
+    in Berlin, not long ago, a girl who was mistress to a rich
+    cavalry officer and supported by him, during the illness of the
+    officer accidentally met a man whom she had formerly known, and
+    once or twice invited him to see her, receiving from him presents
+    in money. This somehow came to the knowledge of the police, and
+    she was arrested and sentenced to one day's imprisonment as an
+    unregistered prostitute. On appeal, however, the sentence was
+    annulled. Liszt, in his _Strafrecht_, lays it down that a girl
+    who obtains whole or part of her income from "fixed
+    relationships" is not practicing unchastity for gain in the sense
+    of the German law (_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang 1,
+    Heft 9, p. 345).
+
+It is not altogether easy to explain the origin of the systematized
+professional prostitution with the existence of which we are familiar in
+civilization. The amateur kind of prostitution which has sometimes been
+noted among primitive peoples--the fact, that is, that a man may give a
+woman a present in seeking to persuade her to allow him to have
+intercourse with her--is really not prostitution as we understand it. The
+present in such a case is merely part of a kind of courtship leading to a
+temporary relationship. The woman more or less retains her social position
+and is not forced to make an avocation of selling herself because
+henceforth no other career is possible to her. When Cook came to New
+Zealand his men found that the women were not impregnable, "but the terms
+and manner of compliance were as decent as those in marriage among us,"
+and according "to their notions the agreement was as innocent." The
+consent of the woman's friends was necessary, and when the preliminaries
+were settled it was also necessary to treat this "Juliet of a night" with
+"the same delicacy as is here required with the wife for life, and the
+lover who presumed to take any liberties by which this was violated was
+sure to be disappointed."[127] In some of the Melanesian Islands, it is
+said that women would sometimes become prostitutes, or on account of their
+bad conduct be forced to become prostitutes for a time; they were not,
+however, particularly despised, and when they had in this way accumulated
+a certain amount of property they could marry well, after which it would
+not be proper to refer to their former career.[128]
+
+When prostitution first arises among a primitive people it sometimes
+happens that little or no stigma is attached to it for the reason that the
+community has not yet become accustomed to attach any special value to the
+presence of virginity. Schurtz quotes from the old Arabic geographer
+Al-Bekri some interesting remarks about the Slavs: "The women of the
+Slavs, after they have married, are faithful to their husbands. If,
+however, a young girl falls in love with a man she goes to him and
+satisfies her passion. And if a man marries and finds his wife a virgin he
+says to her: 'If you were worth anything men would have loved you, and you
+would have chosen one who would have taken away your virginity.' Then he
+drives her away and renounces her." It is a feeling of this kind which,
+among some peoples, leads a girl to be proud of the presents she has
+received from her lovers and to preserve them as a dowry for her marriage,
+knowing that her value will thus be still further heightened. Even among
+the Southern Slavs of modern Europe, who have preserved much of the
+primitive sexual freedom, this freedom, as Krauss, who has minutely
+studied the manners and customs of these peoples, declares, is
+fundamentally different from vice, licentiousness, or immodesty.[129]
+
+Prostitution tends to arise, as Schurtz has pointed out, in every society
+in which early marriage is difficult and intercourse outside marriage is
+socially disapproved. "Venal women everywhere appear as soon as the free
+sexual intercourse of young people is repressed, without the necessary
+consequences being impeded by unusually early marriages."[130] The
+repression of sexual intimacies outside marriage is a phenomenon of
+civilization, but it is not itself by any means a measure of a people's
+general level, and may, therefore, begin to appear at an early period. But
+it is important to remember that the primitive and rudimentary forms of
+prostitution, when they occur, are merely temporary, and
+frequently--though not invariably--involve no degrading influence on the
+woman in public estimation, sometimes indeed increasing her value as a
+wife. The woman who sells herself for money purely as a professional
+matter, without any thought of love or passion, and who, by virtue of her
+profession, belongs to a pariah class definitely and rigidly excluded from
+the main body of her sex, is a phenomenon which can seldom be found except
+in developed civilization. It is altogether incorrect to speak of
+prostitutes as a mere survival from primitive times.
+
+On the whole, while among savages sexual relationships are sometimes free
+before marriage, as well as on the occasion of special festivals, they are
+rarely truly promiscuous and still more rarely venal. When savage women
+nowadays sell themselves, or are sold by their husbands, it has usually
+been found that we are concerned with the contamination of European
+civilization.
+
+The definite ways in which professional prostitution may arise are no
+doubt many.[131] We may assent to the general principle, laid down by
+Schurtz, that whenever the free union of young people is impeded under
+conditions in which early marriage is also difficult prostitution must
+certainly arise. There are, however, different ways in which this
+principle may take shape. So far as our western civilization is
+concerned--the civilization, that is to say, which has its cradle in the
+Mediterranean basin--it would seem that the origin of prostitution is to
+be found primarily in a religious custom, religion, the great conserver of
+social traditions, preserving in a transformed shape a primitive freedom
+that was passing out of general social life.[132] The typical example is
+that recorded by Herodotus, in the fifth century before Christ, at the
+temple of Mylitta, the Babylonian Venus, where every woman once in her
+life had to come and give herself to the first stranger who threw a coin
+in her lap, in worship of the goddess. The money could not be refused,
+however small the amount, but it was given as an offertory to the temple,
+and the woman, having followed the man and thus made oblation to Mylitta,
+returned home and lived chastely ever afterwards.[133] Very similar
+customs existed in other parts of Western Asia, in North Africa, in Cyprus
+and other islands of the Eastern Mediterranean, and also in Greece, where
+the Temple of Aphrodite on the fort at Corinth possessed over a thousand
+hierodules, dedicated to the service of the goddess, from time to time, as
+Strabo states, by those who desired to make thank-offering for mercies
+vouchsafed to them. Pindar refers to the hospitable young Corinthian women
+ministrants whose thoughts often turn towards Ourania Aphrodite[134] in
+whose temple they burned incense; and Athenæus mentions the importance
+that was attached to the prayers of the Corinthian prostitutes in any
+national calamity.[135]
+
+We seem here to be in the presence, not merely of a religiously preserved
+survival of a greater sexual freedom formerly existing,[136] but of a
+specialized and ritualized development of that primitive cult of the
+generative forces of Nature which involves the belief that all natural
+fruitfulness is associated with, and promoted by, acts of human sexual
+intercourse which thus acquire a religious significance. At a later stage
+acts of sexual intercourse having a religious significance become
+specialized and localized in temples, and by a rational transition of
+ideas it becomes believed that such acts of sexual intercourse in the
+service of the god, or with persons devoted to the god's service, brought
+benefits to the individual who performed them, more especially, if a
+woman, by insuring her fertility. Among primitive peoples generally this
+conception is embodied mainly in seasonal festivals, but among the peoples
+of Western Asia who had ceased to be primitive, and among whom traditional
+priestly and hieratic influences had acquired very great influence, the
+earlier generative cult had thus, it seems probable, naturally changed
+its form in becoming attached to the temples.[137]
+
+    The theory that religious prostitution developed, as a general
+    rule, out of the belief that the generative activity of human
+    beings possessed a mysterious and sacred influence in promoting
+    the fertility of Nature generally seems to have been first set
+    forth by Mannhardt in his _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (pp. 283
+    et seq.). It is supported by Dr. F.S. Krauss ("Beischlafausübung
+    als Kulthandlung," _Anthropophyteia_, vol. iii, p. 20), who
+    refers to the significant fact that in Baruch's time, at a period
+    long anterior to Herodotus, sacred prostitution took place under
+    the trees. Dr. J.G. Frazer has more especially developed this
+    conception of the origin of sacred prostitution in his _Adonis,
+    Attis, Osiris_. He thus summarizes his lengthy discussion: "We
+    may conclude that a great Mother Goddess, the personification of
+    all the reproductive energies of nature, was worshipped under
+    different names, but with a substantial similarity of myth and
+    ritual by many peoples of western Asia; that associated with her
+    was a lover, or rather series of lovers, divine yet mortal, with
+    whom she mated year by year, their commerce being deemed
+    essential to the propagation of animals and plants, each in their
+    several kind; and further, that the fabulous union of the divine
+    pair was simulated, and, as it were, multiplied on earth by the
+    real, though temporary, union of the human sexes at the sanctuary
+    of the goddess for the sake of thereby ensuring the fruitfulness
+    of the ground and the increase of man and beast. In course of
+    time, as the institution of individual marriage grew in favor,
+    and the old communism fell more and more into discredit, the
+    revival of the ancient practice, even for a single occasion in a
+    woman's life, became ever more repugnant to the moral sense of
+    the people, and accordingly they resorted to various expedients
+    for evading in practice the obligation which they still
+    acknowledged in theory.... But while the majority of women thus
+    contrived to observe the form of religion without sacrificing
+    their virtue, it was still thought necessary to the general
+    welfare that a certain number of them should discharge the old
+    obligation in the old way. These became prostitutes, either for
+    life or for a term of years, at one of the temples: dedicated to
+    the service of religion, they were invested with a sacred
+    character, and their vocation, far from being deemed infamous,
+    was probably long regarded by the laity as an exercise of more
+    than common virtue, and rewarded with a tribute of mixed wonder,
+    reverence, and pity, not unlike that which in some parts of the
+    world is still paid to women who seek to honor their Creator in a
+    different way by renouncing the natural functions of their sex
+    and the tenderest relations of humanity" (J.G. Frazer, _Adonis,
+    Attis, Osiris_, 1907, pp. 23 et seq.).
+
+    It is difficult to resist the conclusion that this theory
+    represents the central and primitive idea which led to the
+    development of sacred prostitution. It seems equally clear,
+    however, that as time went on, and especially as temple cults
+    developed and priestly influence increased, this fundamental and
+    primitive idea tended to become modified, and even transformed.
+    The primitive conception became specialized in the belief that
+    religious benefits, and especially the gift of fruitfulness, were
+    gained _by the worshipper_, who thus sought the goddess's favor
+    by an act of unchastity which might be presumed to be agreeable
+    to an unchaste deity. The rite of Mylitta, as described by
+    Herodotus, was a late development of this kind in an ancient
+    civilization, and the benefit sought was evidently for the
+    worshipper herself. This has been pointed out by Dr. Westermarck,
+    who remarks that the words spoken to the woman by her partner as
+    he gives her the coin--"May the goddess be auspicious to
+    thee!"--themselves indicate that the object of the act was to
+    insure her fertility, and he refers also to the fact that
+    strangers frequently had a semi-supernatural character, and their
+    benefits a specially efficacious character (Westermarck, _Origin
+    and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 446). It may be
+    added that the rite of Mylitta thus became analogous with another
+    Mediterranean rite, in which the act of simulating intercourse
+    with the representative of a god, or his image, ensured a woman's
+    fertility. This is the rite practiced by the Egyptians of Mendes,
+    in which a woman went through the ceremony of simulated
+    intercourse with the sacred goat, regarded as the representative
+    of a deity of Pan-like character (Herodotus, Bk. ii, Ch. XLVI;
+    and see Dulaure, _Des Divinités Génératrices_, Ch. II; cf. vol. v
+    of these _Studies_, "Erotic Symbolism," Sect. IV). This rite was
+    maintained by Roman women, in connection with the statues of
+    Priapus, to a very much later date, and St. Augustine mentions
+    how Roman matrons placed the young bride on the erect member of
+    Priapus (_De Civitate Dei_, Bk. iii, Ch. IX). The idea evidently
+    running through this whole group of phenomena is that the deity,
+    or the representative or even mere image of the deity, is able,
+    through a real or simulated act of intercourse, to confer on the
+    worshipper a portion of its own exalted generative activity.
+
+At a later period, in Corinth, prostitutes were still the priestesses of
+Venus, more or less loosely attached to her temples, and so long as that
+was the case they enjoyed a considerable degree of esteem. At this stage,
+however, we realize that religious prostitution was developing a
+utilitarian side. These temples flourished chiefly in sea-coast towns, in
+islands, in large cities to which many strangers and sailors came. The
+priestesses of Cyprus burnt incense on her altars and invoked her sacred
+aid, but at the same time Pindar addresses them as "young girls who
+welcome all strangers and give them hospitality." Side by side with the
+religious significance of the act of generation the needs of men far from
+home were already beginning to be definitely recognized. The Babylonian
+woman had gone to the temple of Mylitta to fulfil a personal religious
+duty; the Corinthian priestess had begun to act as an avowed minister to
+the sexual needs of men in strange cities.
+
+The custom which Herodotus noted in Lydia of young girls prostituting
+themselves in order to acquire a marriage portion which they may dispose
+of as they think fit (Bk. I, Ch. 93) may very well have developed (as
+Frazer also believes) out of religious prostitution; we can indeed trace
+its evolution in Cyprus where eventually, at the period when Justinian
+visited the island, the money given by strangers to the women was no
+longer placed on the altar but put into a chest to form marriage-portions
+for them. It is a custom to be found in Japan and various other parts of
+the world, notably among the Ouled-Nail of Algeria,[138] and is not
+necessarily always based on religious prostitution; but it obviously
+cannot exist except among peoples who see nothing very derogatory in free
+sexual intercourse for the purpose of obtaining money, so that the custom
+of Mylitta furnished a natural basis for it.[139]
+
+As a more spiritual conception of religion developed, and as the growth of
+civilization tended to deprive sexual intercourse of its sacred halo,
+religious prostitution in Greece was slowly abolished, though on the
+coasts of Asia Minor both religious prostitution and prostitution for the
+purpose of obtaining a marriage portion persisted to the time of
+Constantine, who put an end to these ancient customs.[140] Superstition
+was on the side of the old religious prostitution; it was believed that
+women who had never sacrificed to Aphrodite became consumed by lust, and
+according to the legend recorded by Ovid--a legend which seems to point to
+a certain antagonism between sacred and secular prostitution--this was the
+case with the women who first became public prostitutes. The decay of
+religious prostitution, doubtless combined with the cravings always born
+of the growth of civilization, led up to the first establishment,
+attributed by legend to Solon, of a public brothel, a purely secular
+establishment for a purely secular end: the safeguarding of the virtue of
+the general population and the increase of the public revenue. With that
+institution the evolution of prostitution, and of the modern marriage
+system of which it forms part, was completed. The Athenian _dikterion_ is
+the modern brothel; the _dikteriade_ is the modern state-regulated
+prostitute. The free _hetairæ_, indeed, subsequently arose, educated women
+having no taint of the _dikterion_, but they likewise had no official part
+in public worship.[141] The primitive conception of the sanctity of sexual
+intercourse in the divine service had been utterly lost.
+
+    A fairly typical example of the conditions existing among savages
+    is to be found in the South Sea Island of Rotuma, where
+    "prostitution for money or gifts was quite unknown." Adultery
+    after marriage was also unknown. But there was great freedom in
+    the formation of sexual relationships before marriage (J. Stanley
+    Gardiner, _Journal Anthropological Institute_, February, 1898, p.
+    409). Much the same is said of the Bantu Ba mbola of Africa (_op.
+    cit._, July-December, 1905, p. 410).
+
+    Among the early Cymri of Wales, representing a more advanced
+    social stage, prostitution appears to have been not absolutely
+    unknown, but public prostitution was punished by loss of valuable
+    privileges (R.B. Holt, "Marriage Laws and Customs of the Cymri,"
+    _Journal Anthropological Institute_, August-November, 1898, pp.
+    161-163).
+
+    Prostitution was practically unknown in Burmah, and regarded as
+    shameful before the coming of the English and the example of the
+    modern Hindus. The missionaries have unintentionally, but
+    inevitably, favored the growth of prostitution by condemning free
+    unions (_Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, November, 1903, p.
+    720). The English brought prostitution to India. "That was not
+    specially the fault of the English," said a Brahmin to Jules
+    Bois, "it is the crime of your civilization. We have never had
+    prostitutes. I mean by that horrible word the brutalized servants
+    of the gross desire of the passerby. We had, and we have, castes
+    of singers and dancers who are married to trees--yes, to
+    trees--by touching ceremonies which date from Vedic times; our
+    priests bless them and receive much money from them. They do not
+    refuse themselves to those who love them and please them. Kings
+    have made them rich. They represent all the arts; they are the
+    visible beauty of the universe" (Jules Bois, _Visions de l'Inde_,
+    p. 55).
+
+    Religious prostitutes, it may be added, "the servants of the
+    god," are connected with temples in Southern India and the
+    Deccan. They are devoted to their sacred calling from their
+    earliest years, and it is their chief business to dance before
+    the image of the god, to whom they are married (though in Upper
+    India professional dancing girls are married to inanimate
+    objects), but they are also trained in arousing and assuaging the
+    desires of devotees who come on pilgrimage to the shrine. For the
+    betrothal rites by which, in India, sacred prostitutes are
+    consecrated, see, e.g., A. Van Gennep, _Rites de Passage_, p.
+    142.
+
+    In many parts of Western Asia, where barbarism had reached a high
+    stage of development, prostitution was not unknown, though
+    usually disapproved. The Hebrews knew it, and the historical
+    Biblical references to prostitutes imply little reprobation.
+    Jephtha was the son of a prostitute, brought up with the
+    legitimate children, and the story of Tamar is instructive. But
+    the legal codes were extremely severe on Jewish maidens who
+    became prostitutes (the offense was quite tolerable in strange
+    women), while Hebrew moralists exercised their invectives against
+    prostitution; it is sufficient to refer to a well-known passage
+    in the Book of Proverbs (see art. "Harlot," by Cheyne, in the
+    _Encyclopædia Biblica_). Mahomed also severely condemned
+    prostitution, though somewhat more tolerant to it in slave
+    women; according to Haleby, however, prostitution was practically
+    unknown in Islam during the first centuries after the Prophet's
+    time.
+
+    The Persian adherents of the somewhat ascetic _Zendavesta_ also
+    knew prostitution, and regarded it with repulsion: "It is the
+    Gahi [the courtesan, as an incarnation of the female demon,
+    Gahi], O Spitama Zarathustra! who mixes in her the seed of the
+    faithful and the unfaithful, of the worshipper of Mazda and the
+    worshipper of the Dævas, of the wicked and the righteous. Her
+    look dries up one-third of the mighty floods that run from the
+    mountains, O Zarathustra; her look withers one-third of the
+    beautiful, golden-hued, growing plants, O Zarathustra; her look
+    withers one-third of the strength of Spenta Armaiti [the earth];
+    and her touch withers in the faithful one-third of his good
+    thoughts, of his good words, of his good deeds, one-third of his
+    strength, of his victorious power, of his holiness. Verily I say
+    unto thee, O Spitama Zarathustra! such creatures ought to be
+    killed even more than gliding snakes, than howling wolves, than
+    the she-wolf that falls upon the fold, or than the she-frog that
+    falls upon the waters with her thousandfold brood" (_Zend-Avesta,
+    the Vendidad_, translated by James Darmesteter, Farfad XVIII).
+
+    In practice, however, prostitution is well established in the
+    modern East. Thus in the Tartar-Turcoman region houses of
+    prostitution lying outside the paths frequented by Christians
+    have been described by a writer who appears to be well informed
+    ("Orientalische Prostitution," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_,
+    1907, Bd. ii, Heft 1). These houses are not regarded as immoral
+    or forbidden, but as places in which the visitor will find a
+    woman who gives him for a few hours the illusion of being in his
+    own home, with the pleasure of enjoying her songs, dances, and
+    recitations, and finally her body. Payment is made at the door,
+    and no subsequent question of money arises; the visitor is
+    henceforth among friends, almost as if in his own family. He
+    treats the prostitute almost as if she were his wife, and no
+    indecorum or coarseness of speech occurs. "There is no obscenity
+    in the Oriental brothel." At the same time there is no artificial
+    pretence of innocence.
+
+    In Eastern Asia, among the peoples of Mongolian stock, especially
+    in China, we find prostitution firmly established and organized
+    on a practical business basis. Prostitution is here accepted and
+    viewed with no serious disfavor, but the prostitute herself is,
+    nevertheless, treated with contempt. Young children are
+    frequently sold to be trained to a life of prostitution, educated
+    accordingly, and kept shut up from the world. Young widows
+    (remarriage being disapproved) frequently also slide into a life
+    of prostitution. Chinese prostitutes often end through opium and
+    the ravages of syphilis (see, e.g., Coltman's _The Chinese_,
+    1900, Ch. VII). In ancient China, it is said prostitutes were a
+    superior class and occupied a position somewhat similar to that
+    of the _hetairæ_ in Greece. Even in modern China, however, where
+    they are very numerous, and the flower boats, in which in towns
+    by the sea they usually live, very luxurious, it is chiefly for
+    entertainment, according to some writers, that they are resorted
+    to. Tschang Ki Tong, military attaché in Paris (as quoted by
+    Ploss and Bartels), describes the flower boat as less analogous
+    to a European brothel than to a _café chantant_; the young
+    Chinaman comes here for music, for tea, for agreeable
+    conversation with the flower-maidens, who are by no means
+    necessarily called upon to minister to the lust of their
+    visitors.
+
+    In Japan, the prostitute's lot is not so degraded as in China.
+    The greater refinement of Japanese civilization allows the
+    prostitute to retain a higher degree of self-respect. She is
+    sometimes regarded with pity, but less often with contempt. She
+    may associate openly with men, ultimately be married, even to men
+    of good social class, and rank as a respectable woman. "In riding
+    from Tokio to Yokohama, the past winter," Coltman observes (_op.
+    cit._, p. 113), "I saw a party of four young men and three quite
+    pretty and gaily-painted prostitutes, in the same car, who were
+    having a glorious time. They had two or three bottles of various
+    liquors, oranges, and fancy cakes, and they ate, drank and sang,
+    besides playing jokes on each other and frolicking like so many
+    kittens. You may travel the whole length of the Chinese Empire
+    and never witness such a scene." Yet the history of Japanese
+    prostitutes (which has been written in an interesting and
+    well-informed book, _The Nightless City_, by an English student
+    of sociology who remains anonymous) shows that prostitution in
+    Japan has not only been severely regulated, but very widely
+    looked down upon, and that Japanese prostitutes have often had to
+    suffer greatly; they were at one time practically slaves and
+    often treated with much hardship. They are free now, and any
+    condition approaching slavery is strictly prohibited and guarded
+    against. It would seem, however, that the palmiest days of
+    Japanese prostitution lay some centuries back. Up to the middle
+    of the eighteenth century Japanese prostitutes were highly
+    accomplished in singing, dancing, music, etc. Towards this
+    period, however, they seem to have declined in social
+    consideration and to have ceased to be well educated. Yet even
+    to-day, says Matignon ("La Prostitution au Japon," _Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, October, 1906), less infamy attaches
+    to prostitution in Japan than in Europe, while at the same time
+    there is less immorality in Japan than in Europe. Though
+    prostitution is organized like the postal or telegraph service,
+    there is also much clandestine prostitution. The prostitution
+    quarters are clean, beautiful and well-kept, but the Japanese
+    prostitutes have lost much of their native good taste in costume
+    by trying to imitate European fashions. It was when prostitution
+    began to decline two centuries ago, that the geishas first
+    appeared and were organized in such a way that they should not,
+    if possible, compete as prostitutes with the recognized and
+    licensed inhabitants of the Yoshiwara, as the quarter is called
+    to which prostitutes are confined. The geishas, of course, are
+    not prostitutes, though their virtue may not always be
+    impregnable, and in social position they correspond to actresses
+    in Europe.
+
+    In Korea, at all events before Korea fell into the hands of the
+    Japanese, it would seem that there was no distinction between the
+    class of dancing girls and prostitutes. "Among the courtesans,"
+    Angus Hamilton states, "the mental abilities are trained and
+    developed with a view to making them brilliant and entertaining
+    companions. These 'leaves of sunlight' are called _gisaing_, and
+    correspond to the geishas of Japan. Officially, they are attached
+    to a department of government, and are controlled by a bureau of
+    their own, in common with the Court musicians. They are supported
+    from the national treasury, and they are in evidence at official
+    dinners and all palace entertainments. They read and recite; they
+    dance and sing; they become accomplished artists and musicians.
+    They dress with exceptional taste; they move with exceeding
+    grace; they are delicate in appearance, very frail and very
+    human, very tender, sympathetic, and imaginative." But though
+    they are certainly the prettiest women in Korea, move in the
+    highest society, and might become concubines of the Emperor, they
+    are not allowed to marry men of good class (Angus Hamilton,
+    _Korea_, p. 52).
+
+The history of European prostitution, as of so many other modern
+institutions, may properly be said to begin in Rome. Here at the outset we
+already find that inconsistently mixed attitude towards prostitution which
+to-day is still preserved. In Greece it was in many respects different.
+Greece was nearer to the days of religious prostitution, and the sincerity
+and refinement of Greek civilization made it possible for the better kind
+of prostitute to exert, and often be worthy to exert, an influence in all
+departments of life which she has never been able to exercise since,
+except perhaps occasionally, in a much slighter degree, in France. The
+course, vigorous, practical Roman was quite ready to tolerate the
+prostitute, but he was not prepared to carry that toleration to its
+logical results; he never felt bound to harmonize inconsistent facts of
+life. Cicero, a moralist of no mean order, without expressing approval of
+prostitution, yet could not understand how anyone should wish to prohibit
+youths from commerce with prostitutes, such severity being out of harmony
+with all the customs of the past or the present.[142] But the superior
+class of Roman prostitutes, the _bonæ mulieres_, had no such dignified
+position as the Greek _hetairæ_. Their influence was indeed immense, but
+it was confined, as it is in the case of their European successors to-day,
+to fashions, customs, and arts. There was always a certain moral rigidity
+in the Roman which prevented him from yielding far in this direction. He
+encouraged brothels, but he only entered them with covered head and face
+concealed in his cloak. In the same way, while he tolerated the
+prostitute, beyond a certain point he sharply curtailed her privileges.
+Not only was she deprived of all influence in the higher concerns of life,
+but she might not even wear the _vitta_ or the _stola_; she could indeed
+go almost naked if she pleased, but she must not ape the emblems of the
+respectable Roman matron.[143]
+
+The rise of Christianity to political power produced on the whole less
+change of policy than might have been anticipated. The Christian rulers
+had to deal practically as best they might with a very mixed, turbulent,
+and semi-pagan world. The leading fathers of the Church were inclined to
+tolerate prostitution for the avoidance of greater evils, and Christian
+emperors, like their pagan predecessors, were willing to derive a tax from
+prostitution. The right of prostitution to exist was, however, no longer
+so unquestionably recognized as in pagan days, and from time to time some
+vigorous ruler sought to repress prostitution by severe enactments. The
+younger Theodosius and Valentinian definitely ordained that there should
+be no more brothels and that anyone giving shelter to a prostitute should
+be punished. Justinian confirmed that measure and ordered that all panders
+were to be exiled on pain of death. These enactments were quite vain. But
+during a thousand years they were repeated again and again in various
+parts of Europe, and invariably with the same fruitless or worse than
+fruitless results. Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, punished with death
+those who promoted prostitution, and Recared, a Catholic king of the same
+people in the sixth century, prohibited prostitution altogether and
+ordered that a prostitute, when found, should receive three hundred
+strokes of the whip and be driven out of the city. Charlemagne, as well as
+Genserich in Carthage, and later Frederick Barbarossa in Germany, made
+severe laws against prostitution which were all of no effect, for even if
+they seemed to be effective for the time the reaction was all the greater
+afterwards.[144]
+
+It is in France that the most persistent efforts have been made to combat
+prostitution. Most notable of all were the efforts of the King and Saint,
+Louis IX. In 1254 St. Louis ordained that prostitutes should be driven out
+altogether and deprived of all their money and goods, even to their
+mantles and gowns. In 1256 he repeated this ordinance and in 1269, before
+setting out for the Crusades, he ordered the destruction of all places of
+prostitution. The repetition of those decrees shows how ineffectual they
+were. They even made matters worse, for prostitutes were forced to mingle
+with the general population and their influence was thus extended. St.
+Louis was unable to put down prostitution even in his own camp in the
+East, and it existed outside his own tent. His legislation, however, was
+frequently imitated by subsequent rulers of France, even to the middle of
+the seventeenth century, always with the same ineffectual and worse
+results. In 1560 an edict of Charles IX abolished brothels, but the number
+of prostitutes was thereby increased rather than diminished, while many
+new kinds of brothels appeared in unsuspected shapes and were more
+dangerous than the more recognized brothels which had been
+suppressed.[145] In spite of all such legislation, or because of it, there
+has been no country in which prostitution has played a more conspicuous
+part.[146]
+
+At Mantua, so great was the repulsion aroused by prostitutes that they
+were compelled to buy in the markets any fruit or bread that had been
+soiled by the mere touch of their hands. It was so also in Avignon in
+1243. In Catalonia they could not sit at the same table as a lady or a
+knight or kiss any honorable person.[147] Even in Venice, the paradise of
+prostitution, numerous and severe regulations were passed against it, and
+it was long before the Venetian rulers resigned themselves to its
+toleration and regulation.[148]
+
+The last vigorous attempt to uproot prostitution in Europe was that of
+Maria Theresa at Vienna in the middle of the eighteenth century. Although
+of such recent date it may be mentioned here because it was mediæval alike
+in its conception and methods. Its object indeed, was to suppress not only
+prostitution, but fornication generally, and the means adopted were fines,
+imprisonment, whipping and torture. The supposed causes of fornication
+were also dealt with severely; short dresses were prohibited; billiard
+rooms and cafés were inspected; no waitresses were allowed, and when
+discovered, a waitress was liable to be handcuffed and carried off by the
+police. The Chastity Commission, under which these measures were
+rigorously carried out, was, apparently, established in 1751 and was
+quietly abolished by the Emperor Joseph II, in the early years of his
+reign. It was the general opinion that this severe legislation was really
+ineffective, and that it caused much more serious evils than it
+cured.[149] It is certain in any case that, for a long time past,
+illegitimacy has been more prevalent in Vienna than in any other great
+European capital.
+
+Yet the attitude towards prostitutes was always mixed and inconsistent at
+different places or different times, or even at the same time and place.
+Dufour has aptly compared their position to that of the mediæval Jews;
+they were continually persecuted, ecclesiastically, civilly, and socially,
+yet all classes were glad to have recourse to them and it was impossible
+to do without them. In some countries, including England in the fourteenth
+century, a special costume was imposed on prostitutes as a mark of
+infamy.[150] Yet in many respects no infamy whatever attached to
+prostitution. High placed officials could claim payment of their expenses
+incurred in visiting prostitutes when traveling on public business.
+Prostitution sometimes played an official part in festivities and
+receptions accorded by great cities to royal guests, and the brothel might
+form an important part of the city's hospitality. When the Emperor
+Sigismund came to Ulm in 1434 the streets were illuminated at such times
+as he or his suite desired to visit the common brothel. Brothels under
+municipal protection are found in the thirteenth century in Augsburg, in
+Vienna, in Hamburg.[151] In France the best known _abbayes_ of prostitutes
+were those of Toulouse and Montpellier.[152] Durkheim is of opinion that
+in the early middle ages, before this period, free love and marriage were
+less severely differentiated. It was the rise of the middle class, he
+considers, anxious to protect their wives and daughters, which led to a
+regulated and publicly recognized attempt to direct debauchery into a
+separate channel, brought under control.[153] These brothels constituted a
+kind of public service, the directors of them being regarded almost as
+public officials, bound to keep a certain number of prostitutes, to charge
+according to a fixed tariff, and not to receive into their houses girls
+belonging to the neighborhood. The institutions of this kind lasted for
+three centuries. It was, in part, perhaps, the impetus of the new
+Protestant movement, but mainly the terrible devastation produced by the
+introduction of syphilis from America at the end of the fifteenth century
+which, as Burckhardt and others have pointed out, led to the decline of
+the mediæval brothels.[154]
+
+The superior modern prostitute, the "courtesan" who had no connection with
+the brothel, seems to have been the outcome of the Renaissance and made
+her appearance in Italy at the end of the fifteenth century. "Courtesan"
+or "cortegiana" meant a lady following the court, and the term began at
+this time to be applied to a superior prostitute observing a certain
+degree of decorum and restraint.[155] In the papal court of Alexander
+Borgia the courtesan flourished even when her conduct was not altogether
+dignified. Burchard, the faithful and unimpeachable chronicler of this
+court, describes in his diary how, one evening, in October, 1501, the Pope
+sent for fifty courtesans to be brought to his chamber; after supper, in
+the presence of Cæsar Borgia and his young sister Lucrezia, they danced
+with the servitors and others who were present, at first clothed,
+afterwards naked. The candlesticks with lighted candles were then placed
+upon the floor and chestnuts thrown among them, to be gathered by the
+women crawling between the candlesticks on their hands and feet. Finally a
+number of prizes were brought forth to be awarded to those men "qui
+pluries dictos meretrices carnaliter agnoscerent," the victor in the
+contest being decided according to the judgment of the spectators.[156]
+This scene, enacted publicly in the Apostolic palace and serenely set
+forth by the impartial secretary, is at once a notable episode in the
+history of modern prostitution and one of the most illuminating
+illustrations we possess of the paganism of the Renaissance.
+
+    Before the term "courtesan" came into repute, prostitutes were
+    even in Italy commonly called "sinners," _peccatrice_. The
+    change, Graf remarks in a very interesting study of the
+    Renaissance prostitute ("Una Cortigiana fra Mille," _Attraverso
+    il Cinquecento_, pp. 217-351), "reveals a profound alteration in
+    ideas and in life;" a term that suggested infamy gave place to
+    one that suggested approval, and even honor, for the courts of
+    the Renaissance period represented the finest culture of the
+    time. The best of these courtesans seem to have been not
+    altogether unworthy of the honor they received. We can detect
+    this in their letters. There is a chapter on the letters of
+    Renaissance prostitutes, especially those of Camilla de Pisa
+    which are marked by genuine passion, in Lothar Schmidt's
+    _Frauenbriefe der Renaissance_. The famous Imperia, called by a
+    Pope in the early years of the sixteenth century "nobilissimum
+    Romæ scortum," knew Latin and could write Italian verse. Other
+    courtesans knew Italian and Latin poetry by heart, while they
+    were accomplished in music, dancing, and speech. We are reminded
+    of ancient Greece, and Graf, discussing how far the Renaissance
+    courtesans resembled the hetairæ, finds a very considerable
+    likeness, especially in culture and influence, though with some
+    differences due to the antagonism between religion and
+    prostitution at the later period.
+
+    The most distinguished figure in every respect among the
+    courtesans of that time was certainly Tullia D'Aragona. She was
+    probably the daughter of Cardinal D'Aragona (an illegitimate
+    scion of the Spanish royal family) by a Ferrarese courtesan who
+    became his mistress. Tullia has gained a high reputation by her
+    verse. Her best sonnet is addressed to a youth of twenty, whom
+    she passionately loved, but who did not return her love. Her
+    _Guerrino Meschino_, a translation from the Spanish, is a very
+    pure and chaste work. She was a woman of refined instincts and
+    aspirations, and once at least she abandoned her life of
+    prostitution. She was held in high esteem and respect. When, in
+    1546, Cosimo, Duke of Florence, ordered all prostitutes to wear a
+    yellow veil or handkerchief as a public badge of their
+    profession, Tullia appealed to the Duchess, a Spanish lady of
+    high character, and received permission to dispense with this
+    badge on account of her "rara scienzia di poesia et filosofia."
+    She dedicated her _Rime_ to the Duchess. Tullia D'Aragona was
+    very beautiful, with yellow hair, and remarkably large and bright
+    eyes, which dominated those who came near her. She was of proud
+    bearing and inspired unusual respect (G. Biagi, "Un' Etera
+    Romana," _Nuova Antologia_, vol. iv, 1886, pp. 655-711; S.
+    Bongi, _Rivista critica della Letteratura Italiana_, 1886, IV, p.
+    186).
+
+    Tullia D'Aragona was clearly not a courtesan at heart. Perhaps
+    the most typical example of the Renaissance courtesan at her best
+    is furnished by Veronica Franco, born in 1546 at Venice, of
+    middle class family and in early life married to a doctor. Of her
+    also it has been said that, while by profession a prostitute, she
+    was by inclination a poet. But she appears to have been well
+    content with her profession, and never ashamed of it. Her life
+    and character have been studied by Arturo Graf, and more slightly
+    in a little book by Tassini. She was highly cultured, and knew
+    several languages; she also sang well and played on many
+    instruments. In one of her letters she advises a youth who was
+    madly in love with her that if he wishes to obtain her favors he
+    must leave off importuning her and devote himself tranquilly to
+    study. "You know well," she adds, "that all those who claim to be
+    able to gain my love, and who are extremely dear to me, are
+    strenuous in studious discipline.... If my fortune allowed it I
+    would spend all my time quietly in the academies of virtuous
+    men." The Diotimas and Aspasias of antiquity, as Graf comments,
+    would not have demanded so much of their lovers. In her poems it
+    is possible to trace some of her love histories, and she often
+    shows herself torn by jealousy at the thought that perhaps
+    another woman may approach her beloved. Once she fell in love
+    with an ecclesiastic, possibly a bishop, with whom she had no
+    relationships, and after a long absence, which healed her love,
+    she and he became sincere friends. Once she was visited by Henry
+    III of France, who took away her portrait, while on her part she
+    promised to dedicate a book to him; she so far fulfilled this as
+    to address some sonnets to him and a letter; "neither did the
+    King feel ashamed of his intimacy with the courtesan," remarks
+    Graf, "nor did she suspect that he would feel ashamed of it."
+    When Montaigne passed through Venice she sent him a little book
+    of hers, as we learn from his _Journal_, though they do not
+    appear to have met. Tintoret was one of her many distinguished
+    friends, and she was a strenuous advocate of the high qualities
+    of modern, as compared with ancient, art. Her friendships were
+    affectionate, and she even seems to have had various grand ladies
+    among her friends. She was, however, so far from being ashamed of
+    her profession of courtesan that in one of her poems she affirms
+    she has been taught by Apollo other arts besides those he is
+    usually regarded as teaching:
+
+        "Cosi dolce e gustevole divento,
+         Quando mi trovo con persona in letto
+         Da cui amata e gradita mi sento."
+
+    In a certain _catalogo_ of the prices of Venetian courtesans
+    Veronica is assigned only 2 scudi for her favors, while the
+    courtesan to whom the catalogue is dedicated is set down at 25
+    scudi. Graf thinks there may be some mistake or malice here, and
+    an Italian gentleman of the time states that she required not
+    less than 50 scudi from those to whom she was willing to accord
+    what Montaigne called the "negotiation entière."
+
+    In regard to this matter it may be mentioned that, as stated by
+    Bandello, it was the custom for a Venetian prostitute to have six
+    or seven gentlemen at a time as her lovers. Each was entitled to
+    come to sup and sleep with her on one night of the week, leaving
+    her days free. They paid her so much per month, but she always
+    definitely reserved the right to receive a stranger passing
+    through Venice, if she wished, changing the time of her
+    appointment with her lover for the night. The high and special
+    prices which we find recorded are, of course, those demanded from
+    the casual distinguished stranger who came to Venice as, once in
+    the sixteenth century, Montaigne came.
+
+    In 1580 (when not more than thirty-four) Veronica confessed to
+    the Holy Office that she had had six children. In the same year
+    she formed the design of founding a home, which should not be a
+    monastery, where prostitutes who wished to abandon their mode of
+    life could find a refuge with their children, if they had any.
+    This seems to have led to the establishment of a Casa del
+    Soccorso. In 1591 she died of fever, reconciled with God and
+    blessed by many unfortunates. She had a good heart and a sound
+    intellect, and was the last of the great Renaissance courtesans
+    who revived Greek hetairism (Graf, _Attraverso il Cinquecento_,
+    pp. 217-351). Even in sixteenth century Venice, however, it will
+    be seen, Veronica Franco seems to have been not altogether at
+    peace in the career of a courtesan. She was clearly not adapted
+    for ordinary marriage, yet under the most favorable conditions
+    that the modern world has ever offered it may still be doubted
+    whether a prostitute's career can offer complete satisfaction to
+    a woman of large heart and brain.
+
+    Ninon de Lenclos, who is frequently called "the last of the great
+    courtesans," may seem an exception to the general rule as to the
+    inability of a woman of good heart, high character, and fine
+    intelligence to find satisfaction in a prostitute's life. But it
+    is a total misconception alike of Ninon de Lenclos's temperament
+    and her career to regard her as in any true sense a prostitute at
+    all. A knowledge of even the barest outlines of her life ought to
+    prevent such a mistake. Born early in the seventeenth century,
+    she was of good family on both sides; her mother was a woman of
+    severe life, but her father, a gentleman of Touraine, inspired
+    her with his own Epicurean philosophy as well as his love of
+    music. She was extremely well educated. At the age of sixteen or
+    seventeen she had her first lover, the noble and valiant Gaspard
+    de Coligny; he was followed for half a century by a long
+    succession of other lovers, sometimes more than one at a time;
+    three years was the longest period during which she was faithful
+    to one lover. Her attractions lasted so long that, it is said,
+    three generations of Sévignés were among her lovers. Tallemant
+    des Réaux enables us to study in detail her _liaisons_.
+
+    It is not, however, the abundance of lovers which makes a woman a
+    prostitute, but the nature of her relationships with them.
+    Sainte-Beuve, in an otherwise admirable study of Ninon de Lenclos
+    (_Causeries du Lundi_, vol. iv), seems to reckon her among the
+    courtesans. But no woman is a prostitute unless she uses men as a
+    source of pecuniary gain. Not only is there no evidence that this
+    was the case with Ninon, but all the evidence excludes such a
+    relationship. "It required much skill," said Voltaire, "and a
+    great deal of love on her part, to induce her to accept
+    presents." Tallemant, indeed, says that she sometimes took money
+    from her lovers, but this statement probably involves nothing
+    beyond what is contained in Voltaire's remark, and, in any case,
+    Tallemant's gossip, though usually well-informed, was not always
+    reliable. All are agreed as to her extreme disinterestedness.
+
+    When we hear precisely of Ninon de Lenclos in connection with
+    money, it is not as receiving a gift, but only as repaying a debt
+    to an old lover, or restoring a large sum left with her for safe
+    keeping when the owner was exiled. Such incidents are far from
+    suggesting the professional prostitute of any age; they are
+    rather the relationships which might exist between men friends.
+    Ninon de Lenclos's character was in many respects far from
+    perfect, but she combined many masculine virtues, and especially
+    probity, with a temperament which, on the whole, was certainly
+    feminine; she hated hypocrisy, and she was never influenced by
+    pecuniary considerations. She was, moreover, never reckless, but
+    always retained a certain self-restraint and temperance, even in
+    eating and drinking, and, we are told, she never drank wine. She
+    was, as Sainte-Beuve has remarked, the first to realize that
+    there must be the same virtues for men and for women, and that it
+    is absurd to reduce all feminine virtues to one. "Our sex has
+    been burdened with all the frivolities," she wrote, "and men have
+    reserved to themselves the essential qualities: I have made
+    myself a man." She sometimes dressed as a man when riding (see,
+    e.g., _Correspondence Authentique_ of Ninon de Lenclos, with a
+    good introduction by Emile Colombey). Consciously or not, she
+    represented a new feminine idea at a period when--as we may see
+    in many forgotten novels written by the women of that time--ideas
+    were beginning to emerge in the feminine sphere. She was the
+    first, and doubtless, from one point of view, the most extreme
+    representative of a small and distinguished group of French women
+    among whom Georges Sand is the finest personality.
+
+    Thus it is idle to attempt to adorn the history of prostitution
+    with the name of Ninon de Lenclos. A debauched old prostitute
+    would never, like Ninon towards the end of her long life, have
+    been able to retain or to conquer the affection and the esteem
+    of many of the best men and women of her time; even to the
+    austere Saint-Simon it seemed that there reigned in her little
+    court a decorum which the greatest princesses cannot achieve. She
+    was not a prostitute, but a woman of unique personality with a
+    little streak of genius in it. That she was inimitable we need
+    not perhaps greatly regret. In her old age, in 1699, her old
+    friend and former lover, Saint-Evremond, wrote to her, with only
+    a little exaggeration, that there were few princesses and few
+    saints who would not leave their courts and their cloisters to
+    change places with her. "If I had known beforehand what my life
+    would be I would have hanged myself," was her oft-quoted answer.
+    It is, indeed, a solitary phrase that slips in, perhaps as the
+    expression of a momentary mood; one may make too much of it. More
+    truly characteristic is the fine saying in which her Epicurean
+    philosophy seems to stretch out towards Nietzsche: "La joie de
+    l'esprit en marque la force."
+
+The frank acceptance of prostitution by the spiritual or even the temporal
+power has since the Renaissance become more and more exceptional. The
+opposite extreme of attempting to uproot prostitution has also in practice
+been altogether abandoned. Sporadic attempts have indeed been made, here
+and there, to put down prostitution with a strong hand even in quite
+modern times. It is now, however, realized that in such a case the remedy
+is worse than the disease.
+
+    In 1860 a Mayor of Portsmouth felt it his duty to attempt to
+    suppress prostitution. "In the early part of his mayoralty,"
+    according to a witness before the Select Committee on the
+    Contagious Diseases Acts (p. 393), "there was an order passed
+    that every beerhouse-keeper and licensed victualer in the borough
+    known to harbor these women would be dealt with, and probably
+    lose his license. On a given day about three hundred or four
+    hundred of these forlorn outcasts were bundled wholesale into the
+    streets, and they formed up in a large body, many of them with
+    only a shift and a petticoat on, and with a lot of drunken men
+    and boys with a fife and fiddle they paraded the streets for
+    several days. They marched in a body to the workhouse, but for
+    many reasons they were refused admittance.... These women
+    wandered about for two or three days shelterless, and it was felt
+    that the remedy was very much worse than the disease, and the
+    women were allowed to go back to their former places."
+
+    Similar experiments have been made even more recently in America.
+    "In Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1891, the houses of prostitutes
+    were closed, the inmates turned out upon the streets, and were
+    refused lodging and even food by the citizens of that place. A
+    wave of popular remonstrance, all over the country, at the
+    outrage on humanity, created a reaction which resulted in a last
+    condition by no means better than the first." In the same year
+    also a similar incident occurred in New York with the same
+    unfortunate results (Isidore Dyer, "The Municipal Control of
+    Prostitution in the United States," report presented to the
+    Brussels International Conference in 1899).
+
+There grew up instead the tendency to regulate prostitution, to give it a
+semi-official toleration which enabled the authorities to exercise a
+control over it, and to guard as far as possible against its evil by
+medical and police inspection. The new brothel system differed from the
+ancient mediæval houses of prostitution in important respects; it involved
+a routine of medical inspection and it endeavored to suppress any rivalry
+by unlicensed prostitutes outside. Bernard Mandeville, the author of the
+_Fable of the Bees_, and an acute thinker, was a pioneer in the advocacy
+of this system. In 1724, in his _Modest Defense of Publick Stews_, he
+argues that "the encouraging of public whoring will not only prevent most
+of the mischievous effects of this vice, but even lessen the quantity of
+whoring in general, and reduce it to the narrowest bounds which it can
+possibly be contained in." He proposed to discourage private prostitution
+by giving special privileges and immunities to brothels by Act of
+Parliament. His scheme involved the erection of one hundred brothels in a
+special quarter of the city, to contain two thousand prostitutes and one
+hundred matrons of ability and experience with physicians and surgeons, as
+well as commissioners to oversee the whole. Mandeville was regarded merely
+as a cynic or worse, and his scheme was ignored or treated with contempt.
+It was left to the genius of Napoleon, eighty years later, to establish
+the system of "maisons de tolérance," which had so great an influence over
+modern European practice during a large part of the last century and even
+still in its numerous survivals forms the subject of widely divergent
+opinions.
+
+On the whole, however, it must be said that the system of registering,
+examining, and regularizing prostitutes now belongs to the past. Many
+great battles have been fought over this question; the most important is
+that which raged for many years in England over the Contagious Diseases
+Acts, and is embodied in the 600 pages of a Report by a Select Committee
+on these Acts issued in 1882. The majority of the members of the Committee
+reported favorably to the Acts which were, notwithstanding, repealed in
+1886, since which date no serious attempt has been made in England to
+establish them again.
+
+At the present time, although the old system still stands in many
+countries with the inert stolidity of established institutions, it no
+longer commands general approval. As Paul and Victor Margueritte have
+truly stated, in the course of an acute examination of the phenomena of
+state-regulated prostitution as found in Paris, the system is "barbarous
+to start with and almost inefficacious as well." The expert is every day
+more clearly demonstrating its inefficacy while the psychologist and the
+sociologist are constantly becoming more convinced that it is barbarous.
+
+It can indeed by no means be said that any unanimity has been attained. It
+is obviously so urgently necessary to combat the flood of disease and
+misery which proceeds directly from the spread of syphilis and gonorrhoea,
+and indirectly from the prostitution which is the chief propagator of
+these diseases, that we cannot be surprised that many should eagerly catch
+at any system which seems to promise a palliation of the evils. At the
+present time, however, it is those best acquainted with the operation of
+the system of control who have most clearly realized that the supposed
+palliation is for the most part illusory,[157] and in any case attained at
+the cost of the artificial production of other evils. In France, where the
+system of the registration and control of prostitutes has been
+established for over a century,[158] and where consequently its
+advantages, if such there are, should be clearly realized, it meets with
+almost impassioned opposition from able men belonging to every section of
+the community. In Germany the opposition to regularized control has long
+been led by well-equipped experts, headed by Blaschko of Berlin. Precisely
+the same conclusions are being reached in America. Gottheil, of New York,
+finds that the municipal control of prostitution is "neither successful
+nor desirable." Heidingsfeld concludes that the regulation and control
+system in force in Cincinnati has done little good and much harm; under
+the system among the private patients in his own clinic the proportion of
+cases of both syphilis and gonorrhoea has increased; "suppression of
+prostitutes is impossible and control is impracticable."[159]
+
+    It is in Germany that the attempt to regulate prostitution still
+    remains most persistent, with results that in Germany itself are
+    regarded as unfortunate. Thus the German law inflicts a penalty
+    on householders who permit illegitimate sexual intercourse in
+    their houses. This is meant to strike the unlicensed prostitute,
+    but it really encourages prostitution, for a decent youth and
+    girl who decide to form a relationship which later may develop
+    into marriage, and which is not illegal (for extra-marital sexual
+    intercourse _per se_ is not in Germany, as it is by the
+    antiquated laws of several American States, a punishable
+    offense), are subjected to so much trouble and annoyance by the
+    suspicious police that it is much easier for the girl to become a
+    prostitute and put herself under the protection of the police.
+    The law was largely directed against those who live on the
+    profits of prostitution. But in practice it works out
+    differently. The prostitute simply has to pay extravagantly high
+    rents, so that her landlord really lives on the fruits of her
+    trade, while she has to carry on her business with increased
+    activity and on a larger scale in order to cover her heavy
+    expenses (P. Hausmeister, "Zur Analyse der Prostitution,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. ii, 1907, p. 294).
+
+    In Italy, opinion on this matter is much divided. The regulation
+    of prostitution has been successively adopted, abandoned, and
+    readopted. In Switzerland, the land of governmental experiments,
+    various plans are tried in different cantons. In some there is
+    no attempt to interfere with prostitution, except under special
+    circumstances; in others all prostitution, and even fornication
+    generally, is punishable; in Geneva only native prostitutes are
+    permitted to practice; in Zurich, since 1897, prostitution is
+    prohibited, but care is taken to put no difficulties in the path
+    of free sexual relationships which are not for gain. With these
+    different regulations, morals in Switzerland generally are said
+    to be much on the same level as elsewhere (Moreau-Christophe, _Du
+    Problème de la Misère_, vol. iii, p. 259). The same conclusion
+    holds good of London. A disinterested observer, Félix Remo (_La
+    Vie Galante en Angleterre_, 1888, p. 237), concluded that,
+    notwithstanding its free trade in prostitution, its alcoholic
+    excesses, its vices of all kinds, "London is one of the most
+    moral capitals in Europe." The movement towards freedom in this
+    matter has been evidenced in recent years by the abandonment of
+    the system of regulation by Denmark in 1906.
+
+Even the most ardent advocates of the registration of prostitutes
+recognize that not only is the tendency of civilization opposed rather
+than favorable to the system, but that in the numerous countries where the
+system persists registered prostitutes are losing ground in the struggle
+against clandestine prostitutes. Even in France, the classic land of
+police-controlled prostitutes, the "maisons de tolérance" have long been
+steadily decreasing in number, by no means because prostitution is
+decreasing but because low-class _brasseries_ and small _cafés-chantants_,
+which are really unlicensed brothels, are taking their place.[160]
+
+The wholesale regularization of prostitution in civilized centres is
+nowadays, indeed, advocated by few, if any, of the authorities who belong
+to the newer school. It is at most claimed as desirable in certain places
+under special circumstances.[161] Even those who would still be glad to
+see prostitution thoroughly in the control of the police now recognize
+that experience shows this to be impossible. As many girls begin their
+career as prostitutes at a very early age, a sound system of regulation
+should be prepared to enroll as permanent prostitutes even girls who are
+little more than children. That, however, is a logical conclusion against
+which the moral sense, and even the common sense, of a community
+instinctively revolts. In Paris girls may not be inscribed as prostitutes
+until they have reached the age of sixteen and some consider even that age
+too low.[162] Moreover, whenever she becomes diseased, or grows tired of
+her position, the registered woman may always slip out of the hands of the
+police and establish herself elsewhere as a clandestine prostitute. Every
+rigid attempt to keep prostitution within the police ring leads to
+offensive interference with the actions and the freedom of respectable
+women which cannot fail to be intolerable in any free community. Even in a
+city like London, where prostitution is relatively free, the supervision
+of the police has led to scandalous police charges against women who have
+done nothing whatever which should legitimately arouse suspicion of their
+behavior. The escape of the infected woman from the police cordon has, it
+is obvious, an effect in raising the apparent level of health of
+registered women, and the police statistics are still further fallaciously
+improved by the fact that the inmates of brothels are older on the average
+than clandestine prostitutes and have become immune to disease.[163] These
+facts are now becoming fairly obvious and well recognized. The state
+regulation of prostitution is undesirable, on moral grounds for the
+oft-emphasized reason that it is only applied to one sex, and on practical
+grounds because it is ineffective. Society allows the police to harass the
+prostitute with petty persecutions under the guise of charges of
+"solicitation," "disorderly conduct," etc., but it is no longer convinced
+that she ought to be under the absolute control of the police.
+
+The problem of prostitution, when we look at it narrowly, seems to be in
+the same position to-day as at any time in the course of the past three
+thousand years. In order, however, to comprehend the real significance of
+prostitution, and to attain a reasonable attitude towards it, we must look
+at it from a broader point of view; we must consider not only its
+evolution and history, but its causes and its relation to the wider
+aspects of modern social life. When we thus view the problem from a
+broader standpoint we shall find that there is no conflict between the
+claims of ethics and those of social hygiene, and that the coördinated
+activity of both is involved in the progressive refinement and
+purification of civilized sexual relationships.
+
+
+_III. The Causes of Prostitution._
+
+The history of the rise and development of prostitution enables us to see
+that prostitution is not an accident of our marriage system, but an
+essential constituent which appears concurrently with its other essential
+constituents. The gradual development of the family on a patriarchal and
+largely monogamic basis rendered it more and more difficult for a woman to
+dispose of her own person. She belongs in the first place to her father,
+whose interest it was to guard her carefully until a husband appeared who
+could afford to purchase her. In the enhancement of her value the new idea
+of the market value of virginity gradually developed, and where a "virgin"
+had previously meant a woman who was free to do as she would with her own
+body its meaning was now reversed and it came to mean a woman who was
+precluded from having intercourse with men. When she was transferred from
+her father to a husband, she was still guarded with the same care;
+husband and father alike found their interest in preserving their women
+from unmarried men. The situation thus produced resulted in the existence
+of a large body of young men who were not yet rich enough to obtain wives,
+and a large number of young women, not yet chosen as wives, and many of
+whom could never expect to become wives. At such a point in social
+evolution prostitution is clearly inevitable; it is not so much the
+indispensable concomitant of marriage as an essential part of the whole
+system. Some of the superfluous or neglected women, utilizing their money
+value and perhaps at the same time reviving traditions of an earlier
+freedom, find their social function in selling their favors to gratify the
+temporary desires of the men who have not yet been able to acquire wives.
+Thus every link in the chain of the marriage system is firmly welded and
+the complete circle formed.
+
+But while the history of the rise and development of prostitution shows us
+how indestructible and essential an element prostitution is of the
+marriage system which has long prevailed in Europe--under very varied
+racial, political, social, and religious conditions--it yet fails to
+supply us in every respect with the data necessary to reach a definite
+attitude towards prostitution to-day. In order to understand the place of
+prostitution in our existing system, it is necessary that we should
+analyze the chief factors of prostitution. We may most conveniently learn
+to understand these if we consider prostitution, in order, under four
+aspects. These are: (1) _economic_ necessity; (2) _biological_
+predisposition; (3) _moral_ advantages; and (4) what may be called its
+_civilizational_ value.
+
+While these four factors of prostitution seem to me those that here
+chiefly concern us, it is scarcely necessary to point out that many other
+causes contribute to produce and modify prostitution. Prostitutes
+themselves often seek to lead other girls to adopt the same paths;
+recruits must be found for brothels, whence we have the "white slave
+trade," which is now being energetically combated in many parts of the
+world; while all the forms of seduction towards this life are favored and
+often predisposed to by alcoholism. It will generally be found that
+several causes have combined to push a girl into the career of
+prostitution.
+
+    The ways in which various factors of environment and suggestion
+    unite to lead a girl into the paths of prostitution are indicated
+    in the following statement in which a correspondent has set forth
+    his own conclusions on this matter as a man of the world: "I have
+    had a somewhat varied experience among loose women, and can say,
+    without hesitation, that not more than 1 per cent, of the women I
+    have known could be regarded as educated. This indicates that
+    almost invariably they are of humble origin, and the terrible
+    cases of overcrowding that are daily brought to light suggest
+    that at very early ages the sense of modesty becomes extinct, and
+    long before puberty a familiarity with things sexual takes place.
+    As soon as they are old enough these girls are seduced by their
+    sweethearts; the familiarity with which they regard sexual
+    matters removes the restraint which surrounds a girl whose early
+    life has been spent in decent surroundings. Later they go to work
+    in factories and shops; if pretty and attractive, they consort
+    with managers and foremen. Then the love of finery, which forms
+    so large a part of the feminine character, tempts the girl to
+    become the 'kept' woman of some man of means. A remarkable thing
+    in this connection is the fact that they rarely enjoy excitement
+    with their protectors, preferring rather the coarser embraces of
+    some man nearer their own station in life, very often a soldier.
+    I have not known many women who were seduced and deserted, though
+    this is a fiction much affected by prostitutes. Barmaids supply a
+    considerable number to the ranks of prostitution, largely on
+    account of their addiction to drink; drunkenness invariably leads
+    to laxness of moral restraint in women. Another potent factor in
+    the production of prostitutes lies in the flare of finery
+    flaunted by some friend who has adopted the life. A girl, working
+    hard to live, sees some friend, perhaps making a call in the
+    street where the hard-working girl lives, clothed in finery,
+    while she herself can hardly get enough to eat. She has a
+    conversation with her finely-clad friend who tells her how easily
+    she can earn money, explaining what a vital asset the sexual
+    organs are, and soon another one is added to the ranks."
+
+    There is some interest in considering the reasons assigned for
+    prostitutes entering their career. In some countries this has
+    been estimated by those who come closely into official or other
+    contact with prostitutes. In other countries, it is the rule for
+    girls, before they are registered as prostitutes, to state the
+    reasons for which they desire to enter the career.
+
+    Parent-Duchâtelet, whose work on prostitutes in Paris is still an
+    authority, presented the first estimate of this kind. He found
+    that of over five thousand prostitutes, 1441 were influenced by
+    poverty, 1425 by seduction of lovers who had abandoned them,
+    1255 by the loss of parents from death or other cause. By such an
+    estimate, nearly the whole number are accounted for by
+    wretchedness, that is by economic causes, alone
+    (Parent-Duchâtelet, _De la Prostitution_, 1857, vol. i, p. 107).
+
+    In Brussels during a period of twenty years (1865-1884) 3505
+    women were inscribed as prostitutes. The causes they assigned for
+    desiring to take to this career present a different picture from
+    that shown by Parent-Duchâtelet, but perhaps a more reliable one,
+    although there are some marked and curious discrepancies. Out of
+    the 3505, 1523 explained that extreme poverty was the cause of
+    their degradation; 1118 frankly confessed that their sexual
+    passions were the cause; 420 attributed their fall to evil
+    company; 316 said they were disgusted and weary of their work,
+    because the toil was so arduous and the pay so small; 101 had
+    been abandoned by their lovers; 10 had quarrelled with their
+    parents; 7 were abandoned by their husbands; 4 did not agree with
+    their guardians; 3 had family quarrels; 2 were compelled to
+    prostitute themselves by their husbands, and 1 by her parents
+    (_Lancet_, June 28, 1890, p. 1442).
+
+    In London, Merrick found that of 16,022 prostitutes who passed
+    through his hands during the years he was chaplain at Millbank
+    prison, 5061 voluntarily left home or situation for "a life of
+    pleasure;" 3363 assigned poverty as the cause; 3154 were
+    "seduced" and drifted on to the street; 1636 were betrayed by
+    promises of marriage and abandoned by lover and relations. On the
+    whole, Merrick states, 4790, or nearly one-third of the whole
+    number, may be said to owe the adoption of their career directly
+    to men, 11,232 to other causes. He adds that of those pleading
+    poverty a large number were indolent and incapable (G.P. Merrick,
+    _Work Among the Fallen_, p. 38).
+
+    Logan, an English city missionary with an extensive acquaintance
+    with prostitutes, divided them into the following groups: (1)
+    One-fourth of the girls are servants, especially in public
+    houses, beer shops, etc., and thus led into the life; (2)
+    one-fourth come from factories, etc.; (3) nearly one-fourth are
+    recruited by procuresses who visit country towns, markets, etc.;
+    (4) a final group includes, on the one hand, those who are
+    induced to become prostitutes by destitution, or indolence, or a
+    bad temper, which unfits them for ordinary avocations, and, on
+    the other hand, those who have been seduced by a false promise of
+    marriage (W. Logan, _The Great Social Evil_, 1871, p. 53).
+
+    In America Sanger has reported the results of inquiries made of
+    two thousand New York prostitutes as to the causes which induced
+    them to take up their avocation:
+
+        Destitution                                        525
+        Inclination                                        513
+        Seduced and abandoned                              258
+        Drink and desire for drink                         181
+        Ill-treatment by parents, relations, or husbands   164
+        As an easy life                                    124
+        Bad company                                         84
+        Persuaded by prostitutes                            71
+        Too idle to work                                    29
+        Violated                                            27
+        Seduced on emigrant ship                            16
+        Seduced in emigrant boarding homes                   8
+                                                         -----
+                                                         2,000
+
+        (Sanger, _History of Prostitution_, p. 488.)
+
+    In America, again, more recently, Professor Woods Hutchinson put
+    himself into communication with some thirty representative men in
+    various great metropolitan centres, and thus summarizes the
+    answers as regards the etiology of prostitution:
+
+                                                      Per cent.
+
+        Love of display, luxury and idleness            42.1
+        Bad family surroundings                         23.8
+        Seduction in which they were innocent victims   11.3
+        Lack of employment                               9.4
+        Heredity                                         7.8
+        Primary sexual appetite                          5.6
+
+        (Woods Hutchinson, "The Economics of Prostitution," _American
+        Gynæcologic and Obstetric Journal_, September, 1895; _Id., The
+        Gospel According to Darwin_, p. 194.)
+
+    In Italy, in 1881, among 10,422 inscribed prostitutes from the
+    age of seventeen upwards, the causes of prostitution were
+    classified as follows:
+
+        Vice and depravity                            2,752
+        Death of parents, husband, etc.               2,139
+        Seduction by lover                            1,653
+        Seduction by employer                           927
+        Abandoned by parents, husband, etc.             794
+        Love of luxury                                  698
+        Incitement by lover or other persons outside
+          family                                        666
+        Incitement by parents or husband                400
+        To support parents or children                  393
+
+        (Ferriani, _Minorenni Delinquenti_, p. 193.) The reasons
+        assigned by Russian prostitutes for taking up their career are
+        (according to Federow) as follows:
+
+        38.5 per cent. insufficient wages.
+        21.  per cent. desire for amusement.
+        14.  per cent. loss of place.
+         9.5 per cent. persuasion by women friends.
+         6.5 per cent. loss of habit of work.
+         5.5 per cent. chagrin, and to punish lover.
+          .5 per cent. drunkenness.
+
+        (Summarized in _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Nov. 15,
+        1901.)
+
+1. _The Economic Causation of Prostitution_.--Writers on prostitution
+frequently assert that economic conditions lie at the root of prostitution
+and that its chief cause is poverty, while prostitutes themselves often
+declare that the difficulty of earning a livelihood in other ways was a
+main cause in inducing them to adopt this career. "Of all the causes of
+prostitution," Parent-Duchâtelet wrote a century ago, "particularly in
+Paris, and probably in all large cities, none is more active than lack of
+work and the misery which is the inevitable result of insufficient wages."
+In England, also, to a large extent, Sherwell states, "morals fluctuate
+with trade."[164] It is equally so in Berlin where the number of
+registered prostitutes increases during bad years.[165] It is so also in
+America. It is the same in Japan; "the cause of causes is poverty."[166]
+
+Thus the broad and general statement that prostitution is largely or
+mainly an economic phenomenon, due to the low wages of women or to sudden
+depressions in trade, is everywhere made by investigators. It must,
+however, be added that these general statements are considerably qualified
+in the light of the detailed investigations made by careful inquirers.
+Thus Ströhmberg, who minutely investigated 462 prostitutes, found that
+only one assigned destitution as the reason for adopting her career, and
+on investigation this was found to be an impudent lie.[167] Hammer found
+that of ninety registered German prostitutes not one had entered on the
+career out of want or to support a child, while some went on the street
+while in the possession of money, or without wishing to be paid.[168]
+Pastor Buschmann, of the Teltow Magdalene Home in Berlin, finds that it is
+not want but indifference to moral considerations which leads girls to
+become prostitutes. In Germany, before a girl is put on the police
+register, due care is always taken to give her a chance of entering a Home
+and getting work; in Berlin, in the course of ten years, only two
+girls--out of thousands--were willing to take advantage of this
+opportunity. The difficulty experienced by English Rescue Homes in finding
+girls who are willing to be "rescued" is notorious. The same difficulty is
+found in other cities, even where entirely different conditions prevail;
+thus it is found in Madrid, according to Bernaldo de Quirós and Llanas
+Aguilaniedo, that the prostitutes who enter the Homes, notwithstanding all
+the devotion of the nuns, on leaving at once return to their old life.
+While the economic factor in prostitution undoubtedly exists, the undue
+frequency and emphasis with which it is put forward and accepted is
+clearly due, in part to ignorance of the real facts, in part to the fact
+that such an assumption appeals to those whose weakness it is to explain
+all social phenomena by economic causes, and in part to its obvious
+plausibility.[169]
+
+Prostitutes are mainly recruited from the ranks of factory girls, domestic
+servants, shop girls, and waitresses. In some of these occupations it is
+difficult to obtain employment all the year round. In this way many
+milliners, dressmakers and tailoresses become prostitutes when business is
+slack, and return to business when the season begins. Sometimes the
+regular work of the day is supplemented concurrently by prostitution in
+the street in the evening. It is said, possibly with some truth, that
+amateur prostitution of this kind is extremely prevalent in England, as it
+is not checked by the precautions which, in countries where prostitution
+is regulated, the clandestine prostitute must adopt in order to avoid
+registration. Certain public lavatories and dressing-rooms in central
+London are said to be used by the girls for putting on, and finally
+washing off before going home, the customary paint.[170] It is certain
+that in England a large proportion of parents belonging to the working and
+even lower middle class ranks are unacquainted with the nature of the
+lives led by their own daughters. It must be added, also, that
+occasionally this conduct of the daughter is winked at or encouraged by
+the parents; thus a correspondent writes that he "knows some towns in
+England where prostitution is not regarded as anything disgraceful, and
+can remember many cases where the mother's house has been used by the
+daughter with the mother's knowledge."
+
+Acton, in a well-informed book on London prostitution, written in the
+middle of the last century, said that prostitution is "a transitory stage,
+through which an untold number of British women are ever on their
+passage."[171] This statement was strenuously denied at the time by many
+earnest moralists who refused to admit that it was possible for a woman
+who had sunk into so deep a pit of degradation ever to climb out again,
+respectably safe and sound. Yet it is certainly true as regards a
+considerable proportion of women, not only in England, but in other
+countries also. Thus Parent-Duchâtelet, the greatest authority on French
+prostitution, stated that "prostitution is for the majority only a
+transitory stage; it is quitted usually during the first year; very few
+prostitutes continue until extinction." It is difficult, however, to
+ascertain precisely of how large a proportion this is true; there are no
+data which would serve as a basis for exact estimation,[172] and it is
+impossible to expect that respectable married women would admit that they
+had ever been "on the streets"; they would not, perhaps, always admit it
+even to themselves.
+
+    The following case, though noted down over twenty years ago, is
+    fairly typical of a certain class, among the lower ranks of
+    prostitution, in which the economic factor counts for much, but
+    in which we ought not too hastily to assume that it is the sole
+    factor.
+
+    Widow, aged thirty, with two children. Works in an umbrella
+    manufactory in the East End of London, earning eighteen shillings
+    a week by hard work, and increasing her income by occasionally
+    going out on the streets in the evenings. She haunts a quiet side
+    street which is one of the approaches to a large city railway
+    terminus. She is a comfortable, almost matronly-looking woman,
+    quietly dressed in a way that is only noticeable from the skirts
+    being rather short. If spoken to she may remark that she is
+    "waiting for a lady friend," talks in an affected way about the
+    weather, and parenthetically introduces her offers. She will
+    either lead a man into one of the silent neighboring lanes filled
+    with warehouses, or will take him home with her. She is willing
+    to accept any sum the man may be willing or able to give;
+    occasionally it is a sovereign, sometimes it is only a sixpence;
+    on an average she earns a few shillings in an evening. She had
+    only been in London for ten months; before that she lived in
+    Newcastle. She did not go on the streets there; "circumstances
+    alter cases," she sagely remarks. Though not speaking well of
+    the police, she says they do not interfere with her as they do
+    with some of the girls. She never gives them money, but hints
+    that it is sometimes necessary to gratify their desires in order
+    to keep on good terms with them.
+
+It must always be remembered, for it is sometimes forgotten by socialists
+and social reformers, that while the pressure of poverty exerts a markedly
+modifying influence on prostitution, in that it increases the ranks of the
+women who thereby seek a livelihood and may thus be properly regarded as a
+factor of prostitution, no practicable raising of the rate of women's
+wages could possibly serve, directly and alone, to abolish prostitution.
+De Molinari, an economist, after remarking that "prostitution is an
+industry" and that if other competing industries can offer women
+sufficiently high pecuniary inducements they will not be so frequently
+attracted to prostitution, proceeds to point out that that by no means
+settles the question. "Like every other industry prostitution is governed
+by the demand of the need to which it responds. As long as that need and
+that demand persist, they will provoke an offer. It is the need and the
+demand that we must act on, and perhaps science will furnish us the means
+to do so."[173] In what way Molinari expects science to diminish the
+demand for prostitutes, however, is not clearly brought out.
+
+Not only have we to admit that no practicable rise in the rate of wages
+paid to women in ordinary industries can possibly compete with the wages
+which fairly attractive women of quite ordinary ability can earn by
+prostitution,[174] but we have also to realize that a rise in general
+prosperity--which alone can render a rise of women's wages healthy and
+normal--involves a rise in the wages of prostitution, and an increase in
+the number of prostitutes. So that if good wages is to be regarded as the
+antagonist of prostitution, we can only say that it more than gives back
+with one hand what it takes with the other. To so marked a degree is this
+the case that Després in a detailed moral and demographic study of the
+distribution of prostitution in France comes to the conclusion that we
+must reverse the ancient doctrine that "poverty engenders prostitution"
+since prostitution regularly increases with wealth,[175] and as a
+département rises in wealth and prosperity, so the number both of its
+inscribed and its free prostitutes rises also. There is indeed a fallacy
+here, for while it is true, as Després argues, that wealth demands
+prostitution, it is also true that a wealthy community involves the
+extreme of poverty as well as of riches and that it is among the poorer
+elements that prostitution chiefly finds its recruits. The ancient dictum
+that "poverty engenders prostitution" still stands, but it is complicated
+and qualified by the complex conditions of civilization. Bonger, in his
+able discussion of the economic side of the question, has realized the
+wide and deep basis of prostitution when he reaches the conclusion that it
+is "on the one hand the inevitable complement of the existing legal
+monogamy, and on the other hand the result of the bad conditions in which
+many young girls grow up, the result of the physical and psychical
+wretchedness in which the women of the people live, and the consequence
+also of the inferior position of women in our actual society."[176] A
+narrowly economic consideration of prostitution can by no means bring us
+to the root of the matter.
+
+    One circumstance alone should have sufficed to indicate that the
+    inability of many women to secure "a living wage," is far from
+    being the most fundamental cause of prostitution: a large
+    proportion of prostitutes come from the ranks of domestic
+    service. Of all the great groups of female workers, domestic
+    servants are the freest from economic anxieties; they do not pay
+    for food or for lodging; they often live as well as their
+    mistresses, and in a large proportion of cases they have fewer
+    money anxieties than their mistresses. Moreover, they supply an
+    almost universal demand, so that there is never any need for even
+    very moderately competent servants to be in want of work. They
+    constitute, it is true, a very large body which could not fail to
+    supply a certain contingent of recruits to prostitution. But when
+    we see that domestic service is the chief reservoir from which
+    prostitutes are drawn, it should be clear that the craving for
+    food and shelter is by no means the chief cause of prostitution.
+
+    It may be added that, although the significance of this
+    predominance of servants among prostitutes is seldom realized by
+    those who fancy that to remove poverty is to abolish
+    prostitution, it has not been ignored by the more thoughtful
+    students of social questions. Thus Sherwell, while pointing out
+    truly that, to a large extent, "morals fluctuate with trade,"
+    adds that, against the importance of the economic factor, it is a
+    suggestive and in every way impressive fact that the majority of
+    the girls who frequent the West End of London (88 per cent.,
+    according to the Salvation Army's Registers) are drawn from
+    domestic service where the economic struggle is not severely felt
+    (Arthur Sherwell, _Life in West London_, Ch. V, "Prostitution").
+
+    It is at the same time worthy of note that by the conditions of
+    their lives servants, more than any other class, resemble
+    prostitutes (Bernaldo de Quirós and Llanas Aguilaniedo have
+    pointed this out in _La Mala Vida en Madrid_, p. 240). Like
+    prostitutes, they are a class of women apart; they are not
+    entitled to the considerations and the little courtesies usually
+    paid to other women; in some countries they are even registered,
+    like prostitutes; it is scarcely surprising that when they suffer
+    from so many of the disadvantages of the prostitute, they should
+    sometimes desire to possess also some of her advantages. Lily
+    Braun (_Frauenfrage_, pp. 389 et seq.) has set forth in detail
+    these unfavorable conditions of domestic labor as they bear on
+    the tendency of servant-girls to become prostitutes. R. de
+    Ryckère, in his important work, _La Servante Criminelle_ (1907,
+    pp. 460 et seq.; cf., the same author's article, "La Criminalité
+    Ancillaire," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, July and
+    December, 1906), has studied the psychology of the servant-girl.
+    He finds that she is specially marked by lack of foresight,
+    vanity, lack of invention, tendency to imitation, and mobility of
+    mind. These are characters which ally her to the prostitute. De
+    Ryckère estimates the proportion of former servants among
+    prostitutes generally as fifty per cent., and adds that what is
+    called the "white slavery" here finds its most complacent and
+    docile victims. He remarks, however, that the servant prostitute
+    is, on the whole, not so much immoral as non-moral.
+
+    In Paris Parent-Duchâtelet found that, in proportion to their
+    number, servants furnished the largest contingent to
+    prostitution, and his editors also found that they head the list
+    (Parent-Duchâtelet, edition 1857, vol. i, p. 83). Among
+    clandestine prostitutes at Paris, Commenge has more recently
+    found that former servants constitute forty per cent. In Bordeaux
+    Jeannel (_De le Prostitution Publique_, p. 102) also found that
+    in 1860 forty per cent, of prostitutes had been servants,
+    seamstresses coming next with thirty-seven per cent.
+
+    In Germany and Austria it has long been recognized that domestic
+    service furnishes the chief number of recruits to prostitution.
+    Lippert, in Germany, and Gross-Hoffinger, in Austria, pointed out
+    this predominance of maid-servants and its significance before
+    the middle of the nineteenth century, and more recently Blaschko
+    has stated ("Hygiene der Syphilis" in Weyl's _Handbuch der
+    Hygiene_, Bd. ii, p. 40) that among Berlin prostitutes in 1898
+    maid-servants stand at the head with fifty-one per cent.
+    Baumgarten has stated that in Vienna the proportion of servants
+    is fifty-eight per cent.
+
+    In England, according to the Report of a Select Committee of the
+    Lords on the laws for the protection of children, sixty per cent,
+    of prostitutes have been servants. F. Remo, in his _Vie Galante
+    en Angleterre_, states the proportion as eighty per cent. It
+    would appear to be even higher as regards the West End of London.
+    Taking London as a whole the extensive statistics of Merrick
+    (_Work Among the Fallen_), chaplain of the Millbank Prison,
+    showed that out of 14,790 prostitutes, 5823, or about forty per
+    cent., had previously been servants, laundresses coming next, and
+    then dressmakers; classifying his data somewhat more summarily
+    and roughly, Merrick found that the proportion of servants was
+    fifty-three per cent.
+
+    In America, among two thousand prostitutes, Sanger states that
+    forty-three per cent, had been servants, dressmakers coming next,
+    but at a long interval, with six per cent. (Sanger, _History of
+    Prostitution_, p. 524). Among Philadelphia prostitutes, Goodchild
+    states that "domestics are probably in largest proportion,"
+    although some recruits may be found from almost any occupation.
+
+    It is the same in other countries. In Italy, according to Tammeo
+    (_La Prostituzione_, p. 100), servants come first among
+    prostitutes with a proportion of twenty-eight per cent., followed
+    by the group of dressmakers, tailoresses and milliners, seventeen
+    per cent. In Sardinia, A Mantegazza states, most prostitutes are
+    servants from the country. In Russia, according to Fiaux, the
+    proportion is forty-five per cent. In Madrid, according to Eslava
+    (as quoted by Bernaldo de Quirós and Llanas Aguilaniedo (_La Mala
+    Vida, en Madrid_, p. 239)), servants come at the head of
+    registered prostitutes with twenty-seven per cent.--almost the
+    same proportion as in Italy--and are followed by dressmakers. In
+    Sweden, according to Welander (_Monatshefte für Praktische
+    Dermatologie_, 1899, p. 477) among 2541 inscribed prostitutes,
+    1586 (or sixty-two per cent.) were domestic servants; at a long
+    interval followed 210 seamstresses, then 168 factory workers,
+    etc.
+
+2. _The Biological Factor of Prostitution_.--Economic considerations, as
+we see, have a highly important modificatory influence on prostitution,
+although it is by no means correct to assert that they form its main
+cause. There is another question which has exercised many investigators:
+To what extent are prostitutes predestined to this career by organic
+constitution? It is generally admitted that economic and other conditions
+are an exciting cause of prostitution; in how far are those who succumb
+predisposed by the possession of abnormal personal characteristics? Some
+inquirers have argued that this predisposition is so marked that
+prostitution may fairly be regarded as a feminine equivalent for
+criminality, and that in a family in which the men instinctively turn to
+crime, the women instinctively turn to prostitution. Others have as
+strenuously denied this conclusion.
+
+    Lombroso has more especially advocated the doctrine that
+    prostitution is the vicarious equivalent of criminality. In this
+    he was developing the results reached, in the important study of
+    the Jukes family, by Dugdale, who found that "there where the
+    brothers commit crime, the sisters adopt prostitution;" the fines
+    and imprisonments of the women of the family were not for
+    violations of the right of property, but mainly for offences
+    against public decency. "The psychological as well as anatomical
+    identity of the criminal and the born prostitute," Lombroso and
+    Ferrero concluded, "could not be more complete: both are
+    identical with the moral insane, and therefore, according to the
+    axiom, equal to each other. There is the same lack of moral
+    sense, the same hardness of heart, the same precocious taste for
+    evil, the same indifference to social infamy, the same
+    volatility, love of idleness, and lack of foresight, the same
+    taste for facile pleasures, for the orgy and for alcohol, the
+    same, or almost the same, vanity. Prostitution is only the
+    feminine side of criminality. And so true is it that prostitution
+    and criminality are two analogous, or, so to say, parallel,
+    phenomena, that at their extremes they meet. The prostitute is,
+    therefore, psychologically a criminal: if she commits no offenses
+    it is because her physical weakness, her small intelligence, the
+    facility of acquiring what she wants by more easy methods,
+    dispenses her from the necessity of crime, and on these very
+    grounds prostitution represents the specific form of feminine
+    criminality." The authors add that "prostitution is, in a certain
+    sense, socially useful as an outlet for masculine sexuality and a
+    preventive of crime" (Lombroso and Ferrero, _La Donna
+    Delinquente_, 1893, p. 571).
+
+    Those who have opposed this view have taken various grounds, and
+    by no means always understood the position they are attacking.
+    Thus W. Fischer (in _Die Prostitution_) vigorously argues that
+    prostitution is not an inoffensive equivalent of criminality, but
+    a factor of criminality. Féré, again (in _Dégénérescence et
+    Criminalité_), asserts that criminality and prostitution are not
+    equivalent, but identical. "Prostitutes and criminals," he holds,
+    "have as a common character their unproductiveness, and
+    consequently they are both anti-social. Prostitution thus
+    constitutes a form of criminality." The essential character of
+    criminals is not, however, their unproductiveness, for that they
+    share with a considerable proportion of the wealthiest of the
+    upper classes; it must be added, also, that the prostitute,
+    unlike the criminal, is exercising an activity for which there is
+    a demand, for which she is willingly paid, and for which she has
+    to work (it has sometimes been noted that the prostitute looks
+    down on the thief, who "does not work"); she is carrying on a
+    profession, and is neither more nor less productive than those
+    who carry on many more reputable professions. Aschaffenburg, also
+    believing himself in opposition to Lombroso, argues, somewhat
+    differently from Féré, that prostitution is not indeed, as Féré
+    said, a form of criminality, but that it is too frequently united
+    with criminality to be regarded as an equivalent. Mönkemöller has
+    more recently supported the same view. Here, however, as usual,
+    there is a wide difference of opinion as to the proportion of
+    prostitutes of whom this is true. It is recognized by all
+    investigators to be true of a certain number, but while
+    Baumgarten, from an examination of eight thousand prostitutes,
+    only found a minute proportion who were criminals, Ströhmberg
+    found that among 462 prostitutes there were as many as 175
+    thieves. From another side, Morasso (as quoted in _Archivio di
+    Psichiatria_, 1896, fasc. I), on the strength of his own
+    investigations, is more clearly in opposition to Lombroso, since
+    he protests altogether against any purely degenerative view of
+    prostitutes which would in any way assimilate them with
+    criminals.
+
+The question of the sexuality of prostitutes, which has a certain bearing
+on the question of their tendency to degeneration, has been settled by
+different writers in different senses. While some, like Morasso, assert
+that sexual impulse is a main cause inducing women to adopt a prostitute's
+career, others assert that prostitutes are usually almost devoid of sexual
+impulse. Lombroso refers to the prevalence of sexual frigidity among
+prostitutes.[177] In London, Merrick, speaking from a knowledge of over
+16,000 prostitutes, states that he has met with "only a very few cases"
+in which gross sexual desire has been the motive to adopt a life of
+prostitution. In Paris, Raciborski had stated at a much earlier period
+that "among prostitutes one finds very few who are prompted to libertinage
+by sexual ardor."[178] Commenge, again, a careful student of the Parisian
+prostitute, cannot admit that sexual desire is to be classed among the
+serious causes of prostitution. "I have made inquiries of thousands of
+women on this point," he states, "and only a very small number have told
+me that they were driven to prostitution for the satisfaction of sexual
+needs. Although girls who give themselves to prostitution are often
+lacking in frankness, on this point, I believe, they have no wish to
+deceive. When they have sexual needs they do not conceal them, but, on the
+contrary, show a certain _amour-propre_ in acknowledging them, as a
+sufficient sort of justification for their life; so that if only a very
+small minority avow this motive the reason is that for the great majority
+it has no existence."
+
+There can be no doubt that the statements made regarding the sexual
+frigidity of prostitutes are often much too unqualified. This is in part
+certainly due to the fact that they are usually made by those who speak
+from a knowledge of old prostitutes whose habitual familiarity with normal
+sexual intercourse in its least attractive aspects has resulted in
+complete indifference to such intercourse, so far as their clients are
+concerned.[179] It may be stated with truth that to the woman of deep
+passions the ephemeral and superficial relationships of prostitution can
+offer no temptation. And it may be added that the majority of prostitutes
+begin their career at a very early age, long before the somewhat late
+period at which in women the tendency for passion to become strong, has
+yet arrived.[180] It may also be said that an indifference to sexual
+relationships, a tendency to attach no personal value to them, is often a
+predisposing cause in the adoption of a prostitute's career; the general
+mental shallowness of prostitutes may well be accompanied by shallowness
+of physical emotion. On the other hand, many prostitutes, at all events
+early in their careers, appear to show a marked degree of sensuality, and
+to women of coarse sexual fibre the career of prostitution has not been
+without attractions from this point of view; the gratification of physical
+desire is known to act as a motive in some cases and is clearly indicated
+in others.[181] This is scarcely surprising when we remember that
+prostitutes are in a very large proportion of cases remarkably robust and
+healthy persons in general respects.[182] They withstand without
+difficulty the risks of their profession, and though under its influence
+the manifestations of sexual feeling can scarcely fail to become modified
+or perverted in course of time, that is no proof of the original absence
+of sexual sensibility. It is not even a proof of its loss, for the real
+sexual nature of the normal prostitute, and her possibilities of sexual
+ardor, are chiefly manifested, not in her professional relations with her
+clients, but in her relations with her "fancy boy" or "bully."[183] It is
+quite true that the conditions of her life often make it practically
+advantageous to the prostitute to have attached to her a man who is
+devoted to her interests and will defend them if necessary, but that is
+only a secondary, occasional, and subsidiary advantage of the "fancy boy,"
+so far as prostitutes generally are concerned. She is attracted to him
+primarily because he appeals to her personally and she wants him for
+herself. The motive of her attachment is, above all, erotic, in the full
+sense, involving not merely sexual relations but possession and common
+interests, a permanent and intimate life led together. "You know that what
+one does in the way of business cannot fill one's heart," said a German
+prostitute; "Why should we not have a husband like other women? I, too,
+need love. If that were not so we should not want a bully." And he, on his
+part, reciprocates this feeling and is by no means merely moved by
+self-interest.[184]
+
+    One of my correspondents, who has had much experience of
+    prostitutes, not only in Britain, but also in Germany, France,
+    Belgium and Holland, has found that the normal manifestations of
+    sexual feeling are much more common in British than in
+    continental prostitutes. "I should say," he writes, "that in
+    normal coitus foreign women are generally unconscious of sexual
+    excitement. I don't think I have ever known a foreign woman who
+    had any semblance of orgasm. British women, on the other hand, if
+    a man is moderately kind, and shows that he has some feelings
+    beyond mere sensual gratification, often abandon themselves to
+    the wildest delights of sexual excitement. Of course in this
+    life, as in others, there is keen competition, and a woman, to
+    vie with her competitors, must please her gentlemen friends; but
+    a man of the world can always distinguish between real and
+    simulated passion." (It is possible, however, that he may be most
+    successful in arousing the feelings of his own fellow-country
+    women.) On the other hand, this writer finds that the foreign
+    women are more anxious to provide for the enjoyment of their
+    temporary consorts and to ascertain what pleases them. "The
+    foreigner seems to make it the business of her life to discover
+    some abnormal mode of sexual gratification for her consort." For
+    their own pleasure also foreign prostitutes frequently ask for
+    _cunnilinctus_, in preference to normal coitus, while anal coitus
+    is also common. The difference evidently is that the British
+    women, when they seek gratification, find it in normal coitus,
+    while the foreign women prefer more abnormal methods. There is,
+    however, one class of British prostitutes which this
+    correspondent finds to be an exception to the general rule: the
+    class of those who are recruited from the lower walks of the
+    stage. "Such women are generally more licentious--that is to say,
+    more acquainted with the bizarre in sexualism--than girls who
+    come from shops or bars; they show a knowledge of _fellatio_, and
+    even anal coitus, and during menstruation frequently suggest
+    inter-mammary coitus."
+
+On the whole it would appear that prostitutes, though not usually impelled
+to their life by motives of sensuality, on entering and during the early
+part of their career possess a fairly average amount of sexual impulse,
+with variations in both directions of excess and deficiency as well as of
+perversion. At a somewhat later period it is useless to attempt to measure
+the sexual impulse of prostitutes by the amount of pleasure they take in
+the professional performance of sexual intercourse. It is necessary to
+ascertain whether they possess sexual instincts which are gratified in
+other ways. In a large proportion of cases this is found to be so.
+Masturbation, especially, is extremely common among prostitutes
+everywhere; however prevalent it may be among women who have no other
+means of obtaining sexual gratification it is admitted by all to be still
+more prevalent among prostitutes, indeed almost universal.[185]
+
+Homosexuality, though not so common as masturbation, is very frequently
+found among prostitutes--in France, it would seem, more frequently than in
+England--and it may indeed be said that it occurs more often among
+prostitutes than among any other class of women. It is favored by the
+acquired distaste for normal coitus due to professional intercourse with
+men, which leads homosexual relationships to be regarded as pure and ideal
+by comparison. It would appear also that in a considerable proportion of
+cases prostitutes present a congenital condition of sexual inversion, such
+a condition, with an accompanying indifference to intercourse with men,
+being a predisposing cause of the adoption of a prostitute's career.
+Kurella even regards prostitutes as constituting a sub-variety of
+congenital inverts. Anna Rüling in Germany states that about twenty per
+cent. prostitutes are homosexual; when asked what induced them to become
+prostitutes, more than one inverted woman of the street has replied to her
+that it was purely a matter of business, sexual feeling not coming into
+the question except with a friend of the same sex.[186]
+
+The occurrence of congenital inversion among prostitutes--although we need
+not regard prostitutes as necessarily degenerate as a class--suggests the
+question whether we are likely to find an unusually large number of
+physical and other anomalies among them. It cannot be said that there is
+unanimity of opinion on this point. For some authorities prostitutes are
+merely normal ordinary women of low social rank, if indeed their instincts
+are not even a little superior to those of the class in which they were
+born. Other investigators find among them so large a proportion of
+individuals deviating from the normal that they are inclined to place
+prostitutes generally among one or other of the abnormal classes.[187]
+
+    Baumgarten, in Vienna, from a knowledge of over 8000 prostitutes,
+    concluded that only a very minute proportion are either criminal
+    or psychopathic in temperament or organization (_Archiv für
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie_, vol. xi, 1902). It is not clear,
+    however, that Baumgarten carried out any detailed and precise
+    investigations. Mr. Lane, a London police magistrate, has stated
+    as the result of his own observation, that prostitution is "at
+    once a symptom and outcome of the same deteriorated physique and
+    decadent moral fibre which determine the manufacture of male
+    tramps, petty thieves, and professional beggars, of whom the
+    prostitute is in general the female analogue" (_Ethnological
+    Journal_, April, 1905, p. 41). This estimate is doubtless correct
+    as regards a considerable proportion of the women, often
+    enfeebled by drink, who pass through the police courts, but it
+    could scarcely be applied without qualification to prostitutes
+    generally.
+
+    Morasso (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1896, fasc. I) has protested
+    against a purely degenerative view of prostitutes on the strength
+    of his own observations. There is, he states, a category of
+    prostitutes, unknown to scientific inquirers, which he calls that
+    of the _prostitute di alto bordo_. Among these the signs of
+    degeneration, physical or moral, are not to be found in greater
+    number than among women who do not belong to prostitution. They
+    reveal all sorts of characters, some of them showing great
+    refinement, and are chiefly marked off by the possession of an
+    unusual degree of sexual appetite. Even among the more degraded
+    group of the _bassa prostituzione_, he asserts, we find a
+    predominance of sexual, as well as professional, characters,
+    rather than the signs of degeneration. It is sufficient to quote
+    one more testimony, as set down many years ago by a woman of high
+    intelligence and character, Mrs. Craik, the novelist: "The women
+    who fall are by no means the worst of their station," she wrote.
+    "I have heard it affirmed by more than one lady--by one in
+    particular whose experience was as large as her benevolence--that
+    many of them are of the very best, refined, intelligent,
+    truthful, and affectionate. 'I don't know how it is,' she would
+    say, 'whether their very superiority makes them dissatisfied with
+    their own rank--such brutes or clowns as laboring men often
+    are!--so that they fall easier victims to the rank above them; or
+    whether, though this theory will shock many people, other virtues
+    can exist and flourish entirely distinct from, and after the
+    loss of, that which we are accustomed to believe the
+    indispensable prime virtue of our sex--chastity. I cannot explain
+    it; I can only say that it is so, that some of my most promising
+    village girls have been the first to come to harm; and some of
+    the best and most faithful servants I ever had, have been girls
+    who have fallen into shame, and who, had I not gone to the rescue
+    and put them in the way to do well, would infallibly have become
+    "lost women"'" (_A Woman's Thoughts About Women_, 1858, p. 291).
+    Various writers have insisted on the good moral qualities of
+    prostitutes. Thus in France, Despine first enumerates their vices
+    as (1) greediness and love of drink, (2) lying, (3) anger, (4)
+    want of order and untidiness, (5) mobility of character, (6) need
+    of movement, (7) tendency to homosexuality; and then proceeds to
+    detail their good qualities: their maternal and filial affection,
+    their charity to each other; and their refusal to denounce each
+    other; while they are frequently religious, sometimes modest, and
+    generally very honest (Despine, _Psychologie Naturelle_, vol.
+    iii, pp. 207 et seq.; as regards Sicilian prostitutes, cf.
+    Callari, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, fasc. IV, 1903). The charity
+    towards each other, often manifested in distress, is largely
+    neutralized by a tendency to professional suspicion and jealousy
+    of each other.
+
+    Lombroso believes that the basis of prostitution must be found in
+    moral idiocy. If by moral idiocy we are to understand a condition
+    at all closely allied with insanity, this assertion is dubious.
+    There seems no clear relationship between prostitution and
+    insanity, and Tammeo has shown (_La Prostituzione_, p. 76) that
+    the frequency of prostitutes in the various Italian provinces is
+    in inverse ratio to the frequency of insane persons; as insanity
+    increases, prostitution decreases. But if we mean a minor degree
+    of moral imbecility--that is to say, a bluntness of perception
+    for the ordinary moral considerations of civilization which,
+    while it is largely due to the hardening influence of an
+    unfavorable early environment, may also rest on a congenital
+    predisposition--there can be no doubt that moral imbecility of
+    slight degree is very frequently found among prostitutes. It
+    would be plausible, doubtless, to say that every woman who gives
+    her virginity in exchange for an inadequate return is an
+    imbecile. If she gives herself for love, she has, at the worst,
+    made a foolish mistake, such as the young and inexperienced may
+    at any time make. But if she deliberately proposes to sell
+    herself, and does so for nothing or next to nothing, the case is
+    altered. The experiences of Commenge in Paris are instructive on
+    this point. "For many young girls," he writes, "modesty has no
+    existence, they experience no emotion in showing themselves
+    completely undressed, they abandon themselves to any chance
+    individual whom they will never see again. They attach no
+    importance to their virginity; they are deflowered under the
+    strangest conditions, without the least thought or care about the
+    act they are accomplishing. No sentiment, no calculation, pushes
+    them into a man's arms. They let themselves go without reflexion
+    and without motive, in an almost animal manner, from indifference
+    and without pleasure." He was acquainted with forty-five girls
+    between the ages of twelve and seventeen who were deflowered by
+    chance strangers whom they never met again; they lost their
+    virginity, in Dumas's phrase, as they lost their milk-teeth, and
+    could give no plausible account of the loss. A girl of fifteen,
+    mentioned by Commenge, living with her parents who supplied all
+    her wants, lost her virginity by casually meeting a man who
+    offered her two francs if she would go with him; she did so
+    without demur and soon begun to accost men on her own account. A
+    girl of fourteen, also living comfortably with her parents,
+    sacrificed her virginity at a fair in return for a glass of beer,
+    and henceforth begun to associate with prostitutes. Another girl
+    of the same age, at a local fête, wishing to go round on the
+    hobby horse, spontaneously offered herself to the man directing
+    the machinery for the pleasure of a ride. Yet another girl, of
+    fifteen, at another fête, offered her virginity in return for the
+    same momentary joy (Commenge, _Prostitution Clandestine_, 1897,
+    pp. 101 et seq.). In the United States, Dr. W. Travis Gibb,
+    examining physician to the New York Society for the Prevention of
+    Cruelty to Children, bears similar testimony to the fact that in
+    a fairly large proportion of "rape" cases the child is the
+    willing victim. "It is horribly pathetic," he says (_Medical
+    Record_, April 20, 1907), "to learn how far a nickel or a quarter
+    will go towards purchasing the virtue of these children."
+
+    In estimating the tendency of prostitutes to display congenital
+    physical anomalies, the crudest and most obvious test, though not
+    a precise or satisfactory one, is the general impression produced
+    by the face. In France, when nearly 1000 prostitutes were divided
+    into five groups from the point of view of their looks, only from
+    seven to fourteen per cent, were found to belong to the first
+    group, or that of those who could be said to possess youth and
+    beauty (Jeannel, _De la Prostitution Publique_, 1860, p. 168).
+    Woods Hutchinson, again, judging from an extensive acquaintance
+    with London, Paris, Vienna, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago,
+    asserts that a handsome or even attractive-looking prostitute, is
+    rare, and that the general average of beauty is lower than in any
+    other class of women. "Whatever other evils," he remarks, "the
+    fatal power of beauty may be responsible for, it has nothing to
+    do with prostitution" (Woods Hutchinson, "The Economics of
+    Prostitution," _American Gynæcological and Obstetric Journal_,
+    September, 1895). It must, of course, be borne in mind that these
+    estimates are liable to be vitiated through being based chiefly
+    on the inspection of women who most obviously belong to the class
+    of prostitutes and have already been coarsened by their
+    profession.
+
+    If we may conclude--and the fact is probably undisputed--that
+    beautiful, agreeable, and harmoniously formed faces are rare
+    rather than common among prostitutes, we may certainly say that
+    minute examination will reveal a large number of physical
+    abnormalities. One of the earliest important physical
+    investigations of prostitutes was that of Dr. Pauline Tarnowsky
+    in Russia (first published in the _Vratch_ in 1887, and
+    afterwards as _Etudes anthropométriques sur les Prostituées et
+    les Voleuses_). She examined fifty St. Petersburg prostitutes who
+    had been inmates of a brothel for not less than two years, and
+    also fifty peasant women of, so far as possible, the same age and
+    mental development. She found that (1) the prostitute showed
+    shorter anterior-posterior and transverse diameters of skull; (2)
+    a proportion equal to eighty-four per cent. showed various signs
+    of physical degeneration (irregular skull, asymmetry of face,
+    anomalies of hard palate, teeth, ears, etc.). This tendency to
+    anomaly among the prostitutes was to some extent explained when
+    it was found that about four-fifths of them had parents who were
+    habitual drunkards, and nearly one-fifth were the last survivors
+    of large families; such families have been often produced by
+    degenerate parents.
+
+    The frequency of hereditary degeneration has been noted by
+    Bonhoeffer among German prostitutes. He investigated 190 Breslau
+    prostitutes in prison, and therefore of a more abnormal class
+    than ordinary prostitutes, and found that 102 were hereditarily
+    degenerate, and mostly with one or both parents who were
+    drunkards; 53 also showed feeble-mindedness (_Zeitschrift für die
+    Gesamte Strafwissenschaft_, Bd. xxiii, p. 106).
+
+    The most detailed examinations of ordinary non-criminal
+    prostitutes, both anthropometrically and as regards the
+    prevalence of anomalies, have been made in Italy, though not on a
+    sufficiently large number of subjects to yield absolutely
+    decisive results. Thus Fornasari made a detailed examination of
+    sixty prostitutes belonging chiefly to Emilia and Venice, and
+    also of twenty-seven others belonging to Bologna, the latter
+    group being compared with a third group of twenty normal women
+    belonging to Bologna (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1892, fasc. VI).
+    The prostitutes were found to be of lower type than the normal
+    individuals, having smaller heads and larger faces. As the author
+    himself points out, his subjects were not sufficiently numerous
+    to justify far-reaching generalizations, but it may be worth
+    while to summarize some of his results. At equal heights the
+    prostitutes showed greater weight; at equal ages they were of
+    shorter stature than other women, not only of well-to-do, but of
+    the poor class: height of face, bi-zygomatic diameter (though not
+    the distance between zygomas), the distance from chin to external
+    auditory meatus, and the size of the jaw were all greater in the
+    prostitutes; the hands were longer and broader, compared to the
+    palm, than in ordinary women; the foot also was longer in
+    prostitutes, and the thigh, as compared to the calf, was larger.
+    It is noteworthy that in most particulars, and especially in
+    regard to head measurements, the variations were much greater
+    among the prostitutes than among the other women examined; this
+    is to some extent, though not entirely, to be accounted for by
+    the slightly greater number of the former.
+
+    Ardu (in the same number of the _Archivio_) gave the result of
+    observations (undertaken at Lombroso's suggestion) as to the
+    frequency of abnormalities among prostitutes. The subjects were
+    seventy-four in number and belonged to Professor Giovannini's
+    _Clinica Sifilopatica_ at Turin. The abnormalities investigated
+    were virile distribution of hair on pubes, chest, and limbs,
+    hypertrichosis on forehead, left-handedness, atrophy of nipple,
+    and tattooing (which was only found once). Combining Ardu's
+    observations with another series of observations on fifty-five
+    prostitutes examined by Lombroso, it is found that virile
+    disposition of hair is found in fifteen per cent. as against six
+    per cent. in normal women; some degree of hypertrichosis in
+    eighteen per cent.; left-handedness in eleven per cent. (but in
+    normal women as high as twelve per cent. according to Gallia);
+    and atrophy of nipple in twelve per cent.
+
+    Giuffrida-Ruggeri, again (_Atti della, Società Romana di
+    Antropologia_, 1897, p. 216), on examining eighty-two prostitutes
+    found anomalies in the following order of decreasing frequency:
+    tendency of eyebrows to meet, lack of cranial symmetry,
+    depression at root of nose, defective development of calves,
+    hypertrichosis and other anomalies of hair, adherent or absent
+    lobule, prominent zigoma, prominent forehead or frontal bones,
+    bad implantation of teeth, Darwinian tubercle of ear, thin
+    vertical lips. These signs are separately of little or no
+    importance, though together not without significance as an
+    indication of general anomaly.
+
+    More recently Ascarilla, in an elaborate study (_Archivio di
+    Psichiatria_, 1906, fasc. VI, p. 812) of the finger prints of
+    prostitutes, comes to the conclusion that even in this respect
+    prostitutes tend to form a class showing morphological
+    inferiority to normal women. The patterns tend to show unusual
+    simplicity and uniformity, and the significance of this is
+    indicated by the fact that a similar uniformity is shown by the
+    finger prints of the insane and deaf-mutes (De Sanctis and
+    Toscano, _Atti Società Romana Antropologia_, vol. viii, 1901,
+    fasc. II).
+
+    In Chicago Dr. Harriet Alexander, in conjunction with Dr. E.S.
+    Talbot and Dr. J.G. Kiernan, examined thirty prostitutes in the
+    Bridewell, or House of Correction; only the "obtuse" class of
+    professional prostitutes reach this institution, and it is not
+    therefore surprising that they were found to exhibit very marked
+    stigmata of degeneracy. In race nearly half of those examined
+    were Celtic Irish. In sixteen the zygomatic processes were
+    unequal and very prominent. Other facial asymmetries were common.
+    In three cases the heads were of Mongoloid type; sixteen were
+    epignathic, and eleven prognathic; five showed arrest of
+    development of face. Brachycephaly predominated (seventeen
+    cases); the rest were mesaticephalic; there were no
+    dolichocephals. Abnormalities in shape of the skull were
+    numerous, and twenty-nine had defective ears. Four were
+    demonstrably insane, and one was an epileptic (H.C.B. Alexander,
+    "Physical Abnormalities in Prostitutes," Chicago Academy of
+    Medicine, April, 1893; E.S. Talbot, _Degeneracy_, p. 320; _Id.,
+    Irregularities of the Teeth_, fourth edition, p. 141).
+
+It would seem, on the whole, so far as the evidence at present goes, that
+prostitutes are not quite normal representatives of the ranks into which
+they were born. There has been a process of selection of individuals who
+slightly deviate congenitally from the normal average and are,
+correspondingly, slightly inapt for normal life.[188] The psychic
+characteristics which accompany such deviation are not always necessarily
+of an obviously unfavorable nature; the slightly neurotic girl of low
+class birth--disinclined for hard work, through defective energy, and
+perhaps greedy and selfish--may even seem to possess a refinement superior
+to her station. While, however, there is a tendency to anomaly among
+prostitutes, it must be clearly recognized that that tendency remains
+slight so long as we consider impartially the whole class of prostitutes.
+Those investigators who have reached the conclusion that prostitutes are a
+highly degenerate and abnormal class have only observed special groups of
+prostitutes, more especially those who are frequently found in prison. It
+is not possible to form a just conception of prostitutes by studying them
+only in prison, any more than it would be possible to form a just
+conception of clergymen, doctors, or lawyers by studying them exclusively
+in prison, and this remains true even although a much larger proportion of
+prostitutes than of members of the more reputable professions pass through
+prisons; that fact no doubt partly indicates the greater abnormality of
+prostitutes.
+
+It has, of course, to be remembered that the special conditions of the
+lives of prostitutes tend to cause in them the appearance of certain
+professional characteristics which are entirely acquired and not
+congenital. In that way we may account for the gradual modification of the
+feminine secondary and tertiary sexual characters, and the appearance of
+masculine characters, such as the frequent deep voice, etc.[189] But with
+all due allowance for these acquired characters, it remains true that such
+comparative investigations as have so far been made, although
+inconclusive, seem to indicate that, even apart from the prevalence of
+acquired anomalies, the professional selection of their avocation tends to
+separate out from the general population of the same social class,
+individuals who possess anthropometrical characters varying in a definite
+direction. The observations thus made seem, in this way, to indicate that
+prostitutes tend to be in weight over the average, though not in stature,
+that in length of arm they are inferior though the hands are longer (this
+has been found alike in Italy and Russia); they have smaller ankles and
+larger calves, and still larger thighs in proportion to their large
+calves. The estimated skull capacity and the skull circumference and
+diameters are somewhat below the normal, not only when compared with
+respectable women but also with thieves; there is a tendency to
+brachycephaly (both in Italy and Russia); the cheek-bones are usually
+prominent and the jaws developed; the hair is darker than in respectable
+women though less so than in thieves; it is also unusually abundant, not
+only on the head but also on the pudenda and elsewhere; the eyes have been
+found to be decidedly darker than those of either respectable women or
+criminals.[190]
+
+So far as the evidence goes it serves to indicate that prostitutes tend to
+approximate to the type which, as was shown in the previous volume, there
+is reason to regard as specially indicative of developed sexuality. It is,
+however, unnecessary to discuss this question until our anthropometrical
+knowledge of prostitutes is more extended and precise.
+
+3. _The Moral Justification of Prostitution_.--There are and always have
+been moralists--many of them people whose opinions are deserving of the
+most serious respect--who consider that, allowing for the need of
+improved hygienic conditions, the existence of prostitution presents no
+serious problem for solution. It is, at most, they say, a necessary evil,
+and, at best, a beneficent institution, the bulwark of the home, the
+inevitable reverse of which monogamy is the obverse. "The immoral guardian
+of public morality," is the definition of prostitutes given by one writer,
+who takes the humble view of the matter, and another, taking the loftier
+ground, writes: "The prostitute fulfils a social mission. She is the
+guardian of virginal modesty, the channel to carry off adulterous desire,
+the protector of matrons who fear late maternity; it is her part to act as
+the shield of the family." "Female Decii," said Balzac in his _Physiologie
+du Mariage_ of prostitutes, "they sacrifice themselves for the republic
+and make of their bodies a rampart for the protection of respectable
+families." In the same way Schopenhauer called prostitutes "human
+sacrifices on the altar of monogamy." Lecky, again, in an oft-quoted
+passage of rhetoric,[191] may be said to combine both the higher and the
+lower view of the prostitute's mission in human society, to which he even
+seeks to give a hieratic character. "The supreme type of vice," he
+declared, "she is ultimately the most efficient guardian of virtue. But
+for her, the unchallenged purity of countless happy homes would be
+polluted, and not a few who, in the pride of their untempted chastity,
+think of her with an indignant shudder, would have known the agony of
+remorse and of despair. On that one degraded and ignoble form are
+concentrated the passions that might have filled the world with shame. She
+remains, while creeds and civilizations rise and fall, the eternal
+priestess of humanity, blasted for the sins of the people."[192]
+
+I am not aware that the Greeks were greatly concerned with the moral
+justification of prostitution. They had not allowed it to assume very
+offensive forms and for the most part they were content to accept it. The
+Romans usually accepted it, too, but, we gather, not quite so easily.
+There was an austerely serious, almost Puritanic, spirit in the Romans of
+the old stock and they seem sometimes to have felt the need to assure
+themselves that prostitution really was morally justifiable. It is
+significant to note that they were accustomed to remember that Cato was
+said to have expressed satisfaction on seeing a man emerge from a brothel,
+for otherwise he might have gone to lie with his neighbor's wife.[193]
+
+The social necessity of prostitution is the most ancient of all the
+arguments of moralists in favor of the toleration of prostitutes; and if
+we accept the eternal validity of the marriage system with which
+prostitution developed, and of the theoretical morality based on that
+system, this is an exceedingly forcible, if not an unanswerable, argument.
+
+The advent of Christianity, with its special attitude towards the "flesh,"
+necessarily caused an enormous increase of attention to the moral aspects
+of prostitution. When prostitution was not morally denounced, it became
+clearly necessary to morally justify it; it was impossible for a Church,
+whose ideals were more or less ascetic, to be benevolently indifferent in
+such a matter. As a rule we seem to find throughout that while the more
+independent and irresponsible divines take the side of denunciation, those
+theologians who have had thrust upon them the grave responsibilities of
+ecclesiastical statesmanship have rather tended towards the reluctant
+moral justification of prostitution. Of this we have an example of the
+first importance in St. Augustine, after St. Paul the chief builder of the
+Christian Church. In a treatise written in 386 to justify the Divine
+regulation of the world, we find him declaring that just as the
+executioner, however repulsive he may be, occupies a necessary place in
+society, so the prostitute and her like, however sordid and ugly and
+wicked they may be, are equally necessary; remove prostitutes from human
+affairs and you would pollute the world with lust: "Aufer meretrices de
+rebus humanis, turbaveris omnia libidinibus."[194] Aquinas, the only
+theological thinker of Christendom who can be named with Augustine, was of
+the same mind with him on this question of prostitution. He maintained the
+sinfulness of fornication but he accepted the necessity of prostitution as
+a beneficial part of the social structure, comparing it to the sewers
+which keep a palace pure.[195] "Prostitution in towns is like the sewer in
+a palace; take away the sewers and the palace becomes an impure and
+stinking place." Liguori, the most influential theologian of more modern
+times, was of the like opinion.
+
+This wavering and semi-indulgent attitude towards prostitution was indeed
+generally maintained by theologians. Some, following Augustine and
+Aquinas, would permit prostitution for the avoidance of greater evils;
+others were altogether opposed to it; others, again, would allow it in
+towns but nowhere else. It was, however, universally held by theologians
+that the prostitute has a right to her wages, and is not obliged to make
+restitution.[196] The earlier Christian moralists found no difficulty in
+maintaining that there is no sin in renting a house to a prostitute for
+the purposes of her trade; absolution was always granted for this and
+abstention not required.[197] Fornication, however, always remained a sin,
+and from the twelfth century onwards the Church made a series of organized
+attempts to reclaim prostitutes. All Catholic theologians hold that a
+prostitute is bound to confess the sin of prostitution, and most, though
+not all, theologians have believed that a man also must confess
+intercourse with a prostitute. At the same time, while there was a certain
+indulgence to the prostitute herself, the Church was always very severe on
+those who lived on the profits of promoting prostitution, on the
+_lenones_. Thus the Council of Elvira, which was ready to receive without
+penance the prostitute who married, refused reconciliation, even at death,
+to persons who had been guilty of _lenocinium_.[198]
+
+Protestantism, in this as in many other matters of sexual morality, having
+abandoned the confessional, was usually able to escape the necessity for
+any definite and responsible utterances concerning the moral status of
+prostitution. When it expressed any opinion, or sought to initiate any
+practical action, it naturally founded itself on the Biblical injunctions
+against fornication, as expressed by St. Paul, and showed no mercy for
+prostitutes and no toleration for prostitution. This attitude, which was
+that of the Puritans, was the more easy since in Protestant countries,
+with the exception of special districts at special periods--such as Geneva
+and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--theologians
+have in these matters been called upon to furnish religious exhortation
+rather than to carry out practical policies. The latter task they have
+left to others, and a certain confusion and uncertainty has thus often
+arisen in the lay Protestant mind. This attitude in a thoughtful and
+serious writer, is well illustrated in England by Burton, writing a
+century after the Reformation. He refers with mitigated approval to "our
+Pseudo-Catholics," who are severe with adultery but indulgent to
+fornication, being perhaps of Cato's mind that it should be encouraged to
+avoid worse mischiefs at home, and who holds brothels "as necessary as
+churches" and "have whole Colleges of Courtesans in their towns and
+cities." "They hold it impossible," he continues, "for idle persons,
+young, rich and lusty, so many servants, monks, friars, to live honest,
+too tyrannical a burden to compel them to be chaste, and most unfit to
+suffer poor men, younger brothers and soldiers at all to marry, as also
+diseased persons, votaries, priests, servants. Therefore as well to keep
+and ease the one as the other, they tolerate and wink at these kind of
+brothel-houses and stews. Many probable arguments they have to prove the
+lawfulness, the necessity, and a toleration of them, as of usery; and
+without question in policy they are not to be contradicted, but altogether
+in religion."[199]
+
+It was not until the beginning of the following century that the ancient
+argument of St. Augustine for the moral justification of prostitution was
+boldly and decisively stated in Protestant England, by Bernard Mandeville
+in his _Fable of the Bees_, and at its first promulgation it seemed so
+offensive to the public mind that the book was suppressed. "If courtesans
+and strumpets were to be prosecuted with as much rigor as some silly
+people would have it," Mandeville wrote, "what locks or bars would be
+sufficient to preserve the honor of our wives and daughters?... It is
+manifest that there is a necessity of sacrificing one part of womankind to
+preserve the other, and prevent a filthiness of a more heinous nature.
+From whence I think I may justly conclude that chastity may be supported
+by incontinence, and the best of virtues want the assistance of the worst
+of vices."[200] After Mandeville's time this view of prostitution began to
+become common in Protestant as well as in other countries, though it was
+not usually so clearly expressed.
+
+    It may be of interest to gather together a few more modern
+    examples of statements brought forward for the moral
+    justification of prostitution.
+
+    Thus in France Meusnier de Querlon, in his story of _Psaphion_,
+    written in the middle of the eighteenth century, puts into the
+    mouth of a Greek courtesan many interesting reflections
+    concerning the life and position of the prostitute. She defends
+    her profession with much skill, and argues that while men imagine
+    that prostitutes are merely the despised victims of their
+    pleasures, these would-be tyrants are really dupes who are
+    ministering to the needs of the women they trample beneath their
+    feet, and themselves equally deserve the contempt they bestow.
+    "We return disgust for disgust, as they must surely perceive. We
+    often abandon to them merely a statue, and while inflamed by
+    their own desires they consume themselves on insensible charms,
+    our tranquil coldness leisurely enjoys their sensibility. Then it
+    is we resume all our rights. A little hot blood has brought
+    these proud creatures to our feet, and rendered us mistresses of
+    their fate. On which side, I ask, is the advantage?" But all men,
+    she adds, are not so unjust towards the prostitute, and she
+    proceeds to pronounce a eulogy, not without a slight touch of
+    irony in it, of the utility, facility, and convenience of the
+    brothel.
+
+    A large number of the modern writers on prostitution insist on
+    its socially beneficial character. Thus Charles Richard concludes
+    his book on the subject with the words: "The conduct of society
+    with regard to prostitution must proceed from the principle of
+    gratitude without false shame for its utility, and compassion for
+    the poor creatures at whose expense this is attained" (_La
+    Prostitution devant le Philosophe_, 1882, p. 171). "To make
+    marriage permanent is to make it difficult," an American medical
+    writer observes; "to make it difficult is to defer it; to defer
+    it is to maintain in the community an increasing number of
+    sexually perfect individuals, with normal, or, in cases where
+    repression is prolonged, excessive sexual appetites. The social
+    evil is the natural outcome of the physical nature of man, his
+    inherited impulses, and the artificial conditions under which he
+    is compelled to live" ("The Social Evil," _Medicine_, August and
+    September, 1906). Woods Hutchinson, while speaking with strong
+    disapproval of prostitution and regarding prostitutes as "the
+    worst specimens of the sex," yet regards prostitution as a social
+    agency of the highest value. "From a medico-economic point of
+    view I venture to claim it as one of the grand selective and
+    eliminative agencies of nature, and of highest value to the
+    community. It may be roughly characterized as a safety valve for
+    the institution of marriage" (_The Gospel According to Darwin_,
+    p. 193; cf. the same author's article on "The Economics of
+    Prostitution," summarized in _Boston Medical and Surgical
+    Journal_, November 21, 1895). Adolf Gerson, in a somewhat similar
+    spirit, argues ("Die Ursache der Prostitution,"
+    _Sexual-Probleme_, September, 1908) that "prostitution is one of
+    the means used by Nature to limit the procreative activity of
+    men, and especially to postpone the period of sexual maturity."
+    Molinari considers that the social benefits of prostitution have
+    been manifested in various ways from the first; by sterilizing,
+    for instance, the more excessive manifestations of the sexual
+    impulse prostitution suppressed the necessity for the infanticide
+    of superfluous children, and led to the prohibition of that
+    primitive method of limiting the population (G. de Molinari, _La
+    Viriculture_, p. 45). In quite another way than that mentioned by
+    Molinari, prostitution has even in very recent times led to the
+    abandonment of infanticide. In the Chinese province of Ping-Yang,
+    Matignon states, it was usual not many years ago for poor parents
+    to kill forty per cent. of the girl children, or even all of
+    them, at birth, for they were too expensive to rear and brought
+    nothing in, since men who wished to marry could easily obtain a
+    wife in the neighboring province of Wenchu, where women were
+    very easy to obtain. Now, however, the line of steamships along
+    the coast makes it very easy for girls to reach the brothels of
+    Shang-Hai, where they can earn money for their families; the
+    custom of killing them has therefore died out (Matignon,
+    _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, 1896, p. 72). "Under
+    present conditions," writes Dr. F. Erhard ("Auch ein Wort zur
+    Ehereform," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I, Heft 9),
+    "prostitution (in the broadest sense, including free
+    relationships) is necessary in order that young men may, in some
+    degree, learn to know women, for conventional conversation cannot
+    suffice for this; an exact knowledge of feminine thought and
+    action is, however, necessary for a proper choice, since it is
+    seldom possible to rely on the certainty of instinct. It is good
+    also that men should wear off their horns before marriage, for
+    the polygamous tendency will break through somewhere.
+    Prostitution will only spoil those men in whom there is not much
+    to spoil, and if the desire for marriage is thus lost, the man's
+    unbegotten children may have cause to thank him." Neisser, Näcke,
+    and many others, have pleaded for prostitution, and even for
+    brothels, as "necessary evils."
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to add that many, among even the
+    strongest upholders of the moral advantages of prostitution,
+    believe that some improvement in method is still desirable. Thus
+    Bérault looks forward to a time when regulated brothels will
+    become less contemptible. Various improvements may, he thinks, in
+    the near future, "deprive them of the barbarous attributes which
+    mark them out for the opprobrium of the skeptical or ignorant
+    multitude, while their recognizable advantages will put an end to
+    the contempt aroused by their cynical aspect" (_La Maison de
+    Tolérance_, Thèse de Paris, 1904).
+
+4. _The Civilizational Value of Prostitution._--The moral argument for
+prostitution is based on the belief that our marriage system is so
+infinitely precious that an institution which serves as its buttress must
+be kept in existence, however ugly or otherwise objectionable it may in
+itself be. There is, however, another argument in support of prostitution
+which scarcely receives the emphasis it deserves. I refer to its influence
+in adding an element, in some form or another necessary, of gaiety and
+variety to the ordered complexity of modern life, a relief from the
+monotony of its mechanical routine, a distraction from its dull and
+respectable monotony. This is distinct from the more specific function of
+prostitution as an outlet for superfluous sexual energy, and may even
+affect those who have little or no commerce with prostitutes. This
+element may be said to constitute the civilizational value of
+prostitution.
+
+It is not merely the general conditions of civilization, but more
+specifically the conditions of urban life, which make this factor
+insistent. Urban life imposes by the stress of competition a very severe
+and exacting routine of dull work. At the same time it makes men and women
+more sensitive to new impressions, more enamored of excitement and change.
+It multiplies the opportunities of social intercourse; it decreases the
+chances of detection of illegitimate intercourse while at the same time it
+makes marriage more difficult, for, by heightening social ambitions and
+increasing the expenses of living, it postpones the time when a home can
+be created. Urban life delays marriage and yet renders the substitutes for
+marriage more imperative.[201]
+
+There cannot be the slightest doubt that it is this motive--the effort to
+supplement the imperfect opportunities for self-development offered by our
+restrained, mechanical, and laborious civilization--which plays one of the
+chief parts in inducing women to adopt, temporarily or permanently, a
+prostitute's life. We have seen that the economic factor is not, as was
+once supposed, by any means predominant in this choice. Nor, again, is
+there any reason to suppose that an over-mastering sexual impulse is a
+leading factor. But a large number of young women turn instinctively to a
+life of prostitution because they are moved by an obscure impulse which
+they can scarcely define to themselves or express, and are often ashamed
+to confess. It is, therefore, surprising that this motive should find so
+large a place even in the formal statistics of the factors of
+prostitution. Merrick, in London, found that 5000, or nearly a third, of
+the prostitutes he investigated, voluntarily gave up home or situation
+"for a life of pleasure," and he puts this at the head of the causes of
+prostitution.[202] In America Sanger found that "inclination" came almost
+at the head of the causes of prostitution, while Woods Hutchinson found
+"love of display, luxury and idleness" by far at the head. "Disgusted and
+wearied with work" is the reason assigned by a large number of Belgian
+girls when stating to the police their wish to be enrolled as prostitutes.
+In Italy a similar motive is estimated to play an important part. In
+Russia "desire for amusement" comes second among the causes of
+prostitution. There can, I think, be little doubt that, as a thoughtful
+student of London life has concluded, the problem of prostitution is "at
+bottom a mad and irresistible craving for excitement, a serious and wilful
+revolt against the monotony of commonplace ideals, and the uninspired
+drudgery of everyday life."[203] It is this factor of prostitution, we may
+reasonably conclude, which is mainly responsible for the fact, pointed out
+by F. Schiller,[204] that with the development of civilization the supply
+of prostitutes tends to outgrow the demand.
+
+    Charles Booth seems to be of the same opinion, and quotes (_Life
+    and Labor of the People_, Third Series, vol. vii, p. 364) from a
+    Rescue Committee Report: "The popular idea is, that these women
+    are eager to leave a life of sin. The plain and simple truth is
+    that, for the most part, they have no desire at all to be
+    rescued. So many of these women do not, and will not, regard
+    prostitution as a sin. 'I am taken out to dinner and to some
+    place of amusement every night; why should I give it up?'"
+    Merrick, who found that five per cent. of 14,000 prostitutes who
+    passed through Millbank Prison, were accustomed to combine
+    religious observance with the practice of their profession, also
+    remarks in regard to their feelings about morality: "I am
+    convinced that there are many poor men and women who do not in
+    the least understand what is implied in the term 'immorality.'
+    Out of courtesy to you, they may assent to what you say, but they
+    do not comprehend your meaning when you talk of virtue or purity;
+    you are simply talking over their heads" (Merrick, op. cit., p.
+    28). The same attitude may be found among prostitutes everywhere.
+    In Italy Ferriani mentions a girl of fifteen who, when accused of
+    indecency with a man in a public garden, denied with tears and
+    much indignation. He finally induced her to confess, and then
+    asked her: "Why did you try to make me believe you were a good
+    girl?" She hesitated, smiled, and said: "Because _they say_ girls
+    ought not to do what I do, but ought to work. But I am what I am,
+    and it is no concern of theirs." This attitude is often more than
+    an instinctive feeling; in intelligent prostitutes it frequently
+    becomes a reasoned conviction. "I can bear everything, if so it
+    must be," wrote the author of the _Tagebuch einer Verlorenen_ (p.
+    291), "even serious and honorable contempt, but I cannot bear
+    scorn. Contempt--yes, if it is justified. If a poor and pretty
+    girl with sick and bitter heart stands alone in life, cast off,
+    with temptations and seductions offering on every side, and, in
+    spite of that, out of inner conviction she chooses the grey and
+    monotonous path of renunciation and middle-class morality, I
+    recognize in that girl a personality, who has a certain
+    justification in looking down with contemptuous pity on weaker
+    girls. But those geese who, under the eyes of their shepherds and
+    life-long owners, have always been pastured in smooth green
+    fields, have certainly no right to laugh scornfully at others who
+    have not been so fortunate." Nor must it be supposed that there
+    is necessarily any sophistry in the prostitute's justification of
+    herself. Some of our best thinkers and observers have reached a
+    conclusion that is not dissimilar. "The actual conditions of
+    society are opposed to any high moral feeling in women," Marro
+    observes (_La Pubertà_, p. 462), "for between those who sell
+    themselves to prostitution and those who sell themselves to
+    marriage, the only difference is in price and duration of the
+    contract."
+
+We have already seen how very large a part in prostitution is furnished by
+those who have left domestic service to adopt this life (_ante_ p. 264).
+It is not difficult to find in this fact evidence of the kind of impulse
+which impels a woman to adopt the career of prostitution. "The servant, in
+our society of equality," wrote Goncourt, recalling somewhat earlier days
+when she was often admitted to a place in the family life, "has become
+nothing but a paid pariah, a machine for doing household work, and is no
+longer allowed to share the employer's human life."[205] And in England,
+even half a century ago, we already find the same statements concerning
+the servant's position: "domestic service is a complete slavery," with
+early hours and late hours, and constant running up and down stairs till
+her legs are swollen; "an amount of ingenuity appears too often to be
+exercised, worthy of a better cause, in obtaining the largest possible
+amount of labor out of the domestic machine"; in addition she is "a kind
+of lightning conductor," to receive the ill-temper and morbid feelings of
+her mistress and the young ladies; so that, as some have said, "I felt so
+miserable I did not care what became of me, I wished I was dead."[206] The
+servant is deprived of all human relationships; she must not betray the
+existence of any simple impulse, or natural need. At the same time she
+lives on the fringe of luxury; she is surrounded by the tantalizing
+visions of pleasure and amusement for which her fresh young nature
+craves.[207] It is not surprising that, repelled by unrelieved drudgery
+and attracted by idle luxury, she should take the plunge which will alone
+enable her to enjoy the glittering aspects of civilization which seem so
+desirable to her.[208]
+
+    It is sometimes stated that the prevalence of prostitution among
+    girls who were formerly servants is due to the immense numbers of
+    servants who are seduced by their masters or the young men of the
+    family, and are thus forced on to the streets. Undoubtedly in a
+    certain proportion of cases, perhaps sometimes a fairly
+    considerable proportion, this is a decisive factor in the matter,
+    but it scarcely seems to be the chief factor. The existence of
+    relationships between servants and masters, it must be
+    remembered, by no means necessarily implies seduction. In a
+    large number of cases the servant in a household is, in sexual
+    matters, the teacher rather than the pupil. (In "The Sexual
+    Impulse in Women," in the third volume of these _Studies_, I have
+    discussed the part played by servants as sexual initiators of the
+    young boys in the households in which they are placed.) The more
+    precise statistics of the causes of prostitution seldom assign
+    seduction as the main determining factor in more than about
+    twenty per cent. of cases, though this is obviously one of the
+    most easily avowable motives (see _ante_, p. 256). Seduction by
+    any kind of employer constitutes only a proportion (usually less
+    than half) even of these cases. The special case of seduction of
+    servants by masters can thus play no very considerable part as a
+    factor of prostitution.
+
+    The statistics of the parentage of illegitimate children have
+    some bearing on this question. In a series of 180 unmarried
+    mothers assisted by the Berlin Bund für Mutterschutz, particulars
+    are given of the occupations both of the mothers, and, as far as
+    possible, of the fathers. The former were one-third
+    servant-girls, and the great majority of the remainder assistants
+    in trades or girls carrying on work at home. At the head of the
+    fathers (among 120 cases) came artisans (33), followed by
+    tradespeople (22); only a small proportion (20 to 25) could be
+    described as "gentlemen," and even this proportion loses some of
+    its significance when it is pointed out that some of the girls
+    were also of the middle-class; in nineteen cases the fathers were
+    married men (_Mutterschutz_, January, 1907, p. 45).
+
+    Most authorities in most countries are of opinion that girls who
+    eventually (usually between the ages of fifteen and twenty)
+    become prostitutes have lost their virginity at an early age, and
+    in the great majority of cases through men of their own class.
+    "The girl of the people falls by the people," stated Reuss in
+    France (_La Prostitution_, p. 41). "It is her like, workers like
+    herself, who have the first fruits of her beauty and virginity.
+    The man of the world who covers her with gold and jewels only has
+    their leavings." Martineau, again (_De la Prostitution
+    Clandestine_, 1885), showed that prostitutes are usually
+    deflowered by men of their own class. And Jeannel, in Bordeaux,
+    found reason for believing that it is not chiefly their masters
+    who lead servants astray; they often go into service because they
+    have been seduced in the country, while lazy, greedy, and
+    unintelligent girls are sent from the country into the town to
+    service. In Edinburgh, W. Tait (_Magdalenism_, 1842) found that
+    soldiers more than any other class in the community are the
+    seducers of women, the Highlanders being especially notorious in
+    this respect. Soldiers have this reputation everywhere, and in
+    Germany especially it is constantly found that the presence of
+    the soldiery in a country district, as at the annual manoeuvres,
+    is the cause of unchastity and illegitimate births; it is so also
+    in Austria, where, long ago, Gross-Hoffinger stated that
+    soldiers were responsible for at least a third of all
+    illegitimate births, a share out of all proportion to their
+    numbers. In Italy, Marro, investigating the occasion of the loss
+    of virginity in twenty-two prostitutes, found that ten gave
+    themselves more or less spontaneously to lovers or masters, ten
+    yielded in the expectation of marriage, and two were outraged
+    (_La Pubertà_, p. 461). The loss of virginity, Marro adds, though
+    it may not be the direct cause of prostitution, often leads on to
+    it. "When a door has once been broken in," a prostitute said to
+    him, "it is difficult to keep it closed." In Sardinia, as A.
+    Mantegazza and Ciuffo found, prostitutes are very largely
+    servants from the country who have already been deflowered by men
+    of their own class.
+
+This civilizational factor of prostitution, the influence of luxury and
+excitement and refinement in attracting the girl of the people, as the
+flame attracts the moth, is indicated by the fact that it is the
+country-dwellers who chiefly succumb to the fascination. The girls whose
+adolescent explosive and orgiastic impulses, sometimes increased by a
+slight congenital lack of nervous balance, have been latent in the dull
+monotony of country life and heightened by the spectacle of luxury acting
+on the unrelieved drudgery of town life, find at last their complete
+gratification in the career of a prostitute. To the town girl, born and
+bred in the town, this career has not usually much attraction, unless she
+has been brought up from the first in an environment that predisposes her
+to adopt it. She is familiar from childhood with the excitements of urban
+civilization and they do not intoxicate her; she is, moreover, more shrewd
+to take care of herself than the country girl, and too well acquainted
+with the real facts of the prostitute's life to be very anxious to adopt
+her career. Beyond this, also, it is probable that the stocks she belongs
+to possess a native or acquired power of resistance to unbalancing
+influences which has enabled them to survive in urban life. She has become
+immune to the poisons of that life.[209]
+
+    In all great cities a large proportion, if not the majority, of
+    the inhabitants have usually been born outside the city (in
+    London only about fifty per cent. of heads of households are
+    definitely reported as born in London); and it is not therefore
+    surprising that prostitutes also should often be outsiders. Still
+    it remains a significant fact that so typically urban a
+    phenomenon as prostitution should be so largely recruited from
+    the country. This is everywhere the case. Merrick enumerates the
+    regions from which came some 14,000 prostitutes who passed
+    through Millbank Prison. Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Devon
+    are the counties that stand at the head, and Merrick estimates
+    that the contingent of London from the four counties which make
+    up London was 7000, or one-half of the whole; military towns like
+    Colchester and naval ports like Plymouth supply many prostitutes
+    to London; Ireland furnished many more than Scotland, and Germany
+    far more than any other European country, France being scarcely
+    represented at all (Merrick, _Work Among the Fallen_, 1890, pp.
+    14-18). It is, of course, possible that the proportions among
+    those who pass through a prison do not accurately represent the
+    proportions among prostitutes generally. The registers of the
+    London Salvation Army Rescue Home show that sixty per cent. of
+    the girls and women come from the provinces (A. Sherwell, _Life
+    in West London_, Ch. V). This is exactly the same proportion as
+    Tait found among prostitutes generally, half a century earlier,
+    in Edinburgh. Sanger found that of 2000 prostitutes in New York
+    as many as 1238 were born abroad (706 in Ireland), while of the
+    remaining 762 only half were born in the State of New York, and
+    clearly (though the exact figures are not given) a still smaller
+    proportion in New York City. Prostitutes come from the
+    North--where the climate is uncongenial, and manufacturing and
+    sedentary occupations prevail--much more than from the South;
+    thus Maine, a cold bleak maritime State, sent twenty-four of
+    these prostitutes to New York, while equidistant Virginia, which
+    at the same rate should have sent seventy-two, only sent nine;
+    there was a similar difference between Rhode Island and Maryland
+    (Sanger, _History of Prostitution_, p. 452). It is instructive to
+    see here the influence of a dreary climate and monotonous labor
+    in stimulating the appetite for a "life of pleasure." In France,
+    as shown by a map in Parent-Duchâtelet's work (vol. i, pp. 37-64,
+    1857), if the country is divided into five zones, on the whole
+    running east and west, there is a steady and progressive decrease
+    in the number of prostitutes each zone sends to Paris, as we
+    descend southwards. Little more than a third seem to belong to
+    Paris, and, as in America, it is the serious and hard-working
+    North, with its relatively cold climate, which furnishes the
+    largest contingent; even in old France, Dufour remarks (_op.
+    cit._, vol. iv, Ch. XV), prostitution, as the _fabliaux_ and
+    _romans_ show, was less infamous in the _langue d'oil_ than in
+    the _langue d'oc_, so that they were doubtless rare in the
+    South. At a later period Reuss states (_La Prostitution_, p. 12)
+    that "nearly all the prostitutes of Paris come from the
+    provinces." Jeannel found that of one thousand Bordeaux
+    prostitutes only forty-six belonged to the city itself, and
+    Potton (Appendix to Parent-Duchâtelet, vol. ii, p. 446) states
+    that of nearly four thousand Lyons prostitutes only 376 belonged
+    to Lyons. In Vienna, in 1873, Schrank remarks that of over 1500
+    prostitutes only 615 were born in Vienna. The general rule, it
+    will be seen, though the variations are wide, is that little more
+    than a third of a city's prostitutes are children of the city.
+
+    It is interesting to note that this tendency of the prostitute to
+    reach cities from afar, this migratory tendency--which they
+    nowadays share with waiters--is no merely modern phenomenon.
+    "There are few cities in Lombardy, or France, or Gaul," wrote St.
+    Boniface nearly twelve centuries ago, "in which there is not an
+    adulteress or prostitute of the English nation," and the Saint
+    attributes this to the custom of going on pilgrimage to foreign
+    shrines. At the present time there is no marked English element
+    among Continental prostitutes. Thus in Paris, according to Reuss
+    (_La Prostitution_, p. 12), the foreign prostitutes in decreasing
+    order are Belgian, German (Alsace-Lorraine), Swiss (especially
+    Geneva), Italian, Spanish, and only then English. Connoisseurs in
+    this matter say, indeed, that the English prostitute, as compared
+    with her Continental (and especially French) sister, fails to
+    show to advantage, being usually grasping as regards money and
+    deficient in charm.
+
+It is the appeal of civilization, though not of what is finest and best in
+civilization, which more than any other motive, calls women to the career
+of a prostitute. It is now necessary to point out that for the man also,
+the same appeal makes itself felt in the person of the prostitute. The
+common and ignorant assumption that prostitution exists to satisfy the
+gross sensuality of the young unmarried man, and that if he is taught to
+bridle gross sexual impulse or induced to marry early the prostitute must
+be idle, is altogether incorrect. If all men married when quite young, not
+only would the remedy be worse than the disease--a point which it would be
+out of place to discuss here--but the remedy would not cure the disease.
+The prostitute is something more than a channel to drain off superfluous
+sexual energy, and her attraction by no means ceases when men are married,
+for a large number of the men who visit prostitutes, if not the majority,
+are married. And alike whether they are married or unmarried the motive
+is not one of uncomplicated lust.
+
+    In England, a well-informed writer remarks that "the value of
+    marriage as a moral agent is evidenced by the fact that all the
+    better-class prostitutes in London are almost entirely supported
+    by married men," while in Germany, as stated in the interesting
+    series of reminiscences by a former prostitute, Hedwig Hard's
+    _Beichte einer Gefallenen_, (p. 208), the majority of the men who
+    visit prostitutes are married. The estimate is probably
+    excessive. Neisser states that only twenty-five per cent. of
+    cases of gonorrhoea occur in married men. This indication is
+    probably misleading in the opposite direction, as the married
+    would be less reckless than the young and unmarried. As regards
+    the motives which lead married men to prostitutes, Hedwig Hard
+    narrates from her own experiences an incident which is
+    instructive and no doubt typical. In the town in which she lived
+    quietly as a prostitute a man of the best social class was
+    introduced by a friend, and visited her habitually. She had often
+    seen and admired his wife, who was one of the beauties of the
+    place, and had two charming children; husband and wife seemed
+    devoted to each other, and every one envied their happiness. He
+    was a man of intellect and culture who encouraged Hedwig's love
+    of books; she became greatly attached to him, and one day
+    ventured to ask him how he could leave his lovely and charming
+    wife to come to one who was not worthy to tie her shoe-lace.
+    "Yes, my child," he answered, "but all her beauty and culture
+    brings nothing to my heart. She is cold, cold as ice, proper,
+    and, above all, phlegmatic. Pampered and spoilt, she lives only
+    for herself; we are two good comrades, and nothing more. If, for
+    instance, I come back from the club in the evening and go to her
+    bed, perhaps a little excited, she becomes nervous and she thinks
+    it improper to wake her. If I kiss her she defends herself, and
+    tells me that I smell horribly of cigars and wine. And if perhaps
+    I attempt more, she jumps out of bed, bristles up as though I
+    were assaulting her, and threatens to throw herself out of the
+    window if I touch her. So, for the sake of peace, I leave her
+    alone and come to you." There can be no doubt whatever that this
+    is the experience of many married men who would be well content
+    to find the sweetheart as well as the friend in their wives. But
+    the wives, from a variety of causes, have proved incapable of
+    becoming the sexual mates of their husbands. And the husbands,
+    without being carried away by any impulse of strong passion or
+    any desire for infidelity, seek abroad what they cannot find at
+    home.
+
+    This is not the only reason why married men visit prostitutes.
+    Even men who are happily married to women in all chief respects
+    fitted to them, are apt to find, after some years of married
+    life, a mysterious craving for variety. They are not tired of
+    their wives, they have not the least wish or intention to abandon
+    them, they will not, if they can help it, give them the slightest
+    pain. But from time to time they are led by an almost
+    irresistible and involuntary impulse to seek a temporary intimacy
+    with women to whom nothing would persuade them to join themselves
+    permanently. Pepys, whose _Diary_, in addition to its other
+    claims upon us, is a psychological document of unique importance,
+    furnishes a very characteristic example of this kind of impulse.
+    He had married a young and charming wife, to whom he is greatly
+    attached, and he lives happily with her, save for a few
+    occasional domestic quarrels soon healed by kisses; his love is
+    witnessed by his jealousy, a jealousy which, as he admits, is
+    quite unreasonable, for she is a faithful and devoted wife. Yet a
+    few years after marriage, and in the midst of a life of strenuous
+    official activity, Pepys cannot resist the temptation to seek the
+    temporary favors of other women, seldom prostitutes, but nearly
+    always women of low social class--shop women, workmen's wives,
+    superior servant-girls. Often he is content to invite them to a
+    quiet ale-house, and to take a few trivial liberties. Sometimes
+    they absolutely refuse to allow more than this; when that happens
+    he frequently thanks Almighty God (as he makes his entry in his
+    _Diary_ at night) that he has been saved from temptation and from
+    loss of time and money; in any case, he is apt to vow that it
+    shall never occur again. It always does occur again. Pepys is
+    quite sincere with himself; he makes no attempt at justification
+    or excuse; he knows that he has yielded to a temptation; it is an
+    impulse that comes over him at intervals, an impulse that he
+    seems unable long to resist. Throughout it all he remains an
+    estimable and diligent official, and in most respects a tolerably
+    virtuous man, with a genuine dislike of loose people and loose
+    talk. The attitude of Pepys is brought out with incomparable
+    simplicity and sincerity because he is setting down these things
+    for his own eyes only, but his case is substantially that of a
+    vast number of other men, perhaps indeed of the typical _homme
+    moyen sensuel_ (see Pepys, _Diary_, ed. Wheatley; e.g., vol. iv,
+    passim).
+
+    There is a third class of married men, less considerable in
+    number but not unimportant, who are impelled to visit
+    prostitutes: the class of sexually perverted men. There are a
+    great many reasons why such men may desire to be married, and in
+    some cases they marry women with whom they find it possible to
+    obtain the particular form of sexual gratification they crave.
+    But in a large proportion of cases this is not possible. The
+    conventionally bred woman often cannot bring herself to humor
+    even some quite innocent fetishistic whim of her husband's, for
+    it is too alien to her feelings and too incomprehensible to her
+    ideas, even though she may be genuinely in love with him; in many
+    cases the husband would not venture to ask, and scarcely even
+    wish, that his wife should lend herself to play the fantastic or
+    possibly degrading part his desires demand. In such a case he
+    turns naturally to the prostitute, the only woman whose business
+    it is to fulfil his peculiar needs. Marriage has brought no
+    relief to these men, and they constitute a noteworthy proportion
+    of a prostitute's clients in every great city. The most ordinary
+    prostitute of any experience can supply cases from among her own
+    visitors to illustrate a treatise of psychopathic sexuality. It
+    may suffice here to quote a passage from the confessions of a
+    young London (Strand) prostitute as written down from her lips by
+    a friend to whom I am indebted for the document; I have merely
+    turned a few colloquial terms into more technical forms. After
+    describing how, when she was still a child of thirteen in the
+    country, a rich old gentleman would frequently come and exhibit
+    himself before her and other girls, and was eventually arrested
+    and imprisoned, she spoke of the perversities she had met with
+    since she had become a prostitute. She knew a young man, about
+    twenty-five, generally dressed in a sporting style, who always
+    came with a pair of live pigeons, which he brought in a basket.
+    She and the girl with whom she lived had to undress and take the
+    pigeons and wring their necks; he would stand in front of them,
+    and as the necks were wrung orgasm occurred. Once a man met her
+    in the street and asked her if he might come with her and lick
+    her boots. She agreed, and he took her to a hotel, paid half a
+    guinea for a room, and, when she sat down, got under the table
+    and licked her boots, which were covered with mud; he did nothing
+    more. Then there were some things, she said, that were too dirty
+    to repeat; well, one man came home with her and her friend and
+    made them urinate into his mouth. She also had stories of
+    flagellation, generally of men who whipped the girls, more rarely
+    of men who liked to be whipped by them. One man, who brought a
+    new birch every time, liked to whip her friend until he drew
+    blood. She knew another man who would do nothing but smack her
+    nates violently. Now all these things, which come into the
+    ordinary day's work of the prostitute, are rooted in deep and
+    almost irresistible impulses (as will be clear to any reader of
+    the discussion of Erotic Symbolism in the previous volume of
+    these _Studies_). They must find some outlet. But it is only the
+    prostitute who can be relied upon, through her interests and
+    training, to overcome the natural repulsion to such actions, and
+    gratify desires which, without gratification, might take on other
+    and more dangerous forms.
+
+Although Woods Hutchinson quotes with approval the declaration of a
+friend, "Out of thousands I have never seen one with good table manners,"
+there is still a real sense in which the prostitute represents, however
+inadequately, the attraction of civilization. "There was no house in
+which I could habitually see a lady's face and hear a lady's voice," wrote
+the novelist Anthony Trollope in his _Autobiography_, concerning his early
+life in London. "No allurement to decent respectability came in my way. It
+seems to me that in such circumstances the temptations of loose life will
+almost certainly prevail with a young man. The temptation at any rate
+prevailed with me." In every great city, it has been said, there are
+thousands of men who have no right to call any woman but a barmaid by her
+Christian name.[210] All the brilliant fever of civilization pulses round
+them in the streets but their lips never touch it. It is the prostitute
+who incarnates this fascination of the city, far better than the virginal
+woman, even if intimacy with her were within reach. The prostitute
+represents it because she herself feels it, because she has even
+sacrificed her woman's honor in the effort to identify herself with it.
+She has unbridled feminine instincts, she is a mistress of the feminine
+arts of adornment, she can speak to him concerning the mysteries of
+womanhood and the luxuries of sex with an immediate freedom and knowledge
+the innocent maiden cloistered in her home would be incapable of. She
+appeals to him by no means only because she can gratify the lower desires
+of sex, but also because she is, in her way, an artist, an expert in the
+art of feminine exploitation, a leader of feminine fashions. For she is
+this, and there are, as Simmel has stated in his _Philosophie der Mode_,
+good psychological reasons why she always should be this. Her uncertain
+social position makes all that is conventional and established hateful to
+her, while her temperament makes perpetual novelty delightful. In new
+fashions she finds "an æsthetic form of that instinct of destruction which
+seems peculiar to all pariah existences, in so far as they are not
+completely enslaved in spirit."
+
+    "However surprising it may seem to some," a modern writer
+    remarks, "prostitutes must be put on the same level as artists.
+    Both use their gifts and talents for the joy and pleasure of
+    others, and, as a rule, for payment. What is the essential
+    difference between a singer who gives pleasure to hearers by her
+    throat and a prostitute who gives pleasure to those who seek her
+    by another part of her body? All art works on the senses." He
+    refers to the significant fact that actors, and especially
+    actresses, were formerly regarded much as prostitutes are now (R.
+    Hellmann, _Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit_, pp. 245-252).
+
+    Bernaldo de Quirós and Llanas Aguilaniedo (_La Mala Vida en
+    Madrid_, p. 242) trace the same influence still lower in the
+    social scale. They are describing the more squalid kind of _café
+    chantant_, in which, in Spain and elsewhere, the most vicious and
+    degenerate feminine creatures become waitresses (and occasionally
+    singers and dancers), playing the part of amiable and
+    distinguished _hetairæ_ to the public of carmen and shop-boys who
+    frequent these resorts. "Dressed with what seems to the youth
+    irreproachable taste, with hair elaborately prepared, and clean
+    face adorned with flowers or trinkets, affable and at times
+    haughty, superior in charm and in finery to the other women he is
+    able to know, the waitresses become the most elevated example of
+    the _femme galante_ whom he is able to contemplate and talk to,
+    the courtesan of his sphere."
+
+But while to the simple, ignorant, and hungry youth the prostitute appeals
+as the embodiment of many of the refinements and perversities of
+civilization, on many more complex and civilized men she exerts an
+attraction of an almost reverse kind. She appeals by her fresh and natural
+coarseness, her frank familiarity with the crudest facts of life; and so
+lifts them for a moment out of the withering atmosphere of artificial
+thought and unreal sentiment in which so many civilized persons are
+compelled to spend the greater part of their lives. They feel in the words
+which the royal friend of a woman of this temperament is said to have used
+in explaining her incomprehensible influence over him: "She is so
+splendidly vulgar!"
+
+    In illustration of this aspect of the appeal of prostitution, I
+    may quote a passage in which the novelist, Hermant, in his
+    _Confession d'un Enfant d'Hier_ (Lettre VII), has set down the
+    reasons which may lead the super-refined child of a cultured age,
+    yet by no means radically or completely vicious, to find
+    satisfaction in commerce with prostitutes: "As long as my heart
+    was not touched the object of my satisfaction was completely
+    indifferent to me. I was, moreover, a great lover of absolute
+    liberty, which is only possible in the circle of these anonymous
+    creatures and in their reserved dwelling. There everything became
+    permissible. With other women, however low we may seek them,
+    certain convenances must be observed, a kind of protocol. To
+    these one can say everything: one is protected by incognito and
+    assured that nothing will be divulged. I profited by this
+    freedom, which suited my age, but with a perverse fancy which was
+    not characteristic of my years. I scarcely know where I found
+    what I said to them, for it was the opposite of my tastes, which
+    were simple, and, if I may venture to say so, classic. It is true
+    that, in matters of love, unrestrained naturalism always tends to
+    perversion, a fact that can only seem paradoxical at first sight.
+    Primitive peoples have many traits in common with degenerates. It
+    was, however, only in words that I was unbridled; and that was
+    the only occasion on which I can recollect seriously lying. But
+    that necessity, which I then experienced, of expelling a lower
+    depth of ignoble instincts, seems to me characteristic and
+    humiliating. I may add that even in the midst of these
+    dissipations I retained a certain reserve. The contacts to which
+    I exposed myself failed to soil me; nothing was left when I had
+    crossed the threshold. I have always retained, from that forcible
+    and indifferent commerce, the habit of attributing no consequence
+    to the action of the flesh. The amorous function, which religion
+    and morality have surrounded with mystery or seasoned with sin,
+    seems to me a function like any other, a little vile, but
+    agreeable, and one to which the usual epilogue is too long....
+    This kind of companionship only lasted for a short time." This
+    analysis of the attitude of a certain common type of civilized
+    modern man seems to be just, but it may perhaps occur to some
+    readers that a commerce which led to "the action of the flesh"
+    being regarded as of no consequence can scarcely be said to have
+    left no taint.
+
+    In a somewhat similar manner, Henri de Régnier, in his novel,
+    _Les Rencontres de Monsieur Bréot_ (p. 50), represents Bercaillé
+    as deliberately preferring to take his pleasures with
+    servant-girls rather than with ladies, for pleasure was, to his
+    mind, a kind of service, which could well be accommodated with
+    the services they are accustomed to give; and then they are
+    robust and agreeable, they possess the _naïveté_ which is always
+    charming in the common people, and they are not apt to be
+    repelled by those little accidents which might offend the
+    fastidious sensibilities of delicately bred ladies.
+
+    Bloch, who has especially emphasized this side of the appeal of
+    prostitution (_Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, pp. 359-362),
+    refers to the delicate and sensitive young Danish writer, J.P.
+    Jakobsen, who seems to have acutely felt the contrast between the
+    higher and more habitual impulses, and the occasional outburst of
+    what he felt to be lower instincts; in his _Niels Lyhne_ he
+    describes the kind of double life in which a man is true for a
+    fortnight to the god he worships, and is then overcome by other
+    powers which madly bear him in their grip towards what he feels
+    to be humiliating, perverse, and filthy. "At such moments," Bloch
+    remarks, "the man is another being. The 'two souls' in the breast
+    become a reality. Is that the famous scholar, the lofty idealist,
+    the fine-souled æsthetician, the artist who has given us so many
+    splendid and pure works in poetry and painting? We no longer
+    recognize him, for at such moments another being has come to the
+    surface, another nature is moving within him, and with the power
+    of an elementary force is impelling him towards things at which
+    his 'upper consciousness,' the civilized man within him, would
+    shudder." Bloch believes that we are here concerned with a kind
+    of normal masculine masochism, which prostitution serves to
+    gratify.
+
+
+_IV. The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution._
+
+We have now surveyed the complex fact of prostitution in some of its most
+various and typical aspects, seeking to realise, intelligently and
+sympathetically, the fundamental part it plays as an elementary
+constituent of our marriage system. Finally we have to consider the
+grounds on which prostitution now appears to a large and growing number of
+persons not only an unsatisfactory method of sexual gratification but a
+radically bad method.
+
+The movement of antagonism towards prostitution manifests itself most
+conspicuously, as might beforehand have been anticipated, by a feeling of
+repugnance towards the most ancient and typical, once the most credited
+and best established prostitutional manifestation, the brothel. The growth
+of this repugnance is not confined to one or two countries but is
+international, and may thus be regarded as corresponding to a real
+tendency in our civilization. It is equally pronounced in prostitutes
+themselves and in the people who are their clients. The distaste on the
+one side increases the distaste on the other. Since only the most helpless
+or the most stupid prostitutes are nowadays willing to accept the
+servitude of the brothel, the brothel-keeper is forced to resort to
+extraordinary methods for entrapping victims, and even to take part in
+that cosmopolitan trade in "white slaves" which exists solely to feed
+brothels.[211] This state of things has a natural reaction in prejudicing
+the clients of prostitution against an institution which is going out of
+fashion and out of credit. An even more fundamental antipathy is
+engendered by the fact that the brothel fails to respond to the high
+degree of personal freedom and variety which civilization produces, and
+always demands even when it fails to produce. On one side the prostitute
+is disinclined to enter into a slavery which usually fails even to bring
+her any reward; on the other side her client feels it as part of the
+fascination of prostitution under civilized conditions that he shall enjoy
+a freedom and choice the brothel cannot provide.[212] Thus it comes about
+that brothels which once contained nearly all the women who made it a
+business to minister to the sexual needs of men, now contain only a
+decreasing minority, and that the transformation of cloistered
+prostitution into free prostitution is approved by many social reformers
+as a gain to the cause of morality.[213]
+
+The decay of brothels, whether as cause or as effect, has been associated
+with a vast increase of prostitution outside brothels. But the repugnance
+to brothels in many essential respects also applies to prostitution
+generally, and, as we shall see, it is exerting a profoundly modifying
+influence on that prostitution.
+
+The changing feeling in regard to prostitution seems to express itself
+mainly in two ways. On the one hand there are those who, without desiring
+to abolish prostitution, resent the abnegation which accompanies it, and
+are disgusted by its sordid aspects. They may have no moral scruples
+against prostitution, and they know no reason why a woman should not
+freely do as she will with her own person. But they believe that, if
+prostitution is necessary, the relationships of men with prostitutes
+should be humane and agreeable to each party, and not degrading to either.
+It must be remembered that under the conditions of civilized urban life,
+the discipline of work is often too severe, and the excitements of urban
+existence too constant, to render an abandonment to orgy a desirable
+recreation. The gross form of orgy appeals, not to the town-dweller but to
+the peasant, and to the sailor or soldier who reaches the town after long
+periods of dreary routine and emotional abstinence. It is a mistake, even,
+to suppose that the attraction of prostitution is inevitably associated
+with the fulfilment of the sexual act. So far is this from being the case
+that the most attractive prostitute may be a woman who, possessing few
+sexual needs of her own, desires to please by the charm of her
+personality; these are among those who most often find good husbands.
+There are many men who are even well content merely to have a few hours'
+free intimacy with an agreeable woman, without any further favor, although
+that may be open to them. For a very large number of men under urban
+conditions of existence the prostitute is ceasing to be the degraded
+instrument of a moment's lustful desire; they seek an agreeable human
+person with whom they may find relaxation from the daily stress or routine
+of life. When an act of prostitution is thus put on a humane basis,
+although it by no means thereby becomes conducive to the best development
+of either party, it at least ceases to be hopelessly degrading. Otherwise
+it would not have been possible for religious prostitution to flourish for
+so long in ancient days among honorable women of good birth on the shores
+of the Mediterranean, even in regions like Lydia, where the position of
+women was peculiarly high.[214]
+
+It is true that the monetary side of prostitution would still exist. But
+it is possible to exaggerate its importance. It must be pointed out that,
+though it is usual to speak of the prostitute as a woman who "sells
+herself," this is rather a crude and inexact way of expressing, in its
+typical form, the relationship of a prostitute to her client. A prostitute
+is not a commodity with a market-price, like a loaf or a leg of mutton.
+She is much more on a level with people belonging to the professional
+classes, who accept fees in return for services rendered; the amount of
+the fee varies, on the one hand in accordance with professional standing,
+on the other hand in accordance with the client's means, and under special
+circumstances may be graciously dispensed with altogether. Prostitution
+places on a venal basis intimate relationships which ought to spring up
+from natural love, and in so doing degrades them. But strictly speaking
+there is in such a case no "sale." To speak of a prostitute "selling
+herself" is scarcely even a pardonable rhetorical exaggeration; it is both
+inexact and unjust.[215]
+
+    This tendency in an advanced civilization towards the
+    humanization of prostitution is the reverse process, we may note,
+    to that which takes place at an earlier stage of civilization
+    when the ancient conception of the religious dignity of
+    prostitution begins to fall into disrepute. When men cease to
+    reverence women who are prostitutes in the service of a goddess
+    they set up in their place prostitutes who are merely abject
+    slaves, flattering themselves that they are thereby working in
+    the cause of "progress" and "morality." On the shores of the
+    Mediterranean this process took place more than two thousand
+    years ago, and is associated with the name of Solon. To-day we
+    may see the same process going on in India. In some parts of
+    India (as at Jejuri, near Poonah) first born girls are dedicated
+    to Khandoba or other gods; they are married to the god and termed
+    _muralis_. They serve in the temple, sweep it, and wash the holy
+    vessels, also they dance, sing and prostitute themselves. They
+    are forbidden to marry, and they live in the homes of their
+    parents, brothers, or sisters; being consecrated to religious
+    service, they are untouched by degradation. Nowadays, however,
+    Indian "reformers," in the name of "civilization and science,"
+    seek to persuade the _muralis_ that they are "plunged in a career
+    of degradation." No doubt in time the would-be moralists will
+    drive the _muralis_ out of their temples and their homes, deprive
+    them of all self-respect, and convert them into wretched
+    outcasts, all in the cause of "science and civilization" (see,
+    e.g., an article by Mrs. Kashibai Deodhar, _The New Reformer_,
+    October, 1907). So it is that early reformers create for the
+    reformers of a later day the task of humanizing prostitution
+    afresh.
+
+    There can be no doubt that this more humane conception of
+    prostitution is to-day beginning to be realized in the actual
+    civilized life of Europe. Thus in writing of prostitution in
+    Paris, Dr. Robert Michels ("Erotische Streifzüge,"
+    _Mutterschutz_, 1906, Heft 9, p. 368) remarks: "While in Germany
+    the prostitute is generally considered as an 'outcast' creature,
+    and treated accordingly, an instrument of masculine lust to be
+    used and thrown away, and whom one would under no circumstances
+    recognize in public, in France the prostitute plays in many
+    respects the part which once give significance and fame to the
+    _hetairæ_ of Athens." And after describing the consideration and
+    respect which the Parisian prostitute is often able to require of
+    her friends, and the non-sexual relation of comradeship which she
+    can enter into with other men, the writer continues: "A girl who
+    certainly yields herself for money, but by no means for the first
+    comer's money, and who, in addition to her 'business friends,'
+    feels the need of, so to say, non-sexual companions with whom she
+    can associate in a free comrade-like way, and by whom she is
+    treated and valued as a free human being, is not wholly lost for
+    the moral worth of humanity." All prostitution is bad, Michels
+    concludes, but we should have reason to congratulate ourselves if
+    love-relationships of this Parisian species represented the
+    lowest known form of extra-conjugal sexuality. (As bearing on the
+    relative consideration accorded to prostitutes I may mention that
+    a Paris prostitute remarked to a friend of mine that Englishmen
+    would ask her questions which no Frenchman would venture to ask.)
+
+    It is not, however, only in Paris, although here more markedly
+    and prominently, that this humanizing change in prostitution is
+    beginning to make itself felt. It is manifested, for instance, in
+    the greater openness of a man's sexual life. "While he formerly
+    slinked into a brothel in a remote street," Dr. Willy Hellpach
+    remarks (_Nervosität und Kultur_, p. 169), "he now walks abroad
+    with his 'liaison,' visiting the theatres and cafés, without
+    indeed any anxiety to meet his acquaintances, but with no
+    embarrassment on that point. The thing is becoming more
+    commonplace, more--natural." It is also, Hellpach proceeds to
+    point out, thus becoming more moral also, and much unwholesome
+    prudery and pruriency is being done away with.
+
+    In England, where change is slow, this tendency to the
+    humanization of prostitution may be less pronounced. But it
+    certainly exists. In the middle of the last century Lecky wrote
+    (_History of European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 285) that habitual
+    prostitution "is in no other European country so hopelessly
+    vicious or so irrevocable." That statement, which was also made
+    by Parent-Duchâtelet and other foreign observers, is fully
+    confirmed by the evidence on record. But it is a statement which
+    would hardly be made to-day, except perhaps, in reference to
+    special confined areas of our cities. It is the same in America,
+    and we may doubtless find this tendency reflected in the report
+    on _The Social Evil_ (1902), drawn up by a committee in New York,
+    who gave it (p. 176) as one of their chief recommendations that
+    prostitution should no longer be regarded as a crime, in which
+    light, one gathers, it had formerly been regarded in New York.
+    That may seem but a small step in the path of humanization, but
+    it is in the right direction.
+
+    It is by no means only in lands of European civilization that we
+    may trace with developing culture the refinement and humanization
+    of the slighter bonds of relationship with women. In Japan
+    exactly the same demands led, several centuries ago, to the
+    appearance of the geisha. In the course of an interesting and
+    precise study of the geisha Mr. R.T. Farrer remarks (_Nineteenth
+    Century_, April, 1904): "The geisha is in no sense necessarily a
+    courtesan. She is a woman educated to attract; perfected from her
+    childhood in all the intricacies of Japanese literature;
+    practiced in wit and repartee; inured to the rapid give-and-take
+    of conversation on every topic, human and divine. From her
+    earliest youth she is broken into an inviolable charm of manner
+    incomprehensible to the finest European, yet she is almost
+    invariably a blossom of the lower classes, with dumpy claws, and
+    squat, ugly nails. Her education, physical and moral, is far
+    harder than that of the _ballerina_, and her success is achieved
+    only after years of struggle and a bitter agony of torture....
+    And the geisha's social position may be compared with that of the
+    European actress. The Geisha-house offers prizes as desirable as
+    any of the Western stage. A great geisha with twenty nobles
+    sitting round her, contending for her laughter, and kept in
+    constant check by the flashing bodkin of her wit, holds a
+    position no less high and famous than that of Sarah Bernhardt in
+    her prime. She is equally sought, equally flattered, quite as
+    madly adored, that quiet little elderly plain girl in dull blue.
+    But she is prized thus primarily for her tongue, whose power only
+    ripens fully as her physical charms decline. She demands vast
+    sums for her owners, and even so often appears and dances only at
+    her own pleasure. Few, if any, Westerners ever see a really
+    famous geisha. She is too great to come before a European, except
+    for an august or imperial command. Finally she may, and
+    frequently does, marry into exalted places. In all this there is
+    not the slightest necessity for any illicit relation."
+
+    In some respects the position of the ancient Greek _hetaira_ was
+    more analogous to that of the Japanese _geisha_ than to that of
+    the prostitute in the strict sense. For the Greeks, indeed, the
+    _hetaira_, was not strictly a _porne_ or prostitute at all. The
+    name meant friend or companion, and the woman to whom the name
+    was applied held an honorable position, which could not be
+    accorded to the mere prostitute. Athenæus (Bk. xiii, Chs.
+    XXVIII-XXX) brings together passages showing that the _hetaira_
+    could be regarded as an independent citizen, pure, simple, and
+    virtuous, altogether distinct from the common crew of
+    prostitutes, though these might ape her name. The _hetairæ_ "were
+    almost the only Greek women," says Donaldson (_Woman_, p. 59),
+    "who exhibited what was best and noblest in women's nature." This
+    fact renders it more intelligible why a woman of such
+    intellectual distinction as Aspasia should have been a _hetaira_.
+    There seems little doubt as to her intellectual distinction.
+    "Æschines, in his dialogue entitled 'Aspasia,'" writes Gomperz,
+    the historian of Greek philosophy (_Greek Thinkers_, vol. iii,
+    pp. 124 and 343), "puts in the mouth of that distinguished woman
+    an incisive criticism of the mode of life traditional for her
+    sex. It would be exceedingly strange," Gomperz adds, in arguing
+    that an inference may thus be drawn concerning the historical
+    Aspasia, "if three authors--Plato, Xenophon and Æschines--had
+    agreed in fictitiously enduing the companion of Pericles with
+    what we might very reasonably have expected her to possess--a
+    highly cultivated mind and intellectual influence." It is even
+    possible that the movement for woman's right which, as we dimly
+    divine through the pages of Aristophanes, took place in Athens in
+    the fourth century B.C., was led by _hetairæ_. According to Ivo
+    Bruns (_Frauenemancipation in Athen_, 1900, p. 19) "the most
+    certain information which we possess concerning Aspasia bears a
+    strong resemblance to the picture which Euripides and
+    Aristophanes present to us of the leaders of the woman movement."
+    It was the existence of this movement which made Plato's ideas on
+    the community of women appear far less absurd than they do to us.
+    It may perhaps be thought by some that this movement represented
+    on a higher plane that love of distruction, or, as we should
+    better say, that spirit of revolt and aspiration, which Simmel
+    finds to mark the intellectual and artistic activity of those who
+    are unclassed or dubiously classed in the social hierarchy. Ninon
+    de Lenclos, as we have seen, was not strictly a courtesan, but
+    she was a pioneer in the assertion of woman's rights. Aphra Behn
+    who, a little later in England, occupied a similarly dubious
+    social position, was likewise a pioneer in generous humanitarian
+    aspirations, which have since been adopted in the world at
+    large.
+
+    These refinements of prostitution may be said to be chiefly the
+    outcome of the late and more developed stages in civilization. As
+    Schurtz has put it (_Altersklassen und Männerbünde_, p. 191):
+    "The cheerful, skilful and artistically accomplished _hetaira_
+    frequently stands as an ideal figure in opposition to the
+    intellectually uncultivated wife banished to the interior of the
+    house. The courtesan of the Italian Renaissance, Japanese
+    geishas, Chinese flower-girls, and Indian bayaderas, all show
+    some not unnoble features, the breath of a free artistic
+    existence. They have achieved--with, it is true, the sacrifice of
+    their highest worth--an independence from the oppressive rule of
+    man and of household duties, and a part of the feminine endowment
+    which is so often crippled comes in them to brilliant
+    development. Prostitution in its best form may thus offer a path
+    by which these feminine characteristics may exert a certain
+    influence on the development of civilization. We may also believe
+    that the artistic activity of women is in some measure able to
+    offer a counterpoise to the otherwise less pleasant results of
+    sexual abandonment, preventing the coarsening and destruction of
+    the emotional life; in his _Magda_ Sudermann has described a type
+    of woman who, from the standpoint of strict morality, is open to
+    condemnation, but in her art finds a foothold, the strength of
+    which even ill-will must unwillingly recognize." In his _Sex and
+    Character_, Weininger has developed in a more extreme and
+    extravagant manner the conception of the prostitute as a
+    fundamental and essential part of life, a permanent feminine
+    type.
+
+There are others, apparently in increasing numbers, who approach the
+problem of prostitution not from an æsthetic standpoint but from a moral
+standpoint. This moral attitude is not, however, that conventionalized
+morality of Cato and St. Augustine and Lecky, set forth in previous pages,
+according to which the prostitute in the street must be accepted as the
+guardian of the wife in the home. These moralists reject indeed the claim
+of that belief to be considered moral at all. They hold that it is not
+morally possible that the honor of some women shall be purchaseable at the
+price of the dishonor of other women, because at such a price virtue loses
+all moral worth. When they read that, as Goncourt stated, "the most
+luxurious articles of women's _trousseaux_, the bridal chemises of girls
+with dowries of six hundred thousand francs, are made in the prison of
+Clairvaux,"[216] they see the symbol of the intimate dependence of our
+luxurious virtue on our squalid vice. And while they accept the
+historical and sociological evidence which shows that prostitution is an
+inevitable part of the marriage system which still survives among us, they
+ask whether it is not possible so to modify our marriage system that it
+shall not be necessary to divide feminine humanity into "disreputable"
+women, who make sacrifices which it is dishonorable to make, and
+"respectable" women, who take sacrifices which it cannot be less
+dishonorable to accept.
+
+    Prostitutes, a distinguished man of science has said (Duclaux,
+    _L'Hygiène Sociale_, p. 243), "have become things which the
+    public uses when it wants them, and throws on the dungheap when
+    it has made them vile. In its pharisaism it even has the
+    insolence to treat their trade as shameful, as though it were not
+    just as shameful to buy as to sell in this market." Bloch
+    (_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, Ch. XV) insists that prostitution
+    must be ennobled, and that only so can it be even diminished.
+    Isidore Dyer, of New Orleans, also argues that we cannot check
+    prostitution unless we create "in the minds of men and women a
+    spirit of tolerance instead of intolerance of fallen women." This
+    point may be illustrated by a remark by the prostitute author of
+    the _Tagebuch einer Verlorenen_. "If the profession of yielding
+    the body ceased to be a shameful one," she wrote, "the army of
+    'unfortunates' would diminish by four-fifths--I will even say
+    nine-tenths. Myself, for example! How gladly would I take a
+    situation as companion or governess!" "One of two things," wrote
+    the eminent sociologist Tarde ("La Morale Sexuelle," _Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, January, 1907), "either prostitution
+    will disappear through continuing to be dishonorable and will be
+    replaced by some other institution which will better remedy the
+    defects of monogamous marriage, or it will survive by becoming
+    respectable, that is to say, by making itself respected, whether
+    liked or disliked." Tarde thought this might perhaps come about
+    by a better organization of prostitutes, a more careful selection
+    among those who desired admission to their ranks and the
+    cultivation of professional virtues which would raise their moral
+    level. "If courtesans fulfil a need," Balzac had already said in
+    his _Physiologie du Mariage_, "they must become an institution."
+
+This moral attitude is supported and enforced by the inevitable democratic
+tendency of civilization which, although it by no means destroys the idea
+of class, undermines that idea as the mark of fundamental human
+distinctions and renders it superficial. Prostitution no longer makes a
+woman a slave; it ought not to make her even a pariah: "My body is my
+own," said the young German prostitute of to-day, "and what I do with it
+is nobody else's concern." When the prostitute was literally a slave moral
+duty towards her was by no means necessarily identical with moral duty
+towards the free woman. But when, even in the same family, the prostitute
+may be separated by a great and impassable social gulf from her married
+sister, it becomes possible to see, and in the opinion of many
+imperatively necessary to see, that a readjustment of moral values is
+required. For thousands of years prostitution has been defended on the
+ground that the prostitute is necessary to ensure the "purity of women."
+In a democratic age it begins to be realized that prostitutes also are
+women.
+
+The developing sense of a fundamental human equality underlying the
+surface divisions of class tends to make the usual attitude towards the
+prostitute, the attitude of her clients even more than that of society
+generally, seem painfully cruel. The callous and coarsely frivolous tone
+of so many young men about prostitutes, it has been said, is "simply
+cruelty of a peculiarly brutal kind," not to be discerned in any other
+relation of life.[217] And if this attitude is cruel even in speech it is
+still more cruel in action, whatever attempts may be made to disguise its
+cruelty.
+
+    Canon Lyttelton's remarks may be taken to refer chiefly to young
+    men of the upper middle class. Concerning what is perhaps the
+    usual attitude of lower middle class people towards prostitution,
+    I may quote from a remarkable communication which has reached me
+    from Australia: "What are the views of a young man brought up in
+    a middle-class Christian English family on prostitutes? Take my
+    father, for instance. He first mentioned prostitutes to me, if I
+    remember rightly, when speaking of his life before marriage. And
+    he spoke of them as he would speak of a horse he had hired, paid
+    for, and dismissed from his mind when it had rendered him
+    service. Although my mother was so kind and good she spoke of
+    abandoned women with disgust and scorn as of some unclean animal.
+    As it flatters vanity and pride to be able with good countenance
+    and universal consent to look down on something, I soon grasped
+    the situation and adopted an attitude which is, in the main, that
+    of most middle-class Christian Englishmen towards prostitutes.
+    But as puberty develops this attitude has to be accommodated with
+    the wish to make use of this scum, these moral lepers. The
+    ordinary young man, who likes a spice of immorality and has it
+    when in town, and thinks it is not likely to come to his mother's
+    or sisters' ears, does not get over his arrogance and disgust or
+    abate them in the least. He takes them with him, more or less
+    disguised, to the brothel, and they color his thoughts and
+    actions all the time he is sleeping with prostitutes, or kissing
+    them, or passing his hands over them, as he would over a mare,
+    getting as much as he can for his money. To tell the truth, on
+    the whole, that was my attitude too. But if anyone had asked me
+    for the smallest reason for this attitude, for this feeling of
+    superiority, pride, _hauteur_, and prejudice, I should, like any
+    other 'respectable' young man, have been entirely at a loss, and
+    could only have gaped foolishly."
+
+From the modern moral standpoint which now concerns us, not only is the
+cruelty involved in the dishonor of the prostitute absurd, but not less
+absurd, and often not less cruel, seems the honor bestowed on the
+respectable women on the other side of the social gulf. It is well
+recognized that men sometimes go to prostitutes to gratify the excitement
+aroused by fondling their betrothed.[218] As the emotional and physical
+results of ungratified excitement are not infrequently more serious in
+women than in men, the betrothed women in these cases are equally
+justified in seeking relief from other men, and the vicious circle of
+absurdity might thus be completed.
+
+From the point of view of the modern moralist there is another
+consideration which was altogether overlooked in the conventional and
+traditional morality we have inherited, and was indeed practically
+non-existent in the ancient days when that morality was still a living
+reality. Women are no longer divided only into the two groups of wives who
+are to be honored, and prostitutes who are the dishonored guardians of
+that honor; there is a large third class of women who are neither wives
+nor prostitutes. For this group of the unmarried virtuous the traditional
+morality had no place at all; it simply ignored them. But the new
+moralist, who is learning to recognize both the claims of the individual
+and the claims of society, begins to ask whether on the one hand these
+women are not entitled to the satisfaction of their affectional and
+emotional impulses if they so desire, and on the other hand whether, since
+a high civilization involves a diminished birthrate, the community is not
+entitled to encourage every healthy and able-bodied woman to contribute to
+maintain the birthrate when she so desires.
+
+All the considerations briefly indicated in the preceding pages--the
+fundamental sense of human equality generated by our civilization, the
+repugnance to cruelty which accompanies the refinement of urban life, the
+ugly contrast of extremes which shock our developing democratic
+tendencies, the growing sense of the rights of the individual to authority
+over his own person, the no less strongly emphasized right of the
+community to the best that the individual can yield--all these
+considerations are every day more strongly influencing the modern moralist
+to assume towards the prostitute an attitude altogether different from
+that of the morality which we derived from Cato and Augustine. He sees the
+question in a larger and more dynamic manner. Instead of declaring that it
+is well worth while to tolerate and at the same time to condemn the
+prostitute, in order to preserve the sanctity of the wife in her home, he
+is not only more inclined to regard each as the proper guardian of her own
+moral freedom, but he is less certain about the time-honored position of
+the prostitute, and moreover, by no means sure that the wife in the home
+may not be fully as much in need of rescuing as the prostitute in the
+street; he is prepared to consider whether reform in this matter is not
+most likely to take place in the shape of a fairer apportionment of sexual
+privileges and sexual duties to women generally, with an inevitably
+resultant elevation in the sexual lives of men also.
+
+    The revolt of many serious reformers against the injustice and
+    degradation now involved by our system of prostitution is so
+    profound that some have declared themselves ready to accept any
+    revolution of ideas which would bring about a more wholesome
+    transmutation of moral values. "Better indeed were a saturnalia
+    of _free_ men and women," exclaims Edward Carpenter (_Love's
+    Coming of Age_, p. 62), "than the spectacle which, as it is, our
+    great cities present at night."
+
+    Even those who would be quite content with as conservative a
+    treatment as possible of social institutions still cannot fail to
+    realize that prostitution is unsatisfactory, unless we are
+    content to make very humble claims of the sexual act. "The act of
+    prostitution," Godfrey declares (_The Science of Sex_, p. 202),
+    "may be physiologically complete, but it is complete in no other
+    sense. All the moral and intellectual factors which combine with
+    physical desire to form the perfect sexual attraction are absent.
+    All the higher elements of love--admiration, respect, honor, and
+    self-sacrificing devotion--are as foreign to prostitution as to
+    the egoistic act of masturbation. The principal drawbacks to the
+    morality of the act lie in its associations more than in the act
+    itself. Any affectional quality which a more or less promiscuous
+    connection might possess is at once destroyed by the intrusion of
+    the monetary element. In the resulting degradation the woman has
+    the largest share, since it makes her a pariah and involves her
+    in all the hardening and depraving influences of social
+    ostracism. But her degradation only serves to render her
+    influence on her partners more demoralizing. Prostitution," he
+    concludes, "has a strong tendency towards emphasizing the
+    naturally selfish attitude of men towards women, and encouraging
+    them in the delusion, born of unregulated passions, that the
+    sexual act itself is the aim and end of the sex life.
+    Prostitution can therefore make no claim to afford even a
+    temporary solution to the sex problem. It fulfils only that
+    mission which has made it a 'necessary evil'--the mission of
+    palliative to the physical rigors of celibacy and monogamy. It
+    does so at the cost of a considerable amount of physical and
+    moral deterioration, much of which is undoubtedly due to the
+    action of society in completing the degradation of the prostitute
+    by persistent ostracism. Prostitution was not so great an evil
+    when it was not thought so great, yet even at its best it was a
+    real evil, a melancholy and sordid travesty of sincere and
+    natural passional relations. It is an evil which we are bound to
+    have with us so long as celibacy is a custom and monogamy a law."
+    It is the wife as well as the prostitute who is degraded by a
+    system which makes venal love possible. "The time has gone past,"
+    the same writer remarks elsewhere (p. 195) "when a mere ceremony
+    can really sanctify what is base and transform lust and greed
+    into the sincerity of sexual affection. If, to enter into sexual
+    connections with a man for a solely material end is a disgrace to
+    humanity, it is a disgrace under the marriage bond just as much
+    as apart from the hypocritical blessing of the church or the law.
+    If the public prostitute is a being who deserves to be treated as
+    a pariah, it is hopelessly irrational to withhold every sort of
+    moral opprobrium from the woman who leads a similar life under a
+    different set of external circumstances. Either the prostitute
+    wife must come under the moral ban, or there must be an end to
+    the complete ostracism under which the prostitute labors."
+
+    The thinker who more clearly and fundamentally than others, and
+    first of all, realized the dynamical relationships of
+    prostitution, as dependent upon a change in the other social
+    relationships of life, was James Hinton. More than thirty years
+    ago, in fragmentary writings that still remain unpublished, since
+    he never worked them into an orderly form, Hinton gave vigorous
+    and often passionate expression to this fundamental idea. It may
+    be worth while to quote a few brief passages from Hinton's MSS.:
+    "I feel that the laws of force should hold also amid the waves of
+    human passion, that the relations of mechanics are true, and will
+    rule also in human life.... There is a tension, a crushing of the
+    soul, by our modern life, and it is ready for a sudden spring to
+    a different order in which the forces shall rearrange themselves.
+    It is a dynamical question presented in moral terms.... Keeping a
+    portion of the woman population without prospect of marriage
+    means having prostitutes, that is women as instruments of man's
+    mere sensuality, and this means the killing, in many of them, of
+    all pure love or capacity of it. This is the fact we have to
+    face.... To-day I saw a young woman whose life was being consumed
+    by her want of love, a case of threatened utter misery: now see
+    the price at which we purchase her ill-health; for her ill-health
+    we pay the crushing of another girl into hell. We give that for
+    it; her wretchedness of soul and body are bought by prostitution;
+    we have prostitutes made for that.... We devote some women
+    recklessly to perdition to make a hothouse Heaven for the
+    rest.... One wears herself out in vainly trying to endure
+    pleasures she is not strong enough to enjoy, while other women
+    are perishing for lack of these very pleasures. If marriage is
+    this, is it not embodied lust? The happy Christian homes are the
+    true dark places of the earth.... Prostitution for man, restraint
+    for woman--they are two sides of the same thing, and both are
+    denials of love, like luxury and asceticism. The mountains of
+    restraint must be used to fill up the abysses of luxury."
+
+    Some of Hinton's views were set forth by a writer intimately
+    acquainted with him in a pamphlet entitled _The Future of
+    Marriage: An Eirenicon for a Question of To-day_, by a
+    Respectable Woman (1885). "When once the conviction is forced
+    home upon the 'good' women," the writer remarks, "that their
+    place of honor and privilege rests upon the degradation of others
+    as its basis, they will never rest till they have either
+    abandoned it or sought for it some other pedestal. If our
+    inflexible marriage system has for its essential condition the
+    existence side by side with it of prostitution, then one of two
+    things follows: either prostitution must be shown to be
+    compatible with the well-being, moral and physical, of the women
+    who practice it, or our marriage system must be condemned. If it
+    was clearly put before anyone, he could not seriously assert that
+    to be 'virtue' which could only be practiced at the expense of
+    another's vice.... Whilst the laws of physics are becoming so
+    universally recognized that no one dreams of attempting to
+    annihilate a particle of matter, or of force, yet we do not
+    instinctively apply the same conception to moral forces, but
+    think and act as if we could simply do away with an evil, while
+    leaving unchanged that which gives it its strength. This is the
+    only view of the social problem which can give us hope. That
+    prostitution should simply cease, leaving everything else as it
+    is, would be disastrous if it were possible. But it is not
+    possible. The weakness of all existing efforts to put down
+    prostitution is that they are directed against it as an isolated
+    thing, whereas it is only one of the symptoms proceeding from a
+    common disease."
+
+    Ellen Key, who during recent years has been the chief apostle of
+    a gospel of sexual morality based on the needs of women as the
+    mothers of the race, has, in a somewhat similar spirit, denounced
+    alike prostitution and rigid marriage, declaring (in her _Essays
+    on Love and Marriage_) that "the development of erotic personal
+    consciousness is as much hindered by socially regulated
+    'morality' as by socially regulated 'immorality,'" and that "the
+    two lowest and socially sanctioned expressions of sexual dualism,
+    rigid marriage and prostitution, will gradually become
+    impossible, because with the conquest of the idea of erotic unity
+    they will no longer correspond to human needs."
+
+We may sum up the present situation as regards prostitution by saying that
+on the one hand there is a tendency for its elevation, in association with
+the growing humanity and refinement of civilization, characteristics which
+must inevitably tend to mark more and more both those women who become
+prostitutes and those men who seek them; on the other hand, but perhaps
+through the same dynamic force, there is a tendency towards the slow
+elimination of prostitution by the successful competition of higher and
+purer methods of sexual relationship freed from pecuniary considerations.
+This refinement and humanization, this competition by better forms of
+sexual love, are indeed an essential part of progress as civilization
+becomes more truly sound, wholesome, and sincere.
+
+This moral change cannot, it seems probable, fail to be accompanied by the
+realization that the facts of human life are more important than the
+forms. For all changes from lower to higher social forms, from savagery to
+civilization, are accompanied--in so far as they are vital changes--by a
+slow and painful groping towards the truth that it is only in natural
+relations that sanity and sanctity can be found, for, as Nietzsche said,
+the "return" to Nature should rather be called the "ascent." Only so can
+we achieve the final elimination from our hearts of that clinging
+tradition that there is any impurity or dishonor in acts of love for which
+the reasonable, and not merely the conventional, conditions have been
+fulfilled. For it is vain to attempt to cleanse our laws, or even our
+by-laws, until we have first cleansed our hearts.
+
+It would be out of place here to push further the statement of the moral
+question as it is to-day beginning to shape itself in the sphere of sex.
+In a psychological discussion we are only concerned to set down the actual
+attitude of the moralist, and of civilization. The practical outcome of
+that attitude must be left to moralists and sociologists and the community
+generally to work out.
+
+Our inquiry has also, it may be hoped, incidentally tended to show that in
+practically dealing with the question of prostitution it is pre-eminently
+necessary to remember the warning which, as regards many other social
+problems, has been embodied by Herbert Spencer in his famous illustration
+of the bent iron plate. In trying to make the bent plate smooth, it is
+useless, Spencer pointed out, to hammer directly on the buckled up part;
+if we do so we merely find that we have made matters worse; our hammering,
+to be effective, must be around, and not directly on, the offensive
+elevation we wish to reduce; only so can the iron plate be hammered
+smooth.[219] But this elementary law has not been understood by
+moralists. The plain, practical, common-sense reformer, as he fancied
+himself to be--from the time of Charlemagne onwards--has over and over
+again brought his heavy fist directly down on to the evil of prostitution
+and has always made matters worse. It is only by wisely working outside
+and around the evil that we can hope to lessen it effectually. By aiming
+to develop and raise the relationships of men to women, and of women to
+women, by modifying our notions of sexual relationships, and by
+introducing a saner and truer conception of womanhood and of the
+responsibilities of women as well as of men, by attaining, socially as
+well as economically, a higher level of human living--it is only by such
+methods as these that we can reasonably expect to see any diminution and
+alleviation of the evil of prostitution. So long as we are incapable of
+such methods we must be content with the prostitution we deserve, learning
+to treat it with the pity, and the respect, which so intimate a failure of
+our civilization is entitled to.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[107] See, e.g., Cheetham's Hulsean Lectures, _The Mysteries, Pagan and
+Christian_, pp. 123, 136.
+
+[108] Hormayr's _Taschenbuch_, 1835, p. 255. Hagelstange, in a chapter on
+mediæval festivals in his _Süddeutsches Bauernleben im Mittelalter_, shows
+how, in these Christian orgies which were really of pagan origin, the
+German people reacted with tremendous and boisterous energy against the
+laborious and monotonous existence of everyday life.
+
+[109] This was clearly realized by the more intelligent upholders of the
+Feast of Fools. Austere persons wished to abolish this Feast, and in a
+remarkable petition sent up to the Theological Faculty of Paris (and
+quoted by Flogel, _Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen_, fourth edition, p.
+204) the case for the Feast is thus presented: "We do this according to
+ancient custom, in order that folly, which is second nature to man and
+seems to be inborn, may at least once a year have free outlet. Wine casks
+would burst if we failed sometimes to remove the bung and let in air. Now
+we are all ill-bound casks and barrels which would let out the wine of
+wisdom if by constant devotion and fear of God we allowed it to ferment.
+We must let in air so that it may not be spoilt. Thus on some days we give
+ourselves up to sport, so that with the greater zeal we may afterwards
+return to the worship of God." The Feast of Fools was not suppressed until
+the middle of the sixteenth century, and relics of it persisted (as at
+Aix) till near the end of the eighteenth century.
+
+[110] A Méray, _La Vie au Temps des Libres Prêcheurs_, vol. ii, Ch. X. A
+good and scholarly account of the Feast of Fools is given by E.K.
+Chambers, _The Mediæval Stage_, Ch. XIII. It is true that the Church and
+the early Fathers often anathematized the theatre. But Gregory of
+Nazianzen wished to found a Christian theatre; the Mediæval Mysteries were
+certainly under the protection of the clergy; and St. Thomas Aquinas, the
+greatest of the schoolmen, only condemns the theatre with cautious
+qualifications.
+
+[111] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, Ch. XII.
+
+[112] _Journal Anthropological Institute_, July-Dec., 1904, p. 329.
+
+[113] Westermarck (_Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii,
+pp. 283-9) shows how widespread is the custom of setting apart a
+periodical rest day.
+
+[114] A.E. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, pp. 273 et seq., Crawley brings
+into association with this function of great festivals the custom, found
+in some parts of the world, of exchanging wives at these times. "It has
+nothing whatever to do with the marriage system, except as breaking it for
+a season, women of forbidden degree being lent, on the same grounds as
+conventions and ordinary relations are broken at festivals of the
+Saturnalia type, the object being to change life and start afresh, by
+exchanging every thing one can, while the very act of exchange coincides
+with the other desire, to weld the community together" (Ib., p. 479).
+
+[115] See "The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse" in vol. iii of these
+_Studies_.
+
+[116] G. Murray, _Ancient Greek Literature_, p. 211.
+
+[117] The Greek drama probably arose out of a folk-festival of more or
+less sexual character, and it is even possible that the mediæval drama had
+a somewhat similar origin (see Donaldson, _The Greek Theatre_; Gilbert
+Murray, loc. cit.; Karl Pearson, _The Chances of Death_, vol. ii, pp.
+135-6, 280 et seq.).
+
+[118] R. Canudo, "Les Chorèges Français," _Mercure de France_, May 1,
+1907, p. 180.
+
+[119] "This is, in fact," Cyples declares (_The Process of Human
+Experience_, p. 743), "Art's great function--to rehearse within us greater
+egoistic possibilities, to habituate us to larger actualizations of
+personality in a rudimentary manner," and so to arouse, "aimlessly but
+splendidly, the sheer as yet unfulfilled possibilities within us."
+
+[120] Even when monotonous labor is intellectual, it is not thereby
+protected against degrading orgiastic reactions. Prof. L. Gurlitt shows
+(_Die Neue Generation_, January, 1909, pp. 31-6) how the strenuous,
+unremitting intellectual work of Prussian seminaries leads among both
+teachers and scholars to the worst forms of the orgy.
+
+[121] Rabutaux discusses various definitions of prostitution, _De la
+Prostitution en Europe_, pp. 119 et seq. For the origin of the names to
+designate the prostitute, see Schrader, _Reallexicon_, art.
+"Beischläferin."
+
+[122] _Digest_, lib. xxiii, tit. ii, p. 43. If she only gave herself to
+one or two persons, though for money, it was not prostitution.
+
+[123] Guyot, _La Prostitution_, p. 8. The element of venality is
+essential, and religious writers (like Robert Wardlaw, D.D., of Edinburgh,
+in his _Lectures on Female Prostitution_, 1842, p. 14) who define
+prostitution as "the illicit intercourse of the sexes," and synonymous
+with theological "fornication," fall into an absurd confusion.
+
+[124] "Such marriages are sometimes stigmatized as 'legalized
+prostitution,'" remarks Sidgwick (_Methods of Ethics_, Bk. iii, Ch. XI),
+"but the phrase is felt to be extravagant and paradoxical."
+
+[125] Bonger, _Criminalité et Conditions Economiques_, p. 378. Bonger
+believes that the act of prostitution is "intrinsically equal to that of a
+man or woman who contracts a marriage for economical reasons."
+
+[126] E. Richard, _La Prostitution à Paris_, 1890, p. 44. It may be
+questioned whether publicity or notoriety should form an essential part of
+the definition; it seems, however, to be involved, or the prostitute
+cannot obtain clients. Reuss states that she must, in addition, be
+absolutely without means of subsistence; that is certainly not essential.
+Nor is it necessary, as the _Digest_ insisted, that the act should be
+performed "without pleasure;" that may be as it will, without affecting
+the prostitutional nature of the act.
+
+[127] Hawkesworth, _Account of the Voyages_, etc., 1775, vol. ii, p. 254.
+
+[128] R.W. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 235.
+
+[129] F.S. Krauss, _Romanische Forschungen_, 1903, p. 290.
+
+[130] H. Schurtz, _Altersklassen und Männerbünde_, 1902, p. 190. In this
+work Schurtz brings together (pp. 189-201) some examples of the germs of
+prostitution among primitive peoples. Many facts and references are given
+by Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, pp. 66 et seq., and _Origin
+and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, pp. 441 _et seq._).
+
+[131] Bachofen (more especially in his _Mutterrecht_ and _Sage von
+Tanaquil_) argued that even religious prostitution sprang from the
+resistance of primitive instincts to the individualization of love. Cf.
+Robertson Smith, _Religion of Semites_, second edition, p. 59.
+
+[132] Whatever the reason may be, there can be no doubt that there is a
+widespread tendency for religion and prostitution to be associated; it is
+possibly to some extent a special case of that general connection between
+the religious and sexual impulses which has been discussed elsewhere
+(Appendix C to vol. i of these _Studies_). Thus A.B. Ellis, in his book on
+_The Ewe-speaking Peoples of West Africa_ (pp. 124, 141) states that here
+women dedicated to a god become promiscuous prostitutes. W.G. Sumner
+(_Folkways_, Ch. XVI) brings together many facts concerning the wide
+distribution of religious prostitution.
+
+[133] Herodotus, Bk. I, Ch. CXCIX; Baruch, Ch. VI, p. 43. Modern scholars
+confirm the statements of Herodotus from the study of Babylonian
+literature, though inclined to deny that religious prostitution occupied
+so large a place as he gives it. A tablet of the Gilgamash epic, according
+to Morris Jastrow, refers to prostitutes as attendants of the goddess
+Ishtar in the city Uruk (or Erech), which was thus a centre, and perhaps
+the chief centre, of the rites described by Herodotus (Morris Jastrow,
+_The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, 1898, p. 475). Ishtar was the
+goddess of fertility, the great mother goddess, and the prostitutes were
+priestesses, attached to her worship, who took part in ceremonies intended
+to symbolize fertility. These priestesses of Ishtar were known by the
+general name Kadishtu, "the holy ones" (op. cit., pp. 485, 660).
+
+[134] It is usual among modern writers to associate Aphrodite Pandemos,
+rather than Ourania, with venal or promiscuous sexuality, but this is a
+complete mistake, for the Aphrodite Pandemos was purely political and had
+no sexual significance. The mistake was introduced, perhaps intentionally,
+by Plato. It has been suggested that that arch-juggler, who disliked
+democratic ideas, purposely sought to pervert and vulgarize the conception
+of Aphrodite Pandemos (Farnell, _Cults of Greek States_, vol. ii, p. 660).
+
+[135] Athenæus, Bk. xiii, cap. XXXII. It appears that the only other
+Hellenic community where the temple cult involved unchastity was a city of
+the Locri Epizephyrii (Farnell, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 636).
+
+[136] I do not say an earlier "promiscuity," for the theory of a primitive
+sexual promiscuity is now widely discredited, though there can be no
+reasonable doubt that the early prevalence of mother-right was more
+favorable to the sexual freedom of women than the later patriarchal
+system. Thus in very early Egyptian days a woman could give her favors to
+any man she chose by sending him her garment, even if she were married. In
+time the growth of the rights of men led to this being regarded as
+criminal, but the priestesses of Amen retained the privilege to the last,
+as being under divine protection (Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian Tales_, pp.
+10, 48).
+
+[137] It should be added that Farnell ("The Position of Women in Ancient
+Religion," _Archiv für Religionswissenschaft_, 1904, p. 88) seeks to
+explain the religious prostitution of Babylonia as a special religious
+modification of the custom of destroying virginity before marriage in
+order to safeguard the husband from the mystic dangers of defloration.
+E.S. Hartland, also ("Concerning the Rite at the Temple of Mylitta,"
+_Anthropological Essays Presented to E.B. Tyler_, p. 189), suggests that
+this was a puberty rite connected with ceremonial defloration. This theory
+is not, however, generally accepted by Semitic scholars.
+
+[138] The girls of this tribe, who are remarkably pretty, after spending
+two or three years in thus amassing a little dowry, return home to marry,
+and are said to make model wives and mothers. They are described by
+Bertherand in Parent-Duchâtelet, _La Prostitution à Paris_, vol. ii, p.
+539.
+
+[139] In Abyssinia (according to Fiaschi, _British Medical Journal_, March
+13, 1897), where prostitution has always been held in high esteem, the
+prostitutes, who are now subject to medical examination twice a week,
+still attach no disgrace to their profession, and easily find husbands
+afterwards. Potter (_Sohrab and Rustem_, pp. 168 et seq.) gives references
+as regards peoples, widely dispersed in the Old World and the New, among
+whom the young women have practiced prostitution to obtain a dowry.
+
+[140] At Tralles, in Lydia, even in the second century A.D., as Sir W.M.
+Ramsay notes (_Cities of Phrygia_, vol. i, pp. 94, 115), sacred
+prostitution was still an honorable practice for women of good birth who
+"felt themselves called upon to live the divine life under the influence
+of divine inspiration."
+
+[141] The gradual secularization of prostitution from its earlier
+religious form has been traced by various writers (see, e.g., Dupouey, _La
+Prostitution dans l'Antiquité_). The earliest complimentary reference to
+the _Hetaira_ in literature is to be found, according to Benecke
+(_Antimachus of Colophon_, p. 36), in Bacchylides.
+
+[142] Cicero, _Oratio prô Coelio_, Cap. XX.
+
+[143] Pierre Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. ii, Chs. XIX-XX.
+The real author of this well-known history of prostitution, which, though
+not scholarly in its methods, brings together a great mass of interesting
+information, is said to be Paul Lacroix.
+
+[144] Rabutaux, in his _Histoire de la Prostitution en Europe_, describes
+many attempts to suppress prostitution; cf. Dufour, _op. cit._, vol. iii.
+
+[145] Dufour, op. cit., vol. vi, Ch. XLI. It was in the reign of the
+homosexual Henry III that the tolerance of brothels was established.
+
+[146] In the eighteenth century, especially, houses of prostitution in
+Paris attained to an astonishing degree of elaboration and prosperity.
+Owing to the constant watchful attention of the police a vast amount of
+detailed information concerning these establishments was accumulated, and
+during recent years much of it has been published. A summary of this
+literature will be found in Dühren's _Neue Forshungen über den Marquis de
+Sade und seine Zeit_, 1904, pp. 97 et seq.
+
+[147] Rabutaux, op. cit., p. 54.
+
+[148] Calza has written the history of Venetian prostitution; and some of
+the documents he found have been reproduced by Mantegazza, _Gli Amori
+degli Uomimi_, cap. XIV. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, a
+comparatively late period, Coryat visited Venice, and in his _Crudities_
+gives a full and interesting account of its courtesans, who then numbered,
+he says, at least 20,000; the revenue they brought into the State
+maintained a dozen galleys.
+
+[149] J. Schrank, _Die Prostitution in Wien_, Bd. I, pp. 152-206.
+
+[150] U. Robert, _Les Signes d'Infamie au Moyen Age_, Ch. IV.
+
+[151] Rudeck (_Geschichte der öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland_,
+pp. 26-36) gives many details concerning the important part played by
+prostitutes and brothels in mediæval German life.
+
+[152] They are described by Rabutaux, op. cit., pp. 90 _et seq._
+
+[153] _L'Année Sociologique_, seventh year, 1904, p. 440.
+
+[154] Bloch, _Der Ursprung der Syphilis_. As regards the German
+"Frauenhausen" see Max Bauer, _Das Geschlechtsleben in der Deutschen
+Vergangenheit_, pp. 133-214. In Paris, Dufour states (op. cit., vol. v,
+Ch. XXXIV), brothels under the ordinances of St. Louis had many rights
+which they lost at last in 1560, when they became merely tolerated houses,
+without statutes, special costumes, or confinement to special streets.
+
+[155] "Cortegiana, hoc est meretrix honesta," wrote Burchard, the Pope's
+Secretary, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, _Diarium_, ed.
+Thuasne, vol. ii, p. 442; other authorities are quoted by Thuasne in a
+note.
+
+[156] Burchard, _Diarium_, vol. iii, p. 167. Thuasne quotes other
+authorities in confirmation.
+
+[157] The example of Holland, where some large cities have adopted the
+regulation of prostitution and others have not, is instructive as regards
+the illusory nature of the advantages of regulation. In 1883 Dr. Després
+brought forward figures, supplied by Dutch officials, showing that in
+Rotterdam, where prostitution was regulated, both prostitution and
+venereal diseases were more prevalent than in Amsterdam, a city without
+regulation (A. Després, _La Prostitution en France_, p. 122).
+
+[158] It was in 1802 that the medical inspection of prostitutes in Paris
+brothels was introduced, though not until 1825 fully established and made
+general.
+
+[159] M.L. Heidingsfeld, "The Control of Prostitution," _Journal American
+Medical Association_, January 30, 1904.
+
+[160] See, e.g., G. Bérault, _La Maison de Tolérance_, Thèse de Paris,
+1904.
+
+[161] Thus the circumstances of the English army in India are of a special
+character. A number of statements (from the reports of committees,
+official publications, etc.) regarding the good influence of regulation in
+reducing venereal diseases in India are brought together by
+Surgeon-Colonel F.H. Welch, "The Prevention of Syphilis," _Lancet_, August
+12, 1899. The system has been abolished, but only as the result of a
+popular outcry and not on the question of its merits.
+
+[162] Thus Richard, who accepts regulation and was instructed to report on
+it for the Paris Municipal Council, would not have girls inscribed as
+professional prostitutes until they are of age and able to realize what
+they are binding themselves to (E. Richard, _La Prostitution à Paris_, p.
+147). But at that age a large proportion of prostitutes have been
+practicing their profession for years.
+
+[163] In Germany, where the cure of infected prostitutes under regulation
+is nearly everywhere compulsory, usually at the cost of the community, it
+is found that 18 is the average age at which they are affected by
+syphilis; the average age of prostitutes in brothels is higher than that
+of those outside, and a much larger proportion have therefore become
+immune to disease (Blaschko, "Hygiene der Syphilis," in Weyl's _Handbuch
+der Hygiene_, Bd. ii, p. 62, 1900).
+
+[164] A. Sherwell, _Life in West London_, 1897, Ch. V.
+
+[165] Bonger brings together statistics illustrating this point, op. cit.,
+pp. 402-6.
+
+[166] _The Nightless City_, p. 125.
+
+[167] Ströhmberg, as quoted by Aschaffenburg, _Das Verbrechen_, 1903, p.
+77.
+
+[168] _Monatsschrift für Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906. Heft
+10, p. 460. But this cause is undoubtedly effective in some cases of
+unmarried women in Germany unable to get work (see article by Sister
+Henrietta Arendt, Police-Assistant at Stuttgart, _Sexual-Probleme_,
+December, 1908).
+
+[169] Thus, for instance, we find Irma von Troll-Borostyáni saying in her
+book, _Im Freien Reich_ (p. 176): "Go and ask these unfortunate creatures
+if they willingly and freely devoted themselves to vice. And nearly all of
+them will tell you a story of need and destitution, of hunger and lack of
+work, which compelled them to it, or else of love and seduction and the
+fear of the discovery of their false step which drove them out of their
+homes, helpless and forsaken, into the pool of vice from which there is
+hardly any salvation." It is, of course, quite true that the prostitute is
+frequently ready to tell such stories to philanthropic persons who expect
+to hear them, and sometimes even put the words into her mouth.
+
+[170] C. Booth, _Life and Labour_, final volume, p. 125. Similarly in
+Sweden, Kullberg states that girls of thirteen to seventeen, living at
+home with their parents in comfortable circumstances, have often been
+found on the streets.
+
+[171] W. Acton, _Prostitution_, 1870, pp. 39, 49.
+
+[172] In Lyons, according to Potton, of 3884 prostitutes, 3194 abandoned,
+or apparently abandoned, their profession; in Paris a very large number
+became servants, dressmakers, or tailoresses, occupations which, in many
+cases, doubtless, they had exercised before (Parent-Duchâtelet, _De la
+Prostitution_, 1857, vol. i, p. 584; vol. ii, p. 451). Sloggett (quoted by
+Acton) stated that at Davenport, 250 of the 1775 prostitutes there
+married. It is well known that prostitutes occasionally marry extremely
+well. It was remarked nearly a century ago that marriages of prostitutes
+to rich men were especially frequent in England, and usually turned out
+well; the same seems to be true still. In their own social rank they not
+infrequently marry cabmen and policemen, the two classes of men with whom
+they are brought most closely in contact in the streets. As regards
+Germany, C.K. Schneider (_Die Prostituirte und die Gesellschaft_), states
+that young prostitutes take up all sorts of occupations and situations,
+sometimes, if they have saved a little money, establishing a business,
+while old prostitutes become procuresses, brothel-keepers, lavatory women,
+and so on. Not a few prostitutes marry, he adds, but the proportion among
+inscribed German prostitutes is very small, less than 2 per cent.
+
+[173] G. de Molinari, _La Viriculture_, 1897, p. 155.
+
+[174] Reuss and other writers have reproduced typical extracts from the
+private account books of prostitutes, showing the high rate of their
+earnings. Even in the common brothels, in Philadelphia (according to
+Goodchild, "The Social Evil in Philadelphia," _Arena_, March, 1896), girls
+earn twenty dollars or more a week, which is far more than they could earn
+in any other occupation open to them.
+
+[175] A. Després, _La Prostitution en France_, 1883.
+
+[176] Bonger, _Criminalité et Conditions Economiques_, 1905, pp. 378-414.
+
+[177] _La Donna Delinquente_, p. 401.
+
+[178] Raciborski, _Traité de l'Impuissance_, p. 20. It may be added that
+Bergh, a leading authority on the anatomical peculiarities of the external
+female sexual organs, who believe that strong development of the external
+genital organs accompanies libidinous tendencies, has not found such
+development to be common among prostitutes.
+
+[179] Hammer, who has had much opportunity of studying the psychology of
+prostitutes, remarks that he has seen no reason to suspect sexual coldness
+(_Monatsschrift für Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906, Heft 2,
+p. 85), although, as he has elsewhere stated, he is of opinion that
+indolence, rather than excess of sensuality, is the chief cause of
+prostitution.
+
+[180] See "The Sexual Impulse in Women," in the third volume of these
+_Studies_.
+
+[181] Tait stated that in Edinburgh many married women living with their
+husbands in comfortable circumstances, and having children, were found to
+be acting as prostitutes, that is, in the regular habit of making
+assignations with strangers (W. Tait, _Magdalenism in Edinburgh_, 1842, p.
+16).
+
+[182] Janke brings together opinions to this effect, _Die Willkürliche
+Hervorbringen des Geschlechts_, p. 275. "If we compare a prostitute of
+thirty-five with her respectable sister," Acton remarked (_Prostitution_,
+1870, p. 39), "we seldom find that the constitutional ravages often
+thought to be necessary consequences of prostitution exceed those
+attributable to the cares of a family and the heart-wearing struggles of
+virtuous labor."
+
+[183] Hirschfeld states (_Wesen der Liebe_, p. 35) that the desire for
+intercourse with a sympathetic person is heightened, and not decreased, by
+a professional act of coitus.
+
+[184] This has been clearly shown by Hans Ostwald (from whom I take the
+above-quoted observation of a prostitute), one of the best authorities on
+prostitute life and character; see, e.g., his article, "Die erotischen
+Beziehungen zwischen Dirne und Zuhälter," _Sexual-Probleme_, June, 1908.
+In the subsequent number of the same periodical (July, 1908, p. 393) Dr.
+Max Marcuse supports Ostwald's experiences, and says that the letters of
+prostitutes and their bullies are love-letters exactly like those of
+respectable people of the same class, and with the same elements of love
+and jealousy; these relationships, he remarks, often prove very enduring.
+The prostitute author of the _Tagebuch einer Verlorenen_ (p. 147) also has
+some remarks on the prostitute's relations to her bully, stating that it
+is simply the natural relationship of a girl to her lover.
+
+[185] Thus Moraglia found that among 180 prostitutes in North Italian
+brothels, and among 23 elegant Italian and foreign cocottes, every one
+admitted that she masturbated, preferably by friction of the clitoris; 113
+of them, the majority, declared that they preferred solitary or mutual
+masturbation to normal coitus. Hammer states (_Zehn Lebensläufe Berliner
+Kontrollmädchen_ in Ostwald's series of "Grosstadt Dokumente," 1905) that
+when in hospital all but three or four of sixty prostitutes masturbate,
+and those who do not are laughed at by the rest.
+
+[186] _Jahrbuch für Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, Jahrgang VII, 1905, p. 148;
+"Sexual Inversion," vol. ii of these _Studies_, Ch. IV. Hammer found that
+of twenty-five prostitutes in a reformatory as many as twenty-three were
+homosexual, or, on good grounds, suspected to be such. Hirschfeld
+(_Berlins Drittes Geschlecht_, p. 65) mentions that prostitutes sometimes
+accost better-class women who, from their man-like air, they take to be
+homosexual; from persons of their own sex prostitutes will accept a
+smaller remuneration, and sometimes refuse payment altogether.
+
+[187] With prostitution, as with criminality, it is of course difficult to
+disentangle the element of heredity from that of environment, even when we
+have good grounds for believing that the factor of heredity here, as
+throughout the whole of life, cannot fail to carry much weight. It is
+certain, in any case, that prostitution frequently runs in families. "It
+has often been my experience," writes a former prostitute (Hedwig Hard,
+_Beichte einer Gefallenen_, p. 156) "that when in a family a girl enters
+this path, her sister soon afterwards follows her: I have met with
+innumerable cases; sometimes three sisters will all be on the register,
+and I knew a case of four sisters, whose mother, a midwife, had been in
+prison, and the father drank. In this case, all four sisters, who were
+very beautiful, married, one at least very happily, to a rich doctor who
+took her out of the brothel at sixteen and educated her."
+
+[188] This fact is not contradicted by the undoubted fact that prostitutes
+are by no means always contented with the life they choose.
+
+[189] This point has been discussed by Bloch, _Sexualleben unserer Zeit_,
+Ch. XIII.
+
+[190] Various series of observations are summarized by Lombroso and
+Ferrero, _La Donna Delinquente_, 1893, Part III, cap. IV.
+
+[191] _History of European Morals_, vol. iii, p. 283.
+
+[192] Similarly Lord Morley has written (_Diderot_, vol. ii, p. 20): "The
+purity of the family, so lovely and dear as it is, has still only been
+secured hitherto by retaining a vast and dolorous host of female outcasts
+... upon whose heads, as upon the scapegoat of the Hebrew ordinance, we
+put all the iniquities of the children of the house, and all their
+transgressions in all their sins, and then banish them with maledictions
+into the foul outer wilderness and the land not inhabited."
+
+[193] Horace, _Satires_, lib. i, 2.
+
+[194] Augustine, _De Ordine_, Bk. II, Ch. IV.
+
+[195] _De Regimine Principum_ (_Opuscula XX_), lib. iv, cap. XIV. I am
+indebted to the Rev. H. Northcote for the reference to the precise place
+where this statement occurs; it is usually quoted more vaguely.
+
+[196] Lea, _History of Auricular Confession_, vol. ii, p. 69. There was
+even, it seems, an eccentric decision of the Salamanca theologians that a
+nun might so receive money, "licite et valide."
+
+[197] Lea, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 263, 399.
+
+[198] Rabutaux, _De la Prostitution en Europe_, pp. 22 et seq.
+
+[199] Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, Part III, Sect. III, Mem. IV, Subs.
+II.
+
+[200] B. Mandeville, _Remarks to Fable of the Bees_, 1714, pp. 93-9; cf.
+P. Sakmann, _Bernard de Mandeville_, pp. 101-4.
+
+[201] These conditions favor temporary free unions, but they also favor
+prostitution. The reason is, according to Adolf Gerson (_Sexual-Probleme_,
+September, 1908), that the woman of good class will not have free unions.
+Partly moved by moral traditions, and partly by the feeling that a man
+should be legally her property, she will not give herself out of love to a
+man; and he therefore turns to the lower-class woman who gives herself for
+money.
+
+[202] Many girls, said Ellice Hopkins, get into mischief merely because
+they have in them an element of the "black kitten," which must frolic and
+play, but has no desire to get into danger. "Do you not think it a little
+hard," she added, "that men should have dug by the side of her foolish
+dancing feet a bottomless pit, and that she cannot have her jump and fun
+in safety, and put on her fine feathers like the silly bird-witted thing
+she is, without a single false step dashing her over the brink, and
+leaving her with the very womanhood dashed out of her?"
+
+[203] A. Sherwell, _Life in West London_, 1897, Ch. V.
+
+[204] As quoted by Bloch, _Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, p. 358. In Berlin
+during recent years the number of prostitutes has increased at nearly
+double the rate at which the general population has increased. It is no
+doubt probable that the supply tends to increase the demand.
+
+[205] Goncourt, _Journal_, vol. iii, p. 49.
+
+[206] Vanderkiste, _The Dens of London_, 1854, p. 242.
+
+[207] Bonger (_Criminalité et Conditions Economiques_, p. 406) refers to
+the prevalence of prostitution among dressmakers and milliners, as well as
+among servants, as showing the influence of contact with luxury, and adds
+that the rich women, who look down on prostitution, do not always realize
+that they are themselves an important factor of prostitution, both by
+their luxury and their idleness; while they do not seem to be aware that
+they would themselves act in the same way if placed under the same
+conditions.
+
+[208] H. Lippert, in his book on prostitution in Hamburg, laid much stress
+on the craving for dress and adornment as a factor of prostitution, and
+Bloch (_Das Sexualleben unsurer Zeit_, p. 372) considers that this factor
+is usually underestimated, and that it exerts an especially powerful
+influence on servants.
+
+[209] Since this was written the influence of several generations of
+town-life in immunizing a stock to the evils of that life (though without
+reference to prostitution) has been set forth by Reibmayr, _Die
+Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies_, 1908, vol. ii, pp. 73 _et
+seq._
+
+[210] In France this intimacy is embodied in the delicious privilege of
+_tutoiement_. "The mystery of _tutoiement!_" exclaims Ernest La Jennesse
+in _L'Holocauste:_ "Barriers broken down, veils drawn away, and the ease
+of existence! At a time when I was very lonely, and trying to grow
+accustomed to Paris and to misfortune, I would go miles--on foot,
+naturally--to see a girl cousin and an aunt, merely to have something to
+_tutoyer_. Sometimes they were not at home, and I had to come back with my
+_tu_, my thirst for confidence and familiarity and brotherliness."
+
+[211] For some facts and references to the extensive literature concerning
+this trade, see, e.g., Bloch, _Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, pp. 374-376;
+also K.M. Baer, _Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, Sept., 1908;
+Paulucci de Calboli, _Nuova Antologia_, April, 1902.
+
+[212] These considerations do not, it is true, apply to many kinds of
+sexual perverts who form an important proportion of the clients of
+brothels. These can frequently find what they crave inside a brothel much
+more easily than outside.
+
+[213] Thus Charles Booth, in his great work on _Life and Labor in London_,
+final volume (p. 128), recommends that "houses of accommodation," instead
+of being hunted out, should be tolerated as a step towards the suppression
+of brothels.
+
+[214] "Towns like Woolwich, Aldershot, Portsmouth, Plymouth," it has been
+said, "abound with wretched, filthy monsters that bear no resemblance to
+women; but it is drink, scorn, brutality and disease which have reduced
+them to this state, not the mere fact of associating with men."
+
+[215] "The contract of prostitution in the opinion of prostitutes
+themselves," Bernaldo de Quirós and Llanas Aguilaniedo remark (_La Mala
+Vida en Madrid_, p. 254), "cannot be assimilated to a sale, nor to a
+contract of work, nor to any other form of barter recognized by the civil
+law. They consider that in these pacts there always enters an element
+which makes it much more like a gift in a matter in which no payment could
+be adequate. 'A woman's body is without price' is an axiom of
+prostitution. The money placed in the hands of her who procures the
+satisfaction of sexual desire is not the price of the act, but an offering
+which the priestess of Venus applies to her maintenance." To the Spaniard,
+it is true, every transaction which resembles trade is repugnant, but the
+principle underlying this feeling holds good of prostitution generally.
+
+[216] _Journal des Goncourt_, vol. iii; this was in 1866.
+
+[217] Rev. the Hon. C. Lyttelton, _Training of the Young in Laws of Sex_,
+p. 42.
+
+[218] See, e.g., R.W. Taylor, _Treatise on Sexual Disorders_, 1897, pp.
+74-5. Georg Hirth (_Wege zur Heimat_, 1909, p. 619) narrates the case of a
+young officer who, being excited by the caresses of his betrothed and
+having too much respect for her to go further than this, and too much
+respect for himself to resort to masturbation, knew nothing better than to
+go to a prostitute. Syphilis developed a few days after the wedding. Hirth
+adds, briefly, that the results were terrible.
+
+[219] It is an oft-quoted passage, but can scarcely be quoted too often:
+"You see that this wrought-iron plate is not quite flat: it sticks up a
+little, here towards the left--'cockles,' as we say. How shall we flatten
+it? Obviously, you reply, by hitting down on the part that is prominent.
+Well, here is a hammer, and I give the plate a blow as you advise. Harder,
+you say. Still no effect. Another stroke? Well, there is one, and another,
+and another. The prominence remains, you see: the evil is as great as
+ever--greater, indeed. But that is not all. Look at the warp which the
+plate has got near the opposite edge. Where it was flat before it is now
+curved. A pretty bungle we have made of it. Instead of curing the original
+defect we have produced a second. Had we asked an artisan practiced in
+'planishing,' as it is called, he would have told us that no good was to
+be done, but only mischief, by hitting down on the projecting part. He
+would have taught us how to give variously-directed and specially-adjusted
+blows with a hammer elsewhere: so attacking the evil, not by direct, but
+by indirect actions. The required process is less simple than you thought.
+Even a sheet of metal is not to be successfully dealt with after those
+common-sense methods in which you have so much confidence. What, then,
+shall we say about a society?... Is humanity more readily straightened
+than an iron plate?" (_The Study of Sociology_, p. 270.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE CONQUEST OF THE VENEREAL DISEASES.
+
+The Significance of the Venereal Diseases--The History of Syphilis--The
+Problem of Its Origin--The Social Gravity of Syphilis--The Social Dangers
+of Gonorrhoea--The Modern Change in the Methods of Combating
+Venereal Diseases--Causes of the Decay of the System of Police
+Regulation--Necessity of Facing the Facts--The Innocent Victims of
+Venereal Diseases--Diseases Not Crimes--The Principle of Notification--The
+Scandinavian System--Gratuitous Treatment--Punishment for Transmitting
+Venereal Diseases--Sexual Education in Relation to Venereal
+Diseases--Lectures, Etc.--Discussion in Novels and on the Stage--The
+"Disgusting" Not the "Immoral."
+
+
+It may, perhaps, excite surprise that in the preceding discussion of
+prostitution scarcely a word has been said of venereal diseases. In the
+eyes of many people, the question of prostitution is simply the question
+of syphilis. But from the psychological point of view with which we are
+directly concerned, as from the moral point of view with which we cannot
+fail to be indirectly concerned, the question of the diseases which may
+be, and so frequently are, associated with prostitution cannot be placed
+in the first line of significance. The two questions, however intimately
+they may be mingled, are fundamentally distinct. Not only would venereal
+diseases still persist even though prostitution had absolutely ceased,
+but, on the other hand, when we have brought syphilis under the same
+control as we have brought the somewhat analogous disease of leprosy, the
+problem of prostitution would still remain.
+
+Yet, even from the standpoint which we here occupy, it is scarcely
+possible to ignore the question of venereal disease, for the psychological
+and moral aspects of prostitution, and even the whole question of the
+sexual relationships, are, to some extent, affected by the existence of
+the serious diseases which are specially liable to be propagated by sexual
+intercourse.
+
+Fournier, one of the leading authorities on this subject, has well said
+that syphilis, alcoholism, and tuberculosis are the three modern plagues.
+At a much earlier period (1851) Schopenhauer in _Parerga und Paralipomena_
+had expressed the opinion that the two things which mark modern social
+life, in distinction from that of antiquity, and to the advantage of the
+latter, are the knightly principle of honor and venereal disease;
+together, he added, they have poisoned life, and introduced a hostile and
+even diabolical element into the relations of the sexes, which has
+indirectly affected all other social relationships.[220] It is like a
+merchandise, says Havelburg, of syphilis, which civilization has
+everywhere carried, so that only a very few remote districts of the globe
+(as in Central Africa and Central Brazil) are to-day free from it.[221]
+
+It is undoubtedly true that in the older civilized countries the
+manifestations of syphilis, though still severe and a cause of physical
+deterioration in the individual and the race, are less severe than they
+were even a generation ago.[222] This is partly the result of earlier and
+better treatment, partly, it is possible, the result also of the
+syphilization of the race, some degree of immunity having now become an
+inherited possession, although it must be remembered that an attack of
+syphilis does not necessarily confer immunity from the actual attack of
+the disease even in the same individual. But it must be added that, even
+though it has become less severe, syphilis, in the opinion of many, is
+nevertheless still spreading, even in the chief centres of civilization;
+this has been noted alike in Paris and in London.[223]
+
+According to the belief which is now tending to prevail, syphilis was
+brought to Europe at the end of the fifteenth century by the first
+discoverers of America. In Seville, the chief European port for America,
+it was known as the Indian disease, but when Charles VIII and his army
+first brought it to Italy in 1495, although this connection with the
+French was only accidental, it was called the Gallic disease, "a monstrous
+disease," said Cataneus, "never seen in previous centuries and altogether
+unknown in the world."
+
+The synonyms of syphilis were at first almost innumerable. It was in his
+Latin poem _Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus_, written before 1521 and
+published at Verona in 1530, that Fracastorus finally gave the disease its
+now universally accepted name, inventing a romantic myth to account for
+its origin.
+
+    Although the weight of authoritative opinion now seems to incline
+    towards the belief that syphilis was brought to Europe from
+    America, on the discovery of the New World, it is only within
+    quite recent years that that belief has gained ground, and it
+    scarcely even yet seems certain that what the Spaniards brought
+    back from America was really a disease absolutely new to the Old
+    World, and not a more virulent form of an old disease of which
+    the manifestations had become benign. Buret, for instance (_Le
+    Syphilis Aujourd'hui et chez les Anciens_, 1890), who some years
+    ago reached "the deep conviction that syphilis dates from the
+    creation of man," and believed, from a minute study of classic
+    authors, that syphilis existed in Rome under the Cæsars, was of
+    opinion that it has broken out at different places and at
+    different times, in epidemic bursts exhibiting different
+    combinations of its manifold symptoms, so that it passed
+    unnoticed at ordinary times, and at the times of its more intense
+    manifestation was looked upon as a hitherto unknown disease. It
+    was thus regarded in classic times, he considers, as coming from
+    Egypt, though he looked upon its real home as Asia. Leopold Glück
+    has likewise quoted (_Archiv für Dermatologie und Syphilis_,
+    January, 1899) passages from the medical epigrams of a sixteenth
+    century physician, Gabriel Ayala, declaring that syphilis is not
+    really a new disease, though popularly supposed to be so, but an
+    old disease which has broken out with hitherto unknown violence.
+    There is, however, no conclusive reason for believing that
+    syphilis was known at all in classic antiquity. A.V. Notthaft
+    ("Die Legende von der Althertums-syphilis," in the Rindfleisch
+    _Festschrift_, 1907, pp. 377-592) has critically investigated the
+    passages in classic authors which were supposed by Rosenbaum,
+    Buret, Proksch and others to refer to syphilis. It is quite
+    true, Notthaft admits, that many of these passages might possibly
+    refer to syphilis, and one or two would even better fit syphilis
+    than any other disease. But, on the whole, they furnish no proof
+    at all, and no syphilologist, he concludes, has ever succeeded in
+    demonstrating that syphilis was known in antiquity. That belief
+    is a legend. The most damning argument against it, Notthaft
+    points out, is the fact that, although in antiquity there were
+    great physicians who were keen observers, not one of them gives
+    any description of the primary, secondary, tertiary, and
+    congenital forms of this disease. China is frequently mentioned
+    as the original home of syphilis, but this belief is also quite
+    without basis, and the Japanese physician, Okamura, has shown
+    (_Monatsschrift für praktische Dermatologie_, vol. xxviii, pp.
+    296 et seq.) that Chinese records reveal nothing relating to
+    syphilis earlier than the sixteenth century. At the Paris Academy
+    of Medicine in 1900 photographs from Egypt were exhibited by
+    Fouquet of human remains which date from B.C. 2400, showing bone
+    lesions which seemed to be clearly syphilitic; Fournier, however,
+    one of the greatest of authorities, considered that the diagnosis
+    of syphilis could not be maintained until other conditions liable
+    to produce somewhat similar bone lesions had been eliminated
+    (_British Medical Journal_, September 29, 1900, p. 946). In
+    Florida and various regions of Central America, in undoubtedly
+    pre-Columbian burial places, diseased bones have been found which
+    good authorities have declared could not be anything else than
+    syphilitic (e.g., _British Medical Journal_, November 20, 1897,
+    p. 1487), though it may be noted that so recently as 1899 the
+    cautious Virchow stated that pre-Columbian syphilis in America
+    was still for him an open question (_Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_,
+    Heft 2 and 3, 1899, p. 216). From another side, Seler, the
+    distinguished authority on Mexican antiquity, shows (_Zeitschrift
+    für Ethnologie_, 1895, Heft 5, p. 449) that the ancient Mexicans
+    were acquainted with a disease which, as they described it, might
+    well have been syphilis. It is obvious, however, that while the
+    difficulty of demonstrating syphilitic diseased bones in America
+    is as great as in Europe, the demonstration, however complete,
+    would not suffice to show that the disease had not already an
+    existence also in the Old World. The plausible theory of Ayala
+    that fifteenth century syphilis was a virulent recrudescence of
+    an ancient disease has frequently been revived in more modern
+    times. Thus J. Knott ("The Origin of Syphilis," _New York Medical
+    Journal_, October 31, 1908) suggests that though not new in
+    fifteenth century Europe, it was then imported afresh in a form
+    rendered more aggravated by coming from an exotic race, as is
+    believed often to be the case.
+
+    It was in the eighteenth century that Jean Astruc began the
+    rehabilitation of the belief that syphilis is really a
+    comparatively modern disease of American origin, and since then
+    various authorities of weight have given their adherence to this
+    view. It is to the energy and learning of Dr. Iwan Bloch, of
+    Berlin (the first volume of whose important work, _Der Ursprung
+    der Syphilis_, was published in 1901) that we owe the fullest
+    statement of the evidence in favor of the American origin of
+    syphilis. Bloch regards Ruy Diaz de Isla, a distinguished Spanish
+    physician, as the weightiest witness for the Indian origin of the
+    disease, and concludes that it was brought to Europe by
+    Columbus's men from Central America, more precisely from the
+    Island of Haiti, to Spain in 1493 and 1494, and immediately
+    afterwards was spread by the armies of Charles VIII in an
+    epidemic fashion over Italy and the other countries of Europe.
+
+    It may be added that even if we have to accept the theory that
+    the central regions of America constitute the place of origin of
+    European syphilis, we still have to recognize that syphilis has
+    spread in the North American continent very much more slowly and
+    partially than it has in Europe, and even at the present day
+    there are American Indian tribes among whom it is unknown.
+    Holder, on the basis of his own experiences among Indian tribes,
+    as well as of wide inquiries among agency physicians, prepared a
+    table showing that among some thirty tribes and groups of tribes,
+    eighteen were almost or entirely free from venereal disease,
+    while among thirteen it was very prevalent. Almost without
+    exception, the tribes where syphilis is rare or unknown refuse
+    sexual intercourse with strangers, while those among whom such
+    disease is prevalent are morally lax. It is the whites who are
+    the source of infection among these tribes (A.B. Holder, "Gynecic
+    Notes Among the American Indians," _American Journal of
+    Obstetrics_, 1892, No. 1).
+
+Syphilis is only one, certainly the most important, of a group of three
+entirely distinct "venereal diseases" which have only been distinguished
+in recent times, and so far as their precise nature and causation are
+concerned, are indeed only to-day beginning to be understood, although two
+of them were certainly known in antiquity. It is but seventy years ago
+since Ricord, the great French syphilologist, following Bassereau, first
+taught the complete independence of syphilis both from gonorrhoea
+and soft chancre, at the same time expounding clearly the three stages,
+primary, secondary and tertiary, through which syphilitic manifestations
+tend to pass, while the full extent of tertiary syphilitic symptoms is
+scarcely yet grasped, and it is only to-day beginning to be generally
+realized that two of the most prevalent and serious diseases of the brain
+and nervous system--general paralysis and tabes dorsalis or locomotor
+ataxia--have their predominant though not sole and exclusive cause in the
+invasion of the syphilitic poison many years before. In 1879 a new stage
+of more precise knowledge of the venereal diseases began with Neisser's
+discovery of the gonococcus which is the specific cause of gonorrhoea.
+This was followed a few years later by the discovery by Ducrey and Unna of
+the bacillus of soft chancre, the least important of the venereal diseases
+because exclusively local in its effects. Finally, in 1905--after
+Metchnikoff had prepared the way by succeeding in carrying syphilis from
+man to monkey, and Lassar, by inoculation, from monkey to monkey--Fritz
+Schaudinn made his great discovery of the protozoal _Spirochoeta
+pallida_ (since sometimes called _Treponema pallidum_), which is now
+generally regarded as the cause of syphilis, and thus revealed the final
+hiding place of one of the most dangerous and insidious foes of
+humanity.[224]
+
+There is no more subtle poison than that of syphilis. It is not, like
+smallpox or typhoid, a disease which produces a brief and sudden storm, a
+violent struggle with the forces of life, in which it tends, even without
+treatment, provided the organism is healthy, to succumb, leaving little or
+no traces of its ravages behind. It penetrates ever deeper and deeper into
+the organism, with the passage of time leading to ever new manifestations,
+and no tissue is safe from its attack. And so subtle is this all-pervading
+poison that though its outward manifestations are amenable to prolonged
+treatment, it is often difficult to say that the poison has been finally
+killed out.[225]
+
+The immense importance of syphilis, and the chief reason why it is
+necessary to consider it here, lies in the fact that its results are not
+confined to the individual himself, nor even to the persons to whom he may
+impart it by the contagion due to contact in or out of sexual
+relationships: it affects the offspring, and it affects the power to
+produce offspring. It attacks men and women at the centre of life, as the
+progenitors of the coming race, inflicting either sterility or the
+tendency to aborted and diseased products of conception. The father alone
+can perhaps transmit syphilis to his child, even though the mother escapes
+infection, and the child born of syphilitic parents may come into the
+world apparently healthy only to reveal its syphilitic origin after a
+period of months or even years. Thus syphilis is probably a main cause of
+the enfeeblement of the race.[226]
+
+Alike in the individual and in his offspring syphilis shows its
+deteriorating effects on all the structures of the body, but especially on
+the brain and nervous system. There are, as has been pointed out by Mott,
+a leading authority in this matter,[227] five ways in which syphilis
+affects the brain and nervous system: (1) by moral shock; (2) by the
+effects of the poison in producing anæmia and impaired general nutrition;
+(3) by causing inflammation of the membranes and tissues of the brain; (4)
+by producing arterial degeneration, leading on to brain-softening,
+paralysis, and dementia; (5) as a main cause of the para-syphilitic
+affections of general paralysis and tabes dorsalis.
+
+It is only within recent years that medical men have recognized the
+preponderant part played by acquired or inherited syphilis in producing
+general paralysis, which so largely helps to fill lunatic asylums, and
+tabes dorsalis which is the most important disease of the spinal cord.
+Even to-day it can scarcely be said that there is complete agreement as
+to the supreme importance of the factor of syphilis in these diseases.
+There can, however, be little doubt that in about ninety-five per cent. at
+least of cases of general paralysis syphilis is present.[228]
+
+Syphilis is not indeed by itself an adequate cause of general paralysis
+for among many savage peoples syphilis is very common while general
+paralysis is very rare. It is, as Krafft-Ebing was accustomed to say,
+syphilization and civilization working together which produce general
+paralysis, perhaps in many cases, there is reason for thinking, on a
+nervous soil that is hereditarily degenerated to some extent; this is
+shown by the abnormal prevalence of congenital stigmata of degeneration
+found in general paralytics by Näcke and others. "Paralyticus nascitur
+atque fit," according to the dictum of Obersteiner. Once undermined by
+syphilis, the deteriorated brain is unable to resist the jars and strains
+of civilized life, and the result is general paralysis, truly described as
+"one of the most terrible scourges of modern times." In 1902 the
+Psychological Section of the British Medical Association, embodying the
+most competent English authority on this question, unanimously passed a
+resolution recommending that the attention of the Legislature and other
+public bodies should be called to the necessity for immediate action in
+view of the fact that "general paralysis, a very grave and frequent form
+of brain disease, together with other varieties of insanity, is largely
+due to syphilis, and is therefore preventable." Yet not a single step has
+yet been taken in this direction.
+
+The dangers of syphilis lie not alone in its potency and its persistence
+but also in its prevalence. It is difficult to state the exact incidence
+of syphilis, but a great many partial investigations have been made in
+various countries, and it would appear that from five to twenty per cent.
+of the population in European countries is syphilitic, while about fifteen
+per cent. of the syphilitic cases die from causes directly or indirectly
+due to the disease.[229] In France generally, Fournier estimates that
+seventeen per cent. of the whole population have had syphilis, and at
+Toulouse, Audry considers that eighteen per cent. of all his patients are
+syphilitic. In Copenhagen, where notification is obligatory, over four per
+cent. of the population are said to be syphilitic. In America a committee
+of the Medical Society of New York, appointed to investigate the question,
+reported as the result of exhaustive inquiry that in the city of New York
+not less than a quarter of a million of cases of venereal disease occurred
+every year, and a leading New York dermatologist has stated that among the
+better class families he knows intimately at least one-third of the sons
+have had syphilis. In Germany eight hundred thousand cases of venereal
+disease are by one authority estimated to occur yearly, and in the larger
+universities twenty-five per cent. of the students are infected every
+term, venereal disease being, however, specially common among students.
+The yearly number of men invalided in the German army by venereal diseases
+equals a third of the total number wounded in the Franco-Prussian war. Yet
+the German army stands fairly high as regards freedom from venereal
+disease when compared with the British army which is more syphilized than
+any other European army.[230] The British army, however, being
+professional and not national, is less representative of the people than
+is the case in countries where some form of conscription prevails. At one
+London hospital it could be ascertained that ten per cent. of the patients
+had had syphilis; this probably means a real proportion of about fifteen
+per cent., a high though not extremely high ratio. Yet it is obvious that
+even if the ratio is really lower than this the national loss in life and
+health, in defective procreation and racial deterioration, must be
+enormous and practically incalculable. Even in cash the venereal budget is
+comparable in amount to the general budget of a great nation. Stritch
+estimates that the cost to the British nation of venereal diseases in the
+army, navy and Government departments alone, amounts annually to
+£3,000,000, and when allowance is made for superannuations and sick-leave
+indirectly occasioned through these diseases, though not appearing in the
+returns as such, the more accurate estimate of the cost to the nation is
+stated to be £7,000,000. The adoption of simple hygienic measures for the
+prevention and the speedy cure of venereal diseases will be not only
+indirectly but even directly a source of immense wealth to the nation.
+
+Syphilis is the most obviously and conspicuously appalling of the venereal
+diseases. Yet it is less frequent and in some respects less dangerously
+insidious than the other chief venereal disease, gonorrhoea.[231]
+At one time the serious nature of gonorrhoea, especially in women, was
+little realized. Men accepted it with a light heart as a trivial accident;
+women ignored it. This failure to realize the gravity of gonorrhoea, even
+sometimes on the part of the medical profession--so that it has been
+popularly looked upon, in Grandin's words, as of little more significance
+than a cold in the nose--has led to a reaction on the part of some towards
+an opposite extreme, and the risks and dangers of gonorrhoea have been
+even unduly magnified. This is notably the case as regards sterility. The
+inflammatory results of gonorrhoea are indubitably a potent cause of
+sterility in both sexes; some authorities have stated that not only eighty
+per cent. of the deaths from inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs
+and the majority of the cases of chronic invalidism in women, but ninety
+per cent. of involuntary sterile marriages, are due to gonorrhoea.
+Neisser, a great authority, ascribes to this disease without doubt fifty
+per cent, of such marriages. Even this estimate is in the experience of
+some observers excessive. It is fully proved that the great majority of
+men who have had gonorrhoea, even if they marry within two years of being
+infected, fail to convey the disease to their wives, and even of the women
+infected by their husbands more than half have children. This is, for
+instance, the result of Erb's experience, and Kisch speaks still more
+strongly in the same sense. Bumm, again, although regarding gonorrhoea as
+one of the two chief causes of sterility in women, finds that it is not
+the most frequent cause, being only responsible for about one-third of the
+cases; the other two-thirds are due to developmental faults in the genital
+organs. Dunning in America has reached results which are fairly concordant
+with Bumm's.
+
+With regard to another of the terrible results of gonorrhoea, the part it
+plays in producing life-long blindness from infection of the eyes at
+birth, there has long been no sort of doubt. The Committee of the
+Ophthalmological Society in 1884, reported that thirty to forty-one per
+cent. of the inmates of four asylums for the blind in England owed their
+blindness to this cause.[232] In German asylums Reinhard found that thirty
+per cent. lost their sight from the same cause. The total number of
+persons blind from gonorrhoeal infection from their mothers at birth is
+enormous. The British Royal Commission on the Condition of the Blind
+estimated there were about seven thousand persons in the United Kingdom
+alone (or twenty-two per cent. of the blind persons in the country) who
+became blind as the result of this disease, and Mookerji stated in his
+address on Ophthalmalogy at the Indian Medical Congress of 1894 that in
+Bengal alone there were six hundred thousand totally blind beggars, forty
+per cent. of whom lost their sight at birth through maternal gonorrhoea;
+and this refers to the beggar class alone.
+
+Although gonorrhoea is liable to produce many and various calamities,[233]
+there can be no doubt that the majority of gonorrhoeal persons escape
+either suffering or inflicting any very serious injury. The special reason
+why gonorrhoea has become so peculiarly serious a scourge is its extreme
+prevalence. It is difficult to estimate the proportion of men and women in
+the general population who have had gonorrhoea, and the estimates vary
+within wide limits. They are often set too high. Erb, of Heidelberg,
+anxious to disprove exaggerated estimates of the prevalence of gonorrhoea,
+went over the records of two thousand two hundred patients in his private
+practice (excluding all hospital patients) and found the proportion of
+those who had suffered from gonorrhoea was 48.5 per cent.
+
+Among the working classes the disease is much less prevalent than among
+higher-class people. In a Berlin Industrial Sick Club, 412 per 10,000 men
+and 69 per 10,000 women had gonorrhoea in a year; taking a series of years
+the Club showed a steady increase in the number of men, and decrease in
+the number of women, with venereal infection; this seems to indicate that
+the laboring classes are beginning to have intercourse more with
+prostitutes and less with respectable girls.[234] In America Wood Ruggles
+has given (as had Noggerath previously, for New York), the prevalence of
+gonorrhoea among adult males as from 75 to 80 per cent.; Tenney places it
+much lower, 20 per cent. for males and 5 per cent. for females. In
+England, a writer in the _Lancet_, some years ago,[235] found as the
+result of experience and inquiries that 75 per cent. adult males have had
+gonorrhoea once, 40 per cent. twice, 15 per cent. three or more times.
+According to Dulberg about twenty per cent. of new cases occur in married
+men of good social class, the disease being comparatively rare among
+married men of the working class in England.
+
+Gonorrhoea in its prevalence is thus only second to measles and in the
+gravity of its results scarcely second to tuberculosis. "And yet," as
+Grandin remarks in comparing gonorrhoea to tuberculosis, "witness the
+activity of the crusade against the latter and the criminal apathy
+displayed when the former is concerned."[236] The public must learn to
+understand, another writer remarks, that "gonorrhoea is a pest that
+concerns its highest interests and most sacred relations as much as do
+smallpox, cholera, diphtheria, or tuberculosis."[237]
+
+It cannot fairly be said that no attempts have been made to beat back the
+flood of venereal disease. On the contrary, such attempts have been made
+from the first. But they have never been effectual;[238] they have never
+been modified to changed condition; at the present day they are
+hopelessly unscientific and entirely opposed alike to the social and the
+individual demands of modern peoples. At the various conferences on this
+question which have been held during recent years the only generally
+accepted conclusion which has emerged is that all the existing systems
+of interference or non-interference with prostitution are
+unsatisfactory.[239]
+
+The character of prostitution has changed and the methods of dealing with
+it must change. Brothels, and the systems of official regulation which
+grew up with special reference to brothels, are alike out of date; they
+have about them a mediæval atmosphere, an antiquated spirit, which now
+render them unattractive and suspected. The conspicuously distinctive
+brothel is falling into disrepute; the liveried prostitute absolutely
+under municipal control can scarcely be said to exist. Prostitution tends
+to become more diffused, more intimately mingled with social life
+generally, less easily distinguished as a definitely separable part of
+life. We can nowadays only influence it by methods of permeation which
+bear upon the whole of our social life.
+
+    The objection to the regulation of prostitution is still of slow
+    growth, but it is steadily developing everywhere, and may be
+    traced equally in scientific opinion and in popular feeling. In
+    France the municipalities of some of the largest cities have
+    either suppressed the system of regulation entirely or shown
+    their disapproval of it, while an inquiry among several hundred
+    medical men showed that less than one-third were in favor of
+    maintaining regulation (_Die Neue Generation_, June, 1909, p.
+    244). In Germany, where there is in some respects more patient
+    endurance of interference with the liberty of the individual than
+    in France, England, or America, various elaborate systems for
+    organizing prostitution and dealing with venereal disease
+    continue to be maintained, but they cannot be completely carried
+    out, and it is generally admitted that in any case they could not
+    accomplish the objects sought. Thus in Saxony no brothels are
+    officially tolerated, though as a matter of fact they
+    nevertheless exist. Here, as in many other parts of Germany, most
+    minute and extensive regulations are framed for the use of
+    prostitutes. Thus at Leipzig they must not sit on the benches in
+    public promenades, nor go to picture galleries, or theatres, or
+    concerts, or restaurants, nor look out of their windows, nor
+    stare about them in the street, nor smile, nor wink, etc., etc.
+    In fact, a German prostitute who possesses the heroic
+    self-control to carry out conscientiously all the self-denying
+    ordinances officially decreed for her guidance would seem to be
+    entitled to a Government pension for life.
+
+    Two methods of dealing with prostitution prevail in Germany. In
+    some cities public houses of prostitution are tolerated (though
+    not licensed); in other cities prostitution is "free," though
+    "secret." Hamburg is the most important city where houses of
+    prostitution are tolerated and segregated. But, it is stated,
+    "everywhere, by far the larger proportion of the prostitutes
+    belong to the so-called 'secret' class." In Hamburg, alone, are
+    suspected men, when accused of infecting women, officially
+    examined; men of every social class must obey a summons of this
+    kind, which is issued secretly, and if diseased, they are bound
+    to go under treatment, if necessary under compulsory treatment in
+    the city hospital, until no longer dangerous to the community.
+
+    In Germany it is only when a woman has been repeatedly observed
+    to act suspiciously in the streets that she is quietly warned; if
+    the warning is disregarded she is invited to give her name and
+    address to the police, and interviewed. It is not until these
+    methods fail that she is officially inscribed as a prostitute.
+    The inscribed women, in some cities at all events, contribute to
+    a sick benefit fund which pays their expenses when in hospital.
+    The hesitation of the police to inscribe a woman on the official
+    list is legitimate and inevitable, for no other course would be
+    tolerated; yet the majority of prostitutes begin their careers
+    very young, and as they tend to become infected very early after
+    their careers begin, it is obvious that this delay contributes to
+    render the system of regulation ineffective. In Berlin, where
+    there are no officially recognized brothels, there are some six
+    thousand inscribed prostitutes, but it is estimated that there
+    are over sixty thousand prostitutes who are not inscribed. (The
+    foregoing facts are taken from a series of papers describing
+    personal investigations in Germany made by Dr. F. Bierhoff, of
+    New York, "Police Methods for the Sanitary Control of
+    Prostitution," _New York Medical Journal_, August, 1907.) The
+    estimation of the amount of clandestine prostitution can indeed
+    never be much more than guesswork; exactly the same figure of
+    sixty thousand is commonly brought forward as the probable number
+    of prostitutes not only in Berlin, but also in London and in New
+    York. It is absolutely impossible to say whether it is under or
+    over the real number, for secret prostitution is quite
+    intangible. Even if the facts were miraculously revealed there
+    would still remain the difficulty of deciding what is and what is
+    not prostitution. The avowed and public prostitute is linked by
+    various gradations on the one side to the respectable girl living
+    at home who seeks some little relief from the oppression of her
+    respectability, and on the other hand to the married woman who
+    has married for the sake of a home. In any case, however, it is
+    very certain that public prostitutes living entirely on the
+    earnings of prostitution form but a small proportion of the vast
+    army of women who may be said, in a wide sense of the word, to be
+    prostitutes, i.e., who use their attractiveness to obtain from
+    men not love alone, but money or goods.
+
+"The struggle against syphilis is only possible if we agree to regard its
+victims as unfortunate and not as guilty.... We must give up the prejudice
+which has led to the creation of the term 'shameful diseases,' and which
+commands silence concerning this scourge of the family and of humanity."
+In these words of Duclaux, the distinguished successor of Pasteur at the
+Pasteur Institute, in his noble and admirable work _L'Hygiène Sociale_, we
+have indicated to us, I am convinced, the only road by which we can
+approach the rational and successful treatment of the great social problem
+of venereal disease.
+
+    The supreme importance of this key to the solution of a problem
+    which has often seemed insoluble is to-day beginning to become
+    recognized in all quarters, and in every country. Thus a
+    distinguished German authority, Professor Finger (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, Heft 5) declares that venereal disease must
+    not be regarded as the well-merited punishment for a debauched
+    life, but as an unhappy accident. It seems to be in France,
+    however, that this truth has been proclaimed with most courage
+    and humanity, and not alone by the followers of science and
+    medicine, but by many who might well be excused from interfering
+    with so difficult and ungrateful a task. Thus the brothers, Paul
+    and Victor Margueritte, who occupy a brilliant and honorable
+    place in contemporary French letters, have distinguished
+    themselves by advocating a more humane attitude towards
+    prostitutes, and a more modern method of dealing with the
+    question of venereal disease. "The true method of prevention is
+    that which makes it clear to all that syphilis is not a
+    mysterious and terrible thing, the penalty of the sin of the
+    flesh, a sort of shameful evil branded by Catholic malediction,
+    but an ordinary disease which may be treated and cured." It may
+    be remarked that the aversion to acknowledge venereal disease is
+    at least as marked in France as in any other country; "maladies
+    honteuses" is a consecrated French term, just as "loathsome
+    disease" is in English; "in the hospital," says Landret, "it
+    requires much trouble to obtain an avowal of gonorrhoea,
+    and we may esteem ourselves happy if the patient acknowledges the
+    fact of having had syphilis."
+
+No evils can be combated until they are recognized, simply and frankly,
+and honestly discussed. It is a significant and even symbolic fact that
+the bacteria of disease rarely flourish when they are open to the free
+currents of pure air. Obscurity, disguise, concealment furnish the best
+conditions for their vigor and diffusion, and these favoring conditions we
+have for centuries past accorded to venereal diseases. It was not always
+so, as indeed the survival of the word 'venereal' itself in this
+connection, with its reference to a goddess, alone suffices to show. Even
+the name "syphilis" itself, taken from a romantic poem in which
+Fracastorus sought a mythological origin for the disease, bears witness to
+the same fact. The romantic attitude is indeed as much out of date as that
+of hypocritical and shamefaced obscurantism. We need to face these
+diseases in the same simple, direct, and courageous way which has already
+been adopted successfully in the ease of smallpox, a disease which, of
+old, men thought analogous to syphilis and which was indeed once almost as
+terrible in its ravages.
+
+At this point, however, we encounter those who say that it is unnecessary
+to show any sort of recognition of venereal diseases, and immoral to do
+anything that might seem to involve indulgence to those who suffer from
+such diseases; they have got what they deserve and may well be left to
+perish. Those who take this attitude place themselves so far outside the
+pale of civilization--to say nothing of morality or religion--that they
+might well be disregarded. The progress of the race, the development of
+humanity, in fact and in feeling, has consisted in the elimination of an
+attitude which it is an insult to primitive peoples to term savage. Yet
+it is an attitude which should not be ignored for it still carries weight
+with many who are too weak to withstand those who juggle with fine moral
+phrases. I have even seen in a medical quarter the statement that venereal
+disease cannot be put on the same level with other infectious diseases
+because it is "the result of voluntary action." But all the diseases,
+indeed all the accidents and misfortunes of suffering human beings, are
+equally the involuntary results of voluntary actions. The man who is run
+over in crossing the street, the family poisoned by unwholesome food, the
+mother who catches the disease of the child she is nursing, all these
+suffer as the involuntary result of the voluntary act of gratifying some
+fundamental human instinct--the instinct of activity, the instinct of
+nutrition, the instinct of affection. The instinct of sex is as
+fundamental as any of these, and the involuntary evils which may follow
+the voluntary act of gratifying it stand on exactly the same level. This
+is the essential fact: a human being in following the human instincts
+implanted within him has stumbled and fallen. Any person who sees, not
+this essential fact but merely some subsidiary aspect of it, reveals a
+mind that is twisted and perverted; he has no claim to arrest our
+attention.
+
+But even if we were to adopt the standpoint of the would-be moralist, and
+to agree that everyone must be left to suffer his deserts, it is far
+indeed from being the fact that all those who contract venereal diseases
+are in any sense receiving their deserts. In a large number of cases the
+disease has been inflicted on them in the most absolutely involuntary
+manner. This is, of course, true in the case of the vast number of infants
+who are infected at conception or at birth. But it is also true in a
+scarcely less absolute manner of a large proportion of persons infected in
+later life.
+
+_Syphilis insontium_, or syphilis of the innocent, as it is commonly
+called, may be said to fall into five groups: (1) the vast army of
+congenitally syphilitic infants who inherit the disease from father or
+mother; (2) the constantly occurring cases of syphilis contracted, in the
+course of their professional duties, by doctors, midwives and wet-nurses;
+(3) infection as a result of affection, as in simple kissing; (4)
+accidental infection from casual contacts and from using in common the
+objects and utensils of daily life, such as cups, towels, razors, knives
+(as in ritual circumcision), etc; (5) the infection of wives by their
+husbands.[240]
+
+Hereditary congenital syphilis belongs to the ordinary pathology of the
+disease and is a chief element in its social danger since it is
+responsible for an enormous infantile mortality.[241] The risks of
+extragenital infection in the professional activity of doctors, midwives
+and wet-nurses is also universally recognized. In the case of wet-nurses
+infected by their employers' syphilitic infants at their breast, the
+penalty inflicted on the innocent is peculiarly harsh and unnecessary. The
+influence of infected low-class midwives is notably dangerous, for they
+may inflict widespread injury in ignorance; thus the case has been
+recorded of a midwife, whose finger became infected in the course of her
+duties, and directly or indirectly contaminated one hundred persons.
+Kissing is an extremely common source of syphilitic infection, and of all
+extragenital regions the mouth is by far the most frequent seat of primary
+syphilitic sores. In some cases, it is true, especially in prostitutes,
+this is the result of abnormal sexual contacts. But in the majority of
+cases it is the result of ordinary and slight kisses as between young
+children, between parents and children, between lovers and friends and
+acquaintances. Fairly typical examples, which have been reported, are
+those of a child, kissed by a prostitute, who became infected and
+subsequently infected its mother and grandmother; of a young French bride
+contaminated on her wedding-day by one of the guests who, according to
+French custom, kissed her on the cheek after the ceremony; of an American
+girl who, returning from a ball, kissed, at parting, the young man who had
+accompanied her home, thus acquiring the disease which she not long
+afterwards imparted in the same way to her mother and three sisters. The
+ignorant and unthinking are apt to ridicule those who point out the
+serious risks of miscellaneous kissing. But it remains nevertheless true
+that people who are not intimate enough to know the state of each other's
+health are not intimate enough to kiss each other. Infection by the use of
+domestic utensils, linen, etc., while comparatively rare among the better
+social classes, is extremely common among the lower classes and among the
+less civilized nations; in Russia, according to Tarnowsky, the chief
+authority, seventy per cent. of all cases of syphilis in the rural
+districts are due to this cause and to ordinary kissing, and a special
+conference in St. Petersburg in 1897, for the consideration of the methods
+of dealing with venereal disease, recorded its opinion to the same effect;
+much the same seems to be true regarding Bosnia and various parts of the
+Balkan peninsula where syphilis is extremely prevalent among the
+peasantry. As regards the last group, according to Bulkley in America,
+fifty per cent. of women generally contract syphilis innocently, chiefly
+from their husbands, while Fournier states that in France seventy-five per
+cent. of married women with syphilis have been infected by their husbands,
+most frequently (seventy per cent.) by husbands who were themselves
+infected before marriage and supposed that they were cured. Among men the
+proportion of syphilitics who have been accidentally infected, though less
+than among women, is still very considerable; it is stated to be at least
+ten per cent., and possibly it is a much larger proportion of cases. The
+scrupulous moralist who is anxious that all should have their deserts
+cannot fail to be still more anxious to prevent the innocent from
+suffering in place of the guilty. But it is absolutely impossible for him
+to combine these two aims; syphilis cannot be at the same time perpetuated
+for the guilty and abolished for the innocent.
+
+    I have been taking only syphilis into account, but nearly all
+    that is said of the accidental infection of syphilis applies with
+    equal or greater force to gonorrhoea, for though gonorrhoea does
+    not enter into the system by so many channels as syphilis, it is
+    a more common as well as a more subtle and elusive disease.
+
+    The literature of Syphilis Insontium is extremely extensive.
+    There is a bibliography at the end of Duncan Bulkley's _Syphilis
+    in the Innocent_, and a comprehensive summary of the question in
+    a Leipzig Inaugural Dissertation by F. Moses, _Zur Kasuistik der
+    Extragenitalen Syphilis-infektion_, 1904.
+
+Even, however, when we have put aside the vast number of venereally
+infected people who may be said to be, in the narrowest and most
+conventionally moral sense, "innocent" victims of the diseases they have
+contracted, there is still much to be said on this question. It must be
+remembered that the majority of those who contract venereal diseases by
+illegitimate sexual intercourse are young. They are youths, ignorant of
+life, scarcely yet escaped from home, still undeveloped, incompletely
+educated, and easily duped by women; in many cases they have met, as they
+thought, a "nice" girl, not indeed strictly virtuous but, it seemed to
+them, above all suspicion of disease, though in reality she was a
+clandestine prostitute. Or they are young girls who have indeed ceased to
+be absolutely chaste, but have not yet lost all their innocence, and who
+do not consider themselves, and are not by others considered, prostitutes;
+that indeed, is one of the rocks on which the system of police regulation
+of prostitution comes to grief, for the police cannot catch the prostitute
+at a sufficiently early stage. Of women who become syphilitic, according
+to Fournier, twenty per cent. are infected before they are nineteen; in
+hospitals the proportion is as high as forty per cent.; and of men fifteen
+per cent. cases occur between eleven and twenty-one years of age. The age
+of maximum frequency of infection is for women twenty years (in the rural
+population eighteen), and for men twenty-three years. In Germany Erb
+finds that as many as eighty-five per cent men with gonorrhoea
+contracted the disease between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five, a very
+small percentage being infected after thirty. These young things for the
+most part fell into a trap which Nature had baited with her most
+fascinating lure; they were usually ignorant; not seldom they were
+deceived by an attractive personality; often they were overcome by
+passion; frequently all prudence and reserve had been lost in the fumes of
+wine. From a truly moral point of view they were scarcely less innocent
+than children.
+
+    "I ask," says Duclaux, "whether when a young man, or a young
+    girl, abandon themselves to a dangerous caress society has done
+    what it can to warn them. Perhaps its intentions were good, but
+    when the need came for precise knowledge a silly prudery has held
+    it back, and it has left its children without _viaticum_.... I
+    will go further, and proclaim that in a large number of cases the
+    husbands who contaminate their wives are innocent. No one is
+    responsible for the evil which he commits without knowing it and
+    without willing it." I may recall the suggestive fact, already
+    referred to, that the majority of husbands who infect their wives
+    contracted the disease before marriage. They entered on marriage
+    believing that their disease was cured, and that they had broken
+    with their past. Doctors have sometimes (and quacks frequently)
+    contributed to this result by too sanguine an estimate of the
+    period necessary to destroy the poison. So great an authority as
+    Fournier formerly believed that the syphilitic could safely be
+    allowed to marry three or four years after the date of infection,
+    but now, with increased experience, he extends the period to four
+    or five years. It is undoubtedly true that, especially when
+    treatment has been thorough and prompt, the diseased
+    constitution, in a majority of cases, can be brought under
+    complete control in a shorter period than this, but there is
+    always a certain proportion of cases in which the powers of
+    infection persist for many years, and even when the syphilitic
+    husband is no longer capable of infecting his wife he may still
+    perhaps be in a condition to effect a disastrous influence on the
+    offspring.
+
+In nearly all these cases there was more or less ignorance--which is but
+another word for innocence as we commonly understand innocence--and when
+at last, after the event, the facts are more or less bluntly explained to
+the victim he frequently exclaims: "Nobody told me!" It is this fact which
+condemns the pseudo-moralist. If he had seen to it that mothers began to
+explain the facts of sex to their little boys and girls from childhood, if
+he had (as Dr. Joseph Price urges) taught the risks of venereal disease in
+the Sunday-school, if he had plainly preached on the relations of the
+sexes from the pulpit, if he had seen to it that every youth at the
+beginning of adolescence received some simple technical instruction from
+his family doctor concerning sexual health and sexual disease--then,
+though there would still remain the need of pity for those who strayed
+from a path that must always be difficult to walk in, the would-be
+moralist at all events would in some measure be exculpated. But he has
+seldom indeed lifted a finger to do any of these things.
+
+Even those who may be unwilling to abandon an attitude of private moral
+intolerance towards the victims of venereal diseases may still do well to
+remember that since the public manifestation of their intolerance is
+mischievous, and at the best useless, it is necessary for them to restrain
+it in the interests of society. They would not be the less free to order
+their own personal conduct in the strictest accordance with their superior
+moral rigidity; and that after all is for them the main thing. But for the
+sake of society it is necessary for them to adopt what they may consider
+the convention of a purely hygienic attitude towards these diseases. The
+erring are inevitably frightened by an attitude of moral reprobation into
+methods of concealment, and these produce an endless chain of social evils
+which can only be dissipated by openness. As Duclaux has so earnestly
+insisted, it is impossible to grapple successfully with venereal disease
+unless we consent not to introduce our prejudices, or even our morals and
+religion, into the question, but treat it purely and simply as a sanitary
+question. And if the pseudo-moralist still has difficulty in coöperating
+towards the healing of this social sore he may be reminded that he
+himself--like every one of us little though we may know it--has certainly
+had a great army of syphilitic and gonorrhoeal persons among his own
+ancestors during the past four centuries. We are all bound together, and
+it is absurd, even when it is not inhuman, to cast contempt on our own
+flesh and blood.
+
+I have discussed rather fully the attitude of those who plead morality as
+a reason for ignoring the social necessity of combating venereal disease,
+because although there may not be many who seriously and understandingly
+adopt so anti-social and inhuman an attitude there are certainly many who
+are glad at need of the existence of so fine an excuse for their moral
+indifference or their mental indolence.[242] When they are confronted by
+this great and difficult problem they find it easy to offer the remedy of
+conventional morality, although they are well aware that on a large scale
+that remedy has long been proved to be ineffectual. They ostentatiously
+affect to proffer the useless thick end of the wedge at a point where it
+is only possible with much skill and prudence to insinuate the thin
+working end.
+
+The general acceptance of the fact that syphilis and gonorrhoea
+are diseases, and not necessarily crimes or sins, is the condition for any
+practical attempt to deal with this question from the sanitary point of
+view which is now taking the place of the antiquated and ineffective
+police point of view. The Scandinavian countries of Europe have been the
+pioneers in practical modern hygienic methods of dealing with venereal
+disease. There are several reasons why this has come about. All the
+problems of sex--of sexual love as well as of sexual disease--have long
+been prominent in these countries, and an impatience with prudish
+hypocrisy seems here to have been more pronounced than elsewhere; we see
+this spirit, for instance, emphatically embodied in the plays of Ibsen,
+and to some extent in Björnson's works. The fearless and energetic temper
+of the people impels them to deal practically with sexual difficulties,
+while their strong instincts of independence render them averse to the
+bureaucratic police methods which have flourished in Germany and France.
+The Scandinavians have thus been the natural pioneers of the methods of
+combating venereal diseases which are now becoming generally recognized
+to be the methods of the future, and they have fully organized the system
+of putting venereal diseases under the ordinary law and dealing with them
+as with other contagious diseases.
+
+The first step in dealing with a contagious disease is to apply to it the
+recognized principles of notification. Every new application of the
+principle, it is true, meets with opposition. It is without practical
+result, it is an unwarranted inquisition into the affairs of the
+individual, it is a new tax on the busy medical practitioner, etc.
+Certainly notification by itself will not arrest the progress of any
+infectious disease. But it is an essential element in every attempt to
+deal with the prevention of disease. Unless we know precisely the exact
+incidence, local variations, and temporary fluctuations of a disease we
+are entirely in the dark and can only beat about at random. All progress
+in public hygiene has been accompanied by the increased notification of
+disease, and most authorities are agreed that such notification must be
+still further extended, any slight inconvenience thus caused to
+individuals being of trifling importance compared to the great public
+interests at stake. It is true that so great an authority as Neisser has
+expressed doubt concerning the extension of notification to gonorrhoea;
+the diagnosis cannot be infallible, and the patients often give false
+names. These objections, however, seem trivial; diagnosis can very seldom
+be infallible (though in this field no one has done so much for exact
+diagnosis as Neisser himself), and names are not necessary for
+notification, and are not indeed required in the form of compulsory
+notification of venereal disease which existed a few years ago in Norway.
+
+The principle of the compulsory notification of venereal diseases seems to
+have been first established in Prussia, where it dates from 1835. The
+system here, however, is only partial, not being obligatory in all cases
+but only when in the doctor's opinion secrecy might be harmful to the
+patient himself or to the community; it is only obligatory when the
+patient is a soldier. This method of notification is indeed on a wrong
+basis, it is not part of a comprehensive sanitary system but merely an
+auxiliary to police methods of dealing with prostitution. According to
+the Scandinavian system, notification, though not an essential part of
+this system, rests on an entirely different basis.
+
+The Scandinavian plan in a modified form has lately been established in
+Denmark. This little country, so closely adjoining Germany, for some time
+followed in this matter the example of its great neighbor and adopted the
+police regulation of prostitution and venereal disease. The more
+fundamental Scandinavian affinities of Denmark were, however, eventually
+asserted, and in 1906, the system of regulation was entirely abandoned and
+Denmark resolved to rely on thorough and systematic application of the
+sanitary principle already accepted in the country, although something of
+German influence still persists in the strict regulation of the streets
+and the penalties imposed upon brothel-keepers, leaving prostitution
+itself free. The decisive feature of the present system is, however, that
+the sanitary authorities are now exclusively medical. Everyone, whatever
+his social or financial position, is entitled to the free treatment of
+venereal disease. Whether he avails himself of it or not, he is in any
+case bound to undergo treatment. Every diseased person is thus, so far as
+it can be achieved, in a doctor's hands. All doctors have their
+instructions in regard to such cases, they have not only to inform their
+patients that they cannot marry so long as risks of infection are
+estimated to be present, but that they are liable for the expenses of
+treatment, as well as the dangers suffered, by any persons whom they may
+infect. Although it has not been possible to make the system at every
+point thoroughly operative, its general success is indicated by the entire
+reliance now placed on it, and the abandonment of the police regulation of
+prostitution. A system very similar to that of Denmark was established
+some years previously in Norway. The principle of the treatment of
+venereal disease at the public expense exists also in Sweden as well as in
+Finland, where treatment is compulsory.[243]
+
+It can scarcely be said that the principle of notification has yet been
+properly applied on a large scale to venereal diseases. But it is
+constantly becoming more widely advocated, more especially in England and
+the United States,[244] where national temperament and political
+traditions render the system of the police regulation of prostitution
+impossible--even if it were more effective than it practically is--and
+where the system of dealing with venereal disease on the basis of public
+health has to be recognized as not only the best but the only possible
+system.[245]
+
+In association with this, it is necessary, as is also becoming ever more
+widely recognized, that there should be the most ample facilities for the
+gratuitous treatment of venereal diseases; the general establishment of
+free dispensaries, open in the evenings, is especially necessary, for many
+can only seek advice and help at this time. It is largely to the
+systematic introduction of facilities for gratuitous treatment that the
+enormous reduction in venereal disease in Sweden, Norway, and Bosnia is
+attributed. It is the absence of the facilities for treatment, the implied
+feeling that the victims of venereal disease are not sufferers but merely
+offenders not entitled to care, that has in the past operated so
+disastrously in artificially promoting the dissemination of preventable
+diseases which might be brought under control.
+
+If we dispense with the paternal methods of police regulation, if we rely
+on the general principles of medical hygiene, and for the rest allow the
+responsibility for his own good or bad actions to rest on the individual
+himself, there is a further step, already fully recognized in principle,
+which we cannot neglect to take: We must look on every person as
+accountable for the venereal diseases he transmits. So long as we refuse
+to recognize venereal diseases as on the same level as other infectious
+diseases, and so long as we offer no full and fair facilities for their
+treatment, it is unjust to bring the individual to account for spreading
+them. But if we publicly recognize the danger of infectious venereal
+diseases, and if we leave freedom to the individual, we must inevitably
+declare, with Duclaux, that every man or woman must be held responsible
+for the diseases he or she communicates.
+
+According to the Oldenburg Code of 1814 it was a punishable offence for a
+venereally diseased person to have sexual intercourse with a healthy
+person, whether or not infection resulted. In Germany to-day, however,
+there is no law of this kind, although eminent German legal authorities,
+notably Von Liszt, are of opinion that a paragraph should be added to the
+Code declaring that sexual intercourse on the part of a person who knows
+that he is diseased should be punishable by imprisonment for a period not
+exceeding two years, the law not to be applied as between married couples
+except on the application of one of the parties. At the present time in
+Germany the transmission of venereal disease is only punishable as a
+special case of the infliction of bodily injury.[246] In this matter
+Germany is behind most of the Scandinavian countries where individual
+responsibility for venereal infection is well recognized and actively
+enforced.
+
+In France, though the law is not definite and satisfactory, actions for
+the transmission of syphilis are successfully brought before the courts.
+Opinion seems to be more decisively in favor of punishment for this
+offense than it is in Germany. In 1883 Després discussed the matter and
+considered the objections. Few may avail themselves of the law, he
+remarks, but all would be rendered more cautious by the fear of infringing
+it; while the difficulties of tracing and proving infection are not
+greater, he points out, than those of tracing and proving paternity in the
+case of illegitimate children. Després would punish with imprisonment for
+not more than two years any person, knowing himself to be diseased, who
+transmitted a venereal disease, and would merely fine those who
+communicated the contagion by imprudence, not realizing that they were
+diseased.[247] The question has more recently been discussed by Aurientis
+in a Paris thesis. He states that the present French law as regards the
+transmission of sexual diseases is not clearly established and is
+difficult to act upon, but it is certainly just that those who have been
+contaminated and injured in this way should easily be able to obtain
+reparation. Although it is admitted in principle that the communication of
+syphilis is an offence even under common law he is in agreement with those
+who would treat it as a special offence, making a new and more practical
+law.[248] Heavy damages are even at the present time obtained in the
+French courts from men who have infected young women in sexual
+intercourse, and also from the doctors as well as the mothers of
+syphilitic infants who have infected the foster-mothers they were
+entrusted to. Although the French Penal Code forbids in general the
+disclosure of professional secrets, it is the duty of the medical
+practitioner to warn the foster-mother in such a case of the danger she is
+incurring, but without naming the disease; if he neglects to give this
+warning he may be held liable.
+
+In England, as well as in the United States, the law is more
+unsatisfactory and more helpless, in relation to this class of offences,
+than it is in France. The mischievous and barbarous notion, already dealt
+with, according to which venereal disease is the result of illicit
+intercourse and should be tolerated as a just visitation of God, seems
+still to flourish in these countries with fatal persistency. In England
+the communication of venereal disease by illicit intercourse is not an
+actionable wrong if the act of intercourse has been voluntary, even
+although there has been wilful and intentional concealment of the disease.
+_Ex turpi causâ non oritur actio_, it is sententiously said; for there is
+much dormitative virtue in a Latin maxim. No legal offence has still been
+committed if a husband contaminates his wife, or a wife her husband.[249]
+The "freedom" enjoyed in this matter by England and the United States is
+well illustrated by an American case quoted by Dr. Isidore Dyer, of New
+Orleans, in his report to the Brussels Conference on the Prevention of
+Venereal Diseases, in 1899: "A patient with primary syphilis refused even
+charitable treatment and carried a book wherein she kept the number of men
+she had inoculated. When I first saw her she declared the number had
+reached two hundred and nineteen and that she would not be treated until
+she had had revenge on five hundred men." In a community where the most
+elementary rules of justice prevailed facilities would exist to enable
+this woman to obtain damages from the man who had injured her or even to
+secure his conviction to a term of imprisonment. In obtaining some
+indemnity for the wrong done her, and securing the "revenge" she craved,
+she would at the same time have conferred a benefit on society. She is
+shut out from any action against the one person who injured her; but as a
+sort of compensation she is allowed to become a radiating focus of
+disease, to shorten many lives, to cause many deaths, to pile up
+incalculable damages; and in so doing she is to-day perfectly within her
+legal rights. A community which encourages this state of things is not
+only immoral but stupid.
+
+There seems, however, to be a growing body of influential opinion, both in
+England and in the United States, in favor of making the transmission of
+venereal disease an offence punishable by heavy fine or by
+imprisonment.[250] In any enactment no stress should be put on the
+infection being conveyed "knowingly." Any formal limitation of this kind
+is unnecessary, as in such a case the Court always takes into account the
+offender's ignorance or mere negligence, and it is mischievous because it
+tends to render an enactment ineffective and to put a premium on
+ignorance; the husbands who infect their wives with gonorrhoea
+immediately after marriage have usually done so from ignorance, and it
+should be at least necessary for them to prove that they have been
+fortified in their ignorance by medical advice. It is sometimes said that
+the existing law could be utilized for bringing actions of this kind, and
+that no greater facilities should be offered for fear of increasing
+attempts at blackmail. The inutility of the law at present for this
+purpose is shown by the fact that it seldom or never happens that any
+attempt is made to utilize it, while not only are there a number of
+existing punishable offences which form the subject of attempts at
+blackmail, but blackmail can still be demanded even in regard to
+disreputable actions that are not legally punishable at all. Moreover, the
+attempt to levy blackmail is itself an offence always sternly dealt with
+in the courts.
+
+It is possible to trace the beginning of a recognition that the
+transmission of a venereal disease is a matter of which legal cognizance
+may be taken in the English law courts. It is now well settled that the
+infection of a wife by her husband may be held to constitute the legal
+cruelty which, according to the present law, must be proved, in addition
+to adultery, before a wife can obtain divorce from her husband. In 1777
+Restif de la Bretonne proposed in his _Gynographes_ that the communication
+of a venereal disease should itself be an adequate ground for divorce;
+this, however, is not at present generally accepted.[251]
+
+It is sometimes said that it is very well to make the individual legally
+responsible for the venereal disease he communicates, but that the
+difficulties of bringing that responsibility home would still remain. And
+those who admit these difficulties frequently reply that at the worst we
+should have in our hands a means of educating responsibility; the man who
+deliberately ran the risk of transmitting such infection would be made to
+feel that he was no longer fairly within his legal rights but had done a
+bad action. We are thus led on finally to what is now becoming generally
+recognized as the chief and central method of combating venereal disease,
+if we are to accept the principle of individual responsibility as ruling
+in this sphere of life. Organized sanitary and medical precautions, and
+proper legal protection for those who have been injured, are inoperative
+without the educative influence of elementary hygienic instruction placed
+in the possession of every young man and woman. In a sphere that is
+necessarily so intimate medical organization and legal resort can never be
+all-sufficing; knowledge is needed at every step in every individual to
+guide and even to awaken that sense of personal moral responsibility which
+must here always rule. Wherever the importance of these questions is
+becoming acutely realized--and notably at the Congresses of the German
+Society for Combating Venereal Disease--the problem is resolving itself
+mainly into one of education.[252] And although opinion and practice in
+this matter are to-day more advanced in Germany than elsewhere the
+conviction of this necessity is becoming scarcely less pronounced in all
+other civilized countries, in England and America as much as in France and
+the Scandinavian lands.
+
+A knowledge of the risks of disease by sexual intercourse, both in and out
+of marriage,--and indeed, apart from sexual intercourse altogether,--is a
+further stage of that sexual education which, as we have already seen,
+must begin, so far as the elements are concerned, at a very early age.
+Youths and girls should be taught, as the distinguished Austrian
+economist, Anton von Menger wrote, shortly before his death, in his
+excellent little book, _Neue Sittenlehre_, that the production of children
+is a crime when the parents are syphilitic or otherwise incompetent
+through transmissible chronic diseases. Information about venereal disease
+should not indeed be given until after puberty is well established. It is
+unnecessary and undesirable to impart medical knowledge to young boys and
+girls and to warn them against risks they are yet little liable to be
+exposed to. It is when the age of strong sexual instinct, actual or
+potential, begins that the risks, under some circumstances, of yielding to
+it, need to be clearly present to the mind. No one who reflects on the
+actual facts of life ought to doubt that it is in the highest degree
+desirable that every adolescent youth and girl ought to receive some
+elementary instruction in the general facts of venereal disease,
+tuberculosis, and alcoholism. These three "plagues of civilization" are so
+widespread, so subtle and manifold in their operation, that everyone comes
+in contact with them during life, and that everyone is liable to suffer,
+even before he is aware, perhaps hopelessly and forever, from the results
+of that contact. Vague declamation about immorality and vaguer warnings
+against it have no effect and possess no meaning, while rhetorical
+exaggeration is unnecessary. A very simple and concise statement of the
+actual facts concerning the evils that beset life is quite sufficient and
+adequate, and quite essential. To ignore this need is only possible to
+those who take a dangerously frivolous view of life.
+
+It is the young woman as much as the youth who needs this enlightenment.
+There are still some persons so ill-informed as to believe that though it
+may be necessary to instruct the youth it is best to leave his sister
+unsullied, as they consider it, by a knowledge of the facts of life. This
+is the very reverse of the truth. It is desirable indeed that all should
+be acquainted with facts so vital to humanity, even although not
+themselves personally concerned. But the girl is even more concerned than
+the youth. A man has the matter more within his own grasp, and if he so
+chooses he may avoid all the grosser risks of contact with venereal
+disease. But it is not so with the woman. Whatever her own purity, she
+cannot be sure that she may not have to guard against the possibility of
+disease in her future husband as well as in those to whom she may entrust
+her child. It is a possibility which the educated woman, so far from
+being dispensed from, is more liable to encounter than is the
+working-class woman, for venereal disease is less prevalent among the poor
+than the rich.[253] The careful physician, even when his patient is a
+minister of religion, considers it his duty to inquire if he has had
+syphilis, and the clergyman of most severely correct life recognizes the
+need of such inquiry and may perhaps smile, but seldom feels himself
+insulted. The relationship between husband and wife is even much more
+intimate and important than that between doctor and patient, and a woman
+is not dispensed from the necessity of such inquiry concerning her future
+husband by the conviction that the reply must surely be satisfactory.
+Moreover, it may well be in some cases that, if she is adequately
+enlightened, she may be the means of saving him, before it is too late,
+from the guilt of premature marriage and its fateful consequences, so
+deserving to earn his everlasting gratitude. Even if she fails in winning
+that, she still has her duty to herself and to the future race which her
+children will help to form.
+
+    In most countries there is a growing feeling in favor of the
+    enlightenment of young women equally with young men as regards
+    venereal diseases. Thus in Germany Max Flesch, in his
+    _Prostitution und Frauenkrankheiten_, considers that at the end
+    of their school days all girls should receive instruction
+    concerning the grave physical and social dangers to which women
+    are exposed in life. In France Duclaux (in his _L'Hygiène
+    Sociale_) is emphatic that women must be taught. "Already," he
+    states, "doctors who by custom have been made, in spite of
+    themselves, the husband's accomplices, will tell you of the
+    ironical gaze they sometimes encounter when they seek to lead a
+    wife astray concerning the causes of her ills. The day is
+    approaching of a revolt against the social lie which has made so
+    many victims, and you will be obliged to teach women what they
+    need to know in order to guard themselves against you." It is the
+    same in America. Reform in this field, Isidore Dyer declares,
+    must emblazon on its flag the motto, "Knowledge is Health," as
+    well of mind as of body, for women as well as for men. In a
+    discussion introduced by Denslow Lewis at the annual meeting of
+    the American Medical Association in 1901 on the limitation of
+    venereal diseases (_Medico-Legal Journal_, June and September,
+    1903), there was a fairly general agreement among all the
+    speakers that almost or quite the chief method of prevention lay
+    in education, the education of women as much as of men.
+    "Education lies at the bottom of the whole thing," declared one
+    speaker (Seneca Egbert, of Philadelphia), "and we will never gain
+    much headway until every young man, and every young woman, even
+    before she falls in love and becomes engaged, knows what these
+    diseases are, and what it will mean if she marries a man who has
+    contracted them." "Educate father and mother, and they will
+    educate their sons and daughters," exclaims Egbert Grandin, more
+    especially in regard to gonorrhoea (_Medical Record_, May 26,
+    1906); "I lay stress on the daughter because she becomes the
+    chief sufferer from inoculation, and it is her right to know that
+    she should protect herself against the gonorrhoeic as well as
+    against the alcoholic."
+
+We must fully face the fact that it is the woman herself who must be
+accounted responsible, as much as a man, for securing the right conditions
+of a marriage she proposes to enter into. In practice, at the outset, that
+responsibility may no doubt be in part delegated to parents or guardians.
+It is unreasonable that any false delicacy should be felt about this
+matter on either side. Questions of money and of income are discussed
+before marriage, and as public opinion grows sounder none will question
+the necessity of discussing the still more serious question of health,
+alike that of the prospective bridegroom and of the bride. An incalculable
+amount of disease and marital unhappiness would be prevented if before an
+engagement was finally concluded each party placed himself or herself in
+the hands of a physician and authorized him to report to the other party.
+Such a report would extend far beyond venereal disease. If its necessity
+became generally recognized it would put an end to much fraud which now
+takes place when entering the marriage bond. It constantly happens at
+present that one party or the other conceals the existence of some serious
+disease or disability which is speedily discovered after marriage,
+sometimes with a painful and alarming shock--as when a man discovers his
+wife in an epileptic fit on the wedding night--and always with the bitter
+and abiding sense of having been duped. There can be no reasonable doubt
+that such concealment is an adequate cause of divorce. Sir Thomas More
+doubtless sought to guard against such frauds when he ordained in his
+_Utopia_ that each party should before marriage be shown naked to the
+other. The quaint ceremony he describes was based on a reasonable idea,
+for it is ludicrous, if it were not often tragic in its results, that any
+person should be asked to undertake to embrace for life a person whom he
+or she has not so much as seen.
+
+It may be necessary to point out that every movement in this direction
+must be the spontaneous action of individuals directing their own lives
+according to the rules of an enlightened conscience, and cannot be
+initiated by the dictation of the community as a whole enforcing its
+commands by law. In these matters law can only come in at the end, not at
+the beginning. In the essential matters of marriage and procreation laws
+are primarily made in the brains and consciences of individuals for their
+own guidance. Unless such laws are already embodied in the actual practice
+of the great majority of the community it is useless for parliaments to
+enact them by statute. They will be ineffective or else they will be worse
+than ineffective by producing undesigned mischiefs. We can only go to the
+root of the matter by insisting on education in moral responsibility and
+instruction, in matters of fact.
+
+The question arises as to the best person to impart this instruction. As
+we have seen there can be little doubt that before puberty the parents,
+and especially the mother, are the proper instructors of their children in
+esoteric knowledge. But after puberty the case is altered. The boy and the
+girl are becoming less amenable to parental influence, there is greater
+shyness on both sides, and the parents rarely possess the more technical
+knowledge that is now required. At this stage it seems that the assistance
+of the physician, of the family doctor if he has the proper qualities for
+the task, should be called in. The plan usually adopted, and now widely
+carried out, is that of lectures setting forth the main facts concerning
+venereal diseases, their dangers, and allied topics.[254] This method is
+quite excellent. Such lectures should be delivered at intervals by medical
+lecturers at all urban, educational, manufacturing, military, and naval
+centres, wherever indeed a large number of young persons are gathered
+together. It should be the business of the central educational authority
+either to carry them out or to enforce on those controlling or employing
+young persons the duty of providing such lectures. The lectures should be
+free to all who have attained the age of sixteen.
+
+    In Germany the principle of instruction by lectures concerning
+    venereal diseases seems to have become established, at all events
+    so far as young men are concerned, and such lectures are
+    constantly becoming more usual. In 1907 the Minister of Education
+    established courses of lectures by doctors on sexual hygiene and
+    venereal diseases for higher schools and educational
+    institutions, though attendance was not made compulsory. The
+    courses now frequently given by medical men to the higher classes
+    in German secondary schools on the general principles of sexual
+    anatomy and physiology nearly always include sexual hygiene with
+    special reference to venereal diseases (see, e.g.,
+    _Sexualpädagogik_, pp. 131-153). In Austria, also, lectures on
+    personal hygiene and the dangers of venereal disease are
+    delivered to students about to leave the gymnasium for the
+    university; and the working men's clubs have instituted regular
+    courses of lectures on the same subjects delivered by physicians.
+    In France many distinguished men, both inside and outside the
+    medical profession, are working for the cause of the instruction
+    of the young in sexual hygiene, though they have to contend
+    against a more obstinate degree of prejudice and prudery on the
+    part of the middle class than is to be found in the Germanic
+    lands. The Commission Extraparlementaire du Régime des Moeurs,
+    with the conjunction of Augagneur, Alfred Fournier, Yves Guyot,
+    Gide, and other distinguished professors, teachers, etc., has
+    lately pronounced in favor of the official establishment of
+    instruction in sexual hygiene, to be given in the highest classes
+    at the lycées, or in the earliest class at higher educational
+    colleges; such instruction, it is argued, would not only furnish
+    needed enlightenment, but also educate the sense of moral
+    responsibility. There is in France, also, an active and
+    distinguished though unofficial Société Française de Prophylaxie
+    Sanitaire et Morale, which delivers public lectures on sexual
+    hygiene. Fournier, Pinard, Burlureaux and other eminent
+    physicians have written pamphlets on this subject for popular
+    distribution (see, e.g., _Le Progrès Médical_ of September,
+    1907). In England and the United States very little has yet been
+    done in this direction, but in the United States, at all events,
+    opinion in favor of action is rapidly growing (see, e.g., W.A.
+    Funk, "The Venereal Peril," _Medical Record_, April 13, 1907).
+    The American Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis (based on
+    the parent society founded in Paris in 1900 by Fournier) was
+    established in New York in 1905. There are similar societies in
+    Chicago and Philadelphia. The main object is to study venereal
+    diseases and to work toward their social control. Doctors,
+    laymen, and women are members. Lectures and short talks are now
+    given under the auspices of these societies to small groups of
+    young women in social settlements, and in other ways, with
+    encouraging success; it is found to be an excellent method of
+    reaching the young women of the working classes. Both men and
+    women physicians take part in the lectures (Clement Cleveland,
+    Presidential Address on "Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases,"
+    _Transactions American Gynecological Society_, Philadelphia, vol.
+    xxxii, 1907).
+
+    An important auxiliary method of carrying out the task of sexual
+    hygiene, and at the same time of spreading useful enlightenment,
+    is furnished by the method of giving to every syphilitic patient
+    in clinics where such cases are treated a card of instruction for
+    his guidance in hygienic matters, together with a warning of the
+    risks of marriage within four or five years after infection, and
+    in no case without medical advice. Such printed instruction, in
+    clear, simple, and incisive language, should be put into the
+    hands of every syphilitic patient as a matter of routine, and it
+    might be as well to have a corresponding card for gonorrhoeal
+    patients. This plan has already been introduced at some
+    hospitals, and it is so simple and unobjectionable a precaution
+    that it will, no doubt, be generally adopted. In some countries
+    this measure is carried out on a wider scale. Thus in Austria, as
+    the result of a movement in which several university professors
+    have taken an active part, leaflets and circulars, explaining
+    briefly the chief symptoms of venereal diseases and warning
+    against quacks and secret remedies, are circulated among young
+    laborers and factory hands, matriculating students, and scholars
+    who are leaving trade schools.
+
+    In France, where great social questions are sometimes faced with
+    a more chivalrous daring than elsewhere, the dangers of syphilis,
+    and the social position of the prostitute, have alike been dealt
+    with by distinguished novelists and dramatists. Huysmans
+    inaugurated this movement with his first novel, _Marthe_, which
+    was immediately suppressed by the police. Shortly afterwards
+    Edmond de Goncourt published _La Fille Elisa_, the first notable
+    novel of the kind by a distinguished author. It was written with
+    much reticence, and was not indeed a work of high artistic
+    value, but it boldly faced a great social problem and clearly set
+    forth the evils of the common attitude towards prostitution. It
+    was dramatized and played by Antoine at the Théâtre Libre, but
+    when, in 1891, Antoine wished to produce it at the
+    Porte-Saint-Martin Theatre, the censor interfered and prohibited
+    the play on account of its "contexture générale." The Minister of
+    Education defended this decision on the ground that there was
+    much in the play that might arouse repugnance and disgust.
+    "Repugnance here is more moral than attraction," exclaimed M.
+    Paul Déroulède, and the newspapers criticized a censure which
+    permitted on the stage all the trivial indecencies which favor
+    prostitution, but cannot tolerate any attack on prostitution. In
+    more recent years the brothers Margueritte, both in novels and in
+    journalism, have largely devoted their distinguished abilities
+    and high literary skill to the courageous and enlightened
+    advocacy of many social reforms. Victor Margueritte, in his
+    _Prostituée_ (1907)--a novel which has attracted wide attention
+    and been translated into various languages--has sought to
+    represent the condition of women in our actual society, and more
+    especially the condition of the prostitute under what he regards
+    as the odious and iniquitous system still prevailing. The book is
+    a faithful picture of the real facts, thanks to the assistance
+    the author received from the Paris Préfecture of Police, and
+    largely for that reason is not altogether a satisfactory work of
+    art, but it vividly and poignantly represents the cruelty,
+    indifference, and hypocrisy so often shown by men towards women,
+    and is a book which, on that account, cannot be too widely read.
+    One of the most notable of modern plays is Brieux's _Les Avariés_
+    (1902). This distinguished dramatist, himself a medical man,
+    dedicates his play to Fournier, the greatest of syphilographers.
+    "I think with you," he writes here, "that syphilis will lose much
+    of its danger when it is possible to speak openly of an evil
+    which is neither a shame nor a punishment, and when those who
+    suffer from it, knowing what evils they may propagate, will
+    better understand their duties towards others and towards
+    themselves." The story developed in the drama is the old and
+    typical story of the young man who has spent his bachelor days in
+    what he considers a discrete and regular manner, having only had
+    two mistresses, neither of them prostitutes, but at the end of
+    this period, at a gay supper at which he bids farewell to his
+    bachelor life, he commits a fatal indiscretion and becomes
+    infected by syphilis; his marriage is approaching and he goes to
+    a distinguished specialist who warns him that treatment takes
+    time, and that marriage is impossible for several years; he finds
+    a quack, however, who undertakes to cure him in six months; at
+    the end of the time he marries; a syphilitic child is born; the
+    wife discovers the state of things and forsakes her home to
+    return to her parents; her indignant father, a deputy in
+    Parliament, arrives in Paris; the last word is with the great
+    specialist who brings finally some degree of peace and hope into
+    the family. The chief morals Brieux points out are that it is the
+    duty of the bride's parents before marriage to ascertain the
+    bridegroom's health; that the bridegroom should have a doctor's
+    certificate; that at every marriage the part of the doctors is at
+    least as important as that of the lawyers. Even if it were a less
+    accomplished work of art than it is, _Les Avariés_ is a play
+    which, from the social and educative point of view alone, all who
+    have reached the age of adolescence should be compelled to see.
+
+    Another aspect of the same problem has been presented in _Plus
+    Fort que le Mal_, a book written in dramatic form (though not as
+    a properly constituted play intended for the stage) by a
+    distinguished French medical author who here adopts the name of
+    Espy de Metz. The author (who is not, however, pleading _pro
+    domo_) calls for a more sympathetic attitude towards those who
+    suffer from syphilis, and though he writes with much less
+    dramatic skill than Brieux, and scarcely presents his moral in so
+    unequivocal a form, his work is a notable contribution to the
+    dramatic literature of syphilis.
+
+    It will probably be some time before these questions, poignant as
+    they are from the dramatic point of view, and vitally important
+    from the social point of view, are introduced on the English or
+    the American stage. It is a remarkable fact that, notwithstanding
+    the Puritanic elements which still exist in Anglo-Saxon thought
+    and feeling generally, the Puritanic aspect of life has never
+    received embodiment in the English or American drama. On the
+    English stage it is never permitted to hint at the tragic side of
+    wantonness; vice must always be made seductive, even though a
+    _deus ex machina_ causes it to collapse at the end of the
+    performance. As Mr. Bernard Shaw has said, the English theatrical
+    method by no means banishes vice; it merely consents that it
+    shall be made attractive; its charms are advertised and its
+    penalties suppressed. "Now, it is futile to plead that the stage
+    is not the proper place for the representation and discussion of
+    illegal operations, incest, and venereal disease. If the stage is
+    the proper place for the exhibition and discussion of seduction,
+    adultery, promiscuity, and prostitution, it must be thrown open
+    to all the consequences of these things, or it will demoralize
+    the nation."
+
+    The impulse to insist that vice shall always be made attractive
+    is not really, notwithstanding appearances, a vicious impulse. It
+    arises from a mental confusion, a common psychic tendency, which
+    is by no means confined to Anglo-Saxon lands, and is even more
+    well marked among the better educated in the merely literary
+    sense, than among the worse educated people. The æsthetic is
+    confused with the moral, and what arouses disgust is thus
+    regarded as immoral. In France the novels of Zola, the most
+    pedestrianally moralistic of writers, were for a long time
+    supposed to be immoral because they were often disgusting. The
+    same feeling is still more widespread in England. If a
+    prostitute is brought on the stage, and she is pretty,
+    well-dressed, seductive, she may gaily sail through the play and
+    every one is satisfied. But if she were not particularly pretty,
+    well-dressed, or seductive, if it were made plain that she was
+    diseased and was reckless in infecting others with that disease,
+    if it were hinted that she could on occasion be foul-mouthed, if,
+    in short, a picture were shown from life--then we should hear
+    that the unfortunate dramatist had committed something that was
+    "disgusting" and "immoral." Disgusting it might be, but, on that
+    very account, it would be moral. There is a distinction here that
+    the psychologist cannot too often point out or the moralist too
+    often emphasize.
+
+It is not for the physician to complicate and confuse his own task as
+teacher by mixing it up with considerations which belong to the spiritual
+sphere. But in carrying out impartially his own special work of
+enlightenment he will always do well to remember that there is in the
+adolescent mind, as it has been necessary to point out in a previous
+chapter, a spontaneous force working on the side of sexual hygiene. Those
+who believe that the adolescent mind is merely bent on sensual indulgence
+are not less false and mischievous in their influence than are those who
+think it possible and desirable for adolescents to be preserved in sheer
+sexual ignorance. However concealed, suppressed, or deformed--usually by
+the misplaced and premature zeal of foolish parents and teachers--there
+arise at puberty ideal impulses which, even though they may be rooted in
+sex, yet in their scope transcend sex. These are capable of becoming far
+more potent guides of the physical sex impulse than are merely material or
+even hygienic considerations.
+
+It is time to summarize and conclude this discussion of the prevention of
+venereal disease, which, though it may seem to the superficial observer to
+be merely a medical and sanitary question outside the psychologist's
+sphere, is yet seen on closer view to be intimately related even to the
+most spiritual conception of the sexual relationships. Not only are
+venereal diseases the foes to the finer development of the race, but we
+cannot attain to any wholesome and beautiful vision of the relationships
+of sex so long as such relationships are liable at every moment to be
+corrupted and undermined at their source. We cannot yet precisely measure
+the interval which must elapse before, so far as Europe at least is
+concerned, syphilis and gonorrhoea are sent to that limbo of monstrous old
+dead diseases to which plague and leprosy have gone and smallpox is
+already drawing near. But society is beginning to realize that into this
+field also must be brought the weapons of light and air, the sword and the
+breastplate with which all diseases can alone be attacked. As we have
+seen, there are four methods by which in the more enlightened countries
+venereal disease is now beginning to be combated.[255] (1) By proclaiming
+openly that the venereal diseases are diseases like any other disease,
+although more subtle and terrible than most, which may attack anyone from
+the unborn baby to its grandmother, and that they are not, more than other
+diseases, the shameful penalties of sin, from which relief is only to be
+sought, if at all, by stealth, but human calamities; (2) by adopting
+methods of securing official information concerning the extent,
+distribution, and variation of venereal disease, through the already
+recognized plan of notification and otherwise, and by providing such
+facilities for treatment, especially for free treatment, as may be found
+necessary; (3) by training the individual sense of moral responsibility,
+so that every member of the community may realize that to inflict a
+serious disease on another person, even only as a result of reckless
+negligence, is a more serious offence than if he or she had used the knife
+or the gun or poison as the method of attack, and that it is necessary to
+introduce special legal provision in every country to assist the recovery
+of damages for such injuries and to inflict penalties by loss of liberty
+or otherwise; (4) by the spread of hygienic knowledge, so that all
+adolescents, youths and girls alike, may be furnished at the outset of
+adult life with an equipment of information which will assist them to
+avoid the grosser risks of contamination and enable them to recognize and
+avoid danger at the earliest stages.
+
+A few years ago, when no method of combating venereal disease was known
+except that system of police regulation which is now in its decadence, it
+would have been impossible to bring forward such considerations as these;
+they would have seemed Utopian. To-day they are not only recognizable as
+practical, but they are being actually put into practice, although, it is
+true, with very varying energy and insight in different countries. Yet it
+is certain that in the competition of nationalities, as Max von Niessen
+has well said, "that country will best take a leading place in the march
+of civilization which has the foresight and courage to introduce and carry
+through those practical movements of sexual hygiene which have so wide and
+significant a bearing on its own future, and that of the human race
+generally."[256]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[220] It is probable that Schopenhauer felt a more than merely speculative
+interest in this matter. Bloch has shown good reason for believing that
+Schopenhauer himself contracted syphilis in 1813, and that this was a
+factor in constituting his conception of the world and in confirming his
+constitutional pessimism (_Medizinische Klinik_, Nos. 25 and 26, 1906).
+
+[221] Havelburg, in Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 186-189.
+
+[222] This is the very definite opinion of Lowndes after an experience of
+fifty-four years in the treatment of venereal diseases in Liverpool
+(_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 9, 1907, p. 334). It is further indicated
+by the fact (if it is a real fact) that since 1876 there has been a
+decline of both the infantile and general mortality from syphilis in
+England.
+
+[223] "There is no doubt whatever that syphilis is on the increase in
+London, judging from hospital work alone," says Pernet (_British Medical
+Journal_, March 30, 1907). Syphilis was evidently very prevalent, however,
+a century or two ago, and there is no ground for asserting positively that
+it is more prevalent to-day.
+
+[224] See, e.g., A. Neisser, _Die experimentelle Syphilisforschung_, 1906,
+and E. Hoffmann (who was associated with Schaudinn's discovery), _Die
+Aetiologie der Syphilis_, 1906; D'Arcy Power, _A System of Syphilis_,
+1908, etc.; F.W. Mott, "Pathology of Syphilis in the Light of Modern
+Research," _British Medical Journal_, February 20, 1909; also, _Archives
+of Neurology and Psychiatry_, vol. iv, 1909.
+
+[225] There is some difference of opinion on this point, and though it
+seems probable that early and thorough treatment usually cures the disease
+in a few years and renders further complications highly improbable, it is
+not possible, even under the most favorable circumstances, to speak with
+absolute certainty as to the future.
+
+[226] "That syphilis has been, and is, one of the chief causes of physical
+degeneration in England cannot be denied, and it is a fact that is
+acknowledged on all sides," writes Lieutenant-Colonel Lambkin, the medical
+officer in command of the London Military Hospital for Venereal Diseases.
+"To grapple with the treatment of syphilis among the civil population of
+England ought to be the chief object of those interested in that most
+burning question, the physical degeneration of our race" (_British Medical
+Journal_, August 19, 1905).
+
+[227] F.W. Mott, "Syphilis as a Cause of Insanity," _British Medical
+Journal_, October 18, 1902.
+
+[228] It can seldom be proved in more than eighty per cent. of cases, but
+in twenty per cent. of old syphilitic cases it is commonly impossible to
+find traces of the disease or to obtain a history of it. Crocker found
+that it was only in eighty per cent. of cases of absolutely certain
+syphilitic skin diseases that he could obtain a history of syphilitic
+infection, and Mott found exactly the same percentage in absolutely
+certain syphilitic lesions of the brain; Mott believes (e.g., "Syphilis in
+Relation to the Nervous System," _British Medical Journal_, January 4,
+1908) that syphilis is the essential cause of general paralysis and tabes.
+
+[229] Audry. _La Semaine Médicale_, June 26, 1907. When Europeans carry
+syphilis to lands inhabited by people of lower race, the results are often
+very much worse than this. Thus Lambkin, as a result of a special mission
+to investigate syphilis in Uganda, found that in some districts as many as
+ninety per cent, of the people suffer from syphilis, and fifty to sixty
+per cent, of the infant mortality is due to this cause. These people are
+Baganda, a highly intelligent, powerful, and well-organized tribe before
+they received, in the gift of syphilis, the full benefit of civilization
+and Christianity, which (Lambkin points out) has been largely the cause of
+the spread of the disease by breaking down social customs and emancipating
+the women. Christianity is powerful enough to break down the old morality,
+but not powerful enough to build up a new morality (_British Medical
+Journal_, October 3, 1908, p. 1037).
+
+[230] Even within the limits of the English army it is found In India
+(H.C. French, _Syphilis in the Army_, 1907) that venereal disease is ten
+times more frequent among British troops than among Native troops. Outside
+of national armies it is found, by admission to hospital and death rates,
+that the United States stands far away at the head for frequency of
+venereal disease, being followed by Great Britain, then France and
+Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany.
+
+[231] There is no dispute concerning the antiquity of gonorrhoea in the
+Old World as there is regarding syphilis. The disease was certainly known
+at a very remote period. Even Esarhaddon, the famous King of Assyria,
+referred to in the Old Testament, was treated by the priests for a
+disorder which, as described in the cuneiform documents of the time, could
+only have been gonorrhoea. The disease was also well known to the ancient
+Egyptians, and evidently common, for they recorded many prescriptions for
+its treatment (Oefele, "Gonorrhoe 1350 vor Christi Geburt," _Monatshefte
+für Praktische Dermatologie_, 1899, p. 260).
+
+[232] Cf. Memorandum by Sydney Stephenson, Report of Ophthalmia Neonatorum
+Committee, _British Medical Journal_, May 8, 1909.
+
+[233] The extent of these evils is set forth, e.g., in a comprehensive
+essay by Taylor, _American Journal Obstetrics_, January, 1908.
+
+[234] Neisser brings together figures bearing on the prevalence of
+gonorrhoea in Germany, Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, pp. 486-492.
+
+[235] _Lancet_, September 23, 1882. As regards women, Dr. Frances Ivens
+(_British Medical Journal_, June 19, 1909) has found at Liverpool that 14
+per cent. of gynæcological cases revealed the presence of gonorrhoea. They
+were mostly poor respectable married women. This is probably a high
+proportion, as Liverpool is a busy seaport, but it is less than Sänger's
+estimate of 18 per cent.
+
+[236] E.H. Grandin, _Medical Record_, May 26, 1906.
+
+[237] E.W. Cushing, "Sociological Aspects of Gonorrhoea," _Transactions
+American Gynecological Society_, vol. xxii, 1897.
+
+[238] It is only in very small communities ruled by an autocratic power
+with absolute authority to control conditions and to examine persons of
+both sexes that reglementation becomes in any degree effectual. This is
+well shown by Dr. W.E. Harwood, who describes the system he organized in
+the mines of the Minnesota Iron Company (_Journal American Medical
+Association_, December 22, 1906). The women in the brothels on the
+company's estate were of the lowest class, and disease was very prevalent.
+Careful examination of the women was established, and control of the men,
+who, immediately on becoming diseased, were bound to declare by what woman
+they had been infected. The woman was responsible for the medical bill of
+the man she infected, and even for his board, if incapacitated, and the
+women were compelled to maintain a fund for their own hospital expenses
+when required. In this way venereal disease, though not entirely uprooted,
+was very greatly diminished.
+
+[239] A clear and comprehensive statement of the present position of the
+question is given by Iwan Bloch, _Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, Chs.
+XIII-XV. How ineffectual the system of police regulation is, even in
+Germany, where police interference is tolerated to so marked a degree, may
+be illustrated by the case of Mannheim. Here the regulation of
+prostitution is very severe and thorough, yet a careful inquiry in 1905
+among the doctors of Mannheim (ninety-two of whom sent in detailed
+returns) showed that of six hundred cases of venereal disease in men,
+nearly half had been contracted from prostitutes. About half the remaining
+cases (nearly a quarter of the whole) were due to waitresses and
+bar-maids; then followed servant-girls (Lion and Loeb, in
+_Sexualpädagogik_, the Proceedings of the Third German Congress for
+Combating Venereal Diseases, 1907, p. 295).
+
+[240] A sixth less numerous class might be added of the young girls, often
+no more than children, who have been practically raped by men who believe
+that intercourse with a virgin is a cure for obstinate venereal disease.
+In America this belief is frequently held by Italians, Chinese, negroes,
+etc. W. Travis Gibb, Examining Physician of the New York Society for the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children, has examined over 900 raped children
+(only a small proportion, he states, of the cases actually occurring), and
+finds that thirteen per cent have venereal diseases. A fairly large
+proportion of these cases, among girls from twelve to sixteen, are, he
+states, willing victims. Dr. Flora Pollack, also, of the Johns Hopkins
+Hospital Dispensary, estimates that in Baltimore alone from 800 to 1,000
+children between the ages of one and fifteen are venereally infected every
+year. The largest number, she finds, is at the age of six, and the chief
+cause appears to be, not lust, but superstition.
+
+[241] For a discussion of inherited syphilis, see, e.g., Clement Lucas,
+_Lancet_, February 1, 1908.
+
+[242] Much harm has been done in some countries by the foolish and
+mischievous practice of friendly societies and sick clubs of ignoring
+venereal diseases, and not according free medical aid or sick pay to those
+members who suffer from them. This practice prevailed, for instance, in
+Vienna until 1907, when a more humane and enlightened policy was
+inaugurated, venereal diseases being placed on the same level as other
+diseases.
+
+[243] Active measures against venereal disease were introduced in Sweden
+early in the last century, and compulsory and gratuitous treatment
+established. Compulsory notification was introduced many years ago in
+Norway, and by 1907 there was a great diminution in the prevalence of
+venereal diseases; there is compulsory treatment.
+
+[244] See, e.g., Morrow, _Social Diseases and Marriage_, Ch. XXXVII.
+
+[245] A committee of the Medical Society of New York, appointed in 1902 to
+consider this question, reported in favor of notification without giving
+names and addresses, and Dr. C.R. Drysdale, who took an active part in the
+Brussels International Conference of 1899, advocated a similar plan in
+England, _British Medical Journal_, February 3, 1900.
+
+[246] Thus in Munich, in 1908, a man who had given gonorrhoea to a
+servant-girl was sent to prison for ten months on this ground. The state
+of German opinion to-day on this subject is summarized by Bloch,
+_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, p. 424.
+
+[247] A. Després, _La Prostitution à Paris_, p. 191.
+
+[248] F. Aurientis, _Etude Medico-légale sur la jurisprudence actuelle à
+propos de la Transmission des Maladies Venériennes_, Thèse de Paris, 1906.
+
+[249] In England at present "a husband knowingly and wilfully infecting
+his wife with the venereal disease, cannot be convicted criminally, either
+under a charge of assault or of inflicting grievous bodily harm" (N.
+Geary, _The Law of Marriage_, p. 479). This was decided in 1888 in the
+case of _R. v. Clarence_ by nine judges to four judges in the Court for
+the Consideration of Crown Cases Reserved.
+
+[250] Modern democratic sentiment is opposed to the sequestration of a
+prostitute merely because she is diseased. But there can be no reasonable
+doubt whatever that if a diseased prostitute infects another person, and
+is unable to pay the very heavy damages which should be demanded in such a
+case, she ought to be secluded and subjected to treatment. That is
+necessary in the interests of the community. But it is also necessary, to
+avoid placing a premium on the commission of an offence which would ensure
+gratuitous treatment and provision for a prostitute without means, that
+she should be furnished with facilities for treatment in any case.
+
+[251] It has, however, been decided by the Paris Court of Appeal that for
+a husband to marry when knowingly suffering from a venereal disease and to
+communicate that disease to his wife is a sufficient cause for divorce
+(_Semaine Médicale_, May, 1896).
+
+[252] The large volume, entitled _Sexualpädagogik_, containing the
+Proceedings of the Third of these Congresses, almost ignores the special
+subject of venereal disease, and is devoted to the questions involved by
+the general sexual education of the young, which, as many of the speakers
+maintained, must begin with the child at his mother's knee.
+
+[253] "Workmen, soldiers, and so on," Neisser remarks (Senator and
+Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, p. 485),
+"can more easily find non-prostitute girls of their own class willing to
+enter into amorous relations with them which result in sexual intercourse,
+and they are therefore less exposed to the danger of infection than those
+men who have recourse almost exclusively to prostitutes" (see also Bloch,
+_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, p. 437).
+
+[254] The character and extent of such lectures are fully discussed in the
+Proceedings of the Third Congress of the German Society for Combating
+Venereal Diseases, _Sexualpädagogik_, 1907.
+
+[255] I leave out of account, as beyond the scope of the present work, the
+auxiliary aids to the suppression of venereal diseases furnished by the
+promising new methods, only now beginning to be understood, of treating or
+even aborting such diseases (see, e.g., Metchnikoff, _The New Hygiene_,
+1906).
+
+[256] Max von Niessen, "Herr Doktor, darf ich heiraten?" _Mutterschutz_,
+1906, p. 352.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SEXUAL MORALITY.
+
+Prostitution in Relation to Our Marriage System--Marriage and
+Morality--The Definition of the Term "Morality"--Theoretical Morality--Its
+Division Into Traditional Morality and Ideal Morality--Practical
+Morality--Practical Morality Based on Custom--The Only Subject of
+Scientific Ethics--The Reaction Between Theoretical and Practical
+Morality--Sexual Morality in the Past an Application of Economic
+Morality--The Combined Rigidity and Laxity of This Morality--The
+Growth of a Specific Sexual Morality and the Evolution of Moral
+Ideals--Manifestations of Sexual Morality--Disregard of the Forms of
+Marriage--Trial Marriage--Marriage After Conception of Child--Phenomena in
+Germany, Anglo-Saxon Countries, Russia, etc.--The Status of Woman--The
+Historical Tendency Favoring Moral Equality of Women with Men--The Theory
+of the Matriarchate--Mother-Descent--Women in Babylonia--Egypt--Rome--The
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries--The Historical Tendency
+Favoring Moral Inequality of Woman--The Ambiguous Influence of
+Christianity--Influence of Teutonic Custom and Feudalism--Chivalry--Woman
+in England--The Sale of Wives--The Vanishing Subjection of
+Woman--Inaptitude of the Modern Man to Domineer--The Growth of Moral
+Responsibility in Women--The Concomitant Development of Economic
+Independence--The Increase of Women Who Work--Invasion of the Modern
+Industrial Field by Women--In How Far This Is Socially Justifiable--The
+Sexual Responsibility of Women and Its Consequences--The Alleged Moral
+Inferiority of Women--The "Self-Sacrifice" of Women--Society Not Concerned
+with Sexual Relationships--Procreation the Sole Sexual Concern of the
+State--The Supreme Importance of Maternity.
+
+
+It has been necessary to deal fully with the phenomena of prostitution
+because, however aloof we may personally choose to hold ourselves from
+those phenomena, they really bring us to the heart of the sexual question
+in so far as it constitutes a social problem. If we look at prostitution
+from the outside, as an objective phenomenon, as a question of social
+dynamics, it is seen to be not a merely accidental and eliminable incident
+of our present marriage system but an integral part of it, without which
+it would fall to pieces. This will probably be fairly clear to all who
+have followed the preceding exposition of prostitutional phenomena. There
+is, however, more than this to be said. Not only is prostitution to-day,
+as it has been for more than two thousand years, the buttress of our
+marriage system, but if we look at marriage, not from the outside as a
+formal institution, but from the inside with relation to the motives that
+constitute it, we find that marriage in a large proportion of cases is
+itself in certain respects a form of prostitution. This has been
+emphasized so often and from so many widely different standpoints that it
+may seem hardly necessary to labor the point here. But the point is one of
+extreme importance in relation to the question of sexual morality. Our
+social conditions are unfavorable to the development of a high moral
+feeling in woman. The difference between the woman who sells herself in
+prostitution and the woman who sells herself in marriage, according to the
+saying of Marro already quoted, "is only a difference in price and
+duration of the contract." Or, as Forel puts it, marriage is "a more
+fashionable form of prostitution," that is to say, a mode of obtaining, or
+disposing of, for monetary considerations, a sexual commodity. Marriage
+is, indeed, not merely a more fashionable form of prostitution, it is a
+form sanctified by law and religion, and the question of morality is not
+allowed to intrude. Morality may be outraged with impunity provided that
+law and religion have been invoked. The essential principle of
+prostitution is thus legalized and sanctified among us. That is why it is
+so difficult to arouse any serious indignation, or to maintain any
+reasoned objections, against our prostitution considered by itself. The
+most plausible ground is that of those[257] who, bringing marriage down to
+the level of prostitution, maintain that the prostitute is a "blackleg"
+who is accepting less than the "market rate of wages," i.e., marriage, for
+the sexual services she renders. But even this low ground is quite unsafe.
+The prostitute is really paid extremely well considering how little she
+gives in return; the wife is really paid extremely badly considering how
+much she often gives, and how much she necessarily gives up. For the sake
+of the advantage of economic dependence on her husband, she must give up,
+as Ellen Key observes, those rights over her children, her property, her
+work, and her own person which she enjoys as an unmarried woman, even, it
+may be added, as a prostitute. The prostitute never signs away the right
+over her own person, as the wife is compelled to do; the prostitute,
+unlike the wife, retains her freedom and her personal rights, although
+these may not often be of much worth. It is the wife rather than the
+prostitute who is the "blackleg."
+
+    It is by no means only during recent years that our marriage
+    system has been arraigned before the bar of morals. Forty years
+    ago James Hinton exhausted the vocabulary of denunciation in
+    describing the immorality and selfish licentiousness which our
+    marriage system covers with the cloak of legality and sanctity.
+    "There is an unsoundness in our marriage relations," Hinton
+    wrote. "Not only practically are they dreadful, but they do not
+    answer to feelings and convictions far too widespread to be
+    wisely ignored. Take the case of women of marked eminence
+    consenting to be a married man's mistress; of pure and simple
+    girls saying they cannot see why they should have a marriage by
+    law; of a lady saying that if she were in love she would not have
+    any legal tie; of its being necessary--or thought so by good and
+    wise men--to keep one sex in bitter and often fatal ignorance.
+    These things (and how many more) show some deep unsoundness in
+    the marriage relations. This must be probed and searched to the
+    bottom."
+
+    At an earlier date, in 1847, Gross-Hoffinger, in his _Die
+    Schicksale der Frauen und die Prostitution_--a remarkable book
+    which Bloch, with little exaggeration, describes as possessing an
+    epoch-marking significance--vigorously showed that the problem of
+    prostitution is in reality the problem of marriage, and that we
+    can only reform away prostitution by reforming marriage, regarded
+    as a compulsory institution resting on an antiquated economic
+    basis. Gross-Hoffinger was a pioneering precursor of Ellen Key.
+
+    More than a century and a half earlier a man of very different
+    type scathingly analyzed the morality of his time, with a brutal
+    frankness, indeed, that seemed to his contemporaries a
+    revoltingly cynical attitude towards their sacred institutions,
+    and they felt that nothing was left to them save to burn his
+    books. Describing modern marriage in his _Fable of the Bees_
+    (1714, p. 64), and what that marriage might legally cover,
+    Mandeville wrote: "The fine gentleman I spoke of need not
+    practice any greater self-denial than the savage, and the latter
+    acted more according to the laws of nature and sincerity than the
+    first. The man that gratifies his appetite after the manner the
+    custom of the country allows of, has no censure to fear. If he
+    is hotter than goats or bulls, as soon as the ceremony is over,
+    let him sate and fatigue himself with joy and ecstasies of
+    pleasure, raise and indulge his appetite by turns, as
+    extravagantly as his strength and manhood will give him leave. He
+    may, with safety, laugh at the wise men that should reprove him:
+    all the women and above nine in ten of the men are of his side;
+    nay, he has the liberty of valuing himself upon the fury of his
+    unbridled passions, and the more he wallows in lust and strains
+    every faculty to be abandonedly voluptuous, the sooner he shall
+    have the good-will and gain the affection of the women, not the
+    young, vain, and lascivious only, but the prudent, grave, and
+    most sober matrons."
+
+    Thus the charge brought against our marriage system from the
+    point of view of morality is that it subordinates the sexual
+    relationship to considerations of money and of lust. That is
+    precisely the essence of prostitution.
+
+The only legitimately moral end of marriage--whether we regard it from the
+wider biological standpoint or from the narrower standpoint of human
+society--is as a sexual selection, effected in accordance with the laws of
+sexual selection, and having as its direct object a united life of
+complete mutual love and as its indirect object the procreation of the
+race. Unless procreation forms part of the object of marriage, society has
+nothing whatever to do with it and has no right to make its voice heard.
+But if procreation is one of the ends of marriage, then it is imperative
+from the biological and social points of view that no influences outside
+the proper natural influence of sexual selection should be permitted to
+affect the choice of conjugal partners, for in so far as wholesome sexual
+selection is interfered with the offspring is likely to be injured and the
+interests of the race affected.
+
+    It must, of course, be clearly understood that the idea of
+    marriage as a form of sexual union based not on biological but on
+    economic considerations, is very ancient, and is sometimes found
+    in societies that are almost primitive. Whenever, however,
+    marriage on a purely property basis, and without due regard to
+    sexual selection, has occurred among comparatively primitive and
+    vigorous peoples, it has been largely deprived of its evil
+    results by the recognition of its merely economic character, and
+    by the absence of any desire to suppress, even nominally, other
+    sexual relationships on a more natural basis which were outside
+    this artificial form of marriage. Polygamy especially tended to
+    conciliate unions on an economic basis with unions on a natural
+    sexual basis. Our modern marriage system has, however, acquired
+    an artificial rigidity which excludes the possibility of this
+    natural safeguard and compensation. Whatever its real moral
+    content may be, a modern marriage is always "legal" and "sacred."
+    We are indeed so accustomed to economic forms of marriage that,
+    as Sidgwick truly observed (_Method of Ethics_, Bk. ii, Ch. XI),
+    when they are spoken of as "legalized prostitution" it constantly
+    happens that "the phrase is felt to be extravagant and
+    paradoxical."
+
+A man who marries for money or for ambition is departing from the
+biological and moral ends of marriage. A woman who sells herself for life
+is morally on the same level as one who sells herself for a night. The
+fact that the payment seems larger, that in return for rendering certain
+domestic services and certain personal complacencies--services and
+complacencies in which she may be quite inexpert--she will secure an
+almshouse in which she will be fed and clothed and sheltered for life
+makes no difference in the moral aspect of her case. The moral
+responsibility is, it need scarcely be said, at least as much the man's as
+the woman's. It is largely due to the ignorance and even the indifference
+of men, who often know little or nothing of the nature of women and the
+art of love. The unintelligence with which even men who might, one thinks,
+be not without experience, select as a mate, a woman who, however fine and
+charming she may be, possesses none of the qualities which her wooer
+really craves, is a perpetual marvel. To refrain from testing and proving
+the temper and quality of the woman he desires for a mate is no doubt an
+amiable trait of humility on a man's part. But it is certain that a man
+should never be content with less than the best of what a woman's soul and
+body have to give, however unworthy he may feel himself of such a
+possession. This demand, it must be remarked, is in the highest interests
+of the woman herself. A woman can offer to a man what is a part at all
+events of the secret of the universe. The woman degrades herself who sinks
+to the level of a candidate for an asylum for the destitute.
+
+Our discussion of the psychic facts of sex has thus, it will be seen,
+brought us up to the question of morality. Over and over again, in
+setting forth the phenomena of prostitution, it has been necessary to use
+the word "moral." That word, however, is vague and even, it may be,
+misleading because it has several senses. So far, it has been left to the
+intelligent reader, as he will not fail to perceive, to decide from the
+context in what sense the word was used. But at the present point, before
+we proceed to discuss sexual psychology in relation to marriage, it is
+necessary, in order to avoid ambiguity, to remind the reader what
+precisely are the chief main senses in which the word "morality" is
+commonly used.
+
+The morality with which ethical treatises are concerned is _theoretical
+morality_. It is concerned with what people "ought"--or what is "right"
+for them--to do. Socrates in the Platonic dialogues was concerned with
+such theoretical morality: what "ought" people to seek in their actions?
+The great bulk of ethical literature, until recent times one may say the
+whole of it, is concerned with that question. Such theoretical morality
+is, as Sidgwick said, a study rather than a science, for science can only
+be based on what is, not on what ought to be.
+
+Even within the sphere of theoretical morality there are two very
+different kinds of morality, so different indeed that sometimes each
+regards the other as even inimical or at best only by courtesy, with yet a
+shade of contempt, "moral." These two kinds of theoretical morality are
+_traditional morality_ and _ideal morality_. Traditional morality is
+founded on the long established practices of a community and possesses the
+stability of all theoretical ideas based in the past social life and
+surrounding every individual born into the community from his earliest
+years. It becomes the voice of conscience which speaks automatically in
+favor of all the rules that are thus firmly fixed, even when the
+individual himself no longer accepts them. Many persons, for example, who
+were brought up in childhood to the Puritanical observance of Sunday, will
+recall how, long after they had ceased to believe that such observances
+were "right," they yet in the violation of them heard the protest of the
+automatically aroused voice of "conscience," that is to say the expression
+within the individual of customary rules which have indeed now ceased to
+be his own but were those of the community in which he was brought up.
+
+Ideal morality, on the other hand, refers not to the past of the community
+but to its future. It is based not on the old social actions that are
+becoming antiquated, and perhaps even anti-social in their tendency, but
+on new social actions that are as yet only practiced by a small though
+growing minority of the community. Nietzsche in modern times has been a
+conspicuous champion of ideal morality, the heroic morality of the
+pioneer, of the individual of the coming community, against traditional
+morality, or, as he called it, herd-morality, the morality of the crowd.
+These two moralities are necessarily opposed to each other, but, we have
+to remember, they are both equally sound and equally indispensable, not
+only to those who accept them but to the community which they both
+contribute to hold in vital theoretical balance. We have seen them both,
+for instance, applied to the question of prostitution; traditional
+morality defends prostitution, not for its own sake, but for the sake of
+the marriage system which it regards as sufficiently precious to be worth
+a sacrifice, while ideal morality refuses to accept the necessity of
+prostitution, and looks forward to progressive changes in the marriage
+system which will modify and diminish prostitution.
+
+But altogether outside theoretical morality, or the question of what
+people "ought" to do, there remains _practical morality_, or the question
+of what, as a matter of fact, people actually do. This is the really
+fundamental and essential morality. Latin _mores_ and Greek aethos both
+refer to _custom_, to the things that are, and not to the things that
+"ought" to be, except in the indirect and secondary sense that whatever
+the members of the community, in the mass, actually do, is the thing that
+they feel they ought to do. In the first place, however, a moral act was
+not done because it was felt that it ought to be done, but for reasons of
+a much deeper and more instinctive character.[258] It was not first done
+because it was felt it ought to be done, but it was felt it "ought" to be
+done because it had actually become the custom to do it.
+
+The actions of a community are determined by the vital needs of a
+community under the special circumstances of its culture, time, and land.
+When it is the general custom for children to kill their aged parents that
+custom is always found to be the best not only for the community but even
+for the old people themselves, who desire it; the action is both
+practically moral and theoretically moral.[259] And when, as among
+ourselves, the aged are kept alive, that action is also both practically
+and theoretically moral; it is in no wise dependent on any law or rule
+opposed to the taking of life, for we glory in the taking of life under
+the patriotic name of "war," and are fairly indifferent to it when
+involved by the demands of our industrial system; but the killing of the
+aged no longer subserves any social need and their preservation ministers
+to our civilized emotional needs. The killing of a man is indeed
+notoriously an act which differs widely in its moral value at different
+periods and in different countries. It was quite moral in England two
+centuries ago and less, to kill a man for trifling offences against
+property, for such punishment commended itself as desirable to the general
+sense of the educated community. To-day it would be regarded as highly
+immoral. We are even yet only beginning to doubt the morality of
+condemning to death and imprisoning for life an unmarried girl who
+destroyed her infant at birth, solely actuated, against all her natural
+impulses, by the primitive instinct of self-defense. It cannot be said
+that we have yet begun to doubt the morality of killing men in war, though
+we no longer approve of killing women and children, or even non-combatants
+generally. Every age or land has its own morality.
+
+"Custom, in the strict sense of the word," well says Westermarck,
+"involves a moral rule.... Society is the school in which men learn to
+distinguish between right and wrong. The headmaster is custom."[260]
+Custom is not only the basis of morality but also of law. "Custom is
+law."[261] The field of theoretical morality has been found so fascinating
+a playground for clever philosophers that there has sometimes been a
+danger of forgetting that, after all, it is not theoretical morality but
+practical morality, the question of what men in the mass of a community
+actually do, which constitutes the real stuff of morals.[262] If we define
+more precisely what we mean by morals, on the practical side, we may say
+that it is constituted by those customs which the great majority of the
+members of a community regard as conducive to the welfare of the community
+at some particular time and place. It is for this reason--i.e., because it
+is a question of what is and not of merely what some think ought to
+be--that practical morals form the proper subject of science. "If the word
+'ethics' is to be used as the name for a science," Westermarck says, "the
+object of that science can only be to study the moral consciousness as a
+fact."[263]
+
+    Lecky's _History of European Morals_ is a study in practical
+    rather than in theoretical morals. Dr. Westermarck's great work,
+    _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, is a more modern
+    example of the objectively scientific discussion of morals,
+    although this is not perhaps clearly brought out by the title. It
+    is essentially a description of the actual historical facts of
+    what has been, and not of what "ought" to be. Mr. L.T. Hobhouse's
+    _Morals in Evolution_, published almost at the same time, is
+    similarly a work which, while professedly dealing with ideas,
+    i.e., with rules and regulations, and indeed disclaiming the task
+    of being "the history of conduct," yet limits itself to those
+    rules which are "in fact, the normal conduct of the average man"
+    (vol. i, p. 26). In other words, it is essentially a history of
+    practical morality, and not of theoretical morality. One of the
+    most subtle and suggestive of living thinkers, M. Jules de
+    Gaultier, in several of his books, and notably in _La Dépendance
+    de la Morale et l'Indépendance des Moeurs_ (1907), has analyzed
+    the conception of morals in a somewhat similar sense. "Phenomena
+    relative to conduct," as he puts it (op. cit., p. 58), "are given
+    in experience like other phenomena, so that morality, or the
+    totality of the laws which at any given moment of historic
+    evolution are applied to human practice, is dependent on
+    customs." I may also refer to the masterly exposition of this
+    aspect of morality in Lévy-Bruhl's _La Morale et la Science des
+    Moeurs_ (there is an English translation).
+
+Practical morality is thus the solid natural fact which forms the
+biological basis of theoretical morality, whether traditional or ideal.
+The excessive fear, so widespread among us, lest we should injure morality
+is misplaced. We cannot hurt morals though we can hurt ourselves. Morals
+is based on nature and can at the most only be modified. As Crawley
+rightly insists,[264] even the categorical imperatives of our moral
+traditions, so far from being, as is often popularly supposed, attempts to
+suppress Nature, arise in the desire to assist Nature; they are simply an
+attempt at the rigid formulation of natural impulses. The evil of them
+only lies in the fact that, like all things that become rigid and dead,
+they tend to persist beyond the period when they were a beneficial vital
+reaction to the environment. They thus provoke new forms of ideal
+morality; and practical morals develops new structures, in accordance with
+new vital relationships, to replace older and desiccated traditions.
+
+There is clearly an intimate relationship between theoretical morals and
+practical morals or morality proper. For not only is theoretical morality
+the outcome in consciousness of realized practices embodied in the
+general life of the community, but, having thus become conscious, it
+reacts on those practices and tends to support them or, by its own
+spontaneous growth, to modify them. This action is diverse, according as
+we are dealing with one or the other of the strongly marked divisions of
+theoretical morality: traditional and posterior morality, retarding the
+vital growth of moral practice, or ideal and anterior morality,
+stimulating the vital growth of moral practice. Practical morality, or
+morals proper, may be said to stand between these two divisions of
+theoretical morality. Practice is perpetually following after anterior
+theoretical morality, in so far of course as ideal morality really is
+anterior and not, as so often happens, astray up a blind alley. Posterior
+or traditional morality always follows after practice. The result is that
+while the actual morality, in practice at any time or place, is always
+closely related to theoretical morality, it can never exactly correspond
+to either of its forms. It always fails to catch up with ideal morality;
+it is always outgrowing traditional morality.
+
+It has been necessary at this point to formulate definitely the three
+chief forms in which the word "moral" is used, although under one shape or
+another they cannot but be familiar to the reader. In the discussion of
+prostitution it has indeed been easily possible to follow the usual custom
+of allowing the special sense in which the word was used to be determined
+by the context. But now, when we are, for the moment, directly concerned
+with the specific question of the evolution of sexual morality, it is
+necessary to be more precise in formulating the terms we use. In this
+chapter, except when it is otherwise stated, we are concerned primarily
+with morals proper, with actual conduct as it develops among the masses of
+a community, and only secondarily with anterior morality or with posterior
+morality.
+
+Sexual morality, like all other kinds of morality, is necessarily
+constituted by inherited traditions modified by new adaptations to the
+changing social environment. If the influence of tradition becomes unduly
+pronounced the moral life tends to decay and lose its vital adaptability.
+If adaptability becomes too facile the moral life tends to become unstable
+and to lose authority. It is only by a reasonable synthesis of structure
+and function--of what is called the traditional with what is called the
+ideal--that the moral life can retain its authority without losing its
+reality. Many, even among those who call themselves moralists, have found
+this hard to understand. In a vain desire for an impossible logicality
+they have over-emphasized either the ideal influence on practical morals
+or, still more frequently, the traditional influence, which has appealed
+to them because of the impressive authority its _dicta_ seem to convey.
+The results in the sphere we are here concerned with have often been
+unfortunate, for no social impulse is so rebellious to decayed traditions,
+so volcanically eruptive, as that of sex.
+
+We are accustomed to identify our present marriage system with "morality"
+in the abstract, and for many people, perhaps for most, it is difficult to
+realize that the slow and insensible movement which is always affecting
+social life at the present time, as at every other time, is profoundly
+affecting our sexual morality. A transference of values is constantly
+taking place; what was once the very standard of morality becomes immoral,
+what was once without question immoral becomes a new standard. Such a
+process is almost as bewildering as for the European world two thousand
+years ago was the great struggle between the Roman city and the Christian
+Church, when it became necessary to realize that what Marcus Aurelius, the
+great pattern of morality, had sought to crush as without question
+immoral,[265] was becoming regarded as the supreme standard of morality.
+The classic world considered love and pity and self-sacrifice as little
+better than weakness and sometimes worse; the Christian world not only
+regarded them as moralities but incarnated them in a god. Our sexual
+morality has likewise disregarded natural human emotions, and is incapable
+of understanding those who declare that to retain unduly traditional laws
+that are opposed to the vital needs of human societies is not a morality
+but an immorality.
+
+The reason why the gradual evolution of moral ideals, which is always
+taking place, tends in the sexual sphere, at all events among ourselves,
+to reach a stage in which there seems to be an opposition between
+different standards lies in the fact that as yet we really have no
+specific sexual morality at all.[266] That may seem surprising at first to
+one who reflects on the immense weight which is usually attached to
+"sexual morality." And it is undoubtedly true that we have a morality
+which we apply to the sphere of sex. But that morality is one which
+belongs mainly to the sphere of property and was very largely developed on
+a property basis. All the historians of morals in general, and of marriage
+in particular, have set forth this fact, and illustrated it with a wealth
+of historical material. We have as yet no generally recognized sexual
+morality which has been based on the specific sexual facts of life. That
+becomes clear at once when we realize the central fact that the sexual
+relationship is based on love, at the very least on sexual desire, and
+that that basis is so deep as to be even physiological, for in the absence
+of such sexual desire it is physiologically impossible for a man to effect
+intercourse with a woman. Any specific sexual morality must be based on
+that fact. But our so-called "sexual morality," so far from being based on
+that fact, attempts to ignore it altogether. It makes contracts, it
+arranges sexual relationships beforehand, it offers to guarantee
+permanency of sexual inclinations. It introduces, that is, considerations
+of a kind that is perfectly sound in the economic sphere to which such
+considerations rightly belong, but ridiculously incongruous in the sphere
+of sex to which they have solemnly been applied. The economic
+relationships of life, in the large sense, are, as we shall see, extremely
+important in the evolution of any sound sexual morality, but they belong
+to the conditions of its development and do not constitute its basis.[267]
+
+    The fact that, from the legal point of view, marriage is
+    primarily an arrangement for securing the rights of property and
+    inheritance is well illustrated by the English divorce law
+    to-day. According to this law, if a woman has sexual intercourse
+    with any man beside her husband, he is entitled to divorce her;
+    if, however, the husband has intercourse with another woman
+    beside his wife, she is not entitled to a divorce; that is only
+    accorded if, in addition, he has also been cruel to her, or
+    deserted her, and from any standpoint of ideal morality such a
+    law is obviously unjust, and it has now been discarded in nearly
+    all civilized lands except England.
+
+    But from the standpoint of property and inheritance it is quite
+    intelligible, and on that ground it is still supported by the
+    majority of Englishmen. If the wife has intercourse with other
+    men there is a risk that the husband's property will be inherited
+    by a child who is not his own. But the sexual intercourse of the
+    husband with other women is followed by no such risk. The
+    infidelity of the wife is a serious offence against property; the
+    infidelity of the husband is no offence against property, and
+    cannot possibly, therefore, be regarded as a ground for divorce
+    from our legal point of view. The fact that his adultery
+    complicated by cruelty is such a ground, is simply a concession
+    to modern feeling. Yet, as Helena Stöcker truly points out
+    ("Verschiedenheit im Liebesleben des Weibes und des Mannes,"
+    _Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, Dec., 1908), a married man
+    who has an unacknowledged child with a woman outside of marriage,
+    has committed an act as seriously anti-social as a married woman
+    who has a child without acknowledging that the father is not her
+    husband. In the first case, the husband, and in the second case,
+    the wife, have placed an undue amount of responsibility on
+    another person. (The same point is brought forward by the author
+    of _The Question of English Divorce_, p. 56.)
+
+    I insist here on the economic element in our sexual morality,
+    because that is the element which has given it a kind of
+    stability and become established in law. But if we take a wider
+    view of our sexual morality, we cannot ignore the ancient element
+    of asceticism, which has given religious passion and sanction to
+    it. Our sexual morality is thus, in reality, a bastard born of
+    the union of property-morality with primitive ascetic morality,
+    neither in true relationship to the vital facts of the sexual
+    life. It is, indeed, the property element which, with a few
+    inconsistencies, has become finally the main concern of our law,
+    but the ascetic element (with, in the past, a wavering
+    relationship to law) has had an important part in moulding
+    popular sentiment and in creating an attitude of reprobation
+    towards sexual intercourse _per se_, although such intercourse is
+    regarded as an essential part of the property-based and
+    religiously sanctified institution of legal marriage.
+
+    The glorification of virginity led by imperceptible stages to the
+    formulation of "fornication" as a deadly sin, and finally as an
+    actual secular "crime." It is sometimes stated that it was not
+    until the Council of Trent that the Church formally anathematized
+    those who held that the state of marriage was higher than that of
+    virginity, but the opinion had been more or less formally held
+    from almost the earliest ages of Christianity, and is clear in
+    the epistles of Paul. All the theologians agree that fornication
+    is a mortal sin. Caramuel, indeed, the distinguished Spanish
+    theologian, who made unusual concessions to the demands of reason
+    and nature, held that fornication is only evil because it is
+    forbidden, but Innocent XI formally condemned that proposition.
+    Fornication as a mortal sin became gradually secularized into
+    fornication as a crime. Fornication was a crime in France even as
+    late as the eighteenth century, as Tarde found in his historical
+    investigations of criminal procedure in Périgord; adultery was
+    also a crime and severely punished quite independently of any
+    complaint from either of the parties (Tarde, "Archéologie
+    Criminelle en Périgord," _Archives de l'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, Nov. 15, 1898).
+
+    The Puritans of the Commonwealth days in England (like the
+    Puritans of Geneva) followed the Catholic example and adopted
+    ecclesiastical offences against chastity into the secular law. By
+    an Act passed in 1653 fornication became punishable by three
+    months' imprisonment inflicted on both parties. By the same Act
+    the adultery of a wife (nothing is said of a husband) was made
+    felony, both for her and her partner in guilt, and therefore
+    punishable by death (Scobell, _Acts and Ordinances_, p. 121).
+
+The action of a pseudo-morality, such as our sexual morality has been, is
+double-edged. On the one side it induces a secret and shamefaced laxity,
+on the other it upholds a rigid and uninspiring theoretical code which so
+few can consistently follow that theoretical morality is thereby degraded
+into a more or less empty form. "The human race would gain much," said the
+wise Sénancour, "if virtue were made less laborious. The merit would not
+be so great, but what is the use of an elevation which can rarely be
+sustained?"[268] At present, as a more recent moralist, Ellen Key, puts
+it, we only have an immorality which favors vice and makes virtue
+irrealizable, and, as she exclaims with pardonable extravagance, to preach
+a sounder morality to the young, without at the same time condemning the
+society which encourages the prevailing immorality, is "worse than folly,
+it is crime."
+
+It is on the lines along which Sénancour a century ago and Ellen Key
+to-day are great pioneers that the new forms of anterior or ideal
+theoretical morality are now moving, in advance, according to the general
+tendency in morals, of traditional morality and even of practice.
+
+There is one great modern movement of a definite kind which will serve to
+show how clearly sexual morality is to-day moving towards a new
+standpoint. This is the changing attitude of the bulk of the community
+towards both State marriage and religious marriage, and the growing
+tendency to disallow State interference with sexual relationships, apart
+from the production of children.
+
+There has no doubt always been a tendency among the masses of the
+population in Europe to dispense with the official sanction of sexual
+relationships until such relationships have been well established and the
+hope of offspring has become justifiable. This tendency has been
+crystallized into recognized customs among numberless rural communities
+little touched either by the disturbing influences of the outside world or
+the controlling influences of theological Christian conceptions. But at
+the present day this tendency is not confined to the more primitive and
+isolated communities of Europe among whom, on the contrary, it has tended
+to die out. It is an unquestionable fact, says Professor Bruno Meyer, that
+far more than the half of sexual intercourse now takes place outside legal
+marriage.[269] It is among the intelligent classes and in prosperous and
+progressive communities that this movement is chiefly marked. We see
+throughout the world the practical common sense of the people shaping
+itself in the direction which has been pioneered by the ideal moralists
+who invariably precede the new growth of practical morality.
+
+The voluntary childless marriages of to-day have served to show the
+possibility of such unions outside legal marriage, and such free unions
+are becoming, as Mrs. Parsons points out, "a progressive substitute for
+marriage."[270] The gradual but steady rise in the age for entering on
+legal marriage also points in the same direction, though it indicates not
+merely an increase of free unions but an increase of all forms of normal
+and abnormal sexuality outside marriage. Thus in England and Wales, in
+1906, only 43 per 1,000 husbands and 146 per 1,000 wives were under age,
+while the average age for husbands was 28.6 years and for wives 26.4
+years. For men the age has gone up some eight months during the past forty
+years, for women more than this. In the large cities, like London, where
+the possibilities of extra-matrimonial relationships are greater, the age
+for legal marriage is higher than in the country.
+
+    If we are to regard the age of legal marriage as, on the whole,
+    the age at which the population enters into sexual unions, it is
+    undoubtedly too late. Beyer, a leading German neurologist, finds
+    that there are evils alike in early and in late marriage, and
+    comes to the conclusion that in temperate zones the best age for
+    women to marry is the twenty-first year, and for men the
+    twenty-fifth year.
+
+    Yet, under bad economic conditions and with a rigid marriage law,
+    early marriages are in every respect disastrous. They are among
+    the poor a sign of destitution. The very poorest marry first, and
+    they do so through the feeling that their condition cannot be
+    worse. (Dr. Michael Ryan brought together much interesting
+    evidence concerning the causes of early marriage in Ireland in
+    his _Philosophy of Marriage_, 1837, pp. 58-72). Among the poor,
+    therefore, early marriage is always a misfortune. "Many good
+    people," says Mr. Thomas Holmes, Secretary of the Howard
+    Association and missionary at police courts (in an interview,
+    _Daily Chronicle_, Sept. 8, 1906), "advise boys and girls to get
+    married in order to prevent what they call a 'disgrace.' This I
+    consider to be absolutely wicked, and it leads to far greater
+    evils than it can possibly avert."
+
+    Early marriages are one of the commonest causes both of
+    prostitution and divorce. They lead to prostitution in
+    innumerable cases, even when no outward separation takes place.
+    The fact that they lead to divorce is shown by the significant
+    circumstance that in England, although only 146 per 1,000 women
+    are under twenty-one at marriage, of the wives concerned in
+    divorce cases, 280 per 1,000 were under twenty-one at marriage,
+    and this discrepancy is even greater than it appears, for in the
+    well-to-do class, which can alone afford the luxury of divorce,
+    the normal age at marriage is much higher than for the population
+    generally. Inexperience, as was long ago pointed out by Milton
+    (who had learnt this lesson to his cost), leads to shipwreck in
+    marriage. "They who have lived most loosely," he wrote, "prove
+    most successful in their matches, because their wild affections,
+    unsettling at will, have been so many divorces to teach them
+    experience."
+
+    Miss Clapperton, referring to the educated classes, advocates
+    very early marriage, even during student life, which might then
+    be to some extent carried on side by side (_Scientific
+    Meliorism_, Ch. XVII). Ellen Key, also, advocates early marriage.
+    But she wisely adds that it involves the necessity for easy
+    divorce. That, indeed, is the only condition which can render
+    early marriage generally desirable. Young people--unless they
+    possess very simple and inert natures--can neither foretell the
+    course of their own development and their own strongest needs,
+    nor estimate accurately the nature and quality of another
+    personality. A marriage formed at an early age very speedily
+    ceases to be a marriage in anything but name. Sometimes a young
+    girl applies for a separation from her husband even on the very
+    day after marriage.
+
+The more or less permanent free unions formed among us in Europe are
+usually to be regarded merely as trial-marriages. That is to say they are
+a precaution rendered desirable both by uncertainty as to either the
+harmony or the fruitfulness of union until actual experiment has been
+made, and by the practical impossibility of otherwise rectifying any
+mistake in consequence of the antiquated rigidity of most European divorce
+laws. Such trial marriages are therefore demanded by prudence and caution,
+and as foresight increases with the development of civilization, and
+constantly grows among us, we may expect that there will be a parallel
+development in the frequency of trial marriage and in the social attitude
+towards such unions. The only alternative--that a radical reform in
+European marriage laws should render the divorce of a legal marriage as
+economical and as convenient as the divorce of a free marriage--cannot yet
+be expected, for law always lags behind public opinion and public
+practice.
+
+If, however, we take a wider historical view, we find that we are in
+presence of a phenomenon which, though favored by modern conditions, is
+very ancient and widespread, dating, so far as Europe is concerned, from
+the time when the Church first sought to impose ecclesiastical marriage,
+so that it is practically a continuation of the ancient European custom of
+private marriage.
+
+    Trial-marriages pass by imperceptible gradations into the group
+    of courtship customs which, while allowing the young couple to
+    spend the night together, in a position of more or less intimacy,
+    exclude, as a rule, actual sexual intercourse. Night-courtship
+    flourishes in stable and well-knit European communities not
+    liable to disorganization by contact with strangers. It seems to
+    be specially common in Teutonic and Celtic lands, and is known by
+    various names, as _Probenächte, fensterln, Kiltgang,
+    hand-fasting, bundling, sitting-up, courting on the bed, etc_. It
+    is well known in Wales; it is found in various English counties
+    as in Cheshire; it existed in eighteenth century Ireland
+    (according to Richard Twiss's _Travels_); in New England it was
+    known as _tarrying_; in Holland it is called _questing_. In
+    Norway, where it is called _night-running_, on account of the
+    long distance between the homesteads, I am told that it is
+    generally practiced, though the clergy preach against it; the
+    young girl puts on several extra skirts and goes to bed, and the
+    young man enters by door or window and goes to bed with her; they
+    talk all night, and are not bound to marry unless it should
+    happen that the girl becomes pregnant.
+
+    Rhys and Brynmor-Jones (_Welsh People_, pp. 582-4) have an
+    interesting passage on this night-courtship with numerous
+    references. As regards Germany see, e.g., Rudeck, _Geschichte der
+    öffentlichen Sittlichkeit_, pp. 146-154. With reference to
+    trial-marriage generally many facts and references are given by
+    M.A. Potter (_Sohrab and Rustem_, pp. 129-137).
+
+    The custom of free marriage unions, usually rendered legal before
+    or after the birth of children, seems to be fairly common in
+    many, or perhaps all, rural parts of England. The union is made
+    legal, if found satisfactory, even when there is no prospect of
+    children. In some counties it is said to be almost a universal
+    practice for the women to have sexual relationships before legal
+    marriage; sometimes she marries the first man whom she tries;
+    sometimes she tries several before finding the man who suits her.
+    Such marriages necessarily, on the whole, turn out better than
+    marriages in which the woman, knowing nothing of what awaits her
+    and having no other experiences for comparison, is liable to be
+    disillusioned or to feel that she "might have done better." Even
+    when legal recognition is not sought until after the birth of
+    children, it by no means follows that any moral deterioration is
+    involved. Thus in some parts of Staffordshire where it is the
+    custom of the women to have a child before marriage,
+    notwithstanding this "corruption," we are told (Burton, _City of
+    the Saints_, Appendix IV), the women are "very good neighbors,
+    excellent, hard-working, and affectionate wives and mothers."
+
+    "The lower social classes, especially peasants," remarks Dr.
+    Ehrhard ("Auch Ein Wort zur Ehereform," _Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I, Heft 10), "know better than we that
+    the marriage bed is the foundation of marriage. On that account
+    they have retained the primitive custom of trial-marriage which,
+    in the Middle Ages, was still practiced even in the best circles.
+    It has the further advantage that the marriage is not concluded
+    until it has shown itself to be fruitful. Trial-marriage assumes,
+    of course, that virginity is not valued beyond its true worth."
+    With regard to this point it may be mentioned that in many parts
+    of the world a woman is more highly esteemed if she has had
+    intercourse before marriage (see, e.g., Potter, op. cit., pp. 163
+    et seq.). While virginity is one of the sexual attractions a
+    woman may possess, an attraction that is based on a natural
+    instinct (see "The Evolution of Modesty," in vol. i of these
+    _Studies_), yet an exaggerated attention to virginity can only be
+    regarded as a sexual perversion, allied to _paidophilia_, the
+    sexual attraction to children.
+
+    In very small coördinated communities the primitive custom of
+    trial-marriage tends to decay when there is a great invasion of
+    strangers who have not been brought up to the custom (which seems
+    to them indistinguishable from the license of prostitution), and
+    who fail to undertake the obligations which trial-marriage
+    involves. This is what happened in the case of the so-called
+    "island custom" of Portland, which lasted well on into the
+    nineteenth century; according to this custom a woman before
+    marriage lived with her lover until pregnant and then married
+    him; she was always strictly faithful to him while living with
+    him, but if no pregnancy occurred the couple might decide that
+    they were not meant for each other, and break off relations. The
+    result was that for a long period of years no illegitimate
+    children were born, and few marriages were childless. But when
+    the Portland stone trade was developed, the workmen imported from
+    London took advantage of the "island custom," but refused to
+    fulfil the obligation of marriage when pregnancy occurred. The
+    custom consequently fell into disuse (see, e.g., translator's
+    note to Bloch's _Sexual Life of Our Time_, p. 237, and the
+    quotation there given from Hutchins, _History and Antiquities of
+    Dorset_, vol. ii, p. 820).
+
+    It is, however, by no means only in rural districts, but in great
+    cities also that marriages are at the outset free unions. Thus in
+    Paris Després stated more than thirty years ago (_La Prostitution
+    à Paris_, p. 137) that in an average arrondissement nine out of
+    ten legal marriages are the consolidation of a free union;
+    though, while that was an average, in a few arrondissements it
+    was only three out of ten. Much the same conditions prevail in
+    Paris to-day; at least half the marriages, it is stated, are of
+    this kind.
+
+    In Teutonic lands the custom of free unions is very ancient and
+    well-established. Thus in Sweden, Ellen Key states (_Liebe und
+    Ehe_, p. 123), the majority of the population begin married life
+    in this way. The arrangement is found to be beneficial, and
+    "marital fidelity is as great as pre-marital freedom is
+    unbounded." In Denmark, also, a large number of children are
+    conceived before the unions of the parents are legalized (Rubin
+    and Westergaard, quoted by Gaedeken, _Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, Feb. 15, 1909).
+
+    In Germany not only is the proportion of illegitimate births very
+    high, since in Berlin it is 17 per cent., and in some towns very
+    much higher, but ante-nuptial conceptions take place in nearly
+    half the marriages, and sometimes in the majority. Thus in Berlin
+    more than 40 per cent, of all legitimate firstborn children are
+    conceived before marriage, while in some rural provinces (where
+    the proportion of illegitimate births is lower) the percentage of
+    marriages following ante-nuptial conceptions is much higher than
+    in Berlin. The conditions in rural Germany have been especially
+    investigated by a committee of Lutheran pastors, and were set
+    forth a few years ago in two volumes, _Die Geschlecht-sittlich
+    Verhältnisse im Deutschen Reiche_, which are full of instruction
+    concerning German sexual morality. In Hanover, it is said in this
+    work, the majority of authorities state that intercourse before
+    marriage is the rule. At the very least, a _probe_, or trial, is
+    regarded as a matter-of-course preliminary to a marriage, since
+    no one wishes "to buy a pig in a poke." In Saxony, likewise, we
+    are told, it is seldom that a girl fails to have intercourse
+    before marriage, or that her first child is not born, or at all
+    events conceived, outside marriage. This is justified as a proper
+    proving of a bride before taking her for good. "One does not buy
+    even a penny pipe without trying it," a German pastor was
+    informed. Around Stettin, in twelve districts (nearly half the
+    whole), sexual intercourse before marriage is a recognized
+    custom, and in the remainder, if not exactly a custom, it is very
+    common, and is not severely or even at all condemned by public
+    opinion. In some districts marriage immediately follows
+    pregnancy. In the Dantzig neighborhood, again, according to the
+    Lutheran Committee, intercourse before marriage occurs in more
+    than half the cases, but marriage by no means always follows
+    pregnancy. Nearly all the girls who go as servants have lovers,
+    and country people in engaging servants sometimes tell them that
+    at evening and night they may do as they like. This state of
+    things is found to be favorable to conjugal fidelity. The German
+    peasant girl, as another authority remarks (E.H. Meyer, _Deutsche
+    Volkskunde_, 1898, pp. 154, 164), has her own room; she may
+    receive her lover; it is no great shame if she gives herself to
+    him. The number of women who enter legal marriage still virgins
+    is not large (this refers more especially to Baden), but public
+    opinion protects them, and such opinion is unfavorable to the
+    disregard of the responsibilities involved by sexual
+    relationships. The German woman is less chaste before marriage
+    than her French or Italian sister. But, Meyer adds, she is
+    probably more faithful after marriage than they are.
+
+    It is assumed by many that this state of German morality as it
+    exists to-day is a new phenomenon, and the sign of a rapid
+    national degeneration. That is by no means the case. In this
+    connection we may accept the evidence of Catholic priests, who,
+    by the experience of the confessional, are enabled to speak with
+    authority. An old Bavarian priest thus writes (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, 1907, Bd. ii, Heft I): "At Moral Congresses we
+    hear laudation of 'the good old times' when, faith and morality
+    prevailed among the people. Whether that is correct is another
+    question. As a young priest I heard of as many and as serious
+    sins as I now hear of as an old man. The morality of the people
+    is not greater nor is it less. The error is the belief that
+    immorality goes out of the towns and poisons the country. People
+    talk as though the country were a pure Paradise of innocence. I
+    will by no means call our country people immoral, but from an
+    experience of many years I can say that in sexual respects there
+    is no difference between town and country. I have learnt to know
+    more than a hundred different parishes, and in the most various
+    localities, in the mountain and in the plain, on poor land and on
+    rich land. But everywhere I find the same morals and lack of
+    morals. There are everywhere the same men, though in the country
+    there are often better Christians than in the towns."
+
+    If, however, we go much farther back than the memories of a
+    living man it seems highly probable that the sexual customs of
+    the German people of the present day are not substantially
+    different--though it may well be that at different periods
+    different circumstances have accentuated them--from what they
+    were in the dawn of Teutonic history. This is the opinion of one
+    of the profoundest students of Indo-Germanic origins. In his
+    _Reallexicon_ (art. "Keuschheit") O. Schrader points out that the
+    oft-quoted Tacitus, strictly considered, can only be taken to
+    prove that women were chaste after marriage, and that no
+    prostitution existed. There can be no doubt, he adds, and the
+    earliest historical evidence shows, that women in ancient Germany
+    were not chaste before marriage. This fact has been disguised by
+    the tendency of the old classic writers to idealize the Northern
+    peoples.
+
+    Thus we have to realize that the conception of "German virtue,"
+    which has been rendered so familiar to the world by a long
+    succession of German writers, by no means involves any special
+    devotion to the virtue of chastity. Tacitus, indeed, in the
+    passage more often quoted in Germany than any other passage in
+    classic literature, while correctly emphasizing the late puberty
+    of the Germans and their brutal punishment of conjugal infidelity
+    on the part of the wife, seemed to imply that they were also
+    chaste. But we have always to remark that Tacitus wrote as a
+    satirizing moralist as well as a historian, and that, as he
+    declaimed concerning the virtues of the German barbarians, he had
+    one eye on the Roman gallery whose vices he desired to lash. Much
+    the same perplexing confusion has been created by Gildas, who, in
+    describing the results of the Saxon Conquest of Britain, wrote as
+    a preacher as well as a historian, and the same moral purpose (as
+    Dill has pointed out) distorts Salvian's picture of the vices of
+    fifth century Gaul. (I may add that some of the evidence in favor
+    of the sexual freedom involved by early Teutonic faiths and
+    customs is brought together in the study of "Sexual Periodicity"
+    in the first volume of these _Studies_; cf. also, Rudeck,
+    _Geschichte der öffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland_, 1897,
+    pp. 146 et seq.).
+
+    The freedom and tolerance of Russian sexual customs is fairly
+    well-known. As a Russian correspondent writes to me, "the
+    liberalism of Russian manners enables youths and girls to enjoy
+    complete independence. They visit each other alone, they walk out
+    alone, and they return home at any hour they please. They have a
+    liberty of movement as complete as that of grown-up persons; some
+    avail themselves of it to discuss politics and others to make
+    love. They are able also to procure any books they please; thus
+    on the table of a college girl I knew I saw the _Elements of
+    Social Science_, then prohibited in Russia; this girl lived with
+    her aunt, but she had her own room, which only her friends were
+    allowed to enter: her aunt or other relations never entered it.
+    Naturally, she went out and came back at what hours she pleased.
+    Many other college girls enjoy the same freedom in their
+    families. It is very different in Italy, where girls have no
+    freedom of movement, and can neither go out alone nor receive
+    gentlemen alone, and where, unlike Russia, a girl who has sexual
+    intercourse outside marriage is really 'lost' and 'dishonored'"
+    (cf. _Sexual-Probleme_, Aug., 1908, p. 506).
+
+    It would appear that freedom of sexual relationships in
+    Russia--apart from the influence of ancient custom--has largely
+    been rendered necessary by the difficulty of divorce. Married
+    couples, who were unable to secure divorce, separated and found
+    new partners without legal marriage. In 1907, however, an attempt
+    was made to remedy this defect in the law; a liberal divorce law
+    has been introduced, mutual consent with separation for a period
+    of over a year being recognized as adequate ground for divorce
+    (Beiblatt to _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, Heft 5, p.
+    145).
+
+    During recent years there has developed among educated young men
+    and women in Russia a movement of sexual license, which, though
+    it is doubtless supported by the old traditions of sexual
+    freedom, must by no means be confused with that freedom, since it
+    is directly due to causes of an entirely different order. The
+    strenuous revolutionary efforts made during the last years of the
+    past century to attain political freedom absorbed the younger and
+    more energetic section of the educated classes, involved a high
+    degree of mental tension, and were accompanied by a tendency to
+    asceticism. The prospect of death was constantly before their
+    eyes, and any pre-occupation with sexual matters would have been
+    felt as out of harmony with the spirit of revolution. But during
+    the present century revolutionary activity has largely ceased. It
+    has been, to a considerable extent, replaced by a movement of
+    interest in sexual problems and of indulgence in sexual
+    unrestraint, often taking on a somewhat licentious and sensual
+    character. "Free love" unions have been formed by the students of
+    both sexes for the cultivation of these tendencies. A novel,
+    Artzibascheff's _Ssanin_, has had great influence in promoting
+    these tendencies. It is not likely that this movement, in its
+    more extravagant forms, will be of long duration. (For some
+    account of this movement, see, e.g., Werner Daya, "Die Sexuelle
+    Bewegung in Russland," _Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_,
+    Aug., 1908; also, "Les Associations Erotiques en Russe," _Journal
+    du Droit International Privé_, Jan., 1909, fully summarized in
+    _Revue des Idées_, Feb., 1909.)
+
+    The movement of sexual freedom in Russia lies much deeper,
+    however, than this fashion of sensual license; it is found in
+    remote and uncontaminated parts of the country, and is connected
+    with very ancient customs.
+
+    There is considerable interest in realizing the existence of
+    long-continued sexual freedom--by some incorrectly termed
+    "immorality," for what is in accordance with the customs or
+    _mores_ of a people cannot be immoral--among peoples so virile
+    and robust, so eminently capable of splendid achievements, as the
+    Germans and the Russians. There is, however, a perhaps even
+    greater interest in tracing the development of the same tendency
+    among new prosperous and highly progressive communities who have
+    either not inherited the custom of sexual freedom or are now only
+    reviving it. We may, for instance, take the case of Australia and
+    New Zealand. This development may not, indeed, be altogether
+    recent. The frankness of sexual freedom in Australia and the
+    tolerance in regard to it were conspicuous thirty years ago to
+    those who came from England to live in the Southern continent,
+    and were doubtless equally visible at an earlier date. It seems,
+    however, to have developed with the increase of self-conscious
+    civilization. "After careful inquiry," says the Rev. H.
+    Northcote, who has lived for many years in the Southern
+    hemisphere (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, Ch. VIII), "the
+    writer finds sufficient evidence that of recent years intercourse
+    out of wedlock has tended towards an actual increase in parts of
+    Australia." Coghlan, the chief authority on Australian
+    statistics, states more precisely in his _Childbirth in New South
+    Wales_, published a few years ago: "The prevalence of births of
+    ante-nuptial conception--a matter hitherto little understood--has
+    now been completely investigated. In New South Wales, during six
+    years, there were 13,366 marriages, in respect of which there was
+    ante-nuptial conception, and, as the total number of marriages
+    was 49,641, at least twenty-seven marriages in a hundred followed
+    conception. During the same period the illegitimate births
+    numbered 14,779; there were, therefore, 28,145 cases of
+    conception amongst unmarried women; in 13,366 instances marriage
+    preceded the birth of the child, so that the children were
+    legitimatized in rather more than forty-seven cases out of one
+    hundred. A study of the figures of births of ante-nuptial
+    conception makes it obvious that in a very large number of
+    instances pre-marital intercourse is not an anticipation of
+    marriage already arranged, but that the marriages are forced upon
+    the parties, and would not be entered into were it not for the
+    condition of the woman" (cf. Powys, _Biometrika_, vol. i, 1901-2,
+    p. 30). That marriage should be, as Coghlan puts it, "forced upon
+    the parties," is not, of course, desirable in the general moral
+    interests, and it is also a sign of imperfect moral
+    responsibility in the parties themselves.
+
+    The existence of such a state of things, in a young country
+    belonging to a part of the world where the general level of
+    prosperity, intelligence, morality and social responsibility may
+    perhaps be said to be higher than in any other region inhabited
+    by people of white race, is a fact of the very first significance
+    when we are attempting to forecast the direction in which
+    civilized morality is moving.
+
+It is sometimes said, or at least implied, that in this movement women are
+taking only a passive part, and that the initiative lies with men who are
+probably animated by a desire to escape the responsibilities of marriage.
+This is very far from being the case.
+
+    The active part taken by German girls in sexual matters is
+    referred to again and again by the Lutheran pastors in their
+    elaborate and detailed report. Of the Dantzig district it is said
+    "the young girls give themselves to the youths, or even seduce
+    them." The military manoeuvres are frequently a source of
+    unchastity in rural districts. "The fault is not merely with the
+    soldiers, but chiefly with the girls, who become half mad as soon
+    as they see a soldier," it is reported from the Dresden district.
+    And in summarizing conditions in East Germany the report states:
+    "In sexual wantonness girls are not behind the young men; they
+    allow themselves to be seduced only too willingly; even grown-up
+    girls often go with half-grown youths, and girls frequently give
+    themselves to several men, one after the other. It is by no means
+    always the youth who effects the seduction, it is very frequently
+    the girls who entice the youth to sexual intercourse; they do not
+    always wait till the men come to their rooms, but will go to the
+    men's rooms and await them in their beds. With this inclination
+    to sexual intercourse, it is not surprising that many believe
+    that after sixteen no girl is a virgin. Unchastity among the
+    rural laboring classes is universal, and equally pronounced in
+    both sexes" (op. cit., vol. i, 218).
+
+    Among women of the educated classes the conditions are somewhat
+    different. Restraints, both internal and external, are very much
+    greater. Virginity, at all events in its physical fact, is
+    retained, for the most part, till long past girlhood, and when it
+    is lost that loss is concealed with a scrupulous care and
+    prudence unknown to the working-classes. Yet the fundamental
+    tendencies remain the same. So far as England is concerned,
+    Geoffrey Mortimer quite truly writes (_Chapters on Human Love_,
+    1898, p. 117) that the two groups of (1) women who live in
+    constant secret association with a single lover, and (2) women
+    who give themselves to men, without fear, from the force of their
+    passions, are "much larger than is generally supposed. In all
+    classes of society there are women who are only virgins by
+    repute. Many have borne children without being even suspected of
+    cohabitation; but the majority adopt methods of preventing
+    conception. A doctor in a small provincial town declared to me
+    that such irregular intimacies were the rule, and not by any
+    means the exception in his district." As regards Germany, a lady
+    doctor, Frau Adams-Lehmann, states in a volume of the
+    Transactions of the German Society for Combating Venereal Disease
+    (_Sexualpädagogik_, p. 271): "I can say that during consultation
+    hours I see very few virgins over thirty. These women," she adds,
+    "are sensible, courageous and natural, often the best of their
+    sex; and we ought to give them our moral support. They are
+    working towards a new age."
+
+It is frequently stated that the pronounced tendency witnessed at the
+present time to dispense as long as possible with the formal ceremony of
+binding marriage is unfortunate because it places women in a
+disadvantageous position. In so far as the social environment in which she
+lives views with disapproval sexual relationship without formal marriage,
+the statement is obviously to that extent true, though it must be
+remarked, on the other hand, that when social opinion strongly favors
+legal marriage it acts as a compelling force in the direction of
+legitimating free unions. But if the absence of the formal marriage bond
+constituted a real and intrinsic disadvantage to women in sexual relations
+they would not show themselves so increasingly ready to dispense with it.
+And, as a matter of fact, those who are intimately acquainted with the
+facts declare that the absence of formal marriage tends to give increased
+consideration to women and is even favorable to fidelity and to the
+prolongation of the union. This seems to be true as regards people of the
+most different social classes and even of different races. It is probably
+based on fundamental psychological facts, for the sense of compulsion
+always tends to produce a movement of exasperation and revolt. We are not
+here concerned with the question as to how far formal marriage also is
+based on natural facts; that is a question which will come up for
+discussion at a later stage.
+
+    The advantage for women of free sexual unions over compulsory
+    marriage is well recognized in the case of the working classes of
+    London, among whom sexual relationships before marriage are not
+    unusual, and are indulgently regarded. It is, for instance,
+    clearly asserted in the monumental work of C. Booth, _Life and
+    Labour of the People_. "It is even said of rough laborers," we
+    read, for instance, in the final volume of this work (p. 41),
+    "that they behave best if not married to the woman with whom they
+    live." The evidence on this point is often the more impressive
+    because brought forward by people who are very far indeed from
+    being anxious to base any general conclusions on it. Thus in the
+    same volume a clergyman is quoted as saying: "These people manage
+    to live together fairly peaceably so long as they are not
+    married, but if they marry it always seems to lead to blows and
+    rows."
+
+    It may be said that in such a case we witness not so much the
+    operation of a natural law as the influences of a great centre of
+    civilization exerting its moralizing effects even on those who
+    stand outside the legally recognized institution of marriage.
+    That contention may, however, be thrust aside. We find exactly
+    the same tendency in Jamaica where the population is largely
+    colored, and the stress of a high civilization can scarcely be
+    said to exist. Legal marriage is here discarded to an even
+    greater extent than in London, for little care is taken to
+    legitimate children by marriage. It was found by a committee
+    appointed to inquire into the marriage laws of Jamaica, that
+    three out of every five births are illegitimate, that is to say
+    that legal illegitimacy has ceased to be immoral, having become
+    the recognized custom of the majority of the inhabitants. There
+    is no social feeling against illegitimacy. The men approve of the
+    decay of legal marriage, because they say the women work better
+    in the house when they are not married; the women approve of it,
+    because they say that men are more faithful when not bound by
+    legal marriage. This has been well brought out by W.P.
+    Livingstone in his interesting book, _Black Jamaica_ (1899). The
+    people recognize, he tells us (p. 210), that "faithful living
+    together constitutes marriage;" they say that they are "married
+    but not parsoned." One reason against legal marriage is that they
+    are disinclined to incur the expense of the official sanction.
+    (In Venezuela, it may be added, where also the majority of births
+    take place outside official marriage, the chief reason is stated
+    to be, not moral laxity, but the same disinclination to pay the
+    expenses of legal weddings.) Frequently in later life, sometimes
+    when they have grown up sons and daughters, couples go through
+    the official ceremony. (In Abyssinia, also, it is stated by
+    Hugues Le Roux, where the people are Christian and marriage is
+    indissoluble and the ceremony expensive, it is not usual for
+    married couples to make their unions legal until old age is
+    coming on, _Sexual-Probleme_, April, 1908, p. 217.) It is
+    significant that this condition of things in Jamaica, as
+    elsewhere, is associated with the superiority of women. "The
+    women of the peasant class," remarks Livingstone (p. 212), "are
+    still practically independent of the men, and are frequently
+    their superiors, both in physical and mental capacity." They
+    refuse to bind themselves to a man who may turn out to be good
+    for nothing, a burden instead of a help and protection. So long
+    as the unions are free they are likely to be permanent. If made
+    legal, the risk is that they will become intolerable, and cease
+    by one of the parties leaving the other. "The necessity for
+    mutual kindness and forbearance establishes a condition that is
+    the best guarantee of permanency" (p. 214). It is said, however,
+    that under the influence of religious and social pressure the
+    people are becoming more anxious to adopt "respectable" ideas of
+    sexual relationships, though it seems evident, in view of
+    Livingstone's statement, that such respectability is likely to
+    involve a decrease of real morality. Livingstone points out,
+    however, one serious defect in the present conditions which makes
+    it easy for immoral men to escape paternal responsibilities, and
+    this is the absence of legal provision for the registration of
+    the father's name on birth certificates (p. 256). In every
+    country where the majority of births are illegitimate it is an
+    obvious social necessity that the names of both parents should be
+    duly registered on all birth certificates. It has been an
+    unpardonable failure on the part of the Jamaican Government to
+    neglect the simple measure needed to give "each child born in the
+    country a legal father" (p. 258).
+
+We thus see that we have to-day reached a position in which--partly owing
+to economic causes and partly to causes which are more deeply rooted in
+the tendencies involved by civilization--women are more often detached
+than of old from legal sexual relationship with men and both sexes are
+less inclined than in earlier stages of civilization to sacrifice their
+own independence even when they form such relationships. "I never heard of
+a woman over sixteen years of age who, prior to the breakdown of
+aboriginal customs after the coming of the whites, had not a husband,"
+wrote Curr of the Australian Blacks.[271] Even as regards some parts of
+Europe, it is still possible to-day to make almost the same statement. But
+in all the richer, more energetic, and progressive countries very
+different conditions prevail. Marriage is late and a certain proportion of
+men, and a still larger proportion of women (who exceed the men in the
+general population) never marry at all.[272]
+
+Before we consider the fateful significance of this fact of the growing
+proportion of adult unmarried women whose sexual relationships are
+unrecognized by the state and largely unrecognized altogether, it may be
+well to glance summarily at the two historical streams of tendency, both
+still in action among us, which affect the status of women, the one
+favoring the social equality of the sexes, the other favoring the social
+subjection of women. It is not difficult to trace these two streams both
+in conduct and opinion, in practical morality and in theoretical morality.
+
+At one time it was widely held that in early states of society, before the
+establishment of the patriarchal stage which places women under the
+protection of men, a matriarchal stage prevailed in which women possessed
+supreme power.[273] Bachofen, half a century ago, was the great champion
+of this view. He found a typical example of a matriarchal state among the
+ancient Lycians of Asia Minor with whom, Herodotus stated, the child takes
+the name of the mother, and follows her status, not that of the
+father.[274] Such peoples, Bachofen believed, were gynæcocratic; power was
+in the hands of women. It can no longer be said that this opinion, in the
+form held by Bachofen, meets with any considerable support. As to the
+widespread prevalence of descent through the mother, there is no doubt
+whatever that it has prevailed very widely. But such descent through the
+mother, it has become recognized, by no means necessarily involves the
+power of the mother, and mother-descent may even be combined with a
+patriarchal system.[275] There has even been a tendency to run to the
+opposite extreme from Bachofen and to deny that mother-descent conferred
+any special claim for consideration on women. That, however, seems
+scarcely in accordance with the evidence and even in the absence of
+evidence could scarcely be regarded as probable. It would seem that we may
+fairly take as a type of the matriarchal family that based on the _ambil
+anak_ marriage of Sumatra, in which the husband lives in the wife's
+family, paying nothing and occupying a subordinate position. The example
+of the Lycians is here in point, for although, as reported by Herodotus,
+there is nothing to show that there was anything of the nature of a
+gynæcocracy in Lycia, we know that women in all these regions of Asia
+Minor enjoyed high consideration and influence, traces of which may be
+detected in the early literature and history of Christianity. A decisive
+and better known example of the favorable influence of mother-descent on
+the status of woman is afforded by the _beena_ marriage of early Arabia.
+Under such a system the wife is not only preserved from the subjection
+involved by purchase, which always casts upon her some shadow of the
+inferiority belonging to property, but she herself is the owner of the
+tent and the household property, and enjoys the dignity always involved by
+the possession of property and the ability to free herself from her
+husband.[276]
+
+It is also impossible to avoid connecting the primitive tendency to
+mother-descent, and the emphasis it involved on maternal rather than
+paternal generative energy, with the tendency to place the goddess rather
+than the god in the forefront of primitive pantheons, a tendency which
+cannot possibly fail to reflect honor on the sex to which the supreme
+deity belongs, and which may be connected with the large part which
+primitive women often play in the functions of religion. Thus, according
+to traditions common to all the central tribes of Australia, the woman
+formerly took a much greater share in the performance of sacred ceremonies
+which are now regarded as coming almost exclusively within the masculine
+province, and in at least one tribe which seems to retain ancient
+practices the women still actually take part in these ceremonies.[277] It
+seems to have been much the same in Europe. We observe, too, both in the
+Celtic pantheon and among Mediterranean peoples, that while all the
+ancient divinities have receded into the dim background yet the goddesses
+loom larger than the gods.[278] In Ireland, where ancient custom and
+tradition have always been very tenaciously preserved, women retained a
+very high position, and much freedom both before and after marriage.
+"Every woman," it was said, "is to go the way she willeth freely," and
+after marriage she enjoyed a better position and greater freedom of
+divorce than was afforded either by the Christian Church or the English
+common law.[279] There is less difficulty in recognizing that
+mother-descent was peculiarly favorable to the high status of women when
+we realize that even under very unfavorable conditions women have been
+able to exert great pressure on the men and to resist successfully the
+attempts to tyrannize over them.[280]
+
+If we consider the status of woman in the great empires of antiquity we
+find on the whole that in their early stage, the stage of growth, as well
+as in their final stage, the stage of fruition, women tend to occupy a
+favorable position, while in their middle stage, usually the stage of
+predominating military organization on a patriarchal basis, women occupy a
+less favorable position. This cyclic movement seems to be almost a natural
+law of the development of great social groups. It was apparently well
+marked in the very stable and orderly growth of Babylonia. In the earliest
+times a Babylonian woman had complete independence and equal rights with
+her brothers and her husband; later (as shown by the code of Hamurabi) a
+woman's rights, though not her duties, were more circumscribed; in the
+still later Neo-Babylonian periods, she again acquired equal rights with
+her husband.[281]
+
+In Egypt the position of women stood highest at the end, but it seems to
+have been high throughout the whole of the long course of Egyptian
+history, and continuously improving, while the fact that little regard was
+paid to prenuptial chastity and that marriage contracts placed no stress
+on virginity indicate the absence of the conception of women as property.
+More than three thousand five hundred years ago men and women were
+recognized as equal in Egypt. The high position of the Egyptian woman is
+significantly indicated by the fact that her child was never illegitimate;
+illegitimacy was not recognized even in the case of a slave woman's
+child.[282] "It is the glory of Egyptian morality," says Amélineau, "to
+have been the first to express the Dignity of Woman."[283] The idea of
+marital authority was altogether unknown in Egypt. There can be no doubt
+that the high status of woman in two civilizations so stable, so vital, so
+long-lived, and so influential on human culture as Babylonia and Egypt, is
+a fact of much significance.
+
+    Among the Jews there seems to have been no intermediate stage of
+    subordination of women, but instead a gradual progress throughout
+    from complete subjection of the woman as wife to ever greater
+    freedom. At first the husband could repudiate his wife at will
+    without cause. (This was not an extension of patriarchal
+    authority, but a purely marital authority.) The restrictions on
+    this authority gradually increased, and begin to be observable
+    already in the Book of Deuteronomy. The Mishnah went further and
+    forbade divorce whenever the wife's condition inspired pity (as
+    in insanity, captivity, etc.). By A.D. 1025, divorce was no
+    longer possible except for legitimate reasons or by the wife's
+    consent. At the same time, the wife also began to acquire the
+    right of divorce in the form of compelling the husband to
+    repudiate her on penalty of punishment in case of refusal. On
+    divorce the wife became an independent woman in her own right,
+    and was permitted to carry off the dowry which her husband gave
+    her on marriage. Thus, notwithstanding Jewish respect for the
+    letter of the law, the flexible jurisprudence of the Rabbis, in
+    harmony with the growth of culture, accorded an ever-growing
+    measure of sexual justice and equality to women (D.W. Amram, _The
+    Jewish Law of Divorce_).
+
+    Among the Arabs the tendency of progress has also been favorable
+    to women in many respects, especially as regards inheritance.
+    Before Mahommed, in accordance with the system prevailing at
+    Medina, women had little or no right of inheritance. The
+    legislation of the Koran modified this rule, without entirely
+    abolishing it, and placed women in a much better position. This
+    is attributed largely to the fact that Mahommed belonged not to
+    Medina, but to Mecca, where traces of matriarchal custom still
+    survived (W. Marçais, _Des Parents et des Alliés Successibles en
+    Droit Musulman_).
+
+    It may be pointed out--for it is not always realized--that even
+    that stage of civilization--when it occurs--which involves the
+    subordination and subjection of woman and her rights really has
+    its origin in the need for the protection of women, and is
+    sometimes even a sign of the acquirement of new privileges by
+    women. They are, as it were, locked up, not in order to deprive
+    them of their rights, but in order to guard those rights. In the
+    later more stable phase of civilization, when women are no longer
+    exposed to the same dangers, this motive is forgotten and the
+    guardianship of woman and her rights seems, and indeed has really
+    become, a hardship rather than an advantage.
+
+Of the status of women at Rome in the earliest periods we know little or
+nothing; the patriarchal system was already firmly established when Roman
+history begins to become clear and it involved unusually strict
+subordination of the woman to her father first and then to her husband.
+But nothing is more certain than that the status of women in Rome rose
+with the rise of civilization, exactly in the same way as in Babylonia and
+in Egypt. In the case of Rome, however, the growing refinement of
+civilization, and the expansion of the Empire, were associated with the
+magnificent development of the system of Roman law, which in its final
+forms consecrated the position of women. In the last days of the Republic
+women already began to attain the same legal level as men, and later the
+great Antonine jurisconsults, guided by their theory of natural law,
+reached the conception of the equality of the sexes as a principle of the
+code of equity. The patriarchal subordination of women fell into complete
+discredit, and this continued until, in the days of Justinian, under the
+influence of Christianity, the position of women began to suffer.[284] In
+the best days the older forms of Roman marriage gave place to a form
+(apparently old but not hitherto considered reputable) which amounted in
+law to a temporary deposit of the woman by her family. She was independent
+of her husband (more especially as she came to him with her own dowry) and
+only nominally dependent on her family. Marriage was a private contract,
+accompanied by a religious ceremony if desired, and being a contract it
+could be dissolved, for any reason, in the presence of competent
+witnesses and with due legal forms, after the advice of the family council
+had been taken. Consent was the essence of this marriage and no shame,
+therefore, attached to its dissolution. Nor had it any evil effect either
+on the happiness or the morals of Roman women.[285] Such a system is
+obviously more in harmony with modern civilized feeling than any system
+that has ever been set up in Christendom.
+
+In Rome, also, it is clear that this system was not a mere legal invention
+but the natural outgrowth of an enlightened public feeling in favor of the
+equality of men and women, often even in the field of sexual morality.
+Plautus, who makes the old slave Syra ask why there is not the same law in
+this respect for the husband as for the wife,[286] had preceded the legist
+Ulpian who wrote: "It seems to be very unjust that a man demands chastity
+of his wife while he himself shows no example of it."[287] Such demands
+lie deeper than social legislation, but the fact that these questions
+presented themselves to typical Roman men indicates the general attitude
+towards women. In the final stage of Roman society the bond of the
+patriarchal system so far as women were concerned dwindled to a mere
+thread binding them to their fathers and leaving them quite free face to
+face with their husbands. "The Roman matron of the Empire," says Hobhouse,
+"was more fully her own mistress than the married woman of any earlier
+civilization, with the possible exception of a certain period of Egyptian
+history, and, it must be added, than the wife of any later civilization
+down to our own generation."[288]
+
+    On the strength of the statements of two satirical writers,
+    Juvenal and Tacitus, it has been supposed by many that Roman
+    women of the late period were given up to license. It is,
+    however, idle to seek in satirists any balanced picture of a
+    great civilization. Hobhouse (loc. cit., p. 216) concludes that
+    on the whole, Roman women worthily retained the position of their
+    husbands' companions, counsellors and friends which they had
+    held when an austere system placed them legally in his power.
+    Most authorities seem now to be of this opinion, though at an
+    earlier period Friedländer expressed himself more dubiously. Thus
+    Dill, in his judicious _Roman Society_ (p. 163), states that the
+    Roman woman's position, both in law and in fact, rose during the
+    Empire; without being less virtuous or respected, she became far
+    more accomplished and attractive; with fewer restraints she had
+    greater charm and influence, even in public affairs, and was more
+    and more the equal of her husband. "In the last age of the
+    Western Empire there is no deterioration in the position and
+    influence of women." Principal Donaldson, also, in his valuable
+    historical sketch, _Woman_, considers (p. 113) that there was no
+    degradation of morals in the Roman Empire; "the licentiousness of
+    Pagan Rome is nothing to the licentiousness of Christian Africa,
+    Rome, and Gaul, if we can put any reliance on the description of
+    Salvian." Salvian's description of Christendom is probably
+    exaggerated and one-sided, but exactly the same may be said in an
+    even greater degree of the descriptions of ancient Rome left by
+    clever Pagan satirists and ascetic Christian preachers.
+
+It thus becomes necessary to leap over considerably more than a thousand
+years before we reach a stage of civilization in any degree approaching in
+height the final stage of Roman society. In the eighteenth and nineteenth
+centuries, at first in France, then in England, we find once more the
+moral and legal movement tending towards the equalization of women with
+men. We find also a long series of pioneers of that movement foreshadowing
+its developments: Mary Astor, "Sophia, a Lady of Quality," Ségur, Mrs.
+Wheeler, and very notably Mary Wollstonecraft in _A Vindication of the
+Rights of Woman_, and John Stuart Mill in _The Subjection of Women_.[289]
+
+The main European stream of influences in this matter within historical
+times has involved, we can scarcely doubt when we take into consideration
+its complex phenomena as a whole, the maintenance of an inequality to the
+disadvantage of women. The fine legacy of Roman law to Europe was indeed
+favorable to women, but that legacy was dispersed and for the most part
+lost in the more predominating influence of tenacious Teutonic custom
+associated with the vigorously organized Christian Church. Notwithstanding
+that the facts do not all point in the same direction, and that there is
+consequently some difference of opinion, it seems evident that on the
+whole both Teutonic custom and Christian religion were unfavorable to the
+equality of women with men. Teutonic custom in this matter was determined
+by two decisive factors: (1) the existence of marriage by purchase which
+although, as Crawley has pointed out, it by no means necessarily involves
+the degradation of women, certainly tends to place them in an inferior
+position, and (2) pre-occupation with war which is always accompanied by a
+depreciation of peaceful and feminine occupations and an indifference to
+love. Christianity was at its origin favorable to women because it
+liberated and glorified the most essentially feminine emotions, but when
+it became an established and organized religion with definitely ascetic
+ideals, its whole emotional tone grew unfavorable to women. It had from
+the first excluded them from any priestly function. It now regarded them
+as the special representatives of the despised element of sex in
+life.[290] The eccentric Tertullian had once declared that woman was
+_janua Diaboli_; nearly seven hundred years later, even the gentle and
+philosophic Anselm wrote: _Femina fax est Satanæ_.[291]
+
+    Thus among the Franks, with whom the practice of monogamy
+    prevailed, a woman was never free; she could not buy or sell or
+    inherit without the permission of those to whom she belonged. She
+    passed into the possession of her husband by acquisition, and
+    when he fixed the wedding day he gave her parents coins of small
+    money as _arrha_, and the day after the wedding she received from
+    him a present, the _morgengabe_. A widow belonged to her parents
+    again (Bedollière, _Histoire de Moeurs des Français_,
+    vol. i, p. 180). It is true that the Salic law ordained a
+    pecuniary fine for touching a woman, even for squeezing her
+    finger, but it is clear that the offence thus committed was an
+    offence against property, and by no means against the sanctity of
+    a woman's personality. The primitive German husband could sell
+    his children, and sometimes his wife, even into slavery. In the
+    eleventh century cases of wife-selling are still heard of, though
+    no longer recognized by law.
+
+    The traditions of Christianity were more favorable to sexual
+    equality than were Teutonic customs, but in becoming amalgamated
+    with those customs they added their own special contribution as
+    to woman's impurity. This spiritual inferiority of woman was
+    significantly shown by the restrictions sometimes placed on women
+    in church, and even in the right to enter a church; in some
+    places they were compelled to remain in the narthex, even in
+    non-monastic churches (see for these rules, Smith and Cheetham,
+    _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, art. "Sexes, Separation
+    of").
+
+    By attempting to desexualize the idea of man and to oversexualize
+    the idea of woman, Christianity necessarily degraded the position
+    of woman and the conception of womanhood. As Donaldson well
+    remarks, in pointing this out (op. cit., p. 182), "I may define
+    man as a male human being and woman as a female human being....
+    What the early Christians did was to strike the 'male' out of the
+    definition of man, and 'human being' out of the definition of
+    woman." Religion generally appears to be a powerfully depressing
+    influence on the position of woman notwithstanding the appeal
+    which it makes to woman. Westermarck considers, indeed (_Origin
+    and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 669), that
+    religion "has probably been the most persistent cause of the
+    wife's subjection to her husband's rule."
+
+    It is sometimes said that the Christian tendency to place women
+    in an inferior spiritual position went so far that a church
+    council formally denied that women have souls. This foolish story
+    has indeed been repeated in a parrot-like fashion by a number of
+    writers. The source of the story is probably to be found in the
+    fact, recorded by Gregory of Tours, in his history (lib. viii,
+    cap. XX), that at the Council of Mâcon, in 585, a bishop was in
+    doubt as to whether the term "man" included woman, but was
+    convinced by the other members of the Council that it did. The
+    same difficulty has presented itself to lawyers in more modern
+    times, and has not always been resolved so favorably to woman as
+    by the Christian Council of Mâcon.
+
+    The low estimate of women that prevailed even in the early Church
+    is admitted by Christian scholars. "We cannot but notice," writes
+    Meyrick (art. "Marriage," Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of
+    Christian Antiquities_), "even in the greatest of the Christian
+    fathers a lamentably low estimate of woman, and consequently of
+    the marriage relationship. Even St. Augustine can see no
+    justification for marriage, except in a grave desire deliberately
+    adopted of having children; and in accordance with this view, all
+    married intercourse, except for this single purpose, is harshly
+    condemned. If marriage is sought after for the sake of children,
+    it is justifiable; if entered into as a _remedium_ to avoid worse
+    evils, it is pardonable; the idea of the mutual society, help,
+    and comfort that the one ought to have of the other, both in
+    prosperity and adversity, hardly existed, and could hardly yet
+    exist."
+
+    From the woman's point of view, Lily Braun, in her important work
+    on the woman question (_Die Frauenfrage_, 1901, pp. 28 et seq.)
+    concludes that, in so far as Christianity was favorable to women,
+    we must see that favorable influence in the placing of women on
+    the same moral level as men, as illustrated in the saying of
+    Jesus, "Let him who is without sin amongst you cast the first
+    stone," implying that each sex owes the same fidelity. It
+    reached, she adds, no further than this. "Christianity, which
+    women accepted as a deliverance with so much enthusiasm, and died
+    for as martyrs, has not fulfilled their hopes."
+
+    Even as regards the moral equality of the sexes in marriage, the
+    position of Christian authorities was sometimes equivocal. One of
+    the greatest of the Fathers, St. Basil, in the latter half of the
+    fourth century, distinguished between adultery and fornication as
+    committed by a married man; if with a married woman, it was
+    adultery; if with an unmarried woman, it was merely fornication.
+    In the former case, a wife should not receive her husband back;
+    in the latter case, she should (art. "Adultery," Smith and
+    Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_). Such a
+    decision, by attaching supreme importance to a distinction which
+    could make no difference to the wife, involved a failure to
+    recognize her moral personality. Many of the Fathers in the
+    Western Church, however, like Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose,
+    could see no reason why the moral law should not be the same for
+    the husband as for the wife, but as late Roman feeling both on
+    the legal and popular side was already approximating to that
+    view, the influence of Christianity was scarcely required to
+    attain it. It ultimately received formal sanction in the Roman
+    Canon Law, which decreed that adultery is equally committed by
+    either conjugal party in two degrees: (1) _simplex_, of the
+    married with the unmarried, and (2) _duplex_, of the married with
+    the married.
+
+    It can scarcely be said, however, that Christianity succeeded in
+    attaining the inclusion of this view of the moral equality of the
+    sexes into actual practical morality. It was accepted in theory;
+    it was not followed in practice. W.G. Sumner, discussing this
+    question (_Folkways_, pp. 359-361), concludes: "Why are these
+    views not in the _mores?_ Undoubtedly it is because they are
+    dogmatic in form, invented or imposed by theological authority or
+    philosophical speculation. They do not grow out of the experience
+    of life, and cannot be verified by it. The reasons are in
+    ultimate physiological facts, by virtue of which one is a woman
+    and the other is a man." There is, however, more to be said on
+    this point later.
+
+It was probably, however, not so much the Church as Teutonic customs and
+the development of the feudal system, with the masculine and military
+ideals it fostered, that was chiefly decisive in fixing the inferior
+position of women in the mediæval world. Even the ideas of chivalry, which
+have often been supposed to be peculiarly favorable to women, so far as
+they affected women seem to have been of little practical significance.
+
+    In his great work on chivalry Gautier brings forward much
+    evidence to show that the feudal spirit, like the military spirit
+    always and everywhere, on the whole involved at bottom a disdain
+    for women, even though it occasionally idealized them. "Go into
+    your painted and gilded rooms," we read in _Renaus de Montauban_,
+    "sit in the shade, make yourselves comfortable, drink, eat, work
+    tapestry, dye silk, but remember that you must not occupy
+    yourselves with our affairs. Our business is to strike with the
+    steel sword. Silence!" And if the woman insists she is struck on
+    the face till the blood comes. The husband had a legal right to
+    beat his wife, not only for adultery, but even for contradicting
+    him. Women were not, however, entirely without power, and in a
+    thirteenth century collection of _Coutumes_, it is set down that
+    a husband must only beat his wife reasonably, _resnablement_. (As
+    regards the husband's right to chastise his wife, see also
+    Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. i, p. 234. In England it
+    was not until the reign of Charles II, from which so many modern
+    movements date, that the husband was deprived of this legal
+    right.)
+
+    In the eyes of a feudal knight, it may be added, the beauty of a
+    horse competed, often successfully, with the beauty of a woman.
+    In _Girbers de Metz_, two knights, Garin and his cousin Girbert,
+    ride by a window at which sits a beautiful girl with the face of
+    a rose and the white flesh of a lily. "Look, cousin Girbert,
+    look! By Saint Mary, a beautiful woman!" "Ah," Girbert replies,
+    "a beautiful beast is my horse!" "I have never seen anything so
+    charming as that young girl with her fresh color and her dark
+    eyes," says Garin. "I know no steed to compare with mine,"
+    retorts Girbert. When the men were thus absorbed in the things
+    that pertain to war, it is not surprising that amorous advances
+    were left to young girls to make. "In all the _chansons de
+    geste_," Gautier remarks, "it is the young girls who make the
+    advances, often with effrontery," though, he adds, wives are
+    represented as more virtuous (L. Gautier, _La Chevalerie_, pp.
+    236-8, 348-50).
+
+    In England Pollock and Maitland (_History of English Law_, vol.
+    ii, p. 437) do not believe that a life-long tutela of women ever
+    existed as among other Teutonic peoples. "From the Conquest
+    onwards," Hobhouse states (op. cit., vol. i, p. 224), "the
+    unmarried English woman, on attaining her majority, becomes
+    fully equipped with all legal and civil rights, as much a legal
+    personality as the Babylonian woman had been three thousand years
+    before." But the developed English law more than made up for any
+    privileges thus accorded to the unmarried by the inconsistent
+    manner in which it swathed up the wife in endless folds of
+    irresponsibility, except when she committed the supreme offence
+    of injuring her lord and master. The English wife, as Hobhouse
+    continues (loc. cit.) was, if not her husband's slave, at any
+    rate his liege subject; if she killed him it was "petty treason,"
+    the revolt of a subject against a sovereign in a miniature
+    kingdom, and a more serious offence than murder. Murder she could
+    not commit in his presence, for her personality was merged in
+    him; he was responsible for most of her crimes and offences (it
+    was that fact which gave him the right to chastise her), and he
+    could not even enter into a contract with her, for that would be
+    entering into a contract with himself. "The very being and legal
+    existence of a woman is suspended during marriage," said
+    Blackstone, "or at least is incorporated and consolidated into
+    that of her husband, under whose wing, protection and cover she
+    performs everything. So great a favorite," he added, "is the
+    female sex of the laws of England." "The strength of woman," says
+    Hobhouse, interpreting the sense of the English law, "was her
+    weakness. She conquered by yielding. Her gentleness had to be
+    guarded from the turmoil of the world, her fragrance to be kept
+    sweet and fresh, away from the dust and the smoke of battle.
+    Hence her need of a champion and guardian."
+
+    In France the wife of the mediæval and Renaissance periods
+    occupied much the same position in her husband's house. He was
+    her absolute master and lord, the head and soul of "the feminine
+    and feeble creature" who owed to him "perfect love and
+    obedience." She was his chief servant, the eldest of his
+    children, his wife and subject; she signed herself "your humble
+    obedient daughter and friend," when she wrote to him. The
+    historian, De Maulde la Clavière, who has brought together
+    evidence on this point in his _Femmes de la Renaissance_, remarks
+    that even though the husband enjoyed this lofty and superior
+    position in marriage, it was still generally he, and not the
+    wife, who complained of the hardships of marriage.
+
+Law and custom assumed that a woman should be more or less under the
+protection of a man, and even the ideals of fine womanhood which arose in
+this society, during feudal and later times, were necessarily tinged by
+the same conception. It involved the inequality of women as compared with
+men, but under the social conditions of a feudal society such inequality
+was to woman's advantage. Masculine force was the determining factor in
+life and it was necessary that every woman should have a portion of this
+force on her side. This sound and reasonable idea naturally tended to
+persist even after the growth of civilization rendered force a much less
+decisive factor in social life. In England in Queen Elizabeth's time no
+woman must be masterless, although the feminine subjects of Queen
+Elizabeth had in their sovereign the object lesson of a woman who could
+play a very brilliant and effective part in life and yet remain absolutely
+masterless. Still later, in the eighteenth century, even so fine a
+moralist as Shaftesbury, in his _Characteristics_, refers to lovers of
+married women as invaders of property. If such conceptions still ruled
+even in the best minds, it is not surprising that in the same century,
+even in the following century, they were carried out into practice by less
+educated people who frankly bought and sold women.
+
+    Schrader, in his _Reallexicon_ (art. "Brautkauf"), points out
+    that, originally, the purchase of a wife was the purchase of her
+    person, and not merely of the right of protecting her. The
+    original conception probably persisted long in Great Britain on
+    account of its remoteness from the centres of civilization. In
+    the eleventh century Gregory VII desired Lanfranc to stop the
+    sale of wives in Scotland and elsewhere in the island of the
+    English (Pike, _History of Crime in England_, vol. i, p. 99). The
+    practice never quite died out, however, in remote country
+    districts.
+
+    Such transactions have taken place even in London. Thus in the
+    _Annual Register_ for 1767 (p. 99) we read: "About three weeks
+    ago a bricklayer's laborer at Marylebone sold a woman, whom he
+    had cohabited with for several years, to a fellow-workman for a
+    quarter guinea and a gallon of beer. The workman went off with
+    the purchase, and she has since had the good fortune to have a
+    legacy of £200, and some plate, left her by a deceased uncle in
+    Devonshire. The parties were married last Friday."
+
+    The Rev. J. Edward Vaux (_Church Folk-lore_, second edition, p.
+    146) narrates two authentic cases in which women had been bought
+    by their husbands in open market in the nineteenth century. In
+    one case the wife, with her own full consent, was brought to
+    market with a halter round her neck, sold for half a crown, and
+    led to her new home, twelve miles off by the new husband who had
+    purchased her; in the other case a publican bought another man's
+    wife for a two-gallon jar of gin.
+
+    It is the same conception of woman as property which, even to the
+    present, has caused the retention in many legal codes of clauses
+    rendering a man liable to pay pecuniary damages to a woman,
+    previously a virgin, whom he has intercourse with and
+    subsequently forsakes (Natalie Fuchs, "Die Jungfernschaft im
+    Recht und Sitte," _Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1908). The woman is
+    "dishonored" by sexual intercourse, depreciated in her market
+    value, exactly as a new garment becomes "second-hand," even if it
+    has but once been worn. A man, on the other hand, would disdain
+    the idea that his personal value could be diminished by any
+    number of acts of sexual intercourse.
+
+    This fact has even led some to advocate the "abolition of
+    physical virginity." Thus the German authoress of _Una
+    Poenitentium_ (1907), considering that the protection of a woman
+    is by no means so well secured by a little piece of membrane as
+    by the presence of a true and watchful soul inside, advocates the
+    operation of removal of the hymen in childhood. It is undoubtedly
+    true that the undue importance attached to the hymen has led to a
+    false conception of feminine "honor," and to an unwholesome
+    conception of feminine purity.
+
+Custom and law are slowly changing in harmony with changed social
+conditions which no longer demand the subjection of women either in their
+own interests or in the interests of the community. Concomitantly with
+these changes a different ideal of womanly personality is developing. It
+is true that the ancient ideal of the lordship of the husband over the
+wife is still more or less consciously affirmed around us. The husband
+frequently dictates to the wife what avocations she may not pursue, what
+places she may not visit, what people she may not know, what books she may
+not read. He assumes to control her, even in personal matters having no
+direct concern with himself, by virtue of the old masculine prerogative of
+force which placed a woman under the hand, as the ancient patriarchal
+legists termed it, of a man. It is, however, becoming more and more widely
+recognized that such a part is not suited to the modern man. The modern
+man, as Rosa Mayreder has pointed out in a thoughtful essay,[292] is no
+longer equipped to play this domineering part in relation to his wife. The
+"noble savage," leading a wild life on mountain and in forest, hunting
+dangerous beasts and scalping enemies when necessary, may occasionally
+bring his club gently and effectively on to the head of his wife, even, it
+may be, with grateful appreciation on her part.[293] But the modern man,
+who for the most part spends his days tamely at a desk, who has been
+trained to endure silently the insults and humiliations which superior
+officials or patronizing clients may inflict upon him, this typical modern
+man is no longer able to assume effectually the part of the "noble savage"
+when he returns to his home. He is indeed so unfitted for the part that
+his wife resents his attempts to play it. He is gradually recognizing
+this, even apart from any consciousness of the general trend of
+civilization. The modern man of ideas recognizes that, as a matter of
+principle, his wife is entitled to equality with himself; the modern man
+of the world feels that it would be both ridiculous and inconvenient not
+to accord his wife much the same kind of freedom which he himself
+possesses. And, moreover, while the modern man has to some extent acquired
+feminine qualities, the modern woman has to a corresponding extent
+acquired masculine qualities.
+
+Brief and summary as the preceding discussion has necessarily been, it
+will have served to bring us face to face with the central fact in the
+sexual morality which the growth of civilization has at the present day
+rendered inevitable: personal responsibility. "The responsible human
+being, man or woman, is the centre of modern ethics as of modern law;"
+that is the conclusion reached by Hobhouse in his discussion of the
+evolution of human morality.[294] The movement which is taking place among
+us to liberate sexual relationships from an excessive bondage to fixed and
+arbitrary regulations would have been impossible and mischievous but for
+the concomitant growth of a sense of personal responsibility in the
+members of the community. It could not indeed have subsisted for a single
+year without degenerating into license and disorder. Freedom in sexual
+relations involves mutual trust and that can only rest on a basis of
+personal responsibility. Where there can be no reliance on personal
+responsibility there can be no freedom. In most fields of moral action
+this sense of personal responsibility is acquired at a fairly early stage
+of social progress. Sexual morality is the last field of morality to be
+brought within the sphere of personal responsibility. The community
+imposes the most varied, complicated, and artificial codes of sexual
+morality on its members, especially its feminine members, and, naturally
+enough, it is always very suspicious of their ability to observe these
+codes, and is careful to allow them, so far as possible, no personal
+responsibility in the matter. But a training in restraint, when carried
+through a long series of generations, is the best preparation for freedom.
+The law laid on the earlier generations, as old theology stated the
+matter, has been the schoolmaster to bring the later generations to
+Christ; or, as new science expresses exactly the same idea, the later
+generations have become immunized and have finally acquired a certain
+degree of protection against the virus which would have destroyed the
+earlier generations.
+
+    The process by which a people acquires the sense of personal
+    responsibility is slow, and perhaps it cannot be adequately
+    acquired at all by races lacking a high grade of nervous
+    organization. This is especially the case as regards sexual
+    morality, and has often been illustrated on the contact of a
+    higher with a lower civilization. It has constantly happened that
+    missionaries--entirely against their own wishes, it need not be
+    said--by overthrowing the strict moral system they have found
+    established, and by substituting the freedom of European customs
+    among people entirely unprepared for such freedom, have exerted
+    the most disastrous effects on morality. This has been the case
+    among the formerly well-organized and highly moral Baganda of
+    Central Africa, as recorded in an official report by Colonel
+    Lambkin (_British Medical Journal_, Oct. 3, 1908).
+
+    As regards Polynesia, also, R.L. Stevenson, in his interesting
+    book, _In the South Seas_ (Ch. V), pointed out that, while before
+    the coming of the whites the Polynesians were, on the whole,
+    chaste, and the young carefully watched, now it is far otherwise.
+
+    Even in Fiji, where, according to Lord Stanmore--who was High
+    Commissioner of the Pacific, and an independent
+    critic--missionary effort has been "wonderfully successful,"
+    where all own at least nominal allegiance to Christianity, which
+    has much modified life and character, yet chastity has suffered.
+    This was shown by a Royal Commission on the condition of the
+    native races in Fiji. Mr. Fitchett, commenting on this report
+    (Australasian _Review of Reviews_, Oct., 1897) remarks: "Not a
+    few witnesses examined by the commission declare that the moral
+    advance in Fiji is of a curiously patchy type. The abolition of
+    polygamy, for example, they say, has not told at every point in
+    favor of women. The woman is the toiler in Fiji; and when the
+    support of the husband was distributed over four wives, the
+    burden on each wife was less than it is now, when it has to be
+    carried by one. In heathen times female chastity was guarded by
+    the club; a faithless wife, an unmarried mother, was summarily
+    put to death. Christianity has abolished club-law, and purely
+    moral restraints, or the terror of the penalties of the next
+    world, do not, to the limited imagination of the Fijian, quite
+    take its place. So the standard of Fijian chastity is
+    distressingly low."
+
+    It must always be remembered that when the highly organized
+    primitive system of mixed spiritual and physical restraints is
+    removed, chastity becomes more delicately and unstably poised.
+    The controlling power of personal responsibility, valuable and
+    essential as it is, cannot permanently and unremittingly restrain
+    the volcanic forces of the passion of love even in high
+    civilizations. "No perfection of moral constitution in a woman,"
+    Hinlon has well said, "no power of will, no wish and resolution
+    to be 'good,' no force of religion or control of custom, can
+    secure what is called the virtue of woman. The emotion of
+    absolute devotion with which some man may inspire her will sweep
+    them all away. Society, in choosing to erect itself on that
+    basis, chooses inevitable disorder, and so long as it continues
+    to choose it will continue to have that result."
+
+It is necessary to insist for a while on this personal responsibility in
+matters of sexual morality, in the form in which it is making itself felt
+among us, and to search out its implications. The most important of these
+is undoubtedly economic independence. That is indeed so important that
+moral responsibility in any fine sense can scarcely be said to have any
+existence in its absence. Moral responsibility and economic independence
+are indeed really identical; they are but two sides of the same social
+fact. The responsible person is the person who is able to answer for his
+actions and, if need be, to pay for them. The economically dependent
+person can accept a criminal responsibility; he can, with an empty purse,
+go to prison or to death. But in the ordinary sphere of everyday morality
+that large penalty is not required of him; if he goes against the wishes
+of his family or his friends or his parish, they may turn their backs on
+him but they cannot usually demand against him the last penalties of the
+law. He can exert his own personal responsibility, he can freely choose to
+go his own way and to maintain himself in it before his fellowmen on one
+condition, that he is able to pay for it. His personal responsibility has
+little or no meaning except in so far as it is also economic independence.
+
+In civilized societies as they attain maturity, the women tend to acquire
+a greater and greater degree alike of moral responsibility and economic
+independence. Any freedom and seeming equality of women, even when it
+actually assumes the air of superiority, which is not so based, is unreal.
+It is only on sufferance; it is the freedom accorded to the child, because
+it asks for it so prettily or may scream if it is refused. This is merely
+parasitism.[295] The basis of economic independence ensures a more real
+freedom. Even in societies which by law and custom hold women in strict
+subordination, the woman who happens to be placed in possession of
+property enjoys a high degree alike of independence and of
+responsibility.[296] The growth of a high civilization seems indeed to be
+so closely identified with the economic freedom and independence of women
+that it is difficult to say which is cause and which effect. Herodotus, in
+his fascinating account of Egypt, a land which he regarded as admirable
+beyond all other lands, noted with surprise that, totally unlike the
+fashion of Greece, women left the men at home to the management of the
+loom and went to market to transact the business of commerce.[297] It is
+the economic factor in social life which secures the moral responsibility
+of women and which chiefly determines the position of the wife in relation
+to her husband.[298] In this respect in its late stages civilization
+returns to the same point it had occupied at the beginning, when, as has
+already been noted, we find greater equality with men and at the same time
+greater economic independence.[299]
+
+In all the leading modern civilized countries, for a century past, custom
+and law have combined to give an ever greater economic independence to
+women. In some respects England took the lead by inaugurating the great
+industrial movement which slowly swept women into its ranks,[300] and made
+inevitable the legal changes which, by 1882, insured to a married woman
+the possession of her own earnings. The same movement, with its same
+consequences, is going on elsewhere. In the United States, just as in
+England, there is a vast army of five million women, rapidly increasing,
+who earn their own living, and their position in relation to men workers
+is even better than in England. In France from twenty-five to seventy-five
+per cent. of the workers in most of the chief industries--the liberal
+professions, commerce, agriculture, factory industries--are women, and in
+some of the very largest, such as home industries and textile industries,
+more women are employed than men. In Japan, it is said, three-fifths of
+the factory workers are women, and all the textile industries are in the
+hands of women.[301] This movement is the outward expression of the modern
+conception of personal rights, personal moral worth, and personal
+responsibility, which, as Hobhouse has remarked, has compelled women to
+take their lives into their own hands, and has at the same time rendered
+the ancient marriage laws an anachronism, and the ancient ideals of
+feminine innocence shrouded from the world a mere piece of false
+sentiment.[302]
+
+    There can be no doubt that the entrance of women into the field
+    of industrial work, in rivalry with men and under somewhat the
+    same conditions as men, raises serious questions of another
+    order. The general tendency of civilization towards the economic
+    independence and the moral responsibility of women is
+    unquestionable. But it is by no means absolutely clear that it is
+    best for women, and, therefore, for the community, that women
+    should exercise all the ordinary avocations and professions of
+    men on the same level as men. Not only have the conditions of the
+    avocations and professions developed in accordance with the
+    special aptitudes of men, but the fact that the sexual processes
+    by which the race is propagated demand an incomparably greater
+    expenditure of time and energy on the part of women than of men,
+    precludes women in the mass from devoting themselves so
+    exclusively as men to industrial work. For some biologists,
+    indeed, it seems clear that outside the home and the school women
+    should not work at all. "Any nation that works its women is
+    damned," says Woods Hutchinson (_The Gospel According to Darwin_,
+    p. 199). That view is extreme. Yet from the economic side, also,
+    Hobson, in summing up this question, regards the tendency of
+    machine-industry to drive women away from the home as "a tendency
+    antagonistic to civilization." The neglect of the home, he
+    states, is, "on the whole, the worst injury modern industry has
+    inflicted on our lives, and it is difficult to see how it can be
+    compensated by any increase of material products. Factory life
+    for women, save in extremely rare cases, saps the physical and
+    moral health of the family. The exigencies of factory life are
+    inconsistent with the position of a good mother, a good wife, or
+    the maker of a home. Save in extreme circumstances, no increase
+    of the family wage can balance these losses, whose values stand
+    upon a higher qualitative level" (J.A. Hobson, _Evolution of
+    Modern Capitalism_, Ch. XII; cf. what has been said in Ch. I of
+    the present volume). It is now beginning to be recognized that
+    the early pioneers of the "woman's movement" in working to remove
+    the "subjection of woman" were still dominated by the old ideals
+    of that subjection, according to which the masculine is in all
+    main respects the superior sex. Whatever was good for man, they
+    thought, must be equally good for woman. That has been the source
+    of all that was unbalanced and unstable, sometimes both a little
+    pathetic and a little absurd, in the old "woman's movement."
+    There was a failure to perceive that, first of all, women must
+    claim their right to their own womanhood as mothers of the race,
+    and thereby the supreme law-givers in the sphere of sex and the
+    large part of life dependent on sex. This special position of
+    woman seems likely to require a readjustment of economic
+    conditions to their needs, though it is not likely that such
+    readjustment would be permitted to affect their independence or
+    their responsibility. We have had, as Madame Juliette Adam has
+    put it, the rights of men sacrificing women, followed by the
+    rights of women sacrificing the child; that must be followed by
+    the rights of the child reconstituting the family. It has already
+    been necessary to touch on this point in the first chapter of
+    this volume, and it will again be necessary in the last chapter.
+
+The question as to the method by which the economic independence of women
+will be completely insured, and the part which the community may be
+expected to take in insuring it, on the ground of woman's special
+child-bearing functions, is from the present point of view subsidiary.
+There can be no doubt, however, as to the reality of the movement in that
+direction, whatever doubt there may be as to the final adjustment of the
+details. It is only necessary in this place to touch on some of the
+general and more obvious respects in which the growth of woman's
+responsibility is affecting sexual morality.
+
+The first and most obvious way in which the sense of moral responsibility
+works is in an insistence on reality in the relationships of sex. Moral
+irresponsibility has too often combined with economic dependence to induce
+a woman to treat the sexual event in her life which is biologically of
+most fateful gravity as a merely gay and trivial event, at the most an
+event which has given her a triumph over her rivals and over the superior
+male, who, on his part, willingly condescends, for the moment, to assume
+the part of the vanquished. "Gallantry to the ladies," we are told of the
+hero of the greatest and most typical of English novels, "was among his
+principles of honor, and he held it as much incumbent on him to accept a
+challenge to love as if it had been a challenge to fight;" he heroically
+goes home for the night with a lady of title he meets at a masquerade,
+though at the time very much in love with the girl whom he eventually
+marries.[303] The woman whose power lies only in her charms, and who is
+free to allow the burden of responsibility to fall on a man's
+shoulder,[304] could lightly play the seducing part, and thereby exert
+independence and authority in the only shapes open to her. The man on his
+part, introducing the misplaced idea of "honor" into the field from which
+the natural idea of responsibility has been banished, is prepared to
+descend at the lady's bidding into the arena, according to the old legend,
+and rescue the glove, even though he afterwards flings it contemptuously
+in her face. The ancient conception of gallantry, which Tom Jones so well
+embodies, is the direct outcome of a system involving the moral
+irresponsibility and economic dependence of women, and is as opposed to
+the conceptions, prevailing in the earlier and later civilized stages, of
+approximate sexual equality as it is to the biological traditions of
+natural courtship in the world generally.
+
+In controlling her own sexual life, and in realizing that her
+responsibility for such control can no longer be shifted on to the
+shoulders of the other sex, women will also indirectly affect the sexual
+lives of men, much as men already affect the sexual lives of women. In
+what ways that influence will in the main be exerted it is still premature
+to say. According to some, just as formerly men bought their wives and
+demanded prenuptial virginity in the article thus purchased, so nowadays,
+among the better classes, women are able to buy their husbands, and in
+their turn are disposed to demand continence.[305] That, however, is too
+simple-minded a way of viewing the question. It is enough to refer to the
+fact that women are not attracted to virginal innocence in men and that
+they frequently have good ground for viewing such innocence with
+suspicion.[306] Yet it may well be believed that women will more and more
+prefer to exert a certain discrimination in the approval of their
+husbands' past lives. However instinctively a woman may desire that her
+husband shall be initiated in the art of making love to her, she may often
+well doubt whether the finest initiation is to be secured from the average
+prostitute. Prostitution, as we have seen, is ultimately as incompatible
+with complete sexual responsibility as is the patriarchal marriage system
+with which it has been so closely associated. It is an arrangement mainly
+determined by the demands of men, to whatever extent it may have
+incidentally subserved various needs of women. Men arranged that one group
+of women should be set apart to minister exclusively to their sexual
+necessities, while another group should be brought up in asceticism as
+candidates for the privilege of ministering to their household and family
+necessities. That this has been in many respects a most excellent
+arrangement is sufficiently proved by the fact that it has nourished for
+so long a period, notwithstanding the influences that are antagonistic to
+it. But it is obviously only possible during a certain stage of
+civilization and in association with a certain social organization. It is
+not completely congruous with a democratic stage of civilization involving
+the economic independence and the sexual responsibility of both sexes
+alike in all social classes. It is possible that women may begin to
+realize this fact earlier than men.
+
+It is also believed by many that women will realize that a high degree of
+moral responsibility is not easily compatible with the practice of
+dissimulation and that economic independence will deprive deceit--which is
+always the resort of the weak--of whatever moral justification it may
+possess. Here, however, it is necessary to speak with caution or we may be
+unjust to women. It must be remarked that in the sphere of sex men also
+are often the weak, and are therefore apt to resort to the refuge of the
+weak. With the recognition of that fact we may also recognize that
+deception in women has been the cause of much of the age-long blunders of
+the masculine mind in the contemplation of feminine ways. Men have
+constantly committed the double error of overlooking the dissimulation of
+women and of over-estimating it. This fact has always served to render
+more difficult still the inevitably difficult course of women through the
+devious path of sexual behavior. Pepys, who represents so vividly and so
+frankly the vices and virtues of the ordinary masculine mind, tells how
+one day when he called to see Mrs. Martin her sister Doll went out for a
+bottle of wine and came back indignant because a Dutchman had pulled her
+into a stable and tumbled and tossed her. Pepys having been himself often
+permitted to take liberties with her, it seemed to him that her
+indignation with the Dutchman was "the best instance of woman's falseness
+in the world."[307] He assumes without question that a woman who has
+accorded the privilege of familiarity to a man she knows and, one hopes,
+respects, would be prepared to accept complacently the brutal attentions
+of the first drunken stranger she meets in the street.
+
+It was the assumption of woman's falseness which led the ultra-masculine
+Pepys into a sufficiently absurd error. At this point, indeed, we
+encounter what has seemed to some a serious obstacle to the full moral
+responsibility of women. Dissimulation, Lombroso and Ferrero argue, is in
+woman "almost physiological," and they give various grounds for this
+conclusion.[308] The theologians, on their side, have reached a similar
+conclusion. "A confessor must not immediately believe a woman's words,"
+says Father Gury, "for women are habitually inclined to lie."[309] This
+tendency, which seems to be commonly believed to affect women as a sex,
+however free from it a vast number of individual women are, may be said,
+and with truth, to be largely the result of the subjection of women and
+therefore likely to disappear as that subjection disappears. In so far,
+however, as it is "almost physiological," and based on radical feminine
+characters, such as modesty, affectability, and sympathy, which have an
+organic basis in the feminine constitution and can therefore never
+altogether be changed, feminine dissimulation seems scarcely likely to
+disappear. The utmost that can be expected is that it should be held in
+check by the developed sense of moral responsibility, and, being reduced
+to its simply natural proportions, become recognizably intelligible.
+
+    It is unnecessary to remark that there can be no question here as
+    to any inherent moral superiority of one sex over the other. The
+    answer to that question was well stated many years ago by one of
+    the most subtle moralists of love. "Taken altogether," concluded
+    Sénancour (_De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 85), "we have no reason to
+    assert the moral superiority of either sex. Both sexes, with
+    their errors and their good intentions, very equally fulfil the
+    ends of nature. We may well believe that in either of the two
+    divisions of the human species the sum of evil and that of good
+    are about equal. If, for instance, as regards love, we oppose the
+    visibly licentious conduct of men to the apparent reserve of
+    women, it would be a vain valuation, for the number of faults
+    committed by women with men is necessarily the same as that of
+    men with women. There exist among us fewer scrupulous men than
+    perfectly honest women, but it is easy to see how the balance is
+    restored. If this question of the moral preëminence of one sex
+    over the other were not insoluble it would still remain very
+    complicated with reference to the whole of the species, or even
+    the whole of a nation, and any dispute here seems idle."
+
+    This conclusion is in accordance with the general compensatory
+    and complementary relationship of women to men (see, e.g.,
+    Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth edition, especially pp.
+    448 et seq.).
+
+    In a recent symposium on the question whether women are morally
+    inferior to men, with special reference to aptitude for loyalty
+    (_La Revue_, Jan. 1, 1909), to which various distinguished French
+    men and women contributed their opinions, some declared that
+    women are usually superior; others regarded it as a question of
+    difference rather than of superiority or inferiority; all were
+    agreed that when they enjoy the same independence as men, women
+    are quite as loyal as men.
+
+It is undoubtedly true that--partly as a result of ancient traditions and
+education, partly of genuine feminine characteristics--many women are
+diffident as to their right to moral responsibility and unwilling to
+assume it. And an attempt is made to justify their attitude by asserting
+that woman's part in life is naturally that of self-sacrifice, or, to put
+the statement in a somewhat more technical form, that women are naturally
+masochistic; and that there is, as Krafft-Ebing argues, a natural "sexual
+subjection" of woman. It is by no means clear that this statement is
+absolutely true, and if it were true it would not serve to abolish the
+moral responsibility of women.
+
+    Bloch (_Beiträge zur Ætiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis_, Part
+    II, p. 178), in agreement with Eulenburg, energetically denies
+    that there is any such natural "sexual subjection" of women,
+    regarding it as artificially produced, the result of the socially
+    inferior position of women, and arguing that such subjection is
+    in much higher degree a physiological characteristic of men than
+    of women. (It has been necessary to discuss this question in
+    dealing with "Love and Pain" in the third volume of these
+    _Studies_.) It seems certainly clear that the notion that women
+    are especially prone to self-sacrifice has little biological
+    validity. Self-sacrifice by compulsion, whether physical or moral
+    compulsion, is not worthy of the name; when it is deliberate it
+    is simply the sacrifice of a lesser good for the sake of a
+    greater good. Doubtless a man who eats a good dinner may be said
+    to "sacrifice" his hunger. Even within the sphere of traditional
+    morality a woman who sacrifices her "honor" for the sake of her
+    love to a man has, by her "sacrifice," gained something that she
+    values more. "What a triumph it is to a woman," a woman has said,
+    "to give pleasure to a man she loves!" And in a morality on a
+    sound biological basis no "sacrifice" is here called for. It may
+    rather be said that the biological laws of courtship
+    fundamentally demand self-sacrifice of the male rather than of
+    the female. Thus the lioness, according to Gérard the
+    lion-hunter, gives herself to the most vigorous of her lion
+    wooers; she encourages them to fight among themselves for
+    superiority, lying on her belly to gaze at the combat and lashing
+    her tail with delight. Every female is wooed by many males, but
+    she only accepts one; it is not the female who is called upon for
+    erotic self-sacrifice, but the male. That is indeed part of the
+    divine compensation of Nature, for since the heavier part of the
+    burden of sex rests on the female, it is fitting that she should
+    be less called upon for renunciation.
+
+It thus seems probable that the increase of moral responsibility may tend
+to make a woman's conduct more intelligible to others;[310] it will in any
+case certainly tend to make it less the concern of others. This is
+emphatically the case as regards the relations of sex. In the past men
+have been invited to excel in many forms of virtue; only one virtue has
+been open to women. That is no longer possible. To place upon a woman the
+main responsibility for her own sexual conduct is to deprive that conduct
+of its conspicuously public character as a virtue or a vice. Sexual union,
+for a woman as much as for a man, is a physiological fact; it may also be
+a spiritual fact; but it is not a social act. It is, on the contrary, an
+act which, beyond all other acts, demands retirement and mystery for its
+accomplishment. That indeed is a general human, almost zoölogical, fact.
+Moreover, this demand of mystery is more especially made by woman in
+virtue of her greater modesty which, we have found reason to believe, has
+a biological basis. It is not until a child is born or conceived that the
+community has any right to interest itself in the sexual acts of its
+members. The sexual act is of no more concern to the community than any
+other private physiological act. It is an impertinence, if not an outrage,
+to seek to inquire into it. But the birth of a child is a social act. Not
+what goes into the womb but what comes out of it concerns society. The
+community is invited to receive a new citizen. It is entitled to demand
+that that citizen shall be worthy of a place in its midst and that he
+shall be properly introduced by a responsible father and a responsible
+mother. The whole of sexual morality, as Ellen Key has said, revolves
+round the child.
+
+At this final point in our discussion of sexual morality we may perhaps be
+able to realize the immensity of the change which has been involved by the
+development in women of moral responsibility. So long as responsibility
+was denied to women, so long as a father or a husband, backed up by the
+community, held himself responsible for a woman's sexual behavior, for
+her "virtue," it was necessary that the whole of sexual morality should
+revolve around the entrance to the vagina. It became absolutely essential
+to the maintenance of morality that all eyes in the community should be
+constantly directed on to that point, and the whole marriage law had to be
+adjusted accordingly. That is no longer possible. When a woman assumes her
+own moral responsibility, in sexual as in other matters, it becomes not
+only intolerable but meaningless for the community to pry into her most
+intimate physiological or spiritual acts. She is herself directly
+responsible to society as soon as she performs a social act, and not
+before.
+
+In relation to the fact of maternity the realization of all that is
+involved in the new moral responsibility of women is especially
+significant. Under a system of morality by which a man is left free to
+accept the responsibility for his sexual acts while a woman is not equally
+free to do the like, a premium is placed on sexual acts which have no end
+in procreation, and a penalty is placed on the acts which lead to
+procreation. The reason is that it is the former class of acts in which
+men find chief gratification; it is the latter class in which women find
+chief gratification. For the tragic part of the old sexual morality in its
+bearing on women was that while it made men alone morally responsible for
+sexual acts in which both a man and a woman took part, women were rendered
+both socially and legally incapable of availing themselves of the fact of
+masculine responsibility unless they had fulfilled conditions which men
+had laid down for them, and yet refrained from imposing upon themselves.
+The act of sexual intercourse, being the sexual act in which men found
+chief pleasure, was under all circumstances an act of little social
+gravity; the act of bringing a child into the world, which is for women
+the most massively gratifying of all sexual acts, was counted a crime
+unless the mother had before fulfilled the conditions demanded by man.
+That was perhaps the most unfortunate and certainly the most unnatural of
+the results of the patriarchal regulation of society. It has never existed
+in any great State where women have possessed some degree of regulative
+power.
+
+    It has, of course, been said by abstract theorists that women
+    have the matter in their own hands. They must never love a man
+    until they have safely locked him up in the legal bonds of
+    matrimony. Such an argument is absolutely futile, for it ignores
+    the fact that, while love and even monogamy are natural, legal
+    marriage is merely an external form, with a very feeble power of
+    subjugating natural impulses, except when those impulses are
+    weak, and no power at all of subjugating them permanently.
+    Civilization involves the growth of foresight, and of
+    self-control in both sexes; but it is foolish to attempt to place
+    on these fine and ultimate outgrowths of civilization a strain
+    which they could never bear. How foolish it is has been shown,
+    once and for all, by Lea in his admirable _History of Sacerdotal
+    Celibacy_.
+
+    Moreover, when we compare the respective aptitudes of men and
+    women in this particular region, it must be remembered that men
+    possess a greater power of forethought and self-control than
+    women, notwithstanding the modesty and reserve of women. The
+    sexual sphere is immensely larger in women, so that when its
+    activity is once aroused it is much more difficult to master or
+    control. (The reasons were set out in detail in the discussion of
+    "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in volume iii of these _Studies_.)
+    It is, therefore, unfair to women, and unduly favors men, when
+    too heavy a premium is placed on forethought and self-restraint
+    in sexual matters. Since women play the predominant part in the
+    sexual field their natural demands, rather than those of men,
+    must furnish the standard.
+
+With the realization of the moral responsibility of women the natural
+relations of life spring back to their due biological adjustment.
+Motherhood is restored to its natural sacredness. It becomes the concern
+of the woman herself, and not of society nor of any individual, to
+determine the conditions under which the child shall be conceived. Society
+is entitled to require that the father shall in every case acknowledge the
+fact of his paternity, but it must leave the chief responsibility for all
+the circumstances of child-production to the mother. That is the point of
+view which is now gaining ground in all civilized lands both in theory and
+in practice.[311]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[257] E.g., E. Belfort Bax, _Outspoken Essays_, p. 6.
+
+[258] Such reasons are connected with communal welfare. "All immoral acts
+result in communal unhappiness, all moral acts in communal happiness," as
+Prof. A. Mathews remarks, "Science and Morality," _Popular Science
+Monthly_, March, 1909.
+
+[259] See Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol.
+i, pp. 386-390, 522.
+
+[260] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, pp. 9,
+159; also the whole of Ch. VII. Actions that are in accordance with custom
+call forth public approval, actions that are opposed to custom call forth
+public resentment, and Westermarck powerfully argues that such approval
+and such resentment are the foundation of moral judgments.
+
+[261] This is well recognized by legal writers (e.g., E.A. Schroeder, _Das
+Recht in der Geschlechtlichen Ordnung_, p. 5).
+
+[262] W.G. Sumner (_Folkways_, p. 418) even considers it desirable to
+change the form of the word in order to emphasize the real and fundamental
+meaning of morals, and proposes the word _mores_ to indicate "popular
+usages and traditions conducive to societal reform." "'Immoral,'" he
+points out, "never means anything but contrary to the _mores_ of the time
+and place." There is, however, no need whatever to abolish or to
+supplement the good old ancient word "morality," so long as we clearly
+realize that, on the practical side, it means essentially custom.
+
+[263] Westermarck, op. cit., vol. i, p. 19.
+
+[264] See, e.g., "Exogamy and the Mating of Cousins," in _Essays Presented
+to E.B. Tylor_, 1907, p. 53. "In many departments of primitive life we
+find a naïve desire to, as it were, assist Nature, to affirm what is
+normal, and later to confirm it by the categorical imperative of custom
+and law. This tendency still flourishes in our civilized communities, and,
+as the worship of the normal, is often a deadly foe to the abnormal and
+eccentric, and too often paralyzes originality."
+
+[265] The spirit of Christianity, as illustrated by Paulinus, in his
+_Epistle XXV_, was from the Roman point of view, as Dill remarks (_Roman
+Society_, p. 11), "a renunciation, not only of citizenship, but of all the
+hard-won fruits of civilization and social life."
+
+[266] It thus happens that, as Lecky said in his _History of European
+Morals_, "of all the departments of ethics the questions concerning the
+relations of the sexes and the proper position of woman are those upon the
+future of which there rests the greatest uncertainty." Some progress has
+perhaps been made since these words were written, but they still hold true
+for the majority of people.
+
+[267] Concerning economic marriage as a vestigial survival, see, e.g.,
+Bloch, _The Sexual Life of Our Time_, p. 212.
+
+[268] Sénancour, _De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 233. The author of _The
+Question of English Divorce_ attributes the absence of any widespread
+feeling against sexual license to the absurd rigidity of the law.
+
+[269] Bruno Meyer, "Etwas von Positiver Sexualreform," _Sexual-Probleme_,
+Nov., 1908.
+
+[270] Elsie Clews Parsons, _The Family_, p. 351. Dr. Parsons rightly
+thinks such unions a social evil when they check the development of
+personality.
+
+[271] For evidence regarding the general absence of celibacy among both
+savage and barbarous peoples, see, e.g., Westermarck, _History of Human
+Marriage_, Ch. VII.
+
+[272] There are, for instance, two millions of unmarried women in France,
+while in Belgium 30 per cent, of the women, and in Germany sometimes even
+50 per cent, are unmarried.
+
+[273] Such a position would not be biologically unreasonable, in view of
+the greatly preponderant part played by the female in the sexual process
+which insures the conservation of the race. "If the sexual instinct is
+regarded solely from the physical side," says D.W.H. Busch (_Das
+Geschlechtsleben des Weibes_, 1839, vol. i, p. 201), "the woman cannot be
+regarded as the property of the man, but with equal and greater reason the
+man may be regarded as the property of the woman."
+
+[274] Herodotus, Bk. i, Ch. CLXXIII.
+
+[275] That power and relationship are entirely distinct was pointed out
+many years ago by L. von Dargun, _Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht_, 1892.
+Westermarck (_Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 655),
+who is inclined to think that Steinmetz has not proved conclusively that
+mother-descent involves less authority of husband over wife, makes the
+important qualification that the husband's authority is impaired when he
+lives among his wife's kinsfolk.
+
+[276] Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_; J.G. Frazer
+has pointed out (_Academy_, March 27, 1886) that the partially Semitic
+peoples on the North frontier of Abyssinia, not subjected to the
+revolutionary processes of Islam, preserve a system closely resembling
+_beena_ marriage, as well as some traces of the opposite system, by
+Robertson Smith called _ba'al_ marriage, in which the wife is acquired by
+purchase and becomes a piece of property.
+
+[277] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 358.
+
+[278] Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_, pp. 55-6; cf. Rhys,
+_Celtic Heathendom_, p. 93.
+
+[279] Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, op. cit., p. 214.
+
+[280] Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_, p. 41 et seq.) gives numerous instances.
+
+[281] Revillout, "La Femme dans l'Antiquité," _Journal Asiatique_, 1906,
+vol. vii, p. 57. See, also, Victor Marx, _Beiträge zur Assyriologie_,
+1899, Bd. iv, Heft 1.
+
+[282] Donaldson, _Woman_, pp. 196, 241 et seq. Nietzold, (_Die Ehe in_
+"_Agypten_," p. 17), thinks the statement of Diodorus that no children
+were illegitimate, needs qualification, but that certainly the
+illegitimate child in Egypt was at no social disadvantage.
+
+[283] Amélineau, _La Morale Egyptienne_, p. 194; Hobhouse, _Morals in
+Evolution_, vol. i, p. 187; Flinders Petrie, _Religion and Conscience in
+Ancient Egypt_, pp. 131 et seq.
+
+[284] Maine, _Ancient Law_, Ch. V.
+
+[285] Donaldson, _Woman_, pp. 109, 120.
+
+[286] _Mercator_, iv, 5.
+
+[287] Digest XLVIII, 13, 5.
+
+[288] Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. i, p. 213.
+
+[289] For an account of the work of some of the less known of these
+pioneers, see a series of articles by Harriet McIlquham in the
+_Westminster Review_, especially Nov., 1898, and Nov., 1903.
+
+[290] The influence of Christianity on the position of women has been well
+discussed by Lecky, _History of European Morals_, vol. ii, pp. 316 et
+seq., and more recently by Donaldson, _Woman_, Bk. iii.
+
+[291] Migne, _Patrologia_, vol. clviii, p. 680.
+
+[292] Rosa Mayreder, "Einiges über die Starke Faust," _Zur Kritik der
+Weiblichkeit_, 1905.
+
+[293] Rasmussen (_People of the Polar North_, p. 56), describes a
+ferocious quarrel between husband and wife, who each in turn knocked the
+other down. "Somewhat later, when I peeped in, they were lying
+affectionately asleep, with their arms around each other."
+
+[294] Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. ii, p. 367. Dr. Stöcker, in
+_Die Liebe und die Frauen_, also insists on the significance of this
+factor of personal responsibility.
+
+[295] Olive Schreiner has especially emphasized the evils of parasitism
+for women. "The increased wealth of the male," she remarks ("The Woman's
+Movement of Our Day," _Harper's Bazaar_, Jan., 1902), "no more of
+necessity benefits and raises the female upon whom he expends it, than the
+increased wealth of his mistress necessarily benefits, mentally or
+physically, a poodle, because she can then give him a down cushion in
+place of one of feathers, and chicken in place of beef." Olive Schreiner
+believes that feminine parasitism is a danger which really threatens
+society at the present time, and that if not averted "the whole body of
+females in civilized societies must sink into a state of more or less
+absolute dependence."
+
+[296] In Rome and in Japan, Hobhouse notes (op. cit., vol. i, pp. 169,
+176), the patriarchal system reached its fullest extension, yet the laws
+of both these countries placed the husband in a position of practical
+subjugation to a rich wife.
+
+[297] Herodotus, Bk. ii, Ch. XXXV. Herodotus noted that it was the woman
+and not the man on whom the responsibility for supporting aged parents
+rested. That alone involved a very high economic position of women. It is
+not surprising that to some observers, as to Diodorus Siculus, it seemed
+that the Egyptian woman was mistress over her husband.
+
+[298] Hobhouse (loc. cit.), Hale, and also Grosse, believe that good
+economic position of a people involves high position of women. Westermarck
+(_Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 661), here in agreement with Olive Schreiner,
+thinks this statement cannot be accepted without modification, though
+agreeing that agricultural life has a good effect on woman's position,
+because they themselves become actively engaged in it. A good economic
+position has no real effect in raising woman's position, unless women
+themselves take a real and not merely parasitic part in it.
+
+[299] Westermarck (_Moral Ideas_, vol. i, Ch. XXVI, vol. ii, p. 29) gives
+numerous references with regard to the considerable proprietary and other
+privileges of women among savages which tend to be lost at a somewhat
+higher stage of culture.
+
+[300] The steady rise in the proportion of women among English workers in
+machine industries began in 1851. There are now, it is estimated, three
+and a half million women employed in industrial occupations, beside a
+million and a half domestic servants. (See for details, James Haslam, in a
+series of papers in the _Englishwoman_ 1909.)
+
+[301] See, e.g., J.A. Hobson, _The Evolution of Modern Capitalism_, second
+edition, 1907, Ch. XII, "Women in Modern Industry."
+
+[302] Hobhouse, op. cit., vol. i, p. 228.
+
+[303] Fielding, _Tom Jones_, Bk. iii, Ch. VII.
+
+[304] Even the Church to some extent adopted this allotment of the
+responsibility, and "solicitation," i.e., the sin of a confessor in
+seducing his female penitent, is constantly treated as exclusively the
+confessor's sin.
+
+[305] Adolf Gerson, _Sexual-Probleme_, Sept., 1908, p. 547.
+
+[306] It has already been necessary to refer to the unfortunate results
+which may follow the ignorance of husbands (see, e.g., "The Sexual Impulse
+in Women," vol. iii of these _Studies_), and will be necessary again in
+Ch. XI of the present volume.
+
+[307] Pepys, _Diary_, ed. Wheatley, vol. vii, p. 10.
+
+[308] Lombroso and Ferrero, _La Donna Delinquente_; cf. Havelock Ellis,
+_Man and Woman_, fourth edition, p. 196.
+
+[309] Gury, _Théologie Morale_, art. 381.
+
+[310] "Men will not learn what women are," remarks Rosa Mayreder (_Zur
+Kritik der Weiblichkeit_, p. 199), "until they have left off prescribing
+what they ought to be."
+
+[311] It has been set out, for instance, by Professor Wahrmund in _Ehe und
+Eherecht_, 1908. I need scarcely refer again to the writings of Ellen Key,
+which may be said to be almost epoch-making in their significance,
+especially (in German translation) _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_ (also French
+translation), and (in English translation, Putnam, 1909), the valuable,
+though less important work, _The Century of the Child_. See also Edward
+Carpenter, _Love's Coming of Age_; Forel, _Die Sexuelle Frage_ (English
+translation, abridged, _The Sexual Question_, Rebman, 1908); Bloch,
+_Sexualleben unsere Zeit_ (English translation, _The Sexual Life of Our
+Time_, Rebman, 1908); Helene Stöcker, _Die Liebe und die Frauen_, 1906;
+and Paul Lapie, _La Femme dans la Famille_, 1908.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+MARRIAGE.
+
+The Definition of Marriage--Marriage Among Animals--The Predominance of
+Monogamy--The Question of Group Marriage--Monogamy a Natural Fact, Not
+Based on Human Law--The Tendency to Place the Form of Marriage Above the
+Fact of Marriage--The History of Marriage--Marriage in Ancient
+Rome--Germanic Influence on Marriage--Bride-Sale--The Ring--The Influence
+of Christianity on Marriage--The Great Extent of This Influence--The
+Sacrament of Matrimony--Origin and Growth of the Sacramental
+Conception--The Church Made Marriage a Public Act--Canon Law--Its Sound
+Core--Its Development--Its Confusions and Absurdities--Peculiarities of
+English Marriage Law--Influence of the Reformation on Marriage--The
+Protestant Conception of Marriage as a Secular Contract--The Puritan
+Reform of Marriage--Milton as the Pioneer of Marriage Reform--His Views on
+Divorce--The Backward Position of England in Marriage Reform--Criticism of
+the English Divorce Law--Traditions of the Canon Law Still Persistent--The
+Question of Damages for Adultery--Collusion as a Bar to
+Divorce--Divorce in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, etc.--The United
+States--Impossibility of Deciding by Statute the Causes for
+Divorce--Divorce by Mutual Consent--Its Origin and Development--Impeded by
+the Traditions of Canon Law--Wilhelm von Humboldt--Modern Pioneer
+Advocates of Divorce by Mutual Consent--The Arguments Against Facility of
+Divorce--The Interests of the Children--The Protection of Women--The
+Present Tendency of the Divorce Movement--Marriage Not a Contract--The
+Proposal of Marriage for a Term of Years--Legal Disabilities and
+Disadvantages in the Position of the Husband and the Wife--Marriage Not a
+Contract But a Fact--Only the Non-Essentials of Marriage, Not the
+Essentials, a Proper Matter for Contract--The Legal Recognition of
+Marriage as a Fact Without Any Ceremony--Contracts of the Person Opposed
+to Modern Tendencies--The Factor of Moral Responsibility--Marriage as an
+Ethical Sacrament--Personal Responsibility Involves Freedom--Freedom the
+Best Guarantee of Stability--False Ideas of Individualism--Modern Tendency
+of Marriage--With the Birth of a Child Marriage Ceases to be a Private
+Concern--Every Child Must Have a Legal Father and Mother--How This Can be
+Effected--The Firm Basis of Monogamy--The Question of Marriage
+Variations--Such Variations Not Inimical to Monogamy--The Most Common
+Variations--The Flexibility of Marriage Holds Variations in
+Check--Marriage Variations _versus_ Prostitution--Marriage on a Reasonable
+and Humane Basis--Summary and Conclusion.
+
+
+The discussion in the previous chapter of the nature of sexual morality,
+with the brief sketch it involved of the direction in which that morality
+is moving, has necessarily left many points vague. It may still be asked
+what definite and precise forms sexual unions are tending to take among
+us, and what relation these unions bear to the religious, social, and
+legal traditions we have inherited. These are matters about which a very
+considerable amount of uncertainty seems to prevail, for it is not unusual
+to hear revolutionary or eccentric opinions concerning them.
+
+Sexual union, involving the cohabitation, temporary or permanent, of two
+or more persons, and having for one of its chief ends the production and
+care of offspring, is commonly termed marriage. The group so constituted
+forms a family. This is the sense in which the words "marriage" and the
+"family" are most properly used, whether we speak of animals or of Man.
+There is thus seen to be room for variation as regards both the time
+during which the union lasts, and the number of individuals who form it,
+the chief factor in the determination of these points being the interests
+of the offspring. In actual practice, however, sexual unions, not only in
+Man but among the higher animals, tend to last beyond the needs of the
+offspring of a single season, while the fact that in most species the
+numbers of males and females are approximately equal makes it inevitable
+that both among animals and in Man the family is produced by a single
+sexual couple, that is to say that monogamy is, with however many
+exceptions, necessarily the fundamental rule.
+
+It will thus be seen that marriage centres in the child, and has at the
+outset no reason for existence apart from the welfare of the offspring.
+Among those animals of lowly organization which are able to provide for
+themselves from the beginning of existence there is no family and no need
+for marriage. Among human races, when sexual unions are not followed by
+offspring, there may be other reasons for the continuance of the union
+but they are not reasons in which either Nature or society is in the
+slightest degree directly concerned. The marriage which grew up among
+animals by heredity on the basis of natural selection, and which has been
+continued by the lower human races through custom and tradition, by the
+more civilized races through the superimposed regulative influence of
+legal institutions, has been marriage for the sake of the offspring.[312]
+Even in civilized races among whom the proportion of sterile marriages is
+large, marriage tends to be so constituted as always to assume the
+procreation of children and to involve the permanence required by such
+procreation.
+
+    Among birds, which from the point of view of erotic development
+    stand at the head of the animal world, monogamy frequently
+    prevails (according to some estimates among 90 per cent.), and
+    unions tend to be permanent; there is an approximation to the
+    same condition among some of the higher mammals, especially the
+    anthropoid apes; thus among gorillas and oran-utans permanent
+    monogamic marriages take place, the young sometimes remaining
+    with the parents to the age of six, while any approach to loose
+    behavior on the part of the wife is severely punished by the
+    husband. The variations that occur are often simply matters of
+    adaptation to circumstances; thus, according to J.G. Millais
+    (_Natural History of British Ducks_, pp. 8, 63), the Shoveler
+    duck, though normally monogamic, will become polyandric when
+    males are in excess, the two males being in constant and amicable
+    attendance on the female without signs of jealousy; among the
+    monogamic mallards, similarly, polygyny and polyandry may also
+    occur. See also R.W. Shufeldt, "Mating Among Birds," _American
+    Naturalist_, March, 1907; for mammal marriages, a valuable paper
+    by Robert Müller, "Säugethierehen," _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan.,
+    1909, and as regards the general prevalence of monogamy, Woods
+    Hutchinson, "Animal Marriage," _Contemporary Review_, Oct., 1904,
+    and Sept., 1905.
+
+    There has long been a dispute among the historians of marriage as
+    to the first form of human marriage. Some assume a primitive
+    promiscuity gradually modified in the direction of monogamy;
+    others argue that man began where the anthropoid apes left off,
+    and that monogamy has prevailed, on the whole, throughout. Both
+    these opposed views, in an extreme form, seem untenable, and the
+    truth appears to lie midway. It has been shown by various
+    writers, and notably Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_,
+    Chs. IV-VI), that there is no sound evidence in favor of
+    primitive promiscuity, and that at the present day there are few,
+    if any, savage peoples living in genuine unrestricted sexual
+    promiscuity. This theory of a primitive promiscuity seems to have
+    been suggested, as J.A. Godfrey has pointed out (_Science of
+    Sex_, p. 112), by the existence in civilized societies of
+    promiscuous prostitution, though this kind of promiscuity was
+    really the result, rather than the origin, of marriage. On the
+    other hand, it can scarcely be said that there is any convincing
+    evidence of primitive strict monogamy beyond the assumption that
+    early man continued the sexual habits of the anthropoid apes. It
+    would seem probable, however, that the great forward step
+    involved in passing from ape to man was associated with a change
+    in sexual habits involving the temporary adoption of a more
+    complex system than monogamy. It is difficult to see in what
+    other social field than that of sex primitive man could find
+    exercise for the developing intellectual and moral aptitudes, the
+    subtle distinctions and moral restraints, which the strict
+    monogamy practiced by animals could afford no scope for. It is
+    also equally difficult to see on what basis other than that of a
+    more closely associated sexual system the combined and harmonious
+    efforts needed for social progress could have developed. It is
+    probable that at least one of the motives for exogamy, or
+    marriage outside the group, is (as was probably first pointed out
+    by St. Augustine in his _De Civitate Dei_) the need of creating a
+    larger social circle, and so facilitating social activities and
+    progress. Exactly the same end is effected by a complex marriage
+    system binding a large number of people together by common
+    interests. The strictly small and confined monogamic family,
+    however excellently it subserved the interests of the offspring,
+    contained no promise of a wider social progress. We see this
+    among both ants and bees, who of all animals, have attained the
+    highest social organization; their progress was only possible
+    through a profound modification of the systems of sexual
+    relationship. As Espinas said many years ago (in his suggestive
+    work, _Des Sociétés Animales_): "The cohesion of the family and
+    the probabilities for the birth of societies are inverse." Or, as
+    Schurtz more recently pointed out, although individual marriage
+    has prevailed more or less from the first, early social
+    institutions, early ideas and early religion involved sexual
+    customs which modified a strict monogamy.
+
+    The most primitive form of complex human marriage which has yet
+    been demonstrated as still in existence is what is called
+    group-marriage, in which all the women of one class are regarded
+    as the actual, or at all events potential, wives of all the men
+    in another class. This has been observed among some central
+    Australian tribes, a people as primitive and as secluded from
+    external influence as could well be found, and there is evidence
+    to show that it was formerly more widespread among them. "In the
+    Urabunna tribe, for example," say Spencer and Gillen, "a group of
+    men actually do have, continually and as a normal condition,
+    marital relations with a group of women. This state of affairs
+    has nothing whatever to do with polygamy any more than it has
+    with polyandry. It is simply a question of a group of men and a
+    group of women who may lawfully have what we call marital
+    relations. There is nothing whatever abnormal about it, and, in
+    all probability, this system of what has been called group
+    marriage, serving as it does to bind more or less closely
+    together groups of individuals who are mutually interested in one
+    another's welfare, has been one of the most powerful agents in
+    the early stages of the upward development of the human race"
+    (Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p.
+    74; cf. A.W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-East
+    Australia_). Group-marriage, with female descent, as found in
+    Australia, tends to become transformed by various stages of
+    progress into individual marriage with descent in the male line,
+    a survival of group-marriage perhaps persisting in the
+    much-discussed _jus primæ noctis_. (It should be added that Mr.
+    N.W. Thomas, in his book on _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_,
+    1908, concludes that group-marriage in Australia has not been
+    demonstrated, and that Professor Westermarck, in his _Origin and
+    Development of the Moral Ideas_, as in his previous _History of
+    Human Marriage_, maintains a skeptical opinion in regard to
+    group-marriage generally; he thinks the Urabunna custom may have
+    developed out of ordinary individual marriage, and regards the
+    group-marriage theory as "the residuary legatee of the old theory
+    of promiscuity." Durkheim also believes that the Australian
+    marriage system is not primitive, "Organisation Matrimoniale
+    Australienne," _L'Année Sociologique_, eighth year, 1905). With
+    the attainment of a certain level of social progress it is easy
+    to see that a wide and complicated system of sexual relationships
+    ceases to have its value, and a more or less qualified monogamy
+    tends to prevail as more in harmony with the claims of social
+    stability and executive masculine energy.
+
+    The best historical discussion of marriage is still probably
+    Westermarck's _History of Human Marriage_, though at some points
+    it now needs to be corrected or supplemented; among more recent
+    books dealing with primitive sexual conceptions may be specially
+    mentioned Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, while the facts concerning the
+    transformation of marriage among the higher human races are set
+    forth in G.E. Howard's _History of Matrimonial Institutions_ (3
+    vols.), which contains copious bibliographical references. There
+    is an admirably compact, but clear and comprehensive, sketch of
+    the development of modern marriage in Pollock and Maitland,
+    _History of English Law_, vol. ii.
+
+It is necessary to make allowance for variations, thereby shunning the
+extreme theorists who insist on moulding all facts to their theories, but
+we may conclude that--as the approximately equal number of the sexes
+indicates--in the human species, as among many of the higher animals, a
+more or less permanent monogamy has on the whole tended to prevail. That
+is a fact of great significance in its implications. For we have to
+realize that we are here in the presence of a natural fact. Sexual
+relationships, in human as in animal societies, follow a natural law,
+oscillating on each side of the norm, and there is no place for the theory
+that that law was imposed artificially. If all artificial "laws" could be
+abolished the natural order of the sexual relationships would continue to
+subsist substantially as at present. Virtue, said Cicero, is but Nature
+carried out to the utmost. Or, as Holbach put it, arguing that our
+institutions tend whither Nature tends, "art is only Nature acting by the
+help of the instruments she has herself made." Shakespeare had already
+seen much the same truth when he said that the art which adds to Nature
+"is an art that Nature makes." Law and religion have buttressed monogamy;
+it is not based on them but on the needs and customs of mankind, and these
+constitute its completely adequate sanctions.[313] Or, as Cope put it,
+marriage is not the creation of law but the law is its creation.[314]
+Crawley, again, throughout his study of primitive sex relationships,
+emphasizes the fact that our formal marriage system is not, as so many
+religious and moral writers once supposed, a forcible repression of
+natural impulses, but merely the rigid crystallization of those natural
+impulses, which in a more fluid form have been in human nature from the
+first. Our conventional forms, we must believe, have not introduced any
+elements of value, while in some respects they have been mischievous.
+
+    It is necessary to bear in mind that the conclusion that
+    monogamic marriage is natural, and represents an order which is
+    in harmony with the instincts of the majority of people, by no
+    means involves agreement with the details of any particular legal
+    system of monogamy. Monogamic marriage is a natural biological
+    fact, alike in many animals and in man. But no system of legal
+    regulation is a natural biological fact. When a highly esteemed
+    alienist, Dr. Clouston, writes (_The Hygiene of Mind_, p. 245)
+    "there is only one natural mode of gratifying sexual _nisus_ and
+    reproductive instinct, that of marriage," the statement requires
+    considerable exegesis before it can be accepted, or even receive
+    an intelligible meaning, and if we are to understand by
+    "marriage" the particular form and implications of the English
+    marriage law, or even of the somewhat more enlightened Scotch
+    law, the statement is absolutely false. There is a world of
+    difference, as J.A. Godfrey remarks (_The Science of Sex_, 1901,
+    p. 278), between natural monogamous marriage and our legal
+    system; "the former is the outward expression of the best that
+    lies in the sexuality of man; the latter is a creation in which
+    religious and moral superstitions have played a most important
+    part, not always to the benefit of individual and social health."
+
+    We must, therefore, guard against the tendency to think that
+    there is anything rigid or formal in the natural order of
+    monogamy. Some sociologists would even limit the naturalness of
+    monogamy still further. Thus Tarde ("La Morale Sexuelle,"
+    _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Jan., 1907), while
+    accepting as natural under present conditions the tendency for
+    monogamy, mitigated by more or less clandestine concubinage, to
+    prevail over all other forms of marriage, considers that this is
+    not due to any irresistible influence, but merely to the fact
+    that this kind of marriage is practiced by the majority of
+    people, including the most civilized.
+
+    With the acceptance of the tendency to monogamy we are not at the
+    end of sexual morality, but only at the beginning. It is not
+    monogamy that is the main thing, but the kind of lives that
+    people lead in monogamy. The mere acceptance of a monogamic rule
+    carries us but a little way. That is a fact which cannot fail to
+    impress itself on those who approach the questions of sex from
+    the psychological side.
+
+If monogamy is thus firmly based it is unreasonable to fear, or to hope
+for, any radical modification in the institution of marriage, regarded,
+not under its temporary religious and legal aspects but as an order which
+appeared on the earth even earlier than man. Monogamy is the most natural
+expression of an impulse which cannot, as a rule, be so adequately
+realized in full fruition under conditions involving a less prolonged
+period of mutual communion and intimacy. Variations, regarded as
+inevitable oscillations around the norm, are also natural, but union in
+couples must always be the rule because the numbers of the sexes are
+always approximately equal, while the needs of the emotional life, even
+apart from the needs of offspring, demand that such unions based on mutual
+attraction should be so far as possible permanent.
+
+    It must here again be repeated that it is the reality, and not
+    the form or the permanence of the marriage union, which is its
+    essential and valuable part. It is not the legal or religious
+    formality which sanctifies marriage, it is the reality of the
+    marriage which sanctifies the form. Fielding has satirized in
+    Nightingale, Tom Jones's friend, the shallow-brained view of
+    connubial society which degrades the reality of marriage to exalt
+    the form. Nightingale has the greatest difficulty in marrying a
+    girl with whom he has already had sexual relations, although he
+    is the only man who has had relations with her. To Jones's
+    arguments he replies: "Common-sense warrants all you say, but yet
+    you well know that the opinion of the world is so contrary to it,
+    that were I to marry a whore, though my own, I should be ashamed
+    of ever showing my face again." It cannot be said that Fielding's
+    satire is even yet out of date. Thus in Prussia, according to
+    Adele Schreiber ("Heirathsbeschränkungen," _Die Neue Generation_,
+    Feb., 1909), it seems to be still practically impossible for a
+    military officer to marry the mother of his own illegitimate
+    child.
+
+    The glorification of the form at the expense of the reality of
+    marriage has even been attempted in poetry by Tennyson in the
+    least inspired of his works, _The Idylls of the King_. In
+    "Lancelot and Elaine" and "Guinevere" (as Julia Magruder points
+    out, _North American Review_, April, 1905) Guinevere is married
+    to King Arthur, whom she has never seen, when already in love
+    with Lancelot, so that the "marriage" was merely a ceremony, and
+    not a real marriage (cf., May Child, "The Weird of Sir Lancelot,"
+    _North American Review_, Dec., 1908).
+
+It may seem to some that so conservative an estimate of the tendencies of
+civilization in matters of sexual love is due to a timid adherence to mere
+tradition. That is not the case. We have to recognize that marriage is
+firmly held in position by the pressure of two opposing forces. There are
+two currents in the stream of our civilization: one that moves towards an
+ever greater social order and cohesion, the other that moves towards an
+ever greater individual freedom. There is real harmony underlying the
+apparent opposition of these two tendencies, and each is indeed the
+indispensable complement of the other. There can be no real freedom for
+the individual in the things that concern that individual alone unless
+there is a coherent order in the things that concern him as a social unit.
+Marriage in one of its aspects only concerns the two individuals involved;
+in another of its aspects it chiefly concerns society. The two forces
+cannot combine to act destructively on marriage, for the one counteracts
+the other. They combine to support monogamy, in all essentials, on its
+immemorial basis.
+
+It must be added that in the circumstances of monogamy that are not
+essential there always has been, and always must be, perpetual
+transformation. All traditional institutions, however firmly founded on
+natural impulses, are always growing dead and rigid at some points and
+putting forth vitally new growths at other points. It is the effort to
+maintain their vitality, and to preserve their elastic adjustment to the
+environment, which involves this process of transformation in
+non-essentials.
+
+The only way in which we can fruitfully approach the question of the value
+of the transformations now taking place in our marriage-system is by
+considering the history of that system in the past. In that way we learn
+the real significance of the marriage-system, and we understand what
+transformations are, or are not, associated with a fine civilization. When
+we are acquainted with the changes of the past we are enabled to face more
+confidently the changes of the present.
+
+The history of the marriage-system of modern civilized peoples begins in
+the later days of the Roman Empire at the time when the foundations were
+being laid of that Roman law which has exerted so large an influence in
+Christendom. Reference has already been made[315] to the significant fact
+that in late Rome women had acquired a position of nearly complete
+independence in relation to their husbands, while the patriarchal
+authority still exerted over them by their fathers had become, for the
+most part, almost nominal. This high status of women was associated, as it
+naturally tends to be, with a high degree of freedom in the marriage
+system. Roman law had no power of intervening in the formation of
+marriages and there were no legal forms of marriage. The Romans recognized
+that marriage is a fact and not a mere legal form; in marriage by _usus_
+there was no ceremony at all; it was constituted by the mere fact of
+living together for a whole year; yet such marriage was regarded as just
+as legal and complete as if it had been inaugurated by the sacred rite of
+_confarreatio_. Marriage was a matter of simple private agreement in which
+the man and the woman approached each other on a footing of equality. The
+wife retained full control of her own property; the barbarity of admitting
+an action for restitution of conjugal rights was impossible, divorce was a
+private transaction to which the wife was as fully entitled as the
+husband, and it required no inquisitorial intervention of magistrate or
+court; Augustus ordained, indeed, that a public declaration was necessary,
+but the divorce itself was a private legal act of the two persons
+concerned.[316] It is interesting to note this enlightened conception of
+marriage prevailing in the greatest and most masterful Empire which has
+ever dominated the world, at the period not indeed of its greatest
+force,--for the maximum of force and the maximum of expansion, the bud and
+the full flower, are necessarily incompatible,--but at the period of its
+fullest development. In the chaos that followed the dissolution of the
+Empire Roman law remained as a precious legacy to the new developing
+nations, but its influence was inextricably mingled with that of
+Christianity, which, though not at the first anxious to set up marriage
+laws of its own, gradually revealed a growing ascetic feeling hostile
+alike to the dignity of the married woman and the freedom of marriage and
+divorce.[317] With that influence was combined the influence, introduced
+through the Bible, of the barbaric Jewish marriage-system conferring on
+the husband rights in marriage and divorce which were totally denied to
+the wife; this was an influence which gained still greater force at the
+Reformation when the authority once accorded to the Church was largely
+transformed to the Bible. Finally, there was in a great part of Europe,
+including the most energetic and expansive parts, the influence of the
+Germans, an influence still more primitive than that of the Jews,
+involving the conception of the wife as almost her husband's chattel, and
+marriage as a purchase. All these influences clashed and often appeared
+side by side, though they could not be harmonized. The result was that the
+fifteen hundred years that followed the complete conquest of Christianity
+represent on the whole the most degraded condition to which the marriage
+system has ever been known to fall for so long a period during the whole
+course of human history.
+
+At first indeed the beneficent influence of Rome continued in some degree
+to prevail and even exhibited new developments. In the time of the
+Christian Emperors freedom of divorce by mutual consent was alternately
+maintained, and abolished.[318] We even find the wise and far-seeing
+provision of the law enacting that a contract of the two parties never to
+separate could have no legal validity. Justinian's prohibition of divorce
+by consent led to much domestic unhappiness, and even crime, which appears
+to be the reason why it was immediately abrogated by his successor,
+Theodosius, still maintaining the late Roman tradition of the moral
+equality of the sexes, allowed the wife equally with the husband to obtain
+a divorce for adultery; that is a point we have not yet attained in
+England to-day.
+
+It seems to be admitted on all sides that it was largely the fatal
+influence of the irruption of the barbarous Germans which degraded, when
+it failed to sweep away, the noble conception of the equality of women
+with men, and the dignity and freedom of marriage, slowly moulded by the
+organizing genius of the Roman into a great tradition which still retains
+a supreme value. The influence of Christianity had at the first no
+degrading influence of this kind; for the ascetic ideal was not yet
+predominant, priests married as a matter of course, and there was no
+difficulty in accepting the marriage order established in the secular
+world; it was even possible to add to it a new vitality and freedom. But
+the Germans, with all the primitively acquisitive and combative instincts
+of untamed savages, went far beyond even the early Romans in the
+subjection of their wives; they allowed indeed to their unmarried girls a
+large measure of indulgence and even sexual freedom,--just as the
+Christians also reverenced their virgins,[319]--but the German marriage
+system placed the wife, as compared to the wife of the Roman Empire, in a
+condition little better than that of a domestic slave. In one form or
+another, under one disguise or another, the system of wife-purchase
+prevailed among the Germans, and, whenever that system is influential,
+even when the wife is honored her privileges are diminished.[320] Among
+the Teutonic peoples generally, as among the early English, marriage was
+indeed a private transaction but it took the form of a sale of the bride
+by the father, or other legal guardian, to the bridegroom. The _beweddung_
+was a real contract of sale.[321] "Sale-marriage" was the most usual form
+of marriage. The ring, indeed, probably was not in origin, as some have
+supposed, a mark of servitude, but rather a form of bride-price, or
+_arrha_, that is to say, earnest money on the contract of marriage and so
+the symbol of it.[322] At first a sign of the bride's purchase, it was not
+till later that the ring acquired the significance of subjection to the
+bridegroom, and that significance, later in the Middle Ages, was further
+emphasized by other ceremonies. Thus in England the York and Sarum manuals
+in some of their forms direct the bride, after the delivery of the ring,
+to fall at her husband's feet, and sometimes to kiss his right foot. In
+Russia, also, the bride kissed her husband's feet. At a later period, in
+France, this custom was attenuated, and it became customary for the bride
+to let the ring fall in front of the altar and then stoop at her husband's
+feet to pick it up.[323] Feudalism carried on, and by its military
+character exaggerated, these Teutonic influences. A fief was land held on
+condition of military service, and the nature of its influence on marriage
+is implied in that fact. The woman was given with the fief and her own
+will counted for nothing.[324]
+
+The Christian Church in the beginning accepted the forms of marriage
+already existing in those countries in which it found itself, the Roman
+forms in the lands of Latin tradition and the German forms in Teutonic
+lands. It merely demanded (as it also demanded for other civil contracts,
+such as an ordinary sale) that they should be hallowed by priestly
+benediction. But the marriage was recognized by the Church even in the
+absence of such benediction. There was no special religious marriage
+service, either in the East or the West, earlier than the sixth century.
+It was simply the custom for the married couple, after the secular
+ceremonies were completed, to attend the church, listen to the ordinary
+service and take the sacrament. A special marriage service was developed
+slowly, and it was no part of the real marriage. During the tenth century
+(at all events in Italy and France) it was beginning to become customary
+to celebrate the first part of the real nuptials, still a purely temporal
+act, outside the church door. Soon this was followed by the regular
+bride-mass, directly applicable to the occasion, inside the church. By the
+twelfth century the priest directed the ceremony, now involving an
+imposing ritual, which began outside the church and ended with the bridal
+mass inside. By the thirteenth century, the priest, superseding the
+guardians of the young couple, himself officiated through the whole
+ceremony. Up to that time marriage had been a purely private business
+transaction. Thus, after more than a millennium of Christianity, not by
+law but by the slow growth of custom, ecclesiastical marriage was
+established.[325]
+
+It was undoubtedly an event of very great importance not merely for the
+Church but for the whole history of European marriage even down to to-day.
+The whole of our public method of celebrating marriage to-day is based on
+that of the Catholic Church as established in the twelfth century and
+formulated in the Canon law. Even the publication of banns has its origin
+here, and the fact that in our modern civil marriage the public ceremony
+takes place in an office and not in a Church may disguise but cannot
+alter the fact that it is the direct and unquestionable descendant of the
+public ecclesiastical ceremony which embodied the slow and subtle
+triumph--so slow and subtle that its history is difficult to trace--of
+Christian priests over the private affairs of men and women. Before they
+set themselves to this task marriage everywhere was the private business
+of the persons concerned; when they had completed their task,--and it was
+not absolutely complete until the Council of Trent,--a private marriage
+had become a sin and almost a crime.[326]
+
+It may seem a matter for surprise that the Church which, as we know, had
+shown an ever greater tendency to reverence virginity and to cast
+contumely on the sexual relationship, should yet, parallel with that
+movement and with the growing influence of asceticism, have shown so great
+an anxiety to capture marriage and to confer on it a public, dignified,
+and religious character. There was, however, no contradiction. The factors
+that were constituting European marriage, taken as a whole, were indeed of
+very diverse characters and often involved unreconciled contradictions.
+But so far as the central efforts of the ecclesiastical legislators were
+concerned, there was a definite and intelligible point of view. The very
+depreciation of the sexual instinct involved the necessity, since the
+instinct could not be uprooted, of constituting for it a legitimate
+channel, so that ecclesiastical matrimony was, it has been said,
+"analogous to a license to sell intoxicating liquors."[327] Moreover,
+matrimony exhibited the power of the Church to confer on the license a
+dignity and distinction which would clearly separate it from the general
+stream of lust. Sexual enjoyment is impure, the faithful cannot partake of
+it until it has been purified by the ministrations of the Church. The
+solemnization of marriage was the necessary result of the sanctification
+of virginity. It became necessary to sanctify marriage also, and hence
+was developed the indissoluble sacrament of matrimony. The conception of
+marriage as a religious sacrament, a conception of far-reaching influence,
+is the great contribution of the Catholic Church to the history of
+marriage.
+
+    It is important to remember that, while Christianity brought the
+    idea of marriage as a sacrament into the main stream of the
+    institutional history of Europe, that idea was merely developed,
+    not invented, by the Church. It is an ancient and even primitive
+    idea. The Jews believed that marriage is a magico-religious bond,
+    having in it something mystical resembling a sacrament, and that
+    idea, says Durkheim (_L'Année Sociologique_, eighth year, 1905,
+    p. 419), is perhaps very archaic, and hangs on to the generally
+    magic character of sex relations. "The mere act of union,"
+    Crawley remarks (_The Mystic Rose_, p. 318) concerning savages,
+    "is potentially a marriage ceremony of the sacramental kind....
+    One may even credit the earliest animistic men with some such
+    vague conception before any ceremony became crystallized." The
+    essence of a marriage ceremony, the same writer continues, "is
+    the 'joining together' of a man and a woman; in the words of our
+    English service, 'for this cause shall a man leave his father and
+    mother and shall be joined unto his wife; and they two shall be
+    one flesh.' At the other side of the world, amongst the Orang
+    Benuas, these words are pronounced by an elder, when a marriage
+    is solemnized: 'Listen all ye that are present; those that were
+    distant are now brought together; those that were separated are
+    now united.' Marriage ceremonies in all stages of culture may be
+    called religious with as much propriety as any ceremony whatever.
+    Those who were separated are now joined together, those who were
+    mutually taboo now break the taboo." Thus marriage ceremonies
+    prevent sin and neutralize danger.
+
+    The Catholic conception of marriage was, it is clear, in
+    essentials precisely the primitive conception. Christianity drew
+    the sacramental idea from the archaic traditions in popular
+    consciousness, and its own ecclesiastical contribution lay in
+    slowly giving that idea a formal and rigid shape, and in
+    declaring it indissoluble. As among savages, it was in the act of
+    consent that the essence of the sacrament lay; the intervention
+    of the priest was not, in principle, necessary to give marriage
+    its religiously binding character. The essence of the sacrament
+    was mutual acceptance of each other by the man and the woman, as
+    husband and wife, and technically the priest who presided at the
+    ceremony was simply a witness of the sacrament. The essential
+    fact being thus the mental act of consent, the sacrament of
+    matrimony had the peculiar character of being without any outward
+    and visible sign. Perhaps it was this fact, instinctively felt
+    as a weakness, which led to the immense emphasis on the
+    indissolubility of the sacrament of matrimony, already
+    established by St. Augustine. The Canonists brought forward
+    various arguments to account for that indissolubility, and a
+    frequent argument has always been the Scriptural application of
+    the term "one flesh" to married couples; but the favorite
+    argument of the Canonists was that matrimony represents the union
+    of Christ with the Church; that is indissoluble, and therefore
+    its image must be indissoluble (Esmein, op. cit., vol. i, p. 64).
+    In part, also, one may well believe, the idea of the
+    indissolubility of marriage suggested itself to the
+    ecclesiastical mind by a natural association of ideas: the vow of
+    virginity in monasticism was indissoluble; ought not the vow of
+    sexual relationship in matrimony to be similarly indissoluble? It
+    appears that it was not until 1164, in Peter Lombard's
+    _Sentences_, that clear and formal recognition is found of
+    matrimony as one of the seven sacraments (Howard, op. cit., vol.
+    i, p. 333).
+
+The Church, however, had not only made marriage a religious act; it had
+also made it a public act. The officiating priest, who had now become the
+arbiter of marriage, was bound by all the injunctions and prohibitions of
+the Church, and he could not allow himself to bend to the inclinations and
+interests of individual couples or their guardians. It was inevitable that
+in this matter, as in other similar matters, a code of ecclesiastical
+regulations should be gradually developed for his guidance. This need of
+the Church, due to its growing control of the world's affairs, was the
+origin of Canon law. With the development of Canon law the whole field of
+the regulation of the sexual relationships, and the control of its
+aberrations, became an exclusively ecclesiastical matter. The secular law
+could take no more direct cognizance of adultery than of fornication or
+masturbation; bigamy, incest, and sodomy were not temporal crimes; the
+Church was supreme in the whole sphere of sex.
+
+It was during the twelfth century that Canon law developed, and Gratian
+was the master mind who first moulded it. He belonged to the Bolognese
+school of jurisprudence which had inherited the sane traditions of Roman
+law. The Canons which Gratian compiled were, however, no more the mere
+result of legal traditions than they were the outcome of cloistered
+theological speculation. They were the result of a response to the
+practical needs of the day before those needs had had time to form a
+foundation for fine-spun subtleties. At a somewhat later period, before
+the close of the century, the Italian jurists were vanquished by the
+Gallic theologians of Paris as represented by Peter Lombard. The result
+was the introduction of mischievous complexities which went far to rob
+Canon law alike of its certainty and its adaptation to human necessities.
+
+Notwithstanding, however, all the parasitic accretions which swiftly began
+to form around the Canon law and to entangle its practical activity, that
+legislation embodied--predominantly at the outset and more obscurely
+throughout its whole period of vital activity--a sound core of real value.
+The Canon law recognized at the outset that the essential fact of marriage
+is the actual sexual union, accomplished with the intention of
+inaugurating a permanent relationship. The _copula carnalis_, the making
+of two "one flesh," according to the Scriptural phrase, a mystic symbol of
+the union of the Church to Christ, was the essence of marriage, and the
+mutual consent of the couple alone sufficed to constitute marriage, even
+without any religious benediction, or without any ceremony at all. The
+formless and unblessed union was still a real and binding marriage if the
+two parties had willed it so to be.[328]
+
+    Whatever hard things may be said about the Canon law, it must
+    never be forgotten that it carried through the Middle Ages until
+    the middle of the sixteenth century the great truth that the
+    essence of marriage lies not in rites and forms, but in the
+    mutual consent of the two persons who marry each other. When the
+    Catholic Church, in its growing rigidity, lost that conception,
+    it was taken up by the Protestants and Puritans in their first
+    stage of ardent vital activity, though it was more or less
+    dropped as they fell back into a state of subservience to forms.
+    It continued to be maintained by moralists and poets. Thus George
+    Chapman, the dramatist, who was both moralist and poet, in _The
+    Gentleman Usher_ (1606), represents the riteless marriage of his
+    hero and heroine, which the latter thus  introduces:--
+
+                "May not we now
+        Our contract make and marry before Heaven?
+        Are not the laws of God and Nature more
+        Than formal laws of men? Are outward rites
+        More virtuous than the very substance is
+        Of holy nuptials solemnized within?
+        .... The eternal acts of our pure souls
+        Knit us with God, the soul of all the world,
+        He shall be priest to us; and with such rites
+        As we can here devise we will express
+        And strongly ratify our hearts' true vows,
+        Which no external violence shall dissolve."
+
+    And to-day, Ellen Key, the distinguished prophet of marriage
+    reform, declares at the end of her _Liebe und Ehe_ that the true
+    marriage law contains only the paragraph: "They who love each
+    other are husband and wife."
+
+The establishment of marriage on this sound and naturalistic basis had the
+further excellent result that it placed the man and the woman, who could
+thus constitute marriage by their consent in entire disregard of the
+wishes of their parents or families, on the same moral level. Here the
+Church was following alike the later Romans and the early Christians like
+Lactantius and Jerome who had declared that what was licit for a man was
+licit for a woman. The Penitentials also attempted to set up this same
+moral law for both sexes. The Canonists finally allowed a certain
+supremacy to the husband, though, on the other hand, they sometimes seemed
+to assign even the chief part in marriage to the wife, and the attempt was
+made to derive the word _matrimonium_ from _matris munium_, thereby
+declaring the maternal function to be the essential fact of marriage.[329]
+
+The sound elements in the Canon law conception of marriage were, however,
+from a very early period largely if not altogether neutralized by the
+verbal subtleties by which they were overlaid, and even by its own
+fundamental original defects. Even in the thirteenth century it began to
+be possible to attach a superior force to marriage verbally formed _per
+verba de præsenti_ than to one constituted by sexual union, while so many
+impediments to marriage were set up that it became difficult to know what
+marriages were valid, an important point since a marriage even innocently
+contracted within the prohibited degrees was only a putative marriage. The
+most serious and the most profoundly unnatural feature of this
+ecclesiastical conception of marriage was the flagrant contradiction
+between the extreme facility with which the gate of marriage was flung
+open to the young couple, even if they were little more than children, and
+the extreme rigor with which it was locked and bolted when they were
+inside. That is still the defect of the marriage system we have inherited
+from the Church, but in the hands of the Canonists it was emphasized both
+on the side of its facility for entrance and of its difficulty for
+exit.[330] Alike from the standpoint of reason and of humanity the gate
+that is easy of ingress must be easy of egress; or if the exit is
+necessarily difficult then extreme care must be taken in admission. But
+neither of these necessary precautions was possible to the Canonists.
+Matrimony was a sacrament and all must be welcome to a sacrament, the more
+so since otherwise they may be thrust into the mortal sin of fornication.
+On the other side, since matrimony was a sacrament, when once truly
+formed, beyond the permissible power of verbal quibbles to invalidate, it
+could never be abrogated. The very institution that, in the view of the
+Church, had been set up as a bulwark against license became itself an
+instrument for artificially creating license. So that the net result of
+the Canon law in the long run was the production of a state of things
+which--in the eyes of a large part of Christendom--more than neutralized
+the soundness of its original conception.[331]
+
+    In England, where from the ninth century, marriage was generally
+    accepted by the ecclesiastical and temporal powers as
+    indissoluble, Canon law was, in the main, established as in the
+    rest of Christendom. There were, however, certain points in which
+    Canon law was not accepted by the law of England. By English law
+    a ceremony before a priest was necessary to the validity of a
+    marriage, though in Scotland the Canon law doctrine was accepted
+    that simple consent of the parties, even exchanged secretly,
+    sufficed to constitute marriage. Again, the issue of a void
+    marriage contracted in innocence, and the issue of persons who
+    subsequently marry each other, are legitimate by Canon law, but
+    not by the common law of England (Geary, _Marriage and Family
+    Relations_, p. 3; Pollock and Maitland, loc. cit.). The Canonists
+    regarded the disabilities attaching to bastardy as a punishment
+    inflicted on the offending parents, and considered, therefore,
+    that no burden should fall on the children when there had been a
+    ceremony in good faith on the part of one at least of the
+    parents. In this respect the English law is less reasonable and
+    humane. It was at the Council of Merton, in 1236, that the barons
+    of England rejected the proposal to make the laws of England
+    harmonize with the Canon law, that is, with the ecclesiastical
+    law of Christendom generally, in allowing children born before
+    wedlock to be legitimated by subsequent marriage. Grosseteste
+    poured forth his eloquence and his arguments in favor of the
+    change, but in vain, and the law of England has ever since stood
+    alone in this respect (Freeman, "Merton Priory," _English Towns
+    and Districts_). The proposal was rejected in the famous formula,
+    "Nolumus leges Angliæ mutare," a formula which merely stood for
+    an unreasonable and inhumane obstinacy.
+
+    In the United States, while by common law subsequent marriage
+    fails to legitimate children born before marriage, in many of the
+    States the subsequent marriage of the parents effects by statute
+    the legitimacy of the child, sometimes (as in Maine)
+    automatically, more usually (as in Massachusetts) through special
+    acknowledgment by the father.
+
+The appearance of Luther and the Reformation involved the decay of the
+Canon law system so far as Europe as a whole was concerned. It was for
+many reasons impossible for the Protestant reformers to retain formally
+either the Catholic conception of matrimony or the precariously elaborate
+legal structure which the Church had built up on that conception. It can
+scarcely be said, indeed, that the Protestant attitude towards the
+Catholic idea of matrimony was altogether a clear, logical, or consistent
+attitude. It was a revolt, an emotional impulse, rather than a matter of
+reasoned principle. In its inevitable necessity, under the circumstances
+of the rise of Protestantism, lies its justification, and, on the whole,
+its wholesome soundness. It took the form, which may seem strange in a
+religious movement, of proclaiming that marriage is not a religious but a
+secular matter. Marriage is, said Luther, "a worldly thing," and Calvin
+put it on the same level as house-building, farming, or shoe-making. But
+while this secularization of marriage represents the general and final
+drift of Protestantism, the leaders of Protestantism were themselves not
+altogether confident and clear-sighted in the matter. Even Luther was a
+little confused on this point; sometimes he seems to call marriage "a
+sacrament," sometimes "a temporal business," to be left to the state.[332]
+It was the latter view which tended to prevail. But at first there was a
+period of confusion, if not of chaos, in the minds of the Reformers; not
+only were they not always convinced in their own minds; they were at
+variance with each other, especially on the very practical question of
+divorce. Luther on the whole belonged to the more rigid party, including
+Calvin and Beza, which would grant divorce only for adultery and malicious
+desertion; some, including many of the early English Protestants, were in
+favor of allowing the husband to divorce for adultery but not the wife.
+Another party, including Zwingli, were influenced by Erasmus in a more
+liberal direction, and--moving towards the standpoint of Roman Imperial
+legislation--admitted various causes of divorce. Some, like Bucer,
+anticipating Milton, would even allow divorce when the husband was unable
+to love his wife. At the beginning some of the Reformers adopted the
+principle of self-divorce, as it prevailed among the Jews and was accepted
+by some early Church Councils. In this way Luther held that the cause for
+the divorce itself effected the divorce without any judicial decree,
+though a magisterial permission was needed for remarriage. This question
+of remarriage, and the treatment of the adulterer, were also matters of
+dispute. The remarriage of the innocent party was generally accepted; in
+England it began in the middle of the sixteenth century, was pronounced
+valid by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and confirmed by Parliament. Many
+Reformers were opposed, however, to the remarriage of the adulterous
+party. Beust, Beza, and Melancthon would have him hanged and so settle the
+question of remarriage; Luther and Calvin would like to kill him, but
+since the civil rulers were slack in adopting that measure they allowed
+him to remarry, if possible in some other part of the country.[333]
+
+The final outcome was that Protestantism framed a conception of marriage
+mainly on the legal and economic factor--a factor not ignored but strictly
+subordinated by the Canonists--and regarded it as essentially a contract.
+In so doing they were on the negative side effecting a real progress, for
+they broke the power of an antiquated and artificial system, but on the
+positive side they were merely returning to a conception which prevails in
+barbarous societies, and is most pronounced when marriage is most
+assimilable to purchase. The steps taken by Protestantism involved a
+considerable change in the nature of marriage, but not necessarily any
+great changes in its form. Marriage was no longer a sacrament, but it was
+still a public and not a private function and was still, however
+inconsistently, solemnized in Church. And as Protestantism had no rival
+code to set up, both in Germany and England it fell back on the general
+principles of Canon law, modifying them to suit its own special attitude
+and needs.[334] It was the later Puritanic movement, first in the
+Netherlands (1580), then in England (1653), and afterwards in New England,
+which introduced a serious and coherent conception of Protestant marriage,
+and began to establish it on a civil base.
+
+    The English Reformers under Edward VI and his enlightened
+    advisers, including Archbishop Cranmer, took liberal views of
+    marriage, and were prepared to carry through many admirable
+    reforms. The early death of that King exerted a profound
+    influence on the legal history of English marriage. The Catholic
+    reaction under Queen Mary killed off the more radical Reformers,
+    while the subsequent accession of Queen Elizabeth, whose attitude
+    towards marriage was grudging, illiberal, and old-fashioned,
+    approximating to that of her father, Henry VIII (as witnessed,
+    for instance, in her decided opposition to the marriage of the
+    clergy), permanently affected English marriage law. It became
+    less liberal than that of other Protestant countries, and closer
+    to that of Catholic countries.
+
+    The reform of marriage attempted by the Puritans began in England
+    in 1644, when an Act was passed asserting "marriage to be no
+    sacrament, nor peculiar to the Church of God, but common to
+    mankind and of public interest to every Commonwealth." The Act
+    added, notwithstanding, that it was expedient marriage should be
+    solemnized by "a lawful minister of the Word." The more radical
+    Act of 1653 swept away this provision, and made marriage purely
+    secular. The banns were to be published (by registrars specially
+    appointed) in the Church, or (if the parties desired) the
+    market-place. The marriage was to be performed by a Justice of
+    the Peace; the age of consent to marriage for a man was made
+    sixteen, for a woman fourteen (Scobell's _Acts and Ordinances_,
+    pp. 86, 236). The Restoration abolished this sensible Act, and
+    reintroduced Canon-law traditions, but the Puritan conception of
+    marriage was carried over to America, where it took root and
+    flourished.
+
+It was out of Puritanism, moreover, as represented by Milton, that the
+first genuinely modern though as yet still imperfect conception of the
+marriage relationship was destined to emerge. The early Reformers in this
+matter acted mainly from an obscure instinct of natural revolt in an
+environment of plebeian materialism. The Puritans were moved by their
+feeling for simplicity and civil order as the conditions for religious
+freedom. Milton, in his _Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce_, published in
+1643, when he was thirty-five years of age, proclaimed the supremacy of
+the substance of marriage over the form of it, and the spiritual autonomy
+of the individual in the regulation of that form. He had grasped the
+meaning of that conception of personal responsibility which is the
+foundation of sexual relationships as they are beginning to appear to men
+to-day. If Milton had left behind him only his writings on marriage and
+divorce they would have sufficed to stamp him with the seal of genius.
+Christendom had to wait a century and a half before another man of genius
+of the first rank, Wilhelm von Humboldt, spoke out with equal authority
+and clearness in favor of free marriage and free divorce.
+
+    It is to the honor of Milton, and one of his chief claims on our
+    gratitude, that he is the first great protagonist in Christendom
+    of the doctrine that marriage is a private matter, and that,
+    therefore, it should be freely dissoluble by mutual consent, or
+    even at the desire of one of the parties. We owe to him, says
+    Howard, "the boldest defence of the liberty of divorce which had
+    yet appeared. If taken in the abstract, and applied to both sexes
+    alike, it is perhaps the strongest defence which can be made
+    through an appeal to mere authority;" though his arguments, being
+    based on reason and experience, are often ill sustained by his
+    authority; he is really speaking the language of the modern
+    social reformer, and Milton's writings on this subject are now
+    sometimes ranked in importance above all his other work (Masson,
+    _Life of Milton_, vol. iii; Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 86,
+    vol. iii, p. 251; C.B. Wheeler, "Milton's Doctrine and Discipline
+    of Divorce," _Nineteenth Century_, Jan., 1907).
+
+    Marriage, said Milton, "is not a mere carnal coition, but a human
+    society; where that cannot be had there can be no true marriage"
+    (_Doctrine of Divorce_, Bk. i, Ch. XIII); it is "a covenant, the
+    very being whereof consists not in a forced cohabitation, and
+    counterfeit performance of duties, but in unfeigned love and
+    peace" (Ib., Ch. VI). Any marriage that is less than this is "an
+    idol, nothing in the world." The weak point in Milton's
+    presentation of the matter is that he never explicitly accords to
+    the wife the same power of initiative in marriage and divorce as
+    to the husband. There is, however, nothing in his argument to
+    prevent its equal application to the wife, an application which,
+    while never asserting he never denies; and it has been pointed
+    out that he assumes that women are the equals of men and demands
+    from them intellectual and spiritual companionship; however ready
+    Milton may have been to grant complete equality of divorce to the
+    wife, it would have been impossible for a seventeenth century
+    Puritan to have obtained any hearing for such a doctrine; his
+    arguments would have been received with, if that were possible,
+    even more neglect than they actually met. (Milton's scornful
+    sonnet concerning the reception of his book is well known.)
+
+    Milton insists that in the conventional Christian marriage
+    exclusive importance is attached to carnal connection. So long as
+    that connection is possible, no matter what antipathy may exist
+    between the couple, no matter how mistaken they may have been
+    "through any error, concealment, or misadventure," no matter if
+    it is impossible for them to "live in any union or contentment
+    all their days," yet the marriage still holds good, the two must
+    "fadge together" (op. cit., Bk. i). It is the Canon law, he says,
+    which is at fault, "doubtless by the policy of the devil," for
+    the Canon law leads to licentiousness (op. cit.). It is, he
+    argues, the absence of reasonable liberty which causes license,
+    and it is the men who desire to retain the privileges of license
+    who oppose the introduction of reasonable liberty.
+
+    The just ground for divorce is "indisposition, unfitness, or
+    contrariety of mind, arising from a cause in nature unchangeable,
+    hindering, and ever likely to hinder, the main benefits of
+    conjugal society, which are solace and peace." Without the "deep
+    and serious verity" of mutual love, wedlock is "nothing but the
+    empty husks of a mere outside matrimony," a mere hypocrisy, and
+    must be dissolved (op. cit.).
+
+    Milton goes beyond the usual Puritan standpoint, and not only
+    rejects courts and magistrates, but approves of self-divorce; for
+    divorce cannot rightly belong to any civil or earthly power,
+    since "ofttimes the causes of seeking divorce reside so deeply in
+    the radical and innocent affections of nature, as is not within
+    the diocese of law to tamper with." He adds that, for the
+    prevention of injustice, special points may be referred to the
+    magistrate, who should not, however, in any case, be able to
+    forbid divorce (op. cit., Bk. ii, Ch. XXI). Speaking from a
+    standpoint which we have not even yet attained, he protests
+    against the absurdity of "authorizing a judicial court to toss
+    about and divulge the unaccountable and secret reason of
+    disaffection between man and wife."
+
+    In modern times Hinton was accustomed to compare the marriage law
+    to the law of the Sabbath as broken by Jesus. We find exactly the
+    same comparison in Milton. The Sabbath, he believes, was made for
+    God. "Yet when the good of man comes into the scales, we have
+    that voice of infinite goodness and benignity, that 'Sabbath was
+    made for man and not man for Sabbath.' What thing ever was made
+    more for man alone, and less for God, than marriage?" (_op.
+    cit._, Bk. i, Ch. XI). "If man be lord of the Sabbath, can he be
+    less than lord of marriage?"
+
+Milton, in this matter as in others, stood outside the currents of his
+age. His conception of marriage made no more impression on contemporary
+life than his _Paradise Lost_. Even his own Puritan party who had passed
+the Act of 1653 had strangely failed to transfer divorce and nullity cases
+to the temporal courts, which would at least have been a step on the right
+road. The Puritan influence was transferred to America and constituted the
+leaven which still works in producing the liberal though too minutely
+detailed divorce laws of many States. The American secular marriage
+procedure followed that set up by the English Commonwealth, and the dictum
+of the great Quaker, George Fox, "We marry none, but are witnesses of
+it,"[335] (which was really the sound kernel in the Canon law) is regarded
+as the spirit of the marriage law of the conservative but liberal State of
+Pennsylvania, where, as recently as 1885, a statute was passed expressly
+authorizing a man and woman to solemnize their own marriage.[336]
+
+In England itself the reforms in marriage law effected by the Puritans
+were at the Restoration largely submerged. For two and a half centuries
+longer the English spiritual courts administered what was substantially
+the old Canon law. Divorce had, indeed, become more difficult than before
+the Reformation, and the married woman's lot was in consequence harder.
+From the sixteenth century to the second half of the nineteenth, English
+marriage law was peculiarly harsh and rigid, much less liberal than that
+of any other Protestant country. Divorce was unknown to the ordinary
+English law, and a special act of Parliament, at enormous expense, was
+necessary to procure it in individual cases.[337] There was even an
+attitude of self-righteousness in the maintenance of this system. It was
+regarded as moral. There was complete failure to realize that nothing is
+more immoral than the existence of unreal sexual unions, not only from
+the point of view of theoretical but also of practical morality, for no
+community could tolerate a majority of such unions.[338] In 1857 an act
+for reforming the system was at last passed with great difficulty. It was
+a somewhat incoherent and make-shift measure, and was avowedly put forward
+only as a step towards further reform; but it still substantially governs
+English procedure, and in the eyes of many has set a permanent standard of
+morality. The spirit of blind conservatism,--_Nolumus leges Angliæ
+mutare_,--which in this sphere had reasserted itself after the vital
+movement of Reform and Puritanism, still persists. In questions of
+marriage and divorce English legislation and English public feeling are
+behind alike both the Latin land of France and the Puritanically moulded
+land of the United States.
+
+    The author of an able and temperate essay on _The Question of
+    English Divorce_, summing up the characteristics of the English
+    divorce law, concludes that it is: (1) unequal, (2) immoral, (3)
+    contradictory, (4) illogical, (5) uncertain, and (6) unsuited to
+    present requirements. It was only grudgingly introduced in a
+    bill, presented to Parliament in 1857, which was stubbornly
+    resisted during a whole session, not only on religious grounds by
+    the opponents of divorce, but also by the friends of divorce, who
+    desired a more liberal measure. It dealt with the sexes
+    unequally, granting the husband but not the wife divorce for
+    adultery alone. In introducing the bill the Attorney-General
+    apologized for this defect, stating that the measure was not
+    intended to be final, but merely as a step towards further
+    legislation. That was more than half a century ago, but the
+    further step has not yet been taken. Incomplete and
+    unsatisfactory as the measure was, it seems to have been regarded
+    by many as revolutionary and dangerous in the highest degree. The
+    author of an article on "Modern Divorce" in the _Universal
+    Review_ for July, 1859, while approving in principle of the
+    establishment of a special Divorce Court, yet declared that the
+    new court was "tending to destroy marriage as a social
+    institution and to sap female chastity," and that "everyone now
+    is a husband and wife at will." "No one," he adds, "can now
+    justly quibble at a deficiency of matrimonial vomitories."
+
+    Yet, according to this law, it is not even possible for a wife to
+    obtain a divorce for her husband's adultery, unless he is also
+    cruel or deserts her. At first "cruelty" meant physical cruelty
+    and of a serious kind. But in course of time the meaning of the
+    word was extended to pain inflicted on the mind, and now coldness
+    and neglect may almost of themselves constitute cruelty, though
+    the English court has sometimes had the greatest hesitation in
+    accepting the most atrocious forms of refined cruelty, because it
+    involved no "physical" element. "The time may very reasonably be
+    looked forward to, however," a legal writer has stated
+    (Montmorency, "The Changing Status of a Married Woman," _Law
+    Quarterly Review_, April, 1897), "when almost any act of
+    misconduct will, in itself, be considered to convey such mental
+    agony to the innocent party as to constitute the cruelty
+    requisite under the Act of 1857." (The question of cruelty is
+    fully discussed in J.R. Bishop's _Commentaries on Marriage,
+    Divorce and Separation_, 1891, vol. i, Ch. XLIX; cf. Howard, op.
+    cit., vol. ii, p. 111).
+
+    There can be little doubt, however, that cruelty alone is a
+    reasonable cause for divorce. In many American States, where the
+    facilities for divorce are much greater than in England, cruelty
+    is recognized as itself sufficient cause, whether the wife or the
+    husband is the complainant. The acts of cruelty alleged have
+    sometimes been seemingly very trivial. Thus divorces have been
+    pronounced in America on the ground of the "cruel and inhuman
+    conduct" of a wife who failed to sew her husband's buttons on, or
+    because a wife "struck plaintiff a violent blow with her bustle,"
+    or because a husband does not cut his toe-nails, or because
+    "during our whole married life my husband has never offered to
+    take me out riding. This has been a source of great mental
+    suffering and injury." In many other cases, it must be added, the
+    cruelty inflicted by the husband, even by the wife--for though
+    usually, it is not always, the husband who is the brute--is of an
+    atrocious and heart-rending character (_Report on Marriage and
+    Divorce in the United States_, issued by Hon. Carroll D. Wright,
+    Commissioner of Labor, 1889). But even in many of the apparently
+    trivial cases--as of a husband who will not wash, and a wife who
+    is constantly evincing a hasty temper--it must be admitted that
+    circumstances which, in the more ordinary relationships of life
+    may be tolerated, become intolerable in the intimate relationship
+    of sexual union. As a matter of fact, it has been found by
+    careful investigation that the American courts weigh well the
+    cases that come before them, and are not careless in the granting
+    of decrees of divorce.
+
+    In 1859 an exaggerated importance was attached to the gross
+    reasons for divorce, to the neglect of subtle but equally fatal
+    impediments to the continuance of marriage. This was pointed out
+    by Gladstone, who was opposed to making adultery a cause of
+    divorce at all. "We have many causes," he said, "more fatal to
+    the great obligation of marriage, as disease, idiocy, crime
+    involving punishment for life." Nowadays we are beginning to
+    recognize not only such causes as these, but others of a far more
+    intimate character which, as Milton long ago realized, cannot be
+    embodied in statutes, or pleaded in law courts. The matrimonial
+    bond is not merely a physical union, and we have to learn that,
+    as the author of _The Question of English Divorce_ (p. 49)
+    remarks, "other than physical divergencies are, in fact, by far
+    the most important of the originating causes of matrimonial
+    disaster."
+
+    In England and Wales more husbands than wives petition for
+    divorce, the wives who petition being about 40 per cent, of the
+    whole. Divorces are increasing, though the number is not large,
+    in 1907 about 1,300, of whom less than half remarried. The
+    inadequacy of the divorce law is shown by the fact that during
+    the same year about 7,000 orders for judicial separation were
+    issued by magistrates. These separation orders not only do not
+    give the right to remarry, but they make it impossible to obtain
+    divorce. They are, in effect, an official permission to form
+    relationships outside State marriage.
+
+    In the United States during the years 1887-1906 nearly 40 per
+    cent, of the divorces granted were for "desertion," which is
+    variously interpreted in different States, and must often mean a
+    separation by mutual consent. Of the remainder, 19 per cent, were
+    for unfaithfulness, and the same proportion for cruelty; but
+    while the divorces granted to husbands for the infidelity of
+    their wives are nearly three times as great proportionately as
+    those granted to wives for their husband's adultery, with regard
+    to cruelty it is the reverse, wives obtaining 27 per cent, of
+    their divorces on that ground and husbands only 10 per cent.
+
+    In Prussia divorce is increasing. In 1907 there were eight
+    thousand divorces, the cause in half the cases being adultery,
+    and in about a thousand cases malicious desertion. In cases of
+    desertion the husbands were the guilty parties nearly twice as
+    often as the wives, in cases of adultery only a fifth to an
+    eighth part.
+
+There cannot be the slightest doubt that the difficulty, the confusion,
+the inconsistency, and the flagrant indecency which surround divorce and
+the methods of securing it are due solely and entirely to the subtle
+persistence of traditions based, on the one hand, on the Canon law
+doctrines of the indissolubility of marriage and the sin of sexual
+intercourse outside marriage, and, on the other hand, on the primitive
+idea of marriage as a contract which economically subordinates the wife to
+the husband and renders her person, or at all events her guardianship, his
+property. It is only when we realize how deeply these traditions have
+become embedded in the religious, legal, social and sentimental life of
+Europe that we can understand how it is that barbaric notions of marriage
+and divorce can to-day subsist in a stage of civilization which has, in
+many respects, advanced beyond such notions.
+
+The Canon law conception of the abstract religious sanctity of matrimony,
+when transferred to the moral sphere, makes a breach of the marriage
+relationship seem a public wrong; the conception of the contractive
+subordination of the wife makes such a breach on her part, and even, by
+transference of ideas, on his part, seem a private wrong. These two ideas
+of wrong incoherently flourish side by side in the vulgar mind, even
+to-day.
+
+The economic subordination of the wife as a species of property
+significantly comes into view when we find that a husband can claim, and
+often secure, large sums of money from the man who sexually approaches his
+property, by such trespass damaging it in its master's eyes.[339] To a
+psychologist it would be obvious that a husband who has lacked the skill
+so to gain and to hold his wife's love and respect that it is not
+perfectly easy and natural to her to reject the advances of any other man
+owes at least as much damages to her as she or her partner owes to him;
+while if the failure is really on her side, if she is so incapable of
+responding to love and trust and so easy a prey to an outsider, then
+surely the husband, far from wishing for any money compensation, should
+consider himself more than fully compensated by being delivered from the
+necessity of supporting such a woman. In the absence of any false
+traditions that would be obvious. It might not, indeed, be unreasonable
+that a husband should pay heavily in order to free himself from a wife
+whom, evidently, he has made a serious mistake in choosing. But to ordain
+that a man should actually be indemnified because he has shown himself
+incapable of winning a woman's love is an idea that could not occur in a
+civilized society that was not twisted by inherited prejudice.[340] Yet as
+matters are to-day there are civilized countries in which it is legally
+possible for a husband to enter a prayer for damages against his wife's
+paramour in combination with either a petition for judicial separation or
+for dissolution of wedlock. In this way adultery is not a crime but a
+private injury.[341]
+
+At the same time, however, the influence of Canon law comes inconsistently
+to the surface and asserts that a breach of matrimony is a public wrong, a
+sin transformed by the State into something almost or quite like a crime.
+This is clearly indicated by the fact that in some countries the adulterer
+is liable to imprisonment, a liability scarcely nowadays carried into
+practice. But exactly the same idea is beautifully illustrated by the
+doctrine of "collusion," which, in theory, is still strictly observed in
+many countries. According to the doctrine of "collusion" the conditions
+necessary to make the divorce possible must on no account be secured by
+mutual agreement. In practice it is impossible to prevent more or less
+collusion, but if proved in court it constitutes an absolute impediment to
+the granting of a divorce, however just and imperative the demand for
+divorce may be.
+
+    The English Divorce Act of 1857 refused divorce when there was
+    collusion, as well as when there was any countercharge against
+    the petitioner, and the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1860 provided
+    the machinery for guaranteeing these bars to divorce. This
+    question of collusion is discussed by G.P. Bishop (op. cit.,
+    vol. ii, Ch. IX). "However just a cause may be," Bishop remarks,
+    "if parties collude in its management, so that in real fact both
+    parties are plaintiffs, while by the record the one appears as
+    plaintiff and the other as defendant, it cannot go forward. All
+    conduct of this sort, disturbing to the course of justice, falls
+    within the general idea of fraud on the court. Such is the
+    doctrine in principle everywhere."
+
+It is quite evident that from the social or the moral point of view, it is
+best that when a husband and wife can no longer live together, they should
+part amicably, and in harmonious agreement effect all the arrangements
+rendered necessary by their separation. The law ridiculously forbids them
+to do so, and declares that they must not part at all unless they are
+willing to part as enemies. In order to reach a still lower depth of
+absurdity and immorality the law goes on to say that if as a matter of
+fact they have succeeded in becoming enemies to each other to such an
+extent that each has wrongs to plead against the other party they cannot
+be divorced at all![342] That is to say that when a married couple have
+reached a degree of separation which makes it imperatively necessary, not
+merely in their own interests but in the moral interests of society, that
+they should be separated and their relations to other parties concerned
+regularized, then they must on no account be separated.
+
+It is clear how these provisions of the law are totally opposed to the
+demands of reason and morality. Yet at the same time it is equally clear
+how no efforts of the lawyers, however skilful or humane those efforts may
+be, can bring the present law into harmony with the demands of modern
+civilization. It is not the lawyers who are at fault; they have done
+their best, and, in England, it is entirely owing to the skilful and
+cautious way in which the judges have so far as possible pressed the law
+into harmony with modern needs, that our antiquated divorce laws have
+survived at all. It is the system which is wrong. That system is the
+illegitimate outgrowth of the Canon law which grew up around conceptions
+long since dead. It involves the placing of the person who imperils the
+theoretical indissolubility of the matrimonial bond in the position of a
+criminal, now that he can no longer be publicly condemned as a sinner. To
+aid and abet that criminal is itself an offence, and the aider and abettor
+of the criminal must, therefore, be inconsequently punished by the curious
+method of refraining from punishing the criminal. We do not openly assert
+that the defendant in a divorce case is a criminal; that would be to
+render the absurdity of it too obvious, and, moreover, would be hardly
+consistent with the permission to claim damages which is based on a
+different idea. We hover uncertainly between two conceptions of divorce,
+both of them bad, each inconsistent with the other, and neither of them
+capable of being pushed to its logical conclusions.
+
+The result is that if a perfectly virtuous married couple comes forward to
+claim divorce, they are told that it is out of the question, for in such a
+case there must be a "defendant." They are to be punished for their
+virtue. If each commits adultery and they again come forward to claim
+divorce, they are told that it is still out of the question, for there
+must be a "plaintiff." Before they were punished for their virtue; now
+they are to be punished in exactly the same way for their lack of it. The
+couple must humor the law by adopting a course of action which may be
+utterly repugnant to both. If only the wife alone will commit adultery, if
+only the husband will commit adultery and also inflict some act of cruelty
+upon his wife, if the innocent party will descend to the degradation of
+employing detectives and hunting up witnesses, the law is at their feet
+and hastens to accord to both parties the permission to remarry. Provided,
+of course, that the parties have arranged this without "collusion." That
+is to say that our law, with its ecclesiastical traditions behind it,
+says to the wife: Be a sinner, or to the husband: Be a sinner and a
+criminal--then we will do all you wish. The law puts a premium on sin and
+on crime. In order to pile absurdity on absurdity it claims that this is
+done in the cause of "public morality." To those who accept this point of
+view it seems that the sweeping away of divorce laws would undermine the
+bases of morality. Yet there can be little doubt that the sooner such
+"morality" is undermined, and indeed utterly destroyed, the better it will
+be for true morality.
+
+    There is an influential movement in England for the reform of
+    divorce, on the grounds that the present law is unjust,
+    illogical, and immoral, represented by the Divorce Law Reform
+    Union. Even the former president of the Divorce Court, Lord
+    Gorell, declared from the bench in 1906 that the English law
+    produces deplorable results, and is "full of inconsistencies,
+    anomalies and inequalities, amounting almost to absurdities." The
+    points in the law which have aroused most protest, as being most
+    behind the law of other nations, are the great expense of
+    divorce, the inequality of the sexes, the failure to grant
+    divorces for desertion and in cases of hopeless insanity, and the
+    failure of separation orders to enable the separated parties to
+    marry again. Separation orders are granted by magistrates for
+    cruelty, adultery, and desertion. This "separation" is really the
+    direct descendant of the Canon law divorce _a mensa et thoro_,
+    and the inability to marry which it involves is merely a survival
+    of the Canon law tradition. At the present time
+    magistrates--exercising their discretion, it is admitted, in a
+    careful and prudent manner--issue some 7,000 separation orders
+    annually, so that every year the population is increased by
+    14,000 individuals mostly in the age of sexual vigor, and some
+    little more than children, who are forbidden by law to form legal
+    marriages. They contribute powerfully to the great forward
+    movement which, as was shown in the previous chapter, marks the
+    morality of our age. But it is highly undesirable that free
+    marriages should be formed, helplessly, by couples who have no
+    choice in the matter, for it is unlikely that under such
+    circumstances any high level of personal responsibility can be
+    reached. The matter could be easily remedied by dropping
+    altogether a Canon law tradition which no longer has any vitality
+    or meaning, and giving to the magistrate's separation order the
+    force of a decree of divorce.
+
+    New Zealand and the Australian colonies, led by Victoria in 1889,
+    have passed divorce laws which, while more or less framed on the
+    English model, represent a distinct advance. Thus in New Zealand
+    the grounds for divorce are adultery on either side, wilful
+    desertion, habitual drunkenness, and conviction to imprisonment
+    for a term of years.
+
+It is natural that an Englishman should feel acutely sensitive to this
+blot in the law of England and desire the speedy disappearance of a system
+so open to scathing sarcasm. It is natural that every humane person should
+grow impatient of the spectacle of so many blighted lives, of so much
+misery inflicted on innocent persons--and on persons who even when
+technically guilty are often the victims of unnatural circumstances--by
+the persistence of a mediæval system of ecclesiastical tyranny and
+inquisitorial insolence into an age when sexual relationships are becoming
+regarded as the sacred secret of the persons intimately concerned, and
+when more and more we rely on the responsibility of the individual in
+making and maintaining such relationships.
+
+When, however, we refrain from concentrating our attention on particular
+countries and embrace the general movement of civilization in the matter
+of divorce during recent times, there cannot be the slightest doubt as to
+the direction of that movement. England was a pioneer in the movement half
+a century ago, and to-day every civilized country is moving in the same
+direction. France broke with the old ecclesiastical tradition of the
+indissolubility of matrimony in 1885 by a divorce law in some respects
+very reasonable. The wife may obtain a divorce on an equality with the
+husband (though she is liable to imprisonment for adultery), the
+co-respondent occupies a very subordinate position in adultery charges,
+and facility is offered for divorce on the ground of simple _injures
+graves_ (excluding as far as possible mere incompatibility of temper),
+while the judge has the power, which he often successfully exerts, to
+effect a reconciliation in private or to grant a decree without public
+trial. The influence of France has doubtless been influential in moulding
+the divorce laws of the other Latin countries.
+
+In Prussia an enlightened divorce law formerly prevailed by which it was
+possible for a couple to separate without scandal when it was clearly
+shown that they could not live together in agreement. But the German Code
+of 1900 introduced provisions as regards divorce which--while in some
+respects more liberal than those of the English law, especially by
+permitting divorce for desertion and insanity--are, on the whole,
+retrograde as compared with the earlier Prussian law and place the matter
+on a cruder and more brutal basis. For two years after the Code came into
+operations the number of divorces sank; after that the public and the
+courts adapted themselves to the new provisions (more especially one which
+allowed divorce for serious neglect of conjugal duties) and the number of
+divorces began to increase with great rapidity. "But," remarks Hirschfeld,
+"how painful it has now become to read divorce cases! One side abuses the
+other, makes accusations of the grossest character, employs detectives to
+obtain the necessary proofs of 'dishonorable and immoral conduct,'
+whereas, before, both parties realized that they had been deceived in each
+other, that they failed to suit each other, and that they could no longer
+live together. Thus we see that the narrowing of individual responsibility
+in sexual matters has not only had no practical effect, but leads to
+injurious results of a serious kind."[343] In England a similar state of
+things has prevailed ever since divorce was established, but it seems to
+have become too familiar to excite either pain or disgust. Yet, as Adner
+has pointed out,[344] it has moved in a direction contrary to the general
+tendency of civilization, not only by increasing the inquisitorial
+authority of public courts but by emphasizing merely external causes of
+divorce and abolishing the more subtle internal causes which constantly
+grow in importance with the refinement of civilization.
+
+In Austria until recent years, Canon law ruled absolutely, and matrimony
+was indissoluble, as it still remains for the Catholic population. The
+results as regards matrimonial happiness were in the highest degree
+deplorable. Half a century ago Gross-Hoffinger investigated the marital
+happiness of 100 Viennese couples of all social classes, without choice of
+cases, and presented the results in detail. He found that 48 couples were
+positively unhappy, only 16 were undoubtedly happy, and even among these
+there was only one case in which happiness resulted from mutual
+faithfulness, happiness in the other cases being only attained by setting
+aside the question of fidelity.[345] This picture, it is to be hoped, no
+longer remains true. There is an influential Austrian Marriage Reform
+Association, publishing a journal called _Die Fessel_, or The Fetter. "One
+was chained to another," we are told. "In certain circumstances this must
+have been the worst and most torturing penalty of all. The most bizarre
+and repulsive couplings took place. There were, it is true, many
+affectionate companionships of the chain. But there were many more which
+inflicted an eternity of suffering upon one of the pair." This quotation,
+it must be added, has nothing to do with what the Canonists, borrowing the
+technical term for a prisoner's shackles, suggestively termed the
+_vinculum matrimonii_; it was written many years ago concerning the
+galleys of the old French convict system. It is, however, recalled to
+one's mind by the title which the Austrian Marriage Reform Association has
+given to its official organ.
+
+Russia, where the marriage laws are arranged by the Holy Synod aided by
+jurists, stands almost alone among the great countries in the reasonable
+simplicity of its divorce provisions. Before 1907 divorce was very
+difficult to obtain in Russia, but in that year it became possible for a
+married couple to separate by mutual consent and after living apart for a
+year to become thereby entitled to a divorce enabling them to remarry.
+This provision is in accordance with the humane conception of the sexual
+relationship which has always tended to prevail in Russia, whither, it
+must be remembered, the stern and unnatural ideals of compulsory celibacy
+cherished by the Western Church never completely penetrated; the clergy of
+the Eastern Church are married, though the marriage must take place before
+they enter the priesthood, and they could not sympathize with the
+anti-sexual tone of the marriage regulations laid down by the celibate
+clergy of the west.
+
+Switzerland, again, which has been regarded as the political laboratory
+of Europe, also stands apart in the liberality of its divorce legislation.
+A renewable divorce for two years may be obtained in Switzerland when
+there are "circumstances which seriously affect the maintenance of the
+conjugal tie." To the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, finally, belongs the
+honor of having firmly maintained throughout the great principle of
+divorce by mutual consent under legal conditions, as established by
+Napoleon in his Code of 1803. The smaller countries generally are in
+advance of the large in matters of divorce law. The Norwegian law is
+liberal. The new Roumanian Code permits divorce by mutual consent,
+provided both parents grant equal shares of their property to the
+children. The little principality of Monaco has recently introduced the
+reasonable provision of granting divorce for, among other causes,
+alcoholism, syphilis, and epilepsy, so protecting the future race.
+
+Outside Europe the most instructive example of the tendency of divorce is
+undoubtedly furnished by the United States of America. The divorce laws of
+the States are mainly on a Puritanic basis, and they retain not only the
+Puritanic love of individual freedom but the Puritanic precisianism.[346]
+In some States, notably Iowa, the statute-makers have been constantly
+engaged in adopting, changing, abrogating and re-enacting the provisions
+of their divorce laws, and Howard has shown how much confusion and
+awkwardness arise by such perpetual legislative fiddling over small
+details.
+
+This restless precisianism has somewhat disguised the generally broad and
+liberal tendency of marriage law in America, and has encouraged foreign
+criticism of American social institutions. As a matter of fact the
+prevalence of divorce in America is enormously exaggerated. The proportion
+of divorced persons in the population appears to be less than one per
+cent., and, contrary to a frequent assertion, it is by no means the rule
+for divorced persons to remarry immediately. Taking into account the
+special conditions of life in the United States the prevalence of divorce
+is small and its character by no means reveals a low grade morality. An
+impartial and competent critic of the American people, Professor
+Münsterberg, remarks that the real ground which mainly leads to divorce in
+the United States--not the mere legal pretexts made compulsory by the
+precisianism of the law--is the highly ethical objection to continuing
+externally in a marriage which has ceased to be spiritually congenial. "It
+is the women especially," he says, "and generally the very best women, who
+prefer to take the step, with all the hardships which it involves, to
+prolonging a marriage which is spiritually hypocritical and immoral."[347]
+
+The people of the United States, above all others, cherish ideals of
+individualism; they are also the people among whom, above all others,
+there is the greatest amount of what Reibmayr calls "blood-chaos." Under
+such circumstances the difficulties of conjugal life are necessarily at a
+maximum, and marriage union is liable to subtle impediments which must
+forever elude the statute-book.[348] There can be little doubt that the
+practical sagacity of the American people will enable them sooner or later
+to recognize this fact, and that finally fulfilling the Puritanic drift of
+their divorce legislation--as foreshadowed in its outcome by Milton--they
+will agree to trust their own citizens with the responsibility of deciding
+so private a matter as their conjugal relationships, with, of course,
+authority in the courts to see that no injustice is committed. It is,
+indeed, surprising that the American people, usually intolerant of State
+interference, should in this matter so long have tolerated such
+interference in so private a matter.
+
+The movement of divorce is not confined to Christendom; it is a mark of
+modern civilization. In Japan the proportion of divorces is higher than in
+any other country, not excluding the United States.[349] The most vigorous
+and progressive countries are those that insist most firmly on the purity
+of sexual unions. In the United States it was pointed out many years ago
+that divorce is most prevalent where the standard of education and
+morality is highest. It was the New England States, with strong Puritanic
+traditions of moral freedom, which took the lead in granting facility to
+divorce. The divorce movement is not, as some have foolishly supposed, a
+movement making for immorality.[350] Immorality is the inevitable
+accompaniment of indissoluble marriage; the emphasis on the sanctity of a
+merely formal union discourages the growth of moral responsibility as
+regards the hypothetically unholy unions which grow up beneath its shadow.
+To insist, on the other hand, by establishing facility of divorce, that
+sexual unions shall be real, is to work in the cause of morality. The
+lands in which divorce by mutual consent has prevailed longest are
+probably among the most, and not the least, moral of lands.
+
+Surprise has been expressed that although divorce by mutual consent
+commended itself as an obviously just and reasonable measure two thousand
+years ago to the legally-minded Romans that solution has even yet been so
+rarely attained by modern states.[351] Wherever society is established on
+a solidly organized basis and the claims of reason and humanity receive
+due consideration--even when the general level of civilization is not in
+every respect high--there we find a tendency to divorce by mutual consent.
+
+    In Japan, according to the new Civil Code, much as in ancient
+    Rome, marriage is effected by giving notice of the fact to the
+    registrar in the presence of two witnesses, and with the consent
+    (in the case of young couples) of the heads of their families.
+    There may be a ceremony, but it is not demanded by the law.
+    Divorce is effected in exactly the same way, by simply having the
+    registration cancelled, provided both husband and wife are over
+    twenty-five years of age. For younger couples unhappily married,
+    and for cases in which mutual consent cannot be obtained,
+    judicial divorce exists. This is granted for various specific
+    causes, of which the most important is "grave insult, such as to
+    render living together unbearable" (Ernest W. Clement, "The New
+    Woman in Japan," _American Journal Sociology_, March, 1903). Such
+    a system, like so much else achieved by Japanese organization,
+    seems reasonable, guarded, and effective.
+
+    In the very different and far more ancient marriage system of
+    China, divorce by mutual consent is equally well-established.
+    Such divorce by mutual consent takes place for incompatibility of
+    temperament, or when both husband and wife desire it. There are,
+    however, various antiquated and peculiar provisions in the
+    Chinese marriage laws, and divorce is compulsory for the wife's
+    adultery or serious physical injuries inflicted by either party
+    on the other. (The marriage laws of China are fully set forth by
+    Paul d'Enjoy, _La Revue_, Sept. 1, 1905.)
+
+    Among the Eskimo (who, as readers of Nansen's fascinating books
+    on their morals will know, are in some respects a highly
+    socialized people) the sexes are absolutely equal, marriages are
+    perfectly free, and separation is equally free. The result is
+    that there are no uncongenial unions, and that no unpleasant word
+    is heard between man and wife (Stefánsson, _Harper's Magazine_,
+    Nov., 1908).
+
+    Among the ancient Welsh, women, both before and after marriage,
+    enjoyed great freedom, far more than was afforded either by
+    Christianity or the English Common law. "Practically either
+    husband or wife could separate when either one or both chose"
+    (Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_, p. 214). It was so
+    also in ancient Ireland. Women held a very high position, and the
+    marriage tie was very free, so as to be practically, it would
+    appear, dissoluble by mutual consent. So far as the Brehon laws
+    show, says Ginnell (_The Brehon Laws_, p. 212), "the marriage
+    relation was extremely loose, and divorce was as easy, and could
+    be obtained on as slight ground, as is now the case in some of
+    the States of the American Union. It appears to have been
+    obtained more easily by the wife than by the husband. When
+    obtained on her petition, she took away with her all the property
+    she had brought her husband, all her husband had settled upon
+    her on their marriage, and in addition so much of her husband's
+    property as her industry appeared to have entitled her to."
+
+    Even in early French history we find that divorce by mutual
+    consent was very common. It was sufficient to prepare in
+    duplicate a formal document to this effect: "Since between N. and
+    his wife there is discord instead of charity according to God,
+    and that in consequence it is impossible for them to live
+    together, it has pleased both to separate, and they have
+    accordingly done so." Each of the parties was thus free either to
+    retire into a cloister or to contract another union (E. de la
+    Bedollière, _Histoire des Moeurs des Français_, vol. i, p. 317).
+    Such a practice, however it might accord with the germinal
+    principle of consent embodied in the Canon law, was far too
+    opposed to the ecclesiastical doctrine of the sacramental
+    indissolubility of matrimony to be permanently allowed, and it
+    was completely crushed out.
+
+The fact that we so rarely find divorce by mutual consent in Christendom
+until the beginning of the nineteenth century, that then it required a man
+of stupendous and revolutionary genius like Napoleon to reintroduce it,
+and that even he was unable to do so effectually, is clearly due to the
+immense victory which the ascetic spirit of Christianity, as firmly
+embodied in the Canon law, had gained over the souls and bodies of men. So
+subjugated were European traditions and institutions by this spirit that
+even the volcanic emotional uprising of the Reformation, as we have seen,
+could not shake it off. When Protestant States naturally resumed the
+control of secular affairs which had been absorbed by the Church, and
+rescued from ecclesiastical hands those things which belonged to the
+sphere of the individual conscience, it might have seemed that marriage
+and divorce would have been among the first concerns to be thus
+transferred. Yet, as we know, England was about as much enslaved to the
+spirit and even the letter of Canon law in the nineteenth as in the
+fourteenth century, and even to-day English law, though no longer
+supported by the feeling of the masses, clings to the same traditions.
+
+There seems to be little doubt, however, that the modern movement for
+divorce must inevitably tend to reach the goal of separation by the will
+of both parties, or, under proper conditions and restrictions, by the
+will of one party. It now requires the will of two persons to form a
+marriage; law insists on that condition.[352] It is logical as well as
+just that law should take the next step involved by the historical
+evolution of marriage, and equally insist that it requires the will of two
+persons to maintain a marriage. This solution is, without doubt, the only
+way of deliverance from the crudities, the indecencies, the inextricable
+complexities which are introduced into law by the vain attempt to foresee
+in detail all the possibilities of conjugal disharmony which may arise
+under the conditions of modern civilization. It is, moreover, we may rest
+assured, the only solution which the growing modern sense of personal
+responsibility in sexual matters traced in the previous chapter--the
+responsibility of women as well as of men--will be content to accept.
+
+    The subtle and complex character of the sexual relationships in a
+    high civilization and the unhappy results of their State
+    regulation were well expressed by Wilhelm von Humboldt in his
+    _Ideen zu einen Versuch die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates
+    zu bestimmen_, so long ago as 1792. "A union so closely allied
+    with the very nature of the respective individuals must be
+    attended with the most hurtful consequences when the State
+    attempts to regulate it by law, or, through the force of its
+    institutions, to make it repose on anything save simple
+    inclination. When we remember, moreover, that the State can only
+    contemplate the final results of such regulations on the race, we
+    shall be still more ready to admit the justice of this
+    conclusion. It may reasonably be argued that a solicitude for the
+    race only conducts to the same results as the highest solicitude
+    for the most beautiful development of the inner man. For, after
+    careful observation, it has been found that the uninterrupted
+    union of one man with one woman is most beneficial to the race,
+    and it is likewise undeniable that no other union springs from
+    true, natural, harmonious love. And further, it may be observed,
+    that such love leads to the same results as those very relations
+    which law and custom tend to establish. The radical error seems
+    to be that the law commands; whereas such a relation cannot mould
+    itself according to external arrangements, but depends wholly on
+    inclination; and wherever coercion or guidance comes into
+    collision with inclination, they divert it still farther from the
+    proper path. Wherefore it appears to me that the State should not
+    only loosen the bonds in this instance and leave ampler freedom
+    to the citizen, but that it should entirely withdraw its active
+    solicitude from the institution of marriage, and, both generally
+    and in its particular modifications, should rather leave it
+    wholly to the free choice of the individuals, and the various
+    contracts they may enter into with respect to it. I should not be
+    deterred from the adoption of this principle by the fear that all
+    family relations might be disturbed, for, although such a fear
+    might be justified by considerations of particular circumstances
+    and localities, it could not fairly be entertained in an inquiry
+    into the nature of men and States in general. For experience
+    frequently convinces us that just where law has imposed no
+    fetters, morality most surely binds; the idea of external
+    coercion is one entirely foreign to an institution which, like
+    marriage, reposes only on inclination and an inward sense of
+    duty; and the results of such coercive institutions do not at all
+    correspond to the intentions in which they originate."
+
+    A long succession of distinguished thinkers--moralists,
+    sociologists, political reformers--have maintained the social
+    advantages of divorce by mutual consent, or, under guarded
+    circumstances, at the wish of one party. Mutual consent was the
+    corner-stone of Milton's conception of marriage. Montesquieu said
+    that true divorce must be the result of mutual consent and based
+    on the impossibility of living together. Sénancour seems to agree
+    with Montesquieu. Lord Morley (_Diderot_, vol. ii, Ch. I),
+    echoing and approving the conclusions of Diderot's _Supplément au
+    Voyage de Bougainville_ (1772), adds that the separation of
+    husband and wife is "a transaction in itself perfectly natural
+    and blameless, and often not only laudable, but a duty." Bloch
+    (_Sexual Life of Our Time_, p. 240), with many other writers,
+    emphasizes the truth of Shelley's saying, that the freedom of
+    marriage is the guarantee of its durability. (That the facts of
+    life point in the same direction has been shown in the previous
+    chapter.) The learned Caspari (_Die Soziale Frage über die
+    Freiheit der Ehe_), while disclaiming any prevision of the
+    future, declares that if sexual relationships are to remain or to
+    become moral, there must be an easier dissolution of marriage.
+    Howard, at the conclusion of his exhaustive history of
+    matrimonial institutions (vol. iii p. 220), though he himself
+    believes that marriage is peculiarly in need of regulation by
+    law, is yet constrained to admit that it is perfectly clear to
+    the student of history that the modern divorce movement is "but a
+    part of the mighty movement for social liberation which has been
+    gaining in volume and strength since the Reformation." Similarly
+    the cautious and judicial Westermarck concludes the chapter on
+    marriage of his _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_ (vol.
+    ii, p. 398) with the statement that "when both husband and wife
+    desire to separate, it seems to many enlightened minds that the
+    State has no right to prevent them from dissolving the marriage
+    contract, provided the children are properly cared for; and that,
+    for the children, also, it is better to have the supervision of
+    one parent only than of two who cannot agree."
+
+    In France the leaders of the movement of social reform seem to be
+    almost, or quite, unanimous in believing that the next step in
+    regard to divorce is the establishment of divorce by mutual
+    consent. This was, for instance, the result reached in a
+    symposium to which thirty-one distinguished men and women
+    contributed. All were in favor of divorce by mutual consent; the
+    only exception was Madame Adam, who said she had reached a state
+    of skepticism with regard to political and social forms, but
+    admitted that for nearly half a century she had been a strong
+    advocate of divorce. A large number of the contributors were in
+    favor of divorce at the desire of one party only (_La Revue_,
+    March 1, 1901). In other countries, also, there is a growing
+    recognition that this solution of the question, with due
+    precautions to avoid any abuses to which it might otherwise be
+    liable, is the proper and inevitable solution.
+
+    As to the exact method by which divorce by mutual consent should
+    be effected, opinions differ, and the matter is likely to be
+    differently arranged in different countries. The Japanese plan
+    seems simple and judicious (see _ante_, p. 461). Paul and Victor
+    Margueritte (_Quelques Idées_, pp. 3 et seq.), while realizing
+    that the conflict of feeling in the matter of personal
+    associations involves decisions which are entirely outside the
+    competence of legal tribunals, recognize that such tribunals are
+    necessary in order to deal with the property of divorced persons,
+    and also, in the last resort, with the question of the care of
+    the children. They should not act in public. These writers
+    propose that each party should choose a representative, and that
+    these two should choose a third; and that this tribunal should
+    privately investigate, and if they agreed should register the
+    divorce, which should take place six or twelve months later, or
+    three years later, if only desired by one of the parties. Dr.
+    Shufeldt ("Psychopathia Sexualis and Divorce") proposes that a
+    divorce-court judge should conduct, alone, the hearing of any
+    cases of marital discord, the husband and wife appearing directly
+    before him, without counsel, though with their witnesses, if
+    necessary; should medical experts be required the judge alone
+    would be empowered to call them.
+
+When we realize that the long delay in the acceptance of so just and
+natural a basis of divorce is due to an artificial tension created by the
+pressure of the dead hand of Canon law--a tension confined exclusively to
+Christendom--we may also realize that with the final disappearance of that
+tension the just and natural order in this relationship will spring back
+the more swiftly because that relief has been so long delayed. "Nature
+abhors a vacuum nowhere more than in a marriage," Ellen Key remarks in the
+language of antiquated physical metaphor; the vacuum will somehow be
+filled, and if it cannot be filled in a natural and orderly manner it will
+be filled in an unnatural and disorderly manner. It is the business of
+society to see that no laws stand in the way of the establishment of
+natural order.
+
+Reform upon a reasonable basis has been made difficult by the unfortunate
+retention of the idea of delinquency. With the traditions of the Canonists
+at the back of our heads we have somehow persuaded ourselves that there
+cannot be a divorce unless there is a delinquent, a real serious
+delinquent who, if he had his deserts, would be imprisoned and consigned
+to infamy. But in the marriage relationship, as in all other
+relationships, it is only in a very small number of cases that one party
+stands towards the other as a criminal, even a defendant. This is often
+obvious in the early stages of conjugal alienation. But it remains true in
+the end. The wife commits adultery and the husband as a matter of course
+assumes the position of plaintiff. But we do not inquire how it is that he
+has not so won her love that her adultery is out of the question; such
+inquiry might lead to the conclusion that the real defendant is the
+husband. And similarly when the husband is accused of brutal cruelty the
+law takes no heed to inquire whether in the infliction of less brutal but
+not less poignant wounds, the wife also should not be made defendant.
+There are a few cases, but only a few, in which the relationship of
+plaintiff and defendant is not a totally false and artificial
+relationship, an immoral legal fiction. In most cases, if the truth were
+fully known, husband and wife should come side by side to the divorce
+court and declare: "We are both in the wrong: we have not been able to
+fulfil our engagements to each other; we have erred in choosing each
+other." The long reports of the case in open court, the mutual
+recriminations, the detectives, the servant girls and other witnesses, the
+infamous inquisition into intimate secrets--all these things, which no
+necessity could ever justify, are altogether unnecessary.
+
+It is said by some that if there were no impediments to divorce a man
+might be married in succession to half a dozen women. These simple-minded
+or ignorant persons do not seem to be aware that even when marriage is
+absolutely indissoluble a man can, and frequently does, carry on sexual
+relationships not merely successively, but, if he chooses, even
+simultaneously, with half a dozen women. There is, however, this important
+difference that, in the one case, the man is encouraged by the law to
+believe that he need only treat at most one of the six women with anything
+approaching to justice and humanity; in the other case the law insists
+that he shall fairly and openly fulfil his obligations towards all the six
+women. It is a very important difference, and there ought to be no
+question as to which state of things is moral and which immoral. It is no
+concern of the State to inquire into the number of persons with whom a man
+or a woman chooses to have sexual relationships; it is a private matter
+which may indeed affect their own finer spiritual development but which it
+is impertinent for the State to pry into. It is, however, the concern of
+the State, in its own collective interest and that of its members, to see
+that no injustice is done.
+
+But what about the children? That is necessarily a very important
+question. The question of the arrangements made for the children in cases
+of divorce is always one to which the State must give its regulative
+attention, for it is only when there are children that the State has any
+real concern in the matter.
+
+At one time it was even supposed by some that the existence of children
+was a serious argument against facility of divorce. A more reasonable view
+is now generally taken. It is, in the first place, recognized that a very
+large proportion of couples seeking divorce have no children. In England
+the proportion is about forty per cent.; in some other countries it is
+doubtless larger still. But even when there are children no one who
+realizes what the conditions are in families where the parents ought to be
+but are not divorced can have any doubt that usually those conditions are
+extremely bad for the children. The tension between the parents absorbs
+energy which should be devoted to the children. The spectacle of the
+grievances or quarrels of their parents is demoralizing for the children,
+and usually fatal to any respect towards them. At the best it is
+injuriously distressing to the children. One effective parent, there
+cannot be the slightest doubt, is far better for a child than two
+ineffective parents. There is a further point, often overlooked, for
+consideration here. Two people when living together at variance--one of
+them perhaps, it is not rarely the case, nervously abnormal or
+diseased--are not fitted to become parents, nor in the best condition for
+procreation. It is, therefore, not merely an act of justice to the
+individual, but a measure called for in the interests of the State, that
+new citizens should not be brought into the community through such
+defective channels.[353] From this point of view all the interests of the
+State are on the side of facility of divorce.
+
+There is a final argument which is often brought forward against facility
+of divorce. Marriage, it is said, is for the protection of women;
+facilitate divorce and women are robbed of that protection. It is obvious
+that this argument has little application as against divorce by mutual
+consent. Certainly it is necessary that divorce should only be arranged
+under conditions which in each individual case have received the approval
+of the law as just. But it must always be remembered that the essential
+fact of marriage is not naturally, and should never artificially be made,
+an economic question. It is possible--that is a question which society
+will have to consider--that a woman should be paid for being a mother on
+the ground that she is rearing new citizens for the State. But neither the
+State nor her husband nor anyone else ought to pay her for exercising
+conjugal rights. The fact that such an argument can be brought forward
+shows how far we are from the sound biological attitude towards sexual
+relationships. Equally unsound is the notion that the virgin bride brings
+her husband at marriage an important capital which is consumed in the
+first act of intercourse and can never be recovered. That is a notion
+which has survived into civilization, but it belongs to barbarism and not
+to civilization. So far as it has any validity it lies within a sphere of
+erotic perversity which cannot be taken into consideration in an
+estimation of moral values. For most men, however, in any case, whether
+they realize it or not, the woman who has been initiated into the
+mysteries of love has a higher erotic value than the virgin, and there
+need be no anxiety on this ground concerning the wife who has lost her
+virginity. It is probably a significant fact that this anxiety for the
+protection of women by the limitation of divorce is chiefly brought
+forward by men and not by women themselves. A woman at marriage is
+deprived by society and the law of her own name. She has been deprived
+until recently of the right to her own earnings. She is deprived of the
+most intimate rights in her own person. She is deprived under some
+circumstances of her own child, against whom she may have committed no
+offence whatever. It is perhaps scarcely surprising that she is not
+greatly appreciative of the protection afforded her by the withholding of
+the right to divorce her husband. "Ah, no, no protection!" a brilliant
+French woman has written. "We have been protected long enough. The only
+protection to grant women is to cease protecting them."[354] As a matter
+of fact the divorce movement appears to develop, on the whole, with that
+development of woman's moral responsibility traced in the previous
+chapter, and where divorce is freest women occupy the highest position.
+
+We cannot fail to realize as we grasp the nature and direction of the
+modern movement of divorce that the final tendency of that movement is to
+efface itself. Necessary as the Divorce Court has been as the inevitable
+corollary of an impossible ecclesiastical conception of marriage, no
+institution is now more hideous, more alien to the instinctive feelings
+generated by a fine civilization, and more opposed to the dignity of
+womanhood.[355] Its disappearance and its substitution by private
+arrangements, effected on their contractive sides, especially if there are
+children to provide for, under legal and if necessary judicial
+supervision, is, and always has been, the natural result of the attainment
+of a reasonably high stage of civilization. The Divorce Court has merely
+been a phase in the history of modern marriage, and a phase that has
+really been repugnant to all concerned in it. There is no need to view the
+project of its ultimate disappearance with anything but satisfaction. It
+was merely the outcome of an artificial conception of marriage. It is time
+to return to the consideration of that conception.
+
+We have seen that when the Catholic development of the archaic conception
+of marriage as a sacrament, slowly elaborated and fossilized by the
+ingenuity of the Canonists, was at last nominally dethroned, though not
+destroyed, by the movement associated with the Reformation, it was
+replaced by the conception of marriage as a contract. This conception of
+marriage as a contract still enjoys a considerable amount of credit
+amongst us.
+
+There must always be contractive elements, implicit or explicit, in a
+marriage; that was well recognized even by the Canonists. But when we
+treat marriage as all contract, and nothing but contract, we have to
+realize that we have set up a very peculiar form of contract, not
+voidable, like other contracts, by the agreement of the parties to it, but
+dissoluble as a sort of punishment of delinquency rather than by the
+voluntary annulment of a bond.[356] When the Protestant Reformers seized
+on the idea of marriage as a contract they were not influenced by any
+reasoned analysis of the special characteristics of a contract; they were
+merely anxious to secure a plausible ground, already admitted even by the
+Canonists to cover certain aspects of the matrimonial union, on which they
+could declare that marriage is a secular and not an ecclesiastical matter,
+a civil bond and not a sacramental process.[357]
+
+Like so much else in the Protestant revolt, the strength of this attitude
+lay in the fact that it was a protest, based on its negative side on
+reasonable and natural grounds. But while Protestantism was right in its
+attempt--for it was only an attempt--to deny the authority of Canon law,
+that attempt was altogether unsatisfactory on the positive side. As a
+matter of fact marriage is not a true contract and no attempt has ever
+been made to convert it into a true contract.
+
+    Various writers have treated marriage as an actual contract or
+    argued that it ought to be converted into a true contract. Mrs.
+    Mona Caird, for instance ("The Morality of Marriage,"
+    _Fortnightly Review_, 1890), believes that when marriage becomes
+    really a contract "a couple would draw up their agreement, or
+    depute the task to their friends, as is now generally done as
+    regards marriage settlements. They agree to live together on such
+    and such terms, making certain stipulations within the limits of
+    the code." The State, she holds, should, however, demand an
+    interval of time between notice of divorce and the divorce
+    itself, if still desired when that interval has passed.
+    Similarly, in the United States Dr. Shufeldt ("Needed Revision of
+    the Laws of Marriage and Divorce," _Medico-Legal Journal_, Dec.,
+    1897) insists that marriage must be entirely put into the hands
+    of the legal profession and "made a civil contract, explicit in
+    detail, and defining terms of divorce, in the event that a
+    dissolution of the contract is subsequently desired." He adds
+    that medical certificates of freedom from hereditary and acquired
+    disease should be required, and properly regulated probationary
+    marriages also be instituted.
+
+    In France, a deputy of the Chamber was, in 1891, so convinced
+    that marriage is a contract, like any other contract, that he
+    declared that "to perform music at the celebration of a marriage
+    is as ridiculous as it would be to send for a tenor to a notary's
+    to celebrate a sale of timber." He was of quite different mind
+    from Pepys, who, a couple of centuries earlier, had been equally
+    indignant at the absence of music from a wedding, which, he said,
+    made it like a coupling of dog and bitch.
+
+    A frequent demand of those who insist that marriage must be
+    regarded as a contract is marriage contracted for a term of
+    years. Marriages could be contracted for a term of five years or
+    less in old Japan, and it is said that they were rarely or never
+    dissolved at the end of the term. Goethe, in his
+    _Wahlverwandtschaften_ (Part I, Ch. X) incidentally introduced a
+    proposal for marriages for a term of five years and attached much
+    moral significance to the prolongation of the marriage beyond
+    that term without external compulsion. (Bloch considers that
+    Goethe had probably heard of the Japanese custom, _Sexual Life of
+    Our Time_, p. 241.) Professor E.D. Cope ("The Marriage Problem,"
+    _Open Court_, Nov. 15 and 22, 1888), likewise, in order to remove
+    matrimony from the domain of caprice and to permit full and fair
+    trial, advocated "a system of civil marriage contracts which
+    shall run for a definite time. These contracts should be of the
+    same value and effect as the existing marriage contract. The time
+    limits should be increased rapidly, so as to prevent women of
+    mature years being deprived of support. The first contract ought
+    not to run for less than five years, so as to give ample
+    opportunity for acquaintance, and for the recovery from temporary
+    disagreements." This first contract, Cope held, should be
+    terminable at the wish of either party; the second contract, for
+    ten or fifteen years, should only be terminable at the wish of
+    both parties, and the third should be permanent and indissoluble.
+    George Meredith, the distinguished novelist, also, more recently,
+    threw out the suggestion that marriages should be contracted for
+    a term of years.
+
+    It can scarcely be said that marriages for a term of years
+    constitute a very satisfactory solution of the difficulties at
+    present encountered. They would not commend themselves to young
+    lovers, who believe that their love is eternal, nor, so long as
+    the union proves satisfactory, is there any need to introduce the
+    disturbing idea of a legal termination of the contract. On the
+    other hand, if the union proves unhappy, it is not reasonable to
+    insist on the continuation for ten or even five years of an empty
+    form which corresponds to no real marriage union. Even if
+    marriage is placed on the most prosaic contractive basis it is a
+    mistake, and indeed an impossibility, to pre-ordain the length of
+    its duration. The system of fixing the duration of marriage
+    beforehand for a term of years involves exactly the same
+    principle as the system of fixing it beforehand for life. It is
+    open to the same objection that it is incompatible with any
+    vital relationship. As the demand for vital reality and
+    effectiveness in social relationships grows, this fact is
+    increasingly felt. We see exactly the same change among us in
+    regard to the system of inflicting fixed sentences of
+    imprisonment on criminals. To send a man to prison for five years
+    or for life, without any regard to the unknown problem of the
+    vital reaction of imprisonment on the man--a reaction which will
+    be different in every individual case--is slowly coming to be
+    regarded as an absurdity.
+
+If marriage were really placed on the basis of a contract, not only would
+that contract be voidable at the will of the two parties concerned,
+without any question of delinquency coming into the question, but those
+parties would at the outset themselves determine the conditions regulating
+the contract. But nothing could be more unlike our actual marriage. The
+two parties are bidden to accept each other as husband and wife; they are
+not invited to make a contract; they are not even told that, little as
+they may know it, they have in fact made a very complicated and elaborate
+contract that was framed on lines laid down, for a large part, thousands
+of years before they were born. Unless they have studied law they are
+totally ignorant, also, that this contract contains clauses which under
+some circumstances may be fatal to either of them. All that happens is
+that a young couple, perhaps little more than children, momentarily dazed
+by emotion, are hurried before the clergyman or the civil registrar of
+marriages, to bind themselves together for life, knowing nothing of the
+world and scarcely more of each other, knowing nothing also of the
+marriage laws, not even perhaps so much as that there are any marriage
+laws, never realizing that--as has been truly said--from the place they
+are entering beneath a garland of flowers there is, on this side of death,
+no exit except through the trapdoor of a sewer.[358]
+
+    When a woman marries she gives up the right to her own person.
+    Thus, according to the law of England, a man "cannot be guilty of
+    a rape upon his lawful wife." Stephen, who, in the first edition
+    of his _Digest of Criminal Law_, thought that under some
+    circumstances a man might be indicted for rape upon his wife, in
+    the last edition withdrew that opinion. A man may rape a
+    prostitute, but he cannot rape his wife. Having once given her
+    consent to sexual intercourse by the act of marrying a man, she
+    has given it forever, whatever new circumstances may arise, and
+    he has no need to ask her consent to sexual intercourse, not even
+    if he is knowingly suffering at the time from a venereal disease
+    (see, e.g., an article on "Sex Bias," _Westminster Review_,
+    March, 1888).
+
+    The duty of the wife to allow "conjugal rights" to her husband is
+    another aspect of her legal subjection to him. Even in the
+    nineteenth century a Suffolk lady of good family was imprisoned
+    in Ipswich Goal for many years and fed on bread and water, though
+    suffering from various diseases, till she died, simply because
+    she continued to disregard the decree requiring her to render
+    conjugal rights to her husband. This state of things was partly
+    reformed by the Matrimonial Causes Bill of 1884, and that bill
+    was passed, not to protect women, but men, against punishment for
+    refusal to restore conjugal rights. Undoubtedly, the modern
+    tendency, although it has progressed very slowly, is against
+    applying compulsion to either husband or wife to yield "conjugal
+    rights;" and since the Jackson case it is not possible in England
+    for a husband to use force in attempting to compel his wife to
+    live with him. This tendency is still more marked in the United
+    States; thus the Iowa Supreme Court, a few years ago, decided
+    that excessive demands for coitus constituted cruelty of a degree
+    justifying divorce (J.G. Kiernan, _Alienist and Neurologist_,
+    Nov. 1906, p. 466).
+
+    The slender tenure of the wife over her person is not confined to
+    the sexual sphere, but even extends to her right to life. In
+    England, if a wife kills her husband, it was formerly the very
+    serious offence of "petit treason," and it is still murder. But,
+    if a husband kills his wife and is able to plead her adultery and
+    his jealousy, it is only manslaughter. (In France, where jealousy
+    is regarded with extreme indulgence, even a wife who kills her
+    husband is often acquitted.)
+
+    It must not, however, be supposed that all the legal inequalities
+    involved by marriage are in favor of the husband. A large number
+    of injustices are also inflicted on the husband. The husband, for
+    instance, is legally responsible for the libels uttered by his
+    wife, and he is equally responsible civilly for the frauds she
+    commits, even if she is living apart from him. (This was, for
+    instance, held by an English judge in 1908; "he could only say he
+    regretted it, for it seems a hard case. But it was the law.")
+    Belfort Bax has, in recent years, especially insisted on the
+    hardships inflicted by English law in such ways as these. There
+    can be no doubt that marriage, as at present constituted,
+    inflicts serious wrongs on the husband as well as on the wife.
+
+Marriage is, therefore, not only not a contract in the true sense,[359]
+but in the only sense in which it is a contract it is a contract of an
+exceedingly bad kind. When the Canonists superseded the old conception of
+marriage as a contract of purchase by their sacramental marriage, they
+were in many respects effecting a real progress, and the return to the
+idea of a contract, as soon as its temporary value as a protest has
+ceased, proves altogether out of harmony with any advanced stage of
+civilization. It was revived in days before the revolt against slavery had
+been inaugurated. Personal contracts are out of harmony with our modern
+civilization and our ideas of individual liberty. A man can no longer
+contract himself as a slave nor sell his wife. Yet marriage, regarded as a
+contract, is of precisely the same class as those transactions.[360] In
+every high stage of civilization this fact is clearly recognized, and
+young couples are not even allowed to contract themselves out in marriage
+unconditionally. We see this, for instance, in the wise legislation of the
+Romans. Even under the Christian Emperors that sound principle was
+maintained and the lawyer Paulus wrote:[361] "Marriage was so free,
+according to ancient opinion, that even agreements between the parties not
+to separate from one another could have no validity." In so far as the
+essence and not any accidental circumstance of the marital relationships
+is made a contract, it is a contract of a nature which the two parties
+concerned are not competent to make. Biologically and psychologically it
+cannot be valid, and with the growth of a humane civilization it is
+explicitly declared to be legally invalid.
+
+For, there can be no doubt about it, the intimate and essential fact of
+marriage--the relationship of sexual intercourse--is not and cannot be a
+contract. It is not a contract but a fact; it cannot be effected by any
+mere act of will on the part of the parties concerned; it cannot be
+maintained by any mere act of will. To will such a contract is merely to
+perform a worse than indecorous farce. Certainly many of the circumstances
+of marriage are properly the subject of contract, to be voluntarily and
+deliberately made by the parties to the contract. But the essential fact
+of marriage--a love strong enough to render the most intimate of
+relationships possible and desirable through an indefinite number of
+years--cannot be made a matter for contract. Alike from the physical point
+of view, and the psychical point of view, no binding contract--and a
+contract is worthless if it is not binding--can possibly be made. And the
+making of such pseudo-contracts concerning the future of a marriage,
+before it has even been ascertained that the marriage can ever become a
+fact at all, is not only impossible but absurd.
+
+It is of course true that this impossibility, this absurdity, are never
+visible to the contracting parties. They have applied to the question all
+the very restricted tests that are conventionally permitted to them, and
+the satisfactory results of these tests, together with the consciousness
+of possessing an immense and apparently inexhaustible fund of loving
+emotion, seem to them adequate to the fulfilment of the contract
+throughout life, if not indeed eternity.
+
+As a child of seven I chanced to be in a semi-tropical island of the
+Pacific supplied with fruit, especially grapes, from the mainland, and a
+dusky market woman always presented a large bunch of grapes to the little
+English stranger. But a day came when the proffered bunch was firmly
+refused; the superabundance of grapes had produced a reaction of disgust.
+A space of nearly forty years was needed to overcome the repugnance to
+grapes thus acquired. Yet there can be no doubt that if at the age of six
+that little boy had been asked to sign a contract binding him to accept
+grapes every day, to keep them always near him, to eat them and to enjoy
+them every day, he would have signed that contract as joyously as any
+radiant bridegroom or demure bride signs the register in the vestry. But
+is a complex man or woman, with unknown capacities for changing or
+deteriorating, and with incalculable aptitudes for inflicting torture and
+arousing loathing, is such a creature more easy to be bound to than an
+exquisite fruit? All the countries of the world in which the subtle
+influence of the Canon law of Christendom still makes itself felt, have
+not yet grasped a general truth which is well within the practical
+experience of a child of seven.[362]
+
+    The notion that such a relationship as that of marriage can rest
+    on so fragile a basis as a pre-ordained contract has naturally
+    never prevailed widely in its extreme form, and has been unknown
+    altogether in many parts of the world. The Romans, as we know,
+    explicitly rejected it, and even at a comparatively early period
+    recognized the legality of marriage by _usus_, thus declaring in
+    effect that marriage must be a fact, and not a mere undertaking.
+    There has been a widespread legal tendency, especially where the
+    traditions of Roman law have retained any influence, to regard
+    the cohabitation of marriage as the essential fact of the
+    relationship. It was an old rule even under the Catholic Church
+    that marriage may be presumed from cohabitation (see, e.g.,
+    Zacchia, _Questionum Medico-legalium Opus_, edition of 1688, vol.
+    iii, p. 234). Even in England cohabitation is already one of the
+    presumptions in favor of the existence of marriage (though not
+    necessarily by itself regarded as sufficient), provided the woman
+    is of unblemished character, and does not appear to be a common
+    prostitute (Nevill Geary, _The Law of Marriage_, Ch. III). If,
+    however, according to Lord Watson's judicial statement in the
+    Dysart Peerage case, a man takes his mistress to a hotel or goes
+    with her to a baby-linen shop and speaks of her as his wife, it
+    is to be presumed that he is acting for the sake of decency, and
+    this furnishes no evidence of marriage. In Scotland the
+    presumption of marriage arises on much slighter grounds than in
+    England. This may be connected with the ancient and deep-rooted
+    custom in Scotland of marriage by exchange of consent (Geary, op.
+    cit. Ch. XVIII; cf., Howard, _Matrimonial Institutions_, vol. i,
+    p. 316).
+
+    In the Bredalbane case (Campbell _v._ Campbell, 1867), which was
+    of great importance because it involved the succession to the
+    vast estates of the Marquis of Bredalbane, the House of Lords
+    decided than even an adulterous connection may, on ceasing to be
+    adulterous, become matrimonial by the simple consent of the
+    parties, as evidenced by habit and repute, without any need for
+    the matrimonial character of the connection to be indicated by
+    any public act, nor any necessity to prove the specific period
+    when the consent was interchanged. This decision has been
+    confirmed in the Dysart case (Geary, loc. cit.; cf. C.G.
+    Garrison, "Limits of Divorce," _Contemporary Review_, Feb.,
+    1894). Similarly, as decided by Justice Kekewich in the Wagstaff
+    case in 1907, if a man leaves money to his "widow," on condition
+    that she never marries again, although he has never been married
+    to her, and though she has been legally married to another man,
+    the testator's intentions must be upheld. Garrison, in his
+    valuable discussion of this aspect of legal marriage (_loc.
+    cit._), forcibly insists that by English law marriage is a fact
+    and not a contract, and that where "conduct characterized by
+    connubial purpose and constancy" exists, there marriage legally
+    exists, marriage being simply "a name for an existing fact."
+
+    In the United States, marriage "by habit and repute" similarly
+    exists, and in some States has even been confirmed and extended
+    by statute (J.P. Bishop, _Commentaries_, vol. i, Ch. XV).
+    "Whatever the form of the ceremony, and even if all ceremony was
+    dispensed with," said Judge Cooley, of Michigan, in 1875 (in an
+    opinion accepted as authoritative by the Federal courts), "if the
+    parties agreed presently to take each other for husband and wife,
+    and from that time lived together professedly in that relation,
+    proof of these facts would be sufficient.... This has been the
+    settled doctrine of the American courts." (Howard, op. cit., vol.
+    iii, pp. 177 et seq. Twenty-three States sanction common-law
+    marriage, while eighteen repudiate, or are inclined to repudiate,
+    any informal agreement.)
+
+    This legal recognition by the highest judicial authorities, alike
+    in Great Britain and the United States, that marriage is
+    essentially a fact, and that no evidence of any form or ceremony
+    of marriage is required for the most complete legal recognition
+    of marriage, undoubtedly carries with it highly important
+    implications. It became clear that the reform of marriage is
+    possible even without change in the law, and that honorable
+    sexual relationships, even when entered into without any legal
+    forms, are already entitled to full legal recognition and
+    protection. There are, however, it need scarcely be added here,
+    other considerations which render reform along these lines
+    incomplete.
+
+It thus tends to come about that with the growth of civilization the
+conception of marriage as a contract falls more and more into discredit.
+It is realized, on the one hand, that personal contracts are out of
+harmony with our general and social attitude, for if we reject the idea of
+a human being contracting himself as a slave, how much more we should
+reject the idea of entering by contract into the still more intimate
+relationship of a husband or a wife; on the other hand it is felt that the
+idea of pre-ordained contracts on a matter over which the individual
+himself has no control is quite unreal and when any strict rules of equity
+prevail, necessarily invalid. It is true that we still constantly find
+writers sententiously asserting their notions of the duties or the
+privileges involved by the "contract" of marriage, with no more attempt to
+analyze the meaning of the term "contract" in this connection than the
+Protestant Reformers made, but it can scarcely be said that these writers
+have yet reached the alphabet of the subject they dogmatize about.
+
+The transference of marriage from the Church to the State which, in the
+lands where it first occurred, we owe to Protestantism and, in the
+English-speaking lands, especially to Puritanism, while a necessary stage,
+had the unfortunate result of secularizing the sexual relationships. That
+is to say, it ignored the transcendent element in love which is really the
+essential part of such relationships, and it concentrated attention on
+those formal and accidental parts of marriage which can alone be dealt
+with in a rigid and precise manner, and can alone properly form the
+subject of contracts. The Canon law, fantastic and impossible as it became
+in many of its developments, at least insisted on the natural and actual
+fact of marriage as, above all, a bodily union, while, at the same time,
+it regarded that union as no mere secular business contract but a sacred
+and exalted function, a divine fact, and the symbol of the most divine
+fact in the world. We are returning to-day to the Canonist's conception of
+marriage on a higher and freer plane, bringing back the exalted conception
+of the Canon law, yet retaining the individualism which the Puritan
+wrongly thought he could secure on the basis of mere secularization,
+while, further, we recognize that the whole process belongs to the private
+sphere of moral responsibility. As Hobhouse has well said, in tracing the
+evolutionary history of the modern conception of marriage, the sacramental
+idea of marriage has again emerged but on a higher plane; "from being a
+sacrament in the magical, it has become one in the ethical, sense." We are
+thus tending towards, though we have not yet legally achieved, marriage
+made and maintained by consent, "a union between two free and responsible
+persons in which the equal rights of both are maintained."[363]
+
+    It is supposed by some that to look upon sexual union as a
+    sacrament is necessarily to accept the ancient Catholic view,
+    embodied in the Canon law, that matrimony is indissoluble. That
+    is, however, a mistake. Even the Canonists themselves were never
+    able to put forward any coherent and consistent ground for the
+    indissolubility of matrimony which could commend itself
+    rationally, while Luther and Milton and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who
+    maintained the religious and sacred nature of sexual
+    union--though they were cautious about using the term sacrament
+    on account of its ecclesiastical implications--so far from
+    believing that its sanctity involved indissolubility, argued in
+    the reverse sense. This point of view may be defended even from a
+    strictly Protestant standpoint. "I take it," Mr. G.C. Maberly
+    says, "that the Prayer Book definition of a sacrament, 'the
+    outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace,' is
+    generally accepted. In marriage the legal and physical unions are
+    the outward and visible signs, while the inward and spiritual
+    grace is the God-given love that makes the union of heart and
+    soul: and it is precisely because I take this view of marriage
+    that I consider the legal and physical union should be dissolved
+    whenever the spiritual union of unselfish, divine love and
+    affection has ceased. It seems to me that the sacramental view of
+    marriage compels us to say that those who continue the legal or
+    physical union when the spiritual union has ceased, are--to quote
+    again from the Prayer Book words applied to those who take the
+    outward sign of another sacrament when the inward and spiritual
+    grace is not present--'eating and drinking their own damnation.'"
+
+If from the point we have now reached we look back at the question of
+divorce we see that, as the modern aspects of the marriage relationship
+becomes more clearly realized by the community, that question will be
+immensely simplified. Since marriage is not a mere contract but a fact of
+conduct, and even a sacred fact, the free participation of both parties is
+needed to maintain it. To introduce the idea of delinquency and punishment
+into divorce, to foster mutual recrimination, to publish to the world the
+secrets of the heart or the senses, is not only immoral, it is altogether
+out of place. In the question as to when a marriage has ceased to be a
+marriage the two parties concerned can alone be the supreme judges; the
+State, if the State is called in, can but register the sentence they
+pronounce, merely seeing to it that no injustice is involved in the
+carrying out of that sentence.[364]
+
+In discussing in the previous chapter the direction in which sexual
+morality tends to develop with the development of civilization we came to
+the conclusion that in its main lines it involved, above all, personal
+responsibility. A relationship fixed among savage peoples by social custom
+which none dare break, and in a higher stage of culture by formal laws
+which must be observed in the letter even if broken in the spirit, becomes
+gradually transferred to the sphere of individual moral responsibility.
+Such a transference is necessarily meaningless, and indeed impossible,
+unless the increasing stringency of the moral bond is accompanied by the
+decreasing stringency of the formal bond. It is only by the process of
+loosening the artificial restraints that the natural restraints can exert
+their full control. That process takes place in two ways, in part on the
+basis of the indifference to formal marriage which has marked the masses
+of the population everywhere and doubtless stretches back to the tenth
+century before the domination of ecclesiastical matrimony began, and
+partly by the progressive modification of marriage laws which were made
+necessary by the needs of the propertied classes anxious to secure the
+State recognition of their unions. The whole process is necessarily a
+gradual and indeed imperceptible process. It is impossible to fix
+definitely the dates of the stages by which the Church effected the
+immense revolution by which it grasped, and eventually transferred to the
+State, the complete control of marriage, for that revolution was effected
+without the intervention of any law. It will be equally difficult to
+perceive the transference of the control of marriage from the State to
+the individuals concerned, and the more difficult because, as we shall
+see, although the essential and intimately personal fact of marriage is
+not a proper matter for State control, there are certain aspects of
+marriage which touch the interests of the community so closely that the
+State is bound to insist on their registration and to take an interest in
+their settlement.
+
+The result of dissolving the formal stringency of the marriage
+relationship, it is sometimes said, would be a tendency to an immoral
+laxity. Those who make this statement overlook the fact that laxity tends
+to reach a maximum as a result of stringency, and that where the merely
+external authority of a rigid marriage law prevails, there the extreme
+excesses of license most flourish. It is also undoubtedly true, and for
+the same reason, that any sudden removal of restraints necessarily
+involves a reaction to the opposite extreme of license; a slave is not
+changed at a stroke into an autonomous freeman. Yet we have to remember
+that the marriage order existed for millenniums before any attempt was
+made to mould it into arbitrary shapes by human legislation. Such
+legislation, we have seen, was indeed the effort of the human spirit to
+affirm more emphatically the demands of its own instincts.[365] But its
+final result is to choke and impede rather than to further the instincts
+which inspired it. Its gradual disappearance allows the natural order free
+and proper scope.
+
+    The great truth that compulsion is not really a force on the side
+    of virtue, but on the side of vice, had been clearly realized by
+    the genius of Rabelais, when he said of his ideal social state,
+    the Abbey of Thelema, that there was but one clause in its rule:
+    Fay ce que vouldras. "Because," said Rabelais (Bk. i, Ch. VII),
+    "men that are free, well-born, well-bred, and conversant in
+    honest companies, have naturally an instinct and spur that
+    prompts them unto virtuous actions and withdraws them from vice.
+    These same men, when by base subjection and constraint they are
+    brought under and kept down, turn aside from that noble
+    disposition by which they freely were inclined to virtue, to
+    shake off and break that bond of servitude." So that when a man
+    and a woman who had lived under the rule of Thelema married each
+    other, Rabelais tells us, their mutual love lasted undiminished
+    to the day of their death.
+
+    When the loss of autonomous freedom fails to lead to licentious
+    rebellion it incurs the opposite risk and tends to become a
+    flabby reliance on an external support. The artificial support of
+    marriage by State regulation then resembles the artificial
+    support of the body furnished by corset-wearing. The reasons for
+    and against adopting artificial support are the same in one case
+    as the other. Corsets really give a feeling of support; they
+    really furnish without trouble a fairly satisfactory appearance
+    of decorum; they are a real protection against various accidents.
+    But the price at which they furnish these advantages is serious,
+    and the advantages themselves only exist under unnatural
+    conditions. The corset cramps the form and the healthy
+    development of the organs; it enfeebles the voluntary muscular
+    system; it is incompatible with perfect grace and beauty; it
+    diminishes the sum of active energy. It exerts, in short, the
+    same kind of influence on physical responsibility as formal
+    marriage on moral responsibility.
+
+    It is too often forgotten, and must therefore be repeated, that
+    married people do not remain together because of any religious or
+    legal tie; that tie is merely the historical outcome of their
+    natural tendency to remain together, a tendency which is itself
+    far older than history. "Love would exist in the world to-day,
+    just as pure and just as enduring," says Shufeldt (_Medico-Legal
+    Journal_, Dec., 1897), "had man never invented 'marriage.' Truly
+    affined mates would have remained faithful to each other as long
+    as life lasted. It is only when men attempt to improve upon
+    nature that crime, disease, and unhappiness step in." "The
+    abolition of marriage in the form now practiced," wrote Godwin
+    more than a century ago (_Political Justice_, second edition,
+    1796, vol. i, p. 248), "will be attended with no evils. We are
+    apt to represent it to ourselves as the harbinger of brutal lust
+    and depravity. But it really happens in this, as in other cases,
+    that the positive laws which are made to restrain our vices
+    irritate and multiply them." And Professor Lester Ward, in
+    insisting on the strength of the monogamic sentiment in modern
+    society, truly remarks (_International Journal of Ethics_, Oct.,
+    1896) that the rebellion against rigid marriage bonds "is, in
+    reality, due to the very strengthening of the true bonds of
+    conjugal affection, coupled with a rational and altogether proper
+    determination on the part of individuals to accept, in so
+    important a matter, nothing less than the genuine article." "If
+    by a single stroke," says Professor Woods Hutchinson
+    (_Contemporary Review_, Sept., 1905), "all marriage ties now in
+    existence were struck off or declared illegal, eight-tenths of
+    all couples would be remarried within forty eight hours, and
+    seven-tenths could not be kept asunder with bayonets." An
+    experiment of this kind on a small scale was witnessed in 1909 in
+    an English village in Buckinghamshire. It was found that the
+    parish church had never been licensed for marriages, and that in
+    consequence all the people who had gone through the ceremony of
+    marriage in that church during the previous half century had
+    never been legally married. Yet, so far as could be ascertained,
+    not a single couple thus released from the legal compulsion of
+    marriage took advantage of the freedom bestowed. In the face of
+    such a fact it is obviously impossible to attach any moral value
+    to the form of marriage.
+
+It is certainly inevitable that during a period of transition the natural
+order is to some extent disturbed by the persistence, even though in a
+weakened form, of external bonds which are beginning to be consciously
+realized as inimical to the authoritative control of individual moral
+responsibility. We can clearly trace this at the present time. A sensitive
+anxiety to escape from external constraint induces an under-valuation of
+the significance of personal constraint in the relationship of marriage.
+Everyone is probably familiar with cases in which a couple will live
+together through long years without entering the legal bond of marriage,
+notwithstanding difficulties in their mutual relationship which would have
+long since caused a separation or a divorce had they been legally married.
+When the inherent difficulties of the marital relationship are complicated
+by the difficulties due to external constraint, the development of
+individual moral responsibility cuts two ways, and leads to results that
+are not entirely satisfactory. This has been seen in the United States of
+America and attention has often been called to it by thoughtful American
+observers. It is, naturally, noted especially in women because it is in
+women that the new growth of personal freedom and moral responsibility has
+chiefly made itself felt. The first stirring of these new impulses,
+especially when associated, as it often is, with inexperience and
+ignorance, leads to impatience with the natural order, to a demand for
+impossible conditions of existence, and to an inaptitude not only for the
+arbitrary bondage of law but even for the wholesome and necessary bonds of
+human social life. It is always a hard lesson for the young and idealistic
+that in order to command Nature we must obey her; it can only be learnt
+through contact with life and by the attainment of full human growth.
+
+    Dr. Felix Adler (in an address before the Society of Ethical
+    Culture of New York, Nov. 17, 1889) called attention to what he
+    regarded as the most deep-rooted cause of an undue prevalence of
+    divorce in America. "The false idea of individual liberty is
+    largely held in America," and when applied to family life it
+    often leads to an impatience with these duties which the
+    individual is either born into or has voluntarily accepted. "I am
+    constrained to think that the prevalence of divorce is to be
+    ascribed in no small degree to the influence of democratic
+    ideas--that is, of false democratic ideas--and our hope lies in
+    advancing towards a higher and truer democracy." A more recent
+    American writer, this time a woman, Anna A. Rogers ("Why American
+    Marriages Fail," _Atlantic Monthly_, Sept., 1907) speaks in the
+    same sense, though perhaps in too unqualified a manner. She
+    states that the frequency of divorce in America is due to three
+    causes: (1) woman's failure to realize that marriage is her work
+    in the world; (2) her growing individualism; (3) her lost art of
+    giving, replaced by a highly developed receptive faculty. The
+    American woman, this writer states, in discovering her own
+    individuality has not yet learnt how to manage it; it is still
+    "largely a useless, uneasy factor, vouchsafing her very little
+    more peace than it does those in her immediate surcharged
+    vicinity." Her circumstances tend to make of her "a curious
+    anomalous hybrid; a cross between a magnificent, rather
+    unmannerly boy, and a spoiled, exacting _demi-mondaine_, who
+    sincerely loves in this world herself alone." She has not yet
+    learnt that woman's supreme work in the world can only be
+    attained through the voluntary acceptance of the restraints of
+    marriage. The same writer points out that the fault is not alone
+    with American women, but also with American men. Their idolatry
+    of their women is largely responsible for that intolerance and
+    selfishness which causes so many divorces; "American women are,
+    as a whole, pampered and worshipped out of all reason." But the
+    men, who lend themselves to this, do not feel that they can treat
+    their wives with the same comradeship as the French treat their
+    wives, nor seek their advice with the same reliance; the American
+    woman is placed on an unreal pedestal. Yet another American
+    writer, Rafford Pyke ("Husbands and Wives," _Cosmopolitan_,
+    1902), points out that only a small proportion of American
+    marriages are really unhappy, these being chiefly among the more
+    cultured classes, in which the movement of expansion in women's
+    interests and lives is taking place; it is more often the wife
+    than the husband who is disappointed in marriage, and this is
+    largely due to her inability to merge, not necessarily
+    subordinate, her individuality in an equal union with his.
+    "Marriage to-day is becoming more and more dependent for its
+    success upon the adjustment of conditions that are psychical.
+    Whereas in former generations it was sufficient that the union
+    should involve physical reciprocity, in this age of ours the
+    union must involve a psychic reciprocity as well. And whereas,
+    heretofore, the community of interest was attained with ease, it
+    is now becoming far more difficult because of the tendency to
+    discourage a woman who marries from merging her separate
+    individuality in her husband's. Yet, unless she does this, how
+    can she have a complete and perfect interest in the life
+    together, and, for that matter, how can he have such an interest
+    either?"
+
+    Professor Münsterberg, the distinguished psychologist, in his
+    frank but appreciative study of American institutions, _The
+    Americans_, taking a broader outlook, points out that the
+    influence of women on morals in America has not been in every
+    respect satisfactory, in so far as it has tended to encourage
+    shallowness and superficiality. "The American woman who has
+    scarcely a shred of education," he remarks (p. 587), "looks in
+    vain for any subject on which she has not firm convictions
+    already at hand.... The arrogance of this feminine lack of
+    knowledge is the symptom of a profound trait in the feminine
+    soul, and points to dangers springing from the domination of
+    women in the intellectual life.... And in no other civilized land
+    are ethical conceptions so worm-eaten by superstitions."
+
+We have seen that the modern tendency as regards marriage is towards its
+recognition as a voluntary union entered into by two free, equal, and
+morally responsible persons, and that that union is rather of the nature
+of an ethical sacrament than of a contract, so that in its essence as a
+physical and spiritual bond it is outside the sphere of the State's
+action. It has been necessary to labor that point before we approach what
+may seem to many not only a different but even a totally opposed aspect of
+marriage. If the marriage union itself cannot be a matter for contract, it
+naturally leads to a fact which must necessarily be a matter for implicit
+or explicit contract, a matter, moreover, in which the community at large
+has a real and proper interest: that is the fact of procreation.[366]
+
+The ancient Egyptians--among whom matrimonial institutions were so elastic
+and the position of woman so high--recognized a provisional and slight
+marriage bond for the purpose of testing fecundity.[367] Among ourselves
+the law makes no such paternal provision, leaving to young couples
+themselves the responsibility of making any tests, a permission, we know,
+they largely avail themselves of, usually entering the legal bonds of
+marriage, however, before the birth of their child. That legal bond is a
+recognition that the introduction of a new individual into the community
+is not, like sexual union, a mere personal fact, but a social fact, a fact
+in which the State cannot fail to be concerned. And the more we
+investigate the tendency of the modern marriage movement the more we shall
+realize that its attitude of freedom, of individual moral responsibility,
+in the formation of sexual relationships, is compensated by an attitude of
+stringency, of strict social oversight, in the matter of procreation. Two
+people who form an erotic relationship are bound, when they reach the
+conviction that their relationship is a real marriage, having its natural
+end in procreation, to subscribe to a contract which, though it may leave
+themselves personally free, must yet bind them both to their duties
+towards their children.[368]
+
+The necessity for such an undertaking is double, even apart from the fact
+that it is in the highest interests of the parents themselves. It is
+required in the interests of the child. It is required in the interests of
+the State. A child can be bred, and well-bred, by one effective parent.
+But to equip a child adequately for its entrance into life both parents
+are usually needed. The State on its side--that is to say, the community
+of which parents and child alike form part--is bound to know who these
+persons are who have become sponsors for a new individual now introduced
+into its midst. The most Individualistic State, the most Socialistic
+State, are alike bound, if faithful to the interests, both biological and
+economic, of their constituent members generally, to insist on the full
+legal and recognized parentage of the father and mother of every child.
+That is clearly demanded in the interests of the child; it is clearly
+demanded also in the interests of the State.
+
+The barrier which in Christendom has opposed itself to the natural
+recognition of this fact, so injuring alike the child and the State, has
+clearly been the rigidity of the marriage system, more especially as
+moulded by the Canon law. The Canonists attributed a truly immense
+importance to the _copula carnalis_, as they technically termed it. They
+centred marriage strictly in the vagina; they were not greatly concerned
+about either the presence or the absence of the child. The vagina, as we
+know, has not always proved a very firm centre for the support of
+marriage, and that centre is now being gradually transferred to the child.
+If we turn from the Canonists to the writings of a modern like Ellen Key,
+who so accurately represents much that is most characteristic and
+essential in the late tendencies of marriage development, we seem to have
+entered a new world, even a newly illuminated world. For "in the new
+sexual morality, as in Corregio's _Notte_, the light emanates from the
+child."[369]
+
+No doubt this change is largely a matter of sentiment, of, as we sometimes
+say, mere sentiment, although there is nothing so powerful in human
+affairs as sentiment, and the revolution effected by Jesus, the later
+revolution effected by Rousseau, were mainly revolutions in sentiment. But
+the change is also a matter of the growing recognition of interests and
+rights, and as such it manifests itself in law. We can scarcely doubt that
+we are approaching a time when it will be generally understood that the
+entrance into the world of every child, without exception, should be
+preceded by the formation of a marriage contract which, while in no way
+binding the father and mother to any duties, or any privileges, towards
+each other, binds them both towards their child and at the same time
+ensures their responsibility towards the State. It is impossible for the
+State to obtain more than this, but it should be impossible for it to
+demand less. A contract of such a kind "marries" the father and mother so
+far as the parentage of the individual child is concerned, and in no other
+respect; it is a contract which leaves entirely unaffected their past,
+present, or future relations towards other persons, otherwise it would be
+impossible to enforce it. In all parts of the world this elementary demand
+of social morality is slowly beginning to be recognized, and as it affects
+hundreds of thousands of infants[370] who are yearly branded as
+"illegitimate" through no act of their own, no one can say that the
+recognition has come too soon. As yet, indeed, it seems nowhere to be
+complete.
+
+    Most attempts or proposals for the avoidance of illegitimate
+    births are concerned with the legalizing of unions of a less
+    binding degree than the present legal marriage. Such unions would
+    serve to counteract other evils. Thus an English writer, who has
+    devoted much study to sex questions, writes in a private letter:
+    "The best remedy for the licentiousness of celibate men and the
+    mental and physical troubles of continence in woman would be
+    found in a recognized honorable system of free unions and
+    trial-marriages, in which preventive intercourse is practiced
+    until the lovers were old enough to become parents, and possessed
+    of sufficient means to support a family. The prospect of a
+    loveless existence for young men and women of ardent natures is
+    intolerable and as terrible as the prospect of painful illness
+    and death. But I think the old order must change ere long."
+
+    In Teutonic countries there is a strongly marked current of
+    feeling in the direction of establishing legal unions of a lower
+    degree than marriage. They exist in Sweden, as also in Norway
+    where by a recent law the illegitimate child is entitled to the
+    same rights in relation to both parents as the legitimate child,
+    bearing the father's name and inheriting his property (_Die Neue
+    Generation_, July, 1909, p. 303). In France the well-known judge,
+    Magnard, so honorably distinguished for his attitude towards
+    cases of infanticide by young mothers, has said: "I heartily wish
+    that alongside the institution of marriage as it now exists we
+    had a free union constituted by simple declaration before a
+    magistrate and conferring almost the same family rights as
+    ordinary marriage." This wish has been widely echoed.
+
+    In China, although polygamy in the strict sense cannot properly
+    be said to exist, the interests of the child, the woman, and the
+    State are alike safeguarded by enabling a man to enter into a
+    kind of secondary marriage with the mother of his child. "Thanks
+    to this system," Paul d'Enjoy states (_La Revue_, Sept., 1905),
+    "which allows the husband to marry the woman he desires, without
+    being prevented by previous and undissolved unions, it is only
+    right to remark that there are no seduced and abandoned girls,
+    except such as no law could save from what is really innate
+    depravity; and that there are no illegitimate children except
+    those whose mothers are unhappily nearer to animals by their
+    senses than to human beings by their reason and dignity."
+
+    The new civil code of Japan, which is in many respects so
+    advanced, allows an illegitimate child to be "recognized" by
+    giving notice to the registrar; when a married man so recognizes
+    a child, it appears, the child may be adopted by the wife as her
+    own, though not actually rendered legitimate. This state of
+    things represents a transition stage; it can scarcely be said to
+    recognize the rights of the "recognized" child's mother. Japan,
+    it may be added, has adopted the principle of the automatic
+    legitimation by marriage of the children born to the couple
+    before marriage.
+
+    In Australia, where women possess a larger share than elsewhere
+    in making and administering the laws, some attention is beginning
+    to be given to the rights of illegitimate children. Thus in South
+    Australia, paternity may be proved before birth, and the father
+    (by magistrate's order) provides lodging for one month before and
+    after birth, as well as nurse, doctor, and clothing, furnishing
+    security that he will do so; after birth, at the magistrate's
+    decision, he pays a weekly sum for the child's maintenance. An
+    "illegitimate" mother may also be kept in a public institution at
+    the public expense for six months to enable her to become
+    attached to her child.
+
+    Such provisions are developed from the widely recognized right of
+    the unmarried woman to claim support for her child from its
+    father. In France, indeed, and in the legal codes which follow
+    the French example, it is not legally permitted to inquire into
+    the paternity of an illegitimate child. Such a law is, needless
+    to say, alike unjust to the mother, to the child, and to the
+    State. In Austria, the law goes to the opposite, though certainly
+    more reasonable, extreme, and permits even the mother who has had
+    several lovers to select for herself which she chooses to make
+    responsible for her child. The German code adopts an intermediate
+    course, and comes only to the aid of the unmarried mother who has
+    one lover. In all such cases, however, the aid given is
+    pecuniary only; it insures the mother no recognition or respect,
+    and (as Wahrmund has truly said in his _Ehe und Eherecht_) it is
+    still necessary to insist on "the unconditional sanctity of
+    motherhood, which is entitled, under whatever circumstances it
+    arises, to the respect and protection of society."
+
+    It must be added that, from the social point of view, it is not
+    the sexual union which requires legal recognition, but the child
+    which is the product of that union. It would, moreover, be
+    hopeless to attempt to legalize all sexual connection, but it is
+    comparatively easy to legalize all children.
+
+There has been much discussion in the past concerning the particular form
+which marriage ought to take. Many theorists have exercised their
+ingenuity in inventing and preaching new and unusual marriage-arrangements
+as panaceas for social ills; while others have exerted even greater energy
+in denouncing all such proposals as subversive of the foundations of human
+society. We may regard all such discussions, on the one side or the other,
+as idle.
+
+In the first place marriage customs are far too fundamental, far too
+intimately blended with the primary substance of human and indeed animal
+society, to be in the slightest degree shaken by the theories or the
+practices of mere individuals, or even groups of individuals.
+Monogamy--the more or less prolonged cohabitation of two individuals of
+opposite sex--has been the prevailing type of sexual relationship among
+the higher vertebrates and through the greater part of human history. This
+is admitted even by those who believe (without any sound evidence) that
+man has passed through a stage of sexual promiscuity. There have been
+tendencies to variation in one direction or another, but at the lowest
+stages and the highest stages, so far as can be seen, monogamy represents
+the prevailing rule.
+
+It must be said also, in the second place, that the natural prevalence of
+monogamy as the normal type of sexual relationship by no means excludes
+variations. Indeed it assumes them. "There is nothing precise in Nature,"
+according to Diderot's saying. The line of Nature is a curve that
+oscillates from side to side of the norm. Such oscillations inevitably
+occur in harmony with changes in environmental conditions, and, no doubt,
+with peculiarities of personal disposition. So long as no arbitrary and
+merely external attempt is made to force Nature, the vital order is
+harmoniously maintained. Among certain species of ducks when males are in
+excess polyandric families are constituted, the two males attending their
+female partner without jealousy, but when the sexes again become equal in
+number the monogamic order is restored. The natural human deviations from
+the monogamic order seem to be generally of this character, and largely
+conditioned by the social and economic environment. The most common
+variation, and that which most clearly possesses a biological foundation,
+is the tendency to polygyny, which is found at all stages of culture,
+even, in an unrecognized and more or less promiscuous shape, in the
+highest civilization.[371] It must be remembered, however, that recognized
+polygyny is not the rule even where it prevails; it is merely permissive;
+there is never a sufficient excess of women to allow more than a few of
+the richer and more influential persons to have more than one wife.[372]
+
+It has further to be borne in mind that a certain elasticity of the formal
+side of marriage while, on the one side, it permits variations from the
+general monogamic order, where such are healthful or needed to restore a
+balance in natural conditions, on the other hand restrains such variations
+in so far as they are due to the disturbing influence of artificial
+constraint. Much of the polygyny, and polyandry also, which prevails among
+us to-day is an altogether artificial and unnatural form of polygamy.
+Marriages which on a more natural basis would be dissolved cannot legally
+be dissolved, and consequently the parties to them, instead of changing
+their partners and so preserving the natural monogamic order, take on
+other additional partners and so introduce an unnatural polygamy. There
+will always be variations from the monogamic order and civilization is
+certainly not hostile to sexual variation. Whether we reckon these
+variations as legitimate or illegitimate, they will still take place; of
+that we may be certain. The path of social wisdom seems to lie on the one
+hand in making the marriage relationship flexible enough to reduce to a
+minimum these deviations--not because such deviations are intrinsically
+bad but because they ought not to be forced into existence--and on the
+other hand in according to these deviations when they occur such a measure
+of recognition as will deprive them of injurious influence and enable
+justice to be done to all the parties concerned. We too often forget that
+our failure to recognize such variations merely means that we accord in
+such cases an illegitimate permission to perpetrate injustice. In those
+parts of the world in which polygyny is recognized as a permissible
+variation a man is legally held to his natural obligations towards all his
+sexual mates and towards the children he has by those mates. In no part of
+the world is polygyny so prevalent as in Christendom; in no part of the
+world is it so easy for a man to escape the obligations incurred by
+polygyny. We imagine that if we refuse to recognize the fact of polygyny,
+we may refuse to recognize any obligations incurred by polygyny. By
+enabling a man to escape so easily from the obligations of his polygamous
+relationships we encourage him, if he is unscrupulous, to enter into them;
+we place a premium on the immorality we loftily condemn.[373] Our polygyny
+has no legal existence, and therefore its obligations can have no legal
+existence. The ostrich, it was once imagined, hides its head in the sand
+and attempts to annihilate facts by refusing to look at them; but there is
+only one known animal which adopts this course of action, and it is called
+Man.
+
+Monogamy, in the fundamental biological sense, represents the natural
+order into which the majority of sexual facts will always naturally fall
+because it is the relationship which most adequately corresponds to all
+the physical and spiritual facts involved. But if we realize that sexual
+relationships primarily concern only the persons who enter into those
+relationships, and if we further realize that the interest of society in
+such relationships is confined to the children which they produce, we
+shall also realize that to fix by law the number of women with whom a man
+shall have sexual relationships, and the number of men with whom a woman
+shall unite herself, is more unreasonable than it would be to fix by law
+the number of children they shall produce. The State has a right to
+declare whether it needs few citizens or many; but in attempting to
+regulate the sexual relationships of its members the State attempts an
+impossible task and is at the same time guilty of an impertinence.
+
+    There is always a tendency, at certain stages of civilization, to
+    insist on a merely formal and external uniformity, and a
+    corresponding failure to see not only that such uniformity is
+    unreal, but also that it has an injurious effect, in so far as it
+    checks beneficial variations. The tendency is by no means
+    confined to the sexual sphere. In England there is, for instance,
+    a tendency to make building laws which enjoin, in regard to
+    places of human habitation, all sorts of provisions that on the
+    whole are fairly beneficial, but which in practice act
+    injuriously, because they render many simple and excellent human
+    habitations absolutely illegal, merely because such habitations
+    fail to conform to regulations which, under some circumstances,
+    are not only unnecessary, but mischievous.
+
+    Variation is a fact that will exist whether we will or no; it can
+    only become healthful if we recognize and allow for it. We may
+    even have to recognize that it is a more marked tendency in
+    civilization than in more primitive social stages. Thus Gerson
+    argues (_Sexual-Probleme_, Sept., 1908, p. 538) that just as the
+    civilized man cannot be content with the coarse and monotonous
+    food which satisfies the peasant, so it is in sexual matters; the
+    peasant youth and girl in their sexual relationships are nearly
+    always monogamous, but civilized people, with their more
+    versatile and sensitive tastes, are apt to crave for variety.
+    Sénancour (_De l'Amour_, vol. ii, "Du Partage," p. 127) seems to
+    admit the possibility of marriage variations, as of sharing a
+    wife, provided nothing is done to cause rivalry, or to impair the
+    soul's candor. Lecky, near the end of his _History of European
+    Morals_, declared his belief that, while the permanent union of
+    two persons is the normal and prevailing type of marriage, it by
+    no means follows that, in the interests of society, it should be
+    the only form. Remy de Gourmont similarly (_Physique de l'Amour_,
+    p. 186), while stating that the couple is the natural form of
+    marriage and its prolonged continuance a condition of human
+    superiority, adds that the permanence of the union can only be
+    achieved with difficulty. So, also, Professor W. Thomas (_Sex and
+    Society_, 1907, p. 193), while regarding monogamy as subserving
+    social needs, adds: "Speaking from the biological standpoint
+    monogamy does not, as a rule, answer to the conditions of highest
+    stimulation, since here the problematical and elusive elements
+    disappear to some extent, and the object of attention has grown
+    so familiar in consciousness that the emotional reactions are
+    qualified. This is the fundamental explanation of the fact that
+    married men and women frequently become interested in others than
+    their partners in matrimony."
+
+    Pepys, whose unconscious self-dissection admirably illustrates so
+    many psychological tendencies, clearly shows how--by a logic of
+    feeling deeper than any intellectual logic--the devotion to
+    monogamy subsists side by side with an irresistible passion for
+    sexual variety. With his constantly recurring wayward attraction
+    to a long series of women he retains throughout a deep and
+    unchanging affection for his charming young wife. In the privacy
+    of his _Diary_ he frequently refers to her in terms of endearment
+    which cannot be feigned; he enjoys her society; he is very
+    particular about her dress; he delights in her progress in music,
+    and spends much money on her training; he is absurdly jealous
+    when he finds her in the society of a man. His subsidiary
+    relationships with other women recur irresistibly, but he has no
+    wish either to make them very permanent or to allow them to
+    engross him unduly. Pepys represents a common type of civilized
+    "monogamist" who is perfectly sincere and extremely convinced in
+    his advocacy of monogamy, as he understands it, but at the same
+    time believes and acts on the belief that monogamy by no means
+    excludes the need for sexual variation. Lord Morley's statement
+    (_Diderot_, vol. ii, p. 20) that "man is instinctively
+    polygamous," can by no means be accepted, but if we interpret it
+    as meaning that man is an instinctively monogamous animal with a
+    concomitant desire for sexual variation, there is much evidence
+    in its favor.
+
+    Women must be as free as men to mould their own amatory life.
+    Many consider, however, that such freedom on the part of women
+    will be, and ought to be, exercised within narrower limits (see,
+    e.g., Bloch, _Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. X). In part this
+    limitation is considered due to the greater absorption of a woman
+    in the task of breeding and rearing her child, and in part to a
+    less range of psychic activities. A man, as G. Hirth puts it,
+    expressing this view of the matter (_Wege zur Liebe_, p. 342),
+    "has not only room in his intellectual horizon for very various
+    interests, but his power of erotic expansion is much greater and
+    more differentiated than that of women, although he may lack the
+    intimacy and depth of a woman's devotion."
+
+    It may be argued that, since variations in the sexual order will
+    inevitably take place, whether or not they are recognized or
+    authorized, no harm is likely to be done by using the weight of
+    social and legal authority on the side of that form which is
+    generally regarded as the best, and, so far as possible, covering
+    the other forms with infamy. There are many obvious defects in
+    such an attitude, apart from the supremely important fact that to
+    cast infamy on sexual relationships is to exert a despicable
+    cruelty on women, who are inevitably the chief sufferers. Not the
+    least is the injustice and the hampering of vital energy which it
+    inflicts on the better and more scrupulous people to the
+    advantage of the worse and less scrupulous. This always happens
+    when authority exerts its power in favor of a form. When, in the
+    thirteenth century, Alexander III--one of the greatest and most
+    effective potentates who ever ruled Christendom--was consulted by
+    the Bishop of Exeter concerning subdeacons who persisted in
+    marrying, the Pope directed him to inquire into the lives and
+    characters of the offenders; if they were of regular habits and
+    staid morality, they were to be forcibly separated and the wives
+    driven out; if they were men of notoriously disorderly character,
+    they were to be permitted to retain their wives, if they so
+    desired (Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_, third edition,
+    vol. i, p. 396). It was an astute policy, and was carried out by
+    the same Pope elsewhere, but it is easy to see that it was
+    altogether opposed to morality in every sense of the term. It
+    destroyed the happiness and the efficiency of the best men; it
+    left the worst men absolutely free. To-day we are quite willing
+    to recognize the evil result of this policy; it was dictated by a
+    Pope and carried out seven hundred years ago. Yet in England we
+    carry out exactly the same policy to-day by means of our
+    separation orders, which are scattered broadcast among the
+    population. None of the couples thus separated--and never
+    disciplined to celibacy as are the Catholic clergy of to-day--may
+    marry again; we, in effect, bid the more scrupulous among them to
+    become celibates, and to the less scrupulous we grant permission
+    to do as they like. This process is carried on by virtue of the
+    collective inertia of the community, and when it is supported by
+    arguments, if that ever happens, they are of an antiquarian
+    character which can only call forth a pitying smile.
+
+    It may be added that there is a further reason why the custom of
+    branding sexual variations from the norm as "immoral" is not so
+    harmless as some affect to believe: such variations appear to be
+    not uncommon among men and women of superlative ability whose
+    powers are needed unimpeded in the service of mankind. To attempt
+    to fit such persons into the narrow moulds which suit the
+    majority is not only an injustice to them as individuals, but it
+    is an offence against society, which may fairly claim that its
+    best members shall not be hampered in its service. The notion
+    that the person whose sexual needs differ from those of the
+    average is necessarily a socially bad person, is a notion
+    unsupported by facts. Every case must be judged on its own
+    merits.
+
+Undoubtedly the most common variation from normal monogamy has in all
+stages of human culture been polygyny or the sexual union of one man with
+more than one woman. It has sometimes been socially and legally
+recognized, and sometimes unrecognized, but in either case it has not
+failed to occur. Polyandry, or the union of a woman with more than one
+man, has been comparatively rare and for intelligible reasons: men have
+most usually been in a better position, economically and legally, to
+organize a household with themselves as the centre; a woman is, unlike a
+man, by nature and often by custom unfitted for intercourse for
+considerable periods at a time; a woman, moreover, has her thoughts and
+affections more concentrated on her children. Apart from this the
+biological masculine traditions point to polygyny much more than the
+feminine traditions point to polyandry. Although it is true that a woman
+can undergo a much greater amount of sexual intercourse than a man, it
+also remains true that the phenomena of courtship in nature have made it
+the duty of the male to be alert in offering his sexual attention to the
+female, whose part it has been to suspend her choice coyly until she is
+sure of her preference. Polygynic conditions have also proved
+advantageous, as they have permitted the most vigorous and successful
+members of a community to have the largest number of mates and so to
+transmit their own superior qualities.
+
+    "Polygamy," writes Woods Hutchinson (_Contemporary Review_, Oct.,
+    1904), though he recognizes the advantages of monogamy, "as a
+    racial institution, among animals as among men, has many solid
+    and weighty considerations in its favor, and has resulted in
+    both human and pre-human times, in the production of a very high
+    type of both individual and social development." He points out
+    that it promotes intelligence, coöperation, and division of
+    labor, while the keen competition for women weeds out the weaker
+    and less attractive males.
+
+    Among our European ancestors, alike among Germans and Celts,
+    polygyny and other sexual forms existed as occasional variations.
+    Tacitus noted polygyny in Germany, and Cæsar found in Britain
+    that brothers would hold their wives in common, the children
+    being reckoned to the man to whom the woman had been first given
+    in marriage (see, e.g., Traill's _Social England_, vol. i, p.
+    103, for a discussion of this point). The husband's assistant,
+    also, who might be called in to impregnate the wife when the
+    husband was impotent, existed in Germany, and was indeed a
+    general Indo-Germanic institution (Schrader, _Reallexicon_, art.
+    "Zeugungshelfer"). The corresponding institution of the concubine
+    has been still more deeply rooted and widespread. Up to
+    comparatively modern times, indeed, in accordance with the
+    traditions of Roman law, the concubine held a recognized and
+    honorable position, below that of a wife but with definite legal
+    rights, though it was not always, or indeed usually, legal for a
+    married man to have a concubine. In ancient Wales, as well as in
+    Rome, the concubine was accepted and never despised (R.B. Holt,
+    "Marriage Laws of the Cymri," _Journal Anthropological
+    Institute_, Aug. and Nov., 1898, p. 155). The fact that when a
+    concubine entered the house of a married man her dignity and
+    legal position were less than those of the wife preserved
+    domestic peace and safeguarded the wife's interests. (A Korean
+    husband cannot take a concubine under his roof without his wife's
+    permission, but she rarely objects, and seems to enjoy the
+    companionship, says Louise Jordan Miln, _Quaint Korea_, 1895, p.
+    92.) In old Europe, we must remember, as Dufour points out in
+    speaking of the time of Charlemagne (_Histoire de la
+    Prostitution_, vol. iii, p. 226), "concubine" was an honorable
+    term; the concubine was by no means a mistress, and she could be
+    accused of adultery just the same as a wife. In England, late in
+    the thirteenth century, Bracton speaks of the _concubina
+    legitima_ as entitled to certain rights and considerations, and
+    it was the same in other parts of Europe, sometimes for several
+    centuries later (see Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol.
+    i, p. 230). The early Christian Church was frequently inclined to
+    recognize the concubine, at all events if attached to an
+    unmarried man, for we may trace in the Church "the wish to look
+    upon every permanent union of man or woman as possessing the
+    character of a marriage in the eyes of God, and, therefore, in
+    the judgment of the Church" (art. "Concubinage," Smith and
+    Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_). This was the
+    feeling of St. Augustine (who had himself, before his conversion,
+    had a concubine who was apparently a Christian), and the Council
+    of Toledo admitted an unmarried man who was faithful to a
+    concubine. As the law of the Catholic Church grew more and more
+    rigid, it necessarily lost touch with human needs. It was not so
+    in the early Church during the great ages of its vital growth. In
+    those ages even the strenuous general rule of monogamy was
+    relaxed when such relaxation seemed reasonable. This was so, for
+    instance, in the case of sexual impotency. Thus early in the
+    eighth century Gregory II, writing to Boniface, the apostle of
+    Germany, in answer to a question by the latter, replies that when
+    a wife is incapable from physical infirmity from fulfilling her
+    marital duties it is permissible for the husband to take a second
+    wife, though he must not withdraw maintenance from the first. A
+    little later Archbishop Egbert of York, in his _Dialogus de
+    Institutione Ecclesiastica_, though more cautiously, admits that
+    when one of two married persons is infirm the other, with the
+    permission of the infirm one, may marry again, but the infirm one
+    is not allowed to marry again during the other's life. Impotency
+    at the time of marriage, of course, made the marriage void
+    without the intervention of any ecclesiastical law. But Aquinas,
+    and later theologians, allow that an excessive disgust for a wife
+    justifies a man in regarding himself as impotent in relation to
+    her. These rules are, of course, quite distinct from the
+    permissions to break the marriage laws granted to kings and
+    princes; such permissions do not count as evidence of the
+    Church's rules, for, as the Council of Constantinople prudently
+    decided in 809, "Divine law can do nothing against Kings" (art.
+    "Bigamy," _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_). The law of
+    monogamy was also relaxed in cases of enforced or voluntary
+    desertion. Thus the Council of Vermerie (752) enacted that if a
+    wife will not accompany her husband when he is compelled to
+    follow his lord into another land, he may marry again, provided
+    he sees no hope of returning. Theodore of Canterbury (688),
+    again, pronounces that if a wife is carried away by the enemy and
+    her husband cannot redeem her, he may marry again after an
+    interval of a year, or, if there is a chance of redeeming her,
+    after an interval of five years; the wife may do the same. Such
+    rules, though not general, show, as Meyrick points out (art.
+    "Marriage," _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_), a willingness
+    "to meet particular cases as they arise."
+
+    As the Canon law grew rigid and the Catholic Church lost its
+    vital adaptibility, sexual variations ceased to be recognized
+    within its sphere. We have to wait for the Reformation for any
+    further movement. Many of the early Protestant Reformers,
+    especially in Germany, were prepared to admit a considerable
+    degree of vital flexibility in sexual relationships. Thus Luther
+    advised married women with impotent husbands, in cases where
+    there was no wish or opportunity for divorce, to have sexual
+    relations with another man, by preference the husband's brother;
+    the children were to be reckoned to the husband ("Die Sexuelle
+    Frage bei Luther," _Mutterschutz_, Sept., 1908).
+
+    In England the Puritan spirit, which so largely occupied itself
+    with the reform of marriage, could not fail to be concerned with
+    the question of sexual variations, and from time to time we find
+    the proposal to legalize polygyny. Thus, in 1658, "A Person of
+    Quality" published in London a small pamphlet dedicated to the
+    Lord Protector, entitled _A Remedy for Uncleanness_. It was in
+    the form of a number of queries, asking why we should not admit
+    polygamy for the avoidance of adultery and infanticide. The
+    writer inquires whether it may not "stand with a gracious spirit,
+    and be every way consistent with the principles of a man fearing
+    God and loving holiness, to have more women than one to his
+    proper use.... He that takes another man's ox or ass is doubtless
+    a transgressor; but he that puts himself out of the occasion of
+    that temptation by keeping of his own seems to be a right honest
+    and well-meaning man."
+
+    More than a century later (1780), an able, learned, and
+    distinguished London clergyman of high character (who had been a
+    lawyer before entering the Church), the Rev. Martin Madan, also
+    advocated polygamy in a book called _Thelyphthora; or, a Treatise
+    on Female Ruin_. Madan had been brought into close contact with
+    prostitution through a chaplaincy at the Lock Hospital, and, like
+    the Puritan advocate of polygamy, he came to the conclusion that
+    only by the reform of marriage is it possible to work against
+    prostitution and the evils of sexual intercourse outside
+    marriage. His remarkable book aroused much controversy and strong
+    feeling against the author, so that he found it desirable to
+    leave London and settle in the country. Projects of marriage
+    reform have never since come from the Church, but from
+    philosophers and moralists, though not rarely from writers of
+    definitely religious character. Sénancour, who was so delicate
+    and sensitive a moralist in the sexual sphere, introduced a
+    temperate discussion of polygamy into his _De l'Amour_ (vol. ii,
+    pp. 117-126). It seemed to him to be neither positively contrary
+    nor positively conformed to the general tendency of our present
+    conventions, and he concluded that "the method of conciliation,
+    in part, would be no longer to require that the union of a man
+    and a woman should only cease with the death of one of them."
+    Cope, the biologist, expressed a somewhat more decided opinion.
+    Under some circumstances, if all three parties agreed, he saw no
+    objection to polygyny or polyandry. "There are some cases of
+    hardship," he said, "which such permission would remedy. Such,
+    for instance, would be the case where the man or woman had become
+    the victim of a chronic disease; or, when either party should be
+    childless, and in other contingencies that could be imagined."
+    There would be no compulsion in any direction, and full
+    responsibility as at present. Such cases could only arise
+    exceptionally, and would not call for social antagonism. For the
+    most part, Cope remarks, "the best way to deal with polygamy is
+    to let it alone" (E.D. Cope, "The Marriage Problem," _Open
+    Court_, Nov. 15 and 22, 1888). In England, Dr. John Chapman, the
+    editor of the _Westminster Review_, and a close associate of the
+    leaders of the Radical movement in the Victorian period, was
+    opposed to State dictation as regards the form of marriage, and
+    believed that a certain amount of sexual variation would be
+    socially beneficial. Thus he wrote in 1884 (in a private letter):
+    "I think that as human beings become less selfish polygamy [i.e.,
+    polygyny], and even polyandry, in an ennobled form, will become
+    increasingly frequent."
+
+    James Hinton, who, a few years earlier, had devoted much thought
+    and attention to the sexual question, and regarded it as indeed
+    the greatest of moral problems, was strongly in favor of a more
+    vital flexibility of marriage regulations, an adaptation to human
+    needs such as the early Christian Church admitted. Marriage, he
+    declared, must be "subordinated to service," since marriage, like
+    the Sabbath, is made for man and not man for marriage. Thus in
+    case of one partner becoming insane he would permit the other
+    partner to marry again, the claim of the insane partner, in case
+    of recovery, still remaining valid. That would be a form of
+    polygamy, but Hinton was careful to point out that by "polygamy"
+    he meant "less a particular marriage-order than such an order as
+    best serves good, and which therefore must be essentially
+    variable. Monogamy may be good, even the only good order, if of
+    free choice; but a _law_ for it is another thing. The sexual
+    relationship must be a _natural_ thing. The true social life will
+    not be any fixed and definite relationship, as of monogamy,
+    polygamy, or anything else, but a perfect subordination of every
+    sexual relationship whatever to reason and human good."
+
+    Ellen Key, who is an enthusiastic advocate of monogamy, and who
+    believes that the civilized development of personal love removes
+    all danger of the growth of polygamy, still admits the existence
+    of variations. She has in mind such solutions of difficult
+    problems as Goethe had before him when he proposed at first in
+    his _Stella_ to represent the force of affection and tender
+    memories as too strong to admit of the rupture of an old bond in
+    the presence of a new bond. The problem of sexual variation, she
+    remarks, however (_Liebe und Ethik_, p. 12), has changed its form
+    under modern conditions; it is no longer a struggle between the
+    demand of society for a rigid marriage-order and the demand of
+    the individual for sexual satisfaction, but it has become the
+    problem of harmonizing the ennoblement of the race with
+    heightened requirements of erotic happiness. She also points out
+    that the existence of a partner who requires the other partner's
+    care as a nurse or as an intellectual companion by no means
+    deprives that other partner of the right to fatherhood or
+    motherhood, and that such rights must be safeguarded (Ellen Key,
+    _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, pp. 166-168).
+
+    A prominent and extreme advocate of polygyny, not as a simple
+    rare variation, but as a marriage order superior to monogamy, is
+    to be found at the present day in Professor Christian von
+    Ehrenfels of Prague (see, e.g., his _Sexualethik_, 1908; "Die
+    Postulate des Lebens," _Sexual-Probleme_, Oct., 1908; and letter
+    to Ellen Key in her _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 466). Ehrenfels
+    believes that the number of men inapt for satisfactory
+    reproduction is much larger than that of women, and that
+    therefore when these are left out of account, a polygynic
+    marriage order becomes necessary. He calls this
+    "reproduction-marriage" (Zeugungsehe), and considers that it will
+    entirely replace the present marriage order, to which it is
+    morally superior. It would be based on private contracts.
+    Ehrenfels holds that women would offer no objection, as a woman,
+    he believes, attaches less importance to a man as a wooer than as
+    the father of her child. Ehrenfels's doctrine has been seriously
+    attacked from many sides, and his proposals are not in the line
+    of our progress. Any radical modification of the existing
+    monogamic order is not to be expected, even if it were generally
+    recognized, which cannot be said to be the case, that it is
+    desirable. The question of sexual variations, it must be
+    remembered, is not a question of introducing an entirely new form
+    of marriage, but only of recognizing the rights of individuals,
+    in exceptional cases, to adopt such aberrant forms, and of
+    recognizing the corresponding duties of such individuals to
+    accept the responsibilities of any aberrant marriage forms they
+    may find it best to adopt. So far as the question of sexual
+    variations is more than this, it is, as Hinton argued, a
+    dynamical method of working towards the abolition of the perilous
+    and dangerous promiscuity of prostitution. A rigid marriage order
+    involves prostitution; a flexible marriage order largely--though
+    not, it may be, entirely--renders prostitution unnecessary. The
+    democratic morality of the present day, so far as the indications
+    at present go, is opposed to the encouragement of a _quasi_-slave
+    class, with diminished social rights, such as prostitutes always
+    constitute in a more or less marked degree. It is fairly evident,
+    also, that the rapidly growing influence of medical hygiene is on
+    the same side. We may, therefore, reasonably expect in the future
+    a slow though steady increase in the recognition, and even the
+    extension, of those variations of the monogamic order which have,
+    in reality, never ceased to exist.
+
+It is lamentable that at this period of the world's history, nearly two
+thousand years after the wise legislators of Rome had completed their
+work, it should still be necessary to conclude that we are to-day only
+beginning to place marriage on a reasonable and humane basis. I have
+repeatedly pointed out how largely the Canon law has been responsible for
+this arrest of development. One may say, indeed, that the whole attitude
+of the Church, after it had once acquired complete worldly dominance,
+must be held responsible. In the earlier centuries the attitude of
+Christianity was, on the whole, admirable. It held aloft great ideals but
+it refrained from enforcing those ideals at all costs; thus its ideals
+remained genuine and could not degenerate into mere hypocritical empty
+forms; much flexibility was allowed when it seemed to be for human good
+and made for the avoidance of evil and injustice. But when the Church
+attained temporal power, and when that power was concentrated in the hands
+of Popes who subordinated moral and religious interests to political
+interests, all the claims of reason and humanity were flung to the winds.
+The ideal was no more a fact than it was before, but it was now treated as
+a fact. Human relationships remained what they were before, as complicated
+and as various, but henceforth one rigid pattern, admirable as an ideal
+but worse than empty as a form, was arbitrarily set up, and all deviations
+from it treated either as non-existent or damnable. The vitality was
+crushed out of the most central human institutions, and they are only
+to-day beginning to lift their heads afresh.
+
+If--to sum up--we consider the course which the regulation of marriage has
+run during the Christian era, the only period which immediately concerns
+us, it is not difficult to trace the main outlines. Marriage began as a
+private arrangement, which the Church, without being able to control, was
+willing to bless, as it also blessed many other secular affairs of men,
+making no undue attempt to limit its natural flexibility to human needs.
+Gradually and imperceptibly, however, without the medium of any law,
+Christianity gained the complete control of marriage, coördinated it with
+its already evolved conceptions of the evil of lust, of the virtue of
+chastity, of the mortal sin of fornication, and, having through the
+influence of these dominating conceptions limited the flexibility of
+marriage in every possible direction, it placed it on a lofty but narrow
+pedestal as the sacrament of matrimony. For reasons which by no means lay
+in the nature of the sexual relationships, but which probably seemed
+cogent to sacerdotal legislators who assimilated it to ordination,
+matrimony was declared indissoluble. Nothing was so easy to enter as the
+gate of matrimony, but, after the manner of a mouse-trap, it opened
+inwards and not outwards; once in there was no way out alive. The Church's
+regulation of marriage while, like the celibacy of the clergy, it was a
+success from the point of view of ecclesiastical politics, and even at
+first from the point of view of civilization, for it at least introduced
+order into a chaotic society, was in the long run a failure from the point
+of view of society and morals. On the one hand it drifted into absurd
+subtleties and quibbles; on the other, not being based on either reason or
+humanity, it had none of that vital adaptability to the needs of life,
+which early Christianity, while holding aloft austere ideals, still
+largely retained. On the side of tradition this code of marriage law
+became awkward and impracticable; on the biological side it was hopelessly
+false. The way was thus prepared for the Protestant reintroduction of the
+conception of marriage as a contract, that conception being, however,
+brought forward less on its merits than as a protest against the
+difficulties and absurdities of the Catholic Canon law. The contractive
+view, which still largely persists even to-day, speedily took over much of
+the Canon law doctrines of marriage, becoming in practice a kind of
+reformed and secularized Canon law. It was somewhat more adapted to modern
+needs, but it retained much of the rigidity of the Catholic marriage
+without its sacramental character, and it never made any attempt to become
+more than nominally contractive. It has been of the nature of an
+incongruous compromise and has represented a transitional phase towards
+free private marriage. We can recognize that phase in the tendency, well
+marked in all civilized lands, to an ever increasing flexibility of
+marriage. The idea, and even the fact, of marriage by consent and divorce
+by failure of that consent, which we are now approaching, has never indeed
+been quite extinct. In the Latin countries it has survived with the
+tradition of Roman law; in the English-speaking countries it is bound up
+with the spirit of Puritanism which insists that in the things that
+concern the individual alone the individual himself shall be the supreme
+judge. That doctrine as applied to marriage was in England magnificently
+asserted by the genius of Milton, and in America it has been a leaven
+which is still working in marriage legislation towards an inevitable goal
+which is scarcely yet in sight. The marriage system of the future, as it
+moves along its present course, will resemble the old Christian system in
+that it will recognize the sacred and sacramental character of the sexual
+relationship, and it will resemble the civil conception in that it will
+insist that marriage, so far as it involves procreation, shall be publicly
+registered by the State. But in opposition to the Church it will recognize
+that marriage, in so far as it is purely a sexual relationship, is a
+private matter the conditions of which must be left to the persons who
+alone are concerned in it; and in opposition to the civil theory it will
+recognize that marriage is in its essence a fact and not a contract,
+though it may give rise to contracts, so long as such contracts do not
+touch that essential fact. And in one respect it will go beyond either the
+ecclesiastical conception or the civil conception. Man has in recent times
+gained control of his own procreative powers, and that control involves a
+shifting of the centre of gravity of marriage, in so far as marriage is an
+affair of the State, from the vagina to the child which is the fruit of
+the womb. Marriage as a state institution will centre, not around the
+sexual relationship, but around the child which is the outcome of that
+relationship. In so far as marriage is an inviolable public contract it
+will be of such a nature that it will be capable of automatically covering
+with its protection every child that is born into the world, so that every
+child may possess a legal mother and a legal father. On the one side,
+therefore, marriage is tending to become less stringent; on the other side
+it is tending to become more stringent. On the personal side it is a
+sacred and intimate relationship with which the State has no concern; on
+the social side it is the assumption of the responsible public sponsorship
+of a new member of the State. Some among us are working to further one of
+these aspects of marriage, some to further the other aspect. Both are
+indispensable to establish a perfect harmony. It is necessary to hold the
+two aspects of marriage apart, in order to do equal justice to the
+individual and to society, but in so far as marriage approaches its ideal
+state those two aspects become one.
+
+We have now completed the discussion of marriage as it presents itself to
+the modern man born in what in mediæval days was called Christendom. It is
+not an easy subject to discuss. It is indeed a very difficult subject, and
+only after many years is it possible to detect the main drift of its
+apparently opposing and confused currents when one is oneself in the midst
+of them. To an Englishman it is, perhaps, peculiarly difficult, for the
+Englishman is nothing if not insular; in that fact lie whatever virtues he
+possesses, as well as their reverse sides.[374]
+
+Yet it is worth while to attempt to climb to a height from which we can
+view the stream of social tendency in its true proportions and estimate
+its direction. It is necessary to do so if we value our mental peace in an
+age when men's minds are agitated by many petty movements which have
+nothing to do with their great temporal interests, to say nothing of their
+eternal interests. When we have attained a wide vision of the solid
+biological facts of life, when we have grasped the great historical
+streams of tradition,--which together make up the map of human
+affairs,--we can face serenely the little social transitions which take
+place in our own age, as they have taken place in every age.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[312] Rosenthal, of Breslau, from the legal side, goes so far as to argue
+("Grundfragen des Eheproblems," _Die Neue Generation_, Dec., 1908), that
+the intention of procreation is essential to the conception of legal
+marriage.
+
+[313] J.A. Godfrey, _Science of Sex_, p. 119.
+
+[314] E.D. Cope, "The Marriage Problem," _Open Court_, Nov., 1888.
+
+[315] See _ante_, p. 395.
+
+[316] Wächter, _Eheschiedungen_, pp. 95 et seq.; Esmein, _Marriage en
+Droit Canonique_, vol. i, p. 6; Howard, _History of Matrimonial
+Institutions_, vol. ii, p. 15. Howard (in agreement with Lecky) considers
+that the freedom of divorce was only abused by a small section of the
+Roman population, and that such abuse, so far as it existed, was not the
+cause of any decline of Roman morals.
+
+[317] The opinions of the Christian Fathers were very varied, and they
+were sometimes doubtful about them; see, e.g., the opinions collected by
+Cranmer and enumerated by Burnet, _History of Reformation_ (ed. Nares),
+vol. ii, p. 91.
+
+[318] Constantine, the first Christian Emperor, enacted a strict and
+peculiar divorce law (allowing a wife to divorce her husband only when he
+was a homicide, a poisoner, or a violator of sepulchres), which could not
+be maintained. In 497, therefore, Anastasius decreed divorce by mutual
+consent. This was abolished by Justinian, who only allowed divorce for
+various specified causes, among them, however, including the husband's
+adultery. These restrictions proved unworkable, and Justinian's successor
+and nephew, Justin, restored divorce by mutual consent. Finally, in 870,
+Leo the Philosopher returned to Justinian's enactment (see, e.g., Smith
+and Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, arts. "Adultery" and
+"Marriage").
+
+[319] The element of reverence in the early German attitude towards women
+and the privileges which even the married woman enjoyed, so far as Tacitus
+can be considered a reliable guide, seem to have been the surviving
+vestiges of an earlier social state on a more matriarchal basis. They are
+most distinct at the dawn of German history. From the first, however,
+though divorce by mutual consent seems to have been possible, German
+custom was pitiless to the married woman who was unfaithful, sterile, or
+otherwise offended, though for some time after the introduction of
+Christianity it was no offence for the German husband to commit adultery
+(Westermarck, _Origin of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 453).
+
+[320] "This form of marriage," says Hobhouse (op. cit., vol. i, p. 156),
+"is intimately associated with the extension of marital power." Cf.
+Howard, op. cit., vol. i, p. 231. The very subordinate position of the
+mediæval German woman is set forth by Hagelstange, _Süddeutsches
+Bauernleben in Mittelalter_, 1898, pp. 70 et seq.
+
+[321] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, p. 259; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of
+Christian Antiquities_, art. _Arrhæ_. It would appear, however, that the
+"bride-sale," of which Tacitus speaks, was not strictly the sale of a
+chattel nor of a slave-girl, but the sale of the _mund_ or protectorship
+over the girl. It is true the distinction may not always have been clear
+to those who took part in the transaction. Similarly the Anglo-Saxon
+betrothal was not so much a payment of the bride's price to her kinsmen,
+although as a matter of fact, they might make a profit out of the
+transaction, as a covenant stipulating for the bride's honorable treatment
+as wife and widow. Reminiscences of this, remark Pollock and Maitland (op.
+cit., vol. ii, p. 364), may be found in "that curious cabinet of
+antiquities, the marriage ritual of the English Church."
+
+[322] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 278-281, 386. The _Arrha_ crept into
+Roman and Byzantine law during the sixth century.
+
+[323] J. Wickham Legg, _Ecclesiological Essays_, p. 189. It may be added
+that the idea of the subordination of the wife to the husband appeared in
+the Christian Church at a somewhat early period, and no doubt
+independently of Germanic influences; St. Augustine said (Sermo XXXVII,
+cap. vi) that a good _materfamilias_ must not be ashamed to call herself
+her husband's servant (_ancilla_).
+
+[324] See, e.g., L. Gautier, _La Chevalerie_, Ch. IX.
+
+[325] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 293 et seq.; Esmein, _op. cit._, vol.
+i, pp. 25 et seq.; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian
+Antiquities_ art. "Contract of Marriage."
+
+[326] Any later changes in Catholic Canon law have merely been in the
+direction of making matrimony still narrower and still more remote from
+the practice of the world. By a papal decree of 1907, civil marriages and
+marriages in non-Catholic places of worship are declared to be not only
+sinful and unlawful (which they were before), but actually null and void.
+
+[327] E.S.P. Haynes, _Our Divorce Law_, p. 3.
+
+[328] It was the Council of Trent, in the sixteenth century, which made
+ecclesiastical rites essential to binding marriage; but even then
+fifty-six prelates voted against that decision.
+
+[329] Esmein, op. cit., vol. i, p. 91.
+
+[330] It is sometimes said that the Catholic Church is able to diminish
+the evils of its doctrine of the indissolubility of marriage by the number
+of impediments to marriage it admits, thus affording free scope for
+dispensations from marriage. This scarcely seems to be the case. Dr. P.J.
+Hayes, who speaks with authority as Chancellor of the Catholic Archdiocese
+of New York, states ("Impediments to Marriage in the Catholic Church,"
+_North American Review_, May, 1905) that even in so modern and so mixed a
+community as this there are few applications for dispensations on account
+of impediments; there are 15,000 Catholic marriages per annum in New York
+City, but scarcely five per annum are questioned as to validity, and these
+chiefly on the ground of bigamy.
+
+[331] The Canonists, say Pollock and Maitland (loc. cit.), "made a
+capricious mess of the marriage law." "Seldom," says Howard (_op. cit._,
+vol i, p. 340), "have mere theory and subtle quibbling had more disastrous
+consequences in practical life than in the case of the distinction between
+_sponsalia de præsenti_ and _de futuro_."
+
+[332] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 386 et seq. On the whole, however,
+Luther's opinion was that marriage, though a sacred and mysterious thing,
+is not a sacrament; his various statements on the matter are brought
+together by Strampff, _Luther über die Ehe_, pp. 204-214.
+
+[333] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 61 et seq.
+
+[334] Probably as a result of the somewhat confused and incoherent
+attitude of the Reformers, the Canon law of marriage, in a modified form,
+really persisted in Protestant countries to a greater extent than in
+Catholic countries; in France, especially, it has been much more
+profoundly modified (Esmein, op. cit., vol. i, p. 33).
+
+[335] The Quaker conception of marriage is still vitally influential.
+"Why," says Mrs. Besant (_Marriage_, p. 19), "should not we take a leaf
+out of the Quaker's book, and substitute for the present legal forms of
+marriage a simple declaration publicly made?"
+
+[336] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 456. The actual practice in
+Pennsylvania appears, however, to differ little from that usual in the
+other States.
+
+[337] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 109. "It is, indeed, wonderful,"
+Howard remarks, "that a great nation, priding herself on a love of equity
+and social liberty, should thus for five generations tolerate an invidious
+indulgence, rather than frankly and courageously to free herself from the
+shackles of an ecclesiastical tradition."
+
+[338] "The enforced continuance of an unsuccessful union is perhaps the
+most immoral thing which a civilized society ever countenanced, far less
+encouraged," says Godfrey (_Science of Sex_, p. 123). "The morality of a
+union is dependent upon mutual desire, and a union dictated by any other
+cause is outside the moral pale, however custom may sanction it, or
+religion and law condone it."
+
+[339] Adultery in most savage and barbarous societies is regarded, in the
+words of Westermarck, as "an illegitimate appropriation of the exclusive
+claims which the husband has acquired by the purchase of his wife, as an
+offence against property;" the seducer is, therefore, punished as a thief,
+by fine, mutilation, even death (_Origin of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, pp.
+447 et seq.; id., _History of Human Marriage_, p. 121). Among some peoples
+it is the seducer who alone suffers, and not the wife.
+
+[340] It is sometimes said in defence of the claim for damages for
+seducing a wife that women are often weak and unable to resist masculine
+advances, so that the law ought to press heavily on the man who takes
+advantage of that weakness. This argument seems a little antiquated. The
+law is beginning to accept the responsibility even of married women in
+other respects, and can scarcely refuse to accept it for the control of
+her own person. Moreover, if it is so natural for the woman to yield, it
+is scarcely legitimate to punish the man with whom she has performed that
+natural act. It must further be said that if a wife's adultery is only an
+irresponsible feminine weakness, a most undue brutality is inflicted on
+her by publicly demanding her pecuniary price from her lover. If, indeed,
+we accept this argument, we ought to reintroduce the mediæval girdle of
+chastity.
+
+[341] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 114.
+
+[342] This rule is, in England, by no means a dead letter. Thus, in 1907,
+a wife who had left her home, leaving a letter stating that her husband
+was not the father of her child, subsequently brought an action for
+divorce, which, as the husband made no defence, she obtained. But, the
+King's Proctor having learnt the facts, the decree was rescinded. Then the
+husband brought an action for divorce, but could not obtain it, having
+already admitted his own adultery by leaving the previous case undefended.
+He took the matter up to the Court of Appeal, but his petition was
+dismissed, the Court being of opinion that "to grant relief in such a case
+was not in the interest of public morality." The safest way in England to
+render what is legally termed marriage absolutely indissoluble is for both
+parties to commit adultery.
+
+[343] Magnus Hirschfeld, _Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, Oct., 1908.
+
+[344] H. Adner, "Die Richterliche Beurteilung der 'Zerrütteten' Ehe,"
+_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, Teil 8.
+
+[345] Gross-Hoffinger, _Die Schichsale der Frauen und die Prostitution_,
+1847; Bloch presents a full summary of the results of this inquiry in an
+_Appendix_ to Ch. X of his _Sexual Life of Our Times_.
+
+[346] Divorce in the United States is fully discussed by Howard, op. cit.,
+vol. iii.
+
+[347] H. Münsterberg, _The Americans_, p. 575. Similarly, Dr. Felix Adler,
+in a study of "The Ethics of Divorce" (_The Ethical Record_, 1890, p.
+200), although not himself an admirer of divorce, believes that the first
+cause of the frequency of divorce in the United States is the high
+position of women.
+
+[348] In an important article, with illustrative cases, on "The
+Neuro-psychical Element in Conjugal Aversion" (_Journal of Nervous and
+Mental Diseases_, Sept., 1892) Smith Baker refers to the cases in which "a
+man may find himself progressively becoming antipathetic, through
+recognition of the comparatively less developed personality of the one to
+whom he happens to be married. Marrying, perhaps, before he has learned to
+accurately judge of character and its tendencies, he awakens to the fact
+that he is honorably bound to live all his physiological life with, not a
+real companion, but a mere counterfeit." The cases are still more
+numerous, the same writer observes, in which the sexual appetite of the
+wife fails to reveal itself except as the result of education and
+practice. "This sort of natural-unnatural condition is the source of much
+disappointment, and of intense suffering on the part of the woman as well
+as of family dissatisfaction." Yet such causes for divorce are far too
+complex to be stated in statute-books, and far too intimate to be pleaded
+in courts of justice.
+
+[349] Ten years ago, if not still, the United States came fourth in order
+of frequency of divorce, after Japan, Denmark, and Switzerland.
+
+[350] Lecky, the historian of European morals, has pointed out (_Democracy
+and Liberty_, vol. ii, p. 172) the close connection generally between
+facility of divorce and a high standard of sexual morality.
+
+[351] So, e.g., Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. i, p. 237.
+
+[352] In England this step was taken in the reign of Henry VII, when the
+forcible marriage of women against their will was forbidden by statute (3
+Henry VII, c. 2). Even in the middle of the seventeenth century, however,
+the question of forcible marriage had again to be dealt with (_Inderwick_,
+Interregnum, pp. 40 et seq.).
+
+[353] Woods Hutchinson (_Contemporary Review_, Sept., 1905) argues that
+when there is epilepsy, insanity, moral perversion, habitual drunkenness,
+or criminal conduct of any kind, divorce, for the sake of the next
+generation, should be not permissive but compulsory. Mere divorce,
+however, would not suffice to attain the ends desired.
+
+[354] Similarly in Germany, Wanda von Sacher-Masoch, who had suffered much
+from marriage, whatever her own defects of character may have been, writes
+at the end of _Meine Lebensbeichte_ that "as long as women have not the
+courage to regulate, without State-interference or Church-interference,
+relationships which concern themselves alone, they will not be free." In
+place of this old decayed system of marriage so opposed to our modern
+thoughts and feelings, she would have private contracts made by a lawyer.
+In England, at a much earlier period, Charles Kingsley, who was an ardent
+friend to women's movements, and whose feeling for womanhood amounted
+almost to worship, wrote to J.S. Mill: "There will never be a good world
+for women until the last remnant of the Canon law is civilized off the
+earth."
+
+[355] "No fouler institution was ever invented," declared Auberon Herbert
+many years ago, expressing, before its time, a feeling which has since
+become more common; "and its existence drags on, to our deep shame,
+because we have not the courage frankly to say that the sexual relations
+of husband and wife, or those who live together, concern their own selves,
+and do not concern the prying, gloating, self-righteous, and intensely
+untruthful world outside."
+
+[356] Hobhouse, op. cit. vol. i, p. 237.
+
+[357] The same conception of marriage as a contract still persists to some
+extent also in the United States, whither it was carried by the early
+Protestants and Puritans. No definition of marriage is indeed usually laid
+down by the States, but, Howard says (op. cit., vol. ii, p. 395), "in
+effect matrimony is treated as a relation partaking of the nature of both
+status and contract."
+
+[358] This point of view has been vigorously set forth by Paul and Victor
+Margueritte, _Quelques Idées_.
+
+[359] I may remark that this was pointed out, and its consequences
+vigorously argued, many years ago by C.G. Garrison, "Limits of Divorce,"
+_Contemporary Review_, Feb., 1894. "It may safely be asserted," he
+concludes, "that marriage presents not one attribute or incident of
+anything remotely resembling a contract, either in form, remedy,
+procedure, or result; but that in all these aspects, on the contrary, it
+is fatally hostile to the principles and practices of that division of the
+rights of persons." Marriage is not contract, but conduct.
+
+[360] See, e.g., P. and V. Margueritte, op. cit.
+
+[361] As quoted by Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 29.
+
+[362] Ellen Key similarly (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 343) remarks that to
+talk of "the duty of life-long fidelity" is much the same as to talk of
+"the duty of life-long health." A man may promise, she adds, to do his
+best to preserve his life, or his love; he cannot unconditionally
+undertake to preserve them.
+
+[363] Hobhouse, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 159, 237-9; cf. P. and V.
+Margueritte, _Quelques Idées_.
+
+[364] "Divorce," as Garrison puts it ("Limits of Divorce," _Contemporary
+Review_, Feb., 1894), "is the judicial announcement that conduct once
+connubial in character and purpose, has lost these qualities.... Divorce
+is a question of fact, and not a license to break a promise."
+
+[365] See, _ante_, p. 425.
+
+[366] It has been necessary to discuss reproduction in the first chapter
+of the present volume, and it will again be necessary in the concluding
+chapter. Here we are only concerned with procreation as an element of
+marriage.
+
+[367] Nietzold, _Die Ehe in Ægypten zur Ptolemäisch-römischen Zeit_, 1903,
+p. 3. This bond also accorded rights to any children that might be born
+during its existence.
+
+[368] See, e.g., Ellen Key, _Mutter und Kind_, p. 21. The necessity for
+the combination of greater freedom of sexual relationships with greater
+stringency of parental relationships was clearly realized at an earlier
+period by another able woman writer, Miss J.H. Clapperton, in her notable
+book, _Scientific Meliorism_, published in 1885. "Legal changes," she
+wrote (p. 320), "are required in two directions, viz., towards greater
+freedom as to marriage and greater strictness as to parentage. The
+marriage union is essentially a private matter with which society has no
+call and no right to interfere. Childbirth, on the contrary, is a public
+event. It touches the interests of the whole nation."
+
+[369] Ellen Key, _Liebe und Ehe_, p. 168; cf. the same author's _Century
+of the Child_.
+
+[370] In Germany alone 180,000 "illegitimate" children are born every
+year, and the number is rapidly increasing; in England it is only 40,000
+per annum, the strong feeling which often exists against such births in
+England (as also in France) leading to the wide adoption of methods for
+preventing conception.
+
+[371] "Where are real monogamists to be found?" asked Schopenhauer in his
+essay, "Ueber die Weibe." And James Hinton was wont to ask: "What is the
+meaning of maintaining monogamy? Is there any chance of getting it, I
+should like to know? Do you call English life monogamous?"
+
+[372] "Almost everywhere," says Westermarck of polygyny (which he
+discusses fully in Chs. XX-XXII of his _History of Human Marriage_) "it is
+confined to the smaller part of the people, the vast majority being
+monogamous." Maurice Gregory (_Contemporary Review_, Sept., 1906) gives
+statistics showing that nearly everywhere the tendency is towards equality
+in number of the sexes.
+
+[373] In a polygamous land a man is of course as much bound by his
+obligations to his second wife as to his first. Among ourselves the man's
+"second wife" is degraded with the name of "mistress," and the worse he
+treats her and her children the more his "morality" is approved, just as
+the Catholic Church, when struggling to establish sacerdotal celibacy,
+approved more highly the priest who had illegitimate relations with women
+than the priest who decently and openly married. If his neglect induces a
+married man's mistress to make known her relationship to him the man is
+justified in prosecuting her, and his counsel, assured of general
+sympathy, will state in court that "this woman has even been so wicked as
+to write to the prosecutor's wife!"
+
+[374] Howard, in his judicial _History of Matrimonial Institutions_ (vol.
+ii. pp. 96 et seq.), cannot refrain from drawing attention to the almost
+insanely wild character of the language used in England not so many years
+ago by those who opposed marriage with a deceased wife's sister, and he
+contrasts it with the much more reasonable attitude of the Catholic
+Church. "Pictures have been drawn," he remarks, "of the moral anarchy such
+marriages must produce, which are read by American, Colonial, and
+Continental observers with a bewilderment that is not unmixed with
+disgust, and are, indeed, a curious illustration of the extreme insularity
+of the English mind." So recently as A.D. 1908 a bill was brought into the
+British House of Lords proposing that desertion without cause for two
+years shall be a ground for divorce, a reasonable and humane measure which
+is law in most parts of the civilized world. The Lord Chancellor (Lord
+Loreburn), a Liberal, and in the sphere of politics an enlightened and
+sagacious leader, declared that such a proposal was "absolutely
+impossible." The House rejected the proposal by 61 votes to 2. Even the
+marriage decrees of the Council of Trent were not affirmed by such an
+overwhelming majority. In matters of marriage legislation England has
+scarcely yet emerged from the Middle Ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE ART OF LOVE.
+
+Marriage Not Only for Procreation--Theologians on the _Sacramentum
+Solationis_--Importance of the _Art of Love_--The Basis of Stability in
+Marriage and the Condition for Right Procreation--The Art of Love the
+Bulwark Against Divorce--The Unity of Love and Marriage a Principle of
+Modern Morality--Christianity and the Art of Love--Ovid--The Art of Love
+Among Primitive Peoples--Sexual Initiation in Africa and Elsewhere--The
+Tendency to Spontaneous Development of the Art of Love in Early
+Life--Flirtation--Sexual Ignorance in Women--The Husband's Place in Sexual
+Initiation--Sexual Ignorance in Men--The Husband's Education for
+Marriage--The Injury Done by the Ignorance of Husbands--The Physical and
+Mental Results of Unskilful Coitus--Women Understand the Art of Love
+Better Than Men--Ancient and Modern Opinions Concerning Frequency of
+Coitus--Variation in Sexual Capacity--The Sexual Appetite--The Art of Love
+Based on the Biological Facts of Courtship--The Art of Pleasing Women--The
+Lover Compared to the Musician--The Proposal as a Part of
+Courtship--Divination in the Art of Love--The Importance of the
+Preliminaries in Courtship--The Unskilful Husband Frequently the Cause of
+the Frigid Wife--The Difficulty of Courtship--Simultaneous Orgasm--The
+Evils of Incomplete Gratification in Women--Coitus Interruptus--Coitus
+Reservatus--The Human Method of Coitus--Variations in Coitus--Posture in
+Coitus--The Best Time for Coitus--The Influence of Coitus in Marriage--The
+Advantages of Absence in Marriage--The Risks of Absence--Jealousy--The
+Primitive Function of Jealousy--Its Predominance Among Animals, Savages,
+etc., and in Pathological States--An Anti-Social Emotion--Jealousy
+Incompatible with the Progress of Civilization--The Possibility of Loving
+More Than One Person at a Time--Platonic Friendship--The Conditions Which
+Make It Possible--The Maternal Element in Woman's Love--The Final
+Development of Conjugal Love--The Problem of Love One of the Greatest of
+Social Questions.
+
+
+It will be clear from the preceding discussion that there are two elements
+in every marriage so far as that marriage is complete. On the one hand
+marriage is a union prompted by mutual love and only sustainable as a
+reality, apart from its mere formal side, by the cultivation of such love.
+On the other hand marriage is a method for propagating the race and
+having its end in offspring. In the first aspect its aim is erotic, in the
+second parental. Both these ends have long been generally recognized. We
+find them set forth, for instance, in the marriage service of the Church
+of England, where it is stated that marriage exists both for "the mutual
+society, help and comfort that the one ought to have of the other," and
+also for "the procreation of children." Without the factor of mutual love
+the proper conditions for procreation cannot exist; without the factor of
+procreation the sexual union, however beautiful and sacred a relationship
+it may in itself be, remains, in essence, a private relationship,
+incomplete as a marriage and without public significance. It becomes
+necessary, therefore, to supplement the preceding discussion of marriage
+in its general outlines by a final and more intimate consideration of
+marriage in its essence, as embracing the art of love and the science of
+procreation.
+
+    There has already been occasion from time to time to refer to
+    those who, starting from various points of view, have sought to
+    limit the scope of marriage and to suppress one or other of its
+    elements. (See e.g., _ante_, p. 135.)
+
+    In modern times the tendency has been to exclude the factor of
+    procreation, and to regard the relationship of marriage as
+    exclusively lying in the relationship of the two parties to each
+    other. Apart from the fact, which it is unnecessary again to call
+    attention to, that, from the public and social point of view, a
+    marriage without children, however important to the two persons
+    concerned, is a relationship without any public significance, it
+    must further be said that, in the absence of children, even the
+    personal erotic life itself is apt to suffer, for in the normal
+    erotic life, especially in women, sexual love tends to grow into
+    parental love. Moreover, the full development of mutual love and
+    dependence is with difficulty attained, and there is absence of
+    that closest of bonds, the mutual coöperation of two persons in
+    producing a new person. The perfect and complete marriage in its
+    full development is a trinity.
+
+    Those who seek to eliminate the erotic factor from marriage as
+    unessential, or at all events as only permissible when strictly
+    subordinated to the end of procreation, have made themselves
+    heard from time to time at various periods. Even the ancients,
+    Greeks and Romans alike, in their more severe moments advocated
+    the elimination of the erotic element from marriage, and its
+    confinement to extra-marital relationships, that is so far as men
+    were concerned; for the erotic needs of married women they had no
+    provision to make. Montaigne, soaked in classic traditions, has
+    admirably set forth the reasons for eliminating the erotic
+    interest from marriage: "One does not marry for oneself, whatever
+    may be said; a man marries as much, or more, for his posterity,
+    for his family; the usage and interest of marriage touch our race
+    beyond ourselves.... Thus it is a kind of incest to employ, in
+    this venerable and sacred parentage, the efforts and the
+    extravagances of amorous license" (_Essais_, Bk. i, Ch. XXIX; Bk.
+    iii, Ch. V). This point of view easily commended itself to the
+    early Christians, who, however, deliberately overlooked its
+    reverse side, the establishment of erotic interests outside
+    marriage. "To have intercourse except for procreation," said
+    Clement of Alexandria (_Pædagogus_, Bk. ii, Ch. X), "is to do
+    injury to Nature." While, however, that statement is quite true
+    of the lower animals, it is not true of man, and especially not
+    true of civilized man, whose erotic needs are far more developed,
+    and far more intimately associated with the finest and highest
+    part of the organism, than is the case among animals generally.
+    For the animal, sexual desire, except when called forth by the
+    conditions involved by procreative necessities, has no existence.
+    It is far otherwise in man, for whom, even when the question of
+    procreation is altogether excluded, sexual love is still an
+    insistent need, and even a condition of the finest spiritual
+    development. The Catholic Church, therefore, while regarding with
+    admiration a continence in marriage which excluded sexual
+    relations except for the end of procreation, has followed St.
+    Augustine in treating intercourse apart from procreation with
+    considerable indulgence, as only a venial sin. Here, however, the
+    Church was inclined to draw the line, and it appears that in 1679
+    Innocent XI condemned the proposition that "the conjugal act,
+    practiced for pleasure alone, is exempt even from venial sin."
+
+    Protestant theologians have been inclined to go further, and
+    therein they found some authority even in Catholic writers. John
+    à Lasco, the Catholic Bishop who became a Protestant and settled
+    in England during Edward VI's reign, was following many mediæval
+    theologians when he recognized the _sacramentum solationis_, in
+    addition to _proles_, as an element of marriage. Cranmer, in his
+    marriage service of 1549, stated that "mutual help and comfort,"
+    as well as procreation, enter into the object of marriage
+    (Wickham Legg, _Ecclesiological Essays_, p. 204; Howard,
+    _Matrimonial Institutions_, vol. i, p. 398). Modern theologians
+    speak still more distinctly. "The sexual act," says Northcote
+    (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 55), "is a love act. Duly
+    regulated, it conduces to the ethical welfare of the individual
+    and promotes his efficiency as a social unit. The act itself and
+    its surrounding emotions stimulate within the organism the
+    powerful movements of a vast psychic life." At an earlier period
+    also, Schleiermacher, in his _Letters on Lucinde_, had pointed
+    out the great significance of love for the spiritual development
+    of the individual.
+
+    Edward Carpenter truly remarks, in _Love's Coming of Age_, that
+    sexual love is not only needed for physical creation, but also
+    for spiritual creation. Bloch, again, in discussing this question
+    (_The Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. VI) concludes that "love and
+    the sexual embrace have not only an end in procreation, they
+    constitute an end in themselves, and are necessary for the life,
+    development, and inner growth of the individual himself."
+
+It is argued by some, who admit mutual love as a constituent part of
+marriage, that such love, once recognized at the outset, may be taken for
+granted, and requires no further discussion; there is, they believe, no
+art of love to be either learnt or taught; it comes by nature. Nothing
+could be further from the truth, most of all as regards civilized man.
+Even the elementary fact of coitus needs to be taught. No one could take a
+more austerely Puritanic view of sexual affairs than Sir James Paget, and
+yet Paget (in his lecture on "Sexual Hypochondriasis") declared that
+"Ignorance about sexual affairs seems to be a notable characteristic of
+the more civilized part of the human race. Among ourselves it is certain
+that the method of copulating needs to be taught, and that they to whom it
+is not taught remain quite ignorant about it." Gallard, again, remarks
+similarly (in his _Clinique des Maladies des Femmes_) that young people,
+like Daphnis in Longus's pastoral, need a beautiful Lycenion to give them
+a solid education, practical as well as theoretical, in these matters, and
+he considers that mothers should instruct their daughters at marriage, and
+fathers their sons. Philosophers have from time to time recognized the
+gravity of these questions and have discoursed concerning them; thus
+Epicurus, as Plutarch tells us,[375] would discuss with his disciples
+various sexual matters, such as the proper time for coitus; but then, as
+now, there were obscurantists who would leave even the central facts of
+life to the hazards of chance or ignorance, and these presumed to blame
+the philosopher.
+
+There is, however, much more to be learnt in these matters than the mere
+elementary facts of sexual intercourse. The art of love certainly includes
+such primary facts of sexual hygiene, but it involves also the whole
+erotic discipline of marriage, and that is why its significance is so
+great, for the welfare and happiness of the individual, for the stability
+of sexual unions, and indirectly for the race, since the art of love is
+ultimately the art of attaining the right conditions for procreation.
+
+"It seems extremely probable," wrote Professor E.D. Cope,[376] "that if
+this subject could be properly understood, and become, in the details of
+its practical conduct, a part of a written social science, the monogamic
+marriage might attain a far more general success than is often found in
+actual life." There can be no doubt whatever that this is the case. In the
+great majority of marriages success depends exclusively upon the knowledge
+of the art of love possessed by the two persons who enter into it. A
+life-long monogamic union may, indeed, persist in the absence of the
+slightest inborn or acquired art of love, out of religious resignation or
+sheer stupidity. But that attitude is now becoming less common. As we have
+seen in the previous chapter, divorces are becoming more frequent and more
+easily obtainable in every civilized country. This is a tendency of
+civilization; it is the result of a demand that marriage should be a real
+relationship, and that when it ceases to be real as a relationship it
+should also cease as a form. That is an inevitable tendency, involved in
+our growing democratization, for the democracy seems to care more for
+realities than for forms, however venerable. We cannot fight against it;
+and we should be wrong to fight against it even if we could.
+
+Yet while we are bound to aid the tendency to divorce, and to insist that
+a valid marriage needs the wills of two persons to maintain it, it is
+difficult for anyone to argue that divorce is in itself desirable. It is
+always a confession of failure. Two persons, who, if they have been moved
+in the slightest degree by the normal and regular impulse of sexual
+selection, at the outset regarded each other as lovable, have, on one
+side or the other or on both, proved not lovable. There has been a failure
+in the fundamental art of love. If we are to counterbalance facility of
+divorce our only sound course is to increase the stability of marriage,
+and that is only possible by cultivating the art of love, the primal
+foundation of marriage.
+
+It is by no means unnecessary to emphasize this point. There are still
+many persons who have failed to realize it. There are even people who seem
+to imagine that it is unimportant whether or not pleasure is present in
+the sexual act. "I do not believe mutual pleasure in the sexual act has
+any particular bearing on the happiness of life," once remarked Dr. Howard
+A. Kelly.[377] Such a statement means--if indeed it means anything--that
+the marriage tie has no "particular bearing" on human happiness; it means
+that the way must be freely opened to adultery and divorce. Even the most
+perverse ascetic of the Middle Ages scarcely ventured to make a statement
+so flagrantly opposed to the experiences of humanity, and the fact that a
+distinguished gynecologist of the twentieth century can make it, with
+almost the air of stating a truism, is ample justification for the
+emphasis which it has nowadays become necessary to place on the art of
+love. "Uxor enim dignitatis nomen est, non voluptatis," was indeed an
+ancient Pagan dictum. But it is not in harmony with modern ideas. It was
+not even altogether in harmony with Christianity. For our modern morality,
+as Ellen Key well says, the unity of love and marriage is a fundamental
+principle.[378]
+
+The neglect of the art of love has not been a universal phenomenon; it is
+more especially characteristic of Christendom. The spirit of ancient Rome
+undoubtedly predisposed Europe to such a neglect, for with their rough
+cultivation of the military virtues and their inaptitude for the finer
+aspects of civilization the Romans were willing to regard love as a
+permissible indulgence, but they were not, as a people, prepared to
+cultivate it as an art. Their poets do not, in this matter, represent the
+moral feeling of their best people. It is indeed a highly significant
+fact that Ovid, the most distinguished Latin poet who concerned himself
+much with the art of love, associated that art not so much with morality
+as with immorality. As he viewed it, the art of love was less the art of
+retaining a woman in her home than the art of winning her away from it; it
+was the adulterer's art rather than the husband's art. Such a conception
+would be impossible out of Europe, but it proved very favorable to the
+growth of the Christian attitude towards the art of love.
+
+    Love as an art, as well as a passion, seems to have received
+    considerable study in antiquity, though the results of that study
+    have perished. Cadmus Milesius, says Suidas, wrote fourteen great
+    volumes on the passion of love, but they are not now to be found.
+    Rohde (_Das Griechische Roman_, p. 55) has a brief section on the
+    Greek philosophic writers on love. Bloch (_Beiträge zur
+    Psychopathia Sexualis_, Teil I, p. 191) enumerates the ancient
+    women writers who dealt with the art of love. Montaigne
+    (_Essais_, liv. ii, Ch. V) gives a list of ancient classical lost
+    books on love. Burton (_Anatomy of Melancholy_, Bell's edition,
+    vol. iii, p. 2) also gives a list of lost books on love. Burton
+    himself dealt at length with the manifold signs of love and its
+    grievous symptoms. Boissier de Sauvages, early in the eighteenth
+    century, published a Latin thesis, _De Amore_, discussing love
+    somewhat in the same spirit as Burton, as a psychic disease to be
+    treated and cured.
+
+    The breath of Christian asceticism had passed over love; it was
+    no longer, as in classic days, an art to be cultivated, but only
+    a malady to be cured. The true inheritor of the classic spirit in
+    this, as in many other matters, was not the Christian world, but
+    the world of Islam. _The Perfumed Garden_ of the Sheik Nefzaoui
+    was probably written in the city of Tunis early in the sixteenth
+    century by an author who belonged to the south of Tunis. Its
+    opening invocation clearly indicates that it departs widely from
+    the conception of love as a disease: "Praise be to God who has
+    placed man's greatest pleasures in the natural parts of woman,
+    and has destined the natural parts of man to afford the greatest
+    enjoyments to woman." The Arabic book, _El Ktab_, or "The Secret
+    Laws of Love," is a modern work, by Omer Haleby Abu Othmân, who
+    was born in Algiers of a Moorish mother and a Turkish father.
+
+For Christianity the permission to yield to the sexual impulse at all was
+merely a concession to human weakness, an indulgence only possible when it
+was carefully hedged and guarded on every side. Almost from the first the
+Christians began to cultivate the art of virginity, and they could not so
+dislocate their point of view as to approve of the art of love. All their
+passionate adoration in the sphere of sex went out towards chastity.
+Possessed by such ideals, they could only tolerate human love at all by
+giving to one special form of it a religious sacramental character, and
+even that sacramental halo imparted to love a quasi-ascetic character
+which precluded the idea of regarding love as an art.[379] Love gained a
+religious element but it lost a moral element, since, outside
+Christianity, the art of love is part of the foundation of sexual
+morality, wherever such morality in any degree exists. In Christendom love
+in marriage was left to shift for itself as best it might; the art of love
+was a dubious art which was held to indicate a certain commerce with
+immorality and even indeed to be itself immoral. That feeling was
+doubtless strengthened by the fact that Ovid was the most conspicuous
+master in literature of the art of love. His literary reputation--far
+greater than it now seems to us[380]--gave distinction to his position as
+the author of the chief extant text-book of the art of love. With Humanism
+and the Renaissance and the consequent realization that Christianity had
+overlooked one side of life, Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ was placed on a
+pedestal it had not occupied before or since. It represented a step
+forward in civilization; it revealed love not as a mere animal instinct or
+a mere pledged duty, but as a complex, humane, and refined relationship
+which demanded cultivation; "_arte regendus amor_." Boccaccio made a wise
+teacher put Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ into the hands of the young. In an age
+still oppressed by the mediæval spirit, it was a much needed text-book,
+but it possessed the fatal defect, as a text-book, of presenting the
+erotic claims of the individual as divorced from the claims of good social
+order. It never succeeded in establishing itself as a generally accepted
+manual of love, and in the eyes of many it served to stamp the subject it
+dealt with as one that lies outside the limits of good morals.
+
+When, however, we take a wider survey, and inquire into the discipline for
+life that is imparted to the young in many parts of the world, we shall
+frequently find that the art of love, understood in varying ways, is an
+essential part of that discipline. Summary, though generally adequate, as
+are the educational methods of primitive peoples, they not seldom include
+a training in those arts which render a woman agreeable to a man and a man
+agreeable to a woman in the relationship of marriage, and it is often more
+or less dimly realized that courtship is not a mere preliminary to
+marriage, but a biologically essential part of the marriage relationship
+throughout.
+
+    Sexual initiation is carried out very thoroughly in Azimba land,
+    Central Africa. H. Crawford Angus, the first European to visit
+    the Azimba people, lived among them for a year, and has described
+    the Chensamwali, or initiation ceremony, of girls. "At the first
+    sign of menstruation in a young girl, she is taught the mysteries
+    of womanhood, and is shown the different positions for sexual
+    intercourse. The vagina is handled freely, and if not previously
+    enlarged (which may have taken place at the harvest festival when
+    a boy and girl are allowed to 'keep house' during the day-time by
+    themselves, and when quasi-intercourse takes place) it is now
+    enlarged by means of a horn or corn-cob, which is inserted and
+    secured in place by bands of bark cloth. When all signs [of
+    menstruation] have passed, a public announcement of a dance is
+    given to the women in the village. At this dance no men are
+    allowed to be present, and it was only with a great deal of
+    trouble that I managed to witness it. The girl to be 'danced' is
+    led back from the bush to her mother's hut where she is kept in
+    solitude to the morning of the dance. On that morning she is
+    placed on the ground in a sitting position, while the dancers
+    form a ring around her. Several songs are then sung with
+    reference to the genital organs. The girl is then stripped and
+    made to go through the mimic performance of sexual intercourse,
+    and if the movements are not enacted properly, as is often the
+    case when the girl is timid and bashful, one of the older women
+    will take her place and show her how she is to perform. Many
+    songs about the relation between men and women are sung, and the
+    girl is instructed as to all her duties when she becomes a wife.
+    She is also instructed that during the time of her menstruation
+    she is unclean, and that during her monthly period she must close
+    her vulva with a pad of fibre used for the purpose. The object of
+    the dance is to inculcate to the girl the knowledge of married
+    life. The girl is taught to be faithful to her husband and to try
+    to bear children, and she is also taught the various arts and
+    methods of making herself seductive and pleasing to her husband,
+    and of thus retaining him in her power." (H. Crawford Angus, "The
+    Chensamwali," _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 6, p.
+    479).
+
+    In Abyssinia, as well as on the Zanzibar coast, according to
+    Stecker (quoted by Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, Section 119) young
+    girls are educated in buttock movements which increase their
+    charm in coitus. These movements, of a rotatory character, are
+    called Duk-Duk. To be ignorant of Duk-Duk is a great disgrace to
+    a girl. Among the Swahili women of Zanzibar, indeed, a complete
+    artistic system of hip-movements is cultivated, to be displayed
+    in coitus. It prevails more especially on the coast, and a
+    Swahili woman is not counted a "lady" (bibi) unless she is
+    acquainted with this art. From sixty to eighty young women
+    practice this buttock dance together for some eight hours a day,
+    laying aside all clothing, and singing the while. The public are
+    not admitted. The dance, which is a kind of imitation of coitus,
+    has been described by Zache ("Sitten und Gebräuche der Suaheli,"
+    _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1899, Heft 2-3, p. 72). The more
+    accomplished dancers excite general admiration. During the latter
+    part of this initiation various feats are imposed, to test the
+    girl's skill and self-control. For instance, she must dance up to
+    a fire and remove from the midst of the fire a vessel full of
+    water to the brim, without spilling it. At the end of three
+    months the training is over, and the girl goes home in festival
+    attire. She is now eligible for marriage. Similar customs are
+    said to prevail in the Dutch East Indies and elsewhere.
+
+    The Hebrews had erotic dances, which were doubtless related to
+    the art of love in marriage, and among the Greeks, and their
+    disciples the Romans, the conception of love as an art which
+    needs training, skill, and cultivation, was still extant. That
+    conception was crushed by Christianity which, although it
+    sanctified the institution of matrimony, degraded that sexual
+    love which is normally the content of marriage.
+
+    In 1176 the question was brought before a Court of Love by a
+    baron and lady of Champagne, whether love is compatible with
+    marriage. "No," said the baron, "I admire and respect the sweet
+    intimacy of married couples, but I cannot call it love. Love
+    desires obstacles, mystery, stolen favors. Now husbands and wives
+    boldly avow their relationship; they possess each other without
+    contradiction and without reserve. It cannot then be love that
+    they experience." And after mature deliberation the ladies of the
+    Court of Love adopted the baron's conclusions (E. de la
+    Bedollière, _Histoire des Moeurs des Français_, vol. iii, p.
+    334). There was undoubtedly an element of truth in the baron's
+    arguments. Yet it may well be doubted whether in any
+    non-Christian country it would ever have been possible to obtain
+    acceptance for the doctrine that love and marriage are
+    incompatible. This doctrine was, however, as Ribot points out in
+    his _Logique des Sentiments_, inevitable, when, as among the
+    medieval nobility, marriage was merely a political or domestic
+    treaty and could not, therefore, be a method of moral elevation.
+
+    "Why is it," asked Rétif de la Bretonne, towards the end of the
+    eighteenth century, "that girls who have no morals are more
+    seductive and more loveable than honest women? It is because,
+    like the Greek courtesans to whom grace and voluptuousness were
+    taught, they have studied the art of pleasing. Among the foolish
+    detractors of my _Contemporaines_, not one guessed the
+    philosophic aim of nearly everyone of these tales, which is to
+    suggest to honest women the ways of making themselves loved. I
+    should like to see the institution of initiations, such as those
+    of the ancients.... To-day the happiness of the human species is
+    abandoned to chance; all the experience of women is individual,
+    like that of animals; it is lost with those women who, being
+    naturally amiable, might have taught others to become so.
+    Prostitutes alone make a superficial study of it, and the lessons
+    they receive are, for the most part, as harmful as those of
+    respectable Greek and Roman matrons were holy and honorable, only
+    tending to wantonness, to the exhaustion alike of the purse and
+    of the physical faculties, while the aim of the ancient matrons
+    was the union of husband and wife and their mutual attachment
+    through pleasure. The Christian religion annihilated the
+    Mysteries as infamous, but we may regard that annihilation as one
+    of the wrongs done by Christianity to humanity, as the work of
+    men with little enlightenment and bitter zeal, dangerous puritans
+    who were the natural enemies of marriage" (Rétif de la Bretonne,
+    _Monsieur Nicolas_, reprint of 1883, vol. x, pp. 160-3). It may
+    be added that Dühren (Dr. Iwan Bloch) regards Rétif as "a master
+    in the _Ars Amandi_," and discusses him from this point of view
+    in his _Rétif de la Bretonne_ (pp. 362-371).
+
+Whether or not Christianity is to be held responsible, it cannot be
+doubted that throughout Christendom there has been a lamentable failure to
+recognize the supreme importance, not only erotically but morally, of the
+art of love. Even in the great revival of sexual enlightenment now taking
+place around us there is rarely even the faintest recognition that in
+sexual enlightenment the one thing essentially necessary is a knowledge of
+the art of love. For the most part, sexual instruction as at present
+understood, is purely negative, a mere string of thou-shalt-nots. If that
+failure were due to the conscious and deliberate recognition that while
+the art of love must be based on physiological and psychological
+knowledge, it is far too subtle, too complex, too personal, to be
+formulated in lectures and manuals, it would be reasonable and sound. But
+it seems to rest entirely on ignorance, indifference, or worse.
+
+Love-making is indeed, like other arts, an art that is partly natural--"an
+art that nature makes"--and therefore it is a natural subject for learning
+and exercising in play. Children left to themselves tend, both playfully
+and seriously, to practice love, alike on the physical and the psychic
+sides.[381] But this play is on its physical side sternly repressed by
+their elders, when discovered, and on its psychic side laughed at. Among
+the well-bred classes it is usually starved out at an early age.
+
+After puberty, if not before, there is another form in which the art of
+love is largely experimented and practised, especially in England and
+America, the form of flirtation. In its elementary manifestations flirting
+is entirely natural and normal; we may trace it even in animals; it is
+simply the beginning of courtship, at the early stage when courtship may
+yet, if desired, be broken off. Under modern civilized conditions,
+however, flirtation is often more than this. These conditions make
+marriage difficult; they make love and its engagements too serious a
+matter to be entered on lightly; they make actual sexual intercourse
+dangerous as well as disreputable. Flirtation adapts itself to these
+conditions. Instead of being merely the preliminary stage of normal
+courtship, it is developed into a form of sexual gratification as complete
+as due observation of the conditions already mentioned will allow. In
+Germany, and especially in France where it is held in great abhorrence,
+this is the only form of flirtation known; it is regarded as an
+exportation from the United States and is denominated "flirtage." Its
+practical outcome is held to be the "demi-vierge," who knows and has
+experienced the joys of sex while yet retaining her hymen intact.
+
+    This degenerate form of flirtation, cultivated not as a part of
+    courtship, but for its own sake, has been well described by Forel
+    (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, pp. 97-101). He defines it as including
+    "all those expressions of the sexual instinct of one individual
+    towards another individual which excite the other's sexual
+    instinct, coitus being always excepted." In the beginning it may
+    be merely a provocative look or a simple apparently unintentional
+    touch or contact; and by slight gradations it may pass on to
+    caresses, kisses, embraces, and even extend to pressure or
+    friction of the sexual parts, sometimes leading to orgasm. Thus,
+    Forel mentions, a sensuous woman by the pressure of her garments
+    in dancing can produce ejaculation in her partner. Most usually
+    the process is that voluptuous contact and revery which, in
+    English slang, is called "spooning." From first to last there
+    need not be any explicit explanations, proposals, or declarations
+    on either side, and neither party is committed to any
+    relationship with the other beyond the period devoted to
+    flirtage. In one form, however, flirtage consists entirely in the
+    excitement of a conversation devoted to erotic and indecorous
+    topics. Either the man or the woman may take the active part in
+    flirtage, but in a woman more refinement and skill is required to
+    play the active part without repelling the man or injuring her
+    reputation. Indeed, much the same is true of men also, for women,
+    while they often like flirting, usually prefer its more refined
+    forms. There are infinite forms of flirtage, and while as a
+    preliminary part of courtship, it has its normal place and
+    justification, Forel concludes that "as an end in itself, and
+    never passing beyond itself, it is a phenomenon of degeneration."
+
+    From the French point of view, flirtage and flirtation generally
+    have been discussed by Madame Bentzon ("Family Life in America,"
+    _Forum_, March, 1896) who, however, fails to realize the natural
+    basis of flirtation in courtship. She regards it as a sin against
+    the law "Thou shalt not play with love," for it ought to have the
+    excuse of an irresistible passion, but she thinks it is
+    comparatively inoffensive in America (though still a
+    deteriorating influence on the women) on account of the
+    temperament, education, and habits of the people. It must,
+    however, be remembered that play has a proper relationship to all
+    vital activities, and that a reasonable criticism of flirtation
+    is concerned rather with its normal limitations than with its
+    right to exist (see the observations on the natural basis of
+    coquetry and the ends it subserves in "The Evolution of Modesty"
+    in volume i of these _Studies_).
+
+While flirtation in its natural form--though not in the perverted form of
+"flirtage"--has sound justification, alike as a method of testing a lover
+and of acquiring some small part of the art of love, it remains an
+altogether inadequate preparation for love. This is sufficiently shown by
+the frequent inaptitude for the art of love, and even for the mere
+physical act of love, so frequently manifested both by men and women in
+the very countries where flirtation most flourishes.
+
+This ignorance, not merely of the art of love but even of the physical
+facts of sexual love, is marked not only in women, especially women of the
+middle class, but also in men, for the civilized man, as Fritsch long ago
+remarked, often knows less of the facts of the sexual life than a
+milkmaid. It shows itself differently, however, in the two sexes.
+
+Among women sexual ignorance ranges from complete innocence of the fact
+that it involves any intimate bodily relationship at all to
+misapprehensions of the most various kind; some think that the
+relationship consists in lying side by side, many that intercourse takes
+place at the navel, not a few that the act occupies the whole night. It
+has been necessary in a previous chapter to discuss the general evils of
+sexual ignorance; it is here necessary to refer to its more special evils
+as regards the relationship of marriage. Girls are educated with the vague
+idea that they will marry,--quite correctly, for the majority of them do
+marry,--but the idea that they must be educated for the career that will
+naturally fall to their lot is an idea which as yet has never seemed to
+occur to the teachers of girls. Their heads are crammed to stupidity with
+the knowledge of facts which it is no one's concern to know, but the
+supremely important training for life they are totally unable to teach.
+Women are trained for nearly every avocation under the sun; for the
+supreme avocation of wifehood and motherhood they are never trained at
+all!
+
+It may be said, and with truth, that the present incompetent training of
+girls is likely to continue so long as the mothers of girls are content to
+demand nothing better. It may also be said, with even greater truth, that
+there is much that concerns the knowledge of sexual relationships which
+the mother herself may most properly impart to her daughter. It may
+further be asserted, most unanswerably, that the art of love, with which
+we are here more especially concerned, can only be learnt by actual
+experience, an experience which our social traditions make it difficult
+for a virtuous girl to acquire with credit. Without here attempting to
+apportion the share of blame which falls to each cause, it remains
+unfortunate that a woman should so often enter marriage with the worst
+possible equipment of prejudices and misapprehensions, even when she
+believes, as often happens, that she knows all about it. Even with the
+best equipment, a woman, under present conditions, enters marriage at a
+disadvantage. She awakes to the full realization of love more slowly than
+a man, and, on the average, at a later age, so that her experiences of the
+life of sex before marriage have usually been of a much more restricted
+kind than her husband's.[382] So that even with the best preparation, it
+often happens that it is not until several years after marriage that a
+woman clearly realizes her own sexual needs and adequately estimates her
+husband's ability to satisfy those needs. We cannot over-estimate the
+personal and social importance of a complete preparation for marriage, and
+the greater the difficulties placed in the way of divorce the more weight
+necessarily attaches to that preparation.[383]
+
+    Everyone is probably acquainted with many cases of the extreme
+    ignorance of women on entering marriage. The following case
+    concerning a woman of twenty-seven, who had been asked in
+    marriage, is somewhat extreme, but not very exceptional. "She did
+    not feel sure of her affection and she asked a woman cousin
+    concerning the meaning of love. This cousin lent her Ellis
+    Ethelmer's pamphlet, _The Human Flower_. She learnt from this
+    that men desired the body of a woman, and this so appalled her
+    that she was quite ill for several days. The next time her lover
+    attempted a caress she told him that it was 'lust.' Since then
+    she has read George Moore's _Sister Teresa_, and the knowledge
+    that 'women can be as bad as men' has made her sad." The
+    "Histories" contained in the Appendices to previous volumes of
+    these _Studies_ reveal numerous instances of the deplorable
+    ignorance of young girls concerning the most central facts of the
+    sexual life. It is not surprising, under such circumstances, that
+    marriage leads to disillusionment or repulsion.
+
+    It is commonly said that the duty of initiating the wife into the
+    privileges and obligations of marriage properly belongs to the
+    husband. Apart, however, altogether from the fact that it is
+    unjust to a woman to compel her to bind herself in marriage
+    before she has fully realized what marriage means, it must also
+    be said that there are many things necessary for women to know
+    that it is unreasonable to expect a husband to explain. This is,
+    for instance, notably the case as regards the more fatiguing and
+    exhausting effects of coitus on a man as compared with a woman.
+    The inexperienced bride cannot know beforehand that the
+    frequently repeated orgasms which render her vigorous and radiant
+    exert a depressing effect on her husband, and his masculine pride
+    induces him to attempt to conceal that fact. The bride, in her
+    innocence, is unconscious that her pleasure is bought at her
+    husband's expense, and that what is not excess to her, may be a
+    serious excess to him. The woman who knows (notably, for
+    instance, a widow who remarries) is careful to guard her
+    husband's health in this respect, by restraining her own ardor,
+    for she realizes that a man is not willing to admit that he is
+    incapable of satisfying his wife's desires. (G. Hirth has also
+    pointed out how important it is that women should know before
+    marriage the natural limits of masculine potency, _Wege zur
+    Liebe_, p. 571.)
+
+The ignorance of women of all that concerns the art of love, and their
+total lack of preparation for the natural facts of the sexual life, would
+perhaps be of less evil augury for marriage if it were always compensated
+by the knowledge, skill, and considerateness of the husband. But that is
+by no means always the case. Within the ordinary range we find, at all
+events in England, the large group of men whose knowledge of women before
+marriage has been mainly confined to prostitutes, and the important and
+not inconsiderable group of men who have had no intimate intercourse with
+women, their sexual experiences having been confined to masturbation or
+other auto-erotic manifestations, and to flirtation. Certainly the man of
+sensitive and intelligent temperament, whatever his training or lack of
+training, may succeed with patience and consideration in overcoming all
+the difficulties placed in the way of love by the mixture of ignorances
+and prejudices which so often in woman takes the place of an education for
+the erotic part of her life. But it cannot be said that either of these
+two groups of men has been well equipped for the task. The training and
+experience which a man receives from a prostitute, even under fairly
+favorable conditions, scarcely form the right preparation for approaching
+a woman of his own class who has no intimate erotic experiences.[384] The
+frequent result is that he is liable to waver between two opposite courses
+of action, both of them mistaken. On the one hand, he may treat his bride
+as a prostitute, or as a novice to be speedily moulded into the sexual
+shape he is most accustomed to, thus running the risk either of perverting
+or of disgusting her. On the other hand, realizing that the purity and
+dignity of his bride place her in an altogether different class from the
+women he has previously known, he may go to the opposite extreme of
+treating her with an exaggerated respect, and so fail either to arouse or
+to gratify her erotic needs. It is difficult to say which of these two
+courses of action is the more unfortunate; the result of both, however, is
+frequently found to be that a nominal marriage never becomes a real
+marriage.[385]
+
+Yet there can be no doubt whatever that the other group of men, the men
+who enter marriage without any erotic experiences, run even greater risks.
+These are often the best of men, both as regards personal character and
+mental power. It is indeed astonishing to find how ignorant, both
+practically and theoretically, very able and highly educated men may be
+concerning sexual matters.
+
+    "Complete abstinence during youth," says Freud (_Sexual-Probleme_,
+    March, 1908), "is not the best preparation for marriage in
+    a young man. Women divine this and prefer those of their
+    wooers who have already proved themselves to be men with
+    other women." Ellen Key, referring to the demand sometimes made
+    by women for purity in men (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 96), asks
+    whether women realize the effect of their admiration of the
+    experienced and confident man who knows women, on the shy and
+    hesitating youth, "who perhaps has been struggling hard for his
+    erotic purity, in the hope that a woman's happy smile will be the
+    reward of his conquest, and who is condemned to see how that
+    woman looks down on him with lofty compassion and gazes with
+    admiration at the leopard's spots." When the lover, in Laura
+    Marholm's _Was war es_? says to the heroine, "I have never yet
+    touched a woman," the girl "turns from him with horror, and it
+    seemed to her that a cold shudder went through her, a chilling
+    deception." The same feeling is manifested in an exaggerated form
+    in the passion often experienced by vigorous girls of eighteen to
+    twenty-four for old roués. (This has been discussed by Forel,
+    _Die Sexuelle Frage_, pp. 217 et seq.)
+
+    Other factors may enter in a woman's preference for the man who
+    has conquered other women. Even the most religious and moral
+    young woman, Valera remarks (_Doña Luz_, p. 205), likes to marry
+    a man who has loved many women; it gives a greater value to his
+    choice of her; it also offers her an opportunity of converting
+    him to higher ideals. No doubt when the inexperienced man meets
+    in marriage the equally inexperienced woman they often succeed in
+    adapting themselves to each other and a permanent _modus vivendi_
+    is constituted. But it is by no means so always. If the wife is
+    taught by instinct or experience she is apt to resent the
+    awkwardness and helplessness of her husband in the art of love.
+    Even if she is ignorant she may be permanently alienated and
+    become chronically frigid, through the brutal inconsiderateness
+    of her ignorant husband in carrying out what he conceives to be
+    his marital duties. (It has already been necessary to touch on
+    this point in discussing "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in vol.
+    iii of these _Studies_.) Sometimes, indeed, serious physical
+    injury has been inflicted on the bride owing to this ignorance of
+    the husband.
+
+    "I take it that most men have had pre-matrimonial
+    sex-relationships," a correspondent writes. "But I have known one
+    man at least who, up till the age of twenty, had not even a
+    rudimentary idea of sex matters. At twenty-nine, a few months
+    before marriage, he came to ask me how coitus was performed, and
+    displayed an ignorance that I could not believe to exist in the
+    mind of an otherwise intelligent man. He had evidently no
+    instinct to guide him, as the brutes have, and his reason was
+    unable to supply the necessary knowledge. It is very curious that
+    man should lose this instinctive knowledge. I have known another
+    man almost equally ignorant. He also came to me for advice in
+    marital duties. Both of these men masturbated, and they were
+    normally passionate." Such cases are not so very rare. Usually,
+    however, a certain amount of information has been acquired from
+    some for the most part unsatisfactory source, and the ignorance
+    is only partial, though not on that account less dangerous.
+
+    Balzac has compared the average husband to an orang-utan trying
+    to play the violin. "Love, as we instinctively feel, is the most
+    melodious of harmonies. Woman is a delicious instrument of
+    pleasure, but it is necessary to know its quivering strings,
+    study the pose of it, its timid keyboard, the changing and
+    capricious fingering. How many orangs--men, I mean, marry without
+    knowing what a woman is!... Nearly all men marry in the most
+    profound ignorance of women and of love" (Balzac, _Physiologie du
+    Mariage_, Meditation VII).
+
+    Neugebauer (_Monatsschrift für Geburtshülfe_, 1889, Bk. ix, pp.
+    221 et seq.) has collected over one hundred and fifty cases of
+    injury to women in coitus inflicted by the penis. The causes were
+    brutality, drunkenness of one or both parties, unusual position
+    in coitus, disproportion of the organs, pathological conditions
+    of the woman's organs (Cf. R.W. Taylor, _Practical Treatise on
+    Sexual Disorders_, Ch. XXXV). Blumreich also discusses the
+    injuries produced by violent coitus (Senator and Kaminer, _Health
+    and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, pp. 770-779). C.M.
+    Green (_Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, 13 Ap., 1893)
+    records two cases of rupture of vagina by sexual intercourse in
+    newly-married ladies, without evidence of any great violence.
+    Mylott (_British Medical Journal_, Sept. 16, 1899) records a
+    similar case occurring on the wedding night. The amount of force
+    sometimes exerted in coitus is evidenced by the cases, occurring
+    from time to time, in which intercourse takes place by the
+    urethra.
+
+    Eulenburg finds (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 69) that vaginismus, a
+    condition of spasmodic contraction of the vulva and exaggerated
+    sensibility on the attempt to effect coitus, is due to forcible
+    and unskilful attempts at the first coitus. Adler (_Die
+    Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, p. 160) also
+    believes that the scarred remains of the hymen, together with
+    painful memories of a violent first coitus, are the most frequent
+    cause of vaginismus.
+
+    The occasional cases, however, of physical injury or of
+    pathological condition produced by violent coitus at the
+    beginning of marriage constitute but a very small portion of the
+    evidence which witnesses to the evil results of the prevalent
+    ignorance regarding the art of love. As regards Germany,
+    Fürbringer writes (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 215): "I am perfectly satisfied
+    that the number of young married women who have a lasting painful
+    recollection of their first sexual intercourse exceeds by far the
+    number of those who venture to consult a doctor." As regards
+    England, the following experience is instructive: A lady asked
+    six married women in succession, privately, on the same day
+    concerning their bridal experiences. To all, sexual intercourse
+    had come as a shock; two had been absolutely ignorant about
+    sexual matters; the others had thought they knew what coitus was,
+    but were none the less shocked. These women were of the middle
+    class, perhaps above the average in intelligence; one was a
+    doctor.
+
+    Breuer and Freud, in their _Studien über Hysterie_ (p. 216),
+    pointed out that the bridal night is practically often a rape,
+    and that it sometimes leads to hysteria, which is not cured until
+    satisfying sexual relationships are established. Even when there
+    is no violence, Kisch (_Sexual Life of Woman_, Part II) regards
+    awkward and inexperienced coitus, leading to incomplete
+    excitement of the wife, as the chief cause of dyspareunia, or
+    absence of sexual gratification, although gross disproportion in
+    the size of the male and female organs, or disease in either
+    party, may lead to the same result. Dyspareunia, Kisch adds, is
+    astonishingly frequent, though sometimes women complain of it
+    without justification in order to arouse sympathy for themselves
+    as sacrifices on the altar of marriage; the constant sign is
+    absence of ejaculation on the woman's part. Kisch also observes
+    that wedding night deflorations are often really rapes. One young
+    bride, known to him, was so ignorant of the physical side of
+    love, and so overwhelmed by her husband's first attempt at
+    intercourse, that she fled from the house in the night, and
+    nothing would ever persuade her to return to her husband. (It is
+    worth noting that by Canon law, under such circumstances, the
+    Church might hold the marriage invalid. See Thomas Slater's
+    _Moral Theology_, vol. ii, p. 318, and a case in point, both
+    quoted by Rev. C.J. Shebbeare, "Marriage Law in the Church of
+    England," _Nineteenth Century_, Aug., 1909, p. 263.) Kisch
+    considers, also, that wedding tours are a mistake; since the
+    fatigue, the excitement, the long journeys, sight-seeing, false
+    modesty, bad hotel arrangements, often combine to affect the
+    bride unfavorably and produce the germs of serious illness. This
+    is undoubtedly the case.
+
+    The extreme psychic importance of the manner in which the act of
+    defloration is accomplished is strongly emphasized by Adler. He
+    regards it as a frequent cause of permanent sexual anæsthesia.
+    "This first moment in which the man's individuality attains its
+    full rights often decides the whole of life. The unskilled,
+    over-excited husband can then implant the seed of feminine
+    insensibility, and by continued awkwardness and coarseness
+    develop it into permanent anæsthesia. The man who takes
+    possession of his rights with reckless brutal masculine force
+    merely causes his wife anxiety and pain, and with every
+    repetition of the act increases her repulsion.... A large
+    proportion of cold-natured women represent a sacrifice by men,
+    due either to unconscious awkwardness, or, occasionally, to
+    conscious brutality towards the tender plant which should have
+    been cherished with peculiar art and love, but has been robbed of
+    the splendor of its development. All her life long, a wistful and
+    trembling woman will preserve the recollection of a brutal
+    wedding night, and, often enough, it remains a perpetual source
+    of inhibition every time that the husband seeks anew to gratify
+    his desires without adapting himself to his wife's desires for
+    love" (O. Adler, _Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des
+    Weibes_, pp. 159 et seq., 181 et seq.). "I have seen an honest
+    woman shudder with horror at her husband's approach," wrote
+    Diderot long ago in his essay "Sur les Femmes"; "I have seen her
+    plunge in the bath and feel herself never sufficiently washed
+    from the stain of duty." The same may still be said of a vast
+    army of women, victims of a pernicious system of morality which
+    has taught them false ideas of "conjugal duty" and has failed to
+    teach their husbands the art of love.
+
+Women, when their fine natural instincts have not been hopelessly
+perverted by the pruderies and prejudices which are so diligently
+instilled into them, understand the art of love more readily than men.
+Even when little more than children they can often completely take the cue
+that is given to them. Much more than is the case with men, at all events
+under civilized conditions, the art of love is with them an art that
+Nature makes. They always know more of love, as Montaigne long since said,
+than men can teach them, for it is a discipline that is born in their
+blood.[386]
+
+    The extensive inquiries of Sanford Bell (loc. cit.) show that the
+    emotions of sex-love may appear as early as the third year. It
+    must also be remembered that, both physically and psychically,
+    girls are more precocious, more mature, than boys (see, e.g.,
+    Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth edition, pp. 34 _et
+    seq._, 200, etc.). Thus, by the time she has reached the age of
+    puberty a girl has had time to become an accomplished mistress of
+    the minor arts of love. That the age of puberty is for girls the
+    age of love seems to be widely recognized by the popular mind.
+    Thus in a popular song of Bresse a girl  sings:--
+
+        "J'ai calculé mon âge,
+         J'ai quatorze à quinze ans.
+         Ne suis-je pas dans l'âge
+         D'y avoir un amant?"
+
+    This matter of the sexual precocity of girls has an important
+    bearing on the question of the "age of consent," or the age at
+    which it should be legal for a girl to consent to sexual
+    intercourse. Until within the last twenty-five years there has
+    been a tendency to set a very low age (even as low as ten) as the
+    age above which a man commits no offence in having sexual
+    intercourse with a girl. In recent years there has been a
+    tendency to run to the opposite and equally unfortunate extreme
+    of raising it to a very late age. In England, by the Criminal Law
+    Amendment Act of 1885, the age of consent was raised to sixteen
+    (this clause of the bill being carried in the House of Commons by
+    a majority of 108). This seems to be the reasonable age at which
+    the limit should be set and its extreme high limit in temperate
+    climates. It is the age recognized by the Italian Criminal Code,
+    and in many other parts of the civilized world. Gladstone,
+    however, was in favor of raising it to eighteen, and Howard, in
+    discussing this question as regards the United States
+    (_Matrimonial Institutions_, vol. iii, pp. 195-203), thinks it
+    ought everywhere to be raised to twenty-one, so coinciding with
+    the age of legal majority at which a woman can enter into
+    business or political relations. There has been, during recent
+    years, a wide limit of variation in the legislation of the
+    different American States on this point, the differences of the
+    two limits being as much as eight years, and in some important
+    States the act of intercourse with a girl under eighteen is
+    declared to be "rape," and punishable with imprisonment for life.
+
+    Such enactments as these, however, it must be recognized, are
+    arbitrary, artificial, and unnatural. They do not rest on a sound
+    biological basis, and cannot be enforced by the common sense of
+    the community. There is no proper analogy between the age of
+    legal majority which is fixed, approximately, with reference to
+    the ability to comprehend abstract matters of intelligence, and
+    the age of sexual maturity which occurs much earlier, both
+    physically and psychically, and is determined in women by a very
+    precise biological event: the completion of puberty in the onset
+    of menstruation. Among peoples living under natural conditions in
+    all parts of the world it is recognized that a girl becomes
+    sexually a woman at puberty; at that epoch she receives her
+    initiation into adult life and becomes a wife and a mother. To
+    declare that the act of intercourse with a woman who, by the
+    natural instinct of mankind generally, is regarded as old enough
+    for all the duties of womanhood, is a criminal act of rape,
+    punishable by imprisonment for life, can only be considered an
+    abuse of language, and, what is worse, an abuse of law, even if
+    we leave all psychological and moral considerations out of the
+    question, for it deprives the conception of rape of all that
+    renders it naturally and properly revolting.
+
+    The sound view in this question is clearly the view that it is
+    the girl's puberty which constitutes the criterion of the man's
+    criminality in sexually approaching her. In the temperate regions
+    of Europe and North America the average age of the appearance of
+    menstruation, the critical moment in the establishment of
+    complete puberty, is fifteen (see, e.g., Havelock Ellis, _Man and
+    Woman_, Ch. XI; the facts are set forth at length in Kisch's
+    _Sexual Life of Woman_, 1909). Therefore it is reasonable that
+    the act of an adult man in having sexual connection with a girl
+    under sixteen, with or without her consent, should properly be a
+    criminal act, severely punishable. In those lands where the
+    average age of puberty is higher or lower, the age of consent
+    should be raised or lowered accordingly. (Bruno Meyer, arguing
+    against any attempt to raise the age of consent above sixteen,
+    considers that the proper age of consent is generally fourteen,
+    for, as he rightly insists, the line of division is between the
+    ripe and the unripe personality, and while the latter should be
+    strictly preserved from the sphere of sexuality, only voluntary,
+    not compulsory, influence should be brought to bear on the
+    former. _Sexual-Probleme_, Ap., 1909.)
+
+    If we take into our view the wider considerations of psychology,
+    morality, and law, we shall find ample justification for this
+    point of view. We have to remember that a girl, during all the
+    years of ordinary school life, is always more advanced, both
+    physically and psychically, than a boy of the same age, and we
+    have to recognize that this precocity covers her sexual
+    development; for even though it is true, on the average, that
+    active sexual desire is not usually aroused in women until a
+    somewhat later age, there is also truth in the observation of Mr.
+    Thomas Hardy (_New Review_, June, 1894): "It has never struck me
+    that the spider is invariably male and the fly invariably
+    female." Even, therefore, when sexual intercourse takes place
+    between a girl and a youth somewhat older than herself, she is
+    likely to be the more mature, the more self-possessed, and the
+    more responsible of the two, and often the one who has taken the
+    more active part in initiating the act. (This point has been
+    discussed in "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in vol. iii of these
+    _Studies_.) It must also be remembered that when a girl has once
+    reached the age of puberty, and put on all the manner and habits
+    as well as the physical development of a woman, it is no longer
+    possible for a man always to estimate her age. It is easy to see
+    that a girl has not yet reached the age of puberty; it is
+    impossible to tell whether a mature woman is under or over
+    eighteen; it is therefore, to say the least, unjust to make her
+    male partner's fate for life depend on the recognition of a
+    distinction which has no basis in nature. Such considerations
+    are, indeed, so obvious that there is no chance of carrying out
+    thoroughly in practice the doctrine that a man should be
+    imprisoned for life for having intercourse with a girl who is
+    over the age of sixteen. It is better, from the legal point of
+    view, to cast the net less widely and to be quite sure that it is
+    adapted to catch the real and conscious offender, who may be
+    punished without offending the common sense of the community.
+    (Cf. Bloch, _The Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. XXIV; he considers
+    that the "age of consent" should begin with the completion of the
+    sixteenth year.)
+
+    It may be necessary to add that the establishment of the "age of
+    consent" on this basis by no means implies that intercourse with
+    girls but little over sixteen should be encouraged, or even
+    socially and morally tolerated. Here, however, we are not in the
+    sphere of law. It is the natural tendency of the well-born and
+    well-nurtured girl under civilized conditions to hold herself in
+    reserve, and the pressure whereby that tendency is maintained and
+    furthered must be supplied by the whole of her environment,
+    primarily by the intelligent reflection of the girl herself when
+    she has reached the age of adolescence. To foster in a young
+    woman who has long passed the epoch of puberty the notion that
+    she has no responsibility in the guardianship of her own body and
+    soul is out of harmony with modern feeling, as well as
+    unfavorable to the training of women for the world. The States
+    which have been induced to adopt the high limit of the age of
+    consent have, indeed, thereby made an abject confession of their
+    inability to maintain a decent moral level by more legitimate
+    means; they may profitably serve as a warning rather than as an
+    example.
+
+The knowledge of women cannot, however, replace, the ignorance of men,
+but, on the contrary, merely serves to reveal it. For in the art of love
+the man must necessarily take the initiative. It is he who must first
+unseal the mystery of the intimacies and audacities which the woman's
+heart may hold. The risk of meeting with even the shadow of contempt or
+disgust is too serious to allow a woman, even a wife, to reveal the
+secrets of love to a man who has not shown himself to be an
+initiate.[387] Numberless are the jovial and contented husbands who have
+never suspected, and will never know, that their wives carry about with
+them, sometimes with silent resentment, the ache of mysterious _tabus_.
+The feeling that there are delicious privacies and privileges which she
+has never been asked to take, or forced to accept, often erotically
+divorces a wife from a husband who never realizes what he has missed.[388]
+The case of such husbands is all the harder because, for the most part,
+all that they have done is the result of the morality that has been
+preached to them. They have been taught from boyhood to be strenuous and
+manly and clean-minded, to seek by all means to put out of their minds the
+thought of women or the longing for sensuous indulgence. They have been
+told on all sides that only in marriage is it right or even safe to
+approach women. They have acquired the notion that sexual indulgence and
+all that appertains to it is something low and degrading, at the worst a
+mere natural necessity, at the best a duty to be accomplished in a direct,
+honorable and straight-forward manner. No one seems to have told them that
+love is an art, and that to gain real possession of a woman's soul and
+body is a task that requires the whole of a man's best skill and insight.
+It may well be that when a man learns his lesson too late he is inclined
+to turn ferociously on the society that by its conspiracy of
+pseudo-morality has done its best to ruin his life, and that of his wife.
+In some of these cases husband or wife or both are finally attracted to a
+third person, and a divorce enables them to start afresh with better
+experience under happier auspices. But as things are at present that is a
+sad and serious process, for many impossible. They are happier, as Milton
+pointed out, whose trials of love before marriage "have been so many
+divorces to teach them experience."
+
+The general ignorance concerning the art of love may be gauged by the fact
+that perhaps the question in this matter most frequently asked is the
+crude question how often sexual intercourse should take place. That is a
+question, indeed, which has occupied the founders of religion, the
+law-givers, and the philosophers of mankind, from the earliest times.[389]
+Zoroaster said it should be once in every nine days. The laws of Manes
+allowed intercourse during fourteen days of the month, but a famous
+ancient Hindu physician, Susruta, prescribed it six times a month, except
+during the heat of summer when it should be once a month, while other
+Hindu authorities say three or four times a month. Solon's requirement of
+the citizen that intercourse should take place three times a month fairly
+agrees with Zoroaster's. Mohammed, in the Koran, decrees intercourse once
+a week. The Jewish Talmud is more discriminating, and distinguishes
+between different classes of people; on the vigorous and healthy young
+man, not compelled to work hard, once a day is imposed, on the ordinary
+working man twice a week, on learned men once a week. Luther considered
+twice a week the proper frequency of intercourse.
+
+It will be observed that, as we might expect, these estimates tend to
+allow a greater interval in the earlier ages when erotic stimulation was
+probably less and erotic erethism probably rare, and to involve an
+increased frequency as we approach modern civilization. It will also be
+observed that variation occurs within fairly narrow limits. This is
+probably due to the fact that these law-givers were in all cases men.
+Women law-givers would certainly have shown a much greater tendency to
+variation, since the variations of the sexual impulse are greater in
+women.[390] Thus Zenobia required the approach of her husband once a
+month, provided that impregnation had not taken place the previous month,
+while another queen went very far to the other extreme, for we are told
+that the Queen of Aragon, after mature deliberation, ordained six times a
+day as the proper rule in a legitimate marriage.[391]
+
+    It may be remarked, in passing, that the estimates of the proper
+    frequency of sexual intercourse may always be taken to assume
+    that there is a cessation during the menstrual period. This is
+    especially the case as regards early periods of culture when
+    intercourse at this time is usually regarded as either dangerous
+    or sinful, or both. (This point has been discussed in the
+    "Phenomena of Periodicity" in volume i of these _Studies_.) Under
+    civilized conditions the inhibition is due to æsthetic reasons,
+    the wife, even if she desires intercourse, feeling a repugnance
+    to be approached at a time when she regards herself as
+    "disgusting," and the husband easily sharing this attitude. It
+    may, however, be pointed out that the æsthetic objection is very
+    largely the result of the superstitious horror of water which is
+    still widely felt at this time, and would, to some extent,
+    disappear if a more scrupulous cleanliness were observed. It
+    remains a good general rule to abstain from sexual intercourse
+    during the menstrual period, but in some cases there may be
+    adequate reason for breaking it. This is so when desire is
+    specially strong at this time, or when intercourse is physically
+    difficult at other times but easier during the relaxation of the
+    parts caused by menstruation. It must be remembered also that the
+    time when the menstrual flow is beginning to cease is probably,
+    more than any other period of the month, the biologically proper
+    time for sexual intercourse, since not only is intercourse
+    easiest then, and also most gratifying to the female, but it
+    affords the most favorable opportunity for securing
+    fertilization.
+
+    Schurig long since brought together evidence (_Parthenologia_,
+    pp. 302 et seq.) showing that coitus is most easy during
+    menstruation. Some of the Catholic theologians (like Sanchez, and
+    later, Liguori), going against the popular opinion, have
+    distinctly permitted intercourse during menstruation, though many
+    earlier theologians regarded it as a mortal sin. From the
+    medical side, Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 249) advocates coitus not
+    only at the end of menstruation, but even during the latter part
+    of the period, as being the time when women most usually need it,
+    the marked disagreeableness of temper often shown by women at
+    this time, he says, being connected with the suppression,
+    demanded by custom, of a natural desire. "It is almost always
+    during menstruation that the first clouds appear on the
+    matrimonial horizon."
+
+In modern times the physiologists and physicians who have expressed any
+opinion on this subject have usually come very near to Luther's dictum.
+Haller said that intercourse should not be much more frequent than twice a
+week.[392] Acton said once a week, and so also Hammond, even for healthy
+men between the ages of twenty-five and forty.[393] Fürbringer only
+slightly exceeds this estimate by advocating from fifty to one hundred
+single acts in the year.[394] Forel advises two or three times a week for
+a man in the prime of manhood, but he adds that for some healthy and
+vigorous men once a month appears to be excess.[395] Mantegazza, in his
+_Hygiene of Love_, also states that, for a man between twenty and thirty,
+two or three times a week represents the proper amount of intercourse, and
+between the ages of thirty and forty-five, twice a week. Guyot recommends
+every three days.[396]
+
+It seems, however, quite unnecessary to lay down any general rules
+regarding the frequency of coitus. Individual desire and individual
+aptitude, even within the limits of health, vary enormously. Moreover, if
+we recognize that the restraint of desire is sometimes desirable, and
+often necessary for prolonged periods, it is as well to refrain from any
+appearance of asserting the necessity of sexual intercourse at frequent
+and regular intervals. The question is chiefly of importance in order to
+guard against excess, or even against the attempt to live habitually close
+to the threshold of excess. Many authorities are, therefore, careful to
+point out that it is inadvisable to be too definite. Thus Erb, while
+remarking that, for some, Luther's dictum represents the extreme maximum,
+adds that others can go far beyond that amount with impunity, and he
+considers that such variations are congenital.[397] Ribbing, again, while
+expressing general agreement with Luther's rule, protests against any
+attempt to lay down laws for everyone, and is inclined to say that as
+often as one likes is a safe rule, so long as there are no bad
+after-effects.[398]
+
+    It seems to be generally agreed that bad effects from excess in
+    coitus, when they do occur, are rare in women (see, e.g.,
+    Hammond, _Sexual Impotence_, p. 127). Occasionally, however, evil
+    effects occur in women. (The case, possibly to be mentioned in
+    this connection, has been recorded of a man whose three wives all
+    became insane after marriage, _Journal of Mental Science_, Jan.,
+    1879, p. 611.) In cases of sexual excess great physical
+    exhaustion, with suspicion and delusions, is often observed.
+    Hutchinson has recorded three cases of temporary blindness, all
+    in men, the result of sexual excess after marriage (_Archives of
+    Surgery_, Jan., 1893). The old medical authors attributed many
+    evil results to excess in coitus. Thus Schurig (_Spermatologia_,
+    1720, pp. 260 et seq.) brings together cases of insanity,
+    apoplexy, syncope, epilepsy, loss of memory, blindness, baldness,
+    unilateral perspiration, gout, and death attributed to this
+    cause; of death many cases are given, some in women, but one may
+    easily perceive that _post_ was often mistaken for _propter_.
+
+There is, however, another consideration which can scarcely escape the
+reader of the present work. Nearly all the estimates of the desirable
+frequence of coitus are framed to suit the supposed physiological needs of
+the husband,[399] and they appear usually to be framed in the same spirit
+of exclusive attention to those needs as though the physiological needs of
+the evacuation of the bowels or the bladder were in question. But sexual
+needs are the needs of two persons, of the husband and of the wife. It is
+not enough to ascertain the needs of the husband; it is also necessary to
+ascertain the needs of the wife. The resultant must be a harmonious
+adjustment of these two groups of needs. That consideration alone, in
+conjunction with the wide variations of individual needs, suffices to
+render any definite rules of very trifling value.
+
+    It is important to remember the wide limits of variation in
+    sexual capacity, as well as the fact that such variations in
+    either direction may be healthy and normal, though undoubtedly
+    when they become extreme variations may have a pathological
+    significance. In one case, for instance, a man has intercourse
+    once a month and finds this sufficient; he has no nocturnal
+    emissions nor any strong desires in the interval; yet he leads an
+    idle and luxurious life and is not restrained by any moral or
+    religious scruples; if he much exceeds the frequency which suits
+    him he suffers from ill-health, though otherwise quite healthy
+    except for a weak digestion. At the other extreme, a happily
+    married couple, between forty-five and fifty, much attached to
+    each other, had engaged in sexual intercourse every night for
+    twenty years, except during the menstrual period and advanced
+    pregnancy, which had only occurred once; they are hearty,
+    full-blooded, intellectual people, fond of good living, and they
+    attribute their affection and constancy to this frequent
+    indulgence in coitus; the only child, a girl, is not strong,
+    though fairly healthy.
+
+    The cases are numerous in which, on special occasions, it is
+    possible for people who are passionately attached to each other
+    to repeat the act of coitus, or at all events the orgasm, an
+    inordinate number of times within a few hours. This usually
+    occurs at the beginning of an intimacy or after a long
+    separation. Thus in one case a newly-married woman experienced
+    the orgasm fourteen times in one night, her husband in the same
+    period experiencing it seven times. In another case a woman who
+    had lived a chaste life, when sexual relationships finally began,
+    once experienced orgasm fourteen or fifteen times to her
+    partner's three times. In a case which, I have been assured may
+    be accepted as authentic, a young wife of highly erotic, very
+    erethic, slightly abnormal temperament, after a month's absence
+    from her husband, was excited twenty-six times within an hour and
+    a quarter; her husband, a much older man, having two orgasms
+    during this period; the wife admitted that she felt a "complete
+    wreck" after this, but it is evident that if this case may be
+    regarded as authentic the orgasms were of extremely slight
+    intensity. A young woman, newly married to a physically robust
+    man, once had intercourse with him eight times in two hours,
+    orgasm occurring each time in both parties. Guttceit (_Dreissig
+    Jahre Praxis_, vol. ii. p. 311), in Russia, knew many cases in
+    which young men of twenty-two to twenty-eight had intercourse
+    more than ten times in one night, though after the fourth time
+    there is seldom any semen. He had known some men who had
+    masturbated in early boyhood, and began to consort with women at
+    fifteen, yet remained sexually vigorous in old age, while he knew
+    others who began intercourse late and were losing force at forty.
+    Mantegazza, who knew a man who had intercourse fourteen times in
+    one day, remarks that the stories of the old Italian novelists
+    show that twelve times was regarded as a rare exception.
+    Burchard, Alexander VI's secretary, states that the Florentine
+    Ambassador's son, in Rome in 1489, "knew a girl seven times in
+    one hour" (J. Burchard, _Diarium_, ed. Thuasne, vol. i, p. 329).
+    Olivier, Charlemagne's knight, boasted, according to legend, that
+    he could show his virile power one hundred times in one night, if
+    allowed to sleep with the Emperor of Constantinople's daughter;
+    he was allowed to try, it is said, and succeeded thirty times
+    (Schultz, _Das Höfische Leben_, vol. i, p. 581).
+
+    It will be seen that whenever the sexual act is repeated
+    frequently within a short time it is very rarely indeed that the
+    husband can keep pace with the wife. It is true that the woman's
+    sexual energy is aroused more slowly and with more difficulty
+    than the man's, but as it becomes aroused its momentum increases.
+    The man, whose energy is easily aroused, is easily exhausted; the
+    woman has often scarcely attained her energy until after the
+    first orgasm is over. It is sometimes a surprise to a young
+    husband, happily married, to find that the act of sexual
+    intercourse which completely satisfies him has only served to
+    arouse his wife's ardor. Very many women feel that the repetition
+    of the act several times in succession is needed to, as they may
+    express it, "clear the system," and, far from producing
+    sleepiness and fatigue, it renders them bright and lively.
+
+    The young and vigorous woman, who has lived a chaste life,
+    sometimes feels when she commences sexual relationships as though
+    she really required several husbands, and needed intercourse at
+    least once a day, though later when she becomes adjusted to
+    married life she reaches the conclusion that her desires are not
+    abnormally excessive. The husband has to adjust himself to his
+    wife's needs, through his sexual force when he possesses it, and,
+    if not, through his skill and consideration. The rare men who
+    possess a genital potency which they can exert to the
+    gratification of women without injury to themselves have been, by
+    Professor Benedikt, termed "sexual athletes," and he remarks that
+    such men easily dominate women. He rightly regards Casanova as
+    the type of the sexual athlete (_Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, Jan., 1896). Näcke reports the case of a man whom he
+    regards as a sexual athlete, who throughout his life had
+    intercourse once or twice daily with his wife, or if she was
+    unwilling, with another woman, until he became insane at the age
+    of seventy-five (_Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, Aug.,
+    1908, p. 507). This should probably, however, be regarded rather
+    as a case of morbid hyperæsthesia than of sexual athleticism.
+
+At this stage we reach the fundamental elements of the art of love. We
+have seen that many moral practices and moral theories which have been
+widely current in Christendom have developed traditions, still by no means
+extinct among us, which were profoundly antagonistic to the art of love.
+The idea grew up of "marital duties," of "conjugal rights."[400] The
+husband had the right and the duty to perform sexual intercourse with his
+wife, whatever her wishes in the matter might be, while the wife had the
+duty and the right (the duty in her case being usually put first) to
+submit to such intercourse, which she was frequently taught to regard as
+something low and merely physical, an unpleasant and almost degrading
+necessity which she would do well to put out of her thoughts as speedily
+as possible. It is not surprising that such an attitude towards marriage
+has been highly favorable to conjugal unhappiness, more especially that of
+the wife,[401] and it has tended to promote adultery and divorce. We might
+have been more surprised had it been otherwise.
+
+The art of love is based on the fundamental natural fact of courtship; and
+courtship is the effort of the male to make himself acceptable to the
+female.[402] "The art of love," said Vatsyayana, one of the greatest of
+authorities, "is the art of pleasing women." "A man must never permit
+himself a pleasure with his wife," said Balzac in his _Physiologie du
+Mariage_, "which he has not the skill first to make her desire." The whole
+art of love is there. Women, naturally and instinctively, seek to make
+themselves desirable to men, even to men whom they are supremely
+indifferent to, and the woman who is in love with a man, by an equally
+natural instinct, seeks to shape herself to the measure which individually
+pleases him. This tendency is not really modified by the fundamental fact
+that in these matters it is only the arts that Nature makes which are
+truly effective. It is finally by what he is that a man arouses a woman's
+deepest emotions of sympathy or of antipathy, and he is often pleasing her
+more by displaying his fitness to play a great part in the world outside
+than by any acquired accomplishments in the arts of courtship. When,
+however, the serious and intimate play of physical love begins, the
+woman's part is, even biologically, on the surface the more passive
+part.[403] She is, on the physical side, inevitably the instrument in
+love; it must be his hand and his bow which evoke the music.
+
+In speaking of the art of love, however, it is impossible to disentangle
+completely the spiritual from the physical. The very attempt to do so is,
+indeed, a fatal mistake. The man who can only perceive the physical side
+of the sexual relationship is, as Hinton was accustomed to say, on a level
+with the man who, in listening to a sonata of Beethoven on the violin, is
+only conscious of the physical fact that a horse's tail is being scraped
+against a sheep's entrails.
+
+    The image of the musical instrument constantly recurs to those
+    who write of the art of love. Balzac's comparison of the
+    unskilful husband to the orang-utan attempting to play the violin
+    has already been quoted. Dr. Jules Guyot, in his serious and
+    admirable little book, _Bréviaire de l'Amour Expérimental_, falls
+    on to the same comparison: "There are an immense number of
+    ignorant, selfish, and brutal men who give themselves no trouble
+    to study the instrument which God has confided to them, and do
+    not so much as suspect that it is necessary to study it in order
+    to draw out its slightest chords.... Every direct contact, even
+    with the clitoris, every attempt at coitus [when the feminine
+    organism is not aroused], exercises a painful sensation, an
+    instinctive repulsion, a feeling of disgust and aversion. Any
+    man, any husband, who is ignorant of this fact, is ridiculous and
+    contemptible. Any man, any husband, who, knowing it, dares to
+    disregard it, has committed an outrage.... In the final
+    combination of man and woman, the positive element, the husband,
+    has the initiative and the responsibility for the conjugal life.
+    He is the minstrel who will produce harmony or cacophony by his
+    hand and his bow. The wife, from this point of view, is really
+    the many-stringed instrument who will give out harmonious or
+    discordant sounds, according as she is well or ill handled"
+    (Guyot, _Bréviaire_, pp. 99, 115, 138).
+
+    That such love corresponds to the woman's need there cannot be
+    any doubt. All developed women desire to be loved, says Ellen
+    Key, not "en mâle" but "en artiste" (_Liebe und Ehe_, p. 92).
+    "Only a man of whom she feels that he has also the artist's joy
+    in her, and who shows this joy through his timid and delicate
+    touch on her soul as on her body, can keep the woman of to-day.
+    She will only belong to a man who continues to long for her even
+    when he holds her locked in his arms. And when such a woman
+    breaks out: 'You want me, but you cannot caress me, you cannot
+    tell what I want,' then that man is judged." Love is indeed, as
+    Remy de Gourmont remarks, a delicate art, for which, as for
+    painting or music, only some are apt.
+
+It must not be supposed that the demand on the lover and husband to
+approach a woman in the same spirit, with the same consideration and
+skilful touch, as a musician takes up his instrument is merely a demand
+made by modern women who are probably neurotic or hysterical. No reader of
+these _Studies_ who has followed the discussions of courtship and of
+sexual selection in previous volumes can fail to realize that--although we
+have sought to befool ourselves by giving an illegitimate connotation to
+the word "brutal"--consideration and respect for the female is all but
+universal in the sexual relationships of the animals below man; it is only
+at the furthest remove from the "brutes," among civilized men, that sexual
+"brutality" is at all common, and even there it is chiefly the result of
+ignorance. If we go as low as the insects, who have been disciplined by
+no family life, and are generally counted as careless and wanton, we may
+sometimes find this attitude towards the female fully developed, and the
+extreme consideration of the male for the female whom yet he holds firmly
+beneath him, the tender preliminaries, the extremely gradual approach to
+the supreme sexual act, may well furnish an admirable lesson.
+
+This greater difficulty and delay on the part of women in responding to
+the erotic excitation of courtship is really very fundamental and--as has
+so often been necessary to point out in previous volumes of these
+_Studies_--it covers the whole of woman's erotic life, from the earliest
+age when coyness and modesty develop. A woman's love develops much more
+slowly than a man's for a much longer period. There is real psychological
+significance in the fact that a man's desire for a woman tends to arise
+spontaneously, while a woman's desire for a man tends only to be aroused
+gradually, in the measure of her complexly developing relationship to him.
+Hence her sexual emotion is often less abstract, more intimately
+associated with the individual lover in whom it is centred. "The way to my
+senses is through my heart," wrote Mary Wollstonecraft to her lover Imlay,
+"but, forgive me! I think there is sometimes a shorter cut to yours." She
+spoke for the best, if not for the largest part, of her sex. A man often
+reaches the full limit of his physical capacity for love at a single step,
+and it would appear that his psychic limits are often not more difficult
+to reach. This is the solid fact underlying the more hazardous statement,
+so often made, that woman is monogamic and man polygamic.
+
+    On the more physical side, Guttceit states that a month after
+    marriage not more than two women out of ten have experienced the
+    full pleasure of sexual intercourse, and it may not be for six
+    months, a year, or even till after the birth of several children,
+    that a woman experiences the full enjoyment of the physical
+    relationship, and even then only with a man she completely loves,
+    so that the conditions of sexual gratification are much more
+    complex in women than in men. Similarly, on the psychic side,
+    Ellen Key remarks (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 111): "It is
+    certainly true that a woman desires sexual gratification from a
+    man. But while in her this desire not seldom only appears after
+    she has begun to love a man enough to give her life for him, a
+    man often desires to possess a woman physically before he loves
+    her enough to give even his little finger for her. The fact that
+    love in a woman mostly goes from the soul to the senses and often
+    fails to reach them, and that in a man it mostly goes from the
+    senses to the soul and frequently never reaches that goal--this
+    is of all the existing differences between men and women that
+    which causes most torture to both." It will, of course, be
+    apparent to the reader of the fourth volume of these _Studies_ on
+    "Sexual Selection in Man" that the method of stating the
+    difference which has commended itself to Mary Wollstonecraft,
+    Ellen Key, and others, is not strictly correct, and the chastest
+    woman, after, for example, taking too hot a bath, may find that
+    her heart is not the only path through which her senses may be
+    affected. The senses are the only channels to the external world
+    which we possess, and love must come through these channels or
+    not at all. The difference, however, seems to be a real one, if
+    we translate it to mean that, as we have seen reason to believe
+    in previous volumes of these _Studies_, there are in women (1)
+    preferential sensory paths of sexual stimuli, such as,
+    apparently, a predominence of tactile and auditory paths as
+    compared with men; (2) a more massive, complex, and delicately
+    poised sexual mechanism; and, as a result of this, (3) eventually
+    a greater amount of nervous and cerebral sexual irradiation.
+
+    It must be remembered, at the same time, that while this
+    distinction represents a real tendency in sexual differentiation,
+    with an organic and not merely traditional basis, it has about it
+    nothing whatever that is absolute. There are a vast number of
+    women whose sexual facility, again by natural tendency and not
+    merely by acquired habits, is as marked as that of any man, if
+    not more so. In the sexual field, as we have seen in a previous
+    volume (_Analysis of the Sexual Impulse_), the range of
+    variability is greater in women than in men.
+
+The fact that love is an art, a method of drawing music from an
+instrument, and not the mere commission of an act by mutual consent, makes
+any verbal agreement to love of little moment. If love were a matter of
+contract, of simple intellectual consent, of question and answer, it would
+never have come into the world at all. Love appeared as art from the
+first, and the subsequent developments of the summary methods of reason
+and speech cannot abolish that fundamental fact. This is scarcely realized
+by those ill-advised lovers who consider that the first step in
+courtship--and perhaps even the whole of courtship--is for a man to ask a
+woman to be his wife. That is so far from being the case that it
+constantly happens that the premature exhibition of so large a demand at
+once and for ever damns all the wooer's chances. It is lamentable, no
+doubt, that so grave and fateful a matter as that of marriage should so
+often be decided without calm deliberation and reasonable forethought. But
+sexual relationships can never, and should never, be merely a matter of
+cold calculation. When a woman is suddenly confronted by the demand that
+she should yield herself up as a wife to a man who has not yet succeeded
+in gaining her affections she will not fail to find--provided she is
+lifted above the cold-hearted motives of self-interest--that there are
+many sound reasons why she should not do so. And having thus squarely
+faced the question in cool blood and decided it, she will henceforth,
+probably, meet that wooer with a tunic of steel enclosing her breast.
+
+    "Love must be _revealed_ by acts and not _betrayed_ by words. I
+    regard as abnormal the extraordinary method of a hasty avowal
+    beforehand; for that represents not the direct but the reflex
+    path of transmission. However sweet and normal the avowal may be
+    when once reciprocity has been realized, as a method of conquest
+    I consider it dangerous and likely to produce the reverse of the
+    result desired." I take these wise words from a thoughtful "Essai
+    sur l'Amour" (_Archives de Psychologie_, 1904) by a
+    non-psychological Swiss writer who is recording his own
+    experiences, and who insists much on the predominance of the
+    spiritual and mental element in love.
+
+    It is worthy of note that this recognition that direct speech is
+    out of place in courtship must not be regarded as a refinement of
+    civilization. Among primitive peoples everywhere it is perfectly
+    well recognized that the offer of love, and its acceptance or its
+    refusal, must be made by actions symbolically, and not by the
+    crude method of question and answer. Among the Indians of
+    Paraguay, who allow much sexual freedom to their women, but never
+    buy or sell love, Mantegazza states (_Rio de la Plata e
+    Tenerife_, 1867, p. 225) that a girl of the people will come to
+    your door or window and timidly, with a confused air, ask you, in
+    the Guarani tongue, for a drink of water. But she will smile if
+    you innocently offer her water. Among the Tarahumari Indians of
+    Mexico, with whom the initiative in courting belongs to the
+    women, the girl takes the first step through her parents, then
+    she throws small pebbles at the young man; if he throws them back
+    the matter is concluded (Carl Lumholtz, _Scribner's Magazine_,
+    Sept., 1894, p. 299). In many parts of the world it is the woman
+    who chooses her husband (see, e.g., M.A. Potter, _Sohrab and
+    Rustem_, pp. 169 et seq.), and she very frequently adopts a
+    symbolical method of proposal. Except when the commercial element
+    predominates in marriage, a similar method is frequently adopted
+    by men also in making proposals of marriage.
+
+It is not only at the beginning of courtship that the act of love has
+little room for formal declarations, for the demands and the avowals that
+can be clearly defined in speech. The same rule holds even in the most
+intimate relationships of old lovers, throughout the married life. The
+permanent element in modesty, which survives every sexual initiation to
+become intertwined with all the exquisite impudicities of love, combines
+with a true erotic instinct to rebel against formal demands, against
+verbal affirmations or denials. Love's requests cannot be made in words,
+nor truthfully answered in words: a fine divination is still needed as
+long as love lasts.
+
+    The fact that the needs of love cannot be expressed but must be
+    divined has long been recognized by those who have written of the
+    art of love, alike by writers within and without the European
+    Christian traditions. Thus Zacchia, in his great medico-legal
+    treatise, points out that a husband must be attentive to the
+    signs of sexual desire in his wife. "Women," he says, "when
+    sexual desire arises within them are accustomed to ask their
+    husbands questions on matters of love; they flatter and caress
+    them; they allow some part of their body to be uncovered as if by
+    accident; their breasts appear to swell; they show unusual
+    alacrity; they blush; their eyes are bright; and if they
+    experience unusual ardor they stammer, talk beside the mark, and
+    are scarcely mistress of themselves. At the same time their
+    private parts become hot and swell. All these signs should
+    convince a husband, however inattentive he may be, that his wife
+    craves for satisfaction" (_Zacchiæ Quæstionum Medico-legalium
+    Opus_, lib. vii, tit. iii, quæst. I; vol. ii, p. 624 in ed. of
+    1688).
+
+    The old Hindu erotic writers attributed great importance alike to
+    the man's attentiveness to the woman's erotic needs, and to his
+    skill and consideration in all the preliminaries of the sexual
+    act. He must do all that he can to procure her pleasure, says
+    Vatsyayana. When she is on her bed and perhaps absorbed in
+    conversation, he gently unfastens the knot of her lower garment.
+    If she protests he closes her mouth with kisses. Some authors,
+    Vatsyayana remarks, hold that the lover should begin by sucking
+    the nipples of her breasts. When erection occurs he touches her
+    with his hands, softly caressing the various parts of her body.
+    He should always press those parts of her body towards which she
+    turns her eyes. If she is shy, and it is the first time, he will
+    place his hands between her thighs which she will instinctively
+    press together. If she is young he will put his hands on her
+    breasts, and she will no doubt cover them with her own. If she is
+    mature he will do all that may seem fitting and agreeable to both
+    parties. Then he will take her hair and her chin between his
+    fingers and kiss them. If she is very young she will blush and
+    close her eyes. By the way in which she receives his caresses he
+    will divine what pleases her most in union. The signs of her
+    enjoyment are that her body becomes limp, her eyes close, she
+    loses all timidity, and takes part in the movements which bring
+    her most closely to him. If, on the other hand, she feels no
+    pleasure, she strikes the bed with her hands, will not allow the
+    man to continue, is sullen, even bites or kicks, and continues
+    the movements of coitus when the man has finished. In such cases,
+    Vatsyayana adds, it is his duty to rub the vulva with his hand
+    before union until it is moist, and he should perform the same
+    movements afterwards if his own orgasm has occurred first.
+
+    With regard to Indian erotic art generally, and more especially
+    Vatsyayana, who appears to have lived some sixteen hundred years
+    ago, information will be found in Valentino, "L'Hygiène conjugale
+    chez les Hindous," _Archives Générales de Médecine_, Ap. 25,
+    1905; Iwan Bloch, "Indische Medizin," Puschmann's _Handbuch der
+    Geschichte der Medizin_, vol. i; Heimann and Stephan, "Beiträge
+    zur Ehehygiene nach der Lehren des Kamasutram," _Zeitschaft für
+    Sexualwissenschaft_, Sept., 1908; also a review of Richard
+    Schmidt's German translation of the _Kamashastra_ of Vatsyayana
+    in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1902, Heft 2. There has long
+    existed an English translation of this work. In the lengthy
+    preface to the French translation Lamairesse points out the
+    superiority of Indian erotic art to that of the Latin poets by
+    its loftier spirit, and greater purity and idealism. It is
+    throughout marked by respect for women, and its spirit is
+    expressed in the well-known proverb: "Thou shalt not strike a
+    woman even with a flower." See also Margaret Noble's _Web of
+    Indian Life_, especially Ch. III, "On the Hindu Woman as Wife,"
+    and Ch. IV, "Love Strong as Death."
+
+    The advice given to husbands by Guyot (_Bréviaire de l'Amour
+    Expérimental_, p. 422) closely conforms to that given, under very
+    different social conditions, by Zacchia and Vatsyayana. "In a
+    state of sexual need and desire the woman's lips are firm and
+    vibrant, the breasts are swollen, and the nipples erect. The
+    intelligent husband cannot be deceived by these signs. If they do
+    not exist, it is his part to provoke them by his kisses and
+    caresses, and if, in spite of his tender and delicate
+    excitations, the lips show no heat and the breasts no swelling,
+    and especially if the nipples are disagreeably irritated by
+    slight suction, he must arrest his transports and abstain from
+    all contact with the organs of generation, for he would certainly
+    find them in a state of exhaustion and disposed to repulsion. If,
+    on the contrary, the accessory organs are animated, or become
+    animated beneath his caresses, he must extend them to the
+    generative organs, and especially to the clitoris, which beneath
+    his touch will become full of appetite and ardor."
+
+    The importance of the preliminary titillation of the sexual
+    organs has been emphasized by a long succession alike of erotic
+    writers and physicians, from Ovid (_Ars Amatoria_ end of Bk. II)
+    onwards. Eulenburg (_Die Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 79) considers
+    that titillation is sometimes necessary, and Adler, likewise
+    insisting on the preliminaries of psychic and physical courtship
+    (_Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, p. 188),
+    observes that the man who is gifted with insight and skill in
+    these matters possesses a charm which will draw sparks of
+    sensibility from the coldest feminine heart. The advice of the
+    physician is at one in this matter with the maxims of the erotic
+    artist and with the needs of the loving woman. In making love
+    there must be no haste, wrote  Ovid:--
+
+        "Crede mihi, non est Veneris properanda voluptas,
+         Sed sensim tarda prolicienda mora."
+
+    "Husbands, like spoiled children," a woman has written, "too
+    often miss the pleasure which might otherwise be theirs, by
+    clamoring for it at the wrong time. The man who thinks this
+    prolonged courtship previous to the act of sex union wearisome,
+    has never given it a trial. It is the approach to the marital
+    embrace, as well as the embrace itself, which constitutes the
+    charm of the relation between the sexes."
+
+    It not seldom happens, remarks Adler (op. cit., p. 186), that the
+    insensibility of the wife must be treated--in the husband. And
+    Guyot, bringing forward the same point, writes (op. cit., p.
+    130): "If by a delay of tender study the husband has understood
+    his young bride, if he is able to realize for her the ineffable
+    happiness and dreams of youth, he will be beloved forever; he
+    will be her master and sovereign lord. If he has failed to
+    understand her he will fatigue and exhaust himself in vain
+    efforts, and finally class her among the indifferent and cold
+    women. She will be his wife by duty, the mother of his children.
+    He will take his pleasure elsewhere, for man is ever in pursuit
+    of the woman who experiences the genesic spasm. Thus the vague
+    and unintelligent search for a half who can unite in that
+    delirious finale is the chief cause of all conjugal dissolutions.
+    In such a case a man resembles a bad musician who changes his
+    violin in the hope that a new instrument will bring the melody he
+    is unable to play."
+
+The fact that there is thus an art in love, and that sexual intercourse is
+not a mere physical act to be executed by force of muscles, may help to
+explain why it is that in so many parts of the world defloration is not
+immediately effected on marriage.[404] No doubt religious or magic reasons
+may also intervene here, but, as so often happens, they harmonize with the
+biological process. This is the case even among uncivilized peoples who
+marry early. The need for delay and considerate skill is far greater when,
+as among ourselves, a woman's marriage is delayed long past the
+establishment of puberty to a period when it is more difficult to break
+down the psychic and perhaps even physical barriers of personality.
+
+It has to be added that the art of love in the act of courtship is not
+confined to the preliminaries to the single act of coitus. In a sense the
+life of love is a continuous courtship with a constant progression. The
+establishment of physical intercourse is but the beginning of it. This is
+especially true of women. "The consummation of love," says Sénancour,[405]
+"which is often the end of love with man is only the beginning of love
+with woman, a test of trust, a gage of future pleasure, a sort of
+engagement for an intimacy to come." "A woman's soul and body," says
+another writer,[406] "are not given at one stroke at a given moment; but
+only slowly, little by little, through many stages, are both delivered to
+the beloved. Instead of abandoning the young woman to the bridegroom on
+the wedding night, as an entrapped mouse is flung to the cat to be
+devoured, it would be better to let the young bridal couple live side by
+side, like two friends and comrades, until they gradually learn how to
+develop and use their sexual consciousness." The conventional wedding is
+out of place as a preliminary to the consummation of marriage, if only on
+the ground that it is impossible to say at what stage in the endless
+process of courtship it ought to take place.
+
+A woman, unlike a man, is prepared by Nature, to play a skilful part in
+the art of love. The man's part in courtship, which is that of the male
+throughout the zoölogical series, may be difficult and hazardous, but it
+is in a straight line, fairly simple and direct. The woman's part, having
+to follow at the same moment two quite different impulses, is necessarily
+always in a zigzag or a curve. That is to say that at every erotic moment
+her action is the resultant of the combined force of her desire (conscious
+or unconscious) and her modesty. She must sail through a tortuous channel
+with Scylla on the one side and Charybdis on the other, and to avoid
+either danger too anxiously may mean risking shipwreck on the other side.
+She must be impenetrable to all the world, but it must be an
+impenetrability not too obscure for the divination of the right man. Her
+speech must be honest, but yet on no account tell everything; her actions
+must be the outcome of her impulses, and on that very account be capable
+of two interpretations. It is only in the last resort of complete intimacy
+that she can become the perfect woman,
+
+        "Whose speech Truth knows not from her thought,
+            Nor Love her body from her soul."
+
+For many a woman the conditions for that final erotic avatar--"that
+splendid shamelessness which," as Rafford Pyke says, "is the finest thing
+in perfect love"--never present themselves at all. She is compelled to be
+to the end of her erotic life, what she must always be at the beginning, a
+complex and duplex personality, naturally artful. Therewith she is better
+prepared than man to play her part in the art of love.
+
+The man's part in the art of love is, however, by no means easy. That is
+not always realized by the women who complain of his lack of skill in
+playing it. Although a man has not to cultivate the same natural duplicity
+as a woman, it is necessary that he should possess a considerable power of
+divination. He is not well prepared for that, because the traditional
+masculine virtue is force rather than insight. The male's work in the
+world, we are told, is domination, and it is by such domination that the
+female is attracted. There is an element of truth in that doctrine, an
+element of truth which may well lead astray the man who too exclusively
+relies upon it in the art of love. Violence is bad in every art, and in
+the erotic art the female desires to be won to love and not to be ordered
+to love. That is fundamental. We sometimes see the matter so stated as if
+the objection to force and domination in love constituted some quite new
+and revolutionary demand of the "modern woman." That is, it need scarcely
+be said, the result of ignorance. The art of love, being an art that
+Nature makes, is the same now as in essentials it has always been,[407]
+and it was well established before woman came into existence. That it has
+not always been very skilfully played is another matter. And, so far as
+the man is concerned, it is this very tradition of masculine predominance
+which has contributed to the difficulty of playing it skilfully. The woman
+admires the male's force; she even wishes herself to be forced to the
+things that she altogether desires; and yet she revolts from any exertion
+of force outside that narrow circle, either before the boundary of it is
+reached or after the boundary is passed. Thus the man's position is really
+more difficult than the women who complain of his awkwardness in love are
+always ready to admit. He must cultivate force, not only in the world but
+even for display in the erotic field; he must be able to divine the
+moments when, in love, force is no longer force because his own will is
+his partner's will; he must, at the same time, hold himself in complete
+restraint lest he should fall into the fatal error of yielding to his own
+impulse of domination; and all this at the very moment when his emotions
+are least under control. We need scarcely be surprised that of the myriads
+who embark on the sea of love, so few women, so very few men, come safely
+into port.
+
+It may still seem to some that in dwelling on the laws that guide the
+erotic life, if that life is to be healthy and complete, we have wandered
+away from the consideration of the sexual instinct in its relationship to
+society. It may therefore be desirable to return to first principles and
+to point out that we are still clinging to the fundamental facts of the
+personal and social life. Marriage, as we have seen reason to believe, is
+a great social institution; procreation, which is, on the public side, its
+supreme function, is a great social end. But marriage and procreation are
+both based on the erotic life. If the erotic life is not sound, then
+marriage is broken up, practically if not always formally, and the process
+of procreation is carried out under unfavorable conditions or not at all.
+
+This social and personal importance of the erotic life, though, under the
+influence of a false morality and an equally false modesty, it has
+sometimes been allowed to fall into the background in stages of artificial
+civilization, has always been clearly realized by those peoples who have
+vitally grasped the relationships of life. Among most uncivilized races
+there appear to be few or no "sexually frigid" women. It is little to the
+credit of our own "civilization" that it should be possible for physicians
+to-day to assert, even with the faintest plausibility, that there are some
+25 per cent. of women who may thus be described.
+
+The whole sexual structure of the world is built up on the general fact
+that the intimate contact of the male and female who have chosen each
+other is mutually pleasurable. Below this general fact is the more
+specific fact that in the normal accomplishment of the act of sexual
+consummation the two partners experience the acute gratification of
+simultaneous orgasm. Herein, it has been said, lies the secret of love. It
+is the very basis of love, the condition of the healthy exercise of the
+sexual functions, and, in many cases, it seems probable, the condition
+also of fertilization.
+
+    Even savages in a very low degree of culture are sometimes
+    patient and considerate in evoking and waiting for the signs of
+    sexual desire in their females. (I may refer to the significant
+    case of the Caroline Islanders, as described by Kubary in his
+    ethnographic study of that people and quoted in volume iv of
+    these _Studies_, "Sexual Selection in Man," Sect. III.) In
+    Catholic days theological influence worked wholesomely in the
+    same direction, although the theologians were so keen to detect
+    the mortal sin of lust. It is true that the Catholic insistence
+    on the desirability of simultaneous orgasm was largely due to the
+    mistaken notion that to secure conception it was necessary that
+    there should be "insemination" on the part of the wife as well as
+    of the husband, but that was not the sole source of the
+    theological view. Thus Zacchia discusses whether a man ought to
+    continue with his wife until she has the orgasm and feels
+    satisfied, and he decides that that is the husband's duty;
+    otherwise the wife falls into danger either of experiencing the
+    orgasm during sleep, or, more probably, by self-excitation, "for
+    many women, when their desires have not been satisfied by coitus,
+    place one thigh on the other, pressing and rubbing them together
+    until the orgasm occurs, in the belief that if they abstain from
+    using the hands they have committed no sin." Some theologians, he
+    adds, favor that belief, notably Hurtado de Mendoza and Sanchez,
+    and he further quotes the opinion of the latter that women who
+    have not been satisfied in coitus are liable to become hysterical
+    or melancholic (_Zacchiæ Quæstionum Medico-legalium Opus_, lib.
+    vii, tit. iii, quæst. VI). In the same spirit some theologians
+    seem to have permitted _irrumatio_ (without ejaculation), so long
+    as it is only the preliminary to the normal sexual act.
+
+    Nowadays physicians have fully confirmed the belief of Sanchez.
+    It is well recognized that women in whom, from whatever cause,
+    acute sexual excitement occurs with frequency without being
+    followed by the due natural relief of orgasm are liable to
+    various nervous and congestive symptoms which diminish their
+    vital effectiveness, and very possibly lead to a breakdown in
+    health. Kisch has described, as a cardiac neurosis of sexual
+    origin, a pathological tachycardia which is an exaggeration of
+    the physiological quick heart of sexual excitement. J. Inglis
+    Parsons (_British Medical Journal_, Oct. 22, 1904, p. 1062)
+    refers to the ovarian pain produced by strong unsatisfied sexual
+    excitement, often in vigorous unmarried women, and sometimes a
+    cause of great distress. An experienced Austrian gynæcologist
+    told Hirth (_Wege zur Heimat_, p. 613) that of every hundred
+    women who come to him with uterine troubles seventy suffered from
+    congestion of the womb, which he regarded as due to incomplete
+    coitus.
+
+    It is frequently stated that the evil of incomplete gratification
+    and absence of orgasm in women is chiefly due to male withdrawal,
+    that is to say _coitus interruptus_, in which the penis is
+    hastily withdrawn as soon as involuntary ejaculation is
+    impending; and it is sometimes said that the same widely
+    prevalent practice is also productive of slight or serious
+    results in the male (see, e.g., L.B. Bangs, _Transactions New
+    York Academy of Medicine_, vol. ix, 1893; D.S. Booth, "Coitus
+    Interruptus and Coitus Reservatus as Causes of Profound Neurosis
+    and Psychosis," _Alienist and Neurologist_, Nov., 1906; also,
+    _Alienist and Neurologist_, Oct., 1897, p. 588).
+
+    It is undoubtedly true that coitus interruptus, since it involves
+    sudden withdrawal on the part of the man without reference to the
+    stage of sexual excitation which his partner may have reached,
+    cannot fail to produce frequently an injurious nervous effect on
+    the woman, though the injurious effect on the man, who obtains
+    ejaculation, is little or none. But the practice is so widespread
+    that it cannot be regarded as necessarily involving this evil
+    result. There can, I am assured, be no doubt whatever that
+    Blumreich is justified in his statement (Senator and Kaminer,
+    _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, p. 783)
+    that "interrupted coitus is injurious to the genital system of
+    those women only who are disturbed in their sensation of delight
+    by this form of cohabitation, in whom the orgasm is not produced,
+    and who continue for hours subsequently to be tormented by
+    feelings of an unsatisfied desire." Equally injurious effects
+    follow in normal coitus when the man's orgasm occurs too soon.
+    "These phenomena, therefore," he concludes, "are not
+    characteristic of interrupted coitus, but consequences of an
+    imperfectly concluded sexual cohabitation as such." Kisch,
+    likewise, in his elaborate and authoritative work on _The Sexual
+    Life of Woman_, also states that the question of the evil results
+    of _coitus interruptus_ in women is simply a question of whether
+    or not they receive sexual satisfaction. (Cf. also Fürbringer,
+    _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 232 _et
+    seq._) This is clearly the most reasonable view to take
+    concerning what is the simplest, the most widespread, and
+    certainly the most ancient of the methods of preventing
+    conception. In the Book of Genesis we find it practiced by Onan,
+    and to come down to modern times, in the sixteenth century it
+    seems to have been familiar to French ladies, who, according to
+    Brantôme, enjoined it on their lovers.
+
+    Coitus reservatus,--in which intercourse is maintained even for
+    very long periods, during which the woman may have orgasm several
+    times while the man succeeds in holding back orgasm,--so far from
+    being injurious to the woman, is probably the form of coitus
+    which gives her the maximum of gratification and relief. For most
+    men, however, it seems probable that this self-control over the
+    processes leading to the involuntary act of detumescence is
+    difficult to acquire, while in weak, nervous, and erethic persons
+    it is impossible. It is, however, a desirable condition for
+    completely adequate coitus, and in the East this is fully
+    recognized, and the aptitude carefully cultivated. Thus W.D.
+    Sutherland states ("Einiges über das Alltagsleben und die
+    Volksmedizin unter den Bauern Britischostindiens," _Münchener
+    Medizinische Wochenschrift_, No. 12, 1906) that the Hindu smokes
+    and talks during intercourse in order to delay orgasm, and
+    sometimes applies an opium paste to the glans of the penis for
+    the same purpose. (See also vol. iii of these _Studies_, "The
+    Sexual Impulse in Women.") Some authorities have, indeed, stated
+    that the prolongation of the act of coitus is injurious in its
+    effect on the male. Thus R.W. Taylor (_Practical Treatise on
+    Sexual Disorders_, third ed., p. 121) states that it tends to
+    cause atonic impotence, and Löwenfeld (_Sexualleben und
+    Nervenleiden_, p. 74) thinks that the swift and unimpeded
+    culmination of the sexual act is necessary in order to preserve
+    the vigor of the reflex reactions. This is probably true of
+    extreme and often repeated cases of indefinite prolongation of
+    pronounced erection without detumescence, but it is not true
+    within fairly wide limits in the case of healthy persons.
+    Prolonged _coitus reservatus_ was a practice of the complex
+    marriage system of the Oneida community, and I was assured by the
+    late Noyes Miller, who had spent the greater part of his life in
+    the community, that the practice had no sort of evil result.
+    _Coitus reservatus_ was erected into a principle in the Oneida
+    community. Every man in the community was theoretically the
+    husband of every woman, but every man was not free to have
+    children with every woman. Sexual initiation took place soon
+    after puberty in the case of boys, some years later in the case
+    of girls, by a much older person of the opposite sex. In
+    intercourse the male inserted his penis into the vagina and
+    retained it there for even an hour without emission, though
+    orgasm took place in the woman. There was usually no emission in
+    the case of the man, even after withdrawal, and he felt no need
+    of emission. The social feeling of the community was a force on
+    the side of this practice, the careless, unskilful men being
+    avoided by women, while the general romantic sentiment of
+    affection for all the women in the community was also a force.
+    Masturbation was unknown, and no irregular relations took place
+    with persons outside the community. The practice was maintained
+    for thirty years, and was finally abandoned, not on its demerits,
+    but in deference to the opinions of the outside world. Mr. Miller
+    admitted that the practice became more difficult in ordinary
+    marriage, which favors a more mechanical habit of intercourse.
+    The information received from Mr. Miller is supplemented in a
+    pamphlet entitled _Male Continence_ (the name given to _coitus
+    reservatus_ in the community), written in 1872 by the founder,
+    John Humphrey Noyes. The practice is based, he says, on the fact
+    that sexual intercourse consists of two acts, a social and a
+    propagative, and that if propagation is to be scientific there
+    must be no confusion of these two acts, and procreation must
+    never be involuntary. It was in 1844, he states, that this idea
+    occurred to him as a result of a resolve to abstain from sexual
+    intercourse in consequence of his wife's delicate health and
+    inability to bear healthy children, and in his own case he found
+    the practice "a great deliverance. It made a happy household." He
+    points out that the chief members of the Oneida community
+    "belonged to the most respectable families in Vermont, had been
+    educated in the best schools of New England morality and
+    refinement, and were, by the ordinary standards, irreproachable
+    in their conduct so far as sexual matters are concerned, till
+    they deliberately commenced, in 1846, the experiment of a new
+    state of society, on principles which they had been long maturing
+    and were prepared to defend before the World." In relation to
+    male continence, therefore, Noyes thought the community might
+    fairly be considered "the Committee of Providence to test its
+    value in actual life." He states that a careful medical
+    comparison of the statistics of the community had shown that the
+    rate of nervous disease in the community was considerably below
+    the average outside, and that only two cases of nervous disorder
+    had occurred which could be traced with any probability to a
+    misuse of male continence. This has been confirmed by Van de
+    Warker, who studied forty-two women of the community without
+    finding any undue prevalence of reproductive diseases, nor could
+    he find any diseased condition attributable to the sexual habits
+    of the community (cf. C. Reed, _Text-Book of Gynecology_, 1901,
+    p. 9).
+
+    Noyes believed that "male continence" had never previously been a
+    definitely recognized practice based on theory, though there
+    might have been occasional approximation to it. This is probably
+    true if the coitus is _reservatus_ in the full sense, with
+    complete absence of emission. Prolonged coitus, however,
+    permitting the woman to have orgasm more than once, while the man
+    has none, has long been recognized. Thus in the seventeenth
+    century Zacchia discussed whether such a practice is legitimate
+    (_Zacchiæ Quæstionum Opus_, ed. of 1688, lib. vii, tit. iii,
+    quæst. VI). In modern times it is occasionally practiced, without
+    any theory, and is always appreciated by the woman, while it
+    appears to have no bad effect on the man. In such a case it will
+    happen that the act of coitus may last for an hour and a quarter
+    or even longer, the maximum of the woman's pleasure not being
+    reached until three-quarters of an hour have passed; during this
+    period the woman will experience orgasm some four or five times,
+    the man only at the end. It may occasionally happen that a little
+    later the woman again experiences desire, and intercourse begins
+    afresh in the same way. But after that she is satisfied, and
+    there is no recurrence of desire.
+
+    It may be desirable at this point to refer briefly to the chief
+    variations in the method of effecting coitus in their
+    relationship to the art of love and the attainment of adequate
+    and satisfying detumescence.
+
+    The primary and essential characteristic of the specifically
+    human method of coitus is the fact that it takes place face to
+    face. The fact that in what is usually considered the typically
+    normal method of coitus the woman lies supine and the man above
+    her is secondary. Psychically, this front-to-front attitude
+    represents a great advance over the quadrupedal method. The two
+    partners reveal to each other the most important, the most
+    beautiful, the most expressive sides of themselves, and thus
+    multiply the mutual pleasure and harmony of the intimate act of
+    union. Moreover, this face-to-face attitude possesses a great
+    significance, in the fact that it is the outward sign that the
+    human couple has outgrown the animal sexual attitude of the
+    hunter seizing his prey in the act of flight, and content to
+    enjoy it in that attitude, from behind. The human male may be
+    said to retain the same attitude, but the female has turned
+    round; she has faced her partner and approached him, and so
+    symbolizes her deliberate consent to the act of union.
+
+    The human variations in the exercise of coitus, both individual
+    and national, are, however, extremely numerous. "To be quite
+    frank," says Fürbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 213), "I can hardly think of
+    any combination which does not figure among my case-notes as
+    having been practiced by my patients." We must not too hastily
+    conclude that such variations are due to vicious training. That
+    is far from being the case. They often occur naturally and
+    spontaneously. Freud has properly pointed out (in the second
+    series of his _Beiträge zur Neurosenlehre_, "Bruchstück" etc.)
+    that we must not be too shocked even when the idea of _fellatio_
+    spontaneously presents itself to a woman, for that idea has a
+    harmless origin in the resemblance between the penis and the
+    nipple. Similarly, it may be added, the desire for
+    _cunnilinctus_, which seems to be much more often latently
+    present in women than is the desire for its performance in men,
+    has a natural analogy in the pleasure of suckling, a pleasure
+    which is itself indeed often erotically tinged (see vol. iv of
+    these _Studies_, "Sexual Selection in Man," Touch, Sect. III).
+
+    Every variation in this matter, remarks Remy de Gourmont
+    (_Physique de l'Amour_, p. 264) partakes of the sin of luxury,
+    and some of the theologians have indeed considered any position
+    in coitus but that which is usually called normal in Europe as a
+    mortal sin. Other theologians, however, regarded such variations
+    as only venial sins, provided ejaculation took place in the
+    vagina, just as some theologians would permit _irrumatio_ as a
+    preliminary to coitus, provided there was no ejaculation. Aquinas
+    took a serious view of the deviations from normal intercourse;
+    Sanchez was more indulgent, especially in view of his doctrine,
+    derived from the Greek and Arabic natural philosophers, that the
+    womb can attract the sperm, so that the natural end may be
+    attained even in unusual positions.
+
+    Whatever difference of opinion there may have been among ancient
+    theologians, it is well recognized by modern physicians that
+    variations from the ordinary method of coitus are desirable in
+    special cases. Thus Kisch points out (_Sterilität des Weibes_, p.
+    107) that in some cases it is only possible for the woman to
+    experience sexual excitement when coitus takes place in the
+    lateral position, or in the _a posteriori_ position, or when the
+    usual position is reversed; and in his _Sexual Life of Woman_,
+    also, Kisch recommends several variations of position for coitus.
+    Adler points out (op. cit., pp. 151, 186) the value of the same
+    positions in some cases, and remarks that such variations often
+    call forth latent sexual feelings as by a charm. Such cases are
+    indeed, by no means infrequent, the advantage of the unusual
+    position being due either to physical or psychic causes, and the
+    discovery of the right variation is sometimes found in a merely
+    playful attempt. It has occasionally happened, also, that when
+    intercourse has habitually taken place in an abnormal position,
+    no satisfaction is experienced by the woman until the normal
+    position is adopted. The only fairly common variation of coitus
+    which meets with unqualified disapproval is that in the erect
+    posture. (See e.g., Hammond, op. cit. pp. 257 et seq.)
+
+    Lucretius specially recommended the quadrupedal variation of
+    coitus (Bk. iv, 1258), and Ovid describes (end of Bk. iii of the
+    _Ars Amatoria_) what he regards as agreeable variations, giving
+    the preference, as the easiest and simplest method, to that in
+    which the woman lies half supine on her side. Perhaps, however,
+    the variation which is nearest to the normal attitude and which
+    has most often and most completely commended itself is that
+    apparently known to Arabic erotic writers as _dok el arz_, in
+    which the man is seated and his partner is astride his thighs,
+    embracing his body with her legs and his neck with her arms,
+    while he embraces her waist; this is stated in the Arabic
+    _Perfumed Garden_ to be the method preferred by most women.
+
+    The other most usual variation is the inverse normal position in
+    which the man is supine, and the woman adapts herself to this
+    position, which permits of several modifications obviously
+    advantageous, especially when the man is much larger than his
+    partner. The Christian as well as the Mahommedan theologians
+    appear, indeed, to have been generally opposed to this superior
+    position of the female, apparently, it would seem, because they
+    regarded the literal subjection of the male which it involves as
+    symbolic of a moral subjection. The testimony of many people
+    to-day, however, is decidedly in favor of this position, more
+    especially as regards the woman, since it enables her to obtain a
+    better adjustment and greater control of the process, and so
+    frequently to secure sexual satisfaction which she may find
+    difficult or impossible in the normal position.
+
+    The theologians seem to have been less unfavorably disposed to
+    the position normal among quadrupeds, _a posteriori_, though the
+    old Penitentials were inclined to treat it severely, the
+    Penitential of Angers prescribing forty days penance, and
+    Egbert's three years, if practiced habitually. (It is discussed
+    by J. Petermann, "Venus Aversa," _Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1909).
+    There are good reasons why in many cases this position should be
+    desirable, more especially from the point of view of women, who
+    indeed not infrequently prefer it. It must be always remembered,
+    as has already been pointed out, that in the progress from
+    anthropoid to man it is the female, not the male, whose method of
+    coitus has been revolutionized. While, however, the obverse human
+    position represents a psychic advance, there has never been a
+    complete physical readjustment of the female organs to the
+    obverse method. More especially, in Adler's opinion (op. cit.,
+    pp. 117-119), the position of the clitoris is such that, as a
+    rule, it is more easily excited by coitus from behind than from
+    in front. A more recent writer, Klotz, in his book, _Der Mensch
+    ein Vierfüssler_ (1908), even takes the too extreme position that
+    the quadrupedal method of coitus, being the only method that
+    insures due contact with the clitoris, is the natural human
+    method. It must, however, be admitted that the posterior mode of
+    coitus is not only a widespread, but a very important variation,
+    in either of its two most important forms: the Pompeiian method,
+    in which the woman bends forwards and the man approaches behind,
+    or the method described by Boccaccio, in which the man is supine
+    and the woman astride.
+
+    _Fellatio_ and _cunnilinctus_, while they are not strictly
+    methods of coitus, in so far as they do not involve the
+    penetration of the penis into the vagina, are very widespread as
+    preliminaries, or as vicarious forms of coitus, alike among
+    civilized and uncivilized peoples. Thus, in India, I am told that
+    _fellatio_ is almost universal in households, and regarded as a
+    natural duty towards the paterfamilias. As regards _cunnilinctus_
+    Max Dessoir has stated (_Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie_,
+    1894, Heft 5) that the superior Berlin prostitutes say that about
+    a quarter of their clients desire to exercise this, and that in
+    France and Italy the proportion is higher; the number of women
+    who find _cunnilinctus_ agreeable is without doubt much greater.
+    Intercourse _per anum_ must also be regarded as a vicarious form
+    of coitus. It appears to be not uncommon, especially among the
+    lower social classes, and while most often due to the wish to
+    avoid conception, it is also sometimes practiced as a sexual
+    aberration, at the wish either of the man or the woman, the anus
+    being to some extent an erogenous zone.
+
+    The ethnic variations in method of coitus were briefly discussed
+    in volume v of these _Studies_, "The Mechanism of Detumescence,"
+    Section II. In all civilized countries, from the earliest times,
+    writers on the erotic art have formally and systematically set
+    forth the different positions for coitus. The earliest writing of
+    this kind now extant seems to be an Egyptian papyrus preserved at
+    Turin of the date B.C. 1300; in this, fourteen different
+    positions are represented. The Indians, according to Iwan Bloch,
+    recognize altogether forty-eight different positions; the _Ananga
+    Ranga_ describes thirty-two main forms. The Mohammedan _Perfumed
+    Garden_ describes forty forms, as well as six different kinds of
+    movement during coitus. The Eastern books of this kind are, on
+    the whole, superior to those that have been produced by the
+    Western world, not only by their greater thoroughness, but by the
+    higher spirit by which they have often been inspired.
+
+    The ancient Greek erotic writings, now all lost, in which the
+    modes of coitus were described, were nearly all attributed to
+    women. According to a legend recorded by Suidas, the earliest
+    writer of this kind was Astyanassa, the maid of Helen of Troy.
+    Elephantis, the poetess, is supposed to have enumerated nine
+    different postures. Numerous women of later date wrote on these
+    subjects, and one book is attributed to Polycrates, the sophist.
+
+    Aretino--who wrote after the influence of Christianity had
+    degraded erotic matters perilously near to that region of
+    pornography from which they are only to-day beginning to be
+    rescued--in his _Sonnetti Lussuriosi_ described twenty-six
+    different methods of coitus, each one accompanied by an
+    illustrative design by Giulio Romano, the chief among Raphael's
+    pupils. Veniero, in his _Puttana Errante_, described thirty-two
+    positions. More recently Forberg, the chief modern authority, has
+    enumerated ninety positions, but, it is said, only forty-eight
+    can, even on the most liberal estimate, be regarded as coming
+    within the range of normal variation.
+
+    The disgrace which has overtaken the sexual act, and rendered it
+    a deed of darkness, is doubtless largely responsible for the fact
+    that the chief time for its consummation among modern civilized
+    peoples is the darkness of the early night in stuffy bedrooms
+    when the fatigue of the day's labors is struggling with the
+    artificial stimulation produced by heavy meals and alcoholic
+    drinks. This habit is partly responsible for the indifference or
+    even disgust with which women sometimes view coitus.
+
+    Many more primitive peoples are wiser. The New Guinea Papuans of
+    Astrolabe Bay, according to Vahness (_Zeitschrift für
+    Ethnologie_, 1900, Heft 5, p. 414), though it must be remembered
+    that the association of the sexual act with darkness is much
+    older than Christianity, and connected with early religious
+    notions (cf. Hesiod, _Works and Days_, Bk. II), always have
+    sexual intercourse in the open air. The hard-working women of the
+    Gebvuka and Buru Islands, again, are too tired for coitus at
+    night; it is carried out in the day time under the trees, and the
+    Serang Islanders also have coitus in the woods (Ploss and
+    Bartels, Das _Weib_, Bk. i, Ch. XVII).
+
+    It is obviously impracticable to follow these examples in modern
+    cities, even if avocation and climate permitted. It is also
+    agreed that sexual intercourse should be followed by repose.
+    There seems to be little doubt, however, that the early morning
+    and the daylight are a more favorable time than the early night.
+    Conception should take place in the light, said Michelet
+    (_L'Amour_, p. 153); sexual intercourse in the darkness of night
+    is an act committed with a mere female animal; in the day-time it
+    is union with a loving and beloved individual person.
+
+    This has been widely recognized. The Greeks, as we gather from
+    Aristophanes in the _Archarnians_, regarded sunrise as the
+    appropriate time for coitus. The South Slavs also say that dawn
+    is the time for coitus. Many modern authorities have urged the
+    advantages of early morning coitus. Morning, said Roubaud
+    (_Traité de l'Impuissance_, pp. 151-3) is the time for coitus,
+    and even if desire is greater in the evening, pleasure is greater
+    in the morning. Osiander also advised early morning coitus, and
+    Venette, in an earlier century, discussing "at what hour a man
+    should amorously embrace his wife" (_La Génération de l'Homme_,
+    Part II, Ch. V), while thinking it is best to follow inclination,
+    remarks that "a beautiful woman looks better by sunlight than by
+    candlelight." A few authorities, like Burdach, have been content
+    to accept the custom of night coitus, and Busch (_Das
+    Geschlechtsleben des Weibes_, vol. i, p. 214) was inclined to
+    think the darkness of night the most "natural" time, while
+    Fürbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+    to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 217) thinks that early morning is
+    "occasionally" the best time.
+
+    To some, on the other hand, the exercise of sexual intercourse in
+    the sunlight and the open air seems so important that they are
+    inclined to elevate it to the rank of a religious exercise. I
+    quote from a communication on this point received from Australia:
+    "This shameful thing that must not be spoken of or done (except
+    in the dark) will some day, I believe, become the one religious
+    ceremony of the human race, in the spring. (Oh, what springs!)
+    People will have become very sane, well-bred, aristocratic (all
+    of them aristocrats), and on the whole opposed to rites and
+    superstitions, for they will have a perfect knowledge of the
+    past. The coition of lovers in the springtime will be the one
+    religious ceremony they will allow themselves. I have a vision
+    sometimes of the holy scene, but I am afraid it is too beautiful
+    to describe. 'The intercourse of the sexes, I have dreamed, is
+    ineffably beautiful, too fair to be remembered,' wrote the chaste
+    Thoreau. Verily human beauty, joy, and love will reach their
+    divinest height during those inaugural days of springtide
+    coupling. When the world is one Paradise, the consummation of the
+    lovers, the youngest and most beautiful, will take place in
+    certain sacred valleys in sight of thousands assembled to witness
+    it. For days it will take place in these valleys where the sun
+    will rise on a dream of passionate voices, of clinging human
+    forms, of flowers and waters, and the purple and gold of the
+    sunrise are reflected on hills illumined with pansies. [I know
+    not if the writer recalled George Chapman's "Enamelled pansies
+    used at nuptials still"], and repeated on golden human flesh and
+    human hair. In these sacred valleys the subtle perfume of the
+    pansies will mingle with the divine fragrance of healthy naked
+    young women and men in the spring coupling. You and I shall not
+    see that, but we may help to make it possible." This rhapsody (an
+    unconscious repetition of Saint-Lambert's at Mlle. Quinault's
+    table in the eighteenth century) serves to illustrate the revolt
+    which tends to take place against the unnatural and artificial
+    degradation of the sexual act.
+
+    In some parts of the world it has seemed perfectly natural and
+    reasonable that so great and significant an act as that of coitus
+    should be consecrated to the divinity, and hence arose the custom
+    of prayer before sexual intercourse. Thus Zoroaster ordained that
+    a married couple should pray before coitus, and after the act
+    they should say together: "O, Sapondomad, I trust this seed to
+    thee, preserve it for me, for it is a man." In the Gorong
+    Archipelago it is customary also for husband and wife to pray
+    together before the sexual act (Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_,
+    Bd. i, Ch. XVII). The civilized man, however, has come to regard
+    his stomach as the most important of his organs, and he utters
+    his conventional grace, not before love, but only before food.
+    Even the degraded ritual vestiges of the religious recognition of
+    coitus are difficult to find in Europe. We may perhaps detect it
+    among the Spaniards, with their tenacious instinct for ritual, in
+    the solemn etiquette with which, in the seventeenth century, it
+    was customary, according to Madame d'Aulnoy, for the King to
+    enter the bedchamber of the Queen: "He has on his slippers, his
+    black mantle over his shoulder, his shield on one arm, a bottle
+    hanging by a cord over the other arm (this bottle is not to drink
+    from, but for a quite opposite purpose, which you will guess).
+    With all this the King must also have his great sword in one hand
+    and a dark lantern in the other. In this way he must enter,
+    alone, the Queen's chamber" (Madame d'Aulnoy, _Relation du Voyage
+    d'Espagne_, 1692, vol. iii, p. 221).
+
+In discussing the art of love it is necessary to give a primary place to
+the central fact of coitus, on account of the ignorance that widely
+prevails concerning it, and the unfortunate prejudices which in their
+fungous broods flourish in the noisome obscurity around it. The traditions
+of the Christian Church, which overspread the whole of Europe, and set up
+for worship a Divine Virgin and her Divine Son, both of whom it
+elaborately disengaged from personal contact with sexuality effectually
+crushed any attempt to find a sacred and avowable ideal in married love.
+Even the Church's own efforts to elevate matrimony were negatived by its
+own ideals. That influence depresses our civilization even to-day. When
+Walt Whitman wrote his "Children of Adam" he was giving imperfect
+expression to conceptions of the religious nature of sexual love which
+have existed wholesomely and naturally in all parts of the world, but had
+not yet penetrated the darkness of Christendom where they still seemed
+strange and new, if not terrible. And the refusal to recognize the
+solemnity of sex had involved the placing of a pall of blackness and
+disrepute on the supreme sexual act itself. It was shut out from the
+sunshine and excluded from the sphere of worship.
+
+The sexual act is important from the point of view of erotic art, not only
+from the ignorance and prejudices which surround it, but also because it
+has a real value even in regard to the psychic side of married life.
+"These organs," according to the oft-quoted saying of the old French
+physician, Ambrose Paré, "make peace in the household." How this comes
+about we see illustrated from time to time in Pepys's Diary. At the same
+time, it is scarcely necessary to say, after all that has gone before,
+that this ancient source of domestic peace tends to be indefinitely
+complicated by the infinite variety in erotic needs, which become ever
+more pronounced with the growth of civilization.[408]
+
+The art of love is, indeed, only beginning with the establishment of
+sexual intercourse. In the adjustment of that relationship all the forces
+of nature are so strongly engaged that under completely favorable
+conditions--which indeed very rarely occur in our civilization--the
+knowledge of the art and a possible skill in its exercise come almost of
+themselves. The real test of the artist in love is in the skill to carry
+it beyond the period when the interests of nature, having been really or
+seemingly secured, begin to slacken. The whole art of love, it has been
+well said, lies in forever finding something new in the same person. The
+art of love is even more the art of retaining love than of arousing it.
+Otherwise it tends to degenerate towards the Shakespearian lust,
+
+        "Past reason hunted, and no sooner had,
+            Past reason hated,"
+
+though it must be remembered that even from the most strictly natural
+point of view the transitions of passion are not normally towards
+repulsion but towards affection.[409]
+
+The young man and woman who are brought into the complete unrestraint of
+marriage after a prolonged and unnatural separation, during which desire
+and the satisfactions of desire have been artificially disconnected, are
+certainly not under the best conditions for learning the art of love. They
+are tempted by reckless and promiscuous indulgence in the intimacies of
+marriage to fling carelessly aside all the reasons that make that art
+worth learning. "There are married people," as Ellen Key remarks, "who
+might have loved each other all their lives if they had not been
+compelled, every day and all the year, to direct their habits, wills, and
+inclinations towards each other."
+
+All the tendencies of our civilized life are, in personal matters, towards
+individualism; they involve the specialization, and they ensure the
+sacredness, of personal habits and even peculiarities. This individualism
+cannot be broken down suddenly at the arbitrary dictation of a tradition,
+or even by the force of passion from which the restraints have been
+removed. Out of deference to the conventions and prejudices of their
+friends, or out of the reckless abandonment of young love, or merely out
+of a fear of hurting each other's feelings, young couples have often
+plunged prematurely into an unbroken intimacy which is even more
+disastrous to the permanency of marriage than the failure ever to reach a
+complete intimacy at all. That is one of the chief reasons why most
+writers on the moral hygiene of marriage nowadays recommend separate beds
+for the married couple, if possible separate bedrooms, and even sometimes,
+with Ellen Key, see no objection to their living in separate houses.
+Certainly the happiest marriages have often involved the closest and most
+unbroken intimacy, in persons peculiarly fitted for such intimacy. It is
+far from true that, as Bloch has affirmed, familiarity is fatal to love.
+It is deadly to a love that has no roots, but it is the nourishment of the
+deeply-rooted love. Yet it remains true that absence is needed to maintain
+the keen freshness and fine idealism of love. "Absence," as Landor said,
+"is the invisible and incorporeal mother of ideal beauty." The married
+lovers who are only able to meet for comparatively brief periods between
+long absences have often experienced in these meetings a life-long
+succession of honeymoons.[410]
+
+There can be no question that as presence has its risks for love, so also
+has absence. Absence like presence, in the end, if too prolonged, effaces
+the memory of love, and absence, further, by the multiplied points of
+contact with the world which it frequently involves, introduces the
+problem of jealousy, although, it must be added, it is difficult indeed to
+secure a degree of association which excludes jealousy or even the
+opportunities for motives of jealousy. The problem of jealousy is so
+fundamental in the art of love that it is necessary at this point to
+devote to it a brief discussion.
+
+Jealousy is based on fundamental instincts which are visible at the
+beginning of animal life. Descartes defined jealousy as "a kind of fear
+related to a desire to preserve a possession." Every impulse of
+acquisition in the animal world is stimulated into greater activity by the
+presence of a rival who may snatch beforehand the coveted object. This
+seems to be a fundamental fact in the animal world; it has been a
+life-conserving tendency, for, it has been said, an animal that stood
+aside while its fellows were gorging themselves with food, and experienced
+nothing but pure satisfaction in the spectacle, would speedily perish. But
+in this fact we have the natural basis of jealousy.[411]
+
+It is in reference to food that this impulse appears first and most
+conspicuously among animals. It is a well-known fact that association
+with other animals induces an animal to eat much more than when kept by
+himself. He ceases to eat from hunger but eats, as it has been put, in
+order to preserve his food from rivals in the only strong box he knows.
+The same feeling is transferred among animals to the field of sex. And
+further in the relations of dogs and other domesticated animals to their
+masters the emotion of jealousy is often very keenly marked.[412]
+
+Jealousy is an emotion which is at its maximum among animals, among
+savages,[413] among children,[414] in the senile, in the degenerate, and
+very specially in chronic alcoholics.[415] It is worthy of note that the
+supreme artists and masters of the human heart who have most consummately
+represented the tragedy of jealousy clearly recognized that it is either
+atavistic or pathological; Shakespeare made his Othello a barbarian, and
+Tolstoy made the Pozdnischeff of his _Kreutzer Sonata_ a lunatic. It is an
+anti-social emotion, though it has been maintained by some that it has
+been the cause of chastity and fidelity. Gesell, for instance, while
+admitting its anti-social character and accumulating quotations in
+evidence of the torture and disaster it occasions, seems to think that it
+still ought to be encouraged in order to foster sexual virtues. Very
+decided opinions have been expressed in the opposite sense. Jealousy, like
+other shadows, says Ellen Key, belongs only to the dawn and the setting of
+love, and a man should feel that it is a miracle, and not his right, if
+the sun stands still at the zenith.[416]
+
+Even therefore if jealousy has been a beneficial influence at the
+beginning of civilization, as well as among animals,--as may probably be
+admitted, though on the whole it seems rather to be the by-product of a
+beneficial influence than such an influence itself,--it is still by no
+means clear that it therefore becomes a desirable emotion in more advanced
+stages of civilization. There are many primitive emotions, like anger and
+fear, which we do not think it desirable to encourage in complex civilized
+societies but rather seek to restrain and control, and even if we are
+inclined to attribute an original value to jealousy, it seems to be among
+these emotions that it ought to be placed.
+
+    Miss Clapperton, in discussing this problem (_Scientific
+    Meliorism_, pp. 129-137), follows Darwin (_Descent of Man_, Part
+    I, Ch. IV) in thinking that jealousy led to "the inculcation of
+    female virtue," but she adds that it has also been a cause of
+    woman's subjection, and now needs to be eliminated. "To rid
+    ourselves as rapidly as may be of jealousy is essential;
+    otherwise the great movement in favor of equality of sex will
+    necessarily meet with checks and grave obstruction."
+
+    Ribot (_La Logique des Sentiments_, pp. 75 et seq.; _Essai sur
+    les Passions_, pp. 91, 175), while stating that subjectively the
+    estimate of jealousy must differ in accordance with the ideal of
+    life held, considers that objectively we must incline to an
+    unfavorable estimate "Even a brief passion is a rupture in the
+    normal life; it is an abnormal, if not a pathological state, an
+    excrescence, a parasitism."
+
+    Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, Ch. V) speaks very strongly in the
+    same sense, and considers that it is necessary to eliminate
+    jealousy by non-procreation of the jealous. Jealousy is, he
+    declares, "the worst and unfortunately the most deeply-rooted of
+    the 'irradiations,' or, better, the 'contrast-reactions,' of
+    sexual love inherited from our animal ancestors. An old German
+    saying, 'Eifersucht ist eine Leidenschaft die mit Eifer sucht was
+    Leider schafft,' says by no means too much.... Jealousy is a
+    heritage of animality and barbarism; I would recall this to those
+    who, under the name of 'injured honor,' attempt to justify it and
+    place it on a high pedestal. An unfaithful husband is ten times
+    more to be wished for a woman than a jealous husband.... We often
+    hear of 'justifiable jealousy.' I believe, however, that there is
+    no justifiable jealousy; it is always atavistic or else
+    pathological; at the best it is nothing more than a brutal
+    animal stupidity. A man who, by nature, that is by his hereditary
+    constitution, is jealous is certain to poison his own life and
+    that of his wife. Such men ought on no account to marry. Both
+    education and selection should work together to eliminate
+    jealousy as far as possible from the human brain."
+
+    Eric Gillard in an article on "Jealousy" (_Free Review_, Sept.,
+    1896), in opposition to those who believe that jealousy "makes
+    the home," declares that, on the contrary, it is the chief force
+    that unmakes the home. "So long as egotism waters it with the
+    tears of sentiment and shields it from the cold blasts of
+    scientific inquiry, so long will it thrive. But the time will
+    come when it will be burned in the Garden of Love as a noxious
+    weed. Its mephitic influence in society is too palpable to be
+    overlooked. It turns homes that might be sanctuaries of love into
+    hells of discord and hate; it causes suicides, and it drives
+    thousands to drink, reckless excesses, and madness. Makes the
+    home! One of your married men friends sees a probable seducer in
+    every man who smiles at his wife; another is jealous of his
+    wife's women acquaintances; a third is wounded because his wife
+    shows so much attention to the children. Some of the women you
+    know display jealousy of every other woman, of their husband's
+    acquaintances, and some, of his very dog. You must be completely
+    monopolized or you do not thoroughly love. You must admire no one
+    but the person with whom you have immured yourself for life. Old
+    friendships must be dissolved, new friendships must not be
+    formed, for fear of invoking the beautiful emotion that 'makes
+    the home.'"
+
+Even if jealousy in matters of sex could be admitted to be an emotion
+working on the side of civilized progress, it must still be pointed out
+that it merely acts externally; it can have little or no real influence;
+the jealous person seldom makes himself more lovable by his jealousy and
+frequently much less lovable. The main effect of his jealousy is to
+increase, and not seldom to excite, the causes for jealousy, and at the
+same time to encourage hypocrisy.
+
+    All the circumstances, accompaniments, and results of domestic
+    jealousy in their completely typical form, are well illustrated
+    by a very serious episode in the history of the Pepys household,
+    and have been fully and faithfully set down by the great diarist.
+    The offence--an embrace of his wife's lady-help, as she might now
+    be termed--was a slight one, but, as Pepys himself admits, quite
+    inexcusable. He is writing, being in his thirty-sixth year, on
+    the 25th of Oct., 1668 (Lord's Day). "After supper, to have my
+    hair combed by Deb, which occasioned the greatest sorrow to me
+    that ever I knew in this world, for my wife, coming up suddenly,
+    did find me embracing the girl.... I was at a wonderful loss upon
+    it, and the girl also, and I endeavored to put it off, but my
+    wife was struck mute and grew angry.... Heartily afflicted for
+    this folly of mine.... So ends this month," he writes a few days
+    later, "with some quiet to my mind, though not perfect, after the
+    greatest falling out with my poor wife, and through my folly with
+    the girl, that ever I had, and I have reason to be sorry and
+    ashamed of it, and more to be troubled for the poor girl's sake.
+    Sixth November. Up, and presently my wife up with me, which she
+    professedly now do every day to dress me, that I may not see
+    Willet [Deb], and do eye me, whether I cast my eye upon her, or
+    no, and do keep me from going into the room where she is. Ninth
+    November. Up, and I did, by a little note which I flung to Deb,
+    advise her that I did continue to deny that ever I kissed her,
+    and so she might govern herself. The truth is that I did
+    adventure upon God's pardoning me this lie, knowing how heavy a
+    thing it would be for me, to the ruin of the poor girl, and next
+    knowing that if my wife should know all it would be impossible
+    for her ever to be at peace with me again, and so our whole lives
+    would be uncomfortable. The girl read, and as I bid her returned
+    me the note, flinging it to me in passing by." Next day, however,
+    he is "mightily troubled," for his wife has obtained a confession
+    from the girl of the kissing. For some nights Mr. and Mrs. Pepys
+    are both sleepless, with much weeping on either side. Deb gets
+    another place, leaving on the 14th of November, and Pepys is
+    never able to see her before she leaves the house, his wife
+    keeping him always under her eye. It is evident that Pepys now
+    feels strongly attracted to Deb, though there is no evidence of
+    this before she became the subject of the quarrel. On the 13th of
+    November, hearing she was to leave next day, he writes: "The
+    truth is I have a good mind to have the maidenhead of this girl."
+    He was, however, the "more troubled to see how my wife is by this
+    means likely forever to have her hand over me, and that I shall
+    forever be a slave to her--that is to say, only in matters of
+    pleasure." At the same time his love for his wife was by no means
+    diminished, nor hers for him. "I must here remark," he says,
+    "that I have lain with my moher [i.e., _muger_, wife] as a
+    husband more times since this falling out than in, I believe,
+    twelve months before. And with more pleasure to her than in all
+    the time of our marriage before." The next day was Sunday. On
+    Monday Pepys at once begins to make inquiries which will put him
+    on the track of Deb. On the 18th he finds her. She gets up into
+    the coach with him, and he kisses her and takes liberties with
+    her, at the same time advising her "to have a care of her honor
+    and to fear God," allowing no one else to do what he has done; he
+    also tells her how she can find him if she desires. Pepys now
+    feels that everything is settled satisfactorily, and his heart
+    is full of joy. But his joy is short-lived, for Mrs. Pepys
+    discovers this interview with Deb on the following day. Pepys
+    denies it at first, then confesses, and there is a more furious
+    scene than ever. Pepys is now really alarmed, for his wife
+    threatens to leave him; he definitely abandons Deb, and with
+    prayers to God resolves never to do the like again. Mrs. Pepys is
+    not satisfied, however, till she makes her husband write a letter
+    to Deb, telling her that she is little better than a whore, and
+    that he hates her, though Deb is spared this, not by any
+    stratagem of Pepys, but by the considerateness of the friend to
+    whom the letter was entrusted for delivery. Moreover, Mrs. Pepys
+    arranges with her husband that, in future, whenever he goes
+    abroad he shall be accompanied everywhere by his clerk. We see
+    that Mrs. Pepys plays with what appears to be triumphant skill
+    and success the part of the jealous and avenging wife, and digs
+    her little French heels remorselessly into her prostrate husband
+    and her rival. Unfortunately, we do not know what the final
+    outcome was, for a little later, owing to trouble with his
+    eyesight, Pepys was compelled to bring his Diary to an end. It is
+    evident, however, when we survey the whole of this perhaps
+    typical episode, that neither husband nor wife were in the
+    slightest degree prepared for the commonplace position into which
+    they were thrown; that each of them appears in a painful,
+    undignified, and humiliating light; that as a result of it the
+    husband acquires almost a genuine and strong affection for the
+    girl who is the cause of the quarrel; and finally that, even
+    though he is compelled, for the time at all events, to yield to
+    his wife, he remains at the end exactly what he was at the
+    beginning. Nor had husband or wife the very slightest wish to
+    leave each other; the bond of marriage remained firm, but it had
+    been degraded by insincerity on one side and the jealous endeavor
+    on the other to secure fidelity by compulsion.
+
+Apart altogether, however, from the question of its effectiveness, or even
+of the misery that it causes to all concerned, it is evident that jealousy
+is incompatible with all the tendencies of civilization. We have seen that
+a certain degree of variation is involved in the sexual relationship, as
+in all other relationships, and unless we are to continue to perpetuate
+many evils and injustices, that fact has to be faced and recognized. We
+have also seen that the line of our advance involves a constant increase
+in moral responsibility and self-government, and that, in its turn,
+implies not only a high degree of sincerity but also the recognition that
+no person has any right, or indeed any power, to control the emotions and
+actions of another person. If our sun of love stands still at midday,
+according to Ellen Key's phrase, that is a miracle to be greeted with awe
+and gratitude, and by no means a right to be demanded. The claim of
+jealousy falls with the claim of conjugal rights.
+
+    It is quite possible, Bloch remarks (_The Sexual Life of Our
+    Time_, Ch. X), to love more than one person at the same time,
+    with nearly equal tenderness, and to be honestly able to assure
+    each of the passion felt for her or him. Bloch adds that the vast
+    psychic differentiation involved by modern civilization increases
+    the possibility of this double love, for it is difficult for
+    anyone to find his complement in a single person, and that this
+    applies to women as well as to men.
+
+    Georg Hirth likewise points out (_Wege zur Heimat_, pp. 543-552)
+    that it is important to remember that women, as well as men, can
+    love two persons at the same time. Men flatter themselves, he
+    remarks, with the prejudice that the female heart, or rather
+    brain, can only hold one man at a time, and that if there is a
+    second man it is by a kind of prostitution. Nearly all erotic
+    writers, poets, and novelists, even physicians and psychologists,
+    belong to this class, he says; they look on a woman as property,
+    and of course two men cannot "possess" a woman. (Regarding
+    novelists, however, the remark may be interpolated that there are
+    many exceptions, and Thomas Hardy, for instance, frequently
+    represents a woman as more or less in love with two men at the
+    same time.) As against this desire to depreciate women's psychic
+    capacity, Hirth maintains that a woman is not necessarily obliged
+    to be untrue to one man because she has conceived a passion for
+    another man. "Today," Hirth truly declares, "only love and
+    justice can count as honorable motives in marriage. The modern
+    man accords to the beloved wife and life-companion the same
+    freedom which he himself took before marriage, and perhaps still
+    takes in marriage. If she makes no use of it, as is to be
+    hoped--so much the better! But let there be no lies, no
+    deception; the indispensable foundation of modern marriage is
+    boundless sincerity and friendship, the deepest trust,
+    affectionate devotion, and consideration. This is the best
+    safeguard against adultery.... Let him, however, who is,
+    nevertheless, overtaken by the outbreak of it console himself
+    with the undoubted fact that of two real lovers the most
+    noble-minded and deep-seeing _friend_ will always have the
+    preference." These wise words cannot be too deeply meditated. The
+    policy of jealousy is only successful--when it is successful--in
+    the hands of the man who counts the external husk of love more
+    precious than the kernel.
+
+It seems to some that the recognition of variations in sexual
+relationships, of the tendency of the monogamic to overpass its
+self-imposed bounds, is at best a sad necessity, and a lamentable fall
+from a high ideal. That, however, is the reverse of the truth. The great
+evil of monogamy, and its most seriously weak point, is its tendency to
+self-concentration at the expense of the outer world. The devil always
+comes to a man in the shape of his wife and children, said Hinton. The
+family is a great social influence in so far as it is the best instrument
+for creating children who will make the future citizens; but in a certain
+sense the family is an anti-social influence, for it tends to absorb
+unduly the energy that is needed for the invigoration of society. It is
+possible, indeed, that that fact led to the modification of the monogamic
+system in early developing periods of human history, when social expansion
+and cohesion were the primary necessities. The family too often tends to
+resemble, as someone has said, the secluded collection of grubs sometimes
+revealed in their narrow home when we casually raise a flat stone in our
+gardens. Great as are the problems of love, and great as should be our
+attention to them, it must always be remembered that love is not a little
+circle that is complete in itself. It is the nature of love to irradiate.
+Just as family life exists mainly for the social end of breeding the
+future race, so family love has its social ends in the extension of
+sympathy and affection to those outside it, and even in ends that go
+beyond love altogether.[417]
+
+The question is debated from time to time as to how far it is possible for
+men and women to have intimate friendships with each other outside the
+erotic sphere.[418] There can be no doubt whatever that it is perfectly
+possible for a man and a woman to experience for each other a friendship
+which never intrudes into the sexual sphere. As a rule, however, this only
+happens under special conditions, and those are generally conditions which
+exclude the closest and most intimate friendship. If, as we have seen,
+love may be defined as a synthesis of lust and friendship, friendship
+inevitably enters into the erotic sphere. Just as sexual emotion tends to
+merge into friendship, so friendship between persons of opposite sex, if
+young, healthy, and attractive, tends to involve sexual emotion. The two
+feelings are too closely allied for an artificial barrier to be
+permanently placed between them without protest. Men who offer a woman
+friendship usually find that it is not received with much satisfaction
+except as the first installment of a warmer emotion, and women who offer
+friendship to a man usually find that he responds with an offer of love;
+very often the "friendship" is from the first simply love or flirtation
+masquerading under another name.
+
+    "In the long run," a woman writes (in a letter published in
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, Heft 7), "the senses become
+    discontented at their complete exclusion. And I believe that a
+    man can only come into the closest mutual association with a
+    woman by whom, consciously or unconsciously, he is physically
+    attracted. He cannot enter into the closest psychic intercourse
+    with a woman with whom he could not imagine himself in physical
+    intercourse. His prevailing wish is for the possession of a
+    woman, of the whole woman, her soul as well as her body. And a
+    woman also cannot imagine an intimate relation to a man in which
+    the heart and the body, as well as the mind, are not involved.
+    (Naturally I am thinking of people with sound nerves and healthy
+    blood.) Can a woman carry on a Platonic relation with a man from
+    year to year without the thought sometimes coming to her: 'Why
+    does he never kiss me? Have I no charm for him?' And in the most
+    concealed corner of her heart will it not happen that she uses
+    that word 'kiss' in the more comprehensive sense in which the
+    French sometimes employ it?" There is undoubtedly an element of
+    truth in this statement. The frontier between erotic love and
+    friendship is vague, and an intimate psychic intercourse that is
+    sternly debarred from ever manifesting itself in a caress, or
+    other physical manifestation of tender intimacy, tends to be
+    constrained, and arouses unspoken and unspeakable thoughts and
+    desires which are fatal to any complete friendship.
+
+Undoubtedly the only perfect "Platonic friendships" are those which have
+been reached through the portal of a preliminary erotic intimacy. In such
+a case bad lovers, when they have resolutely traversed the erotic stage,
+may become exceedingly good friends. A satisfactory friendship is
+possible between brother and sister because they have been physically
+intimate in childhood, and all erotic curiosities are absent. The most
+admirable "Platonic friendship" may often be attained by husband and wife
+in whom sympathy and affection and common interests have outlived passion.
+In nearly all the most famous friendships of distinguished men and
+women--as we know in some cases and divine in others--an hour's passion,
+in Sainte-Beuve's words, has served as the golden key to unlock the most
+precious and intimate secrets of friendship.[419]
+
+The friendships that have been entered through the erotic portal possess
+an intimacy and retain a spiritually erotic character which could not be
+attained on the basis of a normal friendship between persons of the same
+sex. This is true in a far higher degree of the ultimate relationship,
+under fortunate circumstances, of husband and wife in the years after
+passion has become impossible. They have ceased to be passionate lovers
+but they have not become mere friends and comrades. More especially their
+relationship takes on elements borrowed from the attitude of child to
+parent, of parent to child. Everyone from his first years retains
+something of the child which cannot be revealed to all the world; everyone
+acquires something of the guardian paternal or maternal spirit. Husband
+and wife are each child to the other, and are indeed parent and child by
+turn. And here still the woman retains a certain erotic supremacy, for she
+is to the last more of a child than it is ever easy for the man to be, and
+much more essentially a mother than he is a father.
+
+    Groos (_Der Æsthetische Genuss_, p. 249) has pointed out that
+    "love" is really made up of both sexual instinct and parental
+    instinct.
+
+    "So-called happy marriages," says Professor W. Thomas (_Sex and
+    Society_, p. 246), "represent an equilibrium reached through an
+    extension of the maternal interest of the woman to the man,
+    whereby she looks after his personal needs as she does after
+    those of the children--cherishing him, in fact, as a child--or
+    in an extension to woman on the part of man of the nurture and
+    affection which is in his nature to give to pets and all helpless
+    (and preferably dumb) creatures."
+
+    "When the devotion in the tie between mother and son," a woman
+    writes, "is added to the relation of husband and wife, the union
+    of marriage is raised to the high and beautiful dignity it
+    deserves, and can attain in this world. It comprehends sympathy,
+    love, and perfect understanding, even of the faults and
+    weaknesses of both sides." "The foundation of every true woman's
+    love," another woman writes, "is a mother's tenderness. He whom
+    she loves is a child of larger growth, although she may at the
+    same time have a deep respect for him." (See also, for similar
+    opinion of another woman of distinguished intellectual ability,
+    footnote at beginning of "The Psychic State in Pregnancy" in
+    volume v of these _Studies_.)
+
+    It is on the basis of these elemental human facts that the
+    permanently seductive and inspiring relationships of sex are
+    developed, and not by the emergence of personalities who combine
+    impossibly exalted characteristics. "The task is extremely
+    difficult," says Kisch in his _Sexual Life of Woman_, "but a
+    clever and virtuous modern wife must endeavor to combine in her
+    single personality the sensuous attractiveness of an Aspasia, the
+    chastity of a Lucrece, and the intellectual greatness of a
+    Cornelia." And in an earlier century we are told in the novel of
+    _La Tia Fingida_, which has sometimes been attributed to
+    Cervantes, that "a woman should be an angel in the street, a
+    saint in church, beautiful at the window, honest in the house,
+    and a demon in bed." The demands made of men by women, on the
+    other hand, have been almost too lofty to bear definite
+    formulation at all. "Ninety-nine out of a hundred loving women,"
+    says Helene Stöcker, "certainly believe that if a thousand other
+    men have behaved ignobly, and forsaken, ill-used, and deceived
+    the woman they love, the man they love is an exception, marked
+    out from all other men; that is the reason they love him." It may
+    be doubted, however, if the great lovers have ever stood very far
+    above the ordinary level of humanity by their possession of
+    perfection. They have been human, and their art of love has not
+    always excluded the possession of human frailties; perfection,
+    indeed, even if it could be found, would furnish a bad soil for
+    love to strike deep roots in.
+
+It is only when we realize the highly complex nature of the elements which
+make up erotic love that we can understand how it is that that love can
+constitute so tremendous a revelation and exert so profound an influence
+even in men of the greatest genius and intellect and in the sphere of
+their most spiritual activity. It is not merely passion, nor any conscious
+skill in the erotic art,--important as these may be,--that would serve to
+account for Goethe's relationship to Frau von Stein, or Wagner's to
+Mathilde Wesendonck, or that of Robert and Elizabeth Browning to each
+other.[420]
+
+It may now be clear to the reader why it has been necessary in a
+discussion of the sexual impulse in its relationship to society to deal
+with the art of love. It is true that there is nothing so intimately
+private and personal as the erotic affairs of the individual. Yet it is
+equally true that these affairs lie at the basis of the social life, and
+furnish the conditions--good or bad as the case may be--of that
+procreative act which is a supreme concern of the State. It is because the
+question of love is of such purely private interest that it tends to be
+submerged in the question of breed. We have to realize, not only that the
+question of love subserves the question of breed, but also that love has a
+proper, a necessary, even a socially wholesome claim, to stand by itself
+and to be regarded for its own worth.
+
+    In the profoundly suggestive study of love which the
+    distinguished sociologist Tarde left behind at his death
+    (_Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, loc. cit.), there are
+    some interesting remarks on this point: "Society," he says, "has
+    been far more, and more intelligently, preoccupied with the
+    problem of answering the 'question of breed' than the 'question
+    of love.' The first problem fills all our civil and commercial
+    codes. The second problem has never been clearly stated, or
+    looked in the face, not even in antiquity, still less since the
+    coming of Christianity, for merely to offer the solutions of
+    marriage and prostitution is manifestly inadequate. Statesmen
+    have only seen the side on which it touches population. Hence
+    the marriage laws. Sterile love they profess to disdain. Yet it
+    is evident that, though born as the serf of generation, love
+    tends by civilization to be freed from it. In place of a simple
+    method of procreation it has become an end, it has created itself
+    a title, a royal title. Our gardens cultivate flowers that are
+    all the more charming because they are sterile; why is the double
+    corolla of love held more infamous than the sterilized flowers of
+    our gardens?" Tarde replies that the reason is that our
+    politicians are merely ambitious persons thirsting for power and
+    wealth, and even when they are lovers they are Don Juans rather
+    than Virgils. "The future," he continues, "is to the Virgilians,
+    because if the ambition of power, the regal wealth of American or
+    European millionarism, once seemed nobler, love now more and more
+    attracts to itself the best and highest parts of the soul, where
+    lies the hidden ferment of all that is greatest in science and
+    art, and more and more those studious and artist souls multiply
+    who, intent on their peaceful activities, hold in horror the
+    business men and the politicians, and will one day succeed in
+    driving them back. That assuredly will be the great and capital
+    revolution of humanity, an active psychological revolution: the
+    recognized preponderance of the meditative and contemplative, the
+    lover's side of the human soul, over the feverish, expansive,
+    rapacious, and ambitious side. And then it will be understood
+    that one of the greatest of social problems, perhaps the most
+    arduous of all, has been the problem of love."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[375] _Quæstionum Convivalium_, lib. iii, quæstio 6.
+
+[376] E.D. Cope, "The Marriage Problem," _Open Court_, Nov. 1888.
+
+[377] Columbus meeting of the American Medical Association, 1900.
+
+[378] Ellen Key, _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 24.
+
+[379] In an admirable article on Friedrich Schlegel's _Lucinde_
+(_Mutterschutz_, 1906, Heft 5), Heinrich Meyer-Benfey, in pointing out
+that the Catholic sacramental conception of marriage licensed love, but
+failed to elevate it, regards _Lucinde_, with all its defects, as the
+first expression of the unity of the senses and the soul, and, as such,
+the basis of the new ethics of love. It must, however, be said that four
+hundred years earlier Pontano had expressed this same erotic unity far
+more robustly and wholesomely than Schlegel, though the Latin verse in
+which he wrote, fresh and vital as it is, remained without influence.
+Pontano's _Carmina_, including the "De Amore Conjugali," have at length
+been reprinted in a scholarly edition by Soldati.
+
+[380] From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries Ovid was, in
+reality, the most popular and influential classic poet. His works played a
+large part in moulding Renaissance literature, not least in England, where
+Marlowe translated his _Amores_, and Shakespeare, during the early years
+of his literary activity, was greatly indebted to him (see, e.g., Sidney
+Lee, "Ovid and Shakespeare's Sonnets," _Quarterly Review_, Ap., 1909).
+
+[381] This has already been discussed in Chapter II.
+
+[382] By the age of twenty-five, as G. Hirth remarks (_Wege zur Heimat_,
+p. 541), an energetic and sexually disposed man in a large city has, for
+the most part, already had relations with some twenty-five women, perhaps
+even as many as fifty, while a well-bred and cultivated woman at that age
+is still only beginning to realize the slowly summating excitations of
+sex.
+
+[383] In his study of "Conjugal Aversion" (_Journal Nervous and Mental
+Disease_, Sept., 1892) Smith Baker points out the value of adequate sexual
+knowledge before marriage in lessening the risks of such aversion.
+
+[384] "It may be said to the honor of men," Adler truly remarks (op. cit.,
+p. 182), "that it is perhaps not often their conscious brutality that is
+at fault in this matter, but merely lack of skill and lack of
+understanding. The husband who is not specially endowed by nature and
+experience for psychic intercourse with women, is not likely, through his
+earlier intercourse with Venus vulgivaga, to bring into marriage any
+useful knowledge, psychic or physical."
+
+[385] "The first night," writes a correspondent concerning his marriage,
+"she found the act very painful and was frightened and surprised at the
+size of my penis, and at my suddenly getting on her. We had talked very
+openly about sex things before marriage, and it never occurred to me that
+she was ignorant of the details of the act. I imagined it would disgust
+her to talk about these things; but I now see I should have explained
+things to her. Before marrying I had come to the conclusion that the
+respect owed to one's wife was incompatible with any talk that might seem
+indecent, and also I had made a resolve not to subject her to what I
+thought then were dirty tricks, even to be naked and to have her naked. In
+fact, I was the victim of mock modesty; it was an artificial reaction from
+the life I had been living before marriage. Now it seems to me to be
+natural, if you love a woman, to do whatever occurs to you and to her. If
+I had not felt it wrong to encourage such acts between us, there might
+have been established a sexual sympathy which would have bound me more
+closely to her."
+
+[386] Montaigne, _Essais_, Bk. iii, Ch. V. It is a significant fact that,
+even in the matter of information, women, notwithstanding much ignorance
+and inexperience, are often better equipped for marriage than men. As
+Fürbringer remarks (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 212), although the wife is usually more chaste at
+marriage than the husband, yet "she is generally the better informed
+partner in matters pertaining to the married state, in spite of occasional
+astonishing confessions."
+
+[387] "She never loses her self-respect nor my respect for her," a man
+writes in a letter, "simply because we are desperately in love with one
+another, and everything we do--some of which the lowest prostitute might
+refuse to do--seems but one attempt after another to translate our passion
+into action. I never realized before, not that to the pure all things are
+pure, indeed, but that to the lover nothing is indecent. Yes, I have
+always felt it, to love her is a liberal education." It is obviously only
+the existence of such an attitude as this that can enable a pure woman to
+be passionate.
+
+[388] "To be really understood," as Rafford Pyke well says, "to say what
+she likes, to utter her innermost thoughts in her own way, to cast aside
+the traditional conventions that gall her and repress her, to have someone
+near her with whom she can be quite frank, and yet to know that not a
+syllable of what she says will be misinterpreted or mistaken, but rather
+felt just as she feels it all--how wonderfully sweet is this to every
+woman, and how few men are there who can give it to her!"
+
+[389] In more recent times it has been discussed in relation to the
+frequency of spontaneous nocturnal emissions. See "The Phenomena of Sexual
+Periodicity," Sect. II, in volume i of these _Studies_, and cf. Mr.
+Perry-Coste's remarks on "The Annual Rhythm," in Appendix B of the same
+volume.
+
+[390] See "The Sexual Impulse in Women," vol. iii of these _Studies_.
+
+[391] Zenobia's practice is referred to by Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ed.
+Bury, vol. i, p. 302. The Queen of Aragon's decision is recorded by the
+Montpellier jurist, Nicolas Bohier (Boerius) in his _Decisiones_, etc.,
+ed. of 1579, p. 563; it is referred to by Montaigne, _Essais_, Bk. iii,
+Ch. V.
+
+[392] Haller, _Elementa Physiologiæ_, 1778, vol. vii, p. 57.
+
+[393] Hammond, _Sexual Impotence_, p. 129.
+
+[394] Fürbringer, Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to
+Marriage_, vol. i, p. 221.
+
+[395] Forel, _Die Sexuelle Frage_, p. 80.
+
+[396] Guyot, _Bréviaire de l'Amour Expérimental_, p. 144.
+
+[397] Erb, Ziemssen's _Handbuch_, Bd. xi, ii, p. 148. Guttceit also
+considered that the very wide variations found are congenital and natural.
+It may be added that some believe that there are racial variations. Thus
+it has been stated that the genital force of the Englishman is low, and
+that of the Frenchman (especially Provençal, Languedocian, and Gascon)
+high, while Löwenfeld believes that the Germanic race excels the French in
+aptitude to repeat the sex act frequently. It is probable that little
+weight attaches to these opinions, and that the chief differences are
+individual rather than racial.
+
+[398] Ribbing, _L'Hygiène Sexualle_, p. 75. Kisch, in his _Sexual Life of
+Woman_, expresses the same opinion.
+
+[399] Mohammed, who often displayed a consideration for women very rare in
+the founders of religions, is an exception. His prescription of once a
+week represented the right of the wife, quite independently of the number
+of wives a man might possess.
+
+[400] How fragile the claim of "conjugal rights" is, may be sufficiently
+proved by the fact that it is now considered by many that the very term
+"conjugal rights" arose merely by a mistake for "conjugal rites." Before
+1733, when legal proceedings were in Latin, the term used was _obsequies_,
+and "rights," instead of "rites," seems to have been merely a typesetter's
+error (see _Notes and Queries_, May 16, 1891; May 6, 1899). This
+explanation, it should be added, only applies to the consecrated term, for
+there can be no doubt that the underlying idea has an existence quite
+independent of the term.
+
+[401] "In most marriages that are not happy," it is said in Rafford Pyke's
+thoughtful paper on "Husbands and Wives" (_Cosmopolitan_, 1902), "it is
+the wife rather than the husband who is oftenest disappointed."
+
+[402] See "Analysis of the Sexual Impulse," in vol. iii of these
+_Studies_.
+
+[403] It is well recognized by erotic writers, however, that women may
+sometimes take a comparatively active part. Thus Vatsyayana says that
+sometimes the woman may take the man's position, and with flowers in her
+hair and smiles mixed with sighs and bent head, caressing him and pressing
+her breasts against him, say: "You have been my conqueror; it is my turn
+to make you cry for mercy."
+
+[404] Thus among the Swahili it is on the third day after marriage that
+the bridegroom is allowed, by custom, to complete defloration, according
+to Zache, _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1899, II-III, p. 84.
+
+[405] _De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 57.
+
+[406] Robert Michels, "Brautstandsmoral," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_,
+Jahrgang I, Heft 12.
+
+[407] I may refer once more to the facts brought together in volume iii of
+these _Studies_, "The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."
+
+[408] This has been pointed out, for instance, by Rutgers, "Sexuelle
+Differenzierung," _Die Neue Generation_, Dec., 1908.
+
+[409] Thus, among the Eskimo, who practice temporary wife-exchange,
+Rasmussen states that "a man generally discovers that his own wife is, in
+spite of all, the best."
+
+[410] "I have always held with the late Professor Laycock," remarks
+Clouston (_Hygiene of Mind_, p. 214), "who was a very subtle student of
+human nature, that a married couple need not be always together to be
+happy, and that in fact reasonable absences and partings tend towards
+ultimate and closer union." That the prolongation of passion is only
+compatible with absence scarcely needs pointing out; as Mary
+Wollstonecraft long since said (_Rights of Woman_, original ed., p. 61),
+it is only in absence or in misfortune that passion is durable. It may be
+added, however, that in her love-letters to Imlay she wrote: "I have ever
+declared that two people who mean to live together ought not to be long
+separated."
+
+[411] "Viewed broadly," says Arnold L. Gesell, in his interesting study of
+"Jealousy" (_American Journal of Psychology_, Oct., 1906), "jealousy seems
+such a necessary psychological accompaniment to biological behavior,
+amidst competitive struggle, that one is tempted to consider it
+genetically among the oldest of the emotions, synonymous almost with the
+will to live, and to make it scarcely less fundamental than fear or anger.
+In fact, jealousy readily passes into anger, and is itself a brand of
+fear.... In sociability and mutual aid we see the other side of the
+shield; but jealousy, however anti-social it may be, retains a function in
+zoölogical economy: viz., to conserve the individual as against the group.
+It is Nature's great corrective for the purely social emotions."
+
+[412] Many illustrations are brought together in Gesell's study of
+"Jealousy."
+
+[413] Jealousy among lower races may be disguised or modified by tribal
+customs. Thus Rasmussen (_People of the Polar North_, p. 65) says in
+reference to the Eskimo custom of wife-exchange: "A man once told me that
+he only beat his wife when she would not receive other men. She would have
+nothing to do with anyone but him--and that was her only failing!"
+Rasmussen elsewhere shows that the Eskimo are capable of extreme jealousy.
+
+[414] See, e.g., Moll, _Sexualleben des Kindes_, p. 158; cf., Gesell's
+"Study of Jealousy."
+
+[415] Jealousy is notoriously common among drunkards. As K. Birnbaum
+points out ("Das Sexualleben der Alkokolisten," _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan.,
+1909), this jealousy is, in most cases, more or less well-founded, for the
+wife, disgusted with her husband, naturally seeks sympathy and
+companionship elsewhere. Alcoholic jealousy, however, goes far beyond its
+basis of support in fact, and is entangled with delusions and
+hallucinations. (See e.g., G. Dumas, "La Logique d'un Dément," _Revue
+Philosophique_, Feb., 1908; also Stefanowski, "Morbid Jealousy," _Alienist
+and Neurologist_, July, 1893.)
+
+[416] Ellen Key, _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 335.
+
+[417] Schrempf points out ("Von Stella zu Klärchen," _Mutterschutz_, 1906,
+Heft 7, p. 264) that Goethe strove to show in _Egmont_ that a woman is
+repelled by the love of a man who knows nothing beyond his love to her,
+and that it is easy for her to devote herself to the man whose aims lie in
+the larger world beyond herself. There is profound truth in this view.
+
+[418] A discussion on "Platonic friendship" of this kind by several
+writers, mostly women, whose opinions were nearly equally divided, may be
+found, for instance, in the _Lady's Realm_, March, 1900.
+
+[419] There are no doubt important exceptions. Thus Mérimée's famous
+friendship with Mlle. Jenny Dacquin, enshrined in the _Lettres à une
+Inconnue_, was perhaps Platonic throughout on Mérimée's side, Mlle.
+Dacquin adapting herself to his attitude. Cf. A. Lefebvre, _La Célèbre
+Inconnue de Mérimée_, 1908.
+
+[420] The love-letters of all these distinguished persons have been
+published. Rosa Mayreder (_Zur Kritik der Weiblichkeit_, pp. 229 _et
+seq._) discusses the question of the humble and absolute manner in which
+even men of the most masculine and impetuous genius abandon themselves to
+the inspiration of the beloved woman. The case of the Brownings, who have
+been termed "the hero and heroine of the most wonderful love-story that
+the world knows of," is specially notable; (Ellen Key has written of the
+Brownings from this point of view in _Menschen_, and reference may be made
+to an article on the Brownings' love-letters in the _Edinburgh Review_,
+April, 1899). It is scarcely necessary to add that an erotic relationship
+may mean very much to persons of high intellectual ability, even when its
+issue is not happy; of Mary Wollstonecraft, one of the most intellectually
+distinguished of women, it may be said that the letters which enshrine her
+love to the worthless Imlay are among the most passionate and pathetic
+love-letters in English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SCIENCE OF PROCREATION.
+
+The Relationship of the Science of Procreation to the Art of Love--Sexual
+Desire and Sexual Pleasure as the Conditions of Conception--Reproduction
+Formerly Left to Caprice and Lust--The Question of Procreation as a
+Religious Question--The Creed of Eugenics--Ellen Key and Sir Francis
+Galton--Our Debt to Posterity--The Problem of Replacing Natural
+Selection--The Origin and Development of Eugenics--The General Acceptance
+of Eugenical Principles To-day--The Two Channels by Which Eugenical
+Principles are Becoming Embodied in Practice--The Sense of Sexual
+Responsibility in Women--The Rejection of Compulsory Motherhood--The
+Privilege of Voluntary Motherhood--Causes of the Degradation of
+Motherhood--The Control of Conception--Now Practiced by the Majority of
+the Population in Civilized Countries--The Fallacy of "Racial
+Suicide"--Are Large Families a Stigma of Degeneration?--Procreative
+Control the Outcome of Natural and Civilized Progress--The Growth of
+Neo-Malthusian Beliefs and Practices--Facultative Sterility as Distinct
+from Neo-Malthusianism--The Medical and Hygienic Necessity of Control of
+Conception--Preventive Methods--Abortion--The New Doctrine of the Duty to
+Practice Abortion--How Far is this Justifiable?--Castration as a Method of
+Controlling Procreation--Negative Eugenics and Positive Eugenics--The
+Question of Certificates for Marriage--The Inadequacy of Eugenics by Act
+of Parliament--The Quickening of the Social Conscience in Regard to
+Heredity--Limitations to the Endowment of Motherhood--The Conditions
+Favorable to Procreation--Sterility--The Question of Artificial
+Fecundation--The Best Age of Procreation--The Question of Early
+Motherhood--The Best Time for Procreation--The Completion of the Divine
+Cycle of Life.
+
+
+We have seen that the art of love has an independent and amply justifiable
+right to existence apart, altogether, from procreation. Even if we still
+believed--as all men must once have believed and some Central Australians
+yet believe[421]--that sexual intercourse has no essential connection with
+the propagation of the race it would have full right to existence. In its
+finer manifestations as an art it is required in civilization for the full
+development of the individual, and it is equally required for that
+stability of relationships which is nearly everywhere regarded as a demand
+of social morality.
+
+When we now turn to the second great constitutional factor of marriage,
+procreation, the first point we encounter is that the art of love here
+also has its place. In ancient times the sexual congruence of any man with
+any woman was supposed to be so much a matter of course that all questions
+of love and of the art of love could be left out of consideration. The
+propagative act might, it was thought, be performed as impersonally, as
+perfunctorily, as the early Christian Fathers imagined it had been
+performed in Paradise. That view is no longer acceptable. It fails to
+commend itself to men, and still less to women. We know that in
+civilization at all events--and it is often indeed the same among
+savages--erethism is not always easy between two persons selected at
+random, nor even when they are more specially selected. And we also know,
+on the authority of very distinguished gynæcologists, that it is not in
+very many cases sufficient even to effect coitus, it is also necessary to
+excite orgasm, if conception is to be achieved.
+
+    Many primitive peoples, as well as the theologians of the Middle
+    Ages, have believed that sexual excitement on the woman's part is
+    necessary to conception, though they have sometimes mixed up that
+    belief with false science and mere superstition. The belief
+    itself is supported by some of the most cautious and experienced
+    modern gynæcologists. Thus, Matthews Duncan (in his lectures on
+    _Sterility in Women_) argued that the absence of sexual desire in
+    women, and the absence of pleasure in the sexual act, are
+    powerful influences making for sterility. He brought forward a
+    table based on his case-books, showing that of nearly four
+    hundred sterile women, only about one-fourth experienced sexual
+    desire, while less than half experienced pleasure in the sexual
+    act. In the absence, however, of a corresponding table concerning
+    fertile women, nothing is hereby absolutely proved, and, at most,
+    only a probability established.
+
+    Kisch, more recently (in his _Sexual Life of Woman_), has dealt
+    fully with this question, and reaches the conclusion that it is
+    "extremely probable" that the active erotic participation of the
+    woman in coitus is an important link in the chain of conditions
+    producing conception. It acts, he remarks, in either or both of
+    two ways, by causing reflex changes in the cervical secretions,
+    and so facilitating the passage of the spermatozoa, and by
+    causing reflex erectile changes in the cervix itself, with slight
+    descent of the uterus, so rendering the entrance of the semen
+    easier. Kisch refers to the analogous fact that the first
+    occurrence of menstruation is favored by sexual excitement.
+
+    Some authorities go so far as to assert that, until voluptuous
+    excitement occurs in women, no impregnation is possible. This
+    statement seems too extreme. It is true that the occurrence of
+    impregnation during sleep, or in anæsthesia, cannot be opposed to
+    it, for we know that the unconsciousness of these states by no
+    means prevents the occurrence of complete sexual excitement. We
+    cannot fail, however, to connect the fact that impregnation
+    frequently fails to occur for months and even years after
+    marriage, with the fact that sexual pleasure in coitus on the
+    wife's part also frequently fails to occur for a similar period.
+
+"Of all human instincts," Pinard has said,[422] "that of reproduction is
+the only one which remains in the primitive condition and has received no
+education. We procreate to-day as they procreated in the Stone Age. The
+most important act in the life of man, the sublimest of all acts since it
+is that of his reproduction, man accomplishes to-day with as much
+carelessness as in the age of the cave-man." And though Pinard himself, as
+the founder of puericulture, has greatly contributed to call attention to
+the vast destinies that hang on the act of procreation, there still
+remains a lamentable amount of truth in this statement. "Future
+generations," writes Westermarck in his great history of moral ideas,[423]
+"will probably with a kind of horror look back at a period when the most
+important, and in its consequences the most far-reaching, function which
+has fallen to the lot of man was entirely left to individual caprice and
+lust."
+
+We are told in his _Table Talk_, that the great Luther was accustomed to
+say that God's way of making man was very foolish ("sehr närrisch"), and
+that if God had deigned to take him into His counsel he would have
+strongly advised Him to make the whole human race, as He made Adam, "out
+of earth." And certainly if applied to the careless and reckless manner in
+which procreation in Luther's day, as still for the most part in our own,
+was usually carried out there was sound common sense in the Reformer's
+remarks. If that is the way procreation is to be carried on, it would be
+better to create and mould every human being afresh out of the earth; in
+that way we could at all events eliminate evil heredity. It was, however,
+unjust to place the responsibility on God. It is men and women who breed
+the people that make the world good or bad. They seek to put the evils of
+society on to something outside themselves. They see how large a
+proportion of human beings are defective, ill-conditioned, anti-social,
+incapable of leading a whole and beautiful human life. In old theological
+language it was often said that such were "children of the Devil," and
+Luther himself was often ready enough to attribute the evil of the world
+to the direct interposition of the Devil. Yet these ill-conditioned people
+who clog the wheels of society are, after all, in reality the children of
+Man. The only Devil whom we can justly invoke in this matter is Man.
+
+The command "Be fruitful and multiply," which the ancient Hebrews put into
+the mouth of their tribal God, was, as Crackanthorpe points out,[424] a
+command supposed to have been uttered when there were only eight persons
+in the world. If the time should ever again occur when the inhabitants of
+the world could be counted on one's fingers, such an injunction, as
+Crackanthorpe truly observes, would again be reasonable. But we have to
+remember that to-day humanity has spawned itself over the world in
+hundreds and even thousands of millions of creatures, a large proportion
+of whom, as is but too obvious, ought never to have been born at all, and
+the voice of Jehovah is now making itself heard through the leaders of
+mankind in a very different sense.
+
+It is not surprising that as this fact tends to become generally
+recognized, the question of the procreation of the race should gain a new
+significance, and even tend to take on the character of a new religious
+movement. Mere morality can never lead us to concern ourselves with the
+future of the race, and in the days of old, men used to protest against
+the tendency to subordinate the interests of religion to the claims of
+"mere morality." There was a sound natural instinct underlying that
+protest, so often and so vigorously made by Christianity, and again
+revived to-day in a more intelligent form. The claim of the race is the
+claim of religion. We have to beware lest we subordinate that claim to our
+moralities. Moralities are, indeed, an inevitable part of our social order
+from which we cannot escape; every community must have its _mores_. But we
+are not entitled to make a fetich of our morality, sacrificing to it the
+highest interests entrusted to us. The nations which have done so have
+already signed their own death-warrant.[425] From this point of view, the
+whole of Christianity, rightly considered, with its profound conviction of
+the necessity for forethought and preparation for the life hereafter, has
+been a preparation for eugenics, a schoolmaster to discipline within us a
+higher ideal than itself taught, and we cannot therefore be surprised at
+the solidity of the basis on which eugenical conceptions of life are
+developing.
+
+    The most distinguished pioneers of the new movement of devotion
+    to the creation of the race seem independently to have realized
+    its religious character. This attitude is equally marked in Ellen
+    Key and Francis Galton. In her _Century of the Child_ (English
+    translation, 1909), Ellen Key entirely identifies herself with
+    the eugenic movement. "It is only a question of time," she
+    elsewhere writes (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 445), "when the
+    attitude of society towards a sexual union will depend not on the
+    form of the union, but on the value of the children created. Men
+    and women will then devote the same religious earnestness to the
+    psychic and physical perfectioning of this sexual task as
+    Christians have devoted to the salvation of their souls."
+
+    Sir Francis Galton, writing a few years later, but without doubt
+    independently, in 1905, on "Restrictions in Marriage," and
+    "Eugenics as a Factor in Religion" (_Sociological Papers_ of the
+    Sociological Society, vol. ii, pp. 13, 53), remarks: "Religious
+    precepts, founded on the ethics and practice of older days,
+    require to be reinterpreted, to make them conform to the needs of
+    progressive nations. Ours are already so far behind modern
+    requirements that much of our practice and our profession cannot
+    be reconciled without illegitimate casuistry. It seems to me
+    that few things are more needed by us in England than a revision
+    of our religion, to adapt it to the intelligence and needs of
+    this present time.... Evolution is a grand phantasmagoria, but it
+    assumes an infinitely more interesting aspect under the knowledge
+    that the intelligent action of the human will is, in some small
+    measure, capable of guiding its course. Man has the power of
+    doing this largely, so far as the evolution of humanity is
+    concerned; he has already affected the quality and distribution
+    of organic life so widely that the changes on the surface of the
+    earth, merely through his disforestings and agriculture, would be
+    recognizable from a distance as great as that of the moon.
+    Eugenics is a virile creed, full of hopefulness, and appealing to
+    many of the noblest feelings of our nature."
+
+    As will always happen in every great movement, a few fanatics
+    have carried into absurdity the belief in the supreme religious
+    importance of procreation. Love, apart from procreation, writes
+    one of these fanatics, Vacher de Lapouge, in the spirit of some
+    of the early Christian Fathers (see _ante_ p. 509), is an
+    aberration comparable to sadism and sodomy. Procreation is the
+    only thing that matters, and it must become "a legally prescribed
+    social duty" only to be exercised by carefully selected persons,
+    and forbidden to others, who must, by necessity, be deprived of
+    the power of procreation, while abortion and infanticide must,
+    under some circumstances, become compulsory. Romantic love will
+    disappear by a process of selection, as also will all religion
+    except a new form of phallic worship (G. Vacher de Lapouge, "Die
+    Crisis der Sexuellen Moral," _Politisch Anthropologische Revue_,
+    No. 8, 1908). It is sufficient to point out that love is, and
+    always must be, the natural portal to generation. Such excesses
+    of procreative fanaticism cannot fail to occur, and they render
+    the more necessary the emphasis which has here been placed on the
+    art of love.
+
+"What has posterity done for me that I should do anything for posterity?"
+a cynic is said to have asked. The answer is very simple. The human race
+has done everything for him. All that he is, and can be, is its creation;
+all that he can do is the result of its laboriously accumulated
+traditions. It is only by working towards the creation of a still better
+posterity, that he can repay the good gifts which the human race has
+brought him.[426] Just as, within the limits of this present life, many
+who have received benefits and kindnesses they can never repay to the
+actual givers, find a pleasure in vicariously repaying the like to
+others, so the heritage we have received from our ascendents we can never
+repay, save by handing it on in a better form to our descendants.
+
+It is undoubtedly true that the growth of eugenical ideals has not been,
+for the most part, due to religious feeling. It has been chiefly the
+outcome of a very gradual, but very comprehensive, movement towards social
+amelioration, which has been going on for more than a century, and which
+has involved a progressive effort towards the betterment of all the
+conditions of life. The ideals of this movement were proclaimed in the
+eighteenth century, they began to find expression early in the nineteenth
+century, in the initiation of the modern system of sanitation, in the
+growth of factory legislation, in all the movements which have been borne
+onwards by socialism hand in hand with individualism. The inevitable
+tendency has been slowly towards the root of the matter; it began to be
+seen that comparatively little can be effected by improving the conditions
+of life of adults; attention began to be concentrated on the child, on the
+infant, on the embryo in its mother's womb, and this resulted in the
+fruitful movement of puericulture inspired by Pinard, and finally the
+problem is brought to its source at the point of procreation, and the
+regulation of sexual selection between stocks and between individuals as
+the prime condition of life. Here we have the science of eugenics which
+Sir Francis Galton has done so much to make a definite, vital, and
+practical study, and which in its wider bearings he defines as "the
+science which deals with those social eugenics that influence, mentally or
+physically, the racial qualities of future generations." In its largest
+aspect, eugenics is, as Galton has elsewhere said, man's attempt "to
+replace Natural Selection by other processes that are more merciful and
+not less effective."
+
+    In the last chapter of his _Memories of My Life_ (1908), on "Race
+    Improvement," Sir Francis Galton sets forth the origin and
+    development of his conception of the science of eugenics. The
+    term, "eugenics," he first used in 1884, in his _Human Faculty_,
+    but the conception dates from 1865, and even earlier. Galton has
+    more recently discussed the problems of eugenics in papers read
+    before the Sociological Society (_Sociological Papers_, vols. i
+    and ii, 1905), in the Herbert Spencer Lecture on "Probability the
+    Foundation of Eugenics," (1907), and elsewhere. Galton's numerous
+    memoirs on this subject have now been published in a collected
+    form by the Eugenics Education Society, which was established in
+    1907, to further and to popularize the eugenical attitude towards
+    social questions; _The Eugenics Review_ is published by this
+    Society. On the more strictly scientific side, eugenic studies
+    are carried on in the Eugenics Laboratory of the University of
+    London, established by Sir Francis Galton, and now working in
+    connection with Professor Karl Pearson's biometric laboratory, in
+    University College. Much of Professor Pearson's statistical work
+    in this and allied directions, is the elaboration of ideas and
+    suggestions thrown out by Galton. See, e.g., Karl Pearson's
+    Robert Boyle Lecture, "The Scope and Importance to the State of
+    the Science of National Eugenics" (1907). _Biometrika_, edited by
+    Karl Pearson in association with other workers, contains numerous
+    statistical memoirs on eugenics. In Germany, the _Archiv für
+    Rassen und Gesellschafts-biologie_, and the
+    _Politisch-Anthropologische Revue_, are largely occupied with
+    various aspects of such subjects, and in America, _The Popular
+    Science Monthly_ from time to time, publishes articles which have
+    a bearing on eugenics.
+
+At one time there was a tendency to scoff, or to laugh, at the eugenic
+movement. It was regarded as an attempt to breed men as men breed animals,
+and it was thought a sufficiently easy task to sweep away this new
+movement with the remark that love laughs at bolts and bars. It is now
+beginning to be better understood. None but fanatics dream of abolishing
+love in order to effect pairing by rule. It is merely a question of
+limiting the possible number of mates from whom each may select a partner,
+and that, we must remember, has always been done even by savages, for, as
+it has been said, "eugenics is the oldest of the sciences." The question
+has merely been transformed. Instead of being limited mechanically by
+caste, we begin to see that the choice of sexual mates must be limited
+intelligently by actual fitness. Promiscuous marriages have never been the
+rule; the possibility of choice has always been narrow, and the most
+primitive peoples have exerted the most marked self-restraint. It is not
+so merely among remote races but among our own European ancestors.
+Throughout the whole period of Catholic supremacy the Canon law
+multiplied the impediments to matrimony, as by ordaining that
+consanguinity to the fourth degree (third cousins), as well as spiritual
+relationship, is an impediment, and by such arbitrary prohibitions limited
+the range of possible mates at least as much as it would be limited by the
+more reasonable dictates of eugenic considerations.
+
+At the present day it may be said that the principle of the voluntary
+control of procreation, not for the selfish ends of the individual, but in
+order to extinguish disease, to limit human misery, and to raise the
+general level of humanity by substituting the ideal of quality for the
+vulgar ideal of mere quantity, is now generally accepted, alike by medical
+pathologists, embryologists and neurologists, and by sociologists and
+moralists.
+
+    It would be easy to multiply quotations from distinguished
+    authorities on this point. Thus, Metchnikoff points out (_Essais
+    Optimistes_, p. 419) that orthobiosis seems to involve the
+    limitation of offspring in the fight against disease. Ballantyne
+    concludes his great treatise on _Antenanal Pathology_ with the
+    statement that "Eugenics" or well-begetting, is one of the
+    world's most pressing problems. Dr. Louise Robinovitch, the
+    editor of the _Journal of Mental Pathology_, in a brilliant and
+    thoughtful paper, read before the Rome Congress of Psychology in
+    1905, well spoke in the same sense: "Nations have not yet
+    elevated the energy of genesic function to the dignity of an
+    energy. Other energies known to us, even of the meanest grade,
+    have long since been wisely utilized, and their activities based
+    on the principle of the strictest possible economy. This economic
+    utilization has been brought about, not through any enforcement
+    of legislative restrictions, but through steadily progressive
+    human intelligence. Economic handling of genesic function will,
+    like the economic function of other energies, come about through
+    a steady and progressive intellectual development of nations."
+    "There are circumstances," says C.H. Hughes, ("Restricted
+    Procreation," _Alienist and Neurologist_, May, 1908), "under
+    which the propagation of a human life may be as gravely criminal
+    as the taking of a life already begun."
+
+    From the general biological, as well as from the sociological
+    side, the acceptance of the same standpoint is constantly
+    becoming more general, for it is recognized as the inevitable
+    outcome of movements which have long been in progress.
+
+    "Already," wrote Haycraft (_Darwinism and Race Progress_, p.
+    160), referring to the law for the prevention of cruelty to
+    children, "public opinion has expressed itself in the public
+    rule that a man and woman, in begetting a child, must take upon
+    themselves the obligation and responsibility of seeing that that
+    child is not subjected to cruelty and hardship. It is but one
+    step more to say that a man and a woman shall be under obligation
+    not to produce children, when it is certain that, from their want
+    of physique, they will have to undergo suffering, and will keep
+    up but an unequal struggle with their fellows." Professor J.
+    Arthur Thomson, in his volume on _Heredity_ (1908), vigorously
+    and temperately pleads (p. 528) for rational methods of eugenics,
+    as specially demanded in an age like our own, when the unfit have
+    been given a better chance of reproduction than they have ever
+    been given in any other age. Bateson, again, referring to the
+    growing knowledge of heredity, remarks (_Mendel's Principles of
+    Heredity_, 1909, p. 305): "Genetic knowledge must certainly lead
+    to new conceptions of justice, and it is by no means impossible
+    that, in the light of such knowledge, public opinion will welcome
+    measures likely to do more for the extinction of the criminal and
+    the degenerate than has been accomplished by ages of penal
+    enactment." Adolescent youths and girls, said Anton von Menger,
+    in his last book, the pregnant _Neue Sittenlehre_ (1905), must be
+    taught that the production of children, under certain
+    circumstances, is a crime; they must also be taught the voluntary
+    restraint of conception, even in health; such teaching, Menger
+    rightly added, is a necessary preliminary to any legislation in
+    this direction.
+
+    Of recent years, many books and articles have been devoted to the
+    advocacy of eugenic methods. Mention may be made, for instance,
+    of _Population and Progress_ (1907), by Montague Crackanthorpe,
+    President of the Eugenics Education Society. See also, Havelock
+    Ellis, "Eugenics and St. Valentine," _Nineteenth Century and
+    After_, May, 1906. It may be mentioned that nearly thirty years
+    ago, Miss J.H. Clapperton, in her _Scientific Meliorism_ (1885,
+    Ch. XVII), pointed out that the voluntary restraint of
+    procreation by Neo-Malthusian methods, apart from merely
+    prudential motives, there clearly recognized, is "a new key to
+    the social position," and a necessary condition for "national
+    regeneration." Professor Karl Pearson's _Groundwork of Eugenics_,
+    (1909) is, perhaps, the best brief introduction to the subject.
+    Mention may also be made of Dr. Saleeby's _Parenthood and Race
+    Culture_ (1909), written in a popular and enthusiastic manner.
+
+    How widely the general principles of eugenics are now accepted as
+    the sound method of raising the level of the human race, was well
+    shown at a meeting of the Sociological Society, in 1905, when,
+    after Sir Francis Galton had read papers on the question, the
+    meeting heard the opinions of numerous sociologists, economists,
+    biologists, and well-known thinkers in various lands, who were
+    present, or who had sent communications. Some twenty-one
+    expressed more or less unqualified approval, and only three or
+    four had objections to offer, mostly on matters of detail
+    (_Sociological Papers_, published by the Sociological Society,
+    vol. ii, 1905).
+
+If we ask by what channels this impulse towards the control of procreation
+for the elevation of the race is expressing itself in practical life, we
+shall scarcely fail to find that there are at least two such channels: (1)
+the growing sense of sexual responsibility among women as well as men, and
+(2) the conquest of procreative control which has been achieved in recent
+years, by the general adoption of methods for the prevention of
+conception.
+
+It has already been necessary in a previous chapter to discuss the
+far-reaching significance of woman's personal responsibility as an element
+in the modification of the sexual life of modern communities. Here it need
+only be pointed out that the autonomous authority of a woman over her own
+person, in the sexual sphere, involves on her part a consent to the act of
+procreation which must be deliberate. We are apt to think that this is a
+new and almost revolutionary demand; it is, however, undoubtedly a
+natural, ancient, and recognized privilege of women that they should not
+be mothers without their own consent. Even in the Islamic world of the
+_Arabian Nights_, we find that high praise is accorded to the "virtue and
+courage" of the woman who, having been ravished in her sleep, exposed, and
+abandoned on the highway, the infant that was the fruit of this
+involuntary union, "not wishing," she said, "to take the responsibility
+before Allah of a child that had been born without my consent."[427] The
+approval with which this story is narrated clearly shows that to the
+public of Islam it seemed entirely just and humane that a woman should not
+have a child, except by her own deliberate will. We have been accustomed
+to say in later days that the State needs children, and that it is the
+business and the duty of women to supply them. But the State has no more
+right than the individual to ravish a woman against her will. We are
+beginning to realize that if the State wants children it must make it
+agreeable to women to produce them, as under natural and equitable
+conditions it cannot fail to be. "The women will solve the question of
+mankind," said Ibsen in one of his rare and pregnant private utterances,
+"and they will do it as mothers." But it is unthinkable that any question
+should ever be solved by a helpless, unwilling, and involuntary act which
+has not even attained to the dignity of animal joy.
+
+    It is sometimes supposed, and even assumed, that the demand of
+    women that motherhood must never be compulsory, means that they
+    are unwilling to be mothers on any terms. In a few cases that may
+    be so, but it is certainly not the case as regards the majority
+    of sane and healthy women in any country. On the contrary, this
+    demand is usually associated with the desire to glorify
+    motherhood, if not, indeed, even with the thought of extending
+    motherhood to many who are to-day shut out from it. "It seems to
+    me," wrote Lady Henry Somerset, some years ago ("The Welcome
+    Child," _Arena_, April, 1895), "that life will be dearer and
+    nobler the more we recognize that there is no indelicacy in the
+    climax and crown of creative power, but, rather, that it is the
+    highest glory of the race. But if voluntary motherhood is the
+    crown of the race, involuntary compulsory motherhood is the very
+    opposite.... Only when both man and woman have learned that the
+    most sacred of all functions given to women must be exercised by
+    the free will alone, can children be born into the world who have
+    in them the joyous desire to live, who claim that sweetest
+    privilege of childhood, the certainty that they can expand in the
+    sunshine of the love which is their due." Ellen Key, similarly,
+    while pointing out (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, pp. 14, 265) that the
+    tyranny of the old Protestant religious spirit which enjoined on
+    women unlimited submission to joyless motherhood within "the
+    whited sepulchre of marriage" is now being broken, exalts the
+    privileges of voluntary motherhood, while admitting that there
+    may be a few exceptional cases in which women may withdraw
+    themselves from motherhood for the sake of the other demands of
+    their personality, though, "as a general rule, the woman who
+    refuses motherhood in order to serve humanity, is like a soldier
+    who prepares himself on the eve of battle for the forthcoming
+    struggle by opening his veins." Helene Stöcker, likewise, reckons
+    motherhood as one of the demands, one of the growing demands
+    indeed, which women now make. "If, to-day," she says (in the
+    Preface to _Liebe und die Frauen_, 1906), "all the good things of
+    life are claimed even for women--intellectual training, pecuniary
+    independence, a happy vocation in life, a respected social
+    position--and at the same time, as equally matter-of-course, and
+    equally necessary, marriage and child, that demand no longer
+    sounds, as it sounded a few years ago, the voice of a preacher in
+    the wilderness."
+
+    The degradation to which motherhood has, in the eyes of many,
+    fallen, is due partly to the tendency to deprive women of any
+    voice in the question, and partly to what H.G. Wells calls
+    (_Socialism and the Family_, 1906) "the monstrous absurdity of
+    women discharging their supreme social function, bearing and
+    rearing children, in their spare time, as it were, while they
+    'earn their living' by contributing some half mechanical element
+    to some trivial industrial product." It would be impracticable,
+    and even undesirable, to insist that married women should not be
+    allowed to work, for a work in the world is good for all. It is
+    estimated that over thirty per cent. of the women workers in
+    England are married or widows (James Haslam, _Englishwoman_,
+    June, 1909), and in Lancashire factories alone, in 1901, there
+    were 120,000 married women employed. But it would be easily
+    possible for the State to arrange, in its own interests, that a
+    woman's work at a trade should always give way to her work as a
+    mother. It is the more undesirable that married women should be
+    prohibited from working at a profession, since there are some
+    professions for which a married woman, or, rather, a mother, is
+    better equipped than an unmarried woman. This is notably the case
+    as regards teaching, and it would be a good policy to allow
+    married women teachers special privileges in the shape of
+    increased free time and leave of absence. While in many fields of
+    knowledge an unmarried woman may be a most excellent teacher, it
+    is highly undesirable that children, and especially girls, should
+    be brought exclusively under the educational influence of
+    unmarried teachers.
+
+The second great channel through which the impulse towards the control of
+procreation for the elevation of the race is entering into practical life
+is by the general adoption, by the educated classes of all countries--and
+it must be remembered that, in this matter at all events, all classes are
+gradually beginning to become educated--of methods for the prevention of
+conception except when conception is deliberately desired. It is no longer
+permissible to discuss the validity of this control, for it is an
+accomplished fact and has become a part of our modern morality. "If a
+course of conduct is habitually and deliberately pursued by vast
+multitudes of otherwise well-conducted people, forming probably a majority
+of the whole educated class of the nation," as Sidney Webb rightly puts
+it, "we must assume that it does not conflict with their actual code of
+morality."[428]
+
+    There cannot be any doubt that, so far as England is concerned,
+    the prevention of conception is practiced, from prudential or
+    other motives, by the vast majority of the educated classes. This
+    fact is well within the knowledge of all who are intimately
+    acquainted with the facts of English family life. Thus, Dr. A.W.
+    Thomas writes (_British Medical Journal_, Oct. 20, 1906, p.
+    1066): "From my experience as a general practitioner, I have no
+    hesitation in saying that ninety per cent. of young married
+    couples of the comfortably-off classes use preventives." As a
+    matter of fact, this rough estimate appears to be rather under
+    than over the mark. In the very able paper already quoted, in
+    which Sidney Webb shows that "the decline in the birthrate
+    appears to be much greater in those sections of the population
+    which give proofs of thrift and foresight," that this decline is
+    "principally, if not entirely, the result of deliberate
+    volition," and that "a volitional regulation of the marriage
+    state is now ubiquitous throughout England and Wales, among,
+    apparently, a large majority of the population," the results are
+    brought forward of a detailed inquiry carried out by the Fabian
+    Society. This inquiry covered 316 families, selected at random
+    from all parts of Great Britain, and belonging to all sections of
+    the middle class. The results are carefully analyzed, and it is
+    found that seventy-four families were unlimited, and two hundred
+    and forty-two voluntarily limited. When, however, the decade
+    1890-99 is taken by itself as the typical period, it is found
+    that of 120 marriages, 107 were limited, and only thirteen
+    unlimited, while of these thirteen, five were childless at the
+    date of the return. In this decade, therefore, only seven
+    unlimited fertile marriages are reported, out of a total of 120.
+
+    What is true of Great Britain is true of all other civilized
+    countries, in the highest degree true of the most civilized
+    countries, and it finds expression in the well-known phenomenon
+    of the decline of the birthrate. In modern times, this movement
+    of decline began in France, producing a slow but steady
+    diminution in the annual number of births, and in France the
+    movement seems now to be almost, or quite, arrested. But it has
+    since taken place in all other progressive countries, notably in
+    the United States, in Canada, in Australia, and in New Zealand,
+    as well as in Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy, Spain, Switzerland,
+    Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. In England, it has
+    been continuous since 1877. Of the great countries, Russia is
+    the only one in which it has not yet taken place, and among the
+    masses of the Russian population we find less education, more
+    poverty, a higher deathrate, and a greater amount of disease,
+    than in any other great, or even small, civilized country.
+
+    It is sometimes said, indeed, that the decline of the birthrate
+    is not entirely due to the voluntary control of procreation. It
+    is undoubtedly true that certain other elements, common under
+    civilized conditions, such as the postponement of marriage in
+    women to a comparatively late age, tend to diminish the size of
+    the family. But when all such allowances have been made, the
+    decline is still found to be real and large. This has been shown,
+    for instance, by the statistical analyses made by Arthur
+    Newsholme and T.H.C. Stevenson, and by G. Yule, both published in
+    _Journal Royal Statistical Society_, April, 1906.
+
+    Some have supposed that, since the Catholic Church forbids
+    incomplete sexual intercourse, this movement for the control of
+    procreation will involve a relatively much greater increase among
+    Catholic than among non-Catholic populations. This, however, is
+    only correct under certain conditions. It is quite true that in
+    Ireland there has been no fall in the birthrate, and that the
+    fall is but little marked in those Lancashire towns which possess
+    a large Irish element. But in Belgium, Italy, Spain, and other
+    mainly Catholic countries, the decline in the birthrate is duly
+    taking place. What has happened is that the Church--always alive
+    to sexual questions--has realized the importance of the modern
+    movement, and has adapted herself to it, by proclaiming to her
+    more ignorant and uneducated children that incomplete intercourse
+    is a deadly sin, while at the same time refraining from making
+    inquiries into this matter among her more educated members. The
+    question was definitely brought up for Papal judgment, in 1842,
+    by Bishop Bouvier of Le Mans, who stated the matter very clearly,
+    representing to the Pope (Gregory XVI) that the prevention of
+    conception was becoming very common, and that to treat it as a
+    deadly sin merely resulted in driving the penitent away from
+    confession. After mature consideration, the Curia Sacra
+    Poenitentiaria replied by pointing out, as regards the common
+    method of withdrawal before emission, that since it was due to
+    the wrong act of the man, the woman who has been forced by her
+    husband to consent to it, has committed no sin. Further, the
+    Bishop was reminded of the wise dictum of Liguori, "the most
+    learned and experienced man in these matters," that the confessor
+    is not usually called upon to make inquiry upon so delicate a
+    matter as the _debitum conjugale_, and, if his opinion is not
+    asked, he should be silent (Bouvier, _Dissertatio in sextum
+    Decalogi præceptum; supplementum ad Tractatum de Matrimonio_.
+    1849, pp. 179-182; quoted by Hans Ferdy, _Sexual-Probleme_, Aug.,
+    1908, p. 498). We see, therefore, that, among Catholic as well as
+    among non-Catholic populations, the adoption of preventive
+    methods of conception follows progress and civilization, and
+    that the general practice of such methods by Catholics (with the
+    tacit consent of the Church) is merely a matter of time.
+
+From time to time many energetic persons have noisily demanded that a stop
+should be put to the decline of the birthrate, for, they argue, it means
+"race suicide." It is now beginning to be realized, however, that this
+outcry was a foolish and mischievous mistake. It is impossible to walk
+through the streets of any great city, full of vast numbers of persons
+who, obviously, ought never to have been born, without recognizing that
+the birthrate is as yet very far above its normal and healthy limit. The
+greatest States have often been the smallest so far as mere number of
+citizens is concerned, for it is quality not quantity that counts. And
+while it is true that the increase of the best types of citizens can only
+enrich a State, it is now becoming intolerable that a nation should
+increase by the mere dumping down of procreative refuse in its midst. It
+is beginning to be realized that this process not only depreciates the
+quality of a people but imposes on a State an inordinate financial burden.
+
+    It is now well recognized that large families are associated with
+    degeneracy, and, in the widest sense, with abnormality of every
+    kind. Thus, it is undoubtedly true that men of genius tend to
+    belong to very large families, though it may be pointed out to
+    those who fear an alarming decrease of genius from the tendency
+    to the limitation of the family, that the position in the family
+    most often occupied by the child of genius is the firstborn. (See
+    Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_, pp. 115-120). The
+    insane, the idiotic, imbecile, and weak-minded, the criminal, the
+    epileptic, the hysterical, the neurasthenic, the tubercular, all,
+    it would appear, tend to belong to large families (see e.g.,
+    Havelock Ellis, op. cit., p. 110; Toulouse, _Les Causes de la
+    Folie_, p. 91; Harriet Alexander, "Malthusianism and Degeneracy,"
+    _Alienist and Neurologist_, Jan., 1901). It has, indeed, been
+    shown by Heron, Pearson, and Goring, that not only the
+    eldest-born, but also the second-born, are specially liable to
+    suffer from pathological defect (insanity, criminality,
+    tuberculosis). There is, however, it would seem, a fallacy in the
+    common interpretation of this fact. According to Van den Velden
+    (as quoted in _Sexual-Probleme_, May, 1909, p. 381), this
+    tendency is fully counterbalanced by the rising mortality of
+    children from the firstborn onward. The greater pathological
+    tendency of the earlier children is thus simply the result of a
+    less stringent selection by death. So far as they show any really
+    greater pathological tendency, apart from this fallacy, it is
+    perhaps due to premature marriage. There is another fallacy in
+    the frequent statement that the children in small families are
+    more feeble than those in large families. We have to distinguish
+    between a naturally small family, and an artificially small
+    family. A family which is small merely as the result of the
+    feeble procreative energy of the parents, is likely to be a
+    feeble family; a family which is small as the result of the
+    deliberate control of the parents, shows, of course, no such
+    tendency.
+
+    These considerations, it will be seen, do not modify the tendency
+    of the large family to be degenerate. We may connect this
+    phenomenon with the disposition, often shown by nervously unsound
+    and abnormal persons, to believe that they have a special
+    aptitude to procreate fine children. "I believe that everyone has
+    a special vocation," said a man to Marro (_La Pubertà_, p. 459);
+    "I find that it is my vocation to beget superior children." He
+    begat four,--an epileptic, a lunatic, a dipsomaniac, and a
+    valetudinarian,--and himself died insane. Most people have come
+    across somewhat similar, though perhaps less marked, cases of
+    this delusion. In a matter of such fateful gravity to other human
+    beings, no one can safely rely on his own unsupported
+    impressions.
+
+The demand of national efficiency thus corresponds with the demand of
+developing humanitarianism, which, having begun by attempting to
+ameliorate the conditions of life, has gradually begun to realize that it
+is necessary to go deeper and to ameliorate life itself. For while it is
+undoubtedly true that much may be done by acting systematically on the
+conditions of life, the more searching analysis of evil environmental
+conditions only serves to show that in large parts they are based in the
+human organism itself and were not only pre-natal, but pre-conceptional,
+being involved in the quality of the parental or ancestral organisms.
+
+Putting aside, however, all humanitarian considerations, the serious error
+of attempting to stem the progress of civilization in the direction of
+procreative control could never have occurred if the general tendencies of
+zoölogical evolution had been understood, even in their elements. All
+zoölogical progress is from the more prolific to the less prolific; the
+higher the species the less fruitful are its individual members. The same
+tendency is found within the limits of the human species, though not in an
+invariable straight line; the growth of civilization involves a
+diminution in fertility. This is by no means a new phenomenon; ancient
+Rome and later Geneva, "the Protestant Rome," bear witness to it; no doubt
+it has occurred in every high centre of moral and intellectual culture,
+although the data for measuring the tendency no longer exist. When we take
+a sufficiently wide and intelligent survey, we realize that the tendency
+of a community to slacken its natural rate of increase is an essential
+phenomenon of all advanced civilization. The more intelligent nations have
+manifested the tendency first, and in each nation the more educated
+classes have taken the lead, but it is only a matter of time to bring all
+civilized nations, and all social classes in each nation, into line.[429]
+This movement, we have to remember--in opposition to the ignorant outcry
+of certain would-be moralists and politicians--is a beneficent movement.
+It means a greater regard to the quality than to the quantity of the
+increase; it involves the possibility of combating successfully the evils
+of high mortality, disease, overcrowding, and all the manifold misfortunes
+which inevitably accompany a too exuberant birthrate. For it is only in a
+community which increases slowly that it is possible to secure the
+adequate economic adjustment and environmental modifications necessary for
+a sane and wholesome civic and personal life.[430] If those persons who
+raise the cry of "race suicide" in face of the decline of the birthrate
+really had the knowledge and intelligence to realize the manifold evils
+which they are invoking they would deserve to be treated as criminals.
+
+On the practical side a knowledge of the possibility of preventing
+conception has, doubtless, never been quite extinct in civilization and
+even in lower stages of culture, though it has mostly been utilized for
+ends of personal convenience or practiced in obedience to conventional
+social rules which demanded chastity, and has only of recent times been
+made subservient to the larger interests of society and the elevation of
+the race. The theoretical basis of the control of procreation, on its
+social and economic, as distinct from its eugenic, aspects, may be said to
+date from Malthus's famous _Essay on Population_, first published in 1798,
+an epoch-marking book,--though its central thesis is not susceptible of
+actual demonstration,--since it not only served as the starting-point of
+the modern humanitarian movement for the control of procreation, but also
+furnished to Darwin (and independently to Wallace also) the fruitful idea
+which was finally developed into the great evolutionary theory of natural
+selection.
+
+Malthus, however, was very far from suggesting that the control of
+procreation, which he advocated for the benefit of mankind, should be
+exercised by the introduction of preventive methods into sexual
+intercourse. He believed that civilization involved an increased power of
+self-control, which would make it possible to refrain altogether from
+sexual intercourse, when such self-restraint was demanded in the interests
+of humanity. Later thinkers realized, however, that, while it is
+undoubtedly true that civilization involves greater forethought and
+greater self-control, we cannot anticipate that those qualities should be
+developed to the extent demanded by Malthus, especially when the impulse
+to be controlled is of so powerful and explosive a nature.
+
+James Mill was the pioneer in advocating Neo-Malthusian methods, though he
+spoke cautiously. In 1818, in the article "Colony" in the supplement to
+the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, after remarking that the means of checking
+the unrestricted increase of the population constitutes "the most
+important practical problem to which the wisdom of the politician and
+moralist can be applied," he continued: "If the superstitions of the
+nursery were discarded, and the principle of utility kept steadily in
+view, a solution might not be very difficult to be found." Four years
+later, James Mill's friend, the Radical reformer, Francis Place, more
+distinctly expressed the thought that was evidently in Mill's mind. After
+enumerating the facts concerning the necessity of self-control in
+procreation and the evils of early marriage, which he thinks ought to be
+clearly taught, Place continues: "If a hundredth, perhaps a thousandth
+part of the pains were taken to teach these truths, that are taken to
+teach dogmas, a great change for the better might, in no considerable
+space of time, be expected to take place in the appearance and the habits
+of the people. If, above all, it were once clearly understood that it was
+not disreputable for married persons to avail themselves of such
+precautionary means as would, without being injurious to health, or
+destructive of female delicacy, prevent conception, a sufficient check
+might at once be given to the increase of population beyond the means of
+subsistence; vice and misery, to a prodigious extent, might be removed
+from society, and the object of Mr. Malthus, Mr. Godwin, and of every
+philanthropic person, be promoted, by the increase of comfort, of
+intelligence, and of moral conduct, in the mass of the population. The
+course recommended will, I am fully persuaded, at some period be pursued
+by the people even if left to themselves."[431]
+
+It was not long before Place's prophetic words began to be realized, and
+in another half century the movement was affecting the birthrate of all
+civilized lands, though it can scarcely yet be said that justice has been
+done to the pioneers who promoted it in the face of much persecution from
+the ignorant and superstitious public whom they sought to benefit. In
+1831, Robert Dale Owen, the son of Robert Owen, published his _Moral
+Physiology_, setting forth the methods of preventing conception. A little
+later the brothers George and Charles Drysdale (born 1825 and 1829), two
+ardent and unwearying philanthropists, devoted much of their energy to the
+propagation of Neo-Malthusian principles. George Drysdale, in 1854,
+published his _Elements of Social Science_, which during many years had
+an enormous circulation all over Europe in eight different languages. It
+was by no means in every respect a scientific or sound work, but it
+certainly had great influence, and it came into the hands of many who
+never saw any other work on sexual topics. Although the Neo-Malthusian
+propagandists of those days often met with much obloquy, their cause was
+triumphantly vindicated in 1876, when Charles Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant,
+having been prosecuted for disseminating Neo-Malthusian pamphlets, the
+charge was dismissed, the Lord Chief Justice declaring that so ill-advised
+and injudicious a charge had probably never before been made in a court of
+justice. This trial, even by its mere publicity and apart from its issue,
+gave an enormous impetus to the Neo-Malthusian movement. It is well known
+that the steady decline in the English birthrate begun in 1877, the year
+following the trial. There could be no more brilliant illustration of the
+fact, that what used to be called "the instruments of Providence" are
+indeed unconscious instruments in bringing about great ends which they
+themselves were far from either intending or desiring.
+
+    In 1877, Dr. C.R. Drysdale founded the Malthusian League, and
+    edited a periodical, _The Malthusian_, aided throughout by his
+    wife, Dr. Alice Drysdale Vickery. He died in 1907. (The noble and
+    pioneering work of the Drysdales has not yet been adequately
+    recognized in their own country; an appreciative and
+    well-informed article by Dr. Hermann Rohleder, "Dr. C.R.
+    Drysdale, Der Hauptvortreter der Neumalthusianische Lehre,"
+    appeared in the _Zeitschrift für Sexualwissenschaft_, March,
+    1908). There are now societies and periodicals in all civilized
+    countries for the propagation of Neo-Malthusian principles, as
+    they are still commonly called, though it would be desirable to
+    avoid the use of Malthus's name in this connection. In the
+    medical profession, the advocacy of preventive methods of sexual
+    intercourse, not on social, but on medical and hygienic grounds,
+    began same thirty years ago, though in France, at an earlier
+    date, Raciborski advocated the method of avoiding the
+    neighborhood of menstruation. In Germany, Dr. Mensinga, the
+    gynæcologist, is the most prominent advocate, on medical and
+    hygienic grounds, of what he terms "facultative sterility," which
+    he first put forward about 1889. In Russia, about the same time,
+    artificial sterility was first openly advocated by the
+    distinguished gynæcologist, Professor Ott, at the St. Petersburg
+    Obstetric and Gynæcological Society. Such medical
+    recommendations, in particular cases, are now becoming common.
+
+    There are certain cases in which a person ought not to marry at
+    all; this is so, for instance, when there has been an attack of
+    insanity; it can never be said with certainty that a person who
+    has had one attack of insanity will not have another, and persons
+    who have had such attacks ought not, as Blandford says (Lumleian
+    Lectures on Insanity, _British Medical Journal_, April 20, 1895),
+    "to inflict on their partner for life, the anxiety, and even
+    danger, of another attack." There are other and numerous cases in
+    which marriage may be permitted, or may have already taken place,
+    under more favorable circumstances, but where it is, or has
+    become, highly desirable that there should be no children. This
+    is the case when a first attack of insanity occurs after
+    marriage, the more urgently if the affected party is the wife,
+    and especially if the disease takes the form of puerperal mania.
+    "What can be more lamentable," asks Blandford (loc. cit.), "than
+    to see a woman break down in childbed, recover, break down again
+    with the next child, and so on, for six, seven, or eight
+    children, the recovery between each being less and less, until
+    she is almost a chronic maniac?" It has been found, moreover, by
+    Tredgold (_Lancet_, May 17, 1902), that among children born to
+    insane mothers, the mortality is twice as great as the ordinary
+    infantile mortality, in even the poorest districts. In cases of
+    unions between persons with tuberculous antecedents, also, it is
+    held by many (e.g., by Massalongo, in discussing tuberculosis and
+    marriage at the Tuberculosis Congress, at Naples, in 1900) that
+    every precaution should be taken to make the marriage childless.
+    In a third class of cases, it is necessary to limit the children
+    to one or two; this happens in some forms of heart disease, in
+    which pregnancy has a progressively deteriorating effect on the
+    heart (Kisch, _Therapeutische Monatsheft_, Feb., 1898, and
+    _Sexual Life of Woman_; Vinay, _Lyon Medical_, Jan. 8, 1889); in
+    some cases of heart disease, however, it is possible that, though
+    there is no reason for prohibiting marriage, it is desirable for
+    a woman not to have any children (J.F. Blacker, "Heart Disease in
+    Relation to Pregnancy," _British Medical Journal_, May 25, 1907).
+
+    In all such cases, the recommendation of preventive methods of
+    intercourse is obviously an indispensable aid to the physician in
+    emphasizing the supremacy of hygienic precautions. In the absence
+    of such methods, he can never be sure that his warnings will be
+    heard, and even the observance of his advice would be attended
+    with various undesirable results. It sometimes happens that a
+    married couple agree, even before marriage, to live together
+    without sexual relations, but, for various reasons, it is seldom
+    found possible or convenient to maintain this resolution for a
+    long period.
+
+It is the recognition of these and similar considerations which has
+led--though only within recent years--on the one hand, as we have seen, to
+the embodiment of the control of procreation into the practical morality
+of all civilized nations, and, on the other hand, to the assertion, now
+perhaps without exception, by all medical authorities on matters of sex
+that the use of the methods of preventing conception is under certain
+circumstances urgently necessary and quite harmless.[432] It arouses a
+smile to-day when we find that less than a century ago it was possible for
+an able and esteemed medical author to declare that the use of "various
+abominable means" to prevent conception is "based upon a most presumptuous
+doubt in the conservative power of the Creator."[433]
+
+The adaptation of theory to practice is not yet complete, and we could not
+expect that it should be so, for, as we have seen, there is always an
+antagonism between practical morality and traditional morality. From time
+to time flagrant illustrations of this antagonism occur.[434] Even in
+England, which played a pioneering part in the control of procreation,
+attempts are still made--sometimes in quarters where we have a right to
+expect a better knowledge--to cast discredit on a movement which, since
+it has conquered alike scientific approval and popular practice, it is now
+idle to call in question.
+
+It would be out of place to discuss here the various methods which are
+used for the control of procreation, or their respective merits and
+defects. It is sufficient to say that the condom or protective sheath,
+which seems to be the most ancient of all methods of preventing
+conception, after withdrawal, is now regarded by nearly all authorities
+as, when properly used, the safest, the most convenient, and the most
+harmless method.[435] This is the opinion of Krafft-Ebing, of Moll, of
+Schrenck-Notzing, of Löwenfeld, of Forel, of Kisch, of Fürbringer, to
+mention only a few of the most distinguished medical authorities.[436]
+
+    There is some interest in attempting to trace the origin and
+    history of the condom, though it seems impossible to do so with
+    any precision. It is probable that, in a rudimentary form, such
+    an appliance is of great antiquity. In China and Japan, it would
+    appear, rounds of oiled silk paper are used to cover the mouth of
+    the womb, at all events, by prostitutes. This seems the simplest
+    and most obvious mechanical method of preventing conception, and
+    may have suggested the application of a sheath to the penis as a
+    more effectual method. In Europe, it is in the middle of the
+    sixteenth century, in Italy, that we first seem to hear of such
+    appliances, in the shape of linen sheaths, adapted to the shape
+    of the penis; Fallopius recommended the use of such an appliance.
+    Improvements in the manufacture were gradually devised; the cæcum
+    of the lamb was employed, and afterwards, isinglass. It appears
+    that a considerable improvement in the manufacture took place in
+    the seventeenth or eighteenth century, and this improvement was
+    generally associated with England. The appliance thus became
+    known as the English cape or mantle, the "capote anglaise," or
+    the "redingote anglaise," and, under the latter name, is referred
+    to by Casanova, in the middle of the eighteenth century
+    (Casanova, _Mémoires_, ed. Garnier, vol. iv, p. 464); Casanova
+    never seems, however, to have used these redingotes himself, not
+    caring, he said, "to shut myself up in a piece of dead skin in
+    order to prove that I am perfectly alive." These capotes--then
+    made of goldbeaters' skin--were, also, it appears, known at an
+    earlier period to Mme. de Sévigné, who did not regard them with
+    favor, for, in one of her letters, she refers to them as
+    "cuirasses contre la volupté et toiles d'arraignée contre le
+    mal." The name, "condom," dates from the eighteenth century,
+    first appearing in France, and is generally considered to be that
+    of an English physician, or surgeon, who invented, or, rather,
+    improved the appliance. Condom is not, however, an English name,
+    but there is an English name, Condon, of which "condom" may well
+    be a corruption. This supposition is strengthened by the fact
+    that the word sometimes actually was written "condon." Thus, in
+    lines quoted by Bachaumont, in his _Diary_ (Dec. 15, 1773), and
+    supposed to be addressed to a former ballet dancer who had become
+    a prostitute, I  find:--
+
+        "Du _condon_ cependant, vous connaissez l'usage,
+                    *       *       *       *       *
+        "Le _condon_, c'est la loi, ma fille, et les prophètes!"
+
+    The difficulty remains, however, of discovering any Englishman of
+    the name of Condon, who can plausibly be associated with the
+    condom; doubtless he took no care to put the matter on record,
+    never suspecting the fame that would accrue to his invention, or
+    the immortality that awaited his name. I find no mention of any
+    Condon in the records of the College of Physicians, and at the
+    College of Surgeons, also, where, indeed, the old lists are very
+    imperfect, Mr. Victor Plarr, the librarian, after kindly making a
+    search, has assured me that there is no record of the name. Other
+    varying explanations of the name have been offered, with more or
+    less assurance, though usually without any proofs. Thus, Hyrtl
+    (_Handbuch der Topographischen Anatomic_, 7th ed., vol. ii, p.
+    212) states that the condom was originally called gondom, from
+    the name of the English discoverer, a Cavalier of Charles II's
+    Court, who first prepared it from the amnion of the sheep; Gondom
+    is, however, no more an English name than Condom. There happens
+    to be a French town, in Gascony, called Condom, and Bloch
+    suggests, without any evidence, that this furnished the name; if
+    so, however, it is improbable that it would have been unknown in
+    France. Finally, Hans Ferdy considers that it is derived from
+    "condus"--that which preserves--and, in accordance with his
+    theory, he terms the condom a condus.
+
+    The early history of the condom is briefly discussed by various
+    writers, as by Proksch, _Die Vorbauung der Venerischen
+    Krankheiten_, p. 48; Bloch, _Sexual Life of Our Time_, Chs. XV
+    and XXVIII; Cabanès, _Indiscretions de l'Histoire_, p. 121, etc.
+
+The control of procreation by the prevention of conception has, we have
+seen, become a part of the morality of civilized peoples. There is another
+method, not indeed for preventing conception, but for limiting offspring,
+which is of much more ancient appearance in the world, though it has at
+different times been very differently viewed and still arouses widely
+opposing opinions. This is the method of abortion.
+
+While the practice of abortion has by no means, like the practice of
+preventing conception, become accepted in civilization, it scarcely
+appears to excite profound repulsion in a large proportion of the
+population of civilized countries. The majority of women, not excluding
+educated and highly moral women, who become pregnant against their wish
+contemplate the possibility of procuring abortion without the slightest
+twinge of conscience, and often are not even aware of the usual
+professional attitude of the Church, the law, and medicine regarding
+abortion. Probably all doctors have encountered this fact, and even so
+distinguished and correct a medico-legist as Brouardel stated[437] that he
+had been not infrequently solicited to procure abortion, for themselves or
+their wet-nurses, by ladies who looked on it as a perfectly natural thing,
+and had not the least suspicion that the law regarded the deed as a crime.
+
+It is not, therefore, surprising that abortion is exceedingly common in
+all civilized and progressive countries. It cannot, indeed, unfortunately,
+be said that abortion has been conducted in accordance with eugenic
+considerations, nor has it often been so much as advocated from the
+eugenic standpoint. But in numerous classes of cases of undesired
+pregnancy, occurring in women of character and energy, not accustomed to
+submit tamely to conditions they may not have sought, and in any case
+consider undesirable, abortion is frequently resorted to. It is usual to
+regard the United States as a land in which the practice especially
+flourishes, and certainly a land in which the ideal of chastity for
+unmarried women, of freedom for married women, of independence for all, is
+actively followed cannot fail to be favorable to the practice of abortion.
+But the way in which the prevalence of abortion is proclaimed in the
+United States is probably in large part due to the honesty of the
+Americans in setting forth, and endeavoring to correct, what, rightly or
+wrongly, they regard as social defects, and may not indicate any real
+pre-eminence in the practice. Comparative statistics are difficult, and it
+is certainly true that abortion is extremely common in England, in France,
+and in Germany. It is probable that any national differences may be
+accounted for by differences in general social habits and ideals. Thus in
+Germany, where considerable sexual freedom is permitted to unmarried women
+and married women are very domesticated, abortion may be less frequent
+than in France where purity is stringently demanded from the young girl,
+while the married woman demands freedom for work and for pleasure. But
+such national differences, if they exist, are tending to be levelled down,
+and charges of criminal abortion are constantly becoming more common in
+Germany; though this increase, again, may be merely due to greater zeal in
+pursuing the offence.
+
+    Brouardel (op. cit., p. 39) quotes the opinion that, in New York,
+    only one in every thousand abortions is discovered. Dr. J.F.
+    Scott (_The Sexual Instinct_, Ch. VIII), who is himself strongly
+    opposed to the practice, considers that in America, the custom of
+    procuring abortion has to-day reached "such vast proportions as
+    to be almost beyond belief," while "countless thousands" of cases
+    are never reported. "It has increased so rapidly in our day and
+    generation," Scott states, "that it has created surprise and
+    alarm in the minds of all conscientious persons who are informed
+    of the extent to which it is carried." (The assumption that those
+    who approve of abortion are necessarily not "conscientious
+    persons" is, as we shall see, mistaken.) The change has taken
+    place since 1840. The Michigan Special Committee on Criminal
+    Abortion reported in 1881 that, from correspondence with nearly
+    one hundred physicians, it appeared that there came to the
+    knowledge of the profession seventeen abortions to every one
+    hundred pregnancies; to these, the committee believe, may be
+    added as many more that never came to the physician's knowledge.
+    The committee further quoted, though without endorsement, the
+    opinion of a physician who believed that a change is now coming
+    over public feeling in regard to the abortionist, who is
+    beginning to be regarded in America as a useful member of
+    society, and even a benefactor.
+
+    In England, also, there appears to have been a marked increase of
+    abortion during recent years, perhaps specially marked among the
+    poor and hard-working classes. A writer in the _British Medical
+    Journal_ (April 9, 1904, p. 865) finds that abortion is
+    "wholesale and systematic," and gives four cases occurring in his
+    practice during four months, in which women either attempted to
+    produce abortion, or requested him to do so; they were married
+    women, usually with large families, and in delicate health, and
+    were willing to endure any suffering, if they might be saved from
+    further child-bearing. Abortion is frequently effected, or
+    attempted, by taking "Female Pills," which contain small portions
+    of lead, and are thus liable to produce very serious symptoms,
+    whether or not they induce abortion. Professor Arthur Hall, of
+    Sheffield, who has especially studied this use of lead ("The
+    Increasing Use of Lead as an Abortifacient," _British Medical
+    Journal_, March 18, 1905), finds that the practice has lately
+    become very common in the English Midlands, and is gradually, it
+    appears, widening its circle. It occurs chiefly among married
+    women with families, belonging to the working class, and it tends
+    to become specially prevalent during periods of trade depression
+    (cf. G. Newman, _Infant Mortality_, p. 81). Women of better
+    social class resort to professional abortionists, and sometimes
+    go over to Paris.
+
+    In France, also, and especially in Paris, there has been a great
+    increase during recent years in the practice of abortion. (See
+    e.g., a discussion at the Paris Société de Médecine Légale,
+    _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, May, 1907.) Doléris has
+    shown (_Bulletin de la Société d'Obstétrique_, Feb., 1905) that
+    in the Paris Maternités the percentage of abortions in
+    pregnancies doubled between 1898 and 1904, and Doléris estimates
+    that about half of these abortions were artificially induced. In
+    France, abortion is mainly carried on by professional
+    abortionists. One of these, Mme. Thomas, who was condemned to
+    penal servitude, in 1891, acknowledged performing 10,000
+    abortions during eight years; her charge for the operation was
+    two francs and upwards. She was a peasant's daughter, brought up
+    in the home of her uncle, a doctor, whose medical and obstetrical
+    books she had devoured (A. Hamon, _La France en 1891_, pp.
+    629-631). French public opinion is lenient to abortion,
+    especially to women who perform the operation on themselves; not
+    many cases are brought into court, and of these, forty per cent.
+    are acquitted (Eugène Bausset, _L'Avortement Criminel_, Thèse de
+    Paris, 1907). The professional abortionist is, however, usually
+    sent to prison.
+
+    In Germany, also, abortion appears to have greatly increased
+    during recent years, and the yearly number of cases of criminal
+    abortion brought into the courts was, in 1903, more than double
+    as many as in 1885. (See, also, Elisabeth Zanzinger, _Geschlecht
+    und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 5; and _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan.,
+    1908, p. 23.)
+
+In view of these facts it is not surprising that the induction of abortion
+has been permitted and even encouraged in many civilizations. Its
+unqualified condemnation is only found in Christendom, and is due to
+theoretical notions. In Turkey, under ordinary circumstances, there is no
+punishment for abortion. In the classic civilization of Greece and Rome,
+likewise, abortion was permitted though with certain qualifications and
+conditions. Plato admitted the mother's right to decide on abortion but
+said that the question should be settled as early as possible in
+pregnancy. Aristotle, who approved of abortion, was of the same opinion.
+Zeno and the Stoics regarded the foetus as the fruit of the womb, the soul
+being acquired at birth; this was in accordance with Roman law which
+decreed that the foetus only became a human being at birth.[438] Among the
+Romans abortion became very common, but, in accordance with the
+patriarchal basis of early Roman institutions, it was the father, not the
+mother, who had the right to exercise it. Christianity introduced a new
+circle of ideas based on the importance of the soul, on its immortality,
+and the necessity of baptism as a method of salvation from the results of
+inherited sin. We already see this new attitude in St. Augustine who,
+discussing whether embryos that died in the womb will rise at the
+resurrection, says "I make bold neither to affirm nor to deny, although I
+fail to see why, if they are not excluded from the number of the dead,
+they should not attain to the resurrection of the dead."[439] The
+criminality of abortion was, however, speedily established, and the early
+Christian Emperors, in agreement with the Church, edicted many fantastic
+and extreme penalties against abortion. This tendency continued under
+ecclesiastical influence, unrestrained, until the humanitarian movement of
+the eighteenth century, when Beccaria, Voltaire, Rousseau and other great
+reformers succeeded in turning the tide of public opinion against the
+barbarity of the laws, and the penalty of death for abortion was finally
+abolished.[440]
+
+Medical science and practice at the present day--although it can scarcely
+be said that it speaks with an absolutely unanimous voice--on the whole
+occupies a position midway between that of the classic lawyers and that of
+the later Christian ecclesiastics. It is, on the whole, in favor of
+sacrificing the foetus whenever the interests of the mother demand such a
+sacrifice. General medical opinion is not, however, prepared at present to
+go further, and is distinctly disinclined to aid the parents in exerting
+an unqualified control over the foetus in the womb, nor is it yet disposed
+to practice abortion on eugenic grounds. It is obvious, indeed, that
+medicine cannot in this matter take the initiative, for it is the primary
+duty of medicine to save life. Society itself must assume the
+responsibility of protecting the race.
+
+    Dr. S. Macvie ("Mother _versus_ Child," _Transactions Edinburgh
+    Obstetrical Society_, vol. xxiv, 1899) elaborately discusses the
+    respective values of the foetus and the adult on the basis of
+    life-expectancy, and concludes that the foetus is merely
+    "a parasite performing no function whatever," and that "unless
+    the life-expectancy of the child covers the years in which its
+    potentiality is converted into actuality, the relative values of
+    the maternal and foetal life will be that of actual as against
+    potential." This statement seems fairly sound. Ballantyne
+    (_Manual of Antenatal Pathology: The Foetus_, p. 459)
+    endeavors to make the statement more precise by saying that "the
+    mother's life has a value, because she is what she is, while the
+    foetus only has a possible value, on account of what it may
+    become."
+
+    Durlacher, among others, has discussed, in careful and cautious
+    detail, the various conditions in which the physician should, or
+    should not, induce abortion in the interests of the mother ("Der
+    Künstliche Abort," _Wiener Klinik_, Aug. and Sept., 1906); so
+    also, Eugen Wilhelm ("Die Abtreibung und das Recht des Arztes zur
+    Vernichtung der Leibesfrucht," _Sexual-Probleme_, May and June,
+    1909). Wilhelm further discusses whether it is desirable to alter
+    the laws in order to give the physician greater freedom in
+    deciding on abortion. He concludes that this is not necessary,
+    and might even act injuriously, by unduly hampering medical
+    freedom. Any change in the law should merely be, he considers, in
+    the direction of asserting that the destruction of the foetus is
+    not abortion in the legal sense, provided it is indicated by the
+    rules of medical science. With reference to the timidity of some
+    medical men in inducing abortion, Wilhelm remarks that, even in
+    the present state of the law, the physician who conscientiously
+    effects abortion, in accordance with his best knowledge, even if
+    mistakenly, may consider himself safe from all legal penalties,
+    and that he is much more likely to come in conflict with the law
+    if it can be proved that death followed as a result of his
+    neglect to induce abortion.
+
+    Pinard, who has discussed the right to control the foetal
+    life (_Annales de Gynécologie_, vols. lii and liii, 1899 and
+    1900), inspired by his enthusiastic propaganda for the salvation
+    of infant life, is led to the unwarranted conclusion that no one
+    has the rights of life and death over the foetus; "the infant's
+    right to his life is an imprescriptible and sacred right, which
+    no power can take from him." There is a mistake here, unless
+    Pinard deliberately desires to place himself, like Tolstoy, in
+    opposition to current civilized morality. So far from the infant
+    having any "imprescriptible right to life," even the adult has,
+    in human societies, no such inalienable right, and very much less
+    the foetus, which is not strictly a human being at all. We assume
+    the right of terminating the lives of those individuals whose
+    anti-social conduct makes them dangerous, and, in war, we
+    deliberately terminate, amid general applause and enthusiasm, the
+    lives of men who have been specially selected for this purpose on
+    account of their physical and general efficiency. It would be
+    absurdly inconsistent to say that we have no rights over the
+    lives of creatures that have, as yet, no part in human society at
+    all, and are not so much as born. We are here in presence of a
+    vestige of ancient theological dogma, and there can be little
+    doubt that, on the theoretical side at all events, the
+    "imprescriptible right" of the embryo will go the same way as the
+    "imprescriptible right" of the spermatozöon. Both rights are
+    indeed "imprescriptible."
+
+Of recent years a new, and, it must be admitted, somewhat unexpected,
+aspect of this question of abortion has been revealed. Hitherto it has
+been a question entirely in the hands of men, first, following the Roman
+traditions, in the hands of Christian ecclesiastics, and later, in those
+of the professional castes. Yet the question is in reality very largely,
+and indeed mainly, a woman's question, and now, more especially in
+Germany, it has been actively taken up by women. The Gräfin Gisela
+Streitberg occupies the pioneering place in this movement with her book
+_Das Recht zur Beiseitigung Keimenden Lebens_, and was speedily followed,
+from 1897 onwards, by a number of distinguished women who occupy a
+prominent place in the German woman's movement, among others Helene
+Stöcker, Oda Olberg, Elisabeth Zanzinger, Camilla Jellinek. All these
+writers insist that the foetus is not yet an independent human being, and
+that every woman, by virtue of the right over her own body, is entitled to
+decide whether it shall become an independent human being. At the Woman's
+Congress held in the autumn of 1905, a resolution was passed demanding
+that abortion should only be punishable when effected by another person
+against the wish of the pregnant women herself.[441] The acceptance of
+this resolution by a representative assembly is interesting proof of the
+interest now taken by women in the question, and of the strenuous attitude
+they are tending to assume.
+
+    Elisabeth Zanzinger ("Verbrechen gegen die Leibesfrucht,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 5, 1907) ably and
+    energetically condemns the law which makes abortion a crime. "A
+    woman herself is the only legitimate possessor of her own body
+    and her own health.... Just as it is a woman's private right, and
+    most intimate concern, to present her virginity as her best gift
+    to the chosen of her heart, so it is certainly a pregnant woman's
+    own private concern if, for reasons which seem good to her, she
+    decides to destroy the results of her action." A woman who
+    destroys the embryo which might become a burden to the community,
+    or is likely to be an inferior member of society, this writer
+    urges, is doing a service to the community, which ought to reward
+    her, perhaps by granting her special privileges as regards the
+    upbringing of her other children. Oda Olberg, in a thoughtful
+    paper ("Ueber den Juristischen Schutz des Keimenden Lebens," _Die
+    Neue Generation_, June, 1908), endeavors to make clear all that
+    is involved in the effort to protect the developing embryo
+    against the organism that carries it, to protect a creature, that
+    is, against itself and its own instincts. She considers that most
+    of the women who terminate their pregnancies artificially would
+    only have produced undesirables, for the normal, healthy, robust
+    woman has no desire to effect abortion. "There are women who are
+    psychically sterile, without being physically so, and who possess
+    nothing of motherhood but the ability to bring forth. These, when
+    they abort, are simply correcting a failure of Nature." Some of
+    them, she remarks, by going on to term, become guilty of the far
+    worse offence of infanticide. As for the women who desire
+    abortion merely from motives of vanity, or convenience, Oda
+    Olberg points out that the circles in which these motives rule
+    are quite able to limit their children without having to resort
+    to abortion. She concludes that society must protect the young
+    life in every way, by social hygiene, by laws for the protection
+    of the workers, by spreading a new morality on the basis of the
+    laws of heredity. But we need no law to protect the young
+    creature against its own mother, for a thousand natural forces
+    are urging the mother to protect her own child, and we may be
+    sure that she will not disobey these forces without very good
+    reasons. Camilla Jellinek, again (_Die Strafrechtsreform_, etc.,
+    Heidelberg, 1909), in a powerful and well-informed address before
+    the Associated German Frauenvereine, at Breslau, argues in the
+    same sense.
+
+    The lawyers very speedily came to the assistance of the women in
+    this matter, the more readily, no doubt, since the traditions of
+    the greatest and most influential body of law already pointed, on
+    one side at all events, in the same direction. It may, indeed, be
+    claimed that it was from the side of law--and in Italy, the
+    classic land of legal reform--that this new movement first begun.
+    In 1888, Balestrini published, at Turin, his _Aborto,
+    Infanticidio ed Esposizione d'Infante_, in which he argued that
+    the penalty should be removed from abortion. It was a very able
+    and learned book, inspired by large ideas and a humanitarian
+    spirit, but though its importance is now recognized, it cannot be
+    said that it attracted much attention on publication.
+
+    It is especially in Germany that, during recent years, lawyers
+    have followed women reformers, by advocating, more or less
+    completely, the abolition of the punishment for abortion. So
+    distinguished an authority as Von Liszt, in a private letter to
+    Camilla Jellinek (op. cit.), states that he regards the
+    punishment of abortion as "very doubtful," though he considers
+    its complete abolition impracticable; he thinks abortion might be
+    permitted during the early months of pregnancy, thus bringing
+    about a return of the old view. Hans Gross states his opinion
+    (_Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd. XII, p. 345) that the
+    time is not far distant when abortion will no longer be punished.
+    Radbruch and Von Lilienthal speak in the same sense. Weinberg has
+    advocated a change in the law (_Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 8),
+    and Kurt Hiller (_Die Neue Generation_, April, 1909), also from
+    the legal side, argues that abortion should only be punishable
+    when effected by a married woman, without the knowledge and
+    consent of her husband.
+
+The medical profession, which took the first step in modern times in the
+authorization of abortion, has not at present taken any further step. It
+has been content to lay down the principle that when the interests of the
+mother are opposed to those of the foetus, it is the latter which must be
+sacrificed. It has hesitated to take the further step of placing abortion
+on the eugenic basis, and of claiming the right to insist on abortion
+whenever the medical and hygienic interests of society demand such a step.
+This attitude is perfectly intelligible. Medicine has in the past been
+chiefly identified with the saving of lives, even of worthless and worse
+than worthless lives; "Keep everything alive! Keep everything alive!"
+nervously cried Sir James Paget. Medicine has confined itself to the
+humble task of attempting to cure evils, and is only to-day beginning to
+undertake the larger and nobler task of preventing them.
+
+    "The step from killing the child in the womb to murdering a
+    person when out of the womb, is a dangerously narrow one," sagely
+    remarks a recent medical author, probably speaking for many
+    others, who somehow succeed in blinding themselves to the fact
+    that this "dangerously narrow step" has been taken by mankind,
+    only too freely, for thousands of years past, long before
+    abortion was known in the world.
+
+    Here and there, however, medical authors of repute have advocated
+    the further extension of abortion, with precautions, and under
+    proper supervision, as an aid to eugenic progress. Thus,
+    Professor Max Flesch (_Die Neue Generation_, April, 1909) is in
+    favor of a change in the law permitting abortion (provided it is
+    carried out by the physician) in special cases, as when the
+    mother's pregnancy has been due to force, when she has been
+    abandoned, or when, in the interests of the community, it is
+    desirable to prevent the propagation of insane, criminal,
+    alcoholic, or tuberculous persons.
+
+    In France, a medical man, Dr. Jean Darricarrère, has written a
+    remarkable novel, _Le Droit d'Avortement_ (1906), which advocates
+    the thesis that a woman always possesses a complete right to
+    abortion, and is the supreme judge as to whether she will or not
+    undergo the pain and risks of childbirth. The question is, here,
+    however, obviously placed not on medical, but on humanitarian and
+    feminist grounds.
+
+We have seen that, alike on the side of practice and of theory, a great
+change has taken place during recent years in the attitude towards
+abortion. It must, however, clearly be recognized that, unlike the control
+of procreation by methods for preventing conception, facultative abortion
+has not yet been embodied in our current social morality. If it is
+permissible to interpolate a personal opinion, I may say that to me it
+seems that our morality is here fairly reasonable.[442] I am decidedly of
+opinion that an unrestricted permission for women to practice abortion in
+their own interests, or even for communities to practice it in the
+interests of the race, would be to reach beyond the stage of civilization
+we have at present attained. As Ellen Key very forcibly argues, a
+civilization which permits, without protest, the barbarous slaughter of
+its carefully selected adults in war has not yet won the right to destroy
+deliberately even its most inferior vital products in the womb. A
+civilization guilty of so reckless a waste of life cannot safely be
+entrusted with this judicial function. The blind and aimless anxiety to
+cherish the most hopeless and degraded forms of life, even of unborn life,
+may well be a weakness, and since it often leads to incalculable
+suffering, even a crime. But as yet there is an impenetrable barrier
+against progress in this direction. Before we are entitled to take life
+deliberately for the sake of purifying life, we must learn how to preserve
+it by abolishing such destructive influences--war, disease, bad industrial
+conditions--as are easily within our social power as civilized
+nations.[443]
+
+There is, further, another consideration which seems to me to carry
+weight. The progress of civilization is in the direction of greater
+foresight, of greater prevention, of a diminished need for struggling with
+the reckless lack of prevision. The necessity for abortion is precisely
+one of those results of reckless action which civilization tends to
+diminish. While we may admit that in a sounder state of civilization a few
+cases might still occur when the induction of abortion would be desirable,
+it seems probable that the number of such cases will decrease rather than
+increase. In order to do away with the need for abortion, and to
+counteract the propaganda in its favor, our main reliance must be placed,
+on the one hand, on increased foresight in the determination of conception
+and increased knowledge of the means for preventing conception,[444] and
+on the other hand, on a better provision by the State for the care of
+pregnant women, married and unmarried alike, and a practical recognition
+of the qualified mother's claim on society.[445] There can be little doubt
+that, in many a charge of criminal abortion, the real offence lies at the
+door of those who have failed to exercise their social and professional
+duty of making known the more natural and harmless methods for preventing
+conception, or else by their social attitude have made the pregnant
+woman's position intolerable. By active social reform in these two
+directions, the new movement in favor of abortion may be kept in check,
+and it may even be found that by stimulating such reform that movement has
+been beneficial.
+
+We have seen that the deliberate restraint of conception has become a part
+of our civilized morality, and that the practice and theory of facultative
+abortion has gained a footing among us. There remains a third and yet more
+radical method of controlling procreation, the method of preventing the
+possibility of procreation altogether by the performance of castration or
+other slighter operation having a like inhibitory effect on reproduction.
+The other two methods only effect a single act of union or its results,
+but castration affects all subsequent acts of sexual union and usually
+destroys the procreative power permanently.
+
+Castration for various social and other purposes is an ancient and
+widespread practice, carried out on men and on animals. There has,
+however, been on the whole a certain prejudice against it when applied to
+men. Many peoples have attached a very sacred value to the integrity of
+the sexual organs. Among some primitive peoples the removal of these
+organs has been regarded as a peculiarly ferocious insult, only to be
+carried out in moments of great excitement, as after a battle. Medicine
+has been opposed to any interference with the sexual organs. The oath
+taken by the Greek physicians appears to prohibit castration: "I will not
+cut."[446] In modern times a great change has taken place, the castration
+of both men and women is commonly performed in diseased conditions; the
+same operation is sometimes advocated and occasionally performed in the
+hope that it may remove strong and abnormal sexual impulses. And during
+recent years castration has been invoked in the cause of negative
+eugenics, to a greater extent, indeed, on account of its more radical
+character, than either the prevention of conception or abortion.
+
+The movement in favor of castration appears to have begun in the United
+States, where various experiments have been made in embodying it in law.
+It was first advocated merely as a punishment for criminals, and
+especially sexual offenders, by Hammond, Everts, Lydston and others. From
+this point of view, however, it seems to be unsatisfactory and perhaps
+illegitimate. In many cases castration is no punishment at all, and indeed
+a positive benefit. In other cases, when inflicted against the subject's
+will, it may produce very disturbing mental effects, leading in already
+degenerate or unbalanced persons to insanity, criminality, and anti-social
+tendencies generally, much more dangerous than the original state.
+Eugenic considerations, which were later brought forward, constitute a
+much sounder argument for castration; in this case the castration is
+carried out, by no means in order to inflict a barbarous and degrading
+punishment, but, with the subject's consent, in order to protect the
+community from the risk of useless or mischievous members.
+
+    The fact that castration can no longer be properly considered a
+    punishment, is shown by the possibility of deliberately seeking
+    the operation simply for the sake of convenience, as a preferable
+    and most effective substitute for the adoption of preventive
+    methods in sexual intercourse. I am only at present acquainted
+    with one case in which this course has been adopted. This subject
+    is a medical man (of Puritan New England ancestry) with whose
+    sexual history, which is quite normal, I have been acquainted for
+    a long time past. His present age is thirty-nine. A few years
+    since, having a sufficiently large family, he adopted preventive
+    methods of intercourse. The subsequent events I narrate in his
+    own words: "The trouble, forethought, etc., rendered necessary by
+    preventive measures, grew more and more irksome to me as the
+    years passed by, and finally, I laid the matter before another
+    physician, and on his assurances, and after mature deliberation
+    with my wife, was operated on some time since, and rendered
+    sterile by having the vas deferens on each side exposed through a
+    slit in the scrotum, then tied in two places with silk and
+    severed between the ligatures. This was done under cocaine
+    infiltrative anæsthesia, and was not so extremely painful, though
+    what pain there was (dragging the cord out through the slit,
+    etc.) seemed very hard to endure. I was not out of my office a
+    single day, nor seriously disturbed in any way. In six days all
+    stitches in the scrotum were removed, and in three weeks I
+    abandoned the suspensory bandage that had been rendered necessary
+    by the extreme sensitiveness of the testicles and cord.
+
+    "The operation has proved a most complete success in every way.
+    Sexual functions are _absolutely unaffected in any way
+    whatsoever_. There is no sense of discomfort or uneasiness in the
+    sexual tract, and what seems strangest of all to me, is the fact
+    that the semen, so far as one can judge by ordinary means of
+    observation, is undiminished in quantity and unchanged in
+    character. (Of course, the microscope would reveal its fatal
+    lack.)
+
+    "My wife is delighted at having fear banished from our love, and,
+    taken all in all, it certainly seems as if life would mean more
+    to us both. Incidentally, the health of both of us seems better
+    than usual, particularly so in my wife's case, and this she
+    attributes to a soothing influence that is attained by allowing
+    the seminal fluid to be deposited in a perfectly normal manner,
+    and remain in contact with the vaginal secretions until it
+    naturally passes off.
+
+    "This operation being comparatively new, and, as yet, not often
+    done on others than the insane, criminal, etc., I thought it
+    might be of interest to you. If I shed even the faintest ray of
+    light on this greatest of all human problems ... I shall be glad
+    indeed."
+
+    Such a case, with its so far satisfactory issue, certainly
+    deserves to be placed on record, though it may well be that at
+    present it will not be widely imitated.
+
+The earliest advocacy of castration, which I have met with as a part of
+negative eugenics, for the specific "purpose of prophylaxis as applied to
+race improvement and the protection of society," is by Dr. F.E. Daniel, of
+Texas, and dates from 1893.[447] Daniel mixed up, however, somewhat
+inextricably, castration as a method of purifying the race, a method which
+can be carried out with the concurrence of the individual operated on,
+with castration as a punishment, to be inflicted for rape, sodomy,
+bestiality, pederasty and even habitual masturbation, the method of its
+performance, moreover, to be the extremely barbarous and primitive method
+of total ablation of the sexual organs. In more recent years somewhat more
+equitable, practical, and scientific methods of castration have been
+advocated, not involving the removal of the sexual glands or organs, and
+not as a punishment, but simply for the sake of protecting the community
+and the race from the burden of probably unproductive and possibly
+dangerous members. Näcke has, from 1899 onwards, repeatedly urged the
+social advantages of this measure.[448] The propagation of the inferior
+elements of society, Näcke insists, brings unhappiness into the family and
+is a source of great expense to the State. He regards castration as the
+only effective method of prevention, and concludes that it is, therefore,
+our duty to adopt it, just as we have adopted vaccination, taking care to
+secure the consent of the subject himself or his guardian, of the civil
+authorities, and, if necessary, of a committee of experts. Professor
+Angelo Zuccarelli of Naples has also, from 1899 onwards, emphasized the
+importance of castration in the sterilization of the epileptic, the insane
+of various classes, the alcoholic, the tuberculous, and instinctive
+criminals, the choice of cases for operation to be made by a commission of
+experts who would examine school-children, candidates for public
+employments, or persons about to marry.[449] This movement rapidly gained
+ground, and in 1905 at the annual meeting of Swiss alienists it was
+unanimously agreed that the sterilization of the insane is desirable, and
+that it is necessary that the question should be legally regulated. It is
+in Switzerland, indeed, that the first steps have been taken in Europe to
+carry out castration as a measure of social prophylaxis. The sixteenth
+yearly report (1907) of the Cantonal asylum at Wil describes four cases of
+castration, two in men and two in women, performed--with the permission of
+the patients and the civil authorities--for social reasons; both women had
+previously had illegitimate children who were a burden on the community,
+and all four patients were sexually abnormal; the operation enabled the
+patients to be liberated and to work, and the results were considered in
+every respect satisfactory to all concerned.[450]
+
+    The introduction of castration as a method of negative eugenics
+    has been facilitated by the use of new methods of performing it
+    without risk, and without actual removal of the testes or
+    ovaries. For men, there is the simple method of vasectomy, as
+    recommended by Näcke and many others. For women, there is the
+    corresponding, and almost equally simple and harmless method of
+    Kehrer, by section and ligation of the Fallopian tubes through
+    the vagina, as recommended by Kisch, or Rose's very similar
+    procedure, easily carried out in a few minutes by an experienced
+    hand, as recommended by Zuccarelli.
+
+    It has been found that repeated exposure to the X-rays produces
+    sterility in both sexes, alike in animals and men, and X-ray
+    workers have to adopt various precautions to avoid suffering from
+    this effect. It has been suggested that the application of the
+    X-rays would be a good substitute for castration; it appears that
+    the effects of the application are only likely to last a few
+    years, which, in some doubtful cases, might be an advantage. (See
+    _British Medical Journal_, Aug. 13, 1904; ib., March 11, 1905;
+    ib., July 6, 1907.)
+
+It is scarcely possible, it seems to me, to view castration as a method of
+negative eugenics with great enthusiasm. The recklessness, moreover, with
+which it is sometimes proposed to apply it by law--owing no doubt to the
+fact that it is not so obviously repulsive as the less radical procedure
+of abortion--ought to render us very cautious. We must, too, dismiss the
+idea of castration as a punishment; as such it is not merely barbarous but
+degrading and is unlikely to have a beneficial effect. As a method of
+negative eugenics it should never be carried out except with the subject's
+consent. The fact that in some cases it might be necessary to enforce
+seclusion in the absence of castration would doubtless be a fact exerting
+influence in favor of such consent; but the consent is essential if the
+subject of the operation is to be safeguarded from degradation. A man who
+has been degraded and embittered by an enforced castration might not be
+dangerous to posterity, but might very easily become a dangerous member of
+the society in which he actually lived. With due precautions and
+safeguards, castration may doubtless play a certain part in the elevation
+and improvement of the race.[451]
+
+The methods we have been considering, in so far as they limit the
+procreative powers of the less healthy and efficient stocks in a
+community, are methods of eugenics. It must not, however, be supposed that
+they are the whole of eugenics, or indeed that they are in any way
+essential to a eugenic scheme. Eugenics is concerned with the whole of the
+agencies which elevate and improve the human breed; abortion and
+castration are methods which may be used to this end, but they are not
+methods of which everyone approves, nor is it always clear that the ends
+they effect would not better be attained by other methods; in any case
+they are methods of negative eugenics. There remains the field of positive
+eugenics, which is concerned, not with the elimination of the inferior
+stocks but with ascertaining which are the superior stocks and with
+furthering their procreative power.
+
+While the necessity of refraining from procreation is no longer a bar to
+marriage, the question of whether two persons ought to marry each other
+still remains in the majority of cases a serious question from the
+standpoint of positive as well as of negative eugenics, for the normal
+marriage cannot fail to involve children, as, indeed, its chief and most
+desirable end. We have to consider not merely what are the stocks or the
+individuals that are unfit to breed, but also what are these stocks or
+individuals that are most fit to breed, and under what conditions
+procreation may best be effected. The present imperfection of our
+knowledge on these questions emphasizes the need for care and caution in
+approaching their consideration.
+
+    It may be fitting, at this point, to refer to the experiment of
+    the Oneida Community in establishing a system of scientific
+    propagation, under the guidance of a man whose ability and
+    distinction as a pioneer are only to-day beginning to be
+    adequately recognized. John Humphrey Noyes was too far ahead of
+    his own day to be recognized at his true worth; at the most, he
+    was regarded as the sagacious and successful founder of a sect,
+    and his attempts to apply eugenics to life only aroused ridicule
+    and persecution, so that he was, unfortunately, compelled by
+    outside pressure to bring a most instructive experiment to a
+    premature end. His aim and principle are set forth in an _Essay
+    on Scientific Propagation_, printed some forty years ago, which
+    discusses problems that are only now beginning to attract the
+    attention of the practical man, as within the range of social
+    politics. When Noyes turned his vigorous and practical mind to
+    the question of eugenics, that question was exclusively in the
+    hands of scientific men, who felt all the natural timidity of the
+    scientific man towards the realization of his proposals, and who
+    were not prepared to depart a hair's breadth from the
+    conventional customs of their time. The experiment of Noyes, at
+    Oneida, marked a new stage in the history of eugenics; whatever
+    might be the value of the experiment--and a first experiment
+    cannot well be final--with Noyes the questions of eugenics passed
+    beyond the purely academic stage in which, from the time of
+    Plato, they had peacefully reposed. "It is becoming clear," Noyes
+    states at the outset, "that the foundations of scientific society
+    are to be laid in the scientific propagation of human beings." In
+    doing this, we must attend to two things: blood (or heredity) and
+    training; and he puts blood first. In that, he was at one with
+    the most recent biometrical eugenists of to-day ("the nation has
+    for years been putting its money on 'Environment,' when
+    'Heredity' wins in a canter," as Karl Pearson prefers to put it),
+    and at the same time revealed the breadth of his vision in
+    comparison with the ordinary social reformer, who, in that day,
+    was usually a fanatical believer in the influence of training and
+    surroundings. Noyes sets forth the position of Darwin on the
+    principles of breeding, and the step beyond Darwin, which had
+    been taken by Galton. He then remarks that, when Galton comes to
+    the point where it is necessary to advance from theory to the
+    duties the theory suggests, he "subsides into the meekest
+    conservatism." (It must be remembered that this was written at an
+    early stage in Galton's work.) This conclusion was entirely
+    opposed to Noyes' practical and religious temperament. "Duty is
+    plain; we say we ought to do it--we want to do it; but we cannot.
+    The law of God urges us on; but the law of society holds us back.
+    The boldest course is the safest. Let us take an honest and
+    steady look at the law. It is only in the timidity of ignorance
+    that the duty seems impracticable." Noyes anticipated Galton in
+    regarding eugenics as a matter of religion.
+
+    Noyes proposed to term the work of modern science in propagation
+    "Stirpiculture," in which he has sometimes been followed by
+    others. He considered that it is the business of the
+    stirpiculturist to keep in view both quantity and quality of
+    stocks, and he held that, without diminishing quantity, it was
+    possible to raise the quality by exercising a very stringent
+    discrimination in selecting males. At this point, Noyes has been
+    supported in recent years by Karl Pearson and others, who have
+    shown that only a relatively small portion of a population is
+    needed to produce the next generation, and that, in fact, twelve
+    per cent. of one generation in man produces fifty per cent. of
+    the next generation. What we need to ensure is that this small
+    reproducing section of the population shall be the best adapted
+    for the purpose. "The _quantity_ of production will be in direct
+    proportion to the number of fertile females," as Noyes saw the
+    question, "and the _value_ produced, so far as it depends on
+    selection, will be nearly in inverse proportion to the number of
+    fertilizing males." In this matter, Noyes anticipated Ehrenfels.
+    The two principles to be held in mind were, "Breed from the
+    best," and "Breed in-and-in," with a cautious and occasional
+    introduction of new strains. (It may be noted that Reibmayr, in
+    his recent _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Genics und Talentes_,
+    argues that the superior races, and superior individuals, in the
+    human species, have been produced by an unconscious adherence to
+    exactly these principles.) "By segregating superior families, and
+    by breeding these in-and-in, superior varieties of human beings
+    might be produced, which would be comparable to the thoroughbreds
+    in all the domestic races." He illustrates this by the early
+    history of the Jews.
+
+    Noyes finally criticises the present method, or lack of method,
+    in matters of propagation. Our marriage system, he states,
+    "leaves mating to be determined by a general scramble." By
+    ignoring, also, the great difference between the sexes in
+    reproductive power, it "restricts each man, whatever may be his
+    potency and his value, to the amount of production of which one
+    woman, chosen blindly, may be capable." Moreover, he continues,
+    "practically it discriminates against the best, and in favor of
+    the worst; for, while the good man will be limited by his
+    conscience to what the law allows, the bad man, free from moral
+    check, will distribute his seed beyond the legal limits, as
+    widely as he dares." "We are safe every way in saying that there
+    is no possibility of carrying the two precepts of scientific
+    propagation into an institution which pretends to no
+    discrimination, allows no suppression, gives no more liberty to
+    the best than to the worst, and which, in fact, must inevitably
+    discriminate the wrong way, so long as the inferior classes are
+    most prolific and least amenable to the admonitions of science
+    and morality." In modifying our sexual institutions, Noyes
+    insists there are two essential points to remember: the
+    preservation of liberty, and the preservation of the home. There
+    must be no compulsion about human scientific propagation; it must
+    be autonomous, directed by self-government, "by the free choice
+    of those who love science well enough to 'make themselves eunuchs
+    for the Kingdom of Heaven's sake.'" The home, also, must be
+    preserved, since "marriage is the best thing for man as he is;"
+    but it is necessary to enlarge the home, for, "if all could learn
+    to love other children than their own, there would be nothing to
+    hinder scientific propagation in the midst of homes far better
+    than any that now exist."
+
+    This memorable pamphlet contains no exposition of the precise
+    measures adopted by the Oneida Community to carry out these
+    principles. The two essential points were, as we know, "male
+    continence" (see _ante_ p. 553), and the enlarged family, in
+    which all the men were the actual or potential mates of all the
+    women, but no union for propagation took place, except as the
+    result of reason and deliberate resolve. "The community," says
+    H.J. Seymour, one of the original members (_The Oneida
+    Community_, 1894, p. 5), "was a _family_, as distinctly separated
+    from surrounding society as ordinary households. The tie that
+    bound it together was as permanent, and at least as sacred, as
+    that of marriage. Every man's care, and the whole of the common
+    property, was pledged for the maintenance and protection of the
+    women, and the support and education of the children." It is not
+    probable that the Oneida Community presented in detail the model
+    to which human society generally will conform. But even at the
+    lowest estimate, its success showed, as Lord Morely has pointed
+    out (_Diderot_, vol. ii, p. 19), "how modifiable are some of
+    these facts of existing human character which are vulgarly deemed
+    to be ultimate and ineradicable," and that "the discipline of the
+    appetites and affections of sex," on which the future of
+    civilization largely rests, is very far from an impossibility.
+
+    In many respects, the Oneida Community was ahead of its
+    time,--and even of ours,--but it is interesting to note that, in
+    the matter of the control of conception, our marriage system has
+    come into line with the theory and practice of Oneida; it cannot,
+    indeed, be said that we always control conception in accordance
+    with eugenic principles, but the fact that such control has now
+    become a generally accepted habit of civilization, to some extent
+    deprives Noyes' criticism of our marriage system of the force it
+    possessed half a century ago. Another change in our customs--the
+    advocacy, and even the practice, of abortion and
+    castration--would not have met with his approval; he was strongly
+    opposed to both, and with the high moral level that ruled his
+    community, neither was necessary to the maintenance of the
+    stirpiculture that prevailed.
+
+    The Oneida Community endured for the space of one generation, and
+    came to an end in 1879, by no means through a recognition of
+    failure, but by a wise deference to external pressure. Its
+    members, many of them highly educated, continued to cherish the
+    memory of the practices and ideals of the Community. Noyes Miller
+    (the author of _The Strike of a Sex_, and _Zugassant's
+    Discovery_) to the last, looked with quiet confidence to the time
+    when, as he anticipated, the great discovery of Noyes would be
+    accepted and adopted by the world at large. Another member of the
+    Community (Henry J. Seymour) wrote of the Community long
+    afterwards that "It was an anticipation and imperfect miniature
+    of the Kingdom of Heaven on earth."
+
+Perhaps the commonest type of proposal or attempt to improve the
+biological level of the race is by the exclusion of certain classes of
+degenerates from marriage, or by the encouragement of better classes of
+the community to marry. This seems to be, at present, the most popular
+form of eugenics, and in so far as it is not effected by compulsion but is
+the outcome of a voluntary resolve to treat the question of the creation
+of the race with the jealous care and guardianship which so tremendously
+serious, so godlike, a task involves, it has much to be said in its favor
+and nothing against it.
+
+But it is quite another matter when the attempt is made to regulate such
+an institution as marriage by law. In the first place we do not yet know
+enough about the principles of heredity and the transmissibility of
+pathological states to enable us to formulate sound legislative proposals
+on this basis. Even so comparatively simple a matter as the relationship
+of tuberculosis to heredity can scarcely be said to be a matter of common
+agreement, even if it can yet be claimed that we possess adequate material
+on which to attain a common agreement. Supposing, moreover, that our
+knowledge on all these questions were far more advanced than it is, we
+still should not have attained a position in which we could lay down
+general propositions regarding the desirability or the undesirability of
+certain classes of persons procreating. The question is necessarily an
+individual question, and it can only be decided when all the circumstances
+of the individual case have been fairly passed in review.
+
+The objection to any legislative and compulsory regulation of the right to
+marry is, however, much more fundamental than the consideration that our
+knowledge is at present inadequate. It lies in the extraordinary
+confusion, in the minds of those who advocate such legislation, between
+legal marriage and procreation. The persons who fall into such confusion
+have not yet learnt the alphabet of the subject they presume to dictate
+about, and are no more competent to legislate than a child who cannot tell
+A from B is competent to read.
+
+Marriage, in so far as it is the partnership for mutual help and
+consolation of two people who in such partnership are free, if they
+please, to exercise sexual union, is an elementary right of every person
+who is able to reason, who is guilty of no fraud or concealment, and who
+is not likely to injure the partner selected, for in that case society is
+entitled to interfere by virtue of its duty to protect its members. But
+the right to marry, thus understood, in no way involves the right to
+procreate. For while marriage _per se_ only affects the two individuals
+concerned, and in no way affects the State, procreation, on the other
+hand, primarily affects the community which is ultimately made up of
+procreated persons, and only secondarily affects the two individuals who
+are the instruments of procreation. So that just as the individual couple
+has the first right in the question of marriage, the State has the first
+right in the question of procreation. The State is just as incompetent to
+lay down the law about marriage as the individual is to lay down the law
+about procreation.
+
+That, however, is only one-half of the folly committed by those who would
+select the candidates for matrimony by statute. Let us suppose--as is not
+indeed easy to suppose--that a community will meekly accept the abstract
+prohibitions of the statute book and quietly go home again when the
+registrar of marriages informs them that they are shut out from legal
+matrimony by the new table of prohibited degrees. An explicit prohibition
+to procreate within marriage is an implicit permission to procreate
+outside marriage. Thus the undesirable procreation, instead of being
+carried out under the least dangerous conditions, is carried out under the
+most dangerous conditions, and the net result to the community is not a
+gain but a loss.
+
+What seems usually to happen, in the presence of a formal legislative
+prohibition against the marriage of a particular class, is a combination
+of various evils. In part the law becomes a dead letter, in part it is
+evaded by skill and fraud, in part it is obeyed to give rise to worse
+evils. This happened, for instance, in the Terek district of the Caucasus
+where, on the demand of a medical committee, priests were prohibited from
+marrying persons among whose relatives or ancestry any cases of leprosy
+had occurred. So much and such various mischief was caused by this order
+that it was speedily withdrawn.[452]
+
+If we remember that the Catholic Church was occupied for more than a
+thousand years in the attempt to impose the prohibition of marriage on its
+priesthood,--an educated and trained body of men, who had every spiritual
+and worldly motive to accept the prohibition, and were, moreover, brought
+up to regard asceticism as the best ideal in life,[453]--we may realize
+how absurd it is to attempt to gain the same end by mere casual
+prohibitions issued to untrained people with no motives to obey such
+prohibitions, and no ideals of celibacy.
+
+The hopelessness and even absurdity of effecting the eugenic improvement
+of the race by merely placing on the statute book prohibitions to certain
+classes of people to enter the legal bonds of matrimony as at present
+constituted, reveals the weakness of those who undervalue the eugenic
+importance of environment. Those who affirm that heredity is everything
+and environment nothing seem strangely to forget that it is precisely the
+lower classes--those who are most subjected to the influence of bad
+environment--who procreate most copiously, most recklessly, and most
+disastrously. The restraint of procreation, and a concomitant regard for
+heredity, increase _pari passu_ with improvement of the environment and
+rise in social well-being. If even already it can be said that probably
+fifty per cent. of sexual intercourse--perhaps the most procreatively
+productive moiety--takes place outside legal marriage, it becomes obvious
+that statutory prohibition to the unfit classes to refrain from legal
+marriage merely involves their joining the procreating classes outside
+legal matrimony. It is also clear that if we are to neglect the factor of
+environment, and leave the lower social classes to the ignorance and
+recklessness which are the result of such environment, the only practical
+method of eugenics left open is that by castration and abortion. But this
+method--if applied on a wholesale scale as it would need to be[454] and
+without reference to the consent of the individual--is entirely opposed
+to modern democratic feeling. Thus those short-sighted eugenists who
+overlook the importance of environment are overlooking the only practical
+channel through which their aims can be realized. Attention to procreation
+and attention to environment are not, as some have supposed, antagonistic,
+but they play harmoniously into each other's hands. The care for
+environment leads to a restraint on reckless procreation, and the
+restraint of procreation leads to improved environment.
+
+Legislation on marriage, to be effectual, must be enacted in the home, in
+the school, in the doctor's consulting room. Force is helpless here; it is
+education that is needed, not merely instruction, but the education of the
+conscience and will, and the training of the emotions.
+
+Legal action may come in to further this process of education, though it
+cannot replace it. Thus it is very desirable that when there has been a
+concealment of serious disease by a party to a marriage such concealment
+should be a ground for divorce. Epilepsy may be taken as typical of the
+diseases which should be a bar to procreation, and their concealment
+equivalent to an annulment of marriage.[455] In the United States the
+Supreme Court of Errors of Connecticut laid it down in 1906 that the
+Superior Court has the power to pass a decree of divorce when one of the
+parties has concealed the existence of epilepsy. This weighty deliverence,
+it has been well said,[456] marks a forward step in human progress. There
+are many other seriously pathological conditions in which divorce should
+be pronounced, or indeed, occur automatically, except when procreation has
+been renounced, for in that case the State is no longer concerned in the
+relationship, except to punish any fraud committed by concealment.
+
+    The demand that a medical certificate of health should be
+    compulsory on marriage, has been especially made in France. In
+    1858, Diday, of Lyons, proposed, indeed, that all persons,
+    without exception, should be compelled to possess a certificate
+    of health and disease, a kind of sanitary passport. In 1872,
+    Bertillon (Art. "Demographic," _Dictionnaire Encyclopédique des
+    Sciences Médicales_) advocated the registration, at marriage, of
+    the chief anthropological and pathological traits of the
+    contracting parties (height, weight, color of hair and eyes,
+    muscular force, size of head, condition of vision, hearing, etc.,
+    deformities and defects, etc.), not so much, however, for the end
+    of preventing undesirable marriages, as to facilitate the study
+    and comparison of human groups at particular periods. Subsequent
+    demands, of a more limited and partial character, for legal
+    medical certificates as a condition of marriage, have been made
+    by Fournier (_Syphilis et Mariage_, 1890), Cazalis (_Le Science
+    et le Mariage_, 1890), and Jullien (_Blenorrhagie et Mariage_,
+    1898). In Austria, Haskovec, of Prague ("Contrat Matrimonial et
+    L'Hygiène Publique," _Comptes-rendus Congrès International de
+    Médecine_, Lisbon, 1906, Section VII, p. 600), argues that, on
+    marriage, a medical certificate should be presented, showing that
+    the subject is exempt from tuberculosis, alcoholism, syphilis,
+    gonorrhoea, severe mental, or nervous, or other degenerative
+    state, likely to be injurious to the other partner, or to the
+    offspring. In America, Rosenberg and Aronstam argue that every
+    candidate for marriage, male or female, should undergo a strict
+    examination by a competent board of medical examiners, concerning
+    (1) Family and Past History (syphilis, consumption, alcoholism,
+    nervous, and mental diseases), and (2) Status Presens (thorough
+    examination of all the organs); if satisfactory, a certificate of
+    matrimonial eligibility would then be granted. It is pointed out
+    that a measure of this kind would render unnecessary the acts
+    passed by some States for the punishment by fine, or
+    imprisonment, of the concealment of disease. Ellen Key also
+    considers (_Liebe und Ehe_, p. 436) that each party at marriage
+    should produce a certificate of health. "It seems to me just as
+    necessary," she remarks, elsewhere (_Century of the Child_, Ch.
+    I), "to demand medical testimony concerning capacity for
+    marriage, as concerning capacity for military service. In the one
+    case, it is a matter of giving life; in the other, of taking it,
+    although certainly the latter occasion has hitherto been
+    considered as much the more serious."
+
+    The certificate, as usually advocated, would be a private but
+    necessary legitimation of the marriage in the eyes of the civil
+    and religious authorities. Such a step, being required for the
+    protection alike of the conjugal partner and of posterity, would
+    involve a new legal organization of the matrimonial contract.
+    That such demands are so frequently made, is a significant sign
+    of the growth of moral consciousness in the community, and it is
+    good that the public should be made acquainted with the urgent
+    need for them. But it is highly undesirable that they should, at
+    present, or, perhaps, ever, be embodied in legal codes. What is
+    needed is the cultivation of the feeling of individual
+    responsibility, and the development of social antagonism towards
+    those individuals who fail to recognize their responsibility. It
+    is the reality of marriage, and not its mere legal forms, that it
+    is necessary to act upon.
+
+The voluntary method is the only sound way of approach in this matter.
+Duclaux considered that the candidate for marriage should possess a
+certificate of health in much the same way as the candidate for life
+assurance, the question of professional secrecy, as well as that of
+compulsion, no more coming into one question than into the other. There is
+no reason why such certificates, of an entirely voluntary character,
+should not become customary among those persons who are sufficiently
+enlightened to realize all the grave personal, family, and social issues
+involved in marriage. The system of eugenic certification, as originated
+and developed by Galton, will constitute a valuable instrument for raising
+the moral consciousness in this matter. Galton's eugenic certificates
+would deal mainly with the natural virtues of superior hereditary
+breed--"the public recognition of a natural nobility"--but they would
+include the question of personal health and personal aptitude.[457]
+
+To demand compulsory certificates of health at marriage is indeed to begin
+at the wrong end. It would not only lead to evasions and antagonisms but
+would probably call forth a reaction. It is first necessary to create an
+enthusiasm for health, a moral conscience in matters of procreation,
+together with, on the scientific side, a general habit of registering the
+anthropological, psychological, and pathological data concerning the
+individual, from birth onwards, altogether apart from marriage. The
+earlier demands of Diday and Bertillon were thus not only on a sounder but
+also a more practicable basis. If such records were kept from birth for
+every child, there would be no need for special examination at marriage,
+and many incidental ends would be gained. There is difficulty at present
+in obtaining such records from the moment of birth, and, so far as I am
+aware, no attempts have yet been made to establish their systematic
+registration. But it is quite possible to begin at the beginning of school
+life, and this is now done at many schools and colleges in England,
+America, and elsewhere, more especially as regards anthropological,
+physiological, and psychological data, each child being submitted to a
+thorough and searching anthropometric examination, and thus furnished with
+a systematic statement of his physical condition.[458] This examination
+needs to be standardized and generalized, and repeated at fixed intervals.
+"Every individual child," as is truly stated by Dr. Dukes, the Physician
+to Rugby School, "on his entrance to a public school should be as
+carefully and as thoroughly examined as if it were for life insurance." If
+this procedure were general from an early age, there would be no hardship
+in the production of the record at marriage, and no opportunity for fraud.
+The _dossier_ of each person might well be registered by the State, as
+wills already are, and, as in the case of wills, become freely open to
+students when a century had elapsed. Until this has been done during
+several centuries our knowledge of eugenics will remain rudimentary.
+
+    There can be little doubt that the eugenic attitude towards
+    marriage, and the responsibility of the individual for the future
+    of the race, is becoming more recognized. It is constantly
+    happening that persons, about to marry, approach the physician in
+    a state of serious anxiety on this point. Urquhart, indeed
+    (_Journal of Mental Science_, April, 1907, p. 277), believes that
+    marriages are seldom broken off on this ground; this seems,
+    however, too pessimistic a view, and even when the marriage is
+    not broken off the resolve is often made to avoid procreation.
+    Clouston, who emphasizes (_Hygiene of the Mind_, p. 74) the
+    importance of "inquiries by each of the parties to the
+    life-contract, by their parents and their doctors, as to
+    heredity, temperament, and health," is more hopeful of the
+    results than Urquhart. "I have been very much impressed, of late
+    years," he writes (_Journal of Mental Science_, Oct., 1907, p.
+    710), "with the way in which this subject is taking possession of
+    intelligent people, by the number of times one is consulted by
+    young men and young women, proposing to marry, or by their
+    fathers or mothers. I used to have the feeling in the back of my
+    mind, when I was consulted, that it did not matter what I said,
+    it would not make any difference. But it is making a difference;
+    and I, and others, could tell of scores of marriages which were
+    put off in consequence of psychiatric medical advice."
+
+    Ellen Key, also, refers to the growing tendency among both men
+    and women, to be influenced by eugenic consideration in forming
+    partnerships for life (_Century of the Child_, Ch. I). The
+    recognition of the eugenic attitude towards marriage, the
+    quickening of the social and individual conscience in matters of
+    heredity, as also the systematic introduction of certification
+    and registration, will be furthered by the growing tendency to
+    the socialization of medicine, and, indeed, in its absence would
+    be impossible. (See e.g., Havelock Ellis, _The Nationalization of
+    Health_.) The growth of the State Medical Organization of Health
+    is steady and continuous, and is constantly covering a larger
+    field. The day of the private practitioner of medicine--who was
+    treated, as Duclaux (_L'Hygiène Sociale_, p. 263) put it, "like a
+    grocer, whose shop the customer may enter and leave as he
+    pleases, and when he pleases"--will, doubtless, soon be over. It
+    is now beginning to be felt that health is far too serious a
+    matter, not only from the individual but also from the social
+    point of view, to be left to private caprice. There is, indeed, a
+    tendency, in some quarters, to fear that some day society may
+    rush to the opposite extreme, and bow before medicine with the
+    same unreasoning deference that it once bowed before theology.
+    That danger is still very remote, nor is it likely, indeed, that
+    medicine will ever claim any authority of this kind. The spirit
+    of medicine has, notoriously, been rather towards the assertion
+    of scepticism than of dogma, and the fanatics in this field will
+    always be in a hopelessly small minority.
+
+The general introduction of authentic personal records covering all
+essential data--hereditary, anthropometric and pathological--cannot fail
+to be a force on the side of positive as well as of negative eugenics, for
+it would tend to promote the procreation of the fit as well as restrict
+that of the unfit, without any legislative compulsion. With the growth of
+education a regard for such records as a preliminary to marriage would
+become as much a matter of course as once was the regard to the
+restrictions imposed by Canon law, and as still is a regard to money or to
+caste. A woman can usually refrain from marrying a man with no money and
+no prospects; a man may be passionately in love with a woman of lower
+class than himself but he seldom marries her. It needs but a clear general
+perception of all that is involved in heredity and health to make eugenic
+considerations equally influential.
+
+A discriminating regard to the quality of offspring will act beneficially
+on the side of positive eugenics by substituting the pernicious tendency
+to put a premium on excess of childbirth by the more rational method of
+putting a premium on the quality of the child. It has been one of the most
+unfortunate results of the mania for protesting against that decline of
+the birthrate which is always and everywhere the result of civilization,
+that there has been a tendency to offer special social or pecuniary
+advantages to the parents of large families. Since large families tend to
+be degenerate, and to become a tax on the community, since rapid
+pregnancies in succession are not only a serious drain on the strength of
+the mother but are now known to depreciate seriously the quality of the
+offspring, and since, moreover, it is in large families that disease and
+mortality chiefly prevail, all the interests of the community are against
+the placing of any premium on large families, even in the case of parents
+of good stock. The interests of the State are bound up not with the
+quantity but with the quality of its citizens, and the premium should be
+placed not on the families that reach a certain size but on the individual
+children that reach a certain standard; the attainment of this standard
+could well be based on observations made from birth to the fifth year. A
+premium on this basis would be as beneficial to a State as that on the
+merely numerical basis is pernicious.
+
+This consideration applies with still greater force to the proposals for
+the "systematic endowment of motherhood" of which we hear more and more.
+So moderate and judicious a social reformer as Mr. Sidney Webb writes: "We
+shall have to face the problem of the systematic endowment of motherhood,
+and place this most indispensable of all professions upon an honorable
+economic basis. At present it is ignored as an occupation, unremunerated,
+and in no way honored by the State."[459] True as this statement is, it
+must always be remembered that an indispensable preliminary to any
+proposal for the endowment of motherhood by the State is a clear
+conception of the kind of motherhood which the State requires. To endow
+the reckless and indiscriminate motherhood which we see around us, to
+encourage, that is, by State aid, the production of citizens a large
+proportion of whom the State, if it dared, would like to destroy as unfit,
+is too ridiculous a proposal to deserve discussion.[460] The only sound
+reason, indeed, for the endowment of motherhood is that it would enable
+the State, in its own interests, to further the natural selection of the
+fit.
+
+As to the positive qualities which the State is entitled to endow in its
+encouragement of motherhood, it is still too early to speak with complete
+assurance. Negative eugenics tends to be ahead of positive eugenics; it is
+easier to detect bad stocks than to be quite sure of good stocks. Both on
+the scientific side and on the social side, however, we are beginning to
+attain a clearer realization of the end to be attained and a more precise
+knowledge of the methods of attaining it.[461]
+
+Even when we have gained a fairly clear conception of the stocks and the
+individuals which we are justified in encouraging to undertake the task of
+producing fit citizens for the State, the problems of procreation are by
+no means at an end. Before we can so much as inquire what are the
+conditions under which selected individuals may best procreate, there is
+still the initial question to be decided whether those individuals are
+both fertile and potent, for this is not guaranteed by the fact that they
+belong to good stocks, nor is even the fact that a man and a woman are
+fertile with other persons any positive proof that they will be fertile
+with each other. Among the large masses of the population who do not seek
+to make their unions legal until those unions have proved fertile, this
+difficulty is settled in a simple and practical manner. The question is,
+however, a serious and hazardous one, in the present state of the marriage
+law in most countries, for those classes which are accustomed to bind
+themselves in legal marriage without any knowledge of their potency and
+fertility with each other. The matter is mostly left to chance, and as
+legal marriage cannot usually be dissolved on the ground that there are no
+offspring, even although procreation is commonly declared to be the chief
+end of marriage, the question assumes much gravity. The ordinary range of
+sterility is from seven to fifteen per cent. of all marriages, and in a
+very large proportion of these it is a source of great concern. This could
+be avoided, in some measure, by examination before marriage, and almost
+altogether by ordaining that, as it is only through offspring that a
+marriage has any concern for the State, a legal marriage could be
+dissolved, after a certain period, at the will of either of the parties,
+in the absence of such offspring.
+
+    It was formerly supposed that when a union proved infertile, it
+    was the wife who was at fault. That belief is long since
+    exploded, but, even yet, a man is generally far more concerned
+    about his potency, that is, his ability to perform the mechanical
+    act of coitus, than about his fertility, that is, his ability to
+    produce living spermatozoa, though the latter condition is a much
+    more common source of sterility. "Any man," says Arthur Cooper
+    (_British Medical Journal_, May 11, 1907), "who has any sexual
+    defect or malformation, or who has suffered from any disease or
+    injury of the genito-urinary organs, even though comparatively
+    trivial or one-sided, and although his copulative power may be
+    unimpaired, should be looked upon as possibly sterile, until some
+    sort of evidence to the contrary has been obtained." In case of a
+    sterile marriage, the possible cause should first be investigated
+    in the husband, for it is comparatively easy to examine the
+    semen, and to ascertain if it contains active spermatozoa.
+    Prinzing, in a comprehensive study of sterile marriages ("Die
+    Sterilen Ehen," _Zeitschrift für Sozialwissenschaft_, 1904, Heft
+    1 and 2), states that in two-fifths of sterile marriages the man
+    is at fault; one-third of such marriages are the result of
+    venereal diseases in the husband himself, or transmitted to the
+    wife. Gonorrhoea is not now considered so important a cause of
+    sterility as it was a few years ago; Schenk makes it responsible
+    for only about thirteen per cent. sterile marriages (cf. Kisch,
+    _The Sexual Life of Woman_). Pinkus (_Archiv für Gynäkologie_,
+    1907) found that of nearly five hundred cases in which he
+    examined both partners, in 24.4 per cent. cases, the sterility
+    was directly due to the husband, and in 15.8 per cent. cases,
+    indirectly due, because caused by gonorrhoea with which he had
+    infected his wife.
+
+    When sterility is due to a defect in the husband's spermatozoa,
+    and is not discovered, as it usually might be, before marriage,
+    the question of impregnating the wife by other methods has
+    occasionally arisen. Divorce on the ground of sterility is not
+    possible, and, even if it were, the couple, although they wish to
+    have a child, have not usually any wish to separate. Under these
+    circumstances, in order to secure the desired end, without
+    departing from widely accepted rules of morality, the attempt is
+    occasionally made to effect artificial fecundation by injecting
+    the semen from a healthy male. Attempts have been made to effect
+    artificial fecundation by various distinguished men, from John
+    Hunter to Schwalbe, but it is nearly always very difficult to
+    effect, and often impossible. This is easy to account for, if we
+    recall what has already been pointed out (_ante_ p. 577)
+    concerning the influence of erotic excitement in the woman in
+    securing conception; it is obviously a serious task for even the
+    most susceptible woman to evoke erotic enthusiasm _à propos_ of a
+    medical syringe. Schwalbe, for instance, records a case
+    (_Deutsche Medizinisches Wochenschrift_, Aug., 1908, p. 510) in
+    which,--in consequence of the husband's sterility and the wife's
+    anxiety, with her husband's consent, to be impregnated by the
+    semen of another man,--he made repeated careful attempts to
+    effect artificial fecundation; these attempts were, however,
+    fruitless, and the three parties concerned finally resigned
+    themselves to the natural method of intercourse, which was
+    successful. In another case, recorded by Schwalbe, in which the
+    husband was impotent but not sterile, six attempts were made to
+    effect artificial fecundation, and further efforts abandoned on
+    account of the disgust of all concerned.
+
+    Opinion, on the whole, has been opposed to the practice of
+    artificial fecundation, even apart from the question of the
+    probabilities of success. Thus, in France, where there is a
+    considerable literature on the subject, the Paris Medical
+    Faculty, in 1885, after some hesitation, refused Gérard's thesis
+    on the history of artificial fecundation, afterwards published
+    independently. In 1883, the Bordeaux legal tribunal declared that
+    artificial fecundation was illegitimate, and a social danger. In
+    1897, the Holy See also pronounced that the practice is unlawful
+    ("Artificial Fecundation before the Inquisition," _British
+    Medical Journal_, March 5, 1898). Apart, altogether, from this
+    attitude of medicine, law, and Church, it would certainly seem
+    that those who desire offspring would do well, as a rule, to
+    adopt the natural method, which is also the best, or else to
+    abandon to others the task of procreation, for which they are not
+    adequately equipped.
+
+When we have ascertained that two individuals both belong to sound and
+healthy stocks, and, further, that they are themselves both apt for
+procreation, it still remains to consider the conditions under which they
+may best effect procreation.[462] There arises, for instance, the
+question, often asked, What is the best age for procreation?
+
+The considerations which weigh in answering this question are of two
+different orders, physiological, and social or moral. That is to say, that
+it is necessary, on the one hand, that physical maturity should have been
+fully attained, and the sexual cells completely developed; while, on the
+other hand, it is necessary that the man shall have become able to support
+a family, and that both partners shall have received a training in life
+adequate to undertake the responsibilities and anxieties involved in the
+rearing of children. While there have been variations at different times,
+it scarcely appears that, on the whole, the general opinion as to the best
+age for procreation has greatly varied in Europe during many centuries.
+Hesiod indeed said that a woman should marry about fifteen and a man about
+thirty,[463] but obstetricians have usually concluded that, in the
+interests alike of the parents and their offspring, the procreative life
+should not begin in women before twenty and in men before
+twenty-five.[464] After thirty in women and after thirty-five or forty in
+men it seems probable that the best conditions for procreation begin to
+decline.[465] At the present time, in England and several other civilized
+countries, the tendency has been for the age of marriage to fall at an
+increasingly late age, on the average some years later than that usually
+fixed as the most favorable age for the commencement of the procreative
+life. But, on the whole, the average seldom departs widely from the
+accepted standard, and there seems no good reason why we should desire to
+modify this general tendency.
+
+    At the same time, it by no means follows that wide variations,
+    under special circumstances, may not only be permissible, but
+    desirable. The male is capable of procreating, in some cases,
+    from about the age of thirteen until far beyond eighty, and at
+    this advanced age, the offspring, even if not notable for great
+    physical robustness, may possess high intellectual qualities.
+    (See e.g., Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_, pp. 120
+    et seq.) The range of the procreative age in women begins earlier
+    (sometimes at eight), though it usually ceases by fifty, or
+    earlier, in only rare cases continuing to sixty or beyond. Cases
+    have been reported of pregnancy, or childbirth, at the age of
+    fifty-nine (e.g., _Lancet_, Aug. 5, 1905, p. 419). Lepage
+    (_Comptes-rendus Société d'Obstétrique de Paris_, Oct., 1903)
+    reports a case of a primipara of fifty-seven; the child was
+    stillborn. Kisch (_Sexual Life of Woman_, Part II) refers to
+    cases of pregnancy in elderly women, and various references are
+    given in _British Medical Journal_, Aug. 8, 1903, p. 325.
+
+    Of more importance is the question of early pregnancy. Several
+    investigators have devoted their attention to this question.
+    Thus, Spitta (in a Marburg Inaugural Dissertation, 1895) reviewed
+    the clinical history of 260 labors in primiparæ of 18 and under,
+    as observed at the Marburg Maternity. He found that the general
+    health during pregnancy was not below the average of pregnant
+    women, while the mortality of the child at birth and during the
+    following weeks was not high, and the mortality of the mother was
+    by no means high. Picard (in a Paris thesis, 1903) has studied
+    childbirth in thirty-eight mothers below the age of sixteen. He
+    found that, although the pelvis is certainly not yet fully
+    developed in very young girls, the joints and bones are much more
+    yielding than in the adult, so that parturition, far from being
+    more difficult, is usually rapid and easy. The process of labor
+    itself, is essentially normal in these cases, and, even when
+    abnormalities occur (low insertion of the placenta is a common
+    anomaly) it is remarkable that the patients do not suffer from
+    them in the way common among older women. The average weight of
+    the child was three kilogrammes, or about 6 pounds, 9 ounces; it
+    sometimes required special care during the first few days after
+    birth, perhaps because labor in these cases is sometimes slow.
+    The recovery of the mother was, in every case, absolutely normal,
+    and the fact that these young mothers become pregnant again more
+    readily than primiparæ of a more mature age, further contributes
+    to show that childbirth below the age of sixteen is in no way
+    injurious to the mother. Gache (_Annales de Gynécologie et
+    d'Obstétrique_, Dec., 1904) has attended ninety-one labors of
+    mothers under seventeen, in the Rawson Hospital, Buenos Ayres;
+    they were of so-called Latin race, mostly Spanish or Italian.
+    Gache found that these young mothers were by no means more
+    exposed than others to abortion or to other complications of
+    pregnancy. Except in four cases of slightly contracted pelvis,
+    delivery was normal, though rather longer than in older
+    primiparæ. Damage to the soft parts was, however, rare, and, when
+    it occurred, in every case rapidly healed. The average weight of
+    the child was 3,039 grammes, or nearly 6¾ pounds. It may be noted
+    that most observers find that very early pregnancies occur in
+    women who begin to menstruate at an unusually early age, that is,
+    some years before the early pregnancy occurs.
+
+    It is clear, however, that young mothers do remarkably well,
+    while there is no doubt whatever that they bear unusually fine
+    infants. Kleinwächter, indeed, found that the younger the mother,
+    the bigger the child. It is not only physically that the children
+    of young mothers are superior. Marro has found (_Pubertà_, p.
+    257) that the children of mothers under 21 are superior to those
+    of older mothers both in conduct and intelligence, provided the
+    fathers are not too old or too young. The detailed records of
+    individual cases confirm these results, both as regards mother
+    and child. Thus, Milner (_Lancet_, June 7, 1902) records a case
+    of pregnancy in a girl of fourteen; the labor pains were very
+    mild, and delivery was easy. E.B. Wales, of New Jersey, has
+    recorded the history (reproduced in _Medical Reprints_, Sept. 15,
+    1890) of a colored girl who became pregnant at the age of eleven.
+    She was of medium size, rather tall and slender, but well
+    developed, and began to menstruate at the age of ten. She was in
+    good health and spirits during pregnancy, and able to work.
+    Delivery was easy and natural, not notably prolonged, and
+    apparently not unduly painful, for there were no moans or
+    agitation. The child was a fine, healthy boy, weighing not less
+    than eleven pounds. Mother and child both did well, and there was
+    a great flow of milk. Whiteside Robertson (_British Medical
+    Journal_, Jan. 18, 1902) has recorded a case of pregnancy at the
+    age of thirteen, in a Colonial girl of British origin in Cape
+    Colony, which is notable from other points of view. During
+    pregnancy, she was anæmic, and appeared to be of poor development
+    and doubtfully normal pelvic conformation. Yet delivery took
+    place naturally, at full term, without difficulty or injury, and
+    the lying-in period was in every way satisfactory. The baby was
+    well-proportioned, and weighed 7½ pounds. "I have rarely seen a
+    primipara enjoy easier labor," concluded Robertson, "and I have
+    never seen one look forward to the happy realization of
+    motherhood with greater satisfaction."
+
+    The facts brought forward by obstetricians concerning the good
+    results of early pregnancy, as regards both mother and child,
+    have not yet received the attention they deserve. They are,
+    however, confirmed by many general tendencies which are now
+    fairly well recognized. The significant fact is known, for
+    instance, that in mothers over thirty, the proportion of
+    abortions and miscarriages is twice as great as in mothers
+    between the ages of fifteen and twenty, who also are superior in
+    this respect to mothers between the ages of twenty and thirty
+    (_Statistischer Jahrbuch_, Budapest, 1905). It was, again, proved
+    by Matthews Duncan, in his Goulstonian lecture, that the chances
+    of sterility in a woman increase with increase of age. It has,
+    further, been shown (Kisch, _Sexual Life of Woman_, Part II) that
+    the older a woman at marriage, the greater the average interval
+    before the first delivery, a tendency which seems to indicate
+    that it is the very young woman who is in the condition most apt
+    for procreation; Kisch is not, indeed, inclined to think that
+    this applies to women below twenty, but the fact, observed by
+    other obstetricians, that mothers under eighteen tend to become
+    pregnant again at an unusually short interval, goes far to
+    neutralize the exception made by Kisch. It may also be pointed
+    out that, among children of very young mothers, the sexes are
+    more nearly equal in number than is the case with older mothers.
+    This would seem to indicate that we are here in presence of a
+    normal equilibrium which will decrease as the age of the mother
+    is progressively disturbed in an abnormal direction.
+
+    The facility of parturition at an early age, it may be noted,
+    corresponds to an equal facility in physical sexual intercourse,
+    a fact that is often overlooked. In Russia, where marriage still
+    takes place early, it was formerly common when the woman was only
+    twelve or thirteen, and Guttceit (_Dreissig Jahre Praxis_, vol.
+    i, p. 324) says that he was assured by women who married at this
+    age that the first coitus presented no especial difficulties.
+
+    There is undoubtedly, at the present time, a considerable amount
+    of prejudice against early motherhood. In part, this is due to a
+    failure to realize that women are sexually much more precocious
+    than men, physically as well as psychically (see _ante_ p. 35).
+    The difference is about five years. This difference has been
+    virtually recognized for thousands of years, in the ancient
+    belief that the age of election for procreation is about twenty,
+    or less, for women, but about twenty-five for men; and it has
+    more lately been affirmed by the discovery that, while the male
+    is never capable of generation before thirteen, the female may,
+    in occasional instances, become pregnant at eight. (Some of the
+    recorded examples are quoted by Kisch.) In part, also, there is
+    an objection to the assumption of responsibilities so serious as
+    those of motherhood by a young girl, and there is the very
+    reasonable feeling that the obligations of a permanent marriage
+    tie ought not to be undertaken at an early age. On the other
+    hand, apart from the physical advantages, as regards both mother
+    and infant, on the side of early pregnancies, it is an advantage
+    for the child to have a young mother, who can devote herself
+    sympathetically and unreservedly to its interests, instead of
+    presenting the pathetic spectacle we so often witness in the
+    middle-aged woman who turns to motherhood when her youth and
+    mental flexibility are gone, and her habits and tastes have
+    settled into other grooves; it has sometimes been a great
+    blessing even to the very greatest men, like Goethe, to have had
+    a youthful mother. It would also, in many cases, be a great
+    advantage for the woman herself if she could bring her
+    procreative life to an end well before the age of twenty-five, so
+    that she could then, unhampered by child-bearing and mature in
+    experience, be free to enter on such wider activities in the
+    world as she might be fitted for.
+
+    Such an arrangement of the procreative life of women would,
+    obviously, only be a variation, and would probably be unsuited
+    for the majority. Every case must be judged on its own merits.
+    The best age for procreation will probably continue to be
+    regarded as being, for most women, around the age of twenty. But
+    at a time like the present, when there is an unfortunate
+    tendency for motherhood to be unduly delayed, it becomes
+    necessary to insist on the advantages, in many cases, of early
+    motherhood.
+
+There are other conditions favorable or unfavorable to procreation which
+it is now unnecessary to discuss in detail, since they have already been
+incidentally dealt with in previous volumes of these _Studies_. There is,
+for instance, the question of the time of year and the time of the
+menstrual cycle which may most properly be selected for procreation.[466]
+The best period is probably that when sexual desire is strongest, which is
+the period when conception would appear, as a matter of fact, most often
+to occur. This would be in spring or early summer,[467] and immediately
+after (or shortly before) the menstrual period. The Chinese have observed
+that the last day of menstruation and the two following
+days--corresponding to the period of oestrus--constitute the most
+favorable time for fecundation, and Bossi, of Genoa, has found that the
+great majority of successes in both natural and artificial fecundation
+occur at this period.[468] Soranus, as well as the Talmud, assigned the
+period about menstruation as the best for impregnation, and Susruta, the
+Indian physician, said that at this time pregnancy most readily occurs
+because then the mouth of the womb is open, like the flower of the
+water-lily to the sunshine.
+
+We have now at last reached the point from which we started, the moment of
+conception, and the child again lies in its mother's womb. There remains
+no more to be said. The divine cycle of life is completed.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[421] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 330.
+
+[422] Academy of Medicine of Paris, March 31, 1908.
+
+[423] _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 405.
+
+[424] _Population and Progress_, p. 41.
+
+[425] Cf. Reibmayr, _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genics_, Bd.
+II, p. 31.
+
+[426] "The debt that we owe to those who have gone before us," says
+Haycraft (_Darwinism and Race Progress_, p. 160), "we can only repay to
+those who come after us."
+
+[427] Mardrus, _Les Mille Nuits_, vol. xvi, p. 158.
+
+[428] Sidney Webb, _Popular Science Monthly_, 1906, p. 526 (previously
+published in the _London Times_, Oct. 11, 16, 1906). In Ch. IX of the
+present volume it has already been necessary to discuss the meaning of the
+term, "morality."
+
+[429] Thus, in Paris, in 1906, in the rich quarters, the birthrate per
+1,000 inhabitants was 19.09; in well-to-do quarters, 22.51; and in poor
+quarters, 29.70. Here we see that, while the birthrate falls and rises
+with social class, even among the poor and least restrained class the
+birthrate is still but little above the general average for England, where
+prevention is widespread, and very considerably lower than the average
+(now rapidly falling) in Germany. It is evident that even among the poor
+class there is a process of leveling up to the higher classes in this
+matter.
+
+[430] I have developed these points more in detail in two articles in the
+_Independent Review_, November, 1903, and April, 1904. See also, Bushee,
+"The Declining Birthrate and Its Causes," _Popular Science Monthly_, Aug.,
+1903.
+
+[431] Francis Place, _Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle of
+Population_, 1822, p. 165.
+
+[432] See, e.g., a weighty chapter in the _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_
+of Löwenfeld, one of the most judicious authorities on sexual pathology.
+Twenty-five years ago, as many will remember, the medical student was
+usually taught that preventive methods of intercourse led to all sorts of
+serious results. At that time, however, reckless and undesirable methods
+of prevention seem to have been more prevalent than now.
+
+[433] Michael Ryan, _Philosophy of Marriage_, p. 9. To enable "the
+conservative power of the Creator" to exert itself on the myriads of
+germinal human beings secreted during his life-time by even one man, would
+require a world full of women, while the corresponding problem as regards
+a woman is altogether too difficult to cope with. The process by which
+life has been built up, far from being a process of universal
+conservation, has been a process of stringent selection and vast
+destruction; the progress effected by civilization merely lies in making
+this blind process intelligent.
+
+[434] Thus, in Belgium, in 1908 (_Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1909, p. 136), a
+physician (Dr. Mascaux) who had been prominent in promoting a knowledge of
+preventive methods of conception, was condemned to three months
+imprisonment for "offense against morality!" In such a case, Dr. Helene
+Stöcker comments (_Die Neue Generation_, Jan., 1909, p. 7), "morality" is
+another name for ignorance, timidity, hypocrisy, prudery, coarseness, and
+lack of conscience. It must be remembered, however, in explanation of this
+iniquitous judgment, that for some years past the clerical party has been
+politically predominant in Belgium.
+
+[435] It has been objected that the condom cannot be used by the very
+poorest, on account of its cost, but Hans Ferdy, in a detailed paper
+(_Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908), shows that the use of the condom can be
+brought within the means of the very poorest, if care is taken to preserve
+it under water when not in use. Nyström (_Sexual Probleme_, Nov., 1908, p.
+736) has issued a leaflet for the benefit of his patients and others,
+recommending the condom, and explaining its use.
+
+[436] Thus, Kisch, in his _Sexual Life of Woman_, after discussing fully
+the various methods of prevention, decides in favor of the condom.
+Fürbringer similarly (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 232 et seq.) concludes that the condom is
+"relatively the most perfect anti-conceptual remedy." Forel (_Die Sexuelle
+Frage_, pp. 457 et seq.) also discusses the question at length; any
+æsthetic objection to the condom, Forel adds (p. 544), is due to the fact
+that we are not accustomed to it; "eye-glasses are not specially æsthetic,
+but the poetry of life does not suffer excessively from their use, which,
+in many cases, cannot be dispensed with."
+
+[437] _L'Avortement_, p. 43.
+
+[438] There are some disputed points in Roman law and practice concerning
+abortion; they are discussed in Balestrini's valuable book, _Aborto_, pp.
+30 et seq.
+
+[439] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XXII, Ch. XIII.
+
+[440] The development of opinion and law concerning abortion has been
+traced by Eugène Bausset, _L'Avortement Criminel_, Thèse de Paris, 1907.
+For a summary of the practices of different peoples regarding abortion,
+see W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, Ch. VIII.
+
+[441] _Die Neue Generation_, May, 1908, p. 192. It may be added that in
+England the attachment of any penalty at all to abortion, practiced in the
+early months of pregnancy (before "quickening" has taken place), is merely
+a modern innovation.
+
+[442] Even Balestrini, who is opposed to the punishment of abortion, is no
+advocate of it. "Whenever abortion becomes a social custom," he remarks
+(op. cit., p. 191), "it is the external manifestation of a people's
+decadence, and far too deeply rooted to be cured by the mere attempt to
+suppress the external manifestation."
+
+[443] Cf. Ellen Key, _Century of the Child_, Ch. I. Hirth (_Wege zur
+Heimat_, p. 526) is likewise opposed to the encouragement of abortion,
+though he would not actually punish the pregnant woman who induces
+abortion. I would especially call attention to an able and cogent article
+by Anna Pappritz ("Die Vernichtung des Keimenden Lebens,"
+_Sexual-Probleme_, July, 1909) who argues that the woman is not the sole
+guardian of the embryo she bears, and that it is not in the interests of
+society, nor even in her own interests, that she should be free to destroy
+it at will. Anna Pappritz admits that the present barbarous laws in regard
+to abortion must be modified, but maintains that they should not be
+abolished. She proposes (1) a greatly reduced punishment for abortion; (2)
+this punishment to be extended to the father, whether married or unmarried
+(a provision already carried out in Norway, both for abortion and
+infanticide); (3) permission to the physician to effect abortion when
+there is good reason to suspect hereditary degeneration, as well as when
+the woman has been impregnated by force.
+
+[444] Cf. Dr. Max Hirsch, _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan., 1908, p. 23.
+
+[445] Bausset (op. cit.) sets forth various social measures for the care
+of pregnant and child-bearing women, which would tend to lessen criminal
+abortion.
+
+[446] Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, vol. i, p. 564.
+
+[447] F.E. Daniel, President of the State Medical Association of Texas,
+"Should Insane Criminals or Sexual Perverts be Allowed to Procreate?"
+_Medico-legal Journal_, Dec., 1893; id., "The Cause and Prevention of
+Rape," _Texas Medical Journal_, May, 1904.
+
+[448] P. Näcke, "Die Kastration bei gewissen Klassen von Degenerirten als
+ein Wirksamer Socialer Schutz," _Archiv für Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd.
+III, 1899, p. 58; id. "Kastration in Gewissen Fällen von
+Geisteskrankheit," _Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, 1905, No.
+29.
+
+[449] Angelo Zuccarelli, "Asessualizzazione o sterilizzazione dei
+Degenerati," _L'Anomalo_, 1898-99, No. 6; id., "Sur la nécessité et sur
+les Moyens d'empêcher la Réproduction des Hommes les plus Dégénérés,"
+International Congress Criminal Anthropology, Amsterdam, 1901.
+
+[450] Näcke, _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, March 1, 1909. The
+original account of these operations is reproduced in the
+_Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, No. 2, 1909, with an
+approving comment by the editor, Dr. Bresler. As regards castration in
+America, see Flood, "Castration of Idiot Children," _American Journal
+Psychology_, Jan., 1899; also, _Alienist and Neurologist_, Aug., 1909, p.
+348.
+
+[451] It is probable that castration may prove especially advantageous in
+the case of the feeble-minded. "In Somersetshire," says Tredgold ("The
+Feeble-Mind as a Social Danger," _Eugenics Review_, July, 1909), "I found
+that out of a total number of 167 feeble-minded women, nearly two-fifths
+(61) had given birth to children, for the most part illegitimate.
+Moreover, it is not uncommon, but, rather the rule, for these poor girls
+to be admitted into the workhouse maternity wards again and again, and the
+average number of offspring to each one of them is probably three or four,
+although even six is not uncommon." In his work on _Mental Deficiency_
+(pp. 288-292) the same author shows that propagation by the mentally
+deficient is, in England, "both a terrible and extensive evil."
+
+[452] This example is brought forward by Ledermann, "Skin Diseases and
+Marriage," in Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to
+Marriage_.
+
+[453] I may here again refer to Lea's instructive _History of Sacerdotal
+Celibacy_.
+
+[454] In England, 35,000 applicants for admission to the navy are annually
+rejected, and although the physical requirements for enlistment in the
+army are nowadays extremely moderate, it is estimated by General Maurice
+that at least sixty per cent. of recruits and would-be recruits are
+dismissed as unfit. (See e.g., William Coates, "The Duty of the Medical
+Profession in the Prevention of National Deterioration," _British Medical
+Journal_, May 1, 1909.) It can scarcely be claimed that men who are not
+good enough for the army are good enough for the great task of creating
+the future race.
+
+[455] The recognition of epilepsy as a bar to procreation is not recent.
+There is said to be a record in the archives of the town of Luçon in which
+epilepsy was adjudged to be a valid reason for the cancellation of a
+betrothal (_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 14, 1903, p. 383).
+
+[456] _British Medical Journal_, April 14, 1906. In California and some
+other States, it appears that deceit regarding health is a ground for the
+annulment of marriage.
+
+[457] Sir F. Galton, _Inquiries Into Human Faculty_, Everyman's Library
+edition, pp. 211 et seq.; cf. Galton's collected _Essays in Eugenics_,
+recently published by the Eugenics Education Society.
+
+[458] For some account of the methods and results of the work in schools,
+see Bertram C.A. Windle, "Anthropometric Work in Schools," _Medical
+Magazine_, Feb., 1894.
+
+[459] The most notable steps in this direction have been taken in Germany.
+For an account of the experiment at Karlsruhe, see _Die Neue Generation_,
+Dec., 1908.
+
+[460] Wiethknudsen (as quoted in _Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908, p. 837)
+speaks strongly, but not too strongly, concerning the folly of any
+indiscriminate endowment of procreation.
+
+[461] On the scientific side, in addition to the fruitful methods of
+statistical biometrics, which have already been mentioned, much promise
+attaches to work along the lines initiated by Mendel; see W. Bateson,
+_Mendel's Principles of Heredity_, 1909; also, W.H. Lock, _Recent Progress
+in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution_, and R.C. Punnett,
+_Mendelism_, 1907 (American edition, with interesting preface by Gaylord
+Wilshire, from the Socialistic point of view, 1909).
+
+[462] The study of the right conditions for procreation is very ancient.
+In modern times we find that even the very first French medical book in
+the vulgar tongue, the _Régime du Corps_, written by Alebrand of Florence
+(who was physician to the King of France), in 1256, is largely devoted to
+this matter, concerning which it gives much sound advice. See J.B.
+Soalhat, _Les Idées de Maistre Alebrand de Florence sur la Puériculture_,
+Thèse de Paris, 1908.
+
+[463] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, II, 690-700.
+
+[464] This has long been the accepted opinion of medical authorities, as
+may be judged by the statements brought together two centuries ago by
+Schurig, _Parthenologia_, pp. 22-25.
+
+[465] The statement that, on the average, the best age for procreation in
+men is before, rather than after, forty, by no means assumes the existence
+of any "critical" age in men analogous to the menopause in women. This is
+sometimes asserted, but there is no agreement in regard to it. Restif de
+la Bretonne (_Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. x, p. 176) said that at the age of
+forty delicacy of sentiment begins to go. Fürbringer believes (Senator and
+Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 222)
+that there is a decisive turn in a man's life in the sixth decade, or the
+middle of the fifth, when desire and potency diminish. J.F. Sutherland
+also states (_Comptes-rendus Congrès International de Médecine_, 1900,
+Section de Psychiatrie, p. 471) that there is, in men, about the
+fifty-fifth year, a change analogous to the menopause in women, but only
+in a certain proportion of men. It would appear that in most men the
+decline of sexual feeling and potency is very gradual, and at first
+manifests itself in increased power of control.
+
+[466] See, in vol. i, the study of "The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity."
+
+[467] Among animals, also, spring litters are often said to be the best.
+
+[468] Bossi's results are summarized in _Archives d'Anthropologie
+Criminelle_, Sept., 1891. Alebrand of Florence, the French King's
+physician in the thirteenth century, also advised intercourse a day after
+the end of menstruation.
+
+
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+
+"The work that I was born to do is done," a great poet wrote when at last
+he had completed his task. And although I am not entitled to sing any
+_Nunc dimittis_, I am well aware that the task that has occupied the best
+part of my life can have left few years and little strength for any work
+that comes after. It is more than thirty years ago since the first resolve
+to write the work now here concluded began to shape itself, still dimly
+though insistently; the period of study and preparation occupied over
+fifteen years, ending with the publication of _Man and Woman_, put forward
+as a prolegomenon to the main work which, in the writing and publication,
+has occupied the fifteen subsequent years.
+
+It was perhaps fortunate for my peace that I failed at the outset to
+foresee all the perils that beset my path. I knew indeed that those who
+investigate severely and intimately any subject which men are accustomed
+to pass by on the other side lay themselves open to misunderstanding and
+even obloquy. But I supposed that a secluded student who approached vital
+social problems with precaution, making no direct appeal to the general
+public, but only to the public's teachers, and who wrapped up the results
+of his inquiries in technically written volumes open to few, I supposed
+that such a student was at all events secure from any gross form of attack
+on the part of the police or the government under whose protection he
+imagined that he lived. That proved to be a mistake. When only one volume
+of these _Studies_ had been written and published in England, a
+prosecution, instigated by the government, put an end to the sale of that
+volume in England, and led me to resolve that the subsequent volumes
+should not be published in my own country. I do not complain. I am
+grateful for the early and generous sympathy with which my work was
+received in Germany and the United States, and I recognize that it has had
+a wider circulation, both in English and the other chief languages of the
+world, than would have been possible by the modest method of issue which
+the government of my own country induced me to abandon. Nor has the effort
+to crush my work resulted in any change in that work by so much as a
+single word. With help, or without it, I have followed my own path to the
+end.
+
+For it so happens that I come on both sides of my house from stocks of
+Englishmen who, nearly three hundred years ago, had encountered just these
+same difficulties and dangers before. In the seventeenth century, indeed,
+the battle was around the problem of religion, as to-day it is around the
+problem of sex. Since I have of late years realized this analogy I have
+often thought of certain admirable and obscure men who were driven out,
+robbed, and persecuted, some by the Church because the spirit of
+Puritanism moved within them, some by the Puritans because they clung to
+the ideals of the Church, yet both alike quiet and unflinching, both alike
+fighting for causes of freedom or of order in a field which has now for
+ever been won. That victory has often seemed of good augury to the perhaps
+degenerate child of these men who has to-day sought to maintain the causes
+of freedom and of order in another field.
+
+It sometimes seems, indeed, a hopeless task to move the pressure of inert
+prejudices which are at no point so obstinate as this of sex. It may help
+to restore the serenity of our optimism if we would more clearly realize
+that in a very few generations all these prejudices will have perished and
+be forgotten. He who follows in the steps of Nature after a law that was
+not made by man, and is above and beyond man, has time as well as eternity
+on his side, and can afford to be both patient and fearless. Men die, but
+the ideas they seek to kill live. Our books may be thrown to the flames,
+but in the next generation those flames become human souls. The
+transformation is effected by the doctor in his consulting room, by the
+teacher in the school, the preacher in the pulpit, the journalist in the
+press. It is a transformation that is going on, slowly but surely, around
+us.
+
+I am well aware that many will not feel able to accept the estimate of the
+sexual situation as here set forth, more especially in the final volume.
+Some will consider that estimate too conservative, others too
+revolutionary. For there are always some who passionately seek to hold
+fast to the past; there are always others who passionately seek to snatch
+at what they imagine to be the future. But the wise man, standing midway
+between both parties and sympathizing with each, knows that we are ever in
+the stage of transition. The present is in every age merely the shifting
+point at which past and future meet, and we can have no quarrel with
+either. There can be no world without traditions; neither can there be any
+life without movement. As Heracleitus knew at the outset of modern
+philosophy, we cannot bathe twice in the same stream, though, as we know
+to-day, the stream still flows in an unending circle. There is never a
+moment when the new dawn is not breaking over the earth, and never a
+moment when the sunset ceases to die. It is well to greet serenely even
+the first glimmer of the dawn when we see it, not hastening towards it
+with undue speed, nor leaving the sunset without gratitude for the dying
+light that once was dawn.
+
+In the moral world we are ourselves the light-bearers, and the cosmic
+process is in us made flesh. For a brief space it is granted to us, if we
+will, to enlighten the darkness that surrounds our path. As in the ancient
+torch-race, which seemed to Lucretius to be the symbol of all life, we
+press forward torch in hand along the course. Soon from behind comes the
+runner who will outpace us. All our skill lies in giving into his hand the
+living torch, bright and unflickering, as we ourselves disappear in the
+darkness.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF AUTHORS.
+
+Abdias
+Achery
+Acton
+Adam, Mme.
+Adler, Felix
+Adler, O.
+Adner
+Aguilaniedo
+Alebrand
+Alexander, Dr. H.
+Alexandre, Alcide
+Allée, A.
+Allen, L.M.
+Allen, Mary W.
+Ambrose, St.
+Amélineau
+Ammon
+Amram, D.W.
+Angela de Fulginio
+Angus, H.C.
+Anstie
+Aquinas
+Ardu
+Arendt, Henrietta
+Aretino
+Aristotle
+Aronstam
+Ascarilla
+Aschaffenburg
+Astengo
+Astor, Mary
+Astruc
+Athanasius
+Athenæus
+Audry
+Augagneur
+Augustine, St.
+Aurientis
+Ayala
+
+Bacchimont
+Bachaumont
+Badley, J.H.
+Baelz
+Baer, K.M.
+Baker, Smith
+Balestrini
+Ballantyne, Dr.
+Ballantyne, Miss H.
+Balls-Headley
+Balzac
+Bangs, L.B.
+Bartels, Max
+Basedow
+Basil, St.
+Bateson
+Baumgarten
+Bausset
+Bax, Belfort
+Bazan, Emilia Pardo
+Beadnell, C.M.
+Beddoes
+Bedollière
+Bell, Sanford
+Benecke
+Benedikt
+Bentzon, Mme.
+Bérault, G.
+Berg, Leo
+Bernard, St.
+Berry, F.
+Bertherand
+Bertillon
+Besant, Mrs.
+Beza
+Bierhoff
+Birnbaum
+Bishop, G.P.
+Bishop, Mrs.
+Blacker
+Blake, William
+Blandford
+Blaschko
+Bloch, Iwan
+Bluhm, Agnes
+Blumreich
+Boccaccio
+Bohier
+Bois, Jules
+Boissier, de Sauvages
+Bollinger
+Bölsche
+Bonger
+Bongi, S.
+Bonhoeffer
+Boniface, St.
+Bonnifield
+Bonstetten
+Booth, C.
+Booth, D.S.
+Bossi
+Bouchacourt
+Bougainville
+Bourget
+Bouvier
+Boyle, F.
+Brachet
+Braun, Lily
+Brénier de Montmorand
+Brénot, H.
+Breuer
+Brieux
+Brinton
+Brouardel
+Brougham Lord
+Brown, Dr. Charlotte
+Bruns, Ivo
+Brynmor-Jones
+Bucer
+Budge, A.W.
+Buffon
+Bulkley, D.
+Büller
+Bumm
+Bunge
+Burchard
+Burdach
+Buret
+Burnet
+Burton, Sir R.
+Burton, Robert
+Busch
+Bushee
+Butler, G.
+Butterfield
+Byers
+
+Cabanis
+Caird, Mona
+Callari
+Calvin
+Calza
+Canudo
+Capitaine
+Caron
+Carpenter, Edward
+Casanova
+Caspari
+Cataneus
+Cattell, J. McKeen
+Caufeynon
+Cazalis
+Chaignon
+Chambers, E.K.
+Chambers, W.G.
+Chapman, G.
+Chapman, J.
+Cheetham
+Cheng, Mme.
+Cheyne
+Child, May
+Chotzen, M.
+Chrysostom
+Cicero
+Ciuffo
+Clapperton, Miss
+Clappier
+Clarke
+Clement of Alexandria
+Clement E.
+Cleveland, C.
+Clouston
+Coates, W.
+Codrington, R.W.
+Coghlan
+Colombey
+Coltman
+Commenge
+Cook, G.W.
+Cook, Capt. J.
+Cooper, A.
+Cope, E.D.
+Correa, Roman
+Coryat
+Crackanthorpe
+Cranmer
+Crawley, A.E.
+Crocker
+Curr
+Gushing, W.
+Cyples
+
+Daniel, F.E.
+Dareste
+Dargun
+Darmesteter, J.
+Darricarrère
+Darwin
+Daudet, A.
+D'Aulnoy, Mme.
+Daya, W.
+Debreyne
+D'Enjoy, Paul
+Dens
+Deodhar, Mrs. Kashibai
+Descartes
+Despine
+Després
+Dessoir, Max
+Diaz de Isla
+Diday
+Diderot
+Digby, Sir K.
+Dill
+Dluska, Mme.
+Dodd, Catherine
+Doléris
+Donaldson, Principal
+Donnay
+Drysdale, C.R.
+Drysdale, G.
+Duclaux
+Dühren, _see_ Bloch, Iwan.
+Dufour, P.
+Dukes
+Dulaure
+Dulberg
+Dumas, G.
+Duncan, Matthews
+Dunnett
+Dunning
+Dupouey
+Durkheim
+Durlacher
+Dyer, I.
+
+Edgar, J. Clifton
+Egbert, S.
+Ehrenfels, C. von
+Elliot, G.F.S.
+Ellis, Sir A.B.
+Ellis, Havelock
+Ellis, William
+Elmy, Ben., _see_ Ethelmer, Ellis.
+Enderlin, Max
+Engelmann
+Ennius
+Enzensberger
+Erb
+Erhard, F.
+Escherich
+Esmein
+Espy de Metz
+Ethelmer, Ellis
+Eulenburg
+Evans, Mrs. Grainger
+
+Farnell
+Farrer, R.T.
+Federow
+Ferdy, H.
+Féré
+Ferrand
+Ferrero, G.
+Ferriani
+Fiaschi
+Fiaux
+Fielding
+Finger
+Fischer, W.
+Fitchett
+Flesch, Max
+Flogel
+Flood
+Forberg
+Forel
+Fornasari
+Fothergill, J.M.
+Fouquet
+Fournier
+Fox, G.
+Fracastorus
+Fraser, Mrs.
+Frazer, J.G.
+Freeman
+French, H.C.
+Freud
+Friedjung
+Friedländer
+Fuchs, N.
+Funk, W.
+Fürbringer
+Fürth, Henriette
+
+Gache
+Gaedeken
+Gallard
+Galton, Sir F.
+Gardiner, J.S.
+Garrison, C.G.
+Gaultier, J. de
+Gautier, L.
+Geary, N.
+Gennep, A. Van
+Gérard
+Gerhard, Adele
+Gerhard, W.
+Gerson, A.
+Gesell
+Gibb, W.T.
+Gibbon
+Giles, A.E.
+Giles, H.A.
+Gillard, E.
+Gillen
+Gilles de la Tourette
+Ginnell
+Giuffrida-Ruggeri
+Glück, L.
+Godard
+Godfrey, J.A.
+Godwin, W.
+Goethe
+Gomperz
+Goncourt
+Goodchild, F.M.
+Goring
+Gottheil
+Gottschling
+Gourmont, Remy de
+Graef, R. de
+Graf, A.
+Grandin
+Green, C.M.
+Gregory the Great
+Gregory of Nazianzen
+Gregory of Nyssa
+Gregory of Tours
+Gregory M.
+Griesinger
+Gross
+Gross, H.
+Grosse
+Gulick, L.H.
+Gurlitt, L.
+Gury
+Guttceit
+Guyau
+Guyot
+Gyurkovechky
+
+Haddon, A.C.
+Hagelstange
+Hale
+Hall, A.
+Hall, Stanley
+Hall, W.
+Haller
+Hamilton, A.
+Hammer
+Hammond, W.A.
+Hamon, A.
+Hard, Hedwig
+Hardy, Thomas
+Harris, A.
+Harrison, F.
+Hartland, E.S.
+Harwood, W.L.
+Haskovec
+Haslam, J.
+Hausmeister, P.
+Havelburg
+Hawkesworth
+Haycraft
+Hayes, P.J.
+Haynes, E.S.P.
+Hegar
+Heidenhain, A.
+Heidingsfeld
+Heimann
+Hellmann
+Hellpach
+Helme, T.A.
+Helvétius
+Herbert, Auberon
+Herman, G.
+Hermant, A.
+Herodotus
+Heron
+Hesiod
+Hiller
+Hinton
+Hirsch, Max
+Hirschfeld, Magnus
+Hirth, G.
+Hobhouse, L.T.
+Hobson, J.A.
+Hoffmann, E.
+Holbach
+Holder, A.B.
+Holmes, T.
+Holt, R.B.
+Hopkins, Ellice
+Hort
+Houzel
+Howard, G.B.
+Howitt, A.W.
+Hudrey-Menos, J.
+Hughes, C.H.
+Humboldt, W. Von
+Hutchinson, Sir J.
+Hutchinson, Woods
+Hyde, J.N.
+Hyrtl
+
+Inderwick
+Ivens, F.
+
+Jacobi, Mary P.
+Jacobsohn, L.
+Janet
+Janke
+Jastrow, M.
+Jeannel
+Jellinek, C.
+Jentsch, K.
+Jerome, H.
+John of Salisbury
+Jones, Sir W.
+Jullien
+
+Kaan
+Kalbeck
+Karin, Karina
+Keller, G.
+Kelly, H.A.
+Kennedy, Helen
+Key, Ellen
+Keyes, E.L.
+Kiernan
+Kind, A.
+Kingsley, C.
+Kirk, E.B.
+Kisch
+Klotz
+Knott, J.
+Kossmann
+Kowalewsky, Sophie
+Krafft-Ebing
+Krauss, F.S.
+Krukenberg, Frau
+Kubary
+Kullberg
+Kurella
+
+Lacroix, P.
+Lafargue, Paul
+La Jeunesse, E.
+Lallemand
+Lambkin
+Lancaster
+Landor
+Landret
+Langsdorf
+Lapie
+Laplace
+Lasco, John à
+Lauvergne
+Laycock
+Lea
+Lecky
+Lederer
+Ledermann
+Lee, Sidney
+Lefebvre, A.
+Legg, J.W.
+Lemonnier, C.
+Lenkei
+Lepage
+Letourneux
+Lévy-Bruhl
+Lewis, Denslow
+Lewitt
+Leyboff
+Lilienthal
+Lindsey, B.B.
+Lippert
+Lischnewska, Maria
+Liszt
+Livingstone, W.P.
+Lock, W.H.
+Logan
+Lombroso
+Löwenfeld
+Lowndes
+Lucas, Clement
+Lucretius
+Lumholtz
+Luther
+Lydston
+Lyttelton, E.
+
+Maberly, G.C.
+MacMurchy, Dr. Helen
+Macvie
+Madam, M.
+Maeterlinck
+Magruder, J.
+Maillard-Brune
+Maine
+Maitland
+Malthus
+Mandeville, B.
+Mannhardt
+Mantegazza, A.
+Mantegazza, P.
+Marçais
+Marchesini
+Marcuse, J.
+Marcuse, M.
+Margueritte, P.
+Margueritte, V.
+Marholm, L.
+Marro
+Martindale, Miss
+Martineau
+Marx, V.
+Massalongo
+Masson
+Mathews, A.
+Mathews, R.H.
+Matignon
+Maudsley
+Maurice, General
+Mayor
+Mayreder, Rosa
+McBride, G.H.
+McCleary, G.F.
+McIlquham
+Melancthon
+Menger, A. von
+Menjago
+Mensinga
+Meredith, G.
+Mérimée
+Merrick
+Metchnikoff
+Meyer-Benfey, H.
+Meyer, Bruno
+Meyer, E.H.
+Meyrick
+Michelet
+Michels, R.
+Migne
+Mill, J.
+Mill, J.S.
+Millais, J.G.
+Miller, Noyes
+Miln, L.J.
+Milner
+Milton
+Möbius
+Molinari, G. de
+Moll
+Mönkemöller
+Montaigne
+Montesquieu
+Montmorency
+Mookerji
+Moore, Samson
+Morasso
+More, Sir T.
+Moreau, Christophe
+Morley, Lord
+Morley, Margaret
+Morris, William
+Morrow
+Mortimer, G.
+Moryson, Fynes
+Mott, F.W.
+Multatuli
+Münsterberg
+Murray, Gilbert
+Mylott
+
+Näcke
+Naumann, F.
+Nefzaoui
+Neisser
+Neugebauer
+Newman, G.
+Newsholme, A.
+Niessen, Max von
+Nietzold
+Nietzsche
+Niven
+Noble, M.
+Noggerath
+Northcote, Rev. H.
+Notthaft
+Noyes, J.H.
+Nyström
+
+Obersteiner
+Obici
+Odo of Cluny
+Oefele
+Okamura
+Olberg, Oda
+Omer, Haleby
+Ostwald, H.
+Ott
+Ovid
+Owen, R.D.
+
+Paget, Sir J.
+Palladius
+Pappritz, Anna
+Parent-Duchâtelet
+Paré
+Parsons, E.C.
+Parsons, J.
+Patmore, C.
+Paton, Noel
+Paul, Dr. H.
+Paulucci de Calboli
+Paulus
+Pearson, K.
+Péchin
+Pepys
+Pernet
+Perruc
+Perry-Coste
+Petermann, J.
+Petrie, Flinders
+Picard
+Pike
+Pinard
+Pinkus
+Pinloche
+Place, Francis
+Plato
+Plarr, V.
+Plautus
+Playfair, Sir W.S.
+Ploss
+Plutarch
+Pole, M.T.
+Pollack, Flora
+Pollock, Sir F.
+Potter, M.A.
+Potton
+Power, D'Arcy
+Powys
+Prat
+Price, J.
+Prevost, M.
+Prinzing
+Probst-Biraben
+Proksch
+Pudor
+Punnett
+Pyke, Rafford
+
+Querlon, Meusnier de
+Quirós, C. Bernaldo de
+
+Rabelais
+Rabutaux
+Raciborski
+Radbruch
+Ramdohr
+Ramsay, Sir W.M.
+Rasmussen
+Ratramnus
+Redlich
+Reed, C.
+Régnier, H. de
+Reibmayr
+Reinhard
+Remo, P.
+Remondino
+Renan
+Renooz, Céline
+Renouf, C.
+Renouvier
+Restif de la Bretonne
+Reuss
+Reuther, F.
+Revillout
+Rhys, Sir J.
+Ribbing
+Ribot
+Rich, H.
+Richard, C.
+Richard, E.
+Richmond, Mrs. Ennis
+Ritter, Dr. Mary
+Robert, U.
+Robertson, W.
+Robinovitch, L.
+Rogers, Anna
+Rohde
+Rohleder
+Rolfincius
+Rosenberg
+Rosenthal
+Rousseau
+Routh
+Rudeck
+Rufinus Tyrannius
+Ruggles, W.
+Rüling, Anna
+Ruskin
+Russell, Mrs. Bertrand
+Rust, H.
+Rutgers
+Ryan, M.
+Ryckère, E. de
+
+Sabine, J.K.
+Sacher-Masoch, Wanda von
+Sainte-Beuve
+Saleeby
+Salimbene
+Salvat
+Sanborn, Lura
+Sanchez, T.
+Sandoz, F.
+Sanger
+Sarraute-Lourié, Mme.
+Schäfenacker
+Schaudinn
+Schlegel, F.
+Schmid, Marie von
+Schmidt, R.
+Schneider, C.K.
+Schopenhauer
+Schrader, O.
+Schrank
+Schreiber, Adele
+Schreiner, Olive
+Schrempf
+Schrenck-Notzing
+Schroeder, E.A.
+Schroeder, T.
+Schultz, Alwyn
+Schultze-Malkowsky, E.
+Schurig
+Schurtz, H.
+Schwalbe
+Scott, Colin
+Scott, J.F.
+Ségur
+Seligmann
+Sellman, W.A.B.
+Sénancour
+Seneca
+Séropian
+Sévigné, Mme. de
+Seymour, H.J.
+Shakespeare
+Shaw, G.B.
+Shebbeare, Rev. C.J.
+Shelley
+Sherwell
+Shufeldt
+Sidgwick, H.
+Sidis, Boris
+Sieroshevski
+Simmel
+Simon, Helene
+Sinclair, Sir W.
+Smith, Robertson
+Soalhat
+Somerset, Lady Henry
+Sommer, R.
+Soranus
+Spencer, Baldwin
+Spencer, Herbert
+Spitta
+Stanmore, Lord
+Stefanowski
+Stefánsson
+Stevenson, R.L.
+Stevenson, T.H.C.
+Stöcker, Helene
+Strampff
+Stratz, C.H.
+Streitberg, Gräfin
+Ströhmberg
+Sturge, Miss
+Suidas
+Sullivan, W.C.
+Sumner, W.G.
+Susruta
+Sutherland, J.F.
+Sutherland, W.D.
+Sykes, J.F.J.
+
+Tait, W.
+Talbot, E.S.
+Tammeo
+Tarde
+Tarnowsky, Pauline
+Taylor, R.W.
+Tenney
+Tennyson
+Terman, L.M.
+Tertullian
+Theresa, W.
+Thomas, A.W.
+Thomas, N.W.
+Thomas, Prof. W.
+Thomson, J.A.
+Thoreau
+Thuasne
+Tilt
+Tobler
+Todhunter
+Tolstoy
+Tout, C. Hill
+Traill
+Tredgold
+Trewby
+Troll-Borostyáni I. von
+Trollope, A.
+Turnbull
+
+Ulpian
+Ungewitter
+Unna
+Urquhart
+
+Vacher de Lapouge
+Valentino
+Valera
+Vanderkiste
+Varendonck
+Vatsyayana
+Vaux, Rev. J.E.
+Velden, Van den
+Velten
+Venette
+Veniero
+Vickery, A. Drysdale
+Vinay
+Vinci, L. de
+Vines, Miss
+Virchow
+Vitrey
+Voltaire
+Vries, de
+
+Wächter
+Wagner, C.
+Wahrmund
+Wales, E.B.
+Walter, J. von
+Ward, Lester
+Wardlaw, R.
+Warker, Van de
+Warren, M.A.
+Wasserschleben
+Watkins
+Webb, Sidney
+Weinberg
+Weininger
+Welander
+Welch, F.H.
+Wells, H.G.
+Werthauer
+Wessmann
+Westermarck
+Wharton
+Wheeler, C.B.
+Wheeler, Mrs.
+Whitaker, Nellie C.
+Whitman, Walt
+Wiedow
+Wilcox, Ella W.
+Wilhelm
+William of Malmsbury
+Williams, Dawson
+Williams, Hugh
+Williams, W. Roger
+Windle, C.A.
+Wollstonecraft, M.
+
+Yule, G. Adney
+
+Zacchia
+Zache
+Zanzinger, E.
+Zeno
+Zoroaster
+Zuccarelli
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
+
+Abortion,
+  arguments against
+  modern advocates of
+  the practice of
+Abstinence,
+  alleged evil results of
+  alleged good results of
+  as a preparation for marriage
+  criticism of conception of
+  intermediate views of
+  moral results of
+  sexual, in relation to chastity
+  the problems of
+Abyssinia,
+  prostitution in
+  sexual initiation in
+Achilleus and Nereus,
+  legend of
+Adultery
+Africa,
+  chastity on West Coast of
+Alcohol,
+  as a sexual stimulant
+  in pregnancy
+  in relation to the orgy
+Alexander VI and courtesans
+Ambil anak Marriage
+America,
+  divorce in
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+American Indians,
+  appreciate asceticism
+  sexual initiation among
+  their Sabbath orgies
+  words for love among
+Aphrodite Pandemos
+Art in relation to sexual impulse
+Asceticism among early Christians
+  appreciated by savages
+  definition of
+  in religion
+  later degeneracy of
+  value of
+Ascetics,
+  attitude towards sex of mediæval
+Aspasia
+Athletics for women
+Aucassin et Nicolette
+Australia,
+  marriage system in
+  saturnalian festivals in
+  sexual initiation in
+Auvergne,
+  story of the Two Lovers of
+Azimba Land,
+  sexual initiation in
+
+Babies,
+  children's theories on the origin of
+Babylonia,
+  high status of women in
+  religious prostitution in
+Bawenda,
+  sexual initiation among
+Beena marriage
+Beethoven
+Behn, Aphra
+Belgium,
+  prostitution in
+Bestial,
+  human sexual impulse not
+Bible in relation to sexual education
+Biometrics
+Birth,
+  civilized tendency to premature
+Birthrate,
+  decline of
+Blindness in relation to gonorrhoea
+Botany in sexual education
+Bredalbane case
+Breed _versus_ nurture
+Bride-price
+Brothel,
+  decay of
+  in ancient Rome
+  in the East
+  mediæval
+  modern defence of
+  modern regulation of
+  origin of
+Bundling
+Burmah,
+  prostitution in
+
+Canon law,
+  defects of
+  its importance
+  origin of
+  persistence of its traditions
+  sound kernel of
+Carlyle
+Carnival,
+  origin of
+Castration,
+  modern developments of
+  the practice of
+Chastity among early Christians
+  definition of
+  girdle of
+  in modern Fiji
+  in what sense a virtue
+  modern attitude towards
+  Protestant attitude towards
+  romantic literature of
+  the function of
+Child,
+  as foundation of marriage
+  characteristics of eldest born
+  its need of two parents
+Childhood,
+  sexual activity in
+  sexual teaching in
+China,
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Chivalry on position of women,
+  influence of
+Christianity,
+  attitude towards chastity
+  attitude towards lust
+  attitude towards nakedness
+  failed to recognize importance of art of love
+  its influence on position of women
+  on marriage
+  mixed attitude towards sexual impulse
+  towards prostitution
+  towards seduction
+Civilization and prostitution
+  and the sexual impulse
+Coitus,
+  _a posteriori_
+  best time for
+  during pregnancy
+  ethnic variations in
+  excess in
+  injuries due to unskilful
+  _interruptus_
+  morbid horror of
+  needs to be taught
+  prayer before
+  proper frequency of
+  religious significance of
+  _reservatus_
+Collusion,
+  doctrine of
+Conception,
+  conditions of
+  prevention of
+Concubine
+Condom
+Conjugal rights or rites
+Consent,
+  age of
+Consultation de Nourrisson
+Contract,
+  marriage as a
+Corinth,
+  prostitution at
+Country life and sexuality
+Courtesan,
+  origin of term
+Courtship,
+  the art of
+Criminality in relation to prostitution
+Cyprus,
+  prostitution at
+
+Dancing,
+  hygienic value of
+  as an orgy
+D'Aragona, Tullia
+Divorce,
+  by mutual consent
+  causes for
+  in ancient Rome
+  in ancient Wales
+  in China
+  in England
+  in France
+  in Germany
+  in Japan
+  in Russia
+  in Switzerland
+  in United States
+  Milton's views on
+  modern tendency of
+  Protestant attitude towards
+  question of damages for
+  reform of
+  tendency of legislation regarding
+  transmission of venereal disease as a cause for
+Drama,
+  modern function of the
+Dysmenorrhoea
+
+Economic factor,
+  of marriage
+  of prostitution
+Education in matters of sex
+  for women
+Egypt,
+  high status of women in
+Eldest born child,
+  characteristics of
+England,
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+Erotic element in marriage
+Eskimo,
+  divorce among
+  sexual initiation among
+Eugenics
+  false ideas of
+  foundation by Galton
+  importance of environment in relation to
+  in relation to castration
+  Noyes a pioneer in
+  positive
+  wide acceptance of principle of
+Excretory centers as affecting estimate of sexual impulse
+Exogamy,
+  origin of
+
+Families and degeneracy,
+  large
+Father in relation to family
+Fecundation,
+  artificial
+Festivals,
+  seasonal
+Fidus
+Fiji,
+  chastity in
+Flirtation
+Fools, Feast of
+Fornication,
+  theological doctrine of
+France,
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Franco, Veronica
+
+Gallantry,
+  the ancient conception of
+Geisha, the
+General paralysis and syphilis
+Genius,
+  in relation to chastity
+  in relation to love
+Germany,
+  divorce in
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+Gestation,
+  length of
+Girdle of chastity
+Girls,
+  interest in sex matters
+  masculine ideals of
+Girls,
+  sex education of
+  their need of sexual knowledge
+Gnostic elements in early Christian literature
+Goddesses in forefront of primitive pantheons
+Gonorrhoea,
+  nature and results of
+  _And see_ Venereal Diseases.
+Goutte de Lait
+Greeks,
+  origin of their drama
+  prudery among
+  rarity of ideal sexual love among
+  their attitude towards nakedness
+  their conception of the orgy
+  their erotic writings
+Group-marriage
+Gynæcocracy,
+  alleged primitive
+
+Hetairæ
+Hindu attitude towards sex
+Holland,
+  prostitution in
+Homosexuality among prostitutes
+Huddersfield scheme
+Hysteria
+
+Ideals of girls,
+  masculine
+Illegitimacy
+  in Germany
+Imperia
+Impotency in popular estimation
+Impurity,
+  disastrous results of teaching feminine
+  early Christian views of
+India,
+  story of The Betrothed of
+  sacred prostitution in
+Individualism and Socialism
+Infantile mortality
+  in relation to suckling by mother
+  in relation to syphilis
+Infantile sexuality
+Insanity and prostitution
+Intellectual work in relation to sexual activity in men
+  in women
+Ireland,
+  divorce in
+  high status of women in ancient
+Italy,
+  prostitution in
+
+Jamaica,
+  results of free sexual unions in
+Japan,
+  attitude towards love in
+  automatic legitimation of children in
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Jealousy
+Jesus
+Jews,
+  as parents
+  prostitution among ancient
+  status of women among
+Judas Thomas's Acts
+
+Kadishtu
+Kant
+Korea,
+  prostitution in
+
+Lactation
+Lectures on sexual hygiene
+Lenclos, Ninon de
+Love an essential part of marriage
+  art of
+  definition of
+  difficulties of art of
+  for more than one person
+  future development of
+  how far an illusion
+  in childhood
+  in relation to chastity
+  inevitable mystery of
+  its value for life
+  testimonies to immense importance of
+Lust,
+  in relation to love
+  theological conception of
+Lydian prostitution
+
+Mahommedanism and prostitution
+  and sanctity of sex
+  its regard for chastity
+Male continence
+Malthus
+Mammary activity in infancy
+Manuals of sexual hygiene
+Maoris,
+  results of loss of old faith among
+Marriage,
+  advantages of early
+  ambil anak
+  and prostitution
+  as a contract
+  as a fact
+  as a sacrament
+  as an ethical sacrament
+  beena
+  by capture
+  certificates for
+  criticism of
+  evolution of
+  for a term of years
+  from legal point of view
+  in early Christian times
+  in old English law
+  in relation to eugenics
+  in relation to morals
+  in Rome
+  independent of forms
+  inferior forms of
+  love as a factor of
+  modern tendencies in regard to
+  objections to early
+  objects of
+  procreation as a factor of
+  Protestant attitude towards
+  trial
+  variations in order of
+Masturbation among prostitutes
+  anxiety of boys about
+  in relation to sexual abstinence
+Matriarchy,
+  alleged primitive
+Matrilineal descent
+Mendelism
+Mendes,
+  the rite at
+Menstruation,
+  brought on by sexual excitement
+  coitus during
+  hygiene of
+  instruction regarding
+Missionaries' attempt to impose European customs
+Modesty consistent with nakedness
+Monogamy
+Montanist element in early Christian literature
+Morality,
+  meaning of the term
+Motherhood,
+  early age of
+  endowment of
+Mothers,
+  duty to instruct daughters
+  duty to suckle infant
+  responsibility for their own procreative acts
+  schools for
+  the sexual teachers of children
+Mylitta,
+  prostitution at temple of
+Mystery in matters of sex, evil of
+
+Nakedness,
+  an alleged sexual stimulant
+  as a prime tonic of life
+  consistent with modesty
+  educational value of
+  hygienic value of
+  in literature and art
+  in mediæval Europe
+  in relation to sexual education
+  its moral value
+  its spiritual value
+  modern attitude towards
+Neo-Malthusianism
+Neurasthenia,
+  sexual
+Newton
+New Zealand,
+  result of decay of _tapu_ in
+  sexual freedom in ancient
+Night-courtship customs
+Notification of Births Act
+  venereal diseases
+Nurture _versus_ breed
+Nutrition compared to reproduction
+
+Obscenity,
+  early Christian views of
+Orgy,
+  among savages
+  in classic times
+  in mediæval Christianity
+  its religious origin
+  modern need of
+Oneida Community
+Ouled-Nail prostitution
+Ovarian irritation
+Ovid
+
+Penitentials, the
+Physician,
+  alleged duty to prescribe sexual intercourse
+  as a social reformer
+  his place in sexual hygiene
+Platonic friendship
+Poetry in relation to sexual impulse
+Polygamy
+Precocity,
+  sexual
+Pregnancy,
+  among primitive peoples
+  coitus during
+  early
+  hygiene of
+Premature birth
+Procreation,
+  best age for
+  best season for
+  control of
+  its place in marriage
+  methods of control of
+  the science of
+Promiscuity,
+  theory of primitive
+Prostitutes,
+  as artists
+  as guardians of the home
+  at the Renaissance
+  attitudes towards bully
+  in Austria
+  in classic times
+  in France
+  in Italy
+  injustice of social attitude towards
+  number of servants who become
+  psychic and physical characteristics
+  tendency to homosexuality
+  their motives for adopting avocation
+  their sexual temperament
+  under Christianity
+Prostitution,
+  among savages
+  as affected by Christianity
+  as an equivalent of criminality
+  causes of
+  civilizational value of
+  decay of State regulation of
+  definition of
+  economic factor of
+  essentially unsatisfactory nature of
+  in modern times
+  in relation to marriage
+  in the East
+  moral justification of
+  need for humanizing
+  on the stage
+  origin and development of
+  present social attitude towards
+  regulation of
+  religious
+  rise of secular
+  to acquire marriage portion
+Protestantism,
+  attitude towards prostitution
+Prudery in ancient times
+Puberty,
+  initiation at, among savages
+  sexual education at
+  sexual hygiene at
+Puericulture
+Puritans,
+  attitude towards unchastity
+  towards marriage
+
+Quaker conception of marriage
+
+Rape,
+  cannot be committed by husband on wife
+  wedding night often a
+Religious prostitution
+Renaissance,
+  prostitutes at the
+Reproduction compared to nutrition
+Responsibility in matters of sex,
+  personal
+Rest,
+  during pregnancy, importance of
+  during menstruation
+Ring,
+  origin of wedding
+Robert of Arbrissel
+Romantic literature of chastity
+  love, late origin of
+Rome,
+  attitude towards nakedness in ancient
+  conception of the orgy in
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+  status of women in
+Russia,
+  divorce in
+  sexual freedom in
+
+Sabbath orgy
+Sacrament,
+  marriage as a
+Sacred prostitution
+Sale-marriage
+Savages,
+  prostitution among
+  rarity of love among
+  sexual education among
+Scandinavian method of dealing with venereal diseases
+School,
+  its place in sexual education
+Schools for mothers
+Seduction,
+  early Church's attitude towards
+Servants frequently become prostitutes
+Sexual abstinence
+Sexual anæsthesia,
+  a cause of
+Sexual education
+  among savages
+  and coitus
+  and nakedness
+Sexual hygiene and art
+  and literature
+  and religion
+  at puberty
+  at school
+  in childhood
+  in relation to sexual abstinence
+Sexual innocence,
+  value of
+Sexual morality
+Sexual neurasthenia
+Sexual physiology in education
+Sexual precocity
+Shakespeare in relation to sexual education
+Slavs,
+  sexual freedom among
+Socialism and individualism
+Spain,
+  prostitution in
+Stage,
+  prostitution on the
+State,
+  its interest in children
+  nurseries
+Sterility in relation to gonorrhoea
+Stirpiculture
+  causes of
+Stork legend of origin of babies
+Suckling in relation to puericulture
+Swahili,
+  sexual education among
+Switzerland,
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Syphilis,
+  its prevalence
+  nature and results of
+  of the innocent
+  questions of the origin of
+  _And see_ Venereal Diseases.
+
+Tahiti,
+  chastity and unchastity in old
+Teachers and sexual hygiene
+Teutonic custom,
+  influence on position of women
+  influence on marriage
+Theatre,
+  as a beneficial form of the orgy
+  early Christian attitude towards
+Thekla,
+  legend of
+Town life and sexuality
+Trappists,
+  régime of
+Trent, Council of
+Trial-marriage
+
+Urban life and sexuality
+Uterine fibroids
+
+Vaginismus
+Vasectomy
+Venereal diseases,
+  conquest of the
+  free treatment of
+  need of enlightenment concerning
+  notification of
+  personal responsibility for
+  punishment for transmission of
+Venice,
+  prostitution in
+Virgin,
+  intercourse with as a cure for syphilis
+  original meaning of the term
+Virginity,
+  why valued
+
+Wagner's music dramas
+Wales,
+  divorce in ancient
+White slavery
+Wife-purchase among ancient Germans
+  in modern times
+Woman movement
+Women,
+  alleged tendency to dissimulation
+  among the Jews
+  and sexual abstinence
+  erotic characteristics of
+  ignorance of art of love
+  in Arabia
+  in Babylonia
+  in Egypt
+  in modern Europe
+  in relation to divorce
+  in relation to free sexual unions
+  in Rome
+  inequality before the law
+  moral equality with men
+  must not be compulsory mothers
+  not attracted to innocent men
+  position as affected by Teutonic custom
+  procreative age of
+  their high status in ancient Ireland
+  their need of economic independence
+  their need of personal responsibility
+  their need of sexual knowledge
+  understand love better than men
+
+Yakuts,
+  attitude towards virginity
+Yuman Indians,
+  sexual initiation among
+
+Zoölogy and sexual education
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
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+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 6
+(of 6), by Havelock Ellis</h1>
+<pre class="pg">
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 6 (of 6)</p>
+<p>Author: Havelock Ellis</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 8, 2004  [eBook #13615]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME 6 (OF 6)***</p>
+<br><br><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland<br>
+            and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br>
+            (https://www.pgdp.net)</h3><br><br>
+<hr class="pg" noshade>
+<br>
+<br>
+<br>
+<a name='6_Page_iii'></a>
+
+<h1>STUDIES<br />
+<br />
+IN THE<br />
+<br />
+PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX</h1>
+<br />
+<h2>VOLUME VI</h2>
+<br />
+<h3>SEX IN RELATION TO SOCIETY</h3>
+<br />
+<br />
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<br />
+<h2>HAVELOCK ELLIS</h2>
+<br />
+<h5>1927</h5><br />
+<hr class="full" />
+<br>
+<a name='6_PREFACE'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_iv'></a><a name='6_Page_v'></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+<p>In the previous five volumes of these <i>Studies</i>, I have dealt mainly with
+the sexual impulse in relation to its object, leaving out of account the
+external persons and the environmental influences which yet may powerfully
+affect that impulse and its gratification. We cannot afford, however, to
+pass unnoticed this relationship of the sexual impulse to third persons
+and to the community at large with all its anciently established
+traditions. We have to consider sex in relation to society.</p>
+
+<p>In so doing, it will be possible to discuss more summarily than in
+preceding volumes the manifold and important problems that are presented
+to us. In considering the more special questions of sexual psychology we
+entered a neglected field and it was necessary to expend an analytic care
+and precision which at many points had never been expended before on these
+questions. But when we reach the relationships of sex to society we have
+for the most part no such neglect to encounter. The subject of every
+chapter in the present volume could easily form, and often has formed, the
+topic of a volume, and the literature of many of these subjects is already
+extremely voluminous. It must therefore be our main object here not to
+accumulate details but to place each subject by turn, as clearly and
+succinctly as may be, in relation to those fundamental principles of
+sexual psychology which&mdash;so far as the data at present admit&mdash;have been
+set forth in the preceding volumes.</p>
+
+<p>It may seem to some, indeed, that in this exposition I should have
+confined myself to the present, and not included so wide a sweep of the
+course of human history and the traditions of the race. It may especially
+seem that I have laid too great a stress on the influence of Christianity
+in moulding sexual ideals and establishing sexual institutions. That, I am
+convinced, is an <a name='6_Page_vi'></a>error. It is because it is so frequently made that the
+movements of progress among us&mdash;movements that can never at any period of
+social history cease&mdash;are by many so seriously misunderstood. We cannot
+escape from our traditions. There never has been, and never can be, any
+&quot;age of reason.&quot; The most ardent co-called &quot;free-thinker,&quot; who casts aside
+as he imagines the authority of the Christian past, is still held by that
+past. If its traditions are not absolutely in his blood, they are
+ingrained in the texture of all the social institutions into which he was
+born and they affect even his modes of thinking. The latest modifications
+of our institutions are inevitably influenced by the past form of those
+institutions. We cannot realize where we are, nor whither we are moving,
+unless we know whence we came. We cannot understand the significance of
+the changes around us, nor face them with cheerful confidence, unless we
+are acquainted with the drift of the great movements that stir all
+civilization in never-ending cycles.</p>
+
+<p>In discussing sexual questions which are very largely matters of social
+hygiene we shall thus still be preserving the psychological point of view.
+Such a point of view in relation to these matters is not only legitimate
+but necessary. Discussions of social hygiene that are purely medical or
+purely juridical or purely moral or purely theological not only lead to
+conclusions that are often entirely opposed to each other but they
+obviously fail to possess complete applicability to the complex human
+personality. The main task before us must be to ascertain what best
+expresses, and what best satisfies, the totality of the impulses and ideas
+of civilized men and women. So that while we must constantly bear in mind
+medical, legal, and moral demands&mdash;which all correspond in some respects
+to some individual or social need&mdash;the main thing is to satisfy the
+demands of the whole human person.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to emphasize this point of view because it <a name='6_Page_vii'></a>would seem
+that no error is more common among writers on the hygienic and moral
+problems of sex than the neglect of the psychological standpoint. They may
+take, for instance, the side of sexual restraint, or the side of sexual
+unrestraint, but they fail to realize that so narrow a basis is inadequate
+for the needs of complex human beings. From the wider psychological
+standpoint we recognize that we have to conciliate opposing impulses that
+are both alike founded on the human psychic organism.</p>
+
+<p>In the preceding volumes of these <i>Studies</i> I have sought to refrain from
+the expression of any personal opinion and to maintain, so far as
+possible, a strictly objective attitude. In this endeavor, I trust, I have
+been successful if I may judge from the fact that I have received the
+sympathy and approval of all kinds of people, not less of the
+rationalistic free-thinker than of the orthodox believer, of those who
+accept, as well as of those who reject, our most current standards of
+morality. This is as it should be, for whatever our criteria of the worth
+of feelings and of conduct, it must always be of use to us to know what
+exactly are the feelings of people and how those feelings tend to affect
+their conduct. In the present volume, however, where social traditions
+necessarily come in for consideration and where we have to discuss the
+growth of those traditions in the past and their probable evolution in the
+future, I am not sanguine that the objectivity of my attitude will be
+equally clear to the reader. I have here to set down not only what people
+actually feel and do but what I think they are tending to feel and do.
+That is a matter of estimation only, however widely and however cautiously
+it is approached; it cannot be a matter of absolute demonstration. I trust
+that those who have followed me in the past will bear with me still, even
+if it is impossible for them always to accept the conclusions I have
+myself reached.</p>
+
+<p>HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p>
+
+<p>Carbis Bay, Cornwall, England.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CONTENTS'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_viii'></a><a name='6_Page_ix'></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<h4><a href='#6_PREFACE'>PREFACE.</a></h4>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_I'>CHAPTER I.&mdash;THE MOTHER AND HER CHILD.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Child's Right to Choose Its Ancestry&mdash;How This is Effected&mdash;The Mother
+the Child's Supreme Parent&mdash;Motherhood and the Woman Movement&mdash;The Immense
+Importance of Motherhood&mdash;Infant Mortality and Its Causes&mdash;The Chief Cause
+in the Mother&mdash;The Need of Rest During Pregnancy&mdash;Frequency of Premature
+Birth&mdash;The Function of the State&mdash;Recent Advance in Puericulture&mdash;The
+Question of Coitus During Pregnancy&mdash;The Need of Rest During
+Lactation&mdash;The Mother's Duty to Suckle Her Child&mdash;The Economic
+Question&mdash;The Duty of the State&mdash;Recent Progress in the Protection of the
+Mother&mdash;The Fallacy of State Nurseries.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_II'>CHAPTER II.&mdash;SEXUAL EDUCATION.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Nurture Necessary as Well as Breed&mdash;Precocious Manifestations of the
+Sexual Impulse&mdash;Are they to be Regarded as Normal?&mdash;The Sexual Play of
+Children&mdash;The Emotion of Love in Childhood&mdash;Are Town Children More
+Precocious Sexually Than Country Children?&mdash;Children's Ideas Concerning
+the Origin of Babies&mdash;Need for Beginning the Sexual Education of Children
+in Early Years&mdash;The Importance of Early Training in Responsibility&mdash;Evil
+of the Old Doctrine of Silence in Matters of Sex&mdash;The Evil Magnified When
+Applied to Girls&mdash;The Mother the Natural and Best Teacher&mdash;The Morbid
+Influence of Artificial Mystery in Sex Matters&mdash;Books on Sexual
+Enlightenment of the Young&mdash;Nature of the Mother's Task&mdash;Sexual Education
+in the School&mdash;The Value of Botany&mdash;Zo&ouml;logy&mdash;Sexual Education After
+Puberty&mdash;The Necessity of Counteracting Quack Literature&mdash;Danger of
+Neglecting to Prepare for the First Onset of Menstruation&mdash;The Right
+Attitude Towards Woman's Sexual Life&mdash;The Vital Necessity of the Hygiene
+of Menstruation During Adolescence&mdash;Such Hygiene Compatible with the
+Educational and Social Equality of the Sexes&mdash;The Invalidism of Women
+Mainly Due to Hygienic<a name='6_Page_x'></a> Neglect&mdash;Good Influence of Physical Training on
+Women and Bad Influence of Athletics&mdash;The Evils of Emotional
+Suppression&mdash;Need of Teaching the Dignity of Sex&mdash;Influence of These
+Factors on a Woman's Fate in Marriage&mdash;Lectures and Addresses on Sexual
+Hygiene&mdash;The Doctor's Part in Sexual Education&mdash;Pubertal Initiation Into
+the Ideal World&mdash;The Place of the Religious and Ethical Teacher&mdash;The
+Initiation Rites of Savages Into Manhood and Womanhood&mdash;The Sexual
+Influence of Literature&mdash;The Sexual Influence of Art.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_III'>CHAPTER III.&mdash;SEXUAL EDUCATION AND NAKEDNESS.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Greek Attitude Towards Nakedness&mdash;How the Romans Modified That
+Attitude&mdash;The Influence of Christianity&mdash;Nakedness in Medi&aelig;val
+Times&mdash;Evolution of the Horror of Nakedness&mdash;Concomitant Change in the
+Conception of Nakedness&mdash;Prudery&mdash;The Romantic Movement&mdash;Rise of a New
+Feeling in Regard to Nakedness&mdash;The Hygienic Aspect of Nakedness&mdash;How
+Children May Be Accustomed to Nakedness&mdash;Nakedness Not Inimical to
+Modesty&mdash;The Instinct of Physical Pride&mdash;The Value of Nakedness in
+Education&mdash;The &AElig;sthetic Value of Nakedness&mdash;The Human Body as One of the
+Prime Tonics of Life&mdash;How Nakedness May Be Cultivated&mdash;The Moral Value of
+Nakedness.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_IV'>CHAPTER IV.&mdash;</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Conception of Sexual Love&mdash;The Attitude of Medi&aelig;val Asceticism&mdash;St.
+Bernard and St. Odo of Cluny&mdash;The Ascetic Insistence on the Proximity of
+the Sexual and Excretory Centres&mdash;Love as a Sacrament of Nature&mdash;The Idea
+of the Impurity of Sex in Primitive Religions Generally&mdash;Theories of the
+Origin of This Idea&mdash;The Anti-Ascetic Element in the Bible and Early
+Christianity&mdash;Clement of Alexandria&mdash;St. Augustine's Attitude&mdash;The
+Recognition of the Sacredness of the Body by Tertullian, Rufinus and
+Athanasius&mdash;The Reformation&mdash;The Sexual Instinct Regarded as Beastly&mdash;The
+Human Sexual Instinct Not Animal-like&mdash;Lust and Love&mdash;The Definition of
+Love&mdash;Love and Names for Love Unknown in Some Parts of the World&mdash;Romantic
+Love of Late Development in the White Race&mdash;The Mystery of Sexual
+Desire&mdash;Whether Love is a Delusion&mdash;The Spiritual as Well as the Physical
+Structure of the World in Part Built up on Sexual Love The Testimony of
+Men of Intellect to the Supremacy of Love.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_V'>CHAPTER V.&mdash;THE FUNCTION OF CHASTITY.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Chastity Essential to the Dignity of Love&mdash;The Eighteenth Century Revolt
+Against the Ideal of Chastity&mdash;Unnatural Forms of Chastity&mdash;The
+Psychological Basis of Asceticism&mdash;Asceticism and Chastity as Savage
+Virtues&mdash;The Significance of Tahiti&mdash;Chastity Among Barbarous
+Peoples&mdash;Chastity Among the Early Christians&mdash;Struggles of the Saints with
+the Flesh&mdash;The Romance of Christian Chastity&mdash;Its Decay in Medi&aelig;val
+Times&mdash;<i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i> and the New Romance of Chaste Love&mdash;The
+Unchastity of the Northern Barbarians&mdash;The Penitentials&mdash;Influence of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation&mdash;The Revolt Against Virginity as a
+Virtue&mdash;The Modern Conception of Chastity as a Virtue&mdash;The Influences That
+Favor the Virtue of Chastity&mdash;Chastity as a Discipline&mdash;The Value of
+Chastity for the Artist&mdash;Potency and Impotence in Popular Estimation&mdash;The
+Correct Definitions of Asceticism and Chastity.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_VI'>CHAPTER VI.&mdash;THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Influence of Tradition&mdash;The Theological Conception of Lust&mdash;Tendency
+of These Influences to Degrade Sexual Morality&mdash;Their Result in Creating
+the Problem of Sexual Abstinence&mdash;The Protests Against Sexual
+Abstinence&mdash;Sexual Abstinence and Genius&mdash;Sexual Abstinence in Women&mdash;The
+Advocates of Sexual Abstinence&mdash;Intermediate Attitude&mdash;Unsatisfactory
+Nature of the Whole Discussion&mdash;Criticism of the Conception of Sexual
+Abstinence&mdash;Sexual Abstinence as Compared to Abstinence from Food&mdash;No
+Complete Analogy&mdash;The Morality of Sexual Abstinence Entirely Negative&mdash;Is
+It the Physician's Duty to Advise Extra-Conjugal Sexual
+Intercourse?&mdash;Opinions of Those Who Affirm or Deny This Duty&mdash;The
+Conclusion Against Such Advice&mdash;The Physician Bound by the Social and
+Moral Ideas of His Age&mdash;The Physician as Reformer&mdash;Sexual Abstinence and
+Sexual Hygiene&mdash;Alcohol&mdash;The Influence of Physical and Mental
+Exercise&mdash;The Inadequacy of Sexual Hygiene in This Field&mdash;The Unreal
+Nature of the Conception of Sexual Abstinence&mdash;The Necessity of Replacing
+It by a More Positive Ideal.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_VII'>CHAPTER VII.&mdash;PROSTITUTION.</a></h4>
+<h5><a href='#6_I'>I.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p><i>The Orgy:</i>&mdash;The Religious Origin of the Orgy&mdash;The Feast of
+Fools&mdash;Recognition of the Orgy by the Greeks and Romans&mdash;The<a name='6_Page_xii'></a> Orgy Among
+Savages&mdash;The Drama&mdash;The Object Subserved by the Orgy.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#6_II'>II.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p><i>The Origin and Development of Prostitution:</i>&mdash;The Definition of
+Prostitution&mdash;Prostitution Among Savages&mdash;The Conditions Under Which
+Professional Prostitution Arises&mdash;Sacred Prostitution&mdash;The Rite of
+Mylitta&mdash;The Practice of Prostitution to Obtain a Marriage Portion&mdash;The
+Rise of Secular Prostitution in Greece&mdash;Prostitution in the East&mdash;India,
+China, Japan, etc.&mdash;Prostitution in Rome&mdash;The Influence of Christianity on
+Prostitution&mdash;The Effort to Combat Prostitution&mdash;The Medi&aelig;val Brothel&mdash;The
+Appearance of the Courtesan&mdash;Tullia D'Aragona&mdash;Veronica Franco&mdash;Ninon de
+Lenclos&mdash;Later Attempts to Eradicate Prostitution&mdash;The Regulation of
+Prostitution&mdash;Its Futility Becoming Recognized.</p></div>
+
+<h5><a href='#6_III'>III.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p><i>The Causes of Prostitution:</i>&mdash;Prostitution as a Part of the Marriage
+System&mdash;The Complex Causation of Prostitution&mdash;The Motives Assigned by
+Prostitutes&mdash;(1) Economic Factor of Prostitution&mdash;Poverty Seldom the Chief
+Motive for Prostitution&mdash;But Economic Pressure Exerts a Real
+Influence&mdash;The Large Proportion of Prostitutes Recruited from Domestic
+Service&mdash;Significance of This Fact&mdash;(2) The Biological Factor of
+Prostitution&mdash;The So-called Born-Prostitute&mdash;Alleged Identity with the
+Born-Criminal&mdash;The Sexual Instinct in Prostitutes&mdash;The Physical and
+Psychic Characters of Prostitutes&mdash;(3) Moral Necessity as a Factor in the
+Existence of Prostitution&mdash;The Moral Advocates of Prostitution&mdash;The
+Moral Attitude of Christianity Towards Prostitution&mdash;The Attitude
+of Protestantism&mdash;Recent Advocates of the Moral Necessity
+of Prostitution&mdash;(4) Civilizational Value as a Factor of
+Prostitution&mdash;The Influence of Urban Life&mdash;The Craving for Excitement&mdash;Why
+Servant-girls so Often Turn to Prostitution&mdash;The Small Part Played by
+Seduction&mdash;Prostitutes Come Largely from the Country&mdash;The Appeal of
+Civilization Attracts Women to Prostitution&mdash;The Corresponding Attraction
+Felt by Men&mdash;The Prostitute as Artist and Leader of Fashion&mdash;The Charm of
+Vulgarity.</p></div>
+<h5><a href='#6_IV'>IV.</a></h5>
+<div class='blkquot'><p><i>The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution:</i>&mdash;The Decay of the
+Brothel&mdash;The Tendency to the Humanization of Prostitution&mdash;The Monetary
+Aspects of Prostitution&mdash;The Geisha&mdash;The Hetaira&mdash;The Moral Revolt Against
+Prostitution&mdash;Squalid Vice Based on Luxurious Virtue&mdash;The Ordinary
+Attitude Towards Prostitutes&mdash;Its Cruelty Absurd&mdash;The Need of Reforming
+Prostitution&mdash;The Need of Reforming Marriage&mdash;These Two Needs Closely
+Correlated&mdash;The Dynamic Relationships Involved.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_VIII'>CHAPTER VIII.&mdash;THE CONQUEST OF THE VENEREAL DISEASES.</a></h4>
+<a name='6_Page_xiii'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Significance of the Venereal Diseases&mdash;The History of Syphilis&mdash;The
+Problem of Its Origin&mdash;The Social Gravity of Syphilis&mdash;The Social Dangers
+of Gonorrh&oelig;a&mdash;The Modern Change in the Methods of Combating
+Venereal Diseases&mdash;Causes of the Decay of the System of Police
+Regulation&mdash;Necessity of Facing the Facts&mdash;The Innocent Victims of
+Venereal Diseases&mdash;Diseases Not Crimes&mdash;The Principle of Notification&mdash;The
+Scandinavian System&mdash;Gratuitous Treatment&mdash;Punishment For Transmitting
+Venereal Diseases&mdash;Sexual Education in Relation to Venereal
+Diseases&mdash;Lectures, Etc.&mdash;Discussion in Novels and on the Stage&mdash;The
+&quot;Disgusting&quot; Not the &quot;Immoral&quot;.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_IX'>CHAPTER IX.&mdash;SEXUAL MORALITY.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Prostitution in Relation to Our Marriage System&mdash;Marriage and
+Morality&mdash;The Definition of the Term &quot;Morality&quot;&mdash;Theoretical Morality&mdash;Its
+Division Into Traditional Morality and Ideal Morality&mdash;Practical
+Morality&mdash;Practical Morality Based on Custom&mdash;The Only Subject of
+Scientific Ethics&mdash;The Reaction Between Theoretical and Practical
+Morality&mdash;Sexual Morality in the Past an Application of Economic
+Morality&mdash;The Combined Rigidity and Laxity of This Morality&mdash;The
+Growth of a Specific Sexual Morality and the Evolution of Moral
+Ideals&mdash;Manifestations of Sexual Morality&mdash;Disregard of the Forms of
+Marriage&mdash;Trial Marriage&mdash;Marriage After Conception of Child&mdash;Phenomena in
+Germany, Anglo-Saxon Countries, Russia, etc.&mdash;The Status of Woman&mdash;The
+Historical Tendency Favoring Moral Equality of Women with Men&mdash;The Theory
+of the Matriarchate&mdash;Mother-Descent&mdash;Women in Babylonia&mdash;Egypt&mdash;Rome&mdash;The
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries&mdash;The Historical Tendency
+Favoring Moral Inequality of Woman&mdash;The Ambiguous Influence of
+Christianity&mdash;Influence of Teutonic Custom and Feudalism&mdash;Chivalry&mdash;Woman
+in England&mdash;The Sale of Wives&mdash;The Vanishing Subjection of
+Woman&mdash;Inaptitude of the Modern Man to Domineer&mdash;The Growth of Moral
+Responsibility in Women&mdash;The Concomitant Development of Economic
+Independence&mdash;The Increase of Women Who Work&mdash;Invasion of the Modern
+Industrial Field by Women&mdash;In How Far This Is Socially Justifiable&mdash;The
+Sexual Responsibility of Women and Its Consequences&mdash;The Alleged Moral
+Inferiority of Women&mdash;The &quot;Self-Sacrifice&quot;<a name='6_Page_xiv'></a> of Women&mdash;Society Not
+Concerned with Sexual Relationships&mdash;Procreation the Sole Sexual Concern
+of the State&mdash;The Supreme Importance of Maternity.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_X'>CHAPTER X.&mdash;MARRIAGE.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Definition of Marriage&mdash;Marriage Among Animals&mdash;The Predominance of
+Monogamy&mdash;The Question of Group Marriage&mdash;Monogamy a Natural Fact, Not
+Based on Human Law&mdash;The Tendency to Place the Form of Marriage Above the
+Fact of Marriage&mdash;The History of Marriage&mdash;Marriage in Ancient
+Rome&mdash;Germanic Influence on Marriage&mdash;Bride-Sale&mdash;The Ring&mdash;The Influence
+of Christianity on Marriage&mdash;The Great Extent of this Influence&mdash;The
+Sacrament of Matrimony&mdash;Origin and Growth of the Sacramental
+Conception&mdash;The Church Made Marriage a Public Act&mdash;Canon Law&mdash;Its Sound
+Core&mdash;Its Development&mdash;Its Confusions and Absurdities&mdash;Peculiarities of
+English Marriage Law&mdash;Influence of the Reformation on Marriage&mdash;The
+Protestant Conception of Marriage as a Secular Contract&mdash;The Puritan
+Reform of Marriage&mdash;Milton as the Pioneer of Marriage Reform&mdash;His Views on
+Divorce&mdash;The Backward Position of England in Marriage Reform&mdash;Criticism of
+the English Divorce Law&mdash;Traditions of the Canon Law Still
+Persistent&mdash;The Question of Damages for Adultery&mdash;Collusion as a Bar to
+Divorce&mdash;Divorce in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, etc.&mdash;The United
+States&mdash;Impossibility of Deciding by Statute the Causes for
+Divorce&mdash;Divorce by Mutual Consent&mdash;Its Origin and Development&mdash;Impeded by
+the Traditions of Canon Law&mdash;Wilhelm von Humboldt&mdash;Modern Pioneer
+Advocates of Divorce by Mutual Consent&mdash;The Arguments Against Facility of
+Divorce&mdash;The Interests of the Children&mdash;The Protection of Women&mdash;The
+Present Tendency of the Divorce Movement&mdash;Marriage Not a Contract&mdash;The
+Proposal of Marriage for a Term of Years&mdash;Legal Disabilities and
+Disadvantages in the Position of the Husband and the Wife&mdash;Marriage Not a
+Contract But a Fact&mdash;Only the Non-Essentials of Marriage, Not the
+Essentials, a Proper Matter for Contract&mdash;The Legal Recognition of
+Marriage as a Fact Without Any Ceremony&mdash;Contracts of the Person Opposed
+to Modern Tendencies&mdash;The Factor of Moral Responsibility&mdash;Marriage as an
+Ethical Sacrament&mdash;Personal Responsibility Involves Freedom&mdash;Freedom the
+Best Guarantee of Stability&mdash;False Ideas of Individualism&mdash;Modern Tendency
+of Marriage&mdash;With the Birth of a Child Marriage<a name='6_Page_xv'></a> Ceases to be a Private
+Concern&mdash;Every Child Must Have a Legal Father and Mother&mdash;How This Can be
+Effected&mdash;The Firm Basis of Monogamy&mdash;The Question of Marriage
+Variations&mdash;Such Variations Not Inimical to Monogamy&mdash;The Most Common
+Variations&mdash;The Flexibility of Marriage Holds Variations in
+Check&mdash;Marriage Variations <i>versus</i> Prostitution&mdash;Marriage on a Reasonable
+and Humane Basis&mdash;Summary and Conclusion.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_XI'>CHAPTER XI.&mdash;THE ART OF LOVE.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Marriage Not Only for Procreation&mdash;Theologians on the <i>Sacramentum
+Solationis</i>&mdash;Importance of the <i>Art of Love</i>&mdash;The Basis of Stability in
+Marriage and the Condition for Right Procreation&mdash;The Art of Love the
+Bulwark Against Divorce&mdash;The Unity of Love and Marriage a Principle of
+Modern Morality&mdash;Christianity and the Art of Love&mdash;Ovid&mdash;The Art of Love
+Among Primitive Peoples&mdash;Sexual Initiation in Africa and Elsewhere&mdash;The
+Tendency to Spontaneous Development of the Art of Love in Early
+Life&mdash;Flirtation&mdash;Sexual Ignorance in Women&mdash;The Husband's Place in Sexual
+Initiation&mdash;Sexual Ignorance in Men&mdash;The Husband's Education for
+Marriage&mdash;The Injury Done by the Ignorance of Husbands&mdash;The Physical and
+Mental Results of Unskilful Coitus&mdash;Women Understand the Art of Love
+Better Than Men&mdash;Ancient and Modern Opinions Concerning Frequency of
+Coitus&mdash;Variation in Sexual Capacity&mdash;The Sexual Appetite&mdash;The Art of Love
+Based on the Biological Facts of Courtship&mdash;The Art of Pleasing Women&mdash;The
+Lover Compared to the Musician&mdash;The Proposal as a Part of
+Courtship&mdash;Divination in the Art of Love&mdash;The Importance of the
+Preliminaries in Courtship&mdash;The Unskilful Husband Frequently the Cause of
+the Frigid Wife&mdash;The Difficulty of Courtship&mdash;Simultaneous Orgasm&mdash;The
+Evils of Incomplete Gratification in Women&mdash;Coitus Interruptus&mdash;Coitus
+Reservatus&mdash;The Human Method of Coitus&mdash;Variations in Coitus&mdash;Posture in
+Coitus&mdash;The Best Time for Coitus&mdash;The Influence of Coitus in Marriage&mdash;The
+Advantages of Absence in Marriage&mdash;The Risks of Absence&mdash;Jealousy&mdash;The
+Primitive Function of Jealousy&mdash;Its Predominance Among Animals, Savages,
+etc, and in Pathological States&mdash;An Anti-Social Emotion&mdash;Jealousy
+Incompatible With the Progress of Civilization&mdash;The Possibility of Loving
+More Than One Person at a Time&mdash;Platonic Friendship&mdash;The Conditions Which
+Make It Possible&mdash;The Maternal<a name='6_Page_xvi'></a> Element in Woman's Love&mdash;The Final
+Development of Conjugal Love&mdash;The Problem of Love One of the Greatest Of
+Social Questions.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_CHAPTER_XII'>CHAPTER XII.&mdash;THE SCIENCE OF PROCREATION.</a></h4>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Relationship of the Science of Procreation to the Art of Love&mdash;Sexual
+Desire and Sexual Pleasure as the Conditions of Conception&mdash;Reproduction
+Formerly Left to Caprice and Lust&mdash;The Question of Procreation as a
+Religious Question&mdash;The Creed of Eugenics&mdash;Ellen Key and Sir Francis
+Galton&mdash;Our Debt to Posterity&mdash;The Problem of Replacing Natural
+Selection&mdash;The Origin and Development of Eugenics&mdash;The General Acceptance
+of Eugenical Principles To-day&mdash;The Two Channels by Which Eugenical
+Principles are Becoming Embodied in Practice&mdash;The Sense of Sexual
+Responsibility in Women&mdash;The Rejection of Compulsory Motherhood&mdash;The
+Privilege of Voluntary Motherhood&mdash;Causes of the Degradation of
+Motherhood&mdash;The Control of Conception&mdash;Now Practiced by the Majority of
+the Population in Civilized Countries&mdash;The Fallacy of &quot;Racial
+Suicide&quot;&mdash;Are Large Families a Stigma of Degeneration?&mdash;Procreative
+Control the Outcome of Natural and Civilized Progress&mdash;The Growth of
+Neo-Malthusian Beliefs and Practices&mdash;Facultative Sterility as Distinct
+from Neo-Malthusianism&mdash;The Medical and Hygienic Necessity of Control of
+Conception&mdash;Preventive Methods&mdash;Abortion&mdash;The New Doctrine of the Duty to
+Practice Abortion&mdash;How Far is this Justifiable?&mdash;Castration as a Method of
+Controlling Procreation&mdash;Negative Eugenics and Positive Eugenics&mdash;The
+Question of Certificates for Marriage&mdash;The Inadequacy of Eugenics by Act
+of Parliament&mdash;The Quickening of the Social Conscience in Regard to
+Heredity&mdash;Limitations to the Endowment of Motherhood&mdash;The Conditions
+Favorable to Procreation&mdash;Sterility&mdash;The Question of Artificial
+Fecundation&mdash;The Best Age of Procreation&mdash;The Question of Early
+Motherhood&mdash;The Best Time for Procreation&mdash;The Completion of the Divine
+Cycle of Life.</p></div>
+<br />
+<h4><a href='#6_POSTSCRIPT'>POSTSCRIPT.</a></h4>
+
+<h4><a href='#6_INDEX_OF_AUTHORS'>INDEX OF AUTHORS.</a></h4>
+<h4><a href='#6_INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS'>INDEX OF SUBJECTS.</a></h4>
+<br />
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_I'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_1'></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE MOTHER AND HER CHILD.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Child's Right to Choose Its Ancestry&mdash;How This is Effected&mdash;The Mother
+the Child's Supreme Parent&mdash;Motherhood and the Woman Movement&mdash;The Immense
+Importance of Motherhood&mdash;Infant Mortality and Its Causes&mdash;The Chief Cause
+in the Mother&mdash;The Need of Rest During Pregnancy&mdash;Frequency of Premature
+Birth&mdash;The Function of the State&mdash;Recent Advance in Puericulture&mdash;The
+Question of Coitus During Pregnancy&mdash;The Need of Rest During
+Lactation&mdash;The Mother's Duty to Suckle Her Child&mdash;The Economic
+Question&mdash;The Duty of the State&mdash;Recent Progress in the Protection of the
+Mother&mdash;The Fallacy of State Nurseries.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>A man's sexual nature, like all else that is most essential in him, is
+rooted in a soil that was formed very long before his birth. In this, as
+in every other respect, he draws the elements of his life from his
+ancestors, however new the recombination may be and however greatly it may
+be modified by subsequent conditions. A man's destiny stands not in the
+future but in the past. That, rightly considered, is the most vital of all
+vital facts. Every child thus has a right to choose his own ancestors.
+Naturally he can only do this vicariously, through his parents. It is the
+most serious and sacred duty of the future father to choose one half of
+the ancestral and hereditary character of his future child; it is the most
+serious and sacred duty of the future mother to make a similar choice.<a name='6_FNanchor_1'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_1'><sup>[1]</sup></a>
+In choosing each other they have between them chosen the whole ancestry of
+their child. They have determined the stars that will rule his fate.</p>
+
+<p>In the past that fateful determination has usually been made helplessly,
+ignorantly, almost unconsciously. It has either <a name='6_Page_2'></a>been guided by an
+instinct which, on the whole, has worked out fairly well, or controlled by
+economic interests of the results of which so much cannot be said, or left
+to the risks of lower than bestial chances which can produce nothing but
+evil. In the future we cannot but have faith&mdash;for all the hope of humanity
+must rest on that faith&mdash;that a new guiding impulse, reinforcing natural
+instinct and becoming in time an inseparable accompaniment of it, will
+lead civilized man on his racial course. Just as in the past the race has,
+on the whole, been moulded by a natural, and in part sexual, selection,
+that was unconscious of itself and ignorant of the ends it made towards,
+so in the future the race will be moulded by deliberate selection, the
+creative energy of Nature becoming self-conscious in the civilized brain
+of man. This is not a faith which has its source in a vague hope. The
+problems of the individual life are linked on to the fate of the racial
+life, and again and again we shall find as we ponder the individual
+questions we are here concerned with, that at all points they ultimately
+converge towards this same racial end.</p>
+
+<p>Since we have here, therefore, to follow out the sexual relationships of
+the individual as they bear on society, it will be convenient at this
+point to put aside the questions of ancestry and to accept the individual
+as, with hereditary constitution already determined, he lies in his
+mother's womb.</p>
+
+<p>It is the mother who is the child's supreme parent. At various points in
+zo&ouml;logical evolution it has seemed possible that the functions that we now
+know as those of maternity would be largely and even equally shared by the
+male parent. Nature has tried various experiments in this direction, among
+the fishes, for instance, and even among birds. But reasonable and
+excellent as these experiments were, and though they were sufficiently
+sound to secure their perpetuation unto this day, it remains true that it
+was not along these lines that Man was destined to emerge. Among all the
+mammal predecessors of Man, the male is an imposing and important figure
+in the early days of courtship, but after conception has once been secured
+the mother plays the chief part in the racial life. The male must be
+content to forage <a name='6_Page_3'></a>abroad and stand on guard when at home in the
+ante-chamber of the family. When she has once been impregnated the female
+animal angrily rejects the caresses she had welcomed so coquettishly
+before, and even in Man the place of the father at the birth of his child
+is not a notably dignified or comfortable one. Nature accords the male but
+a secondary and comparatively humble place in the home, the breeding-place
+of the race; he may compensate himself if he will, by seeking adventure
+and renown in the world outside. The mother is the child's supreme parent,
+and during the period from conception to birth the hygiene of the future
+man can only be affected by influences which work through her.</p>
+
+<p>Fundamental and elementary as is the fact of the predominant position of
+the mother in relation to the life of the race, incontestable as it must
+seem to all those who have traversed the volumes of these <i>Studies</i> up to
+the present point, it must be admitted that it has sometimes been
+forgotten or ignored. In the great ages of humanity it has indeed been
+accepted as a central and sacred fact. In classic Rome at one period the
+house of the pregnant woman was adorned with garlands, and in Athens it
+was an inviolable sanctuary where even the criminal might find shelter.
+Even amid the mixed influences of the exuberantly vital times which
+preceded the outburst of the Renaissance, the ideally beautiful woman, as
+pictures still show, was the pregnant woman. But it has not always been
+so. At the present time, for instance, there can be no doubt that we are
+but beginning to emerge from a period during which this fact was often
+disputed and denied, both in theory and in practice, even by women
+themselves. This was notably the case both in England and America, and it
+is probably owing in large part to the unfortunate infatuation which led
+women in these lands to follow after masculine ideals that at the present
+moment the inspirations of progress in women's movements come mainly
+to-day from the women of other lands. Motherhood and the future of the
+race were systematically belittled. Paternity is but a mere incident, it
+was argued, in man's life: why should maternity be more than a mere
+incident <a name='6_Page_4'></a>in woman's life? In England, by a curiously perverted form of
+sexual attraction, women were so fascinated by the glamour that surrounded
+men that they desired to suppress or forget all the facts of organic
+constitution which made them unlike men, counting their glory as their
+shame, and sought the same education as men, the same occupations as men,
+even the same sports. As we know, there was at the origin an element of
+rightness in this impulse.<a name='6_FNanchor_2'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_2'><sup>[2]</sup></a> It was absolutely right in so far as it was
+a claim for freedom from artificial restriction, and a demand for economic
+independence. But it became mischievous and absurd when it developed into
+a passion for doing, in all respects, the same things as men do; how
+mischievous and how absurd we may realize if we imagine men developing a
+passion to imitate the ways and avocations of women. Freedom is only good
+when it is a freedom to follow the laws of one's own nature; it ceases to
+be freedom when it becomes a slavish attempt to imitate others, and would
+be disastrous if it could be successful.<a name='6_FNanchor_3'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_3'><sup>[3]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>At the present day this movement on the theoretical side has ceased to
+possess any representatives who exert serious influence. Yet its practical
+results are still prominently exhibited in England and the other countries
+in which it has been felt. Infantile mortality is enormous, and in England
+at all events is only beginning to show a tendency to diminish; motherhood
+is without dignity, and the vitality of mothers is speedily crushed, so
+<a name='6_Page_5'></a>that often they cannot so much as suckle their infants; ignorant
+girl-mothers give their infants potatoes and gin; on every hand we are
+told of the evidence of degeneracy in the race, or if not in the race, at
+all events, in the young individuals of to-day.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It would be out of place, and would lead us too far, to discuss
+    here these various practical outcomes of the foolish attempt to
+    belittle the immense racial importance of motherhood. It is
+    enough here to touch on the one point of the excess of infantile
+    mortality.</p>
+
+<p>    In England&mdash;which is not from the social point of view in a very
+    much worse condition than most countries, for in Austria and
+    Russia the infant mortality is higher still, though in Australia
+    and New Zealand much lower, but still excessive&mdash;more than
+    one-fourth of the total number of deaths every year is of infants
+    under one year of age. In the opinion of medical officers of
+    health who are in the best position to form an opinion, about
+    one-half of this mortality, roughly speaking, is absolutely
+    preventable. Moreover, it is doubtful whether there is any real
+    movement of decrease in this mortality; during the past half
+    century it has sometimes slightly risen and sometimes slightly
+    fallen, and though during the past few years the general movement
+    of mortality for children under five in England and Wales has
+    shown a tendency to decrease, in London (according to J. F. J.
+    Sykes, although Sir Shirley Murphy has attempted to minimize the
+    significance of these figures) the infantile mortality rate for
+    the first three months of life actually rose from 69 per 1,000 in
+    the period 1888-1892 to 75 per 1,000 in the period 1898-1901.
+    (This refers, it must be remembered, to the period before the
+    introduction of the Notification of Births Act.) In any case,
+    although the general mortality shows a marked tendency to
+    improvement there is certainly no adequately corresponding
+    improvement in the infantile mortality. This is scarcely
+    surprising, when we realize that there has been no change for the
+    better, but rather for the worse, in the conditions under which
+    our infants are born and reared. Thus William Hall, who has had
+    an intimate knowledge extending over fifty-six years of the slums
+    of Leeds, and has weighed and measured many thousands of slum
+    children, besides examining over 120,000 boys and girls as to
+    their fitness for factory labor, states (<i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, October 14, 1905) that &quot;fifty years ago the slum mother
+    was much more sober, cleanly, domestic, and motherly than she is
+    to-day; she was herself better nourished and she almost always
+    suckled her children, and after weaning they received more
+    nutritious bone-making food, and she was able to prepare more
+    wholesome food at home.&quot; The system of compulsory education has
+    had an unfortunate influence in exerting a strain on the parents
+    and worsening the conditions of the home. For, excellent <a name='6_Page_6'></a>as
+    education is in itself, it is not the primary need of life, and
+    has been made compulsory before the more essential things of life
+    have been made equally compulsory. How absolutely unnecessary
+    this great mortality is may be shown, without evoking the good
+    example of Australia and New Zealand, by merely comparing small
+    English towns; thus while in Guildford the infantile death rate
+    is 65 per thousand, in Burslem it is 205 per thousand.</p>
+
+<p>    It is sometimes said that infantile mortality is an economic
+    question, and that with improvement in wages it would cease. This
+    is only true to a limited extent and under certain conditions. In
+    Australia there is no grinding poverty, but the deaths of infants
+    under one year of age are still between 80 and 90 per thousand,
+    and one-third of this mortality, according to Hooper (<i>British
+    Medical Journal</i>, 1908, vol. ii, p. 289), being due to the
+    ignorance of mothers and the dislike to suckling, is easily
+    preventable. The employment of married women greatly diminishes
+    the poverty of a family, but nothing can be worse for the welfare
+    of the woman as mother, or for the welfare of her child. Reid,
+    the medical officer of health for Staffordshire, where there are
+    two large centres of artisan population with identical health
+    conditions, has shown that in the northern centre, where a very
+    large number of women are engaged in factories, still-births are
+    three times as frequent as in the southern centre, where there
+    are practically no trade employments for women; the frequency of
+    abnormalities is also in the same ratio. The superiority of
+    Jewish over Christian children, again, and their lower infantile
+    mortality, seem to be entirely due to the fact that Jewesses are
+    better mothers. &quot;The Jewish children in the slums,&quot; says William
+    Hall (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, October 14, 1905), speaking from
+    wide and accurate knowledge, &quot;were superior in weight, in teeth,
+    and in general bodily development, and they seemed less
+    susceptible to infectious disease. Yet these Jews were
+    overcrowded, they took little exercise, and their unsanitary
+    environment was obvious. The fact was, their children were much
+    better nourished. The pregnant Jewess was more cared for, and no
+    doubt supplied better nutriment to the f&oelig;tus. After the
+    children were born 90 per cent. received breast-milk, and during
+    later childhood they were abundantly fed on bone-making material;
+    eggs and oil, fish, fresh vegetables, and fruit entered largely
+    into their diet.&quot; G. Newman, in his important and comprehensive
+    book on <i>Infant Mortality</i>, emphasizes the conclusion that &quot;first
+    of all we need a higher standard of physical motherhood.&quot; The
+    problem of infantile mortality, he declares (page 259), is not
+    one of sanitation alone, or housing, or indeed of poverty as
+    such, &quot;<i>but is mainly a question of motherhood</i>.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>The fundamental need of the pregnant woman is <i>rest</i>. Without a large
+degree of maternal rest there can be no <a name='6_Page_7'></a>puericulture.<a name='6_FNanchor_4'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_4'><sup>[4]</sup></a> The task of
+creating a man needs the whole of a woman's best energies, more especially
+during the three months before birth. It cannot be subordinated to the tax
+on strength involved by manual or mental labor, or even strenuous social
+duties and amusements. The numerous experiments and observations which
+have been made during recent years in Maternity Hospitals, more especially
+in France, have shown conclusively that not only the present and future
+well-being of the mother and the ease of her confinement, but the fate of
+the child, are immensely influenced by rest during the last month of
+pregnancy. &quot;Every working woman is entitled to rest during the last three
+months of her pregnancy.&quot; This formula was adopted by the International
+Congress of Hygiene in 1900, but it cannot be practically carried out
+except by the co&ouml;peration of the whole community. For it is not enough to
+say that a woman ought to rest during pregnancy; it is the business of the
+community to ensure that that rest is duly secured. The woman herself, and
+her employer, we may be certain, will do their best to cheat the
+community, but it is the community which suffers, both economically and
+morally, when a woman casts her inferior children into the world, and in
+its own interests the community is forced to control both employer and
+employed. We can no longer allow it to be said, in Bouchacourt's words,
+that &quot;to-day the dregs of the human species&mdash;the blind, the deaf-mute, the
+degenerate, the nervous, the vicious, the idiotic, the imbecile, the
+cretins and epileptics&mdash;are better protected than pregnant women.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_5'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_5'><sup>[5]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Pinard, who must always be honored as one of the founders of
+    eugenics, has, together with his pupils, done much to prepare the
+    way <a name='6_Page_8'></a>for the acceptance of this simple but important principle by
+    making clear the grounds on which it is based. From prolonged
+    observations on the pregnant women of all classes Pinard has
+    shown conclusively that women who rest during pregnancy have
+    finer children than women who do not rest. Apart from the more
+    general evils of work during pregnancy, Pinard found that during
+    the later months it had a tendency to press the uterus down into
+    the pelvis, and so cause the premature birth of undeveloped
+    children, while labor was rendered more difficult and dangerous
+    (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Pinard, <i>Gazette des H&ocirc;pitaux</i>, Nov. 28, 1895, Id.,
+    <i>Annales de Gyn&eacute;cologie</i>, Aug., 1898).</p>
+
+<p>    Letourneux has studied the question whether repose during
+    pregnancy is necessary for women whose professional work is only
+    slightly fatiguing. He investigated 732 successive confinements
+    at the Clinique Baudelocque in Paris. He found that 137 women
+    engaged in fatiguing occupations (servants, cooks, etc.) and not
+    resting during pregnancy, produced children with an average
+    weight of 3,081 grammes; 115 women engaged in only slightly
+    fatiguing occupations (dressmakers, milliners, etc.) and also not
+    resting during pregnancy, had children with an average weight of
+    3,130 grammes, a slight but significant difference, in view of
+    the fact that the women of the first group were large and robust,
+    while those of the second group were of slight and elegant build.
+    Again, comparing groups of women who rested during pregnancy, it
+    was found that the women accustomed to fatiguing work had
+    children with an average weight of 3,319 grammes, while those
+    accustomed to less fatiguing work had children with an average
+    weight of 3,318 grammes. The difference between repose and
+    non-repose is thus considerable, while it also enables robust
+    women exercising a fatiguing occupation to catch up, though not
+    to surpass, the frailer women exercising a less fatiguing
+    occupation. We see, too, that even in the comparatively
+    unfatiguing occupations of milliners, etc., rest during pregnancy
+    still remains important, and cannot safely be dispensed with.
+    &quot;Society,&quot; Letourneux concludes, &quot;must guarantee rest to women
+    not well off during a part of pregnancy. It will be repaid the
+    cost of doing so by the increased vigor of the children thus
+    produced&quot; (Letourneux, <i>De l'Influence de la Profession de la
+    M&egrave;re sur le Poids de l'Enfant</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1897).</p>
+
+<p>    Dr. Dweira-Bernson (<i>Revue Pratique d'Obst&eacute;trique et de
+    P&eacute;diatrie</i>, 1903, p. 370), compared four groups of pregnant women
+    (servants with light work, servants with heavy work, farm girls,
+    dressmakers) who rested for three months before confinement with
+    four groups similarly composed who took no rest before
+    confinement. In every group he found that the difference in the
+    average weight of the child was markedly in favor of the women
+    who rested, and it was notable that the greatest difference was
+    found in the case of the farm girls who were probably the most
+    robust and also the hardest worked.</p><a name='6_Page_9'></a>
+
+<p>    The usual time of gestation ranges between 274 and 280 days (or
+    280 to 290 days from the last menstrual period), and occasionally
+    a few days longer, though there is dispute as to the length of
+    the extreme limit, which some authorities would extend to 300
+    days, or even to 320 days (Pinard, in Richet's <i>Dictionnaire de
+    Physiologie</i>, vol. vii, pp. 150-162; Taylor, <i>Medical
+    Jurisprudence</i>, fifth edition, pp. 44, 98 <i>et seq.</i>; L. M. Allen,
+    &quot;Prolonged Gestation,&quot; <i>American Journal Obstetrics</i>, April,
+    1907). It is possible, as M&uuml;ller suggested in 1898 in a Th&egrave;se de
+    Nancy, that civilization tends to shorten the period of
+    gestation, and that in earlier ages it was longer than it is now.
+    Such a tendency to premature birth under the exciting nervous
+    influences of civilization would thus correspond, as Bouchacourt
+    has pointed out (<i>La Grossesse</i>, p. 113), to the similar effect
+    of domestication in animals. The robust countrywoman becomes
+    transformed into the more graceful, but also more fragile, town
+    woman who needs a degree of care and hygiene which the
+    countrywoman with her more resistant nervous system can to some
+    extent dispense with, although even she, as we see, suffers in
+    the person of her child, and probably in her own person, from the
+    effects of work during pregnancy. The serious nature of this
+    civilized tendency to premature birth&mdash;of which lack of rest in
+    pregnancy is, however, only one of several important causes&mdash;is
+    shown by the fact that S&eacute;ropian (<i>Fr&eacute;quence Compar&eacute;e des Causes
+    de l'Accouchement Pr&eacute;mature</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1907) found that
+    about one-third of French births (32.28 per cent.) are to a
+    greater or less extent premature. Pregnancy is not a morbid
+    condition; on the contrary, a pregnant woman is at the climax of
+    her most normal physiological life, but owing to the tension thus
+    involved she is specially liable to suffer from any slight shock
+    or strain.</p>
+
+<p>    It must be remarked that the increased tendency to premature
+    birth, while in part it may be due to general tendencies of
+    civilization, is also in part due to very definite and
+    preventable causes. Syphilis, alcoholism, and attempts to produce
+    abortion are among the not uncommon causes of premature birth
+    (see, <i>e.g.</i>, G. F. McCleary, &quot;The Influence of Antenatal
+    Conditions on Infantile Mortality,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>,
+    Aug. 13, 1904).</p>
+
+<p>    Premature birth ought to be avoided, because the child born too
+    early is insufficiently equipped for the task before him.
+    Astengo, dealing with nearly 19,000 cases at the Lariboisi&egrave;re
+    Hospital in Paris and the Maternit&eacute;, found, that reckoning from
+    the date of the last menstruation, there is a direct relation
+    between the weight of the infant at birth and the length of the
+    pregnancy. The longer the pregnancy, the finer the child
+    (Astengo, <i>Rapport du Poids des Enfants &agrave; la Dur&eacute;e de la
+    Grossesse</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>    The frequency of premature birth is probably as great in England
+    as in France. Ballantyne states (<i>Manual of Antenatal Pathology;
+    The<a name='6_Page_10'></a> F&oelig;tus</i>, p. 456) that for practical purposes the
+    frequency of premature labors in maternity hospitals may be put
+    at 20 per cent., but that if all infants weighing less than 3,000
+    grammes are to be regarded as premature, it rises to 41.5 per
+    cent. That premature birth is increasing in England seems to be
+    indicated by the fact that during the past twenty-five years
+    there has been a steady rise in the mortality rate from premature
+    birth. McCleary, who discusses this point and considers the
+    increase real, concludes that &quot;it would appear that there has
+    been a diminution in the quality as well as in the quantity of
+    our output of babies&quot; (see also a discussion, introduced by
+    Dawson Williams, on &quot;Physical Deterioration,&quot; <i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, Oct. 14, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>    It need scarcely be pointed out that not only is immaturity a
+    cause of deterioration in the infants that survive, but that it
+    alone serves enormously to decrease the number of infants that
+    are able to survive. Thus G. Newman states (<i>loc. cit.</i>) that in
+    most large English urban districts immaturity is the chief cause
+    of infant mortality, furnishing about 30 per cent. of the infant
+    deaths; even in London (Islington) Alfred Harris (<i>British
+    Medical Journal</i>, Dec. 14, 1907) finds that it is responsible for
+    nearly 17 per cent. of the infantile deaths. It is estimated by
+    Newman that about half of the mothers of infants dying of
+    immaturity suffer from marked ill-health and poor physique; they
+    are not, therefore, fitted to be mothers.</p>
+
+<p>    Rest during pregnancy is a very powerful agent in preventing
+    premature birth. Thus Dr. Sarraute-Louri&eacute; has compared 1,550
+    pregnant women at the Asile Michelet who rested before
+    confinement with 1,550 women confined at the H&ocirc;pital Lariboisi&egrave;re
+    who had enjoyed no such period of rest. She found that the
+    average duration of pregnancy was at least twenty days shorter in
+    the latter group (Mme. Sarraute-Louri&eacute;, <i>De l'Influence du Repos
+    sur la Dur&eacute;e de la Gestation</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1899).</p>
+
+<p>    Leyboff has insisted on the absolute necessity of rest during
+    pregnancy, as well for the sake of the woman herself as the
+    burden she carries, and shows the evil results which follow when
+    rest is neglected. Railway traveling, horse-riding, bicycling,
+    and sea-voyages are also, Leyboff believes, liable to be
+    injurious to the course of pregnancy. Leyboff recognizes the
+    difficulties which procreating women are placed under by present
+    industrial conditions, and concludes that &quot;it is urgently
+    necessary to prevent women, by law, from working during the last
+    three months of pregnancy; that in every district there should be
+    a maternity fund; that during this enforced rest a woman should
+    receive the same salary as during work.&quot; He adds that the
+    children of unmarried mothers should be cared for by the State,
+    that there should be an eight-hours' day for all workers, and
+    that no children under sixteen should be allowed to work (E.
+    Leyboff, <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne de la Grossesse</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1905).</p><a name='6_Page_11'></a>
+
+<p>    Perruc states that at least two months' rest before confinement
+    should be made compulsory, and that during this period the woman
+    should receive an indemnity regulated by the State. He is of
+    opinion that it should take the form of compulsory assurance, to
+    which the worker, the employer, and the State alike contributed
+    (Perruc, <i>Assistance aux Femmes Enceintes</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris,
+    1905).</p>
+
+<p>    It is probable that during the earlier months of pregnancy, work,
+    if not excessively heavy and exhausting, has little or no bad
+    effect; thus Bacchimont (<i>Documents pour servir a l'Histoire de
+    la Pu&eacute;riculture Intra-ut&eacute;rine</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1898) found that,
+    while there was a great gain in the weight of children of mothers
+    who had rested for three months, there was no corresponding gain
+    in the children of those mothers who had rested for longer
+    periods. It is during the last three months that freedom, repose,
+    the cessation of the obligatory routine of employment become
+    necessary. This is the opinion of Pinard, the chief authority on
+    this matter. Many, however, fearing that economic and industrial
+    conditions render so long a period of rest too difficult of
+    practical attainment, are, with Clappier and G. Newman, content
+    to demand two months as a minimum; Salvat only asks for one
+    month's rest before confinement, the woman, whether married or
+    not, receiving a pecuniary indemnity during this period, with
+    medical care and drugs free. Ballantyne (<i>Manual of Antenatal
+    Pathology: The F&oelig;tus</i>, p. 475), as well as Niven, also
+    asks only for one month's compulsory rest during pregnancy, with
+    indemnity. Arthur Helme, however, taking a more comprehensive
+    view of all the factors involved, concludes in a valuable paper
+    on &quot;The Unborn Child: Its Care and Its Rights&quot; (<i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, Aug. 24, 1907), &quot;The important thing would be to
+    prohibit pregnant women from going to work at all, and it is as
+    important from the standpoint of the child that this prohibition
+    should include the early as the late months of pregnancy.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In England little progress has yet been made as regards this
+    question of rest during pregnancy, even as regards the education
+    of public opinion. Sir William Sinclair, Professor of Obstetrics
+    at the Victoria University of Manchester, has published (1907) <i>A
+    Plea for Establishing Municipal Maternity Homes</i>. Ballantyne, a
+    great British authority on the embryology of the child, has
+    published a &quot;Plea for a Pre-Maternity Hospital&quot; (<i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, April 6, 1901), has since given an important lecture on
+    the subject (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Jan. 11, 1908), and has
+    further discussed the matter in his <i>Manual of Ante-Natal
+    Pathology: The F&oelig;tus</i> (Ch. XXVII); he is, however, more
+    interested in the establishment of hospitals for the diseases of
+    pregnancy than in the wider and more fundamental question of rest
+    for all pregnant women. In England there are, indeed, a few
+    institutions which receive unmarried women, with a record of good
+    conduct, who are pregnant for the <a name='6_Page_12'></a>first time, for, as
+    Bouchacourt remarks, ancient British prejudices are opposed to
+    any mercy being shown to women who are recidivists in committing
+    the crime of conception.</p>
+
+<p>    At present, indeed, it is only in France that the urgent need of
+    rest during the latter months of pregnancy has been clearly
+    realized, and any serious and official attempts made to provide
+    for it. In an interesting Paris thesis (<i>De la Pu&eacute;riculture avant
+    le Naissance</i>, 1907) Clappier has brought together much
+    information bearing on the efforts now being made to deal
+    practically with this question. There are many <i>Asiles</i> in Paris
+    for pregnant women. One of the best is the Asile Michelet,
+    founded in 1893 by the Assistance Publique de Paris. This is a
+    sanatorium for pregnant women who have reached a period of seven
+    and a half months. It is nominally restricted to the admission of
+    French women who have been domiciled for a year in Paris, but, in
+    practice, it appears that women from all parts of France are
+    received. They are employed in light and occasional work for the
+    institution, being paid for this work, and are also occupied in
+    making clothes for the expected baby. Married and unmarried women
+    are admitted alike, all women being equal from the point of view
+    of motherhood, and indeed the majority of the women who come to
+    the Asile Michelet are unmarried, some being girls who have even
+    trudged on foot from Brittany and other remote parts of France,
+    to seek concealment from their friends in the hospitable
+    seclusion of these refuges in the great city. It is not the least
+    advantage of these institutions that they shield unmarried
+    mothers and their offspring from the manifold evils to which they
+    are exposed, and thus tend to decrease crime and suffering. In
+    addition to the maternity refuges, there are institutions in
+    France for assisting with help and advice those pregnant women
+    who prefer to remain at home, but are thus enabled to avoid the
+    necessity for undue domestic labor.</p>
+
+<p>    There ought to be no manner of doubt that when, as is the case
+    to-day in our own and some other supposedly civilized countries,
+    motherhood outside marriage is accounted as almost a crime, there
+    is the very greatest need for adequate provision for unmarried
+    women who are about to become mothers, enabling them to receive
+    shelter and care in secrecy, and to preserve their self-respect
+    and social position. This is necessary not only in the interests
+    of humanity and public economy, but also, as is too often
+    forgotten, in the interests of morality, for it is certain that
+    by the neglect to furnish adequate provision of this nature women
+    are driven to infanticide and prostitution. In earlier, more
+    humane days, the general provision for the secret reception and
+    care of illegitimate infants was undoubtedly most beneficial. The
+    suppression of the medi&aelig;val method, which in France took place
+    gradually between 1833 and 1862, led to a great increase in
+    infanticide and abortion, and was a direct encouragement to crime
+    and immorality. In 1887 the<a name='6_Page_13'></a> Conseil G&eacute;n&eacute;ral of the Seine sought
+    to replace the prevailing neglect of this matter by the adoption
+    of more enlightened ideas and founded a <i>bureau secret
+    d'admission</i> for pregnant women. Since then both the abandonment
+    of infants and infanticide have greatly diminished, though they
+    are increasing in those parts of France which possess no
+    facilities of this kind. It is widely held that the State should
+    unify the arrangements for assuring secret maternity, and should,
+    in its own interests, undertake the expense. In 1904 French law
+    ensured the protection of unmarried mothers by guaranteeing their
+    secret, but it failed to organize the general establishment of
+    secret maternities, and has left to doctors the pioneering part
+    in this great and humane public work (A. Maillard-Brune,
+    <i>Refuges, Maternit&eacute;s, Bureaux d'Admission Secrets, comme Moyens
+    Pr&eacute;servatives des Infanticide</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1908). It is not
+    among the least benefits of the falling birth rate that it has
+    helped to stimulate this beneficent movement.</p></div>
+
+<p>The development of an industrial system which subordinates the human body
+and the human soul to the thirst for gold, has, for a time, dismissed from
+social consideration the interests of the race and even of the individual,
+but it must be remembered that this has not been always and everywhere so.
+Although in some parts of the world the women of savage peoples work up to
+the time of confinement, it must be remarked that the conditions of work
+in savage life do not resemble the strenuous and continuous labor of
+modern factories. In many parts of the world, however, women are not
+allowed to work hard during pregnancy and every consideration is shown to
+them. This is so, for instance, among the Pueblo Indians, and among the
+Indians of Mexico. Similar care is taken in the Carolines and the Gilbert
+Islands and in many other regions all over the world. In some places,
+women are secluded during pregnancy, and in others are compelled to
+observe many more or less excellent rules. It is true that the assigned
+cause for these rules is frequently the fear of evil spirits, but they
+nevertheless often preserve a hygienic value. In many parts of the world
+the discovery of pregnancy is the sign for a festival of more or less
+ritual character, and much good advice is given to the expectant mother.
+The modern Musselmans are careful to guard the health of their women when
+pregnant, <a name='6_Page_14'></a>and so are the Chinese.<a name='6_FNanchor_6'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_6'><sup>[6]</sup></a> Even in Europe, in the thirteenth
+century, as Clappier notes, industrial corporations sometimes had regard
+to this matter, and would not allow women to work during pregnancy. In
+Iceland, where much of the primitive life of Scandinavian Europe is still
+preserved, great precautions are taken with pregnant women. They must lead
+a quiet life, avoid tight garments, be moderate in eating and drinking,
+take no alcohol, be safeguarded from all shocks, while their husbands and
+all others who surround them must treat them with consideration, save them
+from worry and always bear with them patiently.<a name='6_FNanchor_7'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_7'><sup>[7]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to emphasize this point because we have to realize that
+the modern movement for surrounding the pregnant woman with tenderness and
+care, so far from being the mere outcome of civilized softness and
+degeneracy, is, in all probability, the return on a higher plane to the
+sane practice of those races which laid the foundations of human
+greatness.</p>
+
+<p>While rest is the cardinal virtue imposed on a woman during the later
+months of pregnancy, there are other points in her regimen that are far
+from unimportant in their bearing on the fate of the child. One of these
+is the question of the mother's use of alcohol. Undoubtedly alcohol has
+been a cause of much fanaticism. But the declamatory extravagance of
+anti-alcoholists must not blind us to the fact that the evils of alcohol
+<a name='6_Page_15'></a>are real. On the reproductive process especially, on the mammary glands,
+and on the child, alcohol has an arresting and degenerative influence
+without any compensatory advantages. It has been proved by experiments on
+animals and observations on the human subject that alcohol taken by the
+pregnant woman passes freely from the maternal circulation to the fo&oelig;tal
+circulation. F&eacute;r&eacute; has further shown that, by injecting alcohol and
+aldehydes into hen's eggs during incubation, it is possible to cause
+arrest of development and malformation in the chick.<a name='6_FNanchor_8'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_8'><sup>[8]</sup></a> The woman who is
+bearing her child in her womb or suckling it at her breast would do well
+to remember that the alcohol which may be harmless to herself is little
+better than poison to the immature being who derives nourishment from her
+blood. She should confine herself to the very lightest of alcoholic
+beverages in very moderate amounts and would do better still to abandon
+these entirely and drink milk instead. She is now the sole source of the
+child's life and she cannot be too scrupulous in creating around it an
+atmosphere of purity and health. No after-influence can ever compensate
+for mistakes made at this time.<a name='6_FNanchor_9'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_9'><sup>[9]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>What is true of alcohol is equally true of other potent drugs and poisons,
+which should all be avoided so far as possible during pregnancy because of
+the harmful influence they may directly exert on the embryo. Hygiene is
+better than drugs, and care should be exercised in diet, which should by
+no means be excessive. It is a mistake to suppose that the pregnant woman
+needs considerably more food than usual, and there is much reason to
+<a name='6_Page_16'></a>believe not only that a rich meat diet tends to cause sterility but that
+it is also unfavorable to the development of the child in the womb.<a name='6_FNanchor_10'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_10'><sup>[10]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>How far, if at all, it is often asked, should sexual intercourse be
+continued after fecundation has been clearly ascertained? This has not
+always been found an easy question to answer, for in the human couple many
+considerations combine to complicate the answer. Even the Catholic
+theologians have not been entirely in agreement on this point. Clement of
+Alexandria said that when the seed had been sown the field must be left
+till harvest. But it may be concluded that, as a rule, the Church was
+inclined to regard intercourse during pregnancy as at most a venial sin,
+provided there was no danger of abortion. Augustine, Gregory the Great,
+Aquinas, Dens, for instance, seem to be of this mind; for a few, indeed,
+it is no sin at all.<a name='6_FNanchor_11'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_11'><sup>[11]</sup></a> Among animals the rule is simple and uniform; as
+soon as the female is impregnated at the period of &oelig;strus she
+absolutely rejects all advance of the male until, after birth and
+lactation are over, another period of &oelig;strus occurs. Among
+savages the tendency is less uniform, and sexual abstinence, when it
+occurs during pregnancy, tends to become less a natural instinct than a
+ritual observance, or a custom now chiefly supported by superstitions.
+Among many primitive peoples abstinence during the whole of pregnancy is
+enjoined because it is believed that the semen would kill the f&oelig;tus.<a name='6_FNanchor_12'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_12'><sup>[12]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Talmud is unfavorable to coitus during pregnancy, and the
+    Koran prohibits it during the whole of the period, as well as
+    during suckling. Among the Hindus, on the other hand, intercourse
+    is continued up to the last fortnight of pregnancy, and it is
+    even believed that the injected semen helps to nourish the embryo
+    (W. D. Sutherland,<a name='6_Page_17'></a> &quot;Ueber das Alltagsleben und die Volksmedizin
+    unter den Bauern Britischostindiens,&quot; <i>M&uuml;nchener Medizinische
+    Wochenschrift</i>, Nos. 12 and 13, 1906). The great Indian physician
+    Susruta, however, was opposed to coitus during pregnancy, and the
+    Chinese are emphatically on the same side.</p></div>
+
+<p>As men have emerged from barbarism in the direction of civilization, the
+animal instinct of refusal after impregnation has been completely lost in
+women, while at the same time both sexes tend to become indifferent to
+those ritual restraints which at an earlier period were almost as binding
+as instinct. Sexual intercourse thus came to be practiced after
+impregnation, much the same as before, as part of ordinary &quot;marital
+rights,&quot; though sometimes there has remained a faint suspicion, reflected
+in the hesitating attitude of the Catholic Church already alluded to, that
+such intercourse may be a sinful indulgence. Morality is, however, called
+in to fortify this indulgence. If the husband is shut out from marital
+intercourse at this time, it is argued, he will seek extra-marital
+intercourse, as indeed in some parts of the world it is recognized that he
+legitimately may; therefore the interests of the wife, anxious to retain
+her husband's fidelity, and the interests of Christian morality, anxious
+to uphold the institution of monogamy, combine to permit the continuation
+of coitus during pregnancy. The custom has been furthered by the fact
+that, in civilized women at all events, coitus during pregnancy is usually
+not less agreeable than at other times and by some women is felt indeed to
+be even more agreeable.<a name='6_FNanchor_13'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_13'><sup>[13]</sup></a> There is also the further consideration, for
+those couples who have sought to prevent conception, that now intercourse
+may be enjoyed with impunity. From a higher point of view such intercourse
+may also be justified, for if, as all the finer moralists of the sexual
+impulse now believe, love has its value not only in so far as it induces
+procreation but also in so far as it aids individual <a name='6_Page_18'></a>development and the
+mutual good and harmony of the united couple, it becomes morally right
+during pregnancy.</p>
+
+<p>From an early period, however, great authorities have declared themselves
+in opposition to the custom of practicing coitus during pregnancy. At the
+end of the first century, Soranus, the first of great gyn&aelig;cologists,
+stated, in his treatise on the diseases of women, that sexual intercourse
+is injurious throughout pregnancy, because of the movement imparted to the
+uterus, and especially injurious during the latter months. For more than
+sixteen hundred years the question, having fallen into the hands of the
+theologians, seems to have been neglected on the medical side until in
+1721 a distinguished French obstetrician, Mauriceau, stated that no
+pregnant woman should have intercourse during the last two months and that
+no woman subject to miscarriage should have intercourse at all during
+pregnancy. For more than a century, however, Mauriceau remained a pioneer
+with few or no followers. It would be inconvenient, the opinion went, even
+if it were necessary, to forbid intercourse during pregnancy.<a name='6_FNanchor_14'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_14'><sup>[14]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>During recent years, nevertheless, there has been an increasingly strong
+tendency among obstetricians to speak decisively concerning intercourse
+during pregnancy, either by condemning it altogether or by enjoining great
+prudence. It is highly probable that, in accordance with the classical
+experiments of Dareste on chicken embryos, shocks and disturbances to the
+human embryo may also produce injurious effects on growth. The disturbance
+due to coitus in the early stages of pregnancy may thus tend to produce
+malformation. When such conditions are found in the children of perfectly
+healthy, vigorous, and generally temperate parents who have indulged
+recklessly in coitus <a name='6_Page_19'></a>during the early stages of pregnancy it is possible
+that such coitus has acted on the embryo in the same way as shocks and
+intoxications are known to act on the embryo of lower organisms. However
+this may be, it is quite certain that in predisposed women, coitus during
+pregnancy causes premature birth; it sometimes happens that labor pains
+begin a few minutes after the act.<a name='6_FNanchor_15'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_15'><sup>[15]</sup></a> The natural instinct of animals
+refuses to allow intercourse during pregnancy; the ritual observance of
+primitive peoples very frequently points in the same direction; the voice
+of medical science, so far as it speaks at all, is beginning to utter the
+same warning, and before long will probably be in a position to do so on
+the basis of more solid and coherent evidence.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Pinard, the greatest of authorities on puericulture, asserts that
+    there must be complete cessation of sexual intercourse during the
+    whole of pregnancy, and in his consulting room at the Clinique
+    Baudelocque he has placed a large placard with an &quot;Important
+    Notice&quot; to this effect. F&eacute;r&eacute; was strongly of opinion that sexual
+    relations during pregnancy, especially when recklessly carried
+    out, play an important part in the causation of nervous troubles
+    in children who are of sound heredity and otherwise free from all
+    morbid infection during gestation and development; he recorded in
+    detail a case which he considered conclusive (&quot;L'Influence de
+    l'Incontinence Sexuelle pendant la Gestation sur la Descendance,&quot;
+    <i>Archives de Neurologie</i>, April, 1905). Bouchacourt discusses the
+    subject fully (<i>La Grossesse</i>, pp. 177-214), and thinks that
+    sexual intercourse during pregnancy should be avoided as much as
+    possible. F&uuml;rbringer (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 226) recommends abstinence from
+    the sixth or seventh month, and throughout the whole of pregnancy
+    where there is any tendency to miscarriage, while in all cases
+    much care and gentleness should be exercised.</p>
+
+<p>    The whole subject has been investigated in a Paris Thesis by H.
+    Br&eacute;not (<i>De L'Influence de la Copulation pendant la Grossesse</i>,
+    1903); he concludes that sexual relations are dangerous
+    throughout pregnancy, frequently provoking premature confinement
+    or abortion, and that they are more dangerous in primipar&aelig; than
+    in multipar&aelig;.</p></div><a name='6_Page_20'></a>
+
+<p>Nearly everything that has been said of the hygiene of pregnancy, and the
+need for rest, applies also to the period immediately following the birth
+of the child. Rest and hygiene on the mother's part continue to be
+necessary alike in her own interests and in the child's. This need has
+indeed been more generally and more practically recognized than the need
+for rest during pregnancy. The laws of several countries make compulsory a
+period of rest from employment after confinement, and in some countries
+they seek to provide for the remuneration of the mother during this
+enforced rest. In no country, indeed, is the principle carried out so
+thoroughly and for so long a period as is desirable. But it is the right
+principle, and embodies the germ which, in the future, will be developed.
+There can be little doubt that whatever are the matters, and they are
+certainly many, which may be safely left to the discretion of the
+individual, the care of the mother and her child is not among them. That
+is a matter which, more than any other, concerns the community as a whole,
+and the community cannot afford to be slack in asserting its authority
+over it. The State needs healthy men and women, and by any negligence in
+attending to this need it inflicts serious charges of all sorts upon
+itself, and at the same time dangerously impairs its efficiency in the
+world. Nations have begun to recognize the desirability of education, but
+they have scarcely yet begun to realize that the nationalization of health
+is even more important than the nationalization of education. If it were
+necessary to choose between the task of getting children educated and the
+task of getting them well-born and healthy it would be better to abandon
+education. There have been many great peoples who never dreamed of
+national systems of education; there has been no great people without the
+art of producing healthy and vigorous children.</p>
+
+<p>This matter becomes of peculiar importance in great industrial states like
+England, the United States, and Germany, because in such states a tacit
+conspiracy tends to grow up to subordinate national ends to individual
+ends, and practically to work for the deterioration of the race. In
+England, for instance, this tendency has become peculiarly well marked
+with <a name='6_Page_21'></a>disastrous results. The interest of the employed woman tends to
+become one with that of her employer; between them they combine to crush
+the interests of the child who represents the race, and to defeat the laws
+made in the interests of the race which are those of the community as a
+whole. The employed woman wishes to earn as much wages as she can and with
+as little interruption as she can; in gratifying that wish she is, at the
+same time, acting in the interests of the employer, who carefully avoids
+thwarting her.</p>
+
+<p>This impulse on the employed woman's part is by no means always and
+entirely the result of poverty, and would not, therefore, be removed by
+raising her wages. Long before marriage, when little more than a child,
+she has usually gone out to work, and work has become a second nature. She
+has mastered her work, she enjoys a certain position and what to her are
+high wages; she is among her friends and companions; the noise and bustle
+and excitement of the work-room or the factory have become an agreeable
+stimulant which she can no longer do without. On the other hand, her home
+means nothing to her; she only returns there to sleep, leaving it next
+morning at day-break or earlier; she is ignorant even of the simplest
+domestic arts; she moves about in her own home like a strange and awkward
+child. The mere act of marriage cannot change this state of things;
+however willing she may be at marriage to become a domesticated wife, she
+is destitute alike of the inclination or the skill for domesticity. Even
+in spite of herself she is driven back to the work-shop, to the one place
+where she feels really at home.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In Germany women are not allowed to work for four weeks after
+    confinement, nor during the following two weeks except by medical
+    certificate. The obligatory insurance against disease which
+    covers women at confinement assures them an indemnity at this
+    time equivalent to a large part of their wages. Married and
+    unmarried mothers benefit alike. The Austrian law is founded on
+    the same model. This measure has led to a very great decrease in
+    infantile mortality, and, therefore, a great increase in health
+    among those who survive. It is, however, regarded as very
+    inadequate, and there is a movement in Germany for extending the
+    time, for applying the system to a larger number of women, and
+    for making it still more definitely compulsory.</p><a name='6_Page_22'></a>
+
+<p>    In Switzerland it has been illegal since 1877 for any woman to be
+    received into a factory after confinement, unless she has rested
+    in all for eight weeks, six weeks at least of this period being
+    after confinement. Since 1898 Swiss working women have been
+    protected by law from exercising hard work during pregnancy, and
+    from various other influences likely to be injurious. But this
+    law is evaded in practice, because it provides no compensatory
+    indemnity for the woman. An attempt, in 1899, to amend the law by
+    providing for such indemnity was rejected by the people.</p>
+
+<p>    In Belgium and Holland there are laws against women working
+    immediately after confinement, but no indemnity is provided, so
+    that employers and employed combine to evade the law. In France
+    there is no such law, although its necessity has often been
+    emphatically asserted (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Salvat, <i>La D&eacute;population de
+    la France</i>, Th&egrave;se de Lyon, 1903).</p>
+
+<p>    In England it is illegal to employ a woman &quot;knowingly&quot; in a
+    work-shop within four weeks of the birth of her child, but no
+    provision is made by the law for the compensation of the woman
+    who is thus required to sacrifice herself to the interests of the
+    State. The woman evades the law in tacit collusion with her
+    employers, who can always avoid &quot;knowing&quot; that a birth has taken
+    place, and so escape all responsibility for the mother's
+    employment. Thus the factory inspectors are unable to take
+    action, and the law becomes a dead letter; in 1906 only one
+    prosecution for this offense could be brought into court. By the
+    insertion of this &quot;knowingly&quot; a premium is placed on ignorance.
+    The unwisdom of thus beforehand placing a premium on ignorance
+    has always been more or less clearly recognized by the framers of
+    legal codes even as far back as the days of the Ten Commandments
+    and the laws of Hamurabi. It is the business of the Court, of
+    those who administer the law, to make allowance for ignorance
+    where such allowance is fairly called for; it is not for the
+    law-maker to make smooth the path of the law-breaker. There are
+    evidently law-makers nowadays so scrupulous, or so simple-minded,
+    that they would be prepared to exact that no pickpocket should be
+    prosecuted if he was able to declare on oath that he had no
+    &quot;knowledge&quot; that the purse he had taken belonged to the person he
+    extracted it from.</p>
+
+<p>    The annual reports of the English factory inspectors serve to
+    bring ridicule on this law, which looks so wisely humane and yet
+    means nothing, but have so far been powerless to effect any
+    change. These reports show, moreover, that the difficulty is
+    increasing in magnitude. Thus Miss Martindale, a factory
+    inspector, states that in all the towns she visits, from a quiet
+    cathedral city to a large manufacturing town, the employment of
+    married women is rapidly increasing; they have worked in mills or
+    factories all their lives and are quite unaccustomed to cooking,
+    housework and the rearing of children, so that after marriage,
+    <a name='6_Page_23'></a>even when not compelled by poverty, they prefer to go on working
+    as before. Miss Vines, another factory inspector, repeats the
+    remark of a woman worker in a factory. &quot;I do not need to work,
+    but I do not like staying at home,&quot; while another woman said, &quot;I
+    would rather be at work a hundred times than at home. I get lost
+    at home&quot; (<i>Annual Report Chief Inspector of Factories and
+    Workshops for 1906</i>, pp. 325, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>    It may be added that not only is the English law enjoining four
+    weeks' rest on the mother after childbirth practically
+    inoperative, but the period itself is absurdly inadequate. As a
+    rest for the mother it is indeed sufficient, but the State is
+    still more interested in the child than in its mother, and the
+    child needs the mother's chief care for a much longer period than
+    four weeks. Helme advocates the State prohibition of women's work
+    for at least six months after confinement. Where nurseries are
+    attached to factories, enabling the mother to suckle her infant
+    in intervals of work, the period may doubtless be shortened.</p>
+
+<p>    It is important to remember that it is by no means only the women
+    in factories who are induced to work as usual during the whole
+    period of pregnancy, and to return to work immediately after the
+    brief rest of confinement. The Research Committee of the
+    Christian Social Union (London Branch) undertook, in 1905, an
+    inquiry into the employment of women after childbirth. Women in
+    factories and workshops were excluded from the inquiry which only
+    had reference to women engaged in household duties, in home
+    industries, and in casual work. It was found that the majority
+    carry on their employment right up to the time of confinement and
+    resume it from ten to fourteen days later. The infantile death
+    rate for the children of women engaged only in household duties
+    was greatly lower than that for the children of the other women,
+    while, as ever, the hand-fed infants had a vastly higher death
+    rate than the breast-fed infants (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Oct.
+    24, 1908, p. 1297).</p>
+
+<p>    In the great French gun and armour-plate works at Creuzot (Sa&ocirc;ne
+    et Loire) the salaries of expectant mothers among the employees
+    are raised; arrangements are made for giving them proper advice
+    and medical attendance; they are not allowed to work after the
+    middle of pregnancy or to return to work after confinement
+    without a medical certificate of fitness. The results are said to
+    be excellent, not only on the health of the mothers, but in the
+    diminution of premature births, the decrease of infantile deaths,
+    and the general prevalence of breast-feeding. It would probably
+    be hopeless to expect many employers in Anglo-Saxon lands to
+    adopt this policy. They are too &quot;practical,&quot; they know how small
+    is the money-value of human lives. With us it is necessary for
+    the State to intervene.</p>
+
+<p>    There can be no doubt that, on the whole, modern civilized
+    communities are beginning to realize that under the social and
+    economic <a name='6_Page_24'></a>conditions now tending more and more to prevail, they
+    must in their own interests insure that the mother's best energy
+    and vitality are devoted to the child, both before and after its
+    birth. They are also realizing that they cannot carry out their
+    duty in this respect unless they make adequate provision for the
+    mothers who are thus compelled to renounce their employment in
+    order to devote themselves to their children. We here reach a
+    point at which Individualism is at one with Socialism. The
+    individualist cannot fail to see that it is at all cost necessary
+    to remove social conditions which crush out all individuality;
+    the Socialist cannot fail to see that a society which neglects to
+    introduce order at this central and vital point, the production
+    of the individual, must speedily perish.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is involved in the proper fulfilment of a mother's relationship to her
+infant child that, provided she is healthy, she should suckle it. Of
+recent years this question has become a matter of serious gravity. In the
+middle of the eighteenth century, when the upper-class women of France had
+grown disinclined to suckle their own children, Rousseau raised so loud
+and eloquent a protest that it became once more the fashion for a woman to
+fulfil her natural duties. At the present time, when the same evil is
+found once more, and in a far more serious form, for now it is not the
+small upper-class but the great lower-class that is concerned, the
+eloquence of a Rousseau would be powerless, for it is not fashion so much
+as convenience, and especially an intractable economic factor, that is
+chiefly concerned. Not the least urgent reason for putting women, and
+especially mothers, upon a sounder economic basis, is the necessity of
+enabling them to suckle their children.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>No woman is sound, healthy, and complete unless she possesses
+    breasts that are beautiful enough to hold the promise of being
+    functional when the time for their exercise arrives, and nipples
+    that can give suck. The gravity of this question to-day is shown
+    by the frequency with which women are lacking in this essential
+    element of womanhood, and the young man of to-day, it has been
+    said, often in taking a wife, &quot;actually marries but part of a
+    woman, the other part being exhibited in the chemist's shop
+    window, in the shape of a glass feeding-bottle.&quot; Blacker found
+    among a thousand patients from the maternity department of
+    University College Hospital that thirty-nine had never suckled at
+    all, seven hundred and forty-seven had suckled all their
+    children, and <a name='6_Page_25'></a>two hundred and fourteen had suckled only some.
+    The chief reason given for not suckling was absence or
+    insufficiency of milk; other reasons being inability or
+    disinclination to suckle, and refusal of the child to take the
+    breast (Blacker, <i>Medical Chronicle</i>, Feb., 1900). These results
+    among the London poor are certainly very much better than could
+    be found in many manufacturing towns where women work after
+    marriage. In the other large countries of Europe equally
+    unsatisfactory results are found. In Paris Madame Dluska has
+    shown that of 209 women who came for their confinement to the
+    Clinique Baudelocque, only 74 suckled their children; of the 135
+    who did not suckle, 35 were prevented by pathological causes or
+    absence of milk, 100 by the necessities of their work. Even those
+    who suckled could seldom continue more than seven months on
+    account of the physiological strain of work (Dluska,
+    <i>Contribution &agrave; l'Etude de l'Allaitement Maternel</i>, Th&egrave;se de
+    Paris, 1894). Many statistics have been gathered in the German
+    countries. Thus Wiedow (<i>Centralblatt f&uuml;r Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, No. 29,
+    1895) found that of 525 women at the Freiburg Maternity only half
+    could suckle thoroughly during the first two weeks; imperfect
+    nipples were noted in 49 cases, and it was found that the
+    development of the nipple bore a direct relation to the value of
+    the breast as a secretory organ. At Munich Escherich and B&uuml;ller
+    found that nearly 60 per cent. of women of the lower class were
+    unable to suckle their children, and at Stuttgart three-quarters
+    of the child-bearing women were in this condition.</p></div>
+
+<p>The reasons why children should be suckled at their mothers' breasts are
+larger than some may be inclined to believe. In the first place the
+psychological reason is one of no mean importance. The breast with its
+exquisitely sensitive nipple, vibrating in harmony with the sexual organs,
+furnishes the normal mechanism by which maternal love is developed. No
+doubt the woman who never suckles her child may love it, but such love is
+liable to remain defective on the fundamental and instinctive side. In
+some women, indeed, whom we may hesitate to call abnormal, maternal love
+fails to awaken at all until brought into action through this mechanism by
+the act of suckling.</p>
+
+<p>A more generally recognized and certainly fundamental reason for suckling
+the child is that the milk of the mother, provided she is reasonably
+healthy, is the infant's only ideally fit food. There are some people
+whose confidence in science leads them to believe that it is possible to
+manufacture foods that are <a name='6_Page_26'></a>as good or better than mother's milk; they
+fancy that the milk which is best for the calf is equally best for so
+different an animal as the baby. These are delusions. The infant's best
+food is that elaborated in his own mother's body. All other foods are more
+or less possible substitutes, which require trouble to prepare properly
+and are, moreover, exposed to various risks from which the mother's milk
+is free.</p>
+
+<p>A further reason, especially among the poor, against the use of any
+artificial foods is that it accustoms those around the child to try
+experiments with its feeding and to fancy that any kind of food they eat
+themselves may be good for the infant. It thus happens that bread and
+potatoes, brandy and gin, are thrust into infants' mouths. With the infant
+that is given the breast it is easier to make plain that, except by the
+doctor's orders, nothing else must be given.</p>
+
+<p>An additional reason why the mother should suckle her child is the close
+and frequent association with the child thus involved. Not only is the
+child better cared for in all respects, but the mother is not deprived of
+the discipline of such care, and is also enabled from the outset to learn
+and to understand the child's nature.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The inability to suckle acquires great significance if we realize
+    that it is associated, probably in a large measure as a direct
+    cause, with infantile mortality. The mortality of
+    artificially-fed infants during the first year of life is seldom
+    less than double that of the breast-fed, sometimes it is as much
+    as three times that of the breast-fed, or even more; thus at
+    Derby 51.7 per cent. of hand-fed infants die under the age of
+    twelve months, but only 8.6 per cent. of breast-fed infants.
+    Those who survive are by no means free from suffering. At the end
+    of the first year they are found to weigh about 25 per cent. less
+    than the breast-fed, and to be much shorter; they are more liable
+    to tuberculosis and rickets, with all the evil results that flow
+    from these diseases; and there is some reason to believe that the
+    development of their teeth is injuriously affected. The
+    degenerate character of the artificially-fed is well indicated by
+    the fact that of 40,000 children who were brought for treatment
+    to the Children's Hospital in Munich, 86 per cent. had been
+    brought up by hand, and the few who had been suckled had usually
+    only had the breast for a short time. The evil influence persists
+    even up to adult life. In some parts of France where the
+    wet-nurse industry <a name='6_Page_27'></a>flourishes so greatly that nearly all the
+    children are brought up by hand, it has been found that the
+    percentage of rejected conscripts is nearly double that for
+    France generally. Corresponding results have been found by
+    Friedjung in a large German athletic association. Among 155
+    members, 65 per cent. were found on inquiry to have been
+    breast-fed as infants (for an average of six months); but among
+    the best athletes the percentage of breast-fed rose to 72 per
+    cent. (for an average period of nine or ten months), while for
+    the group of 56 who stood lowest in athletic power the percentage
+    of breast-fed fell to 57 (for an average of only three months).</p>
+
+<p>    The advantages for an infant of being suckled by its mother are
+    greater than can be accounted for by the mere fact of being
+    suckled rather than hand-fed. This has been shown by Vitrey (<i>De
+    la Mortalit&eacute; Infantile</i>, Th&egrave;se de Lyon, 1907), who found from the
+    statistics of the H&ocirc;tel-Dieu at Lyons, that infants suckled by
+    their mothers have a mortality of only 12 per cent., but if
+    suckled by strangers, the mortality rises to 33 per cent. It may
+    be added that, while suckling is essential to the complete
+    well-being of the child, it is highly desirable for the sake of
+    the mother's health also. (Some important statistics are
+    summarized in a paper on &quot;Infantile Mortality&quot; in <i>British
+    Medical Journal</i>, Nov. 2, 1907), while the various aspects of
+    suckling have been thoroughly discussed by Bollinger, &quot;Ueber
+    S&auml;uglings-Sterblichkeit und die Erbliche functionelle Atrophie
+    der menschlichen Milchdr&uuml;se&quot; (<i>Correspondenzblatt Deutschen
+    Gesellschaft Anthropologie</i>, Oct., 1899).</p>
+
+<p>    It appears that in Sweden, in the middle of the eighteenth
+    century, it was a punishable offense for a woman to give her baby
+    the bottle when she was able to suckle it. In recent years Prof.
+    Anton von Menger, of Vienna, has argued (in his <i>Burgerliche
+    Recht und die Besitzlosen Klassen</i>) that the future generation
+    has the right to make this claim, and he proposes that every
+    mother shall be legally bound to suckle her child unless her
+    inability to do so has been certified by a physician. E. A.
+    Schroeder (<i>Das Recht in der Geschlechtlichen Ordnung</i>, 1893, p.
+    346) also argued that a mother should be legally bound to suckle
+    her infant for at least nine months, unless solid grounds could
+    be shown to the contrary, and this demand, which seems reasonable
+    and natural, since it is a mother's privilege as well as her duty
+    to suckle her infant when able to do so, has been insistently
+    made by others also. It has been supported from the legal side by
+    Weinberg (<i>Mutterschutz</i>, Sept., 1907). In France the Loi Roussel
+    forbids a woman to act as a wet-nurse until her child is seven
+    months old, and this has had an excellent effect in lowering
+    infantile mortality (A. All&eacute;e, <i>Pu&eacute;riculture et la Loi Roussel</i>,
+    Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1908). In some parts of Germany manufacturers are
+    compelled to set up a suckling-room in the factory, where mothers
+    can give the breast to the child in the intervals of work. The
+    <a name='6_Page_28'></a>control and upkeep of these rooms, with provision of doctors and
+    nurses, is undertaken by the municipality (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>,
+    Sept., 1908, p. 573).</p></div>
+
+<p>As things are to-day in modern industrial countries the righting of these
+wrongs cannot be left to Nature, that is, to the ignorant and untrained
+impulses of persons who live in a whirl of artificial life where the voice
+of instinct is drowned. The mother, we are accustomed to think, may be
+trusted to see to the welfare of her child, and it is unnecessary, or even
+&quot;immoral,&quot; to come to her assistance. Yet there are few things, I think,
+more pathetic than the sight of a young Lancashire mother who works in the
+mills, when she has to stay at home to nurse her sick child. She is used
+to rise before day-break to go to the mill; she has scarcely seen her
+child by the light of the sun, she knows nothing of its necessities, the
+hands that are so skilful to catch the loom cannot soothe the child. The
+mother gazes down at it in vague, awkward, speechless misery. It is not a
+sight one can ever forget.</p>
+
+<p>It is France that is taking the lead in the initiation of the scientific
+and practical movements for the care of the young child before and after
+birth, and it is in France that we may find the germs of nearly all the
+methods now becoming adopted for arresting infantile mortality. The
+village system of Villiers-le-Duc, near Dijon in the C&ocirc;te d'Or, has proved
+a germ of this fruitful kind. Here every pregnant woman not able to secure
+the right conditions for her own life and that of the child she is
+bearing, is able to claim the assistance of the village authorities; she
+is entitled, without payment, to the attendance of a doctor and midwife
+and to one franc a day during her confinement. The measures adopted in
+this village have practically abolished both maternal and infantile
+mortality. A few years ago Dr. Samson Moore, the medical officer of health
+for Huddersfield, heard of this village, and Mr. Benjamin Broadbent, the
+Mayor of Huddersfield, visited Villiers-le-Duc. It was resolved to
+initiate in Huddersfield a movement for combating infant mortality.
+Henceforth arose what is known as the Huddersfield scheme, a scheme which
+has been fruitful in splendid results. The points <a name='6_Page_29'></a>of the Huddersfield
+scheme are: (1) compulsory notification of births within forty-eight
+hours; (2) the appointment of lady assistant medical officers of help to
+visit the home, inquire, advise, and assist; (3) the organized aid of
+voluntary lady workers in subordination to the municipal part of the
+scheme; (4) appeal to the medical officer of help when the baby, not being
+under medical care, fails to thrive. The infantile mortality of
+Huddersfield has been very greatly reduced by this scheme.<a name='6_FNanchor_16'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_16'><sup>[16]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Huddersfield scheme may be said to be the origin of the
+    English Notification of Births Act, which came into operation in
+    1908. This Act represents, in England, the national inauguration
+    of a scheme for the betterment of the race, the ultimate results
+    of which it is impossible to foresee. When this Act comes into
+    universal action every baby of the land will be entitled&mdash;legally
+    and not by individual caprice or philanthropic condescension&mdash;to
+    medical attention from the day of birth, and every mother will
+    have at hand the counsel of an educated woman in touch with the
+    municipal authorities. There could be no greater triumph for
+    medical science, for national efficiency, and the cause of
+    humanity generally. Even on the lower financial plane, it is easy
+    to see that an enormous saving of public and private money will
+    thus be effected. The Act is adoptive, and not compulsory. This
+    was a wise precaution, for an Act of this kind cannot be
+    effectual unless it is carried out thoroughly by the community
+    adopting it, and it will not be adopted until a community has
+    clearly realized its advantages and the methods of attaining
+    them.</p>
+
+<p>    An important adjunct of this organization is the School for
+    Mothers. Such schools, which are now beginning to spring up
+    everywhere, may be said to have their origins in the
+    <i>Consultations de Nourrissons</i> (with their offshoot the <i>Goutte
+    de Lait</i>), established by Professor Budin in 1892, which have
+    spread all over France and been widely influential for good. At
+    the <i>Consultations</i> infants are examined and weighed weekly, and
+    the mothers advised and encouraged to suckle their children. The
+    <i>Gouttes</i> are practically milk dispensaries where infants for
+    whom breast-feeding is impossible are fed with milk under medical
+    supervision. Schools for Mothers represent an enlargement of the
+    same scheme, covering a variety of subjects which it is necessary
+    for a mother to know. Some of the first of these schools were
+    established at Bonn, at the Bavarian town of Weissenberg, and in
+    Ghent. At some of the<a name='6_Page_30'></a> Schools for Mothers, and notably at Ghent
+    (described by Mrs. Bertrand Russell in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>,
+    1906), the important step has been taken of giving training to
+    young girls from fourteen to eighteen; they receive instruction
+    in infant anatomy and physiology, in the preparation of
+    sterilized milk, in weighing children, in taking temperatures and
+    making charts, in managing cr&ecirc;ches, and after two years are able
+    to earn a salary. In various parts of England, schools for young
+    mothers and girls on these lines are now being established, first
+    in London, under the auspices of Dr. F. J. Sykes, Medical Officer
+    of Health for St. Pancreas (see, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>A School For Mothers</i>,
+    1908, describing an establishment of this kind at Somers Town,
+    with a preface by Sir Thomas Barlow; an account of recent
+    attempts to improve the care of infants in London will also be
+    found in the <i>Lancet</i>, Sept. 26, 1908). It may be added that some
+    English municipalities have established dep&ocirc;ts for supplying
+    mothers cheaply with good milk. Such dep&ocirc;ts are, however, likely
+    to be more mischievous than beneficial if they promote the
+    substitution of hand-feeding for suckling. They should never be
+    established except in connection with Schools for Mothers, where
+    an educational influence may be exerted, and no mother should be
+    supplied with milk unless she presents a medical certificate
+    showing that she is unable to nourish her child (Byers, &quot;Medical
+    Women and Public Health Questions,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>,
+    Oct. 6, 1906). It is noteworthy that in England the local
+    authorities will shortly be empowered by law to establish Schools
+    for Mothers.</p>
+
+<p>    The great benefits produced by these institutions in France, both
+    in diminishing the infant mortality and in promoting the
+    education of mothers and their pride and interest in their
+    children, have been set forth in two Paris theses by G. Chaignon
+    (<i>Organisation des Consultations de Nourrissons &agrave; la Campagne</i>,
+    1908), and Alcide Alexandre (<i>Consultation de Nourrissons et
+    Goutte de Lait d'Arques</i>, 1908).</p>
+
+<p>    The movement is now spreading throughout Europe, and an
+    International Union has been formed, including all the
+    institutions specially founded for the protection of child life
+    and the promotion of puericulture. The permanent committee is in
+    Brussels, and a Congress of Infant Protection (<i>Goutte de Lait</i>)
+    is held every two years.</p></div>
+
+<p>It will be seen that all the movements now being set in action for the
+improvement of the race through the child and the child's mother,
+recognize the intimacy of the relation between the mother and her child
+and are designed to aid her, even if necessary by the exercise of some
+pressure, in performing her natural functions in relation to her child. To
+the theoretical philanthropist, eager to reform the world on paper,
+nothing seems <a name='6_Page_31'></a>simpler than to cure the present evils of child-rearing by
+setting up State nurseries which are at once to relieve mothers of
+everything connected with the production of the men of the future beyond
+the pleasure&mdash;if such it happens to be&mdash;of conceiving them and the trouble
+of bearing them, and at the same time to rear them up independently of the
+home, in a wholesome, economical, and scientific manner.<a name='6_FNanchor_17'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_17'><sup>[17]</sup></a> Nothing seems
+simpler, but from the fundamental psychological standpoint nothing is
+falser. The idea of a State which is outside the community is but a
+survival in another form of that antiquated notion which compelled Louis
+XIV to declare &quot;L'Etat c'est moi!&quot; A State which admits that the
+individuals composing it are incompetent to perform their own most sacred
+and intimate functions, and takes upon itself to perform them instead,
+attempts a task which would be undesirable, even if it were possible of
+achievement. It must always be remembered that a State which proposes to
+relieve its constituent members of their natural functions and
+responsibilities attempts something quite different from the State which
+seeks to aid its members to fulfil their own biological and social
+functions more adequately. A State which enables its mothers to rest when
+they are child-bearing is engaged in a reasonable task; a State which
+takes over its mothers' children is reducing philanthropy to absurdity. It
+is easy to realize this if we consider the inevitable course of
+circumstances under a system of &quot;State-nurseries.&quot; The child would be
+removed from its natural mother at the earliest age, but some one has to
+perform the mother's duties; the substitute must therefore be properly
+trained for such duties; and in exercising them under favorable
+circumstances a maternal relationship is developed between the child and
+the &quot;mother,&quot; who doubtless possesses natural maternal instincts but has
+no natural <a name='6_Page_32'></a>maternal bond to the child she is mothering. Such a
+relationship tends to become on both sides practically and emotionally the
+real relationship. We very often have opportunity of seeing how
+unsatisfactory such a relationship becomes. The artificial mother is
+deprived of a child she had begun to feel her own; the child's emotional
+relationships are upset, split and distorted; the real mother has the
+bitterness of feeling that for her child she is not the real mother. Would
+it not have been much better for all if the State had encouraged the vast
+army of women it had trained for the position of mothering other women's
+children, to have, instead, children of their own? The women who are
+incapable of mothering their own children could then be trained to refrain
+from bearing them.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Ellen Key (in her <i>Century of the Child</i>, and elsewhere) has
+    advocated for all young women a year of compulsory &quot;service,&quot;
+    analogous to the compulsory military service imposed in most
+    countries on young men. During this period the girl would be
+    trained in rational housekeeping, in the principles of hygiene,
+    in the care of the sick, and especially in the care of infants
+    and all that concerns the physical and psychic development of
+    children. The principle of this proposal has since been widely
+    accepted. Marie von Schmid (in her <i>Mutterdienst</i>, 1907) goes so
+    far as to advocate a general training of young women in such
+    duties, carried on in a kind of enlarged and improved midwifery
+    school. The service would last a year, and the young woman would
+    then be for three years in the reserves, and liable to be called
+    up for duty. There is certainly much to be said for such a
+    proposal, considerably more than is to be said for compulsory
+    military service. For while it is very doubtful whether a man
+    will ever be called on to fight, most women are liable to be
+    called on to exercise household duties or to look after children,
+    whether for themselves or for other people.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_1'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_1'>[1]</a><div class='note'><p> It is not, of course, always literally true that each parent
+supplies exactly half the heredity, for, as we see among animals
+generally, the offspring may sometimes approach more nearly to one parent,
+sometimes to the other, while among plants, as De Vries and others have
+shown, the heredity may be still more unequally divided.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_2'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_2'>[2]</a><div class='note'><p> It should scarcely be necessary to say that to assert that
+motherhood is a woman's supreme function is by no means to assert that her
+activities should be confined to the home. That is an opinion which may
+now be regarded as almost extinct even among those who most glorify the
+function of woman as mother. As Friedrich Naumann and others have very
+truly pointed out, a woman is not adequately equipped to fulfil her
+functions as mother and trainer of children unless she has lived in the
+world and exercised a vocation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_3'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_3'>[3]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Were the capacities of the brain and the heart equal in the
+sexes,&quot; Lily Braun (<i>Die Frauenfrage</i>, page 207) well says, &quot;the entry of
+women into public life would be of no value to humanity, and would even
+lead to a still wilder competition. Only the recognition that the entire
+nature of woman is different from that of man, that it signifies a new
+vivifying principle in human life, makes the women's movement, in spite of
+the misconception of its enemies and its friends, a social revolution&quot;
+(see also Havelock Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, fourth edition, 1904,
+especially Ch. XVIII).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_4'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_4'>[4]</a><div class='note'><p> The word &quot;puericulture&quot; was invented by Dr. Caron in 1866 to
+signify the culture of children after birth. It was Pinard, the
+distinguished French obstetrician, who, in 1895, gave it a larger and
+truer significance by applying it to include the culture of children
+before birth. It is now defined as &quot;the science which has for its end the
+search for the knowledge relative to the reproduction, the preservation,
+and the amelioration of the human race&quot; (P&eacute;chin, <i>La Pu&eacute;riculture avant la
+Naissance</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1908).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_5'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_5'>[5]</a><div class='note'><p> In <i>La Grossesse</i> (pp. 450 <i>et seq.</i>) Bouchacourt has
+discussed the problems of puericulture at some length.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_6'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_6'>[6]</a><div class='note'><p> The importance of antenatal puericulture was fully recognized
+in China a thousand years ago. Thus Madame Cheng wrote at that time
+concerning the education of the child: &quot;Even before birth his education
+may begin; and, therefore, the prospective mother of old, when lying down,
+lay straight; when sitting down, sat upright; and when standing, stood
+erect. She would not taste strange flavors, nor have anything to do with
+spiritualism; if her food were not cut straight she would not eat it, and
+if her mat were not set straight, she would not sit upon it. She would not
+look at any objectionable sight, nor listen to any objectionable sound,
+nor utter any rude word, nor handle any impure thing. At night she studied
+some canonical work, by day she occupied herself with ceremonies and
+music. Therefore, her sons were upright and eminent for their talents and
+virtues; such was the result of antenatal training&quot; (H. A. Giles, &quot;Woman in
+Chinese Literature,&quot; <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, Nov., 1904).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_7'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_7'>[7]</a><div class='note'><p> Max Bartels, &quot;Isl&auml;ndischer Brauch,&quot; etc., <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Ethnologie</i>, 1900, p. 65. A summary of the customs of various peoples in
+regard to pregnancy is given by Ploss and Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>, Sect.
+XXIX.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_8'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_8'>[8]</a><div class='note'><p> On the influence of alcohol during pregnancy on the embryo,
+see, <i>e.g.</i>, G. Newman, <i>Infant Mortality</i>, pp. 72-77. W. C. Sullivan
+(<i>Alcoholism</i>, 1906, Ch. XI), summarizes the evidence showing that alcohol
+is a factor in human degeneration.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_9'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_9'>[9]</a><div class='note'><p> There is even reason to believe that the alcoholism of the
+mother's father may impair her ability as a mother. Bunge (<i>Die Zunehmende
+Unf&auml;higkeit der Frauen ihre Kinder zu Stillen</i>, fifth edition, 1907), from
+an investigation extending over 2,000 families, finds that chronic
+alcoholic poisoning in the father is the chief cause of the daughter's
+inability to suckle, this inability not usually being recovered in
+subsequent generations. Bunge has, however, been opposed by Dr. Agnes
+Bluhm, &quot;Die Stillungsnot,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Soziale Medizin</i>, 1908 (fully
+summarized by herself in <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Jan., 1909).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_10'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_10'>[10]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, T. Arthur Helme, &quot;The Unborn Child,&quot; <i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, Aug. 24, 1907. Nutrition should, of course, be adequate.
+Noel Paton has shown (<i>Lancet</i>, July 4, 1903) that defective nutrition of
+the pregnant woman diminishes the weight of the offspring.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_11'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_11'>[11]</a><div class='note'><p> Debreyne, <i>M&oelig;chialogie</i>, p. 277. And from the
+Protestant side see Northcote (<i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, Ch. IX),
+who permits sexual intercourse during pregnancy.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_12'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_12'>[12]</a><div class='note'><p> See Appendix A to the third volume of these <i>Studies</i>; also
+Ploss and Bartels, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_13'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_13'>[13]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus one lady writes: &quot;I have only had one child, but I may
+say that during pregnancy the desire for union was much stronger, for the
+whole time, than at any other period.&quot; Bouchacourt (<i>La Grossesse</i>, pp.
+180-183) states that, as a rule, sexual desire is not diminished by
+pregnancy, and is occasionally increased.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_14'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_14'>[14]</a><div class='note'><p> This &quot;inconvenience&quot; remains to-day a stumbling-block with
+many excellent authorities. &quot;Except when there is a tendency to
+miscarriage,&quot; says Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 257), &quot;we must be very guarded in
+ordering abstinence from intercourse during pregnancy,&quot; and Ballantyne
+(<i>The F&oelig;tus</i>, p. 475) cautiously remarks that the question is
+difficult to decide. Forel also (<i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, fourth edition, p.
+81), who is not prepared to advocate complete sexual abstinence during a
+normal pregnancy, admits that it is a rather difficult question.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_15'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_15'>[15]</a><div class='note'><p> This point is discussed, for instance, by S&eacute;ropian in a
+Paris Thesis (<i>Fr&eacute;quence compar&eacute;e des Causes de l'Accouchement Pr&eacute;mature</i>,
+1907); he concludes that coitus during pregnancy is a more frequent cause
+of premature confinement than is commonly supposed, especially in
+primipar&aelig;, and markedly so by the ninth month.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_16'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_16'>[16]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Infantile Mortality: The Huddersfield Scheme,&quot; <i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, Dec., 1907; Samson Moore, &quot;Infant Mortality,&quot; <i>ib.</i>,
+August 29, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_17'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_17'>[17]</a><div class='note'><p> Ellen Key has admirably dealt with proposals of this kind
+(as put forth by C. P. Stetson) in her Essays &quot;On Love and Marriage.&quot; In
+opposition to such proposals Ellen Key suggests that such women as have
+been properly trained for maternal duties and are unable entirely to
+support themselves while exercising them should be subsidized by the State
+during the child's first three years of life. It may be added that in
+Leipzig the plan of subsidizing mothers who (under proper medical and
+other supervision) suckle their infants has already been introduced.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_II'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_33'></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>SEXUAL EDUCATION.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Nurture Necessary as Well as Breed&mdash;Precocious Manifestations of the
+Sexual Impulse&mdash;Are They to be Regarded as Normal?&mdash;The Sexual Play of
+Children&mdash;The Emotion of Love in Childhood&mdash;Are Town Children More
+Precocious Sexually Than Country Children?&mdash;Children's Ideas Concerning
+the Origin of Babies&mdash;Need for Beginning the Sexual Education of Children
+in Early Years&mdash;The Importance of Early Training in Responsibility&mdash;Evil
+of the Old Doctrine of Silence in Matters of Sex&mdash;The Evil Magnified When
+Applied to Girls&mdash;The Mother the Natural and Best Teacher&mdash;The Morbid
+Influence of Artificial Mystery in Sex Matters&mdash;Books on Sexual
+Enlightenment of the Young&mdash;Nature of the Mother's Task&mdash;Sexual Education
+in the School&mdash;The Value of Botany&mdash;Zo&ouml;logy&mdash;Sexual Education After
+Puberty&mdash;The Necessity of Counteracting Quack Literature&mdash;Danger of
+Neglecting to Prepare for the First Onset of Menstruation&mdash;The Right
+Attitude Towards Woman's Sexual Life&mdash;The Vital Necessity of the Hygiene
+of Menstruation During Adolescence&mdash;Such Hygiene Compatible with the
+Educational and Social Equality of the Sexes&mdash;The Invalidism of Women
+Mainly Due to Hygienic Neglect&mdash;Good Influence of Physical Training on
+Women and Bad Influence of Athletics&mdash;The Evils of Emotional
+Suppression&mdash;Need of Teaching the Dignity of Sex&mdash;Influence of These
+Factors on a Woman's Fate in Marriage&mdash;Lectures and Addresses on Sexual
+Hygiene&mdash;The Doctor's Part in Sexual Education&mdash;Pubertal Initiation Into
+the Ideal World&mdash;The Place of the Religious and Ethical Teacher&mdash;The
+Initiation Rites of Savages Into Manhood and Womanhood&mdash;The Sexual
+Influence of Literature&mdash;The Sexual Influence of Art.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It may seem to some that in attaching weight to the ancestry, the
+parentage, the conception, the gestation, even the first infancy, of the
+child we are wandering away from the sphere of the psychology of sex. That
+is far from being the case. We are, on the contrary, going to the root of
+sex. All our growing knowledge tends to show that, equally with his
+physical nature, the child's psychic nature is based on breed and nurture,
+on the quality of the stocks he belongs to, and on the care taken at the
+<a name='6_Page_34'></a>early moments when care counts for most, to preserve the fine quality of
+those stocks.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It must, of course, be remembered that the influences of both
+    breed and nurture are alike influential on the fate of the
+    individual. The influence of nurture is so obvious that few are
+    likely to under-rate it. The influence of breed, however, is less
+    obvious, and we may still meet with persons so ill informed, and
+    perhaps so prejudiced, as to deny it altogether. The growth of
+    our knowledge in this matter, by showing how subtle and
+    penetrative is the influence of heredity, cannot fail to dispel
+    this mischievous notion. No sound civilization is possible except
+    in a community which in the mass is not only well-nurtured but
+    well-bred. And in no part of life so much as in the sexual
+    relationships is the influence of good breeding more decisive. An
+    instructive illustration may be gleaned from the minute and
+    precise history of his early life furnished to me by a highly
+    cultured Russian gentleman. He was brought up in childhood with
+    his own brothers and sisters and a little girl of the same age
+    who had been adopted from infancy, the child of a prostitute who
+    had died soon after the infant's birth. The adopted child was
+    treated as one of the family, and all the children supposed that
+    she was a real sister. Yet from early years she developed
+    instincts unlike those of the children with whom she was
+    nurtured; she lied, she was cruel, she loved to make mischief,
+    and she developed precociously vicious sexual impulses; though
+    carefully educated, she adopted the occupation of her mother, and
+    at the age of twenty-two was exiled to Siberia for robbery and
+    attempt to murder. The child of a chance father and a prostitute
+    mother is not fatally devoted to ruin; but such a child is
+    ill-bred, and that fact, in some cases, may neutralize all the
+    influences of good nurture.</p></div>
+
+<p>When we reach the period of infancy we have already passed beyond the
+foundations and potentialities of the sexual life; we are in some cases
+witnessing its actual beginnings. It is a well-established fact that
+auto-erotic manifestations may sometimes be observed even in infants of
+less than twelve months. We are not now called upon to discuss the
+disputable point as to how far such manifestations at this age can be
+called normal.<a name='6_FNanchor_18'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_18'><sup>[18]</sup></a> A slight degree of menstrual and mammary activity
+sometimes <a name='6_Page_35'></a>occurs at birth.<a name='6_FNanchor_19'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_19'><sup>[19]</sup></a> It seems clear that nervous and psychic
+sexual activity has its first springs at this early period, and as the
+years go by an increasing number of individuals join the stream until at
+puberty practically all are carried along in the great current.</p>
+
+<p>While, therefore, it is possibly, even probably, true that the soundest
+and healthiest individuals show no definite signs of nervous and psychic
+sexuality in childhood, such manifestations are still sufficiently
+frequent to make it impossible to say that sexual hygiene may be
+completely ignored until puberty is approaching.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Precocious physical development occurs as a somewhat rare
+    variation. W. Roger Williams (&quot;Precocious Sexual Development with
+    Abstracts of over One Hundred Cases,&quot; <i>British Gyn&aelig;cological
+    Journal</i>, May, 1902) has furnished an important contribution to
+    the knowledge of this anomaly which is much commoner in girls
+    than in boys. Roger Williams's cases include only twenty boys to
+    eighty girls, and precocity is not only more frequent but more
+    pronounced in girls, who have been known to conceive at eight,
+    while thirteen is stated to be the earliest age at which boys
+    have proved able to beget children. This, it may be remarked, is
+    also the earliest age at which spermatozoa are found in the
+    seminal fluid of boys; before that age the ejaculations contain
+    no spermatozoa, and, as F&uuml;rbringer and Moll have found, they may
+    even be absent at sixteen, or later. In female children
+    precocious sexual development is less commonly associated with
+    general increase of bodily development than in boys. (An
+    individual case of early sexual development in a girl of five has
+    been completely described and figured in the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+    Ethnologie</i>, 1896, Heft 4, p. 262.)</p>
+
+<p>    Precocious sexual impulses are generally vague, occasional, and
+    more or less innocent. A case of rare and pronounced character,
+    in which a child, a boy, from the age of two had been sexually
+    attracted to girls and women, and directed all his thoughts and
+    actions to sexual attempts on them, has been described by Herbert
+    Rich, of Detroit (<i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, Nov., 1905).
+    General evidence from the literature of the subject as to sexual
+    precocity, its frequency and significance, has been brought
+    together by L. M. Terman (&quot;A Study in Precocity,&quot; <i>American
+    Journal Psychology</i>, April, 1905).</p><a name='6_Page_36'></a>
+
+<p>    The erections that are liable to occur in male infants have
+    usually no sexual significance, though, as Moll remarks, they may
+    acquire it by attracting the child's attention; they are merely
+    reflex. It is believed by some, however, and notably by Freud,
+    that certain manifestations of infant activity, especially
+    thumb-sucking, are of sexual causation, and that the sexual
+    impulse constantly manifests itself at a very early age. The
+    belief that the sexual instinct is absent in childhood, Freud
+    regards as a serious error, so easy to correct by observation
+    that he wonders how it can have arisen. &quot;In reality,&quot; he remarks,
+    &quot;the new-born infant brings sexuality with it into the world,
+    sexual sensations accompany it through the days of lactation and
+    childhood, and very few children can fail to experience sexual
+    activities and feelings before the period of puberty&quot; (Freud,
+    &quot;Zur Sexuellen Aufkl&auml;rung der Kinder,&quot; <i>Soziale Medizin und
+    Hygiene</i>, Bd. ii, 1907; <i>cf.</i>, for details, the same author's
+    <i>Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie</i>, 1905). Moll, on the other
+    hand, considers that Freud's views on sexuality in infancy are
+    exaggerations which must be decisively rejected, though he admits
+    that it is difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate the
+    feelings in childhood (Moll, <i>Das Sexualleben des Kindes</i>, p.
+    154). Moll believes also that psycho-sexual manifestations
+    appearing after the age of eight are not pathological; children
+    who are weakly or of bad heredity are not seldom sexually
+    precocious, but, on the other hand, Moll has known children of
+    eight or nine with strongly developed sexual impulses, who yet
+    become finely developed men.</p>
+
+<p>    Rudimentary sexual activities in childhood, accompanied by sexual
+    feelings, must indeed&mdash;when they are not too pronounced or too
+    premature&mdash;be regarded as coming within the normal sphere, though
+    when they occur in children of bad heredity they are not without
+    serious risks. But in healthy children, after the age of seven or
+    eight, they tend to produce no evil results, and are strictly of
+    the nature of play. Play, both in animals and men, as Groos has
+    shown with marvelous wealth of illustration, is a beneficent
+    process of education; the young creature is thereby preparing
+    itself for the exercise of those functions which in later life it
+    must carry out more completely and more seriously. In his <i>Spiele
+    der Menschen</i>, Groos applies this idea to the sexual play of
+    children, and brings forward quotations from literature in
+    evidence. Keller, in his &quot;Romeo und Juliet auf dem Dorfe,&quot; has
+    given an admirably truthful picture of these childish
+    love-relationships. Emil Schultze-Malkowsky (<i>Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. ii, p. 370) reproduces some scenes from the
+    life of a little girl of seven clearly illustrating the exact
+    nature of the sexual manifestation at this age.</p>
+
+<p>    A kind of rudimentary sexual intercourse between children, as
+    Bloch has remarked (<i>Beitr&auml;ge</i>, etc., Bd. ii, p. 254), occurs in
+    many parts of the world, and is recognized by their elders as
+    play. This is, for <a name='6_Page_37'></a>instance, the case among the Bawenda of the
+    Transvaal (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1896, Heft 4, p. 364),
+    and among the Papuans of Kaiser-Wilhelms-Land, with the approval
+    of the parents, although much reticence is observed (<i>id.</i>, 1889,
+    Heft 1, p. 16). Godard (<i>Egypte et Palestine</i>, 1867, p. 105)
+    noted the sexual play of the boys and girls in Cairo. In New
+    Mexico W. A. Hammond (<i>Sexual Impotence</i>, p. 107) has seen boys
+    and girls attempting a playful sexual conjunction with the
+    encouragement of men and women, and in New York he has seen boys
+    and girls of three and four doing the same in the presence of
+    their parents, with only a laughing rebuke. &quot;Playing at pa and
+    ma&quot; is indeed extremely common among children in genuine
+    innocence, and with a complete absence of viciousness; and is by
+    no means confined to children of low social class. Moll remarks
+    on its frequency (<i>Libido Sexualis</i>, Bd. i, p. 277), and the
+    committee of evangelical pastors, in their investigation of
+    German rural morality (<i>Die Geschlechtliche-sittliche
+    Verh&auml;ltnisse</i>, Bd. i, p. 102) found that children who are not yet
+    of school age make attempts at coitus. The sexual play of
+    children is by no means confined to father and mother games;
+    frequently there are games of school with the climax in exposure
+    and smackings, and occasionally there are games of being doctors
+    and making examinations. Thus a young English woman says: &quot;Of
+    course, when we were at school [at the age of twelve and earlier]
+    we used to play with one another, several of us girls; we used to
+    go into a field and pretend we were doctors and had to examine
+    one another, and then we used to pull up one another's clothes
+    and feel each other.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    These games do not necessarily involve the co&ouml;peration of the
+    sexual impulse, and still less have they any element of love. But
+    emotions of love, scarcely if at all distinguishable from adult
+    sexual love, frequently appear at equally early ages. They are of
+    the nature of play, in so far as play is a preparation for the
+    activities of later life, though, unlike the games, they are not
+    felt as play. Ramdohr, more than a century ago (<i>Venus Urania</i>,
+    1798), referred to the frequent love of little boys for women.
+    More usually the love is felt towards individuals of the opposite
+    or the same sex who are not widely different in age, though
+    usually older. The most comprehensive study of the matter has
+    been made by Sanford Bell in America on a basis of as many as
+    2,300 cases (S. Bell, &quot;A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love
+    Between the Sexes,&quot; <i>American Journal Psychology</i>, July, 1902).
+    Bell finds that the presence of the emotion between three and
+    eight years of age is shown by such actions as hugging, kissing,
+    lifting each other, scuffling, sitting close to each other,
+    confessions to each other and to others, talking about each other
+    when apart, seeking each other and excluding the rest, grief at
+    separation, giving gifts, showing special courtesies to each
+    other, making sacrifices for each other, exhibiting jealousy. The
+    girls are, on the <a name='6_Page_38'></a>whole, more aggressive than the boys, and less
+    anxious to keep the matter secret. After the age of eight, the
+    girls increase in modesty and the boys become still more
+    secretive. The physical sensations are not usually located in the
+    sexual organs; erection of the penis and hyper&aelig;mia of the female
+    sexual parts Bell regards as marking undue precocity. But there
+    is diffused vascular and nervous tumescence and a state of
+    exaltation comparable, though not equal, to that experienced in
+    adolescent and adult age. On the whole, as Bell soundly
+    concludes, &quot;love between children of opposite sex bears much the
+    same relation to that between adults as the flower does to the
+    fruit, and has about as little of physical sexuality in it as an
+    apple-blossom has of the apple that develops from it.&quot; Moll also
+    (<i>op. cit.</i> p. 76) considers that kissing and other similar
+    superficial contacts, which he denominates the phenomena of
+    contrectation, constitute most frequently the first and sole
+    manifestation of the sexual impulse in childhood.</p>
+
+<p>    It is often stated that it is easier for children to preserve
+    their sexual innocence in the country than in the town, and that
+    only in cities is sexuality rampant and conspicuous. This is by
+    no means true, and in some respects it is the reverse of the
+    truth. Certainly, hard work, a natural and simple life, and a
+    lack of alert intelligence often combine to keep the rural lad
+    chaste in thought and act until the period of adolescence is
+    completed. Ammon, for instance, states, though without giving
+    definite evidence, that this is common among the Baden
+    conscripts. Certainly, also, all the multiple sensory excitements
+    of urban life tend to arouse the nervous and cerebral
+    excitability of the young at a comparatively early age in the
+    sexual as in other fields, and promote premature desires and
+    curiosities. But, on the other hand, urban life offers the young
+    no gratification for their desires and curiosities. The publicity
+    of a city, the universal surveillance, the studied decorum of a
+    population conscious that it is continually exposed to the gaze
+    of strangers, combine to spread a veil over the esoteric side of
+    life, which, even when at last it fails to conceal from the young
+    the urban stimuli of that life, effectually conceals, for the
+    most part, the gratifications of those stimuli. In the country,
+    however, these restraints do not exist in any corresponding
+    degree; animals render the elemental facts of sexual life clear
+    to all; there is less need or regard for decorum; speech is
+    plainer; supervision is impossible, and the amplest opportunities
+    for sexual intimacy are at hand. If the city may perhaps be said
+    to favor unchastity of thought in the young, the country may
+    certainly be said to favor unchastity of act.</p>
+
+<p>    The elaborate investigations of the Committee of Lutheran pastors
+    into sexual morality (<i>Die Geschlechtich-sittliche Verh&auml;ltnisse
+    im Deutschen Reiche</i>), published a few years ago, demonstrate
+    amply the sexual freedom in rural Germany, and Moll, who is
+    decidedly of opinion <a name='6_Page_39'></a>that the country enjoys no relative freedom
+    from sexuality, states (<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 137-139, 239) that even
+    the circulation of obscene books and pictures among
+    school-children seems to be more frequent in small towns and the
+    country than in large cities. In Russia, where it might be
+    thought that urban and rural conditions offered less contrast
+    than in many countries, the same difference has been observed. &quot;I
+    do not know,&quot; a Russian correspondent writes, &quot;whether Zola in
+    <i>La Terre</i> correctly describes the life of French villages. But
+    the ways of a Russian village, where I passed part of my
+    childhood, fairly resemble those described by Zola. In the life
+    of the rural population into which I was plunged everything was
+    impregnated with erotism. One was surrounded by animal lubricity
+    in all its immodesty. Contrary to the generally received opinion,
+    I believe that a child may preserve his sexual innocence more
+    easily in a town than in the country. There are, no doubt, many
+    exceptions to this rule. But the functions of the sexual life are
+    generally more concealed in the towns than in the fields. Modesty
+    (whether or not of the merely superficial and exterior kind) is
+    more developed among urban populations. In speaking of sexual
+    things in the towns people veil their thought more; even the
+    lower class in towns employ more restraint, more euphemisms, than
+    peasants. Thus in the towns a child may easily fail to comprehend
+    when risky subjects are talked of in his presence. It may be said
+    that the corruption of towns, though more concealed, is all the
+    deeper. Maybe, but that concealment preserves children from it.
+    The town child sees prostitutes in the street every day without
+    distinguishing them from other people. In the country he would
+    every day hear it stated in the crudest terms that such and such
+    a girl has been found at night in a barn or a ditch making love
+    with such and such a youth, or that the servant girl slips every
+    night into the coachman's bed, the facts of sexual intercourse,
+    pregnancy, and childbirth being spoken of in the plainest terms.
+    In towns the child's attention is solicited by a thousand
+    different objects; in the country, except fieldwork, which fails
+    to interest him, he hears only of the reproduction of animals and
+    the erotic exploits of girls and youths. When we say that the
+    urban environment is more exciting we are thinking of adults, but
+    the things which excite the adult have usually no erotic effect
+    on the child, who cannot, however, long remain asexual when he
+    sees the great peasant girls, as ardent as mares in heat,
+    abandoning themselves to the arms of robust youths. He cannot
+    fail to remark these frank manifestations of sexuality, though
+    the subtle and perverse refinements of the town would escape his
+    notice. I know that in the countries of exaggerated prudery there
+    is much hidden corruption, more, one is sometimes inclined to
+    think, than in less hypocritical countries. But I believe that
+    that is a false impression, and am persuaded that precisely
+    because of all these little concealments which excite the
+    malicious <a name='6_Page_40'></a>amusement of foreigners, there are really many more
+    young people in England who remain chaste than in the countries
+    which treat sexual relations more frankly. At all events, if I
+    have known Englishmen who were very debauched and very refined in
+    vice, I have also known young men of the same nation, over
+    twenty, who were as innocent as children, but never a young
+    Frenchman, Italian, or Spaniard of whom this could be said.&quot;
+    There is undoubtedly truth in this statement, though it must be
+    remembered that, excellent as chastity is, if it is based on mere
+    ignorance, its possessor is exposed to terrible dangers.</p></div>
+
+<p>The question of sexual hygiene, more especially in its special aspect of
+sexual enlightenment, is not, however, dependent on the fact that in some
+children the psychic and nervous manifestation of sex appears at an
+earlier age than in others. It rests upon the larger general fact that in
+all children the activity of intelligence begins to work at a very early
+age, and that this activity tends to manifest itself in an inquisitive
+desire to know many elementary facts of life which are really dependent on
+sex. The primary and most universal of these desires is the desire to know
+where children come from. No question could be more natural; the question
+of origins is necessarily a fundamental one in childish philosophies as,
+in more ultimate shapes, it is in adult philosophies. Most children,
+either guided by the statements, usually the misstatements, of their
+elders, or by their own intelligence working amid such indications as are
+open to them, are in possession of a theory of the origin of babies.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Stanley Hall (&quot;Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School,&quot;
+    <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June, 1891) has collected some of the
+    beliefs of young children as to the origin of babies. &quot;God makes
+    babies in heaven, though the Holy Mother and even Santa Claus
+    make some. He lets them down and drops them, and the women or
+    doctors catch them, or He leaves them on the sidewalk, or brings
+    them down a wooden ladder backwards and pulls it up again, or
+    mamma or the doctor or the nurse go up and fetch them, sometimes
+    in a balloon, or they fly down and lose off their wings in some
+    place or other and forget it, and jump down to Jesus, who gives
+    them around. They were also often said to be found in
+    flour-barrels, and the flour sticks ever so long, you know, or
+    they grew in cabbages, or God puts them in water, perhaps in the
+    sewer, and the doctor gets them out and takes them to sick folks
+    that want them, <a name='6_Page_41'></a>or the milkman brings them early in the morning;
+    they are dug out of the ground, or bought at the baby store.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In England and America the inquisitive child is often told that
+    the baby was found in the garden, under a gooseberry bush or
+    elsewhere; or more commonly it is said, with what is doubtless
+    felt to be a nearer approach to the truth, that the doctor
+    brought it. In Germany the common story told to children is that
+    the stork brings the baby. Various theories, mostly based on
+    folk-lore, have been put forward to explain this story, but none
+    of them seem quite convincing (see, <i>e.g.</i>, G. Herman,
+    &quot;Sexual-Mythen,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, vol. i, Heft 5,
+    1906, p. 176, and P. N&auml;cke, <i>Neurologische Centralblatt</i>, No. 17,
+    1907). N&auml;cke thinks there is some plausibility in Professor
+    Petermann's suggestion that a frog writhing in a stork's bill
+    resembles a tiny human creature.</p>
+
+<p>    In Iceland, according to Max Bartels (&quot;Isl&auml;ndischer Brauch und
+    Volksglaube,&quot; etc., <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1900, Heft 2
+    and 3) we find a transition between the natural and the fanciful
+    in the stories told to children of the origin of babies (the
+    stork is here precluded, for it only extends to the southern
+    border of Scandinavian lands). In North Iceland it is said that
+    God made the baby and the mother bore it, and on that account is
+    now ill. In the northwest it is said that God made the baby and
+    gave it to the mother. Elsewhere it is said that God sent the
+    baby and the midwife brought it, the mother only being in bed to
+    be near the baby (which is seldom placed in a cradle). It is also
+    sometimes said that a lamb or a bird brought the baby. Again it
+    is said to have entered during the night through the window.
+    Sometimes, however, the child is told that the baby came out of
+    the mother's breasts, or from below her breasts, and that is why
+    she is not well.</p>
+
+<p>    Even when children learn that babies come out of the mother's
+    body this knowledge often remains very vague and inaccurate. It
+    very commonly happens, for instance, in all civilized countries
+    that the navel is regarded as the baby's point of exit from the
+    body. This is a natural conclusion, since the navel is seemingly
+    a channel into the body, and a channel for which there is no
+    obvious use, while the pudendal cleft would not suggest itself to
+    girls (and still less to boys) as the gate of birth, since it
+    already appears to be monopolized by the urinary excretion. This
+    belief concerning the navel is sometimes preserved through the
+    whole period of adolescence, especially in girls of the so-called
+    educated class, who are too well-bred to discuss the matter with
+    their married friends, and believe indeed that they are already
+    sufficiently well informed. At this age the belief may not be
+    altogether harmless, in so far as it leads to the real gate of
+    sex being left unguarded. In Elsass where girls commonly believe,
+    and are taught, that babies come through the navel, popular
+    folk-tales are current (<i>Anthropophyteia</i>, vol.<a name='6_Page_42'></a> iii, p. 89)
+    which represent the mistakes resulting from this belief as
+    leading to the loss of virginity.</p>
+
+<p>    Freud, who believes that children give little credit to the stork
+    fable and similar stories invented for their mystification, has
+    made an interesting psychological investigation into the real
+    theories which children themselves, as the result of observation
+    and thought, reach concerning the sexual facts of life (S. Freud,
+    &quot;Ueber Infantile Sexualtheorien,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Dec., 1908).
+    Such theories, he remarks, correspond to the brilliant, but
+    defective hypotheses which primitive peoples arrive at concerning
+    the nature and origin of the world. There are three theories,
+    which, as Freud quite truly concludes, are very commonly formed
+    by children. The first, and the most widely disseminated, is that
+    there is no real anatomical difference between boys and girls; if
+    the boy notices that his little sister has no obvious penis he
+    even concludes that it is because she is too young, and the
+    little girl herself takes the same view. The fact that in early
+    life the clitoris is relatively larger and more penis-like helps
+    to confirm this view which Freud connects with the tendency in
+    later life to erotic dream of women furnished with a penis. This
+    theory, as Freud also remarks, favors the growth of homosexuality
+    when its germs are present. The second theory is the f&aelig;cal theory
+    of the origin of babies. The child, who perhaps thinks his mother
+    has a penis, and is in any case ignorant of the vagina, concludes
+    that the baby is brought into the world by an action analogous to
+    the action of the bowels. The third theory, which is perhaps less
+    prevalent than the others, Freud terms the sadistic theory of
+    coitus. The child realizes that his father must have taken some
+    sort of part in his production. The theory that sexual
+    intercourse consists in violence has in it a trace of truth, but
+    seems to be arrived at rather obscurely. The child's own sexual
+    feelings are often aroused for the first time when wrestling or
+    struggling with a companion; he may see his mother, also,
+    resisting more or less playfully a sudden caress from his father,
+    and if a real quarrel takes place, the impression may be
+    fortified. As to what the state of marriage consists in, Freud
+    finds that it is usually regarded as a state which abolishes
+    modesty; the most prevalent theory being that marriage means that
+    people can make water before each other, while another common
+    childish theory is that marriage is when people can show each
+    other their private parts.</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus it is that at a very early stage of the child's life we are brought
+face to face with the question how we may most wisely begin his initiation
+into the knowledge of the great central facts of sex. It is perhaps a
+little late in the day to regard it as a question, but so it is among us,
+although three thousand five <a name='6_Page_43'></a>hundred years ago, the Egyptian father spoke
+to his child: &quot;I have given you a mother who has carried you within her, a
+heavy burden, for your sake, and without resting on me. When at last you
+were born, she indeed submitted herself to the yoke, for during three
+years were her nipples in your mouth. Your excrements never turned her
+stomach, nor made her say, 'What am I doing?' When you were sent to school
+she went regularly every day to carry the household bread and beer to your
+master. When in your turn you marry and have a child, bring up your child
+as your mother brought you up.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_20'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_20'><sup>[20]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>I take it for granted, however, that&mdash;whatever doubt there may be as to
+the how or the when&mdash;no doubt is any longer possible as to the absolute
+necessity of taking deliberate and active part in this sexual initiation,
+instead of leaving it to the chance revelation of ignorant and perhaps
+vicious companions or servants. It is becoming more and more widely felt
+that the risks of ignorant innocence are too great.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;All the love and solicitude parental yearning can bestow,&quot;
+    writes Dr. G. F. Butler, of Chicago (<i>Love and its Affinities</i>,
+    1899, p. 83), &quot;all that the most refined religious influence can
+    offer, all that the most cultivated associations can accomplish,
+    in one fatal moment may be obliterated. There is no room for
+    ethical reasoning, indeed oftentimes no consciousness of wrong,
+    but only Margaret's 'Es war so s&uuml;ss'.&quot; The same writer adds (as
+    had been previously remarked by Mrs. Craik and others) that among
+    church members it is the finer and more sensitive organizations
+    that are the most susceptible to sexual emotions. So far as boys
+    are concerned, we leave instruction in matters of sex, the most
+    sacred and central fact in the world, as Canon Lyttelton remarks,
+    to &quot;dirty-minded school-boys, grooms, garden-boys, anyone, in
+    short, who at an early age may be sufficiently defiled and
+    sufficiently reckless to talk of them.&quot; And, so far as girls are
+    concerned, as Balzac long ago remarked, &quot;a mother may bring up
+    her daughter severely, and cover her beneath her wings for
+    seventeen years; but a servant-girl can destroy that long work by
+    a word, even by a gesture.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The great part played by servant-girls of the lower class in the
+    sexual initiation of the children of the middle class has been
+    illustrated in dealing with &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women&quot; in vol.
+    iii, of these<a name='6_Page_44'></a> <i>Studies</i>, and need not now be further discussed.
+    I would only here say a word, in passing, on the other side.
+    Often as servant-girls take this part, we must not go so far as
+    to say that it is the case with the majority. As regards Germany,
+    Dr. Alfred Kind has lately put on record his experience: &quot;I have
+    <i>never</i>, in youth, heard a bad or improper word on
+    sex-relationships from a servant-girl, although servant-girls
+    followed one another in our house like sunshine and showers in
+    April, and there was always a relation of comradeship between us
+    children and the servants.&quot; As regards England, I can add that my
+    own youthful experiences correspond to Dr. Kind's. This is not
+    surprising, for one may say that in the ordinary well-conditioned
+    girl, though her virtue may not be developed to heroic
+    proportions, there is yet usually a natural respect for the
+    innocence of children, a natural sexual indifference to them, and
+    a natural expectation that the male should take the active part
+    when a sexual situation arises.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is also beginning to be felt that, especially as regards women,
+ignorant innocence is not merely too fragile a possession to be worth
+preservation, but that it is positively mischievous, since it involves the
+lack of necessary knowledge. &quot;It is little short of criminal,&quot; writes Dr.
+F. M. Goodchild,<a name='6_FNanchor_21'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_21'><sup>[21]</sup></a> &quot;to send our young people into the midst of the
+excitements and temptations of a great city with no more preparation than
+if they were going to live in Paradise.&quot; In the case of women, ignorance
+has the further disadvantage that it deprives them of the knowledge
+necessary for intelligent sympathy with other women. The unsympathetic
+attitude of women towards women is often largely due to sheer ignorance of
+the facts of life. &quot;Why,&quot; writes in a private letter a married lady who
+keenly realizes this, &quot;are women brought up with such a profound ignorance
+of their own and especially other women's natures? They do not know half
+as much about other women as a man of the most average capacity learns in
+his day's march.&quot; We try to make up for our failure to educate women in
+the essential matters of sex by imposing upon the police and other
+guardians of public order the duty of protecting women and morals. But, as
+Moll insists, the real problem of chastity lies, not in the multiplication
+of laws <a name='6_Page_45'></a>and policemen, but largely in women's knowledge of the dangers of
+sex and in the cultivation of their sense of responsibility.<a name='6_FNanchor_22'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_22'><sup>[22]</sup></a> We are
+always making laws for the protection of children and setting the police
+on guard. But laws and the police, whether their activities are good or
+bad, are in either case alike ineffectual. They can for the most part only
+be invoked when the damage is already done. We have to learn to go to the
+root of the matter. We have to teach children to be a law to themselves.
+We have to give them that knowledge which will enable them to guard their
+own personalities.<a name='6_FNanchor_23'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_23'><sup>[23]</sup></a> There is an authentic story of a lady who had
+learned to swim, much to the horror of her clergyman, who thought that
+swimming was unfeminine. &quot;But,&quot; she said, &quot;suppose I was drowning.&quot; &quot;In
+that case,&quot; he replied, &quot;you ought to wait until a man comes along and
+saves you.&quot; There we have the two methods of salvation which have been
+preached to women, the old method and the new. In no sea have women been
+more often in danger of drowning than that of sex. There ought to be no
+question as to which is the better method of salvation.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is difficult nowadays to find any serious arguments against
+    the desirability of early sexual enlightenment, and it is almost
+    with amusement that we read how the novelist Alphonse Daudet,
+    when asked his opinion of such enlightenment, protested&mdash;in a
+    spirit certainly common among the men of his time&mdash;that it was
+    unnecessary, because boys could learn everything from the streets
+    and the newspapers, while &quot;as to young girls&mdash;no! I would teach
+    them none of the truths of physiology. I can only see
+    disadvantages in such a proceeding. These truths are ugly,
+    disillusioning, sure to shock, to frighten, to disgust the mind,
+    the nature, of a girl.&quot; It is as much as to say that there is no
+    need to supply sources of pure water when there are puddles in
+    the street that anyone can drink of. A contemporary of Daudet's,
+    who possessed a far finer spiritual insight, Coventry Patmore,
+    the poet, in the essay on &quot;Ancient and Modern Ideas of Purity&quot; in
+    his beautiful book, <i>Religio Poet&aelig;</i>, had already finely protested
+    against that &quot;disease of impurity&quot;<a name='6_Page_46'></a> which comes of &quot;our modern
+    undivine silences&quot; for which Daudet pleaded. And Metchnikoff,
+    more recently, from the scientific side, speaking especially as
+    regards women, declares that knowledge is so indispensable for
+    moral conduct that &quot;ignorance must be counted the most immoral of
+    acts&quot; (<i>Essais Optimistes</i>, p. 420).</p>
+
+<p>    The distinguished Belgian novelist, Camille Lemonnier, in his
+    <i>L'Homme en Amour</i>, deals with the question of the sexual
+    education of the young by presenting the history of a young man,
+    brought up under the influence of the conventional and
+    hypocritical views which teach that nudity and sex are shameful
+    and disgusting things. In this way he passes by the opportunities
+    of innocent and natural love, to become hopelessly enslaved at
+    last to a sensual woman who treats him merely as the instrument
+    of her pleasure, the last of a long succession of lovers. The
+    book is a powerful plea for a sane, wholesome, and natural
+    education in matters of sex. It was, however, prosecuted at
+    Bruges, in 1901, though the trial finally ended in acquittal.
+    Such a verdict is in harmony with the general tendency of feeling
+    at the present time.</p>
+
+<p>    The old ideas, expressed by Daudet, that the facts of sex are
+    ugly and disillusioning, and that they shock the mind of the
+    young, are both alike entirely false. As Canon Lyttelton remarks,
+    in urging that the laws of the transmission of life should be
+    taught to children by the mother: &quot;The way they receive it with
+    native reverence, truthfulness of understanding and guileless
+    delicacy, is nothing short of a revelation of the never-ceasing
+    beauty of nature. People sometimes speak of the indescribable
+    beauty of children's innocence. But I venture to say that no one
+    quite knows what it is who has foregone the privilege of being
+    the first to set before them the true meaning of life and birth
+    and the mystery of their own being. Not only do we fail to build
+    up sound knowledge in them, but we put away from ourselves the
+    chance of learning something that must be divine.&quot; In the same
+    way, Edward Carpenter, stating that it is easy and natural for
+    the child to learn from the first its physical relation to its
+    mother, remarks (<i>Love's Coming of Age</i>, p. 9): &quot;A child at the
+    age of puberty, with the unfolding of its far-down emotional and
+    sexual nature, is eminently capable of the most sensitive,
+    affectional and serene appreciation of what <i>sex</i> means
+    (generally more so as things are to-day, than its worldling
+    parent or guardian); and can absorb the teaching, if
+    sympathetically given, without any shock or disturbance to its
+    sense of shame&mdash;that sense which is so natural and valuable a
+    safeguard of early youth.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    How widespread, even some years ago, had become the conviction
+    that the sexual facts of life should be taught to girls as well
+    as boys, was shown when the opinions of a very miscellaneous
+    assortment of more or less prominent persons were sought on the
+    question (&quot;The Tree of Knowledge,&quot; <i>New Review</i>, June, 1894). A
+    small minority of two only<a name='6_Page_47'></a> (Rabbi Adler and Mrs. Lynn Lynton)
+    were against such knowledge, while among the majority in favor of
+    it were Mme. Adam, Thomas Hardy, Sir Walter Besant, Bj&ouml;rnson,
+    Hall Caine, Sarah Grand, Nordau, Lady Henry Somerset, Baroness
+    von Suttner, and Miss Willard. The leaders of the woman's
+    movement are, of course, in favor of such knowledge. Thus a
+    meeting of the Bund f&uuml;r Mutterschutz at Berlin, in 1905, almost
+    unanimously passed a resolution declaring that the early sexual
+    enlightenment of children in the facts of the sexual life is
+    urgently necessary (<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1905, Heft 2, p. 91). It may
+    be added that medical opinion has long approved of this
+    enlightenment. Thus in England it was editorially stated in the
+    <i>British Medical Journal</i> some years ago (June 9, 1894): &quot;Most
+    medical men of an age to beget confidence in such affairs will be
+    able to recall instances in which an ignorance, which would have
+    been ludicrous if it had not been so sad, has been displayed on
+    matters regarding which every woman entering on married life
+    ought to have been accurately informed. There can, we think, be
+    little doubt that much unhappiness and a great deal of illness
+    would be prevented if young people of both sexes possessed a
+    little accurate knowledge regarding the sexual relations, and
+    were well impressed with the profound importance of selecting
+    healthy mates. Knowledge need not necessarily be nasty, but even
+    if it were, it certainly is not comparable in that respect with
+    the imaginings of ignorance.&quot; In America, also, where at an
+    annual meeting of the American Medical Association, Dr. Denslow
+    Lewis, of Chicago, eloquently urged the need of teaching sexual
+    hygiene to youths and girls, all the subsequent nine speakers,
+    some of them physicians of worldwide fame, expressed their
+    essential agreement (<i>Medico-Legal Journal</i>, June-Sept., 1903).
+    Howard, again, at the end of his elaborate <i>History of
+    Matrimonial Institutions</i> (vol. iii, p. 257) asserts the
+    necessity for education in matters of sex, as going to the root
+    of the marriage problem. &quot;In the future educational programme,&quot;
+    he remarks, &quot;sex questions must hold an honorable place.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>While, however, it is now widely recognized that children are entitled to
+sexual enlightenment, it cannot be said that this belief is widely put
+into practice. Many persons, who are fully persuaded that children should
+sooner or later be enlightened concerning the sexual sources of life, are
+somewhat nervously anxious as to the precise age at which this
+enlightenment should begin. Their latent feeling seems to be that sex is
+an evil, and enlightenment concerning sex also an evil, however necessary,
+and that the chief point is to ascertain the latest moment to which we can
+safely postpone this necessary evil. Such an <a name='6_Page_48'></a>attitude is, however,
+altogether wrong-headed. The child's desire for knowledge concerning the
+origin of himself is a perfectly natural, honest, and harmless desire, so
+long as it is not perverted by being thwarted. A child of four may ask
+questions on this matter, simply and spontaneously. As soon as the
+questions are put, certainly as soon as they become at all insistent, they
+should be answered, in the same simple and spontaneous spirit, truthfully,
+though according to the measure of the child's intelligence and his
+capacity and desire for knowledge. This period should not, and, if these
+indications are followed, naturally would not, in any case, be delayed
+beyond the sixth year. After that age even the most carefully guarded
+child is liable to contaminating communications from outside. Moll points
+out that the sexual enlightenment of girls in its various stages ought to
+be always a little ahead of that of boys, and as the development of girls
+up to the pubertal age is more precocious than that of boys, this demand
+is reasonable.</p>
+
+<p>If the elements of sexual education are to be imparted in early childhood,
+it is quite clear who ought to be the teacher. There should be no question
+that this privilege belongs by every right to the mother. Except where a
+child is artificially separated from his chief parent it is indeed only
+the mother who has any natural opportunity of receiving and responding to
+these questions. It is unnecessary for her to take any initiative in the
+matter. The inevitable awakening of the child's intelligence and the
+evolution of his boundless curiosity furnish her love and skill with all
+opportunities for guiding her child's thoughts and knowledge. Nor is it
+necessary for her to possess the slightest technical information at this
+stage. It is only essential that she should have the most absolute faith
+in the purity and dignity of her physical relationship to her child, and
+be able to speak of it with frankness and tenderness. When that essential
+condition is fulfilled every mother has all the knowledge that her young
+child needs.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Among the best authorities, both men and women, in all the
+    countries where this matter is attracting attention, there seems
+    now to be unanimity of opinion in favor of the elementary facts
+    of the baby's relationship <a name='6_Page_49'></a>to its mother being explained to the
+    child by the mother as soon as the child begins to ask questions.
+    Thus in Germany Moll has repeatedly argued in this sense; he
+    insists that sexual enlightenment should be mainly a private and
+    individual matter; that in schools there should be no general and
+    personal warnings about masturbation, etc. (though at a later age
+    he approves of instruction in regard to venereal diseases), but
+    that the mother is the proper person to impart intimate knowledge
+    to the child, and that any age is suitable for the commencement
+    of such enlightenment, provided it is put into a form fitted for
+    the age (Moll, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 264).</p>
+
+<p>    At the Mannheim meeting of the Congress of the German Society for
+    Combating Venereal Disease, when the question of sexual
+    enlightenment formed the sole subject of discussion, the opinion
+    in favor of early teaching by the mother prevailed. &quot;It is the
+    mother who must, in the first place, be made responsible for the
+    child's clear understanding of sexual things, so often lacking,&quot;
+    said Frau Krukenberg (&quot;Die Aufgabe der Mutter,&quot;
+    <i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, p. 13), while Max Enderlin, a teacher, said on
+    the same occasion (&quot;Die Sexuelle Frage in die Volksschule,&quot;
+    <i>id.</i>, p. 35): &quot;It is the mother who has to give the child his
+    first explanations, for it is to his mother that he first
+    naturally comes with his questions.&quot; In England, Canon Lyttelton,
+    who is distinguished among the heads of public schools not least
+    by his clear and admirable statements on these questions, states
+    (<i>Mothers and Sons</i>, p. 99) that the mother's part in the sexual
+    enlightenment and sexual guardianship of her son is of paramount
+    importance, and should begin at the earliest years. J. H. Badley,
+    another schoolmaster (&quot;The Sex Difficulty,&quot; <i>Broad Views</i>, June,
+    1904), also states that the mother's part comes first. Northcote
+    (<i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, p. 25) believes that the duty
+    of the parents is primary in this matter, the family doctor and
+    the schoolmaster coming in at a later stage. In America, Dr. Mary
+    Wood Allen, who occupies a prominent and influential position in
+    women's social movements, urges (in <i>Child-Confidence Rewarded</i>,
+    and other pamphlets) that a mother should begin to tell her child
+    these things as soon as he begins to ask questions, the age of
+    four not being too young, and explains how this may be done,
+    giving examples of its happy results in promoting a sweet
+    confidence between the child and his mother.</p></div>
+
+<p>If, as a few believe should be the case, the first initiation is delayed
+to the tenth year or even later, there is the difficulty that it is no
+longer so easy to talk simply and naturally about such things; the mother
+is beginning to feel too shy to speak for the first time about these
+difficult subjects to a son or a daughter who is nearly as big as herself.
+She feels that she can only do it <a name='6_Page_50'></a>awkwardly and ineffectively, and she
+probably decides not to do it at all. Thus an atmosphere of mystery is
+created with all the embarrassing and perverting influences which mystery
+encourages.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There can be no doubt that, more especially in highly intelligent
+    children with vague and unspecialized yet insistent sexual
+    impulses, the artificial mystery with which sex is too often
+    clothed not only accentuates the natural curiosity but also tends
+    to favor the morbid intensity and even prurience of the sexual
+    impulse. This has long been recognized. Dr. Beddoes wrote at the
+    beginning of the nineteenth century: &quot;It is in vain that we
+    dissemble to ourselves the eagerness with which children of
+    either sex seek to satisfy themselves concerning the conformation
+    of the other. No degree of reserve in the heads of families, no
+    contrivances, no care to put books of one description out of
+    sight and to garble others, has perhaps, with any one set of
+    children, succeeded in preventing or stifling this kind of
+    curiosity. No part of the history of human thought would perhaps
+    be more singular than the stratagems devised by young people in
+    different situations to make themselves masters or witnesses of
+    the secret. And every discovery, due to their own inquiries, can
+    but be so much oil poured upon an imagination in flames&quot; (T.
+    Beddoes, <i>Hygeia</i>, 1802, vol. iii, p. 59). Kaan, again, in one of
+    the earliest books on morbid sexuality, sets down mystery as one
+    of the causes of <i>psychopathia sexualis</i>. Marro (<i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, p.
+    299) points out how the veil of mystery thrown over sexual
+    matters merely serves to concentrate attention on them. The
+    distinguished Dutch writer Multatuli, in one of his letters
+    (quoted with approval by Freud), remarks on the dangers of hiding
+    things from boys and girls in a veil of mystery, pointing out
+    that this must only heighten the curiosity of children, and so
+    far from keeping them pure, which mere ignorance can never do,
+    heats and perverts their imaginations. Mrs. Mary Wood Allen,
+    also, warns the mother (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 5) against the danger of
+    allowing any air of embarrassing mystery to creep over these
+    things. &quot;If the instructor feels any embarrassment in answering
+    the queries of the child, he is not fitted to be the teacher, for
+    the feeling of embarrassment will, in some subtle way,
+    communicate itself to the child, and he will experience an
+    indefinable sense of offended delicacy which is both unnecessary
+    and undesirable. Purification of one's own thought is, then, the
+    first step towards teaching the truth purely. Why,&quot; she adds, &quot;is
+    death, the gateway out of life, any more dignified or pathetic
+    than birth, the gateway into life? Or why is the taking of
+    earthly life a more awful fact than the giving of life?&quot; Mrs.
+    Ennis Richmond, in a book of advice to mothers which contains
+    many wise and true things, says: &quot;I want to insist, more strongly
+    than upon anything else, that it is the <i>secrecy</i> that <a name='6_Page_51'></a>surrounds
+    certain parts of the body and their functions that gives them
+    their danger in the child's thought. Little children, from
+    earliest years, are taught to think of these parts of their body
+    as mysterious, and not only so, but that they are mysterious
+    because they are unclean. Children have not even a name for them.
+    If you have to speak to your child, you allude to them
+    mysteriously and in a half-whisper as 'that little part of you
+    that you don't speak of,' or words to that effect. Before
+    everything it is important that your child should have a good
+    working name for these parts of his body, and for their
+    functions, and that he should be taught to use and to hear the
+    names, and that as naturally and openly as though he or you were
+    speaking of his head or his foot. Convention has, for various
+    reasons, made it impossible to speak in this way in public. But
+    you can, at any rate, break through this in the nursery. There
+    this rule of convention has no advantage, and many a serious
+    disadvantage. It is easy to say to a child, the first time he
+    makes an 'awkward' remark in public: 'Look here, laddie, you may
+    say what you like to me or to daddy, but, for some reason or
+    other, one does not talk about these' (only say <i>what</i> things)
+    'in public.' Only let your child make the remark in public
+    <i>before</i> you speak (never mind the shock to your caller's
+    feelings), don't warn him against doing so&quot; (Ennis Richmond,
+    <i>Boyhood</i>, p. 60). Sex must always be a mystery, but, as Mrs.
+    Richmond rightly says, &quot;the real and true mysteries of generation
+    and birth are very different from the vulgar secretiveness with
+    which custom surrounds them.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The question as to the precise names to be given to the more
+    private bodily parts and functions is sometimes a little
+    difficult to solve. Every mother will naturally follow her own
+    instincts, and probably her own traditions, in this matter. I
+    have elsewhere pointed out (in the study of &quot;The Evolution of
+    Modesty&quot;) how widespread and instinctive is the tendency to adopt
+    constantly new euphemisms in this field. The ancient and simple
+    words, which in England a great poet like Chaucer could still use
+    rightly and naturally, are so often dropped in the mud by the
+    vulgar that there is an instinctive hesitation nowadays in
+    applying them to beautiful uses. They are, however,
+    unquestionably the best, and, in their origin, the most dignified
+    and expressive words. Many persons are of opinion that on this
+    account they should be rescued from the mud, and their sacredness
+    taught to children. A medical friend writes that he always taught
+    his son that the vulgar sex names are really beautiful words of
+    ancient origin, and that when we understand them aright we cannot
+    possibly see in them any motive for low jesting. They are simple,
+    serious and solemn words, connoting the most central facts of
+    life, and only to ignorant and plebeian vulgarity can they cause
+    obscene mirth. An American man of science, who has privately and
+    anonymously printed some pamphlets on sex questions, also takes
+    this <a name='6_Page_52'></a>view, and consistently and methodically uses the ancient
+    and simple words. I am of opinion that this is the ideal to be
+    sought, but that there are obvious difficulties at present in the
+    way of attaining it. In any case, however, the mother should be
+    in possession of a very precise vocabulary for all the bodily
+    parts and acts which it concerns her children to know.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is sometimes said that at this early age children should not be told,
+even in a simple and elementary form, the real facts of their origin but
+should, instead, hear a fairy-tale having in it perhaps some kind of
+symbolic truth. This contention may be absolutely rejected, without
+thereby, in any degree, denying the important place which fairy-tales hold
+in the imagination of young children. Fairy-tales have a real value to the
+child; they are a mental food he needs, if he is not to be spiritually
+starved; to deprive him of fairy-tales at this age is to do him a wrong
+which can never be made up at any subsequent age. But not only are sex
+matters too vital even in childhood to be safely made matter for a
+fairy-tale, but the real facts are themselves as wonderful as any
+fairy-tale, and appeal to the child's imagination with as much force as a
+fairy-tale.</p>
+
+<p>Even, however, if there were no other reasons against telling children
+fairy-tales of sex instead of the real facts, there is one reason which
+ought to be decisive with every mother who values her influence over her
+child. He will very quickly discover, either by information from others or
+by his own natural intelligence, that the fairy-tale, that was told him in
+reply to a question about a simple matter of fact, was a lie. With that
+discovery his mother's influence over him in all such matters vanishes for
+ever, for not only has a child a horror of being duped, but he is
+extremely sensitive about any rebuff of this kind, and never repeats what
+he has been made to feel was a mistake to be ashamed of. He will not
+trouble his mother with any more questions on this matter; he will not
+confide in her; he will himself learn the art of telling &quot;fairy-tales&quot;
+about sex matters. He had turned to his mother in trust; she had not
+responded with equal trust, and she must suffer the punishment, as
+Henriette F&uuml;rth puts it, of seeing &quot;the love and trust of her son <a name='6_Page_53'></a>stolen
+from her by the first boy he makes friends with in the street.&quot; When, as
+sometimes happens (Moll mentions a case), a mother goes on repeating these
+silly stories to a girl or boy of seven who is secretly well-informed, she
+only degrades herself in her child's eyes. It is this fatal mistake, so
+often made by mothers, which at first leads them to imagine that their
+children are so innocent, and in later years causes them many hours of
+bitterness because they realize they do not possess their children's
+trust. In the matter of trust it is for the mother to take the first step;
+the children who do not trust their mothers are, for the most part, merely
+remembering the lesson they learned at their mother's knee.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The number of little books and pamphlets dealing with the
+    question of the sexual enlightenment of the young&mdash;whether
+    intended to be read by the young or offering guidance to mothers
+    and teachers in the task of imparting knowledge&mdash;has become very
+    large indeed during recent years in America, England, and
+    especially Germany, where there has been of late an enormous
+    production of such literature. The late Ben Elmy, writing under
+    the pseudonym of &quot;Ellis Ethelmer,&quot; published two booklets, <i>Baby
+    Buds</i>, and <i>The Human Flower</i> (issued by Mrs. Wolstenholme Elmy,
+    Buxton House, Congleton), which state the facts in a simple and
+    delicate manner, though the author was not a notably reliable
+    guide on the scientific aspects of these questions. A charming
+    conversation between a mother and child, from a French source, is
+    reprinted by Edward Carpenter at the end of his <i>Love's Coming of
+    Age. How We Are Born</i>, by Mrs. N. J. (apparently a Russian lady
+    writing in English), prefaced by J. H. Badley, is satisfactory.
+    Mention may also be made of <i>The Wonder of Life</i>, by Mary Tudor
+    Pole. Margaret Morley's <i>Song of Life</i>, an American book, which I
+    have not seen, has been highly praised. Most of these books are
+    intended for quite young children, and while they explain more or
+    less clearly the origin of babies, nearly always starting with
+    the facts of plant life, they touch very slightly, if at all, on
+    the relations of the sexes.</p>
+
+<p>    Mrs. Ennis Richmond's books, largely addressed to mothers, deal
+    with these questions in a very sane, direct, and admirable
+    manner, and Canon Lyttelton's books, discussing such questions
+    generally, are also excellent. Most of the books now to be
+    mentioned are intended to be read by boys and girls who have
+    reached the age of puberty. They refer more or less precisely to
+    sexual relationships, and they usually touch on masturbation.
+    <i>The Story of Life</i>, written by a very accomplished woman, the
+    late Ellice Hopkins, is somewhat vague, and introduces too <a name='6_Page_54'></a>many
+    exalted religious ideas. Arthur Trewby's <i>Healthy Boyhood</i> is a
+    little book of wholesome tendency; it deals specially with
+    masturbation. <i>A Talk with Boys About Themselves</i> and <i>A Talk
+    with Girls About Themselves</i>, both by Edward Bruce Kirk (the
+    latter book written in conjunction with a lady) deal with general
+    as well as sexual hygiene. There could be no better book to put
+    into the hands of a boy or girl at puberty than M. A. Warren's
+    <i>Almost Fourteen</i>, written by an American school teacher in 1892.
+    It was a most charming and delicately written book, which could
+    not have offended the innocence of the most sensitive maiden.
+    Nothing, however, is sacred to prurience, and it was easy for the
+    prurient to capture the law and obtain (in 1897) legal
+    condemnation of this book as &quot;obscene.&quot; Anything which sexually
+    excites a prurient mind is, it is true, &quot;obscene&quot; for that mind,
+    for, as Mr. Theodore Schroeder remarks, obscenity is &quot;the
+    contribution of the reading mind,&quot; but we need such books as this
+    in order to diminish the number of prurient minds, and the
+    condemnation of so entirely admirable a book makes, not for
+    morality, but for immorality. I am told that the book was
+    subsequently issued anew with most of its best portions omitted,
+    and it is stated by Schroeder (<i>Liberty of Speech and Press
+    Essential to Purity Propaganda</i>, p. 34) that the author was
+    compelled to resign his position as a public school principal.
+    Maria Lischnewska's <i>Geschlechtliche Belehrung der Kinder</i>
+    (reprinted from <i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1905, Heft 4 and 5) is a most
+    admirable and thorough discussion of the whole question of sexual
+    education, though the writer is more interested in the teacher's
+    share in this question than in the mother's. Suggestions to
+    mothers are contained in Hugo Salus, <i>Wo kommen die Kinder her?</i>,
+    E. Stiehl, <i>Eine Mutterpflicht</i>, and many other books. Dr. Alfred
+    Kind strongly recommends Ludwig Gurlitt's <i>Der Verkehr mit meinem
+    Kindern</i>, more especially in its combination of sexual education
+    with artistic education. Many similar books are referred to by
+    Bloch, in his <i>Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, Ch. xxvi.</p>
+
+<p>    I have enumerated the names of these little books because they
+    are frequently issued in a semi-private manner, and are seldom
+    easy to procure or to hear of. The propagation of such books
+    seems to be felt to be almost a disgraceful action, only to be
+    performed by stealth. And such a feeling seems not unnatural when
+    we see, as in the case of the author of <i>Almost Fourteen</i>, that a
+    nominally civilized country, instead of loading with honors a man
+    who has worked for its moral and physical welfare, seeks so far
+    as it can to ruin him.</p>
+
+<p>    I may add that while it would usually be very helpful to a mother
+    to be acquainted with a few of the booklets I have named, she
+    would do well, in actually talking to her children, to rely
+    mainly on her own knowledge and inspiration.</p></div><a name='6_Page_55'></a>
+
+<p>The sexual education which it is the mother's duty and privilege to
+initiate during her child's early years cannot and ought not to be
+technical. It is not of the nature of formal instruction but is a private
+and intimate initiation. No doubt the mother must herself be taught.<a name='6_FNanchor_24'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_24'><sup>[24]</sup></a>
+But the education she needs is mainly an education in love and insight.
+The actual facts which she requires to use at this early stage are very
+simple. Her main task is to make clear the child's own intimate relations
+to herself and to show that all young things have a similar intimate
+relation to their mothers; in generalizing on this point the egg is the
+simplest and most fundamental type to explain the origin of the individual
+life, for the idea of the egg&mdash;in its widest sense as the seed&mdash;not only
+has its truth for the human creature but may be applied throughout the
+animal and vegetable world. In this explanation the child's physical
+relationship to his father is not necessarily at first involved; it may be
+left to a further stage or until the child's questions lead up to it.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from his interest in his origin, the child is also interested in his
+sexual, or as they seem to him exclusively, his excretory organs, and in
+those of other people, his sisters and parents. On these points, at this
+age, his mother may simply and naturally satisfy his simple and natural
+curiosity, calling things by precise names, whether the names used are
+common or uncommon being a matter in regard to which she may exercise her
+judgment and taste. In this manner the mother will, indirectly, be able to
+safeguard her child at the outset against the prudish and prurient notions
+alike which he will encounter later. She will also without unnatural
+stress be able to lead the child into a reverential attitude towards his
+own organs and so exert an influence against any undesirable tampering
+with them. In talking with him about the origin of life and about his own
+body and functions, in however elementary a fashion, she will have
+initiated him both in sexual knowledge and in sexual hygiene.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_56'></a>
+<p>The mother who establishes a relationship of confidence with her child
+during these first years will probably, if she possesses any measure of
+wisdom and tact, be able to preserve it even after the epoch of puberty
+into the difficult years of adolescence. But as an educator in the
+narrower sense her functions will, in most cases, end at or before
+puberty. A somewhat more technical and completely impersonal acquaintance
+with the essential facts of sex then becomes desirable, and this would
+usually be supplied by the school.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The great though capricious educator, Basedow, to some extent a
+    pupil of Rousseau, was an early pioneer in both the theory and
+    the practice of giving school children instruction in the facts
+    of the sexual life, from the age of ten onwards. He insists much
+    on this subject in his great treatise, the <i>Elementarwerk</i>
+    (1770-1774). The questions of children are to be answered
+    truthfully, he states, and they must be taught never to jest at
+    anything so sacred and serious as the sexual relations. They are
+    to be shown pictures of childbirth, and the dangers of sexual
+    irregularities are to be clearly expounded to them at the outset.
+    Boys are to be taken to hospitals to see the results of venereal
+    disease. Basedow is aware that many parents and teachers will be
+    shocked at his insistence on these things in his books and in his
+    practical pedagogic work, but such people, he declares, ought to
+    be shocked at the Bible (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Pinloche, <i>La R&egrave;forme de
+    l'Education en Allemagne au dixhuiti&egrave;me si&egrave;cle: Basedow et le
+    Philanthropinisme</i>, pp. 125, 256, 260, 272). Basedow was too far
+    ahead of his own time, and even of ours, to exert much influence
+    in this matter, and he had few immediate imitators.</p>
+
+<p>    Somewhat later than Basedow, a distinguished English physician,
+    Thomas Beddoes, worked on somewhat the same lines, seeking to
+    promote sexual knowledge by lectures and demonstrations. In his
+    remarkable book, <i>Hygeia</i>, published in 1802 (vol. i, Essay IV)
+    he sets forth the absurdity of the conventional requirement that
+    &quot;discretion and ignorance should lodge in the same bosom,&quot; and
+    deals at length with the question of masturbation and the need of
+    sexual education. He insists on the great importance of lectures
+    on natural history which, he had found, could be given with
+    perfect propriety to a mixed audience. His experiences had shown
+    that botany, the amphibia, the hen and her eggs, human anatomy,
+    even disease and sometimes the sight of it, are salutary from
+    this point of view. He thinks it is a happy thing for a child to
+    gain his first knowledge of sexual difference from anatomical
+    subjects, the dignity of death being a noble prelude to the
+    knowledge of sex and <a name='6_Page_57'></a>depriving it forever of morbid prurience.
+    It is scarcely necessary to remark that this method of teaching
+    children the elements of sexual anatomy in the <i>post-mortem</i> room
+    has not found many advocates or followers; it is undesirable, for
+    it fails to take into account the sensitiveness of children to
+    such impressions, and it is unnecessary, for it is just as easy
+    to teach the dignity of life as the dignity of death.</p>
+
+<p>    The duty of the school to impart education in matters of sex to
+    children has in recent years been vigorously and ably advocated
+    by Maria Lischnewska (<i>op. cit.</i>), who speaks with thirty years'
+    experience as a teacher and an intimate acquaintance with
+    children and their home life. She argues that among the mass of
+    the population to-day, while in the home-life there is every
+    opportunity for coarse familiarity with sexual matters, there is
+    no opportunity for a pure and enlightened introduction to them,
+    parents being for the most part both morally and intellectually
+    incapable of aiding their children here. That the school should
+    assume the leading part in this task is, she believes, in
+    accordance with the whole tendency of modern civilized life. She
+    would have the instruction graduated in such a manner that during
+    the fifth or sixth year of school life the pupil would receive
+    instruction, with the aid of diagrams, concerning the sexual
+    organs and functions of the higher mammals, the bull and cow
+    being selected by preference. The facts of gestation would of
+    course be included. When this stage was reached it would be easy
+    to pass on to the human species with the statement: &quot;Just in the
+    same way as the calf develops in the cow so the child develops in
+    the mother's body.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It is difficult not to recognize the force of Maria Lischnewska's
+    argument, and it seems highly probable that, as she asserts, the
+    instruction proposed lies in the course of our present path of
+    progress. Such instruction would be formal, unemotional, and
+    impersonal; it would be given not as specific instruction in
+    matters of sex, but simply as a part of natural history. It would
+    supplement, so far as mere knowledge is concerned, the
+    information the child had already received from its mother. But
+    it would by no means supplant or replace the personal and
+    intimate relationship of confidence between mother and child.
+    That is always to be aimed at, and though it may not be possible
+    among the ill-educated masses of to-day, nothing else will
+    adequately take its place.</p></div>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt, however, that while in the future the school will
+most probably be regarded as the proper place in which to teach the
+elements of physiology&mdash;and not as at present a merely emasculated and
+effeminated physiology&mdash;the introduction of such reformed teaching is as
+yet impracticable in many communities. A coarse and ill-bred community
+moves in a <a name='6_Page_58'></a>vicious circle. Its members are brought up to believe that sex
+matters are filthy, and when they become adults they protest violently
+against their children being taught this filthy knowledge. The teacher's
+task is thus rendered at the best difficult, and under democratic
+conditions impossible. We cannot, therefore, hope for any immediate
+introduction of sexual physiology into schools, even in the unobtrusive
+form in which alone it could properly be introduced, that is to say as a
+natural and inevitable part of general physiology.</p>
+
+<p>This objection to animal physiology by no means applies, however, to
+botany. There can be little doubt that botany is of all the natural
+sciences that which best admits of this incidental instruction in the
+fundamental facts of sex, when we are concerned with children below the
+age of puberty. There are at least two reasons why this should be so. In
+the first place botany really presents the beginnings of sex, in their
+most naked and essential forms; it makes clear the nature, origin, and
+significance of sex. In the second place, in dealing with plants the facts
+of sex can be stated to children of either sex or any age quite plainly
+and nakedly without any reserve, for no one nowadays regards the botanical
+facts of sex as in any way offensive. The expounder of sex in plants also
+has on his side the advantage of being able to assert, without question,
+the entire beauty of the sexual process. He is not confronted by the
+ignorance, bad education, and false associations which have made it so
+difficult either to see or to show the beauty of sex in animals. From the
+sex-life of plants to the sex-life of the lower animals there is, however,
+but a step which the teacher, according to his discretion, may take.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>An early educational authority, Salzmann, in 1785 advocated the
+    sexual enlightenment of children by first teaching them botany,
+    to be followed by zo&ouml;logy. In modern times the method of
+    imparting sex knowledge to children by means, in the first place,
+    of botany, has been generally advocated, and from the most
+    various quarters. Thus Marro (<i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, p. 300) recommends
+    this plan. J. Hudrey-Menos (&quot;La Question du Sexe dans
+    l'Education,&quot; <i>Revue Socialiste</i>, June, 1895), gives the same
+    advice. Rudolf Sommer, in a paper entitled &quot;M&auml;dchenerziehung oder
+    Menschenbildung?&quot; (<i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Jahrgang<a name='6_Page_59'></a> I,
+    Heft 3) recommends that the first introduction of sex knowledge
+    to children should be made by talking to them on simple natural
+    history subjects; &quot;there are endless opportunities,&quot; he remarks,
+    &quot;over a fairy-tale, or a walk, or a fruit, or an egg, the sowing
+    of seed or the nest-building of birds.&quot; Canon Lyttelton
+    (<i>Training of the Young in Laws of Sex</i>, pp. 74 <i>et seq.</i>)
+    advises a somewhat similar method, though laying chief stress on
+    personal confidence between the child and his mother; &quot;reference
+    is made to the animal world just so far as the child's knowledge
+    extends, so as to prevent the new facts from being viewed in
+    isolation, but the main emphasis is laid on his feeling for his
+    mother and the instinct which exists in nearly all children of
+    reverence due to the maternal relation;&quot; he adds that, however
+    difficult the subject may seem, the essential facts of paternity
+    must also be explained to boys and girls alike. Keyes, again
+    (<i>New York Medical Journal</i>, Feb. 10, 1906), advocates teaching
+    children from an early age the sexual facts of plant life and
+    also concerning insects and other lower animals, and so gradually
+    leading up to human beings, the matter being thus robbed of its
+    unwholesome mystery. Mrs. Ennis Richmond (<i>Boyhood</i>, p. 62)
+    recommends that children should be sent to spend some of their
+    time upon a farm, so that they may not only become acquainted
+    with the general facts of the natural world, but also with the
+    sexual lives of animals, learning things which it is difficult to
+    teach verbally. Karina Karin (&quot;Wie erzieht man ein Kind z&uuml;r
+    wissenden Keuschheit?&quot; <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Jahrgang I,
+    Heft 4), reproducing some of her talks with her nine-year old
+    son, from the time that he first asked her where children came
+    from, shows how she began with telling him about flowers, to pass
+    on to fish and birds, and finally to the facts of human
+    pregnancy, showing him pictures from an obstetrical manual of the
+    child in its mother's body. It may be added that the advisability
+    of beginning the sex teaching of children with the facts of
+    botany was repeatedly emphasized by various speakers at the
+    special meeting of the German Congress for Combating Venereal
+    Disease devoted to the subject of sexual instruction
+    (<i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, especially pp. 36, 47, 76).</p></div>
+
+<p>The transition from botany to the elementary zo&ouml;logy of the lower animals,
+to human anatomy and physiology, and to the science of anthropology based
+on these, is simple and natural. It is not likely to be taken in detail
+until the age of puberty. Sex enters into all these subjects and should
+not be artificially excluded from them in the education of either boys or
+girls. The text-books from which the sexual system is entirely omitted
+ought no longer to be tolerated. The nature and secretion of the
+<a name='6_Page_60'></a>testicles, the meaning of the ovaries and of menstruation, as well as the
+significance of metabolism and the urinary excretion, should be clear in
+their main lines to all boys and girls who have reached the age of
+puberty.</p>
+
+<p>At puberty there arises a new and powerful reason why boys and girls
+should receive definite instruction in matters of sex. Before that age it
+is possible for the foolish parent to imagine that a child may be
+preserved in ignorant innocence.<a name='6_FNanchor_25'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_25'><sup>[25]</sup></a> At puberty that belief is obviously
+no longer possible. The efflorescence of puberty with the development of
+the sexual organs, the appearance of hair in unfamiliar places, the
+general related organic changes, the spontaneous and perhaps alarming
+occurrence in boys of seminal emissions, and in girls of menstruation, the
+unaccustomed and sometimes acute recognition of sexual desire accompanied
+by new sensations in the sexual organs and leading perhaps to
+masturbation; all these arouse, as we cannot fail to realize, a new
+anxiety in the boy's or girl's mind, and a new curiosity, all the more
+acute in many cases because it is carefully concealed as too private, and
+even too shameful, to speak of to anyone. In boys, especially if of
+sensitive temperament, the suffering thus caused may be keen and
+prolonged.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>A doctor of philosophy, prominent in his profession, wrote to
+    Stanley Hall (<i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, p. 452): &quot;My entire youth,
+    from six to eighteen, was made miserable from lack of knowledge
+    that any one who knew anything of the nature of puberty might
+    have given; this long sense of defect, dread of operation, shame
+    and worry, has left an indelible mark.&quot; There are certainly many
+    men who could say the same. Lancaster (&quot;Psychology and Pedagogy
+    of Adolescence,&quot; <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, July, 1897, pp. 123-5)
+    speaks strongly regarding the evils of ignorance of sexual
+    hygiene, and the terrible fact that millions of youths are always
+    in the hands of quacks who dupe them into the belief that they
+    are on the road to an awful destiny merely because they have
+    occasional emissions during sleep. &quot;This is not a light matter,&quot;
+    Lancaster declares. &quot;It strikes at the very foundation of our
+    inmost life. It deals with the reproductory part of our natures,
+    and must have a deep hereditary influence. It is a natural result
+    of the foolish false modesty shown regarding all sex instruction.
+    Every boy should be taught the <a name='6_Page_61'></a>simple physiological facts before
+    his life is forever blighted by this cause.&quot; Lancaster has had in
+    his hands one thousand letters, mostly written by young people,
+    who were usually normal, and addressed to quacks who were duping
+    them. From time to time the suicides of youths from this cause
+    are reported, and in many mysterious suicides this has
+    undoubtedly been the real cause. &quot;Week after week,&quot; writes the
+    <i>British Medical Journal</i> in an editorial (&quot;Dangerous Quack
+    Literature: The Moral of a Recent Suicide,&quot; Oct. 1, 1892), &quot;we
+    receive despairing letters from those victims of foul birds of
+    prey who have obtained their first hold on those they rob,
+    torture and often ruin, by advertisements inserted by newspapers
+    of a respectable, nay, even of a valuable and respected,
+    character.&quot; It is added that the wealthy proprietors of such
+    newspapers, often enjoying a reputation for benevolence, even
+    when the matter is brought before them, refuse to interfere as
+    they would thereby lose a source of income, and a censorship of
+    advertisements is proposed. This, however, is difficult, and
+    would be quite unnecessary if youths received proper
+    enlightenment from their natural guardians.</p>
+
+<p>    Masturbation, and the fear that by an occasional and perhaps
+    outgrown practice of masturbation they have sometimes done
+    themselves irreparable injury, is a common source of anxiety to
+    boys. It has long been a question whether a boy should be warned
+    against masturbation. At a meeting of the Section of Psychology
+    of the British Medical Association some years ago, four speakers,
+    including the President (Dr. Blandford), were decidedly in favor
+    of parents warning their children against masturbation, while
+    three speakers were decidedly against that course, mainly on the
+    ground that it was possible to pass through even a public school
+    life without hearing of masturbation, and also that the warning
+    against masturbation might encourage the practice. It is,
+    however, becoming more and more clearly realized that ignorance,
+    even if it can be maintained, is a perilous possession, while the
+    teaching that consists, as it should, in a loving mother's
+    counsel to the child from his earliest years to treat his sexual
+    parts with care and respect, can only lead to masturbation in the
+    child who is already irresistibly impelled to it. Most of the sex
+    manuals for boys touch on masturbation, sometimes exaggerating
+    its dangers; such exaggeration should be avoided, for it leads to
+    far worse evils than those it attempts to prevent. It seems
+    undesirable that any warnings about masturbation should form part
+    of school instruction, unless under very special circumstances.
+    The sexual instruction imparted in the school on sexual as on
+    other subjects should be absolutely impersonal and objective.</p>
+
+<p>    At this point we approach one of the difficulties in the way of
+    sexual enlightenment: the ignorance or unwisdom of the would-be
+    teachers. This difficulty at present exists both in the home and
+    the <a name='6_Page_62'></a>school, while it destroys the value of many manuals written
+    for the sexual instruction of the young. The mother, who ought to
+    be the child's confidant and guide in matters of sexual
+    education, and could naturally be so if left to her own healthy
+    instincts, has usually been brought up in false traditions which
+    it requires a high degree of intelligence and character to escape
+    from; the school-teacher, even if only called upon to give
+    instruction in natural history, is oppressed by the same
+    traditions, and by false shame concerning the whole subject of
+    sex; the writer of manuals on sex has often only freed himself
+    from these bonds in order to advocate dogmatic, unscientific, and
+    sometimes mischievous opinions which have been evolved in entire
+    ignorance of the real facts. As Moll says (Das <i>Sexualleben des
+    Kindes</i>, p. 276), necessary as sexual enlightenment is, we cannot
+    help feeling a little skeptical as to its results so long as
+    those who ought to enlighten are themselves often in need of
+    enlightenment. He refers also to the fact that even among
+    competent authorities there is difference of opinion concerning
+    important matters, as, for instance, whether masturbation is
+    physiological at the first development of the sexual impulse and
+    how far sexual abstinence is beneficial. But it is evident that
+    the difficulties due to false tradition and ignorance will
+    diminish as sound traditions and better knowledge become more
+    widely diffused.</p></div>
+
+<p>The girl at puberty is usually less keenly and definitely conscious of her
+sexual nature than the boy. But the risks she runs from sexual ignorance,
+though for the most part different, are more subtle and less easy to
+repair. She is often extremely inquisitive concerning these matters; the
+thoughts of adolescent girls, and often their conversation among
+themselves, revolve much around sexual and allied mysteries. Even in the
+matter of conscious sexual impulse the girl is often not so widely
+different from her brother, nor so much less likely to escape the
+contamination of evil communications, so that the scruples of foolish and
+ignorant persons who dread to &quot;sully her purity&quot; by proper instruction are
+exceedingly misplaced.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Conversations dealing with the important mysteries of human
+    nature, Obici and Marchesini were told by ladies who had formerly
+    been pupils in Italian Normal Schools, are the order of the day
+    in schools and colleges, and specially circle around procreation,
+    the most difficult mystery of all. In England, even in the best
+    and most modern colleges, in which games and physical exercise
+    are much cultivated, I am told that &quot;the majority of the girls
+    are entirely ignorant of all sexual matters, and understand
+    nothing whatever about them. But they do wonder <a name='6_Page_63'></a>about them, and
+    talk about them constantly&quot; (see Appendix D, &quot;The School
+    Friendships of Girls,&quot; in the second volume of these <i>Studies</i>).
+    &quot;The restricted life and fettered mind of girls,&quot; wrote a
+    well-known physician some years ago (J. Milner Fothergill,
+    <i>Adolescence</i>, 1880, pp. 20, 22) &quot;leave them with less to
+    actively occupy their thoughts than is the case with boys. They
+    are studiously taught concealment, and a girl may be a perfect
+    model of outward decorum and yet have a very filthy mind. The
+    prudishness with which she is brought up leaves her no
+    alternative but to view her passions from the nasty side of human
+    nature. All healthy thought on the subject is vigorously
+    repressed. Everything is done to darken her mind and foul her
+    imagination by throwing her back on her own thoughts and a
+    literature with which she is ashamed to own acquaintance. It is
+    opposed to a girl's best interests to prevent her from having
+    fair and just conceptions about herself and her nature. Many a
+    fair young girl is irredeemably ruined on the very threshold of
+    life, herself and her family disgraced, from ignorance as much as
+    from vice. When the moment of temptation comes she falls without
+    any palpable resistance; she has no trained educated power of
+    resistance within herself; her whole future hangs, not upon
+    herself, but upon the perfection of the social safeguards by
+    which she is hedged and surrounded.&quot; Under the free social order
+    of America to-day much the same results are found. In an
+    instructive article (&quot;Why Girls Go Wrong,&quot; <i>Ladies' Home
+    Journal</i>, Jan., 1907) B. B. Lindsey, who, as Judge of the Juvenile
+    Court of Denver, is able to speak with authority, brings forward
+    ample evidence on this head. Both girls and boys, he has found,
+    sometimes possess manuscript books in which they had written down
+    the crudest sexual things. These children were often sweet-faced,
+    pleasant, refined and intelligent, and they had respectable
+    parents; but no one had ever spoken to them of sex matters,
+    except the worst of their school-fellows or some coarse-minded
+    and reckless adult. By careful inquiry Lindsey found that only in
+    one in twenty cases had the parents ever spoken to the children
+    of sexual subjects. In nearly every case the children
+    acknowledged that it was not from their parents, but in the
+    street or from older companions, that they learnt the facts of
+    sex. The parents usually imagined that their children were
+    absolutely ignorant of these matters, and were astonished to
+    realize their mistake; &quot;parents do not know their children, nor
+    have they the least idea of what their children know, or what
+    their children talk about and do when away from them.&quot; The
+    parents guilty of this neglect to instruct their children, are,
+    Lindsey declares, traitors to their children. From his own
+    experience he judges that nine-tenths of the girls who &quot;go
+    wrong,&quot; whether or not they sink in the world, do so owing to the
+    inattention of their parents, and that in the case of most
+    prostitutes the mischief is really done before the age of twelve;
+    &quot;every wayward girl<a name='6_Page_64'></a> I have talked to has assured me of this
+    truth.&quot; He considers that nine-tenths of school-boys and
+    school-girls, in town or country, are very inquisitive regarding
+    matters of sex, and, to his own amazement, he has found that in
+    the girls this is as marked as in the boys.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is the business of the girl's mother, at least as much as of the boy's,
+to watch over her child from the earliest years and to win her confidence
+in all the intimate and personal matters of sex. With these aspects the
+school cannot properly meddle. But in matters of physical sexual hygiene,
+notably menstruation, in regard to which all girls stand on the same
+level, it is certainly the duty of the teacher to take an actively
+watchful part, and, moreover, to direct the general work of education
+accordingly, and to ensure that the pupil shall rest whenever that may
+seem to be desirable. This is part of the very elements of the education
+of girls. To disregard it should disqualify a teacher from taking further
+share in educational work. Yet it is constantly and persistently
+neglected. A large number of girls have not even been prepared by their
+mothers or teachers for the first onset of the menstrual flow, sometimes
+with disastrous results both to their bodily and mental health.<a name='6_FNanchor_26'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_26'><sup>[26]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;I know of no large girl's school,&quot; wrote a distinguished
+    gyn&aelig;cologist, Sir W. S. Playfair (&quot;Education and Training of Girls
+    at Puberty,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>, Dec. 7, 1895), &quot;in which
+    the absolute distinction which exists between boys and girls as
+    regards the dominant menstrual function is systematically cared
+    for and attended to. Indeed, the feeling of all schoolmistresses
+    is distinctly antagonistic to such an admission. The contention
+    is that there is no real difference between an adolescent male
+    and female, that what is good for one is good for the other, and
+    that such as there is is due to the evil customs of the past
+    which have denied to women the ambitions and advantages open to
+    men, and that this will disappear when a happier era is
+    inaugurated. If this be so, how comes it that while every
+    practical physician of experience has seen many cases of an&aelig;mia
+    and chlorosis in girls, accompanied by amenorrh&aelig;a or menorrhagia,
+    headaches, palpitations, emaciation, and all the familiar
+    accompaniments of breakdown, an analogous condition in a
+    school-boy is so rare that it may well be doubted if it is ever
+    seen at all?&quot;</p><a name='6_Page_65'></a>
+
+<p>    It is, however, only the excuses for this almost criminal
+    negligence, as it ought to be considered, which are new; the
+    negligence itself is ancient. Half a century earlier, before the
+    new era of feminine education, another distinguished
+    gyn&aelig;cologist, Tilt (<i>Elements of Health and Principles of Female
+    Hygiene</i>, 1852, p. 18) stated that from a statistical inquiry
+    regarding the onset of menstruation in nearly one thousand women
+    he found that &quot;25 per cent. were totally unprepared for its
+    appearance; that thirteen out of the twenty-five were much
+    frightened, screamed, or went into hysterical fits; and that six
+    out of the thirteen thought themselves wounded and washed with
+    cold water. Of those frightened ... the general health was
+    seriously impaired.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Engelmann, after stating that his experience in America was
+    similar to Tilt's in England, continues (&quot;The Health of the
+    American Girl,&quot; <i>Transactions of the Southern Surgical and
+    Gyn&aelig;cological Society</i>, 1890): &quot;To innumerable women has fright,
+    nervous and emotional excitement, exposure to cold, brought
+    injury at puberty. What more natural than that the anxious girl,
+    surprised by the sudden and unexpected loss of the precious
+    life-fluid, should seek to check the bleeding wound&mdash;as she
+    supposes? For this purpose the use of cold washes and
+    applications is common, some even seek to stop the flow by a cold
+    bath, as was done by a now careful mother, who long lay at the
+    point of death from the result of such indiscretion, and but
+    slowly, by years of care, regained her health. The terrible
+    warning has not been lost, and mindful of her own experience she
+    has taught her children a lesson which but few are fortunate
+    enough to learn&mdash;the individual care during periods of functional
+    activity which is needful for the preservation of woman's
+    health.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In a study of one hundred and twenty-five American high school
+    girls Dr. Helen Kennedy refers to the &quot;modesty&quot; which makes it
+    impossible even for mothers and daughters to speak to each other
+    concerning the menstrual functions. &quot;Thirty-six girls in this
+    high school passed into womanhood with no knowledge whatever,
+    from a proper source, of all that makes them women. Thirty-nine
+    were probably not much wiser, for they stated that they had
+    received some instruction, but had not talked freely on the
+    matter. From the fact that the curious girl did not talk freely
+    on what naturally interested her, it is possible she was put off
+    with a few words as to personal care, and a reprimand for her
+    curiosity. Less than half of the girls felt free to talk with
+    their mothers of this most important matter!&quot; (Helen Kennedy,
+    &quot;Effects of High School Work upon Girls During Adolescence,&quot;
+    <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June, 1896.)</p>
+
+<p>    The same state of things probably also prevails in other
+    countries. Thus, as regards France, Edmond de Goncourt in
+    <i>Ch&eacute;rie</i> (pp. 137-139) described the terror of his young heroine
+    at the appearance of the first <a name='6_Page_66'></a>menstrual period for which she
+    had never been prepared. He adds: &quot;It is very seldom, indeed,
+    that women speak of this eventuality. Mothers fear to warn their
+    daughters, elder sisters dislike confidences with their younger
+    sisters, governesses are generally mute with girls who have no
+    mothers or sisters.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Sometimes this leads to suicide or to attempts at suicide. Thus a
+    few years ago the case was reported in the French newspapers of a
+    young girl of fifteen, who threw herself into the Seine at
+    Saint-Ouen. She was rescued, and on being brought before the
+    police commissioner said that she had been attacked by an
+    &quot;unknown disease&quot; which had driven her to despair. Discreet
+    inquiry revealed that the mysterious malady was one common to all
+    women, and the girl was restored to her insufficiently punished
+    parents.</p></div>
+
+<p>Half a century ago the sexual life of girls was ignored by their parents
+and teachers from reasons of prudishness; at the present time, when quite
+different ideas prevail regarding feminine education, it is ignored on the
+ground that girls should be as independent of their physiological sexual
+life as boys are. The fact that this mischievous neglect has prevailed
+equally under such different conditions indicates clearly that the varying
+reasons assigned for it are merely the cloaks of ignorance. With the
+growth of knowledge we may reasonably hope that one of the chief evils
+which at present undermine in early life not only healthy motherhood but
+healthy womanhood generally, may be gradually eliminated. The data now
+being accumulated show not only the extreme prevalence of painful,
+disordered, and absent menstruation in adolescent girls and young women,
+but also the great and sometimes permanent evils inflicted upon even
+healthy girls when at the beginning of sexual life they are subjected to
+severe strain of any kind. Medical authorities, whichever sex they belong
+to, may now be said to be almost or quite unanimous on this point. Some
+years ago, indeed, Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, in a very able book, <i>The
+Question of Rest for Women</i>, concluded that &quot;ordinarily healthy&quot; women may
+disregard the menstrual period, but she admitted that forty-six per cent,
+of women are not &quot;ordinarily healthy,&quot; and a minority which comes so near
+to being a majority can by no means be dismissed as a negligible quantity.
+Girls themselves, indeed, <a name='6_Page_67'></a>carried away by the ardor of their pursuit of
+work or amusement, are usually recklessly and ignorantly indifferent to
+the serious risks they run. But the opinions of teachers are now tending
+to agree with medical opinion in recognizing the importance of care and
+rest during the years of adolescence, and teachers are even prepared to
+admit that a year's rest from hard work during the period that a girl's
+sexual life is becoming established, while it may ensure her health and
+vigor, is not even a disadvantage from the educational point of view. With
+the growth of knowledge and the decay of ancient prejudices, we may
+reasonably hope that women will be emancipated from the traditions of a
+false civilization, which have forced her to regard her glory as her
+shame,&mdash;though it has never been so among robust primitive peoples,&mdash;and
+it is encouraging to find that so distinguished an educator as Principal
+Stanley Hall looks forward with confidence to such a time. In his
+exhaustive work on <i>Adolescence</i> he writes: &quot;Instead of shame of this
+function girls should be taught the greatest reverence for it, and should
+help it to normality by regularly stepping aside at stated times for a few
+years till it is well established and normal. To higher beings that looked
+down upon human life as we do upon flowers, these would be the most
+interesting and beautiful hours of blossoming. With more self-knowledge
+women will have more self-respect at this time. Savagery reveres this
+state and it gives to women a mystic awe. The time may come when we must
+even change the divisions of the year for women, leaving to man his week
+and giving to her the same number of Sabbaths per year, but in groups of
+four successive days per month. When woman asserts her true physiological
+rights she will begin here, and will glory in what, in an age of
+ignorance, man made her think to be her shame. The pathos about the
+leaders of woman's so-called emancipation, is that they, even more than
+those they would persuade, accept man's estimate of this state.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_27'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_27'><sup>[27]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_68'></a>
+<p>These wise words cannot be too deeply pondered. The pathos of the
+situation has indeed been&mdash;at all events in the past for to-day a more
+enlightened generation is growing up&mdash;that the very leaders of the woman's
+movement have often betrayed the cause of women. They have adopted the
+ideals of men, they have urged women to become second-rate men, they have
+declared that the healthy natural woman disregards the presence of her
+menstrual functions. This is the very reverse of the truth. &quot;They claim,&quot;
+remarks Engelmann, &quot;that woman in her natural state is the physical equal
+of man, and constantly point to the primitive woman, the female of savage
+peoples, as an example of this supposed axiom. Do they know how well this
+same savage is aware of the weakness of woman and her susceptibility at
+certain periods of her life? And with what care he protects her from harm
+at these periods? I believe not. The importance of surrounding women with
+certain precautions during the height of these great functional waves of
+her existence was appreciated by all peoples living in an approximately
+natural state, by all races at all times; and among their comparatively
+few religious customs this one, affording rest to women, was most
+persistently adhered to.&quot; It is among the white races alone that the
+sexual invalidism of women prevails, and it is the white races alone,
+which, outgrowing the religious ideas with which the menstrual seclusion
+of women was associated, have flung away that beneficent seclusion itself,
+throwing away the baby with the bath in an almost literal sense.<a name='6_FNanchor_28'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_28'><sup>[28]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In Germany Tobler has investigated the menstrual histories of
+    over one thousand women (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Geburtsh&uuml;lfe und
+    Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, July, 1905). He finds that in the great majority of
+    women at <a name='6_Page_69'></a>the present day menstruation is associated with
+    distinct deterioration of the general health, and diminution of
+    functional energy. In 26 per cent. local pain, general malaise,
+    and mental and nervous anomalies coexisted; in larger proportion
+    come the cases in which local pain, general weak health or
+    psychic abnormality was experienced alone at this period. In 16
+    per cent. only none of these symptoms were experienced. In a very
+    small separate group the physical and mental functions were
+    stronger during this period, but in half of these cases there was
+    distinct disturbance during the intermenstrual period. Tobler
+    concludes that, while menstruation itself is physiological, all
+    these disturbances are pathological.</p>
+
+<p>    As far as England is concerned, at a discussion of normal and
+    painful menstruation at a meeting of the British Association of
+    Registered Medical Women on the 7th of July, 1908, it was stated
+    by Miss Bentham that 50 per cent. of girls in good position
+    suffered from painful menstruation. Mrs. Dunnett said it usually
+    occurred between the ages of twenty-four and thirty, being
+    frequently due to neglect to rest during menstruation in the
+    earlier years, and Mrs. Grainger Evans had found that this
+    condition was very common among elementary school teachers who
+    had worked hard for examinations during early girlhood.</p>
+
+<p>    In America various investigations have been carried out, showing
+    the prevalence of disturbance in the sexual health of school
+    girls and young women. Thus Dr. Helen P. Kennedy obtained
+    elaborate data concerning the menstrual life of one hundred and
+    twenty-five high school girls of the average age of eighteen
+    (&quot;Effect of High School Work upon Girls During Adolescence,&quot;
+    <i>Pedagogical Seminary</i>, June, 1896). Only twenty-eight felt no
+    pain during the period; half the total number experienced
+    disagreeable symptoms before the period (such as headache,
+    malaise, irritability of temper), while forty-four complained of
+    other symptoms besides pain during the period (especially
+    headache and great weakness). Jane Kelley Sabine (quoted in
+    <i>Boston Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, Sept. 15, 1904) found in
+    New England schools among two thousand girls that 75 per cent.
+    had menstrual troubles, 90 per cent. had leucorrh&oelig;a and
+    ovarian neuralgia, and 60 per cent. had to give up work for two
+    days during each month. These results seem more than usually
+    unfavorable, but are significant, as they cover a large number of
+    cases. The conditions in the Pacific States are not much better.
+    Dr. Mary Ritter (in a paper read before the California State
+    Medical Society in 1903) stated that of 660 Freshmen girls at the
+    University of California, 67 per cent. were subject to menstrual
+    disorders, 27 per cent. to headaches, 30 per cent. to backaches,
+    29 per cent. were habitually constipated, 16 per cent. had
+    abnormal heart sounds; only 23 per cent. were free from
+    functional disturbances. Dr. Helen MacMurchey, in an interesting
+    paper on &quot;Physiological Phenomena Preceding or Accompanying
+    Menstruation&quot;<a name='6_Page_70'></a> (<i>Lancet</i>, Oct. 5, 1901), by inquiries among one
+    hundred medical women, nurses, and women teachers in Toronto
+    concerning the presence or absence of twenty-one different
+    abnormal menstrual phenomena, found that between 50 and 60 per
+    cent. admitted that they were liable at this time to disturbed
+    sleep, to headache, to mental depression, to digestive
+    disturbance, or to disturbance of the special senses, while about
+    25 to 50 per cent. were liable to neuralgia, to vertigo, to
+    excessive nervous energy, to defective nervous and muscular
+    power, to cutaneous hyper&aelig;sthesia, to vasomotor disturbances, to
+    constipation, to diarrh&oelig;a, to increased urination, to
+    cutaneous eruption, to increased liability to take cold, or to
+    irritating watery discharges before or after the menstrual
+    discharge. This inquiry is of much interest, because it clearly
+    brings out the marked prevalence at menstruation of conditions
+    which, though not necessarily of any gravity, yet definitely
+    indicate decreased power of resistance to morbid influences and
+    diminished efficiency for work.</p>
+
+<p>    How serious an impediment menstrual troubles are to a woman is
+    indicated by the fact that the women who achieve success and fame
+    seem seldom to be greatly affected by them. To that we may, in
+    part, attribute the frequency with which leaders of the women's
+    movement have treated menstruation as a thing of no importance in
+    a woman's life. Adele Gerhard, and Helene Simon, also, in their
+    valuable and impartial work, <i>Mutterschaft und Geistige Arbeit</i>
+    (p. 312), failed to find, in their inquiries among women of
+    distinguished ability, that menstruation was regarded as
+    seriously disturbing to work.</p>
+
+<p>    Of late the suggestion that adolescent girls shall not only rest
+    from work during two days of the menstrual period, but have an
+    entire holiday from school during the first year of sexual life,
+    has frequently been put forward, both from the medical and the
+    educational side. At the meeting of the Association of Registered
+    Medical Women, already referred to, Miss Sturge spoke of the good
+    results obtained in a school where, during the first two years
+    after puberty, the girls were kept in bed for the first two days
+    of each menstrual period. Some years ago Dr. G. W. Cook (&quot;Some
+    Disorders of Menstruation,&quot; <i>American Journal of Obstetrics</i>,
+    April, 1896), after giving cases in point, wrote: &quot;It is my
+    deliberate conviction that no girl should be confined at study
+    during the year of her puberty, but she should live an outdoor
+    life.&quot; In an article on &quot;Alumna's Children,&quot; by &quot;An Alumna&quot;
+    (<i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, May, 1904), dealing with the sexual
+    invalidism of American women and the severe strain of motherhood
+    upon them, the author, though she is by no means hostile to
+    education, which is not, she declares, at fault, pleads for rest
+    for the pubertal girl. &quot;If the brain claims her whole vitality,
+    how can there be any proper development? Just as very young
+    children should give all their strength for some years <a name='6_Page_71'></a>solely to
+    physical growth before the brain is allowed to make any
+    considerable demands, so at this critical period in the life of
+    the woman nothing should obstruct the right of way of this
+    important system. A year at the least should be made especially
+    easy for her, with neither mental nor nervous strain; and
+    throughout the rest of her school days she should have her
+    periodical day of rest, free from any study or overexertion.&quot; In
+    another article on the same subject in the same journal (&quot;The
+    Health of American Girls,&quot; Sept., 1907), Nellie Comins Whitaker
+    advocates a similar course. &quot;I am coming to be convinced,
+    somewhat against my wish, that there are many cases when the girl
+    ought to be taken out of school entirely for some months or for a
+    year <i>at the period of puberty</i>.&quot; She adds that the chief
+    obstacle in the way is the girl's own likes and dislikes, and the
+    ignorance of her mother who has been accustomed to think that
+    pain is a woman's natural lot.</p>
+
+<p>    Such a period of rest from mental strain, while it would fortify
+    the organism in its resistance to any reasonable strain later,
+    need by no means be lost for education in the wider sense of the
+    word, for the education required in classrooms is but a small
+    part of the education required for life. Nor should it by any
+    means be reserved merely for the sickly and delicate girl. The
+    tragic part of the present neglect to give girls a really sound
+    and fitting education is that the best and finest girls are
+    thereby so often ruined. Even the English policeman, who
+    admittedly belongs in physical vigor and nervous balance to the
+    flower of the population, is unable to bear the strain of his
+    life, and is said to be worn out in twenty-five years. It is
+    equally foolish to submit the finest flowers of girlhood to a
+    strain which is admittedly too severe.</p></div>
+
+<p>It seems to be clear that the main factor in the common sexual and general
+invalidism of girls and young women is bad hygiene, in the first place
+consisting in neglect of the menstrual functions and in the second place
+in faulty habits generally. In all the more essential matters that concern
+the hygiene of the body the traditions of girls&mdash;and this seems to be more
+especially the case in the Anglo-Saxon countries&mdash;are inferior to those of
+youths. Women are much more inclined than men to subordinate these things
+to what seems to them some more urgent interest or fancy of the moment;
+they are trained to wear awkward and constricting garments, they are
+indifferent to regular and substantial meals, preferring innutritious and
+indigestible foods and drinks; they are apt to disregard the demands of
+the bowels and the bladder out of laziness or <a name='6_Page_72'></a>modesty; they are even
+indifferent to physical cleanliness.<a name='6_FNanchor_29'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_29'><sup>[29]</sup></a> In a great number of minor ways,
+which separately may seem to be of little importance, they play into the
+hands of an environment which, not always having been adequately adjusted
+to their special needs, would exert a considerable stress and strain even
+if they carefully sought to guard themselves against it. It has been found
+in an American Women's College in which about half the scholars wore
+corsets and half not, that nearly all the honors and prizes went to the
+non-corset-wearers. McBride, in bringing forward this fact, pertinently
+remarks, &quot;If the wearing of a single style of dress will make this
+difference in the lives of young women, and that, too, in their most
+vigorous and resistive period, how much difference will a score of
+unhealthy habits make, if persisted in for a life-time?&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_30'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_30'><sup>[30]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;It seems evident,&quot; A. E. Giles concludes (&quot;Some Points of
+    Preventive Treatment in the Diseases of Women,&quot; <i>The Hospital</i>,
+    April 10, 1897) &quot;that dysmenorrh&oelig;a might be to a large
+    extent prevented by attention to general health and education.
+    Short hours of work, especially <a name='6_Page_73'></a>of standing; plenty of outdoor
+    exercise&mdash;tennis, boating, cycling, gymnastics, and walking for
+    those who cannot afford these; regularity of meals and food of
+    the proper quality&mdash;not the incessant tea and bread and butter
+    with variation of pastry; the avoidance of overexertion and
+    prolonged fatigue; these are some of the principal things which
+    require attention. Let girls pursue their study, but more
+    leisurely; they will arrive at the same goal, but a little
+    later.&quot; The benefit of allowing free movement and exercise to the
+    whole body is undoubtedly very great, both as regards the sexual
+    and general physical health and the mental balance; in order to
+    insure this it is necessary to avoid heavy and constricting
+    garments, more especially around the chest, for it is in
+    respiratory power and chest expansion more than in any other
+    respect that girls fall behind boys (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Havelock Ellis,
+    <i>Man and Woman</i>, Ch. IX). In old days the great obstacle to the
+    free exercise of girls lay in an ideal of feminine behavior which
+    involved a prim restraint on every natural movement of the body.
+    At the present day that ideal is not so fervently preached as of
+    old, but its traditional influence still to some extent persists,
+    while there is the further difficulty that adequate time and
+    opportunity and encouragement are by no means generally afforded
+    to girls for the cultivation and training of the romping
+    instincts which are really a serious part of education, for it is
+    by such free exercise of the whole body that the neuro-muscular
+    system, the basis of all vital activity, is built up. The neglect
+    of such education is to-day clearly visible in the structure of
+    our women. Dr. F. May Dickinson Berry, Medical Examiner to the
+    Technical Education Board of the London County Council, found
+    (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, May 28, 1904) among over 1,500 girls,
+    who represent the flower of the schools, since they had obtained
+    scholarships enabling them to proceed to higher grade schools,
+    that 22 per cent, presented some degree, not always pronounced,
+    of lateral curvature of the spine, though such cases were very
+    rare among the boys. In the same way among a very similar class
+    of select girls at the Chicago Normal School, Miss Lura Sanborn
+    (<i>Doctors' Magazine</i>, Dec., 1900) found 17 per cent, with spinal
+    curvature, in some cases of a very pronounced degree. There is no
+    reason why a girl should not have as straight a back as a boy,
+    and the cause can only lie in the defective muscular development
+    which was found in most of the cases, sometimes accompanied by
+    an&aelig;mia. Here and there nowadays, among the better social classes,
+    there is ample provision for the development of muscular power in
+    girls, but in any generalized way there is no adequate
+    opportunity for such exercise, and among the working class, above
+    all, in the section of it which touches the lower middle class,
+    although their lives are destined to be filled with a constant
+    strain on the neuro-muscular system from work at home or in
+    shops, etc., there is usually a minimum of healthy exercise and
+    physical development. Dr. W. A. B.<a name='6_Page_74'></a> Sellman, of Baltimore (&quot;Causes
+    of Painful Menstruation in Unmarried Women,&quot; <i>American Journal
+    Obstetrics</i>, Nov., 1907), emphasizes the admirable results
+    obtained by moderate physical exercise for young women, and in
+    training them to care for their bodies and to rest their nervous
+    systems, while Dr. Charlotte Brown, of San Francisco, rightly
+    insists on the establishment in all towns and villages alike of
+    outdoor gymnastic fields for women and girls, and of a building,
+    in connection with every large school, for training in physical,
+    manual, and domestic science. The provision of special
+    playgrounds is necessary where the exercising of girls is so
+    unfamiliar as to cause an embarrassing amount of attention from
+    the opposite sex, though when it is an immemorial custom it can
+    be carried out on the village green without attracting the
+    slightest attention, as I have seen in Spain, where one cannot
+    fail to connect it with the physical vigor of the women. In boys'
+    schools games are not only encouraged, but made compulsory; but
+    this is by no means a universal rule in girls' schools. It is not
+    necessary, and is indeed highly undesirable, that the games
+    adopted should be those of boys. In England especially, where the
+    movements of women are so often marked by awkwardness, angularity
+    and lack of grace, it is essential that nothing should be done to
+    emphasize these characteristics, for where vigor involves
+    violence we are in the presence of a lack of due neuro-muscular
+    co&ouml;rdination. Swimming, when possible, and especially some forms
+    of dancing, are admirably adapted to develop the bodily movements
+    of women both vigorously and harmoniously (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Havelock
+    Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, Ch. VII). At the International Congress
+    of School Hygiene in 1907 (see, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, Aug. 24, 1907) Dr. L. H. Gulick, formerly Director of
+    Physical Training in the Public Schools of New York City, stated
+    that after many experiments it had been found in the New York
+    elementary and high schools that folk-dancing constituted the
+    very best exercise for girls. &quot;The dances selected involved many
+    contractions of the large muscular masses of the body and had
+    therefore a great effect on respiration, circulation and
+    nutrition. Such movements, moreover, when done as dances, could
+    be carried on three or four times as long without producing
+    fatigue as formal gymnastics. Many folk-dances were imitative,
+    sowing and reaping dance, dances expressing trade movements (the
+    shoemaker's dance), others illustrating attack and defense, or
+    the pursuit of game. Such neuro-muscular movements were racially
+    old and fitted in with man's expressive life, and if it were
+    accepted that the folk-dances really expressed an epitome of
+    man's neuro-muscular history, as distinguished from mere
+    permutation of movements, the folk-dance combinations should be
+    preferred on these biological grounds to the unselected, or even
+    the physiologically selected. From the &aelig;sthetic point of view the
+    sense of beauty as shown in dancing was far commoner than the
+    power to sing, paint or model.&quot;</p></div><a name='6_Page_75'></a>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered that in realizing the especial demands of
+woman's nature, we do not commit ourselves to the belief that higher
+education is unfitted for a woman. That question may now be regarded as
+settled. There is therefore no longer any need for the feverish anxiety of
+the early leaders of feminine education to prove that girls can be
+educated exactly as if they were boys, and yield at least as good
+educational results. At the present time, indeed, that anxiety is not only
+unnecessary but mischievous. It is now more necessary to show that women
+have special needs just as men have special needs, and that it is as bad
+for women, and therefore, for the world, to force them to accept the
+special laws and limitations of men as it would be bad for men, and
+therefore, for the world, to force men to accept the special laws and
+limitations of women. Each sex must seek to reach the goal by following
+the laws of its own nature, even although it remains desirable that, both
+in the school and in the world, they should work so far as possible side
+by side. The great fact to be remembered always is that, not only are
+women, in physical size and physical texture, slighter and finer than men,
+but that to an extent altogether unknown among men, their centre of
+gravity is apt to be deflected by the series of rhythmic sexual curves on
+which they are always living. They are thus more delicately poised and any
+kind of stress or strain&mdash;cerebral, nervous, or muscular&mdash;is more likely
+to produce serious disturbance and requires an accurate adjustment to
+their special needs.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The fact that it is stress and strain in general, and not
+    necessarily educational studies, that are injurious to adolescent
+    women, is sufficiently proved, if proof is necessary, by the fact
+    that sexual arrest, and physical or nervous breakdown, occur with
+    extreme frequency in girls who work in shops or mills, even in
+    girls who have never been to school at all. Even excesses in
+    athletics&mdash;which now not infrequently occur as a reaction against
+    woman's indifference to physical exercise&mdash;are bad. Cycling is
+    beneficial for women who can ride without pain or discomfort,
+    and, according to Watkins, it is even beneficial in many diseased
+    and disordered pelvic conditions, but excessive cycling is evil
+    in its results on women, more especially by inducing rigidity of
+    the perineum to an extent which may even prevent childbirth and
+    necessitate operation. I may add that the same objection applies
+    to much horse-riding.<a name='6_Page_76'></a> In the same way everything which causes
+    shocks to the body is apt to be dangerous to women, since in the
+    womb they possess a delicately poised organ which varies in
+    weight at different times, and it would, for instance, be
+    impossible to commend football as a game for girls. &quot;I do not
+    believe,&quot; wrote Miss H. Ballantine, Director of Vassar College
+    Gymnasium, to Prof. W. Thomas (<i>Sex and Society</i>, p. 22) &quot;women
+    can ever, no matter what the training, approach men in their
+    physical achievements; and,&quot; she wisely adds, &quot;I see no reason
+    why they should.&quot; There seem, indeed, as has already been
+    indicated, to be reasons why they should not, especially if they
+    look forward to becoming mothers. I have noticed that women who
+    have lived a very robust and athletic outdoor life, so far from
+    always having the easy confinements which we might anticipate,
+    sometimes have very seriously difficult times, imperilling the
+    life of the child. On making this observation to a distinguished
+    obstetrician, the late Dr. Engelmann, who was an ardent advocate
+    of physical exercise for women (in <i>e.g.</i> his presidential
+    address, &quot;The Health of the American Girl,&quot; <i>Transactions
+    Southern Surgical and Gyn&aelig;cological Association</i>, 1890), he
+    replied that he had himself made the same observation, and that
+    instructors in physical training, both in America and England,
+    had also told him of such cases among their pupils. &quot;I hold,&quot; he
+    wrote, &quot;precisely the opinion you express [as to the unfavorable
+    influence of muscular development in women]. <i>Athletics</i>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+    overdone physical training, causes the girl's system to
+    approximate to the masculine; this is so whether due to sport or
+    necessity. The woman who indulges in it approximates to the male
+    in her attributes; this is marked in diminished sexual intensity,
+    and in increased difficulty of childbirth, with, in time,
+    lessened fecundity. Healthy habits improve, but masculine
+    muscular development diminishes, womanly qualities, although it
+    is true that the peasant and the laboring woman have easy labor.
+    I have never advocated muscular development for girls, only
+    physical training, but have perhaps said too much for it and
+    praised it too unguardedly. In schools and colleges, so far,
+    however, it is insufficient rather than too much; only the
+    wealthy have too much golf and athletic sports. I am collecting
+    new material, but from what I already have seen I am impressed
+    with the truth of what you say. I am studying the point, and
+    shall elaborate the explanation.&quot; Any publication on this subject
+    was, however, prevented by Engelmann's death a few years later.</p></div>
+
+<p>A proper recognition of the special nature of woman, of her peculiar needs
+and her dignity, has a significance beyond its importance in education and
+hygiene. The traditions and training to which she is subjected in this
+matter have a subtle and <a name='6_Page_77'></a>far-reaching significance, according as they are
+good or evil. If she is taught, implicitly or explicitly, contempt for the
+characteristics of her own sex, she naturally develops masculine ideals
+which may permanently discolor her vision of life and distort her
+practical activities; it has been found that as many as fifty per cent. of
+American school girls have masculine ideals, while fifteen per cent.
+American and no fewer than thirty-four per cent. English school girls
+wished to be men, though scarcely any boys wished to be women.<a name='6_FNanchor_31'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_31'><sup>[31]</sup></a> With
+the same tendency may be connected that neglect to cultivate the emotions,
+which, by a mischievously extravagant but inevitable reaction from the
+opposite extreme, has sometimes marked the modern training of women. In
+the finely developed woman, intelligence is interpenetrated with emotion.
+If there is an exaggerated and isolated culture of intelligence a tendency
+shows itself to disharmony which breaks up the character or impairs its
+completeness. In this connection Reibmayr has remarked that the American
+woman may serve as a warning.<a name='6_FNanchor_32'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_32'><sup>[32]</sup></a> Within the emotional sphere itself, it
+may be added, there is a tendency to disharmony in women owing to the
+contradictory nature of the feelings which are traditionally impressed
+upon her, a contradiction which dates back indeed to the identification of
+sacredness and impurity at the dawn of civilization. &quot;Every girl and
+woman,&quot; wrote Hellmann, in a pioneering book which pushed a sound
+principle to eccentric extremes, &quot;is taught to regard her sexual parts as
+a precious and sacred spot, only to be approached by a husband or in
+special circumstances a doctor. She is, at the same time, taught to regard
+this spot as a kind of water-closet which she ought to be extremely
+ashamed to possess, and the mere mention of which should cause a painful
+blush.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_33'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_33'><sup>[33]</sup></a> The average <a name='6_Page_78'></a>unthinking woman accepts the incongruity of this
+opposition without question, and grows accustomed to adapt herself to each
+of the incompatibles according to circumstances. The more thoughtful woman
+works out a private theory of her own. But in very many cases this
+mischievous opposition exerts a subtly perverting influence on the whole
+outlook towards Nature and life. In a few cases, also, in women of
+sensitive temperament, it even undermines and ruins the psychic
+personality.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Thus Boris Sidis has recorded a case illustrating the disastrous
+    results of inculcating on a morbidly sensitive girl the doctrine
+    of the impurity of women. She was educated in a convent. &quot;While
+    there she was impressed with the belief that woman is a vessel of
+    vice and impurity. This seemed to have been imbued in her by one
+    of the nuns who was very holy and practiced self-mortification.
+    With the onset of her periods, and with the observation of the
+    same in the other girls, this doctrine of female impurity was all
+    the stronger impressed on her sensitive mind.&quot; It lapsed,
+    however, from conscious memory and only came to the foreground in
+    subsequent years with the exhaustion and fatigue of prolonged
+    office work. Then she married. Now &quot;she has an extreme abhorrence
+    of women. Woman, to the patient, is impurity, filth, the very
+    incarnation of degradation and vice. The house wash must not be
+    given to a laundry where women work. Nothing must be picked up in
+    the street, not even the most valuable object, perchance it might
+    have been dropped by a woman&quot; (Boris Sidis, &quot;Studies in
+    Psychopathology,&quot; <i>Boston Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, April 4,
+    1907). That is the logical outcome of much of the traditional
+    teaching which is given to girls. Fortunately, the healthy mind
+    offers a natural resistance to its complete acceptation, yet it
+    usually, in some degree, persists and exerts a mischievous
+    influence.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is, however, not only in her relations to herself and to her sex that a
+girl's thoughts and feelings tend to be distorted by the ignorance or the
+false traditions by which she is so often carefully surrounded. Her
+happiness in marriage, her whole future career, is put in peril. The
+innocent young woman must always risk much in entering the door of
+indissoluble marriage; she knows nothing truly of her husband, she knows
+nothing of the great laws of love, she knows nothing of her own
+possibilities, and, worse still, she is even ignorant of her ignorance.
+She runs the risk of losing the game while she is still only beginning to
+learn <a name='6_Page_79'></a>it. To some extent that is quite inevitable if we are to insist
+that a woman should bind herself to marry a man before she has experienced
+the nature of the forces that marriage may unloose in her. A young girl
+believes she possesses a certain character; she arranges her future in
+accordance with that character; she marries. Then, in a considerable
+proportion of cases (five out of six, according to the novelist Bourget),
+within a year or even a week, she finds she was completely mistaken in
+herself and in the man she has married; she discovers within her another
+self, and that self detests the man to whom she is bound. That is a
+possible fate against which only the woman who has already been aroused to
+love is entitled to regard herself as fairly protected.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, a certain kind of protection which it is possible to
+afford the bride, even without departing from our most conventional
+conceptions of marriage. We can at least insist that she shall be
+accurately informed as to the exact nature of her physical relations to
+her future husband and be safeguarded from the shocks or the disillusions
+which marriage might otherwise bring. Notwithstanding the decay of
+prejudices, it is probable that even to-day the majority of women of the
+so-called educated class marry with only the vaguest and most inaccurate
+notions, picked up more or less clandestinely, concerning the nature of
+the sexual relationships. So highly intelligent a woman as Madame Adam has
+stated that she believed herself bound to marry a man who had kissed her
+on the mouth, imagining that to be the supreme act of sexual union,<a name='6_FNanchor_34'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_34'><sup>[34]</sup></a>
+and it has frequently happened that women have married sexually inverted
+persons of their own sex, not always knowingly, but believing them to be
+men, and never discovering their mistake; it is not long indeed since in
+America three women were thus successively married to the same woman, none
+of them apparently ever finding out the real sex of the &quot;husband.&quot; &quot;The
+civilized girl,&quot; as Edward Carpenter remarks, &quot;is led to the<a name='6_Page_80'></a> 'altar'
+often in uttermost ignorance and misunderstanding of the sacrificial rites
+about to be consummated.&quot; Certainly more rapes have been effected in
+marriage than outside it.<a name='6_FNanchor_35'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_35'><sup>[35]</sup></a> The girl is full of vague and romantic faith
+in the promises of love, often heightened by the ecstasies depicted in
+sentimental novels from which every touch of wholesome reality has been
+carefully omitted. &quot;All the candor of faith is there,&quot; as S&eacute;nancour puts
+it in his book <i>De l'Amour</i>, &quot;the desires of inexperience, the needs of a
+new life, the hopes of an upright heart. She has all the faculties of
+love, she must love; she has all the means of pleasure, she must be loved.
+Everything expresses love and demands love: this hand formed for sweet
+caresses, an eye whose resources are unknown if it must not say that it
+consents to be loved, a bosom which is motionless and useless without
+love, and will fade without having been worshipped; these feelings that
+are so vast, so tender, so voluptuous, the ambition of the heart, the
+heroism of passion! She needs must follow the delicious rule which the law
+of the world has dictated. That intoxicating part, which she knows so
+well, which everything recalls, which the day inspires and the night
+commands, what young, sensitive, loving woman can imagine that she shall
+not play it?&quot; But when the actual drama of love begins to unroll before
+her, and she realizes the true nature of the &quot;intoxicating part&quot; she has
+to play, then, it has often happened, the case is altered; she finds
+herself altogether unprepared, and is overcome with terror and alarm. All
+the felicity of her married life may then hang on a few chances, her
+husband's skill and consideration, her own presence of mind. Hirschfeld
+records the case of an innocent young girl of seventeen&mdash;in this case, it
+eventually proved, an invert&mdash;who was persuaded to marry but on
+discovering what marriage meant energetically resisted her husband's
+sexual approaches. He <a name='6_Page_81'></a>appealed to her mother to explain to her daughter
+the nature of &quot;wifely duties.&quot; But the young wife replied to her mother's
+expostulations, &quot;If that is my wifely duty then it was your parental duty
+to have told me beforehand, for, if I had known, I should never have
+married.&quot; The husband in this case, much in love with his wife, sought for
+eight years to over-persuade her, but in vain, and a separation finally
+took place.<a name='6_FNanchor_36'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_36'><sup>[36]</sup></a> That, no doubt, is an extreme case, but how many innocent
+young inverted girls never realize their true nature until after marriage,
+and how many perfectly normal girls are so shocked by the too sudden
+initiation of marriage that their beautiful early dreams of love never
+develop slowly and wholesomely into the acceptance of its still more
+beautiful realities?</p>
+
+<p>Before the age of puberty it would seem that the sexual initiation of the
+child&mdash;apart from such scientific information as would form part of school
+courses in botany and zo&ouml;logy&mdash;should be the exclusive privilege of the
+mother, or whomever it may be to whom the mother's duties are delegated.
+At puberty more authoritative and precise advice is desirable than the
+mother may be able or willing to give. It is at this age that she should
+put into her son's or daughter's hands some one or other of the very
+numerous manuals to which reference has already been made (page 53),
+expounding the physical and moral aspects of the sexual life and the
+principles of sexual hygiene. The boy or girl is already, we may take it,
+acquainted with the facts of motherhood, and the origin of babies, as well
+as, more or less precisely, with the father's part in their procreation.
+Whatever manual is now placed in his or her hands should at least deal
+<a name='6_Page_82'></a>summarily, but definitely, with the sexual relationship, and should also
+comment, warningly but in no alarmist spirit, with the chief auto-erotic
+phenomena, and by no means exclusively with masturbation. Nothing but good
+can come of the use of such a manual, if it has been wisely selected; it
+will supplant what the mother has already done, what the teacher may still
+be doing, and what later may be done by private interview with a doctor.
+It has indeed been argued that the boy or girl to whom such literature is
+presented will merely make it an opportunity for morbid revelry and
+sensual enjoyment. It can well be believed that this may sometimes happen
+with boys or girls from whom all sexual facts have always been
+mysteriously veiled, and that when at last they find the opportunity of
+gratifying their long-repressed and perfectly natural curiosity they are
+overcome by the excitement of the event. It could not happen to children
+who have been naturally and wholesomely brought up. At a later age, during
+adolescence, there is doubtless great advantage in the plan, now
+frequently adopted, especially in Germany, of giving lectures, addresses,
+or quiet talks to young people of each sex separately. The speaker is
+usually a specially selected teacher, a doctor or other qualified person
+who may be brought in for this special purpose.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Stanley Hall, after remarking that sexual education should be
+    chiefly from fathers to sons and from mothers to daughters, adds:
+    &quot;It may be that in the future this kind of initiation will again
+    become an art, and experts will tell us with more confidence how
+    to do our duty to the manifold exigencies, types and stages of
+    youth, and instead of feeling baffled and defeated, we shall see
+    that this age and theme is the supreme opening for the highest
+    pedagogy to do its best and most transforming work, as well as
+    being the greatest of all opportunities for the teacher of
+    religion&quot; (Stanley Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, p. 469). &quot;At
+    Williams College, Harvard, Johns Hopkins and Clark,&quot; the same
+    distinguished teacher observes (<i>ib.</i>, p. 465), &quot;I have made it a
+    duty in my departmental teaching to speak very briefly, but
+    plainly to young men under my instruction, personally if I deemed
+    it wise, and often, though here only in general terms, before
+    student bodies, and I believe I have nowhere done more good, but
+    it is a painful duty. It requires tact and some degree of hard
+    and strenuous common sense rather than technical knowledge.&quot;</p><a name='6_Page_83'></a>
+
+<p>    It is scarcely necessary to say that the ordinary teacher of
+    either sex is quite incompetent to speak of sexual hygiene. It is
+    a task to which all, or some, teachers must be trained. A
+    beginning in this direction has been made in Germany by the
+    delivery to teachers of courses of lectures on sexual hygiene in
+    education. In Prussia the first attempt was made in Breslau when
+    the central school authorities requested Dr. Martin Chotzen to
+    deliver such a course to one hundred and fifty teachers who took
+    the greatest interest in the lectures, which covered the anatomy
+    of the sexual organs, the development of the sexual instinct, its
+    chief perversions, venereal diseases, and the importance of the
+    cultivation of self-control. In <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>
+    (Bd. i, Heft 7) Dr. Fritz Reuther gives the substance of lectures
+    which he has delivered to a class of young teachers; they cover
+    much the same ground as Chotzen's.</p>
+
+<p>    There is no evidence that in England the Minister of Education
+    has yet taken any steps to insure the delivery of lectures on
+    sexual hygiene to the pupils who are about to leave school. In
+    Prussia, however, the Ministry of Education has taken an active
+    interest in this matter, and such lectures are beginning to be
+    commonly delivered, though attendance at them is not usually
+    obligatory. Some years ago (in 1900), when it was proposed to
+    deliver a series of lectures on sexual hygiene to the advanced
+    pupils in Berlin schools, under the auspices of a society for the
+    improvement of morals, the municipal authorities withdrew their
+    permission to use the classrooms, on the ground that &quot;such
+    lectures would be extremely dangerous to the moral sense of an
+    audience of the young.&quot; The same objection has been made by
+    municipal officials in France. In Germany, at all events,
+    however, opinion is rapidly growing more enlightened. In England
+    little or no progress has yet been made, but in America steps are
+    being taken in this direction, as by the Chicago Society for
+    Social Hygiene. It must, indeed, be said that those who oppose
+    the sexual enlightenment of youth in large cities are directly
+    allying themselves, whether or not they know it, with the
+    influences that make for vice and immorality.</p>
+
+<p>    Such lectures are also given to girls on leaving school, not only
+    girls of the well-to-do, but also those of the poor class, who
+    need them fully as much, and in some respects more. Thus Dr. A.
+    Heidenhain has published a lecture (<i>Sexuelle Belehrung der aus
+    den Volksschule entlassenen M&auml;dchen</i>, 1907), accompanied by
+    anatomical tables, which he has delivered to girls about to leave
+    school, and which is intended to be put into their hands at this
+    time. Salvat, in a Lyons thesis (<i>La D&eacute;population de la France</i>,
+    1903), insists that the hygiene of pregnancy and the care of
+    infants should form part of the subject of such lectures. These
+    subjects might well be left, however, to a somewhat later period.</p></div><a name='6_Page_84'></a>
+
+<p>Something is clearly needed beyond lectures on these matters. It should be
+the business of the parents or other guardians of every adolescent youth
+and girl to arrange that, once at least at this period of life, there
+should be a private, personal interview with a medical man to afford an
+opportunity for a friendly and confidential talk concerning the main
+points of sexual hygiene. The family doctor would be the best for this
+duty because he would be familiar with the personal temperament of the
+youth and the family tendencies.<a name='6_FNanchor_37'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_37'><sup>[37]</sup></a> In the case of girls a woman doctor
+would often be preferred. Sex is properly a mystery; and to the unspoilt
+youth, it is instinctively so; except in an abstract and technical form it
+cannot properly form the subject of lectures. In a private and
+individualized conversation between the novice in life and the expert, it
+is possible to say many necessary things that could not be said in public,
+and it is possible, moreover, for the youth to ask questions which shyness
+and reserve make it impossible to put to parents, while the convenient
+opportunity of putting them naturally to the expert otherwise seldom or
+never occurs. Most youths have their own special ignorances, their own
+special difficulties, difficulties and ignorances that could sometimes be
+resolved by a word. Yet it by no means infrequently happens that they
+carry them far on into adult life because they have lacked the
+opportunity, or the skill and assurance to create the opportunity, of
+obtaining enlightenment.</p>
+
+<p>It must be clearly understood that these talks are of medical, hygienic,
+and physiological character; they are not to be used for retailing moral
+platitudes. To make them that would be a fatal mistake. The young are
+often very hostile to merely conventional moral maxims, and suspect their
+hollowness, not always without reason. The end to be aimed at here is
+enlightenment.<a name='6_Page_85'></a> Certainly knowledge can never be immoral, but nothing is
+gained by jumbling up knowledge and morality together.</p>
+
+<p>In emphasizing the nature of the physician's task in this matter as purely
+and simply that of wise practical enlightenment, nothing is implied
+against the advantages, and indeed the immense value in sexual hygiene, of
+the moral, religious, ideal elements of life. It is not the primary
+business of the physician to inspire these, but they have a very intimate
+relation with the sexual life, and every boy and girl at puberty, and
+never before puberty, should be granted the privilege&mdash;and not the duty or
+the task&mdash;of initiation into those elements of the world's life which are,
+at the same time, natural functions of the adolescent soul. Here, however,
+is the sphere of the religious or ethical teacher. At puberty he has his
+great opportunity, the greatest he can ever obtain. The flower of sex that
+blossoms in the body at puberty has its spiritual counterpart which at the
+same moment blossoms in the soul. The churches from of old have recognized
+the religious significance of this moment, for it is this period of life
+that they have appointed as the time of confirmation and similar rites.
+With the progress of the ages, it is true, such rites become merely formal
+and apparently meaningless fossils. But they have a meaning nevertheless,
+and are capable of being again vitalized. Nor in their spirit and essence
+should they be confined to those who accept supernaturally revealed
+religion. They concern all ethical teachers, who must realize that it is
+at puberty that they are called upon to inspire or to fortify the great
+ideal aspirations which at this period tend spontaneously to arise in the
+youth's or maiden's soul.<a name='6_FNanchor_38'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_38'><sup>[38]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The age of puberty, I have said, marks the period at which this new kind
+of sexual initiation is called for. Before puberty, although the psychic
+emotion of love frequently develops, as well as sometimes physical sexual
+emotions that are mostly vague and diffused, definite and localized sexual
+sensations are rare. For the normal boy or girl love is usually an
+unspecialized emotion; it is in Guyau's words &quot;a state in which the body
+has <a name='6_Page_86'></a>but the smallest place.&quot; At the first rising of the sun of sex the
+boy or girl sees, as Blake said he saw at sunrise, not a round yellow body
+emerging above the horizon, or any other physical manifestation, but a
+great company of singing angels. With the definite eruption of physical
+sexual manifestation and desire, whether at puberty or later in
+adolescence, a new turbulent disturbing influence appears. Against the
+force of this influence, mere intellectual enlightenment, or even loving
+maternal counsel&mdash;the agencies we have so far been concerned with&mdash;may be
+powerless. In gaining control of it we must find our auxiliary in the fact
+that puberty is the efflorescence not only of a new physical but a new
+psychic force. The ideal world naturally unfolds itself to the boy or girl
+at puberty. The magic of beauty, the instinct of modesty, the naturalness
+of self-restraint, the idea of unselfish love, the meaning of duty, the
+feeling for art and poetry, the craving for religious conceptions and
+emotions&mdash;all these things awake spontaneously in the unspoiled boy or
+girl at puberty. I say &quot;unspoiled,&quot; for if these things have been thrust
+on the child before puberty when they have yet no meaning for him&mdash;as is
+unfortunately far too often done, more especially as regards religious
+notions&mdash;then it is but too likely that he will fail to react properly at
+that moment of his development when he would otherwise naturally respond
+to them. Under natural conditions this is the period for spiritual
+initiation. Now, and not before, is the time for the religious or ethical
+teacher as the case may be&mdash;for all religions and ethical systems may
+equally adapt themselves to this task&mdash;to take the boy or girl in hand,
+not with any special and obtrusive reference to the sexual impulses but
+for the purpose of assisting the development and manifestation of this
+psychic puberty, of indirectly aiding the young soul to escape from sexual
+dangers by harnessing his chariot to a star that may help to save it from
+sticking fast in any miry ruts of the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>Such an initiation, it is important to remark, is more than an
+introduction to the sphere of religious sentiment. It is an initiation
+into manhood, it must involve a recognition of the masculine even more
+than of the feminine virtues. This has <a name='6_Page_87'></a>been well understood by the finest
+primitive races. They constantly give their boys and girls an initiation
+at puberty; it is an initiation that involves not merely education in the
+ordinary sense, but a stern discipline of the character, feats of
+endurance, the trial of character, the testing of the muscles of the soul
+as much as of the body.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Ceremonies of initiation into manhood at puberty&mdash;involving
+    physical and mental discipline, as well as instruction, lasting
+    for weeks or months, and never identical for both sexes&mdash;are
+    common among savages in all parts of the world. They nearly
+    always involve the endurance of a certain amount of pain and
+    hardship, a wise measure of training which the softness of
+    civilization has too foolishly allowed to drop, for the ability
+    to endure hardness is an essential condition of all real manhood.
+    It is as a corrective to this tendency to flabbiness in modern
+    education that the teaching of Nietzsche is so invaluable.</p>
+
+<p>    The initiation of boys among the natives of Torres Straits has
+    been elaborately described by A. C. Haddon (<i>Reports
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, vol. v, Chs. VII
+    and XII). It lasts a month, involves much severe training and
+    power of endurance, and includes admirable moral instruction.
+    Haddon remarks that it formed &quot;a very good discipline,&quot; and adds,
+    &quot;it is not easy to conceive of a more effectual means for a rapid
+    training.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Among the aborigines of Victoria, Australia, the initiatory
+    ceremonies, as described by R. H. Mathews (&quot;Some Initiation
+    Ceremonies,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1905, Heft 6), last
+    for seven months, and constitute an admirable discipline. The
+    boys are taken away by the elders of the tribe, subjected to many
+    trials of patience and endurance of pain and discomfort,
+    sometimes involving even the swallowing of urine and excrement,
+    brought into contact with strange tribes, taught the laws and
+    folk-lore, and at the end meetings are held at which betrothals
+    are arranged.</p>
+
+<p>    Among the northern tribes of Central Australia the initiation
+    ceremonies involve circumcision and urethral subincision, as well
+    as hard manual labor and hardships. The initiation of girls into
+    womanhood is accompanied by cutting open of the vagina. These
+    ceremonies have been described by Spencer and Gillen (<i>Northern
+    Tribes of Central Australia</i>, Ch. XI). Among various peoples in
+    British East Africa (including the Masai) pubertal initiation is
+    a great ceremonial event extending over a period of many months,
+    and it includes circumcision in boys, and in girls
+    clitoridectomy, as well as, among some tribes, removal of the
+    nymph&aelig;. A girl who winces or cries out during the operation is
+    disgraced among the women and expelled from the settlement.<a name='6_Page_88'></a> When
+    the ceremony has been satisfactorily completed the boy or girl is
+    marriageable (C. Marsh Beadnell, &quot;Circumcision and Clitoridectomy
+    as Practiced by the Natives of British East Africa,&quot; <i>British
+    Medical Journal</i>, April 29, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>    Initiation among the African Bawenda, as described by a
+    missionary, is in three stages: (1) A stage of instruction and
+    discipline during which the traditions and sacred things of the
+    tribe are revealed, the art of warfare taught, self-restraint and
+    endurance borne; then the youths are counted as full-grown. (2)
+    In the next stage the art of dancing is practiced, by each sex
+    separately, during the day. (3) In the final stage, which is that
+    of complete sexual initiation, the two sexes dance together by
+    night; the scene, in the opinion of the good missionary, &quot;does
+    not bear description;&quot; the initiated are now complete adults,
+    with all the privileges and responsibilities of adults (Rev. E.
+    Gottschling, &quot;The Bawenda,&quot; <i>Journal Anthropological
+    Institution</i>, July to Dec., 1905, p. 372. <i>Cf.</i>, an interesting
+    account of the Bawenda Tondo schools by another missionary,
+    Wessmann, <i>The Bawenda</i>, pp. 60 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    The initiation of girls in Azimba Land, Central Africa, has been
+    fully and interestingly described by H. Crawford Angus (&quot;The
+    Chensamwali' or Initiation Ceremony of Girls,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+    Ethnologie</i>, 1898, Heft 6). At the first sign of menstruation the
+    girl is taken by her mother out of the village to a grass hut
+    prepared for her where only the women are allowed to visit her.
+    At the end of menstruation she is taken to a secluded spot and
+    the women dance round her, no men being present. It was only with
+    much difficulty that Angus was enabled to witness the ceremony.
+    The girl is then informed in regard to the hygiene of
+    menstruation. &quot;Many songs about the relations between men and
+    women are sung, and the girl is instructed as to all her duties
+    when she becomes a wife.... The girl is taught to be faithful to
+    her husband, and to try and bear children. The whole matter is
+    looked upon as a matter of course, and not as a thing to be
+    ashamed of or to hide, and being thus openly treated of and no
+    secrecy made about it, you find in this tribe that the women are
+    very virtuous, because the subject of married life has no glamour
+    for them. When a woman is pregnant she is again danced; this time
+    all the dancers are naked, and she is taught how to behave and
+    what to do when the time of her delivery arrives.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Yuman Indians of California, as described by Horatio
+    Rust (&quot;A Puberty Ceremony of the Mission Indians,&quot; <i>American
+    Anthropologist</i>, Jan. to March, 1906, p. 28) the girls are at
+    puberty prepared for marriage by a ceremony. They are wrapped in
+    blankets and placed in a warm pit, where they lie looking very
+    happy as they peer out through their covers. For four days and
+    nights they lie here (occasionally going away for food), while
+    the old women of the tribe dance and <a name='6_Page_89'></a>sing round the pit
+    constantly. At times the old women throw silver coins among the
+    crowd to teach the girls to be generous. They also give away
+    cloth and wheat, to teach them to be kind to the old and needy;
+    and they sow wild seeds broadcast over the girls to cause them to
+    be prolific. Finally, all strangers are ordered away, garlands
+    are placed on the girls' heads, and they are led to a hillside
+    and shown the large and sacred stone, symbolical of the female
+    organs of generation and resembling them, which is said to
+    protect women. Then grain is thrown over all present, and the
+    ceremony is over.</p>
+
+<p>    The Thlinkeet Eskimo women were long noted for their fine
+    qualities. At puberty they were secluded, sometimes for a whole
+    year, being kept in darkness, suffering, and filth. Yet defective
+    and unsatisfactory as this initiation was, &quot;Langsdorf suggests,&quot;
+    says Bancroft (<i>Native Races of Pacific</i>, vol. i, p. 110),
+    referring to the virtues of the Thlinkeet woman, &quot;that it may be
+    during this period of confinement that the foundation of her
+    influence is laid; that in modest reserve and meditation her
+    character is strengthened, and she comes forth cleansed in mind
+    as well as body.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>We have lost these ancient and invaluable rites of initiation into manhood
+and womanhood, with their inestimable moral benefits; at the most we have
+merely preserved the shells of initiation in which the core has decayed.
+In time, we cannot doubt, they will be revived in modern forms. At present
+the spiritual initiation of youths and maidens is left to the chances of
+some happy accident, and usually it is of a purely cerebral character
+which cannot be perfectly wholesome, and is at the best absurdly
+incomplete.</p>
+
+<p>This cerebral initiation commonly occurs to the youth through the medium
+of literature. The influence of literature in sexual education thus
+extends, in an incalculable degree, beyond the narrow sphere of manuals on
+sexual hygiene, however admirable and desirable these may be. The greater
+part of literature is more or less distinctly penetrated by erotic and
+auto-erotic conceptions and impulses; nearly all imaginative literature
+proceeds from the root of sex to flower in visions of beauty and ecstasy.
+The Divine Comedy of Dante is herein the immortal type of the poet's
+evolution. The youth becomes acquainted with the imaginative
+representations of love before he becomes acquainted with the reality of
+love, so that, as Leo Berg puts it,<a name='6_Page_90'></a> &quot;the way to love among civilized
+peoples passes through imagination.&quot; All literature is thus, to the
+adolescent soul, a part of sexual education.<a name='6_FNanchor_39'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_39'><sup>[39]</sup></a> It depends, to some
+extent, though fortunately not entirely, on the judgment of those in
+authority over the young soul whether the literature to which the youth or
+girl is admitted is or is not of the large and humanizing order.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>All great literature touches nakedly and sanely on the central
+    facts of sex. It is always consoling to remember this in an age
+    of petty pruderies. And it is a satisfaction to know that it
+    would not be possible to emasculate the literature of the great
+    ages, however desirable it might seem to the men of more
+    degenerate ages, or to close the avenues to that literature
+    against the young. All our religious and literary traditions
+    serve to fortify the position of the Bible and of Shakespeare.
+    &quot;So many men and women,&quot; writes a correspondent, a literary man,
+    &quot;gain sexual ideas in childhood from reading the Old Testament,
+    that the Bible may be called an erotic text-book. Most persons of
+    either sex with whom I have conversed on the subject, say that
+    the Books of Moses, and the stories of Amnon and Tamar, Lot and
+    his daughters, Potiphar's wife and Joseph, etc., caused
+    speculation and curiosity, and gave them information of the
+    sexual relationship. A boy and girl of fifteen, both friends of
+    the writer, and now over thirty years of age, used to find out
+    erotic passages in the Bible on Sunday mornings, while in a
+    Dissenting chapel, and pass their Bibles to one another, with
+    their fingers on the portions that interested them.&quot; In the same
+    way many a young woman has borrowed Shakespeare in order to read
+    the glowing erotic poetry of <i>Venus and Adonis</i>, which her
+    friends have told her about.</p>
+
+<p>    The Bible, it may be remarked, is not in every respect, a model
+    introduction for the young mind to the questions of sex. But even
+    its frank acceptance, as of divine origin, of sexual rules so
+    unlike those that are nominally our own, such as polygamy and
+    concubinage, helps to enlarge the vision of the youthful mind by
+    showing that the rules surrounding the child are not those
+    everywhere and always valid, while the nakedness and realism of
+    the Bible cannot but be a wholesome and tonic corrective to
+    conventional pruderies.</p>
+
+<p>    We must, indeed, always protest against the absurd confusion
+    <a name='6_Page_91'></a>whereby nakedness of speech is regarded as equivalent to
+    immorality, and not the less because it is often adopted even in
+    what are regarded as intellectual quarters. When in the House of
+    Lords, in the last century, the question of the exclusion of
+    Byron's statue from Westminster Abbey was under discussion, Lord
+    Brougham &quot;denied that Shakespeare was more moral than Byron. He
+    could, on the contrary, point out in a single page of Shakespeare
+    more grossness than was to be found in all Lord Byron's works.&quot;
+    The conclusion Brougham thus reached, that Byron is an
+    incomparably more moral writer than Shakespeare, ought to have
+    been a sufficient <i>reductio ad absurdum</i> of his argument, but it
+    does not appear that anyone pointed out the vulgar confusion into
+    which he had fallen.</p>
+
+<p>    It may be said that the special attractiveness which the
+    nakedness of great literature sometimes possesses for young minds
+    is unwholesome. But it must be remembered that the peculiar
+    interest of this element is merely due to the fact that elsewhere
+    there is an inveterate and abnormal concealment. It must also be
+    said that the statements of the great writers about natural
+    things are never degrading, nor even erotically exciting to the
+    young, and what Emilia Pardo Bazan tells of herself and her
+    delight when a child in the historical books of the Old
+    Testament, that the crude passages in them failed to send the
+    faintest cloud of trouble across her young imagination, is
+    equally true of most children. It is necessary, indeed, that
+    these naked and serious things should be left standing, even if
+    only to counterbalance the lewdly comic efforts to besmirch love
+    and sex, which are visible to all in every low-class bookseller's
+    shop window.</p>
+
+<p>    This point of view was vigorously championed by the speakers on
+    sexual education at the Third Congress of the German Gesellschaft
+    zur Bek&auml;mpfung der Geschlechtskrankheiten in 1907. Thus Enderlin,
+    speaking as a headmaster, protested against the custom of
+    bowdlerizing poems and folk-songs for the use of children, and
+    thus robbing them of the finest introduction to purified sexual
+    impulses and the highest sphere of emotion, while at the same
+    time they are recklessly exposed to the &quot;psychic infection&quot; of
+    the vulgar comic papers everywhere exposed for sale. &quot;So long as
+    children are too young to respond to erotic poetry it cannot hurt
+    them; when they are old enough to respond it can only benefit
+    them by opening to them the highest and purest channels of human
+    emotion&quot; (<i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, p. 60). Professor Sch&auml;fenacker
+    (<i>id.</i>, p. 98) expresses himself in the same sense, and remarks
+    that &quot;the method of removing from school-books all those passages
+    which, in the opinion of short-sighted and narrow-hearted
+    schoolmasters, are unsuited for youth, must be decisively
+    condemned.&quot; Every healthy boy and girl who has reached the age of
+    puberty may be safely allowed to ramble in any good library,
+    however varied its contents. So far from needing <a name='6_Page_92'></a>guidance they
+    will usually show a much more refined taste than their elders. At
+    this age, when the emotions are still virginal and sensitive, the
+    things that are realistic, ugly, or morbid, jar on the young
+    spirit and are cast aside, though in adult life, with the
+    coarsening of mental texture which comes of years and experience,
+    this repugnance, doubtless by an equally sound and natural
+    instinct, may become much less acute.</p>
+
+<p>    Ellen Key in Ch. VI of her <i>Century of the Child</i> well summarizes
+    the reasons against the practice of selecting for children books
+    that are &quot;suitable&quot; for them, a practice which she considers one
+    of the follies of modern education. The child should be free to
+    read all great literature, and will himself instinctively put
+    aside the things he is not yet ripe for. His cooler senses are
+    undisturbed by scenes that his elders find too exciting, while
+    even at a later stage it is not the nakedness of great
+    literature, but much more the method of the modern novel, which
+    is likely to stain the imagination, falsify reality and injure
+    taste. It is concealment which misleads and coarsens, producing a
+    state of mind in which even the Bible becomes a stimulus to the
+    senses. The writings of the great masters yield the imaginative
+    food which the child craves, and the erotic moment in them is too
+    brief to be overheating. It is the more necessary, Ellen Key
+    remarks, for children to be introduced to great literature, since
+    they often have little opportunity to occupy themselves with it
+    in later life. Many years earlier Ruskin, in <i>Sesame and Lilies</i>,
+    had eloquently urged that even young girls should be allowed to
+    range freely in libraries.</p></div>
+
+<p>What has been said about literature applies equally to art. Art, as well
+as literature, and in the same indirect way, can be made a valuable aid in
+the task of sexual enlightenment and sexual hygiene. Modern art may,
+indeed, for the most part, be ignored from this point of view, but
+children cannot be too early familiarized with the representations of the
+nude in ancient sculpture and in the paintings of the old masters of the
+Italian school. In this way they may be immunized, as Enderlin expresses
+it, against those representations of the nude which make an appeal to the
+baser instincts. Early familiarity with nudity in art is at the same time
+an aid to the attainment of a proper attitude towards purity in nature.
+&quot;He who has once learnt,&quot; as H&ouml;ller remarks, &quot;to enjoy peacefully
+nakedness in art, will be able to look on nakedness in nature as on a work
+of art.&quot;</p><a name='6_Page_93'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Casts of classic nude statues and reproductions of the pictures
+    of the old Venetian and other Italian masters may fittingly be
+    used to adorn schoolrooms, not so much as objects of instruction
+    as things of beauty with which the child cannot too early become
+    familiarized. In Italy it is said to be usual for school classes
+    to be taken by their teachers to the art museums with good
+    results; such visits form part of the official scheme of
+    education.</p>
+
+<p>    There can be no doubt that such early familiarity with the beauty
+    of nudity in classic art is widely needed among all social
+    classes and in many countries. It is to this defect of our
+    education that we must attribute the occasional, and indeed in
+    America and England frequent, occurrence of such incidents as
+    petitions and protests against the exhibition of nude statuary in
+    art museums, the display of pictures so inoffensive as Leighton's
+    &quot;Bath of Psyche&quot; in shop windows, and the demand for the draping
+    of the naked personifications of abstract virtues in
+    architectural street decoration. So imperfect is still the
+    education of the multitude that in these matters the ill-bred
+    fanatic of pruriency usually gains his will. Such a state of
+    things cannot but have an unwholesome reaction on the moral
+    atmosphere of the community in which it is possible. Even from
+    the religious point of view, prurient prudery is not justifiable.
+    Northcote has very temperately and sensibly discussed the
+    question of the nude in art from the standpoint of Christian
+    morality. He points out that not only is the nude in art not to
+    be condemned without qualification, and that the nude is by no
+    means necessarily the erotic, but he also adds that even erotic
+    art, in its best and purest manifestations, only arouses emotions
+    that are the legitimate object of man's aspirations. It would be
+    impossible even to represent Biblical stories adequately on
+    canvas or in marble if erotic art were to be tabooed (Rev. H.
+    Northcote, <i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, Ch. XIV).</p>
+
+<p>    Early familiarity with the nude in classic and early Italian art
+    should be combined at puberty with an equal familiarity with
+    photographs of beautiful and naturally developed nude models. In
+    former years books containing such pictures in a suitable and
+    attractive manner to place before the young were difficult to
+    procure. Now this difficulty no longer exists. Dr. C. H. Stratz,
+    of The Hague, has been the pioneer in this matter, and in a
+    series of beautiful books (notably in <i>Der K&ouml;rper des Kindes, Die
+    Sch&ouml;nheit des Weiblichen K&ouml;rpers</i> and <i>Die Rassensch&ouml;nheit des
+    Weibes</i>, all published by Enke in Stuttgart), he has brought
+    together a large number of admirably selected photographs of nude
+    but entirely chaste figures. More recently Dr. Shufeldt, of
+    Washington (who dedicates his work to Stratz), has published his
+    <i>Studies of the Human Form</i> in which, in the same spirit, he has
+    brought together the results of his own studies of the naked
+    human form during many years. It is necessary to correct the
+    impressions received from <a name='6_Page_94'></a>classic sources by good photographic
+    illustrations on account of the false conventions prevailing in
+    classic works, though those conventions were not necessarily
+    false for the artists who originated them. The omission of the
+    pudendal hair, in representations of the nude was, for instance,
+    quite natural for the people of countries still under Oriental
+    influence are accustomed to remove the hair from the body. If,
+    however, under quite different conditions, we perpetuate that
+    artistic convention to-day, we put ourselves into a perverse
+    relation to nature. There is ample evidence of this. &quot;There is
+    one convention so ancient, so necessary, so universal,&quot; writes
+    Mr. Frederic Harrison (<i>Nineteenth Century and After</i>, Aug.,
+    1907), &quot;that its deliberate defiance to-day may arouse the bile
+    of the least squeamish of men and should make women withdraw at
+    once.&quot; If boys and girls were brought up at their mother's knees
+    in familiarity with pictures of beautiful and natural nakedness,
+    it would be impossible for anyone to write such silly and
+    shameful words as these.</p>
+
+<p>    There can be no doubt that among ourselves the simple and direct
+    attitude of the child towards nakedness is so early crushed out
+    of him that intelligent education is necessary in order that he
+    may be enabled to discern what is and what is not obscene. To the
+    plough-boy and the country servant-girl all nakedness, including
+    that of Greek statuary, is alike shameful or lustful. &quot;I have a
+    picture of women like that,&quot; said a countryman with a grin, as he
+    pointed to a photograph of one of Tintoret's most beautiful
+    groups, &quot;smoking cigarettes.&quot; And the mass of people in most
+    northern countries have still passed little beyond this stage of
+    discernment; in ability to distinguish between the beautiful and
+    the obscene they are still on the level of the plough-boy and the
+    servant-girl.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_18'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_18'>[18]</a><div class='note'><p> These manifestations have been dealt with in the study of
+Autoerotism in vol. i of the present <i>Studies</i>. It may be added that the
+sexual life of the child has been exhaustively investigated by Moll, <i>Das
+Sexualleben des Kindes</i>, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_19'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_19'>[19]</a><div class='note'><p> This genital efflorescence in the sexual glands and breasts
+at birth or in early infancy has been discussed in a Paris thesis, by
+Camille Renouf (<i>La Crise G&eacute;nital et les Manifestations Connexes chez le
+F&oelig;tus et le Nouveau-n&eacute;</i>, 1905); he is unable to offer a
+satisfactory explanation of these phenomena.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_20'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_20'>[20]</a><div class='note'><p> Am&eacute;lineau, <i>La Morale des Egyptiens</i>, p. 64.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_21'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_21'>[21]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;The Social Evil in Philadelphia,&quot; <i>Arena</i>, March, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_22'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_22'>[22]</a><div class='note'><p> Moll, <i>Kontr&auml;re Sexualempfindung</i>, third edition, p. 592.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_23'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_23'>[23]</a><div class='note'><p> This powerlessness of the law and the police is well
+recognized by lawyers familiar with the matter. Thus F. Werthauer
+(<i>Sittlichkeitsdelikte der Grosstadt</i>, 1907) insists throughout on the
+importance of parents and teachers imparting to children from their early
+years a progressively increasing knowledge of sexual matters.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_24'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_24'>[24]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Parents must be taught how to impart information,&quot; remarks
+E. L. Keyes (&quot;Education upon Sexual Matters,&quot; <i>New York Medical Journal</i>,
+Feb. 10, 1906), &quot;and this teaching of the parent should begin when he is
+himself a child.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_25'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_25'>[25]</a><div class='note'><p> Moll (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 224) argues well how impossible it is
+to preserve children from sights and influence connected with the sexual
+life.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_26'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_26'>[26]</a><div class='note'><p> Girls are not even prepared, in many cases, for the
+appearance of the pubic hair. This unexpected growth of hair frequently
+causes young girls much secret worry, and often they carefully cut it
+off.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_27'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_27'>[27]</a><div class='note'><p> G. S. Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>, vol. i, p. 511. Many years ago, in
+1875, the late Dr. Clarke, in his <i>Sex in Education</i>, advised menstrual
+rest for girls, and thereby aroused a violent opposition which would
+certainly not be found nowadays, when the special risks of womanhood are
+becoming more clearly understood.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_28'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_28'>[28]</a><div class='note'><p> For a summary of the physical and mental phenomena of the
+menstrual period, see Havelock Ellis: <i>Man and Woman</i>, Ch. XI. The
+primitive conception of menstruation is briefly discussed in Appendix A to
+the first volume of these <i>Studies</i>, and more elaborately by J. G. Frazer
+in <i>The Golden Bough</i>. A large collection of facts with regard to the
+menstrual seclusion of women throughout the world will be found in Ploss
+and Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>. The pubertal seclusion of girls at Torres Straits
+has been especially studied by Seligmann, <i>Reports Anthropological
+Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, vol. v, Ch. VI.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_29'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_29'>[29]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus Miss Lura Sanborn, Director of Physical Training at the
+Chicago Normal School, found that a bath once a fortnight was not unusual.
+At the menstrual period especially there is still a superstitious dread of
+water. Girls should always be taught that at this period, above all,
+cleanliness is imperatively necessary. There should be a tepid hip bath
+night and morning, and a vaginal douche (which should never be cold) is
+always advantageous, both for comfort as well as cleanliness. There is not
+the slightest reason to dread water during menstruation. This point was
+discussed a few years ago in the <i>British Medical Journal</i> with complete
+unanimity of opinion. A distinguished American obstetrician, also, Dr. J.
+Clifton Edgar, after a careful study of opinion and practice in this
+matter (&quot;Bathing During the Menstrual Period,&quot; <i>American Journal
+Obstetrics</i>, Sept., 1900), concludes that it is possible and beneficial to
+take cold baths (though not sea-baths) during the period, provided due
+precautions are observed, and that there are no sudden changes of habits.
+Such a course should not be indiscriminately adopted, but there can be no
+doubt that in sturdy peasant women who are inured to it early in life even
+prolonged immersion in the sea in fishing has no evil results, and is even
+beneficial. Houzel (<i>Annales de Gyn&eacute;cologie</i>, Dec., 1894) has published
+statistics of the menstrual life of 123 fisherwomen on the French coast.
+They were accustomed to shrimp for hours at a time in the sea, often to
+above the waist, and then walk about in their wet clothes selling the
+shrimps. They all insisted that their menstruation was easier when they
+were actively at work. Their periods are notably regular, and their
+fertility is high.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_30'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_30'>[30]</a><div class='note'><p> J. H. McBride, &quot;The Life and Health of Our Girls in Relation
+to Their Future,&quot; <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, Feb., 1904.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_31'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_31'>[31]</a><div class='note'><p> W. G. Chambers, &quot;The Evolution of Ideals,&quot; <i>Pedagogical
+Seminary</i>, March, 1903; Catherine Dodd, &quot;School Children's Ideals,&quot;
+<i>National Review</i>, Feb. and Dec., 1900, and June, 1901. No German girls
+acknowledged a wish to be men; they said it would be wicked. Among Flemish
+girls, however, Varendonck found at Ghent (<i>Archives de Psychologie</i>,
+July, 1908) that 26 per cent. had men as their ideals.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_32'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_32'>[32]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Reibmayr, <i>Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und
+Genies</i>, 1908, Bd. i, p. 70.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_33'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_33'>[33]</a><div class='note'><p> R. Hellmann, <i>Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit</i>, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_34'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_34'>[34]</a><div class='note'><p> This belief seems frequent among young girls in Continental
+Europe. It forms the subject of one of Marcel Prevost's <i>Lettres de
+Femmes</i>. In Austria, according to Freud, it is not uncommon, exclusively
+among girls.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_35'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_35'>[35]</a><div class='note'><p> Yet, according to English law, rape is a crime which it is
+impossible for a husband to commit on his wife (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Nevill Geary,
+<i>The Law of Marriage</i>, Ch. XV, Sect. V). The performance of the marriage
+ceremony, however, even if it necessarily involved a clear explanation of
+marital privileges, cannot be regarded as adequate justification for an
+act of sexual intercourse performed with violence or without the wife's
+consent.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_36'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_36'>[36]</a><div class='note'><p> Hirschfeld, <i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Sexuelle Zwischenstufen</i>, 1903, p.
+88. It may be added that a horror of coitus is not necessarily due to bad
+education, and may also occur in hereditarily degenerate women, whose
+ancestors have shown similar or allied mental peculiarities. A case of
+such &quot;functional impotence&quot; has been reported in a young Italian wife of
+twenty-one, who was otherwise healthy, and strongly attached to her
+husband. The marriage was annulled on the ground that &quot;rudimentary sexual
+or emotional paranoia, which renders a wife invincibly refractory to
+sexual union, notwithstanding the integrity of the sexual organs,
+constitutes psychic functional impotence&quot; (<i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>,
+1906, fasc. vi, p. 806).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_37'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_37'>[37]</a><div class='note'><p> The reasonableness of this step is so obvious that it should
+scarcely need insistence. &quot;The instruction of school-boys and school-girls
+is most adequately effected by an elderly doctor,&quot; N&auml;cke remarks,
+&quot;sometimes perhaps the school-doctor.&quot; &quot;I strongly advocate,&quot; says
+Clouston (<i>The Hygiene of Mind</i>, p. 249), &quot;that the family doctor, guided
+by the parent and the teacher, is by far the best instructor and monitor.&quot;
+Moll is of the same opinion.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_38'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_38'>[38]</a><div class='note'><p> I have further developed this argument in &quot;Religion and the
+Child,&quot; <i>Nineteenth Century and After</i>, 1907.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_39'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_39'>[39]</a><div class='note'><p> The intimate relation of art and poetry to the sexual
+impulse has been realized in a fragmentary way by many who have not
+attained to any wide vision of auto-erotic activity in life. &quot;Poetry is
+necessarily related to the sexual function,&quot; says Metchnikoff (<i>Essais
+Optimistes</i>, p. 352), who also quotes with approval the statement of
+M&ouml;bius (previously made by Ferrero and many others) that &quot;artistic
+aptitudes must probably be considered as secondary sexual characters.&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_III'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_95'></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>SEXUAL EDUCATION AND NAKEDNESS.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Greek Attitude Towards Nakedness&mdash;How the Romans Modified That
+Attitude&mdash;The Influence of Christianity&mdash;Nakedness in Medi&aelig;val
+Times&mdash;Evolution of the Horror of Nakedness&mdash;Concomitant Change in the
+Conception of Nakedness&mdash;Prudery&mdash;The Romantic Movement&mdash;Rise of a New
+Feeling in Regard to Nakedness&mdash;The Hygienic Aspect of Nakedness&mdash;How
+Children May Be Accustomed to Nakedness&mdash;Nakedness Not Inimical to
+Modesty&mdash;The Instinct of Physical Pride&mdash;The Value of Nakedness in
+Education&mdash;The &AElig;sthetic Value of Nakedness&mdash;The Human Body as One of the
+Prime Tonics of Life&mdash;How Nakedness May Be Cultivated&mdash;The Moral Value of
+Nakedness.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The discussion of the value of nakedness in art leads us on to the allied
+question of nakedness in nature. What is the psychological influence of
+familiarity with nakedness? How far should children be made familiar with
+the naked body? This is a question in regard to which different opinions
+have been held in different ages, and during recent years a remarkable
+change has begun to come over the minds of practical educationalists in
+regard to it.</p>
+
+<p>In Sparta, in Chios, and elsewhere in Greece, women at one time practiced
+gymnastic feats and dances in nakedness, together with the men, or in
+their presence.<a name='6_FNanchor_40'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_40'><sup>[40]</sup></a> Plato in his <i>Republic</i> approved of such customs and
+said that the ridicule of those who laughed at them was but &quot;unripe fruit
+plucked from the tree of knowledge.&quot; On many questions Plato's opinions
+changed, but not on this. In the <i>Laws</i>, which are the last outcome of his
+philosophic reflection in old age, he still advocates (Bk. viii) a similar
+co-education of the sexes and their co&ouml;peration in all the works of life,
+in part with a view to blunt the over-keen edge of <a name='6_Page_96'></a>sexual appetite; with
+the same object he advocated the association together of youths and girls
+without constraint in costumes which offered no concealment to the form.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that the Romans, a coarser-grained people than the Greeks
+and in our narrow modern sense more &quot;moral,&quot; showed no perception of the
+moralizing and refining influence of nakedness. Nudity to them was merely
+a licentious indulgence, to be treated with contempt even when it was
+enjoyed. It was confined to the stage, and clamored for by the populace.
+In the Floralia, especially, the crowd seem to have claimed it as their
+right that the actors should play naked, probably, it has been thought, as
+a survival of a folk-ritual. But the Romans, though they were eager to run
+to the theatre, felt nothing but disdain for the performers. &quot;Flagitii
+principium est, nudare inter cives corpora.&quot; So thought old Ennius, as
+reported by Cicero, and that remained the genuine Roman feeling to the
+last. &quot;Quanta perversitas!&quot; as Tertullian exclaimed. &quot;Artem magnificant,
+artificem notant.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_41'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_41'><sup>[41]</sup></a> In this matter the Romans, although they aroused
+the horror of the Christians, were yet in reality laying the foundation of
+Christian morality.</p>
+
+<p>Christianity, which found so many of Plato's opinions congenial, would
+have nothing to do with his view of nakedness and failed to recognize its
+psychological correctness. The reason was simple, and indeed
+simple-minded. The Church was passionately eager to fight against what it
+called &quot;the flesh,&quot; and thus fell into the error of confusing the
+subjective question of sexual desire with the objective spectacle of the
+naked form. &quot;The flesh&quot; is evil; therefore, &quot;the flesh&quot; must be hidden.
+And they hid it, without understanding that in so doing they had not
+suppressed the craving for the human form, but, on the contrary, had
+heightened it by imparting to it the additional fascination of a forbidden
+mystery.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Burton, in his <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i> (Part III, Sect II, Mem.
+    II, Subs. IV), referring to the recommendations of Plato, adds:
+    &quot;But <i>Eusebius</i> and <i>Theodoret</i> worthily lash him for it; and
+    well they might:<a name='6_Page_97'></a> for as one saith, the very sight of naked
+    parts, <i>causeth enormous, exceeding concupiscences, and stirs up
+    both men and women to burning lust</i>.&quot; Yet, as Burton himself adds
+    further on in the same section of his work (Mem. V, Subs. III),
+    without protest, &quot;some are of opinion, that to see a woman naked,
+    is able of itself to alter his affection; and it is worthy of
+    consideration, saith <i>Montaigne</i>, the Frenchman, in his Essays,
+    that the skilfullest masters of amorous dalliance appoint for a
+    remedy of venereous passions, a full survey of the body.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    There ought to be no question regarding the fact that it is the
+    adorned, the partially concealed body, and not the absolutely
+    naked body, which acts as a sexual excitant. I have brought
+    together some evidence on this point in the study of &quot;The
+    Evolution of Modesty.&quot; &quot;In Madagascar, West Africa, and the
+    Cape,&quot; says G. F. Scott Elliot (<i>A Naturalist in Mid-Africa</i>, p.
+    36), &quot;I have always found the same rule. Chastity varies
+    inversely as the amount of clothing.&quot; It is now indeed generally
+    held that one of the chief primary objects of ornament and
+    clothing was the stimulation of sexual desire, and artists'
+    models are well aware that when they are completely unclothed,
+    they are most safe from undesired masculine advances. &quot;A favorite
+    model of mine told me,&quot; remarks Dr. Shufeldt (<i>Medical Brief</i>,
+    Oct., 1904), the distinguished author of <i>Studies of the Human
+    Form</i>, &quot;that it was her practice to disrobe as soon after
+    entering the artist's studio as possible, for, as men are not
+    always responsible for their emotions, she felt that she was far
+    less likely to arouse or excite them when entirely nude than when
+    only semi-draped.&quot; This fact is, indeed, quite familiar to
+    artists' models. If the conquest of sexual desire were the first
+    and last consideration of life it would be more reasonable to
+    prohibit clothing than to prohibit nakedness.</p></div>
+
+<p>When Christianity absorbed the whole of the European world this strict
+avoidance of even the sight of &quot;the flesh,&quot; although nominally accepted by
+all as the desirable ideal, could only be carried out, thoroughly and
+completely, in the cloister. In the practice of the world outside,
+although the original Christian ideals remained influential, various pagan
+and primitive traditions in favor of nakedness still persisted, and were,
+to some extent, allowed to manifest themselves, alike in ordinary custom
+and on special occasions.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>How widespread is the occasional or habitual practice of
+    nakedness in the world generally, and how entirely concordant it
+    is with even a most sensitive modesty, has been set forth in &quot;The
+    Evolution of Modesty,&quot; in vol. i of these <i>Studies</i>.</p><a name='6_Page_98'></a>
+
+<p>    Even during the Christian era the impulse to adopt nudity, often
+    with the feeling that it was an especially sacred practice, has
+    persisted. The Adamites of the second century, who read and
+    prayed naked, and celebrated the sacrament naked, according to
+    the statement quoted by St. Augustine, seem to have caused little
+    scandal so long as they only practiced nudity in their sacred
+    ceremonies. The German Brethren of the Free Spirit, in the
+    thirteenth century, combined so much chastity with promiscuous
+    nakedness that orthodox Catholics believed they were assisted by
+    the Devil. The French Picards, at a much later date, insisted on
+    public nakedness, believing that God had sent their leader into
+    the world as a new Adam to reestablish the law of Nature; they
+    were persecuted and were finally exterminated by the Hussites.</p>
+
+<p>    In daily life, however, a considerable degree of nakedness was
+    tolerated during medi&aelig;val times. This was notably so in the
+    public baths, frequented by men and women together. Thus Alwin
+    Schultz remarks (in his <i>H&ouml;fische Leben zur Zeit der
+    Minnes&auml;nger</i>), that the women of the aristocratic classes, though
+    not the men, were often naked in these baths except for a hat and
+    a necklace.</p>
+
+<p>    It is sometimes stated that in the medi&aelig;val religious plays Adam
+    and Eve were absolutely naked. Chambers doubts this, and thinks
+    they wore flesh-colored tights, or were, as in a later play of
+    this kind, &quot;apparelled in white leather&quot; (E. K. Chambers, <i>The
+    Medi&aelig;val Stage</i>, vol. i, p. 5). It may be so, but the public
+    exposure even of the sexual organs was permitted, and that in
+    aristocratic houses, for John of Salisbury (in a passage quoted
+    by Buckle, <i>Commonplace Book</i>, 541) protests against this custom.</p>
+
+<p>    The women of the feminist sixteenth century in France, as R. de
+    Maulde la Clavi&egrave;re remarks (<i>Revue de l'Art</i>, Jan., 1898), had no
+    scruple in recompensing their adorers by admitting them to their
+    toilette, or even their bath. Late in the century they became
+    still less prudish, and many well-known ladies allowed themselves
+    to be painted naked down to the waist, as we see in the portrait
+    of &quot;Gabrielle d'Estr&eacute;es au Bain&quot; at Chantilly. Many of these
+    pictures, however, are certainly not real portraits.</p>
+
+<p>    Even in the middle of the seventeenth century in England
+    nakedness was not prohibited in public, for Pepys tells us that
+    on July 29, 1667, a Quaker came into Westminster Hall, crying,
+    &quot;Repent! Repent!&quot; being in a state of nakedness, except that he
+    was &quot;very civilly tied about the privities to avoid scandal.&quot;
+    (This was doubtless Solomon Eccles, who was accustomed to go
+    about in this costume, both before and after the Restoration. He
+    had been a distinguished musician, and, though eccentric, was
+    apparently not insane.)</p>
+
+<p>    In a chapter, &quot;De la Nudit&eacute;,&quot; and in the appendices of his book,
+    <i>De l'Amour</i> (vol. i, p. 221), S&eacute;nancour gives instances of the
+    occasional <a name='6_Page_99'></a>practice of nudity in Europe, and adds some
+    interesting remarks of his own; so, also, Dulaure (<i>Des Divinit&eacute;s
+    G&eacute;n&eacute;ratrices</i>, Ch. XV). It would appear, as a rule, that though
+    complete nudity was allowed in other respects, it was usual to
+    cover the sexual parts.</p></div>
+
+<p>The movement of revolt against nakedness never became completely
+victorious until the nineteenth century. That century represented the
+triumph of all the forces that banned public nakedness everywhere and
+altogether. If, as Pudor insists, nakedness is aristocratic and the
+slavery of clothes a plebeian characteristic imposed on the lower classes
+by an upper class who reserved to themselves the privilege of physical
+culture, we may perhaps connect this with the outburst of democratic
+plebeianism which, as Nietzsche pointed out, reached its climax in the
+nineteenth century. It is in any case certainly interesting to observe
+that by this time the movement had entirely changed its character. It had
+become general, but at the same time its foundation had been undermined.
+It had largely lost its religious and moral character, and instead was
+regarded as a matter of convention. The nineteenth century man who
+encountered the spectacle of white limbs flashing in the sunlight no
+longer felt like the medi&aelig;val ascetic that he was risking the salvation of
+his immortal soul or even courting the depravation of his morals; he
+merely felt that it was &quot;indecent&quot; or, in extreme cases, &quot;disgusting.&quot;
+That is to say he regarded the matter as simply a question of conventional
+etiquette, at the worst, of taste, of &aelig;sthetics. In thus bringing down his
+repugnance to nakedness to so low a plane he had indeed rendered it
+generally acceptable, but at the same time he had deprived it of high
+sanction. His profound horror of nakedness was out of relation to the
+frivolous grounds on which he based it.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>We must not, however, under-rate the tenacity with which this
+    horror of nakedness was held. Nothing illustrates more vividly
+    the deeply ingrained hatred which the nineteenth century felt of
+    nakedness than the ferocity&mdash;there is no other word for it&mdash;with
+    which Christian missionaries to savages all over the world, even
+    in the tropics, insisted on their converts adopting the
+    conventional clothing of Northern Europe. Travellers' narratives
+    abound in references to the emphasis placed by <a name='6_Page_100'></a>missionaries on
+    this change of custom, which was both injurious to the health of
+    the people and degrading to their dignity. It is sufficient to
+    quote one authoritative witness, Lord Stanmore, formerly Governor
+    of Fiji, who read a long paper to the Anglican Missionary
+    Conference in 1894 on the subject of &quot;Undue Introduction of
+    Western Ways.&quot; &quot;In the centre of the village,&quot; he remarked in
+    quoting a typical case (and referring not to Fiji but to Tonga),
+    &quot;is the church, a wooden barn-like building. If the day be
+    Sunday, we shall find the native minister arrayed in a
+    greenish-black swallow-tail coat, a neckcloth, once white, and a
+    pair of spectacles, which he probably does not need, preaching to
+    a congregation, the male portion of which is dressed in much the
+    same manner as himself, while the women are dizened out in old
+    battered hats or bonnets, and shapeless gowns like bathing
+    dresses, or it may be in crinolines of an early type. Chiefs of
+    influence and women of high birth, who in their native dress
+    would look, and do look, the ladies and gentlemen they are, are,
+    by their Sunday finery, given the appearance of attendants upon
+    Jack-in-the-Green. If a visit be paid to the houses of the town,
+    after the morning's work of the people is over, the family will
+    be found sitting on chairs, listless and uncomfortable, in a room
+    full of litter. In the houses of the superior native clergy there
+    will be a yet greater aping of the manners of the West. There
+    will be chairs covered with hideous antimacassars, tasteless
+    round worsted-work mats for absent flower jars, and a lot of ugly
+    cheap and vulgar china chimney ornaments, which, there being no
+    fireplace, and consequently no chimney-piece, are set out in
+    order on a rickety deal table. The whole life of these village
+    folk is one piece of unreal acting. They are continually asking
+    themselves whether they are incurring any of the penalties
+    entailed by infraction of the long table of prohibitions, and
+    whether they are living up to the foreign garments they wear.
+    Their faces have, for the most part, an expression of sullen
+    discontent, they move about silently and joylessly, rebels in
+    heart to the restrictive code on them, but which they fear to
+    cast off, partly from a vague apprehension of possible secular
+    results, and partly because they suppose they will cease to be
+    good Christians if they do so. They have good ground for their
+    dissatisfaction. At the time when I visited the villages I have
+    specially in my eye, it was punishable by fine and imprisonment
+    to wear native clothing, punishable by fine and imprisonment to
+    wear long hair or a garland of flowers; punishable by fine or
+    imprisonment to wrestle or to play at ball; punishable by fine
+    and imprisonment to build a native-fashioned house; punishable
+    not to wear shirt and trousers, and in certain localities coat
+    and shoes also; and, in addition to laws enforcing a strictly
+    puritanical observation of the Sabbath, it was punishable by fine
+    and imprisonment to bathe on Sundays. In some other places
+    bathing on Sunday was punishable by flogging; and <a name='6_Page_101'></a>to my
+    knowledge women have been flogged for no other offense. Men in
+    such circumstances are ripe for revolt, and sometimes the revolt
+    comes.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    An obvious result of reducing the feeling about nakedness to an
+    unreasoning but imperative convention is the tendency to
+    prudishness. This, as we know, is a form of pseudo-modesty which,
+    being a convention, and not a natural feeling, is capable of
+    unlimited extension. It is by no means confined to modern times
+    or to Christian Europe. The ancient Hebrews were not entirely
+    free from prudishness, and we find in the Old Testament that by a
+    curious euphemism the sexual organs are sometimes referred to as
+    &quot;the feet.&quot; The Turks are capable of prudishness. So, indeed,
+    were even the ancient Greeks. &quot;Dion the philosopher tells us,&quot;
+    remarks Clement of Alexandria (<i>Stromates</i>, Bk. IV, Ch. XIX)
+    &quot;that a certain woman, Lysidica, through excess of modesty,
+    bathed in her clothes, and that Philotera, when she was to enter
+    the bath, gradually drew back her tunic as the water covered her
+    naked parts; and then rising by degrees, put it on.&quot; Mincing
+    prudes were found among the early Christians, and their ways are
+    graphically described by St. Jerome in one of his letters to
+    Eustochium: &quot;These women,&quot; he says, &quot;speak between their teeth or
+    with the edge of the lips, and with a lisping tongue, only half
+    pronouncing their words, because they regard as gross whatever is
+    natural. Such as these,&quot; declares Jerome, the scholar in him
+    overcoming the ascetic, &quot;corrupt even language.&quot; Whenever a new
+    and artificial &quot;modesty&quot; is imposed upon savages prudery tends to
+    arise. Haddon describes this among the natives of Torres Straits,
+    where even the children now suffer from exaggerated prudishness,
+    though formerly absolutely naked and unashamed (<i>Cambridge
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits</i>, vol. v, p. 271).</p></div>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century, which witnessed the triumph of timidity and
+prudery in this matter, also produced the first fruitful germ of new
+conceptions of nakedness. To some extent these were embodied in the great
+Romantic movement. Rousseau, indeed, had placed no special insistence on
+nakedness as an element of the return to Nature which he preached so
+influentially. A new feeling in this matter emerged, however, with
+characteristic extravagance, in some of the episodes of the Revolution,
+while in Germany in the pioneering <i>Lucinde</i> of Friedrich Schlegel, a
+characteristic figure in the Romantic movement, a still unfamiliar
+conception of the body was set forth in a serious and earnest spirit.</p>
+
+<p>In England, Blake with his strange and flaming genius, <a name='6_Page_102'></a>proclaimed a
+mystical gospel which involved the spiritual glorification of the body and
+contempt for the civilized worship of clothes (&quot;As to a modern man,&quot; he
+wrote, &quot;stripped from his load of clothing he is like a dead corpse&quot;);
+while, later, in America, Thoreau and Whitman and Burroughs asserted,
+still more definitely, a not dissimilar message concerning the need of
+returning to Nature.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>We find the importance of the sight of the body&mdash;though very
+    narrowly, for the avoidance of fraud in the preliminaries of
+    marriage&mdash;set forth as early as the sixteenth century by Sir
+    Thomas More in his <i>Utopia</i>, which is so rich in new and fruitful
+    ideas. In Utopia, according to Sir Thomas More, before marriage,
+    a staid and honest matron &quot;showeth the woman, be she maid or
+    widow, naked to the wooer. And likewise a sage and discreet man
+    exhibiteth the wooer naked to the woman. At this custom we
+    laughed and disallowed it as foolish. But they, on their part, do
+    greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations which, in buying
+    a colt where a little money is in hazard, be so chary and
+    circumspect that though he be almost all bare, yet they will not
+    buy him unless the saddle and all the harness be taken off, lest
+    under these coverings be hid some gall or sore. And yet, in
+    choosing a wife, which shall be either pleasure or displeasure to
+    them all their life after, they be so reckless that all the
+    residue of the woman's body being covered with clothes, they
+    estimate her scarcely by one handsbreadth (for they can see no
+    more but her face) and so join her to them, not without great
+    jeopardy of evil agreeing together, if anything in her body
+    afterward should chance to offend or mislike them. Verily, so
+    foul deformity may be hid under these coverings that it may quite
+    alienate and take away the man's mind from his wife, when it
+    shall not be lawful for their bodies to be separate again. If
+    such deformity happen by any chance after the marriage is
+    consummate and finished, well, there is no remedy but patience.
+    But it were well done that a law were made whereby all such
+    deceits were eschewed and avoided beforehand.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The clear conception of what may be called the spiritual value of
+    nakedness&mdash;by no means from More's point of view, but as a part
+    of natural hygiene in the widest sense, and as a high and special
+    aspect of the purifying and ennobling function of beauty&mdash;is of
+    much later date. It is not clearly expressed until the time of
+    the Romantic movement at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+    We have it admirably set forth in S&eacute;nancour's <i>De l'Amour</i> (first
+    edition, 1806; fourth and enlarged edition, 1834), which still
+    remains one of the best books on the morality of love. After
+    remarking that nakedness by no means abolishes modesty, he
+    proceeds to advocate occasional partial or complete <a name='6_Page_103'></a>nudity. &quot;Let
+    us suppose,&quot; he remarks, somewhat in the spirit of Plato, &quot;a
+    country in which at certain general festivals the women should be
+    absolutely free to be nearly or even quite naked. Swimming,
+    waltzing, walking, those who thought good to do so might remain
+    unclothed in the presence of men. No doubt the illusions of love
+    would be little known, and passion would see a diminution of its
+    transports. But is it passion that in general ennobles human
+    affairs? We need honest attachments and delicate delights, and
+    all these we may obtain while still preserving our
+    common-sense.... Such nakedness would demand corresponding
+    institutions, strong and simple, and a great respect for those
+    conventions which belong to all times&quot; (S&eacute;nancour, <i>De l'Amour</i>,
+    vol. i, p. 314).</p>
+
+<p>    From that time onwards references to the value and desirability
+    of nakedness become more and more frequent in all civilized
+    countries, sometimes mingled with sarcastic allusions to the
+    false conventions we have inherited in this matter. Thus Thoreau
+    writes in his journal on June 12, 1852, as he looks at boys
+    bathing in the river: &quot;The color of their bodies in the sun at a
+    distance is pleasing. I hear the sound of their sport borne over
+    the water. As yet we have not man in Nature. What a singular fact
+    for an angel visitant to this earth to carry back in his
+    note-book, that men were forbidden to expose their bodies under
+    the severest penalties.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Iwan Bloch, in Chapter VII of his <i>Sexual Life of Our Time</i>,
+    discusses this question of nakedness from the modern point of
+    view, and concludes: &quot;A natural conception of nakedness: that is
+    the watchword of the future. All the hygienic, &aelig;sthetic, and
+    moral efforts of our time are pointing in that direction.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Stratz, as befits one who has worked so strenuously in the cause
+    of human health and beauty, admirably sets forth the stage which
+    we have now attained in this matter. After pointing out (<i>Die
+    Frauenkleidung</i>, third edition, 1904, p. 30) that, in opposition
+    to the pagan world which worshipped naked gods, Christianity
+    developed the idea that nakedness was merely sexual, and
+    therefore immoral, he proceeds: &quot;But over all glimmered on the
+    heavenly heights of the Cross, the naked body of the Saviour.
+    Under that protection there has gradually disengaged itself from
+    the confusion of ideas a new transfigured form of nakedness made
+    free after long struggle. I would call this <i>artistic nakedness</i>,
+    for as it was immortalized by the old Greeks through art, so also
+    among us it has been awakened to new life by art. Artistic
+    nakedness is, in its nature, much higher than either the natural
+    or the sensual conception of nakedness. The simple child of
+    Nature sees in nakedness nothing at all; the clothed man sees in
+    the uncovered body only a sensual irritation. But at the highest
+    standpoint man consciously returns to Nature, and recognizes that
+    under the manifold coverings of human <a name='6_Page_104'></a>fabrication there is
+    hidden the most splendid creature that God has created. One may
+    stand in silent, worshipping wonder before the sight; another may
+    be impelled to imitate and show to his fellow-man what in that
+    holy moment he has seen. But both enjoy the spectacle of human
+    beauty with full consciousness and enlightened purity of
+    thought.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>It was not, however, so much on these more spiritual sides, but on the
+side of hygiene, that the nineteenth century furnished its chief practical
+contribution to the new attitude towards nakedness.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Lord Monboddo, the Scotch judge, who was a pioneer in regard to
+    many modern ideas, had already in the eighteenth century realized
+    the hygienic value of &quot;air-baths,&quot; and he invented that now
+    familiar name. &quot;Lord Monboddo,&quot; says Boswell, in 1777 (<i>Life of
+    Johnson</i>, edited by Hill, vol. iii, p. 168) &quot;told me that he
+    awaked every morning at four, and then for his health got up and
+    walked in his room naked, with the window open, which he called
+    taking <i>an air-bath</i>.&quot; It is said also, I know not on what
+    authority, that he made his beautiful daughters take an air-bath
+    naked on the terrace every morning. Another distinguished man of
+    the same century, Benjamin Franklin, used sometimes to work naked
+    in his study on hygienic grounds, and, it is recorded, once
+    affrighted a servant-girl by opening the door in an absent-minded
+    moment, thus unattired.</p>
+
+<p>    Rikli seems to have been the apostle of air-baths and sun-baths
+    regarded as a systematic method. He established light-and
+    air-baths over half a century ago at Trieste and elsewhere in
+    Austria. His motto was: &quot;Light, Truth, and Freedom are the motive
+    forces towards the highest development of physical and moral
+    health.&quot; Man is not a fish, he declared; light and air are the
+    first conditions of a highly organized life. Solaria for the
+    treatment of a number of different disordered conditions are now
+    commonly established, and most systems of natural therapeutics
+    attach prime importance to light and air, while in medicine
+    generally it is beginning to be recognized that such influences
+    can by no means be neglected. Dr. Fernand Sandoz, in his
+    <i>Introduction &agrave; la Th&eacute;rapeutique Naturiste par les agents
+    Physiques et Diet&eacute;tiques</i> (1907) sets forth such methods
+    comprehensively. In Germany sun-baths have become widely common;
+    thus Lenkei (in a paper summarized in <i>British Medical Journal</i>,
+    Oct. 31, 1908) prescribes them with much benefit in tuberculosis,
+    rheumatic conditions, obesity, an&aelig;mia, neurasthenia, etc. He
+    considers that their peculiar value lies in the action of light.
+    Professor J. N. Hyde, of Chicago, even believes (&quot;Light-Hunger in
+    the Production of Psoriasis,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>, Oct. 6,
+    1906), that <a name='6_Page_105'></a>psoriasis is caused by deficiency of sunlight, and
+    is best cured by the application of light. This belief, which has
+    not, however, been generally accepted in its unqualified form, he
+    ingeniously supports by the fact that psoriasis tends to appear
+    on the most exposed parts of the body, which may be held to
+    naturally receive and require the maximum of light, and by the
+    absence of the disease in hot countries and among negroes.</p>
+
+<p>    The hygienic value of nakedness is indicated by the robust health
+    of the savages throughout the world who go naked. The vigor of
+    the Irish, also, has been connected with the fact that (as Fynes
+    Moryson's <i>Itinerary</i> shows) both sexes, even among persons of
+    high social class, were accustomed to go naked except for a
+    mantle, especially in more remote parts of the country, as late
+    as the seventeenth century. Where-ever primitive races abandon
+    nakedness for clothing, at once the tendency to disease,
+    mortality, and degeneracy notably increases, though it must be
+    remembered that the use of clothing is commonly accompanied by
+    the introduction of other bad habits. &quot;Nakedness is the only
+    condition universal among vigorous and healthy savages; at every
+    other point perhaps they differ,&quot; remarks Frederick Boyle in a
+    paper (&quot;Savages and Clothes,&quot; <i>Monthly Review</i>, Sept., 1905) in
+    which he brings together much evidence concerning the hygienic
+    advantages of the natural human state in which man is &quot;all face.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It is in Germany that a return towards nakedness has been most
+    ably and thoroughly advocated, notably by Dr. H. Pudor in his
+    <i>Nackt-Cultur</i>, and by R. Ungewitter in <i>Die Nacktheit</i> (first
+    published in 1905), a book which has had a very large circulation
+    in many editions. These writers enthusiastically advocate
+    nakedness, not only on hygienic, but on moral and artistic
+    grounds. Pudor insists more especially that &quot;nakedness, both in
+    gymnastics and in sport, is a method of cure and a method of
+    regeneration;&quot; he advocates co-education in this culture of
+    nakedness. Although he makes large claims for
+    nakedness&mdash;believing that all the nations which have disregarded
+    these claims have rapidly become decadent&mdash;Pudor is less hopeful
+    than Ungewitter of any speedy victory over the prejudices opposed
+    to the culture of nakedness. He considers that the immediate task
+    is education, and that a practical commencement may best be made
+    with the foot which is specially in need of hygiene and exercise;
+    a large part of the first volume of his book is devoted to the
+    foot.</p></div>
+
+<p>As the matter is to-day viewed by those educationalists who are equally
+alive to sanitary and sexual considerations, the claims of nakedness, so
+far as concerns the young, are regarded as part alike of physical and
+moral hygiene. The free contact of the naked body with air and water and
+light makes for the health of <a name='6_Page_106'></a>the body; familiarity with the sight of the
+body abolishes petty pruriencies, trains the sense of beauty, and makes
+for the health of the soul. This double aspect of the matter has
+undoubtedly weighed greatly with those teachers who now approve of customs
+which, a few years ago, would have been hastily dismissed as &quot;indecent.&quot;
+There is still a wide difference of opinion as to the limits to which the
+practice of nakedness may be carried, and also as to the age when it
+should begin to be restricted. The fact that the adult generation of
+to-day grew up under the influence of the old horror of nakedness is an
+inevitable check on any revolutionary changes in these matters.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Maria Lischnewska, one of the ablest advocates of the methodical
+    enlightenment of children in matters of sex (<i>op. cit.</i>), clearly
+    realizes that a sane attitude towards the body lies at the root
+    of a sound education for life. She finds that the chief objection
+    encountered in such education, as applied in the higher classes
+    of schools, is &quot;the horror of the civilized man at his own body.&quot;
+    She shows that there can be no doubt that those who are engaged
+    in the difficult task of working towards the abolition of that
+    superstitious horror have taken up a moral task of the first
+    importance.</p>
+
+<p>    Walter Gerhard, in a thoughtful and sensible paper on the
+    educational question (&quot;Ein Kapitel zur Erziehungsfrage,&quot;
+    <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, vol. i, Heft 2), points out that
+    it is the adult who needs education in this matter&mdash;as in so many
+    other matters of sexual enlightenment&mdash;considerably more than the
+    child. Parents educate their children from the earliest years in
+    prudery, and vainly flatter themselves that they have thereby
+    promoted their modesty and morality. He records his own early
+    life in a tropical land and accustomed to nakedness from the
+    first. &quot;It was not till I came to Germany when nearly twenty that
+    I learnt that the human body is indecent, and that it must not be
+    shown because that 'would arouse bad impulses.' It was not till
+    the human body was entirely withdrawn from my sight and after I
+    was constantly told that there was something improper behind
+    clothes, that I was able to understand this.... Until then I had
+    not known that a naked body, by the mere fact of being naked,
+    could arouse erotic feelings. I had known erotic feelings, but
+    they had not arisen from the sight of the naked body, but
+    gradually blossomed from the union of our souls.&quot; And he draws
+    the final moral that, if only for the sake of our children, we
+    must learn to educate ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>    Forel (<i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, p. 140), speaking in entirely the
+    same sense as Gerhard, remarks that prudery may be either caused
+    or cured <a name='6_Page_107'></a>in children. It may be caused by undue anxiety in
+    covering their bodies and hiding from them the bodies of others.
+    It may be cured by making them realize that there is nothing in
+    the body that is unnatural and that we need be ashamed of, and by
+    encouraging bathing of the sexes in common. He points out (p.
+    512) the advantages of allowing children to be acquainted with
+    the adult forms which they will themselves some day assume, and
+    condemns the conduct of those foolish persons who assume that
+    children already possess the adult's erotic feelings about the
+    body. That is so far from being the case that children are
+    frequently unable to distinguish the sex of other children apart
+    from their clothes.</p>
+
+<p>    At the Mannheim Congress of the German Society for Combating
+    Venereal Diseases, specially devoted to sexual hygiene, the
+    speakers constantly referred to the necessity of promoting
+    familiarity with the naked body. Thus Eulenburg and Julian
+    Marcuse (<i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, p. 264) emphasize the importance of
+    air-baths, not only for the sake of the physical health of the
+    young, but in the interests of rational sexual training. H&ouml;ller,
+    a teacher, speaking at the same congress (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 85),
+    after insisting on familiarity with the nude in art and
+    literature, and protesting against the bowdlerising of poems for
+    the young, continues: &quot;By bathing-drawers ordinances no soul was
+    ever yet saved from moral ruin. One who has learnt to enjoy
+    peacefully the naked in art is only stirred by the naked in
+    nature as by a work of art.&quot; Enderlin, another teacher, speaking
+    in the same sense (p. 58), points out that nakedness cannot act
+    sexually or immorally on the child, since the sexual impulse has
+    not yet become pronounced, and the earlier he is introduced to
+    the naked in nature and in art, as a matter of course, the less
+    likely are the sexual feelings to be developed precociously. The
+    child thus, indeed, becomes immune to impure influences, so that
+    later, when representations of the nude are brought before him
+    for the object of provoking his wantonness, they are powerless to
+    injure him. It is important, Enderlin adds, for familiarity with
+    the nude in art to be learnt at school, for most of us, as
+    Siebert remarks, have to learn purity through art.</p>
+
+<p>    Nakedness in bathing, remarks B&ouml;lsche in his <i>Liebesleben in der
+    Natur</i> (vol. iii, pp. 139 <i>et seq.</i>), we already in some measure
+    possess; we need it in physical exercises, at first for the sexes
+    separately; then, when we have grown accustomed to the idea,
+    occasionally for both sexes together. We need to acquire the
+    capacity to see the bodies of individuals of the other sex with
+    such self-control and such natural instinct that they become
+    non-erotic to us and can be gazed at without erotic feeling. Art,
+    he says, shows that this is possible in civilization. Science, he
+    adds, comes to the aid of the same view.</p>
+
+<p>    Ungewitter (<i>Die Nacktheit</i>, p. 57) also advocates boys and girls
+    <a name='6_Page_108'></a>engaging in play and gymnastics together, entirely naked in
+    air-baths. &quot;In this way,&quot; he believes, &quot;the gymnasium would
+    become a school of morality, in which young growing things would
+    be able to retain their purity as long as possible through
+    becoming naturally accustomed to each other. At the same time
+    their bodies would be hardened and developed, and the perception
+    of beautiful and natural forms awakened.&quot; To those who have any
+    &quot;moral&quot; doubts on the matter, he mentions the custom in remote
+    country districts of boys and girls bathing together quite naked
+    and without any sexual consciousness. Rudolf Sommer, similarly,
+    in an excellent article entitled &quot;M&auml;dchenerziehung oder
+    Menschenbildung?&quot; (<i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. i, Heft 3)
+    advises that children should be made accustomed to each other's
+    nakedness from an early age in the family life of the house or
+    the garden, in games, and especially in bathing; he remarks that
+    parents having children of only one sex should cultivate for
+    their children's sake intimate relations with a family having
+    children of like age of the opposite sex, so that they may grow
+    up together.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to add that the cultivation of nakedness must
+always be conciliated with respect for the natural instincts of modesty.
+If the practice of nakedness led the young to experience a diminished
+reverence for their own or others' personalities the advantages of it
+would be too dearly bought. This is, in part, a matter of wholesome
+instinct, in part of wise training. We now know that the absence of
+clothes has little relation with the absence of modesty, such relation as
+there is being of the inverse order, for the savage races which go naked
+are usually more modest than those which wear clothes. The saying quoted
+by Herodotus in the early Greek world that &quot;A woman takes off her modesty
+with her shift&quot; was a favorite text of the Christian Fathers. But
+Plutarch, who was also a moralist, had already protested against it at the
+close of the Greek world: &quot;By no means,&quot; he declared, &quot;she who is modest
+clothes herself with modesty when she lays aside her tunic.&quot; &quot;A woman may
+be naked,&quot; as Mrs. Bishop, the traveller, remarked to Dr. Baelz, in Japan,
+&quot;and yet behave like a lady.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_42'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_42'><sup>[42]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The question is complicated among ourselves because established
+<a name='6_Page_109'></a>traditions of rigid concealment have fostered a pruriency which is an
+offensive insult to naked modesty. In many lands the women who are
+accustomed to be almost or quite naked in the presence of their own people
+cover themselves as soon as they become conscious of the lustful
+inquisitive eyes of Europeans. Stratz refers to the prevalence of this
+impulse of offended modesty in Japan, and mentions that he himself failed
+to arouse it simply because he was a physician, and, moreover, had long
+lived in another land (Java) where also the custom of nakedness
+prevails.<a name='6_FNanchor_43'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_43'><sup>[43]</sup></a> So long as this unnatural prurience exists a free
+unqualified nakedness is rendered difficult.</p>
+
+<p>Modesty is not, however, the only natural impulse which has to be
+considered in relation to the custom of nakedness. It seems probable that
+in cultivating the practice of nakedness we are not merely carrying out a
+moral and hygienic prescription but allowing legitimate scope to an
+instinct which at some periods of life, especially in adolescence, is
+spontaneous and natural, even, it may be, wholesomely based in the
+traditions of the race in sexual selection. Our rigid conventions make it
+impossible for us to discover the laws of nature in this matter by
+stifling them at the outset. It may well be that there is a rhythmic
+harmony and concordance between impulses of modesty and impulses of
+ostentation, though we have done our best to disguise the natural law by
+our stupid and perverse by-laws.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Stanley Hall, who emphasizes the importance of nakedness, remarks
+    that at puberty we have much reason to assume that in a state of
+    nature there is a certain instinctive pride and ostentation that
+    accompanies the new local development, and quotes the observation
+    of Dr. Seerley that the impulse to conceal the sexual organs is
+    especially marked in young men who are underdeveloped, but not
+    evident in those who are developed beyond the average. Stanley
+    Hall (<i>Adolescence</i>, vol. ii, p. 97), also refers to the
+    frequency with which not only &quot;virtuous young men, but even
+    women, rather glory in occasions when they can display the beauty
+    of their forms without reserve, not only to themselves and to
+    loved ones, but even to others with proper pretexts.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Many have doubtless noted this tendency, especially in women, and
+    <a name='6_Page_110'></a>chiefly in those who are conscious of beautiful physical
+    development. Madame C&eacute;line Renooz believes that the tendency
+    corresponds to a really deep-rooted instinct in women, little or
+    not at all manifested in men who have consequently sought to
+    impose artificially on women their own masculine conceptions of
+    modesty. &quot;In the actual life of the young girl to-day there is a
+    moment when, by a secret atavism, she feels the pride of her sex,
+    the intuition of her moral superiority and cannot understand why
+    she must hide its cause. At this moment, wavering between the
+    laws of Nature and social conventions, she scarcely knows if
+    nakedness should, or should not, affright her. A sort of confused
+    atavistic memory recalls to her a period before clothing was
+    known, and reveals to her as a paradisaical ideal the customs of
+    that human epoch&quot; (C&eacute;line Renooz, <i>Psychologie Compar&eacute;e de
+    l'Homme et de la Femme</i>, pp. 85-87). Perhaps this was obscurely
+    felt by the German girl (mentioned in Kalbeck's <i>Life of
+    Brahms</i>), who said: &quot;One enjoys music twice as much
+    <i>d&eacute;collet&eacute;e</i>.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>From the point of view with which we are here essentially concerned there
+are three ways in which the cultivation of nakedness&mdash;so far as it is
+permitted by the slow education of public opinion&mdash;tends to exert an
+influence: (1) It is an important element in the sexual hygiene of the
+young, introducing a wholesome knowledge and incuriosity into a sphere
+once given up to prudery and pruriency. (2) The effect of nakedness is
+beneficial on those of more mature age, also, in so far as it tends to
+cultivate the sense of beauty and to furnish the tonic and consoling
+influences of natural vigor and grace. (3) The custom of nakedness, in its
+inception at all events, has a dynamic psychological influence also on
+morals, an influence exerted in the substitution of a strenuous and
+positive morality for the merely negative and timid morality which has
+ruled in this sphere.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps there are not many adults who realize the intense and secret
+absorption of thought in the minds of many boys and some girls concerning
+the problem of the physical conformation of the other sex, and the time,
+patience, and intellectual energy which they are willing to expend on the
+solution of this problem. This is mostly effected in secret, but not
+seldom the secret impulse manifests itself with a sudden violence which in
+the blind eyes of the law is reckoned as crime. A German lawyer, Dr.
+Werthauer, has lately stated that if there were a due degree <a name='6_Page_111'></a>of
+familiarity with the natural organs and functions of the opposite sex
+ninety per cent. of the indecent acts of youths with girl children would
+disappear, for in most cases these are not assaults but merely the
+innocent, though uncontrollable, outcome of a repressed natural curiosity.
+It is quite true that not a few children boldly enlist each others'
+co&ouml;peration in the settlement of the question and resolve it to their
+mutual satisfaction. But even this is not altogether satisfactory, for the
+end is not attained openly and wholesomely, with a due subordination of
+the specifically sexual, but with a consciousness of wrong-doing and an
+exclusive attentiveness to the merely physical fact which tend directly to
+develop sexual excitement. When familiarity with the naked body of the
+other sex is gained openly and with no consciousness of indecorum, in the
+course of work and of play, in exercise or gymnastics, in running or in
+bathing, from a child's earliest years, no unwholesome results accompany
+the knowledge of the essential facts of physical conformation thus
+naturally acquired. The prurience and prudery which have poisoned sexual
+life in the past are alike rendered impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Nakedness has, however, a hygienic value, as well as a spiritual
+significance, far beyond its influences in allaying the natural
+inquisitiveness of the young or acting as a preventative of morbid
+emotion. It is an inspiration to adults who have long outgrown any
+youthful curiosities. The vision of the essential and eternal human form,
+the nearest thing to us in all the world, with its vigor and its beauty
+and its grace, is one of the prime tonics of life. &quot;The power of a woman's
+body,&quot; said James Hinton, &quot;is no more bodily than the power of music is a
+power of atmospheric vibrations.&quot; It is more than all the beautiful and
+stimulating things of the world, than flowers or stars or the sea. History
+and legend and myth reveal to us the sacred and awful influence of
+nakedness, for, as Stanley Hall says, nakedness has always been &quot;a
+talisman of wondrous power with gods and men.&quot; How sorely men crave for
+the spectacle of the human body&mdash;even to-day after generations have
+inculcated the notion that it is an indecorous and even disgusting
+spectacle&mdash;is <a name='6_Page_112'></a>witnessed by the eagerness with which they seek after the
+spectacle of even its imperfect and meretricious forms, although these
+certainly possess a heady and stimulating quality which can never be found
+in the pathetic simplicity of naked beauty. It was another spectacle when
+the queens of ancient Madagascar at the annual Fandroon, or feast of the
+bath, laid aside their royal robes and while their subjects crowded the
+palace courtyard, descended the marble steps to the bath in complete
+nakedness. When we make our conventions of clothing rigid we at once
+spread a feast for lust and deny ourselves one of the prime tonics of
+life.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;I was feeling in despair and walking despondently along a
+    Melbourne street,&quot; writes the Australian author of a yet
+    unpublished autobiography, &quot;when three children came running out
+    of a lane and crossed the road in full daylight. The beauty and
+    texture of their legs in the open air filled me with joy, so that
+    I forgot all my troubles whilst looking at them. It was a bright
+    revelation, an unexpected glimpse of Paradise, and I have never
+    ceased to thank the happy combination of shape, pure blood, and
+    fine skin of these poverty-stricken children, for the wind seemed
+    to quicken their golden beauty, and I retained the rosy vision of
+    their natural young limbs, so much more divine than those always
+    under cover. Another occasion when naked young limbs made me
+    forget all my gloom and despondency was on my first visit to
+    Adelaide. I came on a naked boy leaning on the railing near the
+    Baths, and the beauty of his face, torso, fair young limbs and
+    exquisite feet filled me with joy and renewed hope. The tears
+    came to my eyes, and I said to myself, 'While there is beauty in
+    the world I will continue to struggle,'&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    We must, as B&ouml;lsche declares (<i>loc. cit.</i>), accustom ourselves to
+    gaze on the naked human body exactly as we gaze at a beautiful
+    flower, not merely with the pity with which the doctor looks at
+    the body, but with joy in its strength and health and beauty. For
+    a flower, as B&ouml;lsche truly adds, is not merely &quot;naked body,&quot; it
+    is the most sacred region of the body, the sexual organs of the
+    plant.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;For girls to dance naked,&quot; said Hinton, &quot;is the only truly pure
+    form of dancing, and in due time it must therefore come about.
+    This is certain: girls will dance naked and men will be pure
+    enough to gaze on them.&quot; It has already been so in Greece, he
+    elsewhere remarks, as it is to-day in Japan (as more recently
+    described by Stratz). It is nearly forty years since these
+    prophetic words were written, but Hinton himself would probably
+    have been surprised at the progress which has <a name='6_Page_113'></a>already been made
+    slowly (for all true progress must be slow) towards this goal.
+    Even on the stage new and more natural traditions are beginning
+    to prevail in Europe. It is not many years since an English
+    actress regarded as a calumny the statement that she appeared on
+    the stage bare-foot, and brought an action for libel, winning
+    substantial damages. Such a result would scarcely be possible
+    to-day. The movement in which Isadora Duncan was a pioneer has
+    led to a partial disuse among dancers of the offensive device of
+    tights, and it is no longer considered indecorous to show many
+    parts of the body which it was formerly usual to cover.</p>
+
+<p>    It should, however, be added at the same time that, while
+    dancers, in so far as they are genuine artists, are entitled to
+    determine the conditions most favorable to their art, nothing
+    whatever is gained for the cause of a wholesome culture of
+    nakedness by the &quot;living statues&quot; and &quot;living pictures&quot; which
+    have obtained an international vogue during recent years. These
+    may be legitimate as variety performances, but they have nothing
+    whatever to do with either Nature or art. Dr. Pudor, writing as
+    one of the earliest apostles of the culture of nakedness, has
+    energetically protested against these performances
+    (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Dec., 1908, p. 828). He rightly points out
+    that nakedness, to be wholesome, requires the open air, the
+    meadows, the sunlight, and that nakedness at night, in a music
+    hall, by artificial light, in the presence of spectators who are
+    themselves clothed, has no element of morality about it. Attempts
+    have here and there been quietly made to cultivate a certain
+    amount of mutual nakedness as between the sexes on remote country
+    excursions. It is significant to find a record of such an
+    experiment in Ungewitter's <i>Die Nacktheit</i>. In this case a party
+    of people, men and women, would regularly every Sunday seek
+    remote spots in woods or meadows where they would settle down,
+    picnic, and enjoy games. &quot;They made themselves as comfortable as
+    possible, the men laying aside their coats, waistcoats, boots and
+    socks; the women their blouses, skirts, shoes and stockings.
+    Gradually, as the moral conception of nakedness developed in
+    their minds, more and more clothing fell away, until the men wore
+    nothing but bathing-drawers and the women only their chemises. In
+    this 'costume' games were carried out in common, and a regular
+    camp-life led. The ladies (some of whom were unmarried) would
+    then lie in hammocks and we men on the grass, and the intercourse
+    was delightful. We felt as members of one family, and behaved
+    accordingly. In an entirely natural and unembarrassed way we gave
+    ourselves up entirely to the liberating feelings aroused by this
+    light- and air-bath, and passed these splendid hours in joyous
+    singing and dancing, in wantonly childish fashion, freed from the
+    burden of a false civilization. It was, of course, necessary to
+    seek spots as remote as possible from high-roads, for fear of
+    being disturbed. At the same time we by <a name='6_Page_114'></a>no means failed in
+    natural modesty and consideration towards one another. Children,
+    who can be entirely naked, may be allowed to take part in such
+    meetings of adults, and will thus be brought up free from morbid
+    prudery&quot; (R. Ungewitter, <i>Die Nacktheit</i>, p. 58).</p>
+
+<p>    No doubt it may be said that the ideal in this matter is the
+    possibility of permitting complete nakedness. This may be
+    admitted, and it is undoubtedly true that our rigid police
+    regulations do much to artificially foster a concealment in this
+    matter which is not based on any natural instinct. Dr. Shufeldt
+    narrates in his <i>Studies of the Human Form</i> that once in the
+    course of a photographic expedition in the woods he came upon two
+    boys, naked except for bathing-drawers, engaged in getting water
+    lilies from a pond. He found them a good subject for his camera,
+    but they could not be induced to remove their drawers, by no
+    means out of either modesty or mock-modesty, but simply because
+    they feared they might possibly be caught and arrested. We have
+    to recognize that at the present day the general popular
+    sentiment is not yet sufficiently educated to allow of public
+    disregard for the convention of covering the sexual centres, and
+    all attempts to extend the bounds of nakedness must show a due
+    regard for this requirement. As concerns women, Valentin Lehr, of
+    Freiburg, in Breisgau, has invented a costume (figured in
+    Ungewitter's <i>Die Nacktheit</i>) which is suitable for either public
+    water-baths or air-baths, because it meets the demand of those
+    whose minimum requirement is that the chief sexual centres of the
+    body should be covered in public, while it is otherwise fairly
+    unobjectionable. It consists of two pieces, made of porous
+    material, one covering the breasts with a band over the
+    shoulders, and the other covering the abdomen below the navel and
+    drawn between the legs. This minimal costume, while neither ideal
+    nor &aelig;sthetic, adequately covers the sexual regions of the body,
+    while leaving the arms, waist, hips, and legs entirely free.</p></div>
+
+<p>There finally remains the moral aspect of nakedness. Although this has
+been emphasized by many during the past half century it is still
+unfamiliar to the majority. The human body can never be a little thing.
+The wise educator may see to it that boys and girls are brought up in a
+natural and wholesome familiarity with each other, but a certain terror
+and beauty must always attach to the spectacle of the body, a mixed
+attraction and repulsion. Because it has this force it naturally calls out
+the virtue of those who take part in the spectacle, and makes impossible
+any soft compliance to emotion. Even if we admit that the spectacle of
+nakedness is a challenge to passion it is still <a name='6_Page_115'></a>a challenge that calls
+out the ennobling qualities of self-control. It is but a poor sort of
+virtue that lies in fleeing into the desert from things that we fear may
+have in them a temptation. We have to learn that it is even worse to
+attempt to create a desert around us in the midst of civilization. We
+cannot dispense with passions if we would; reason, as Holbach said, is the
+art of choosing the right passions, and education the art of sowing and
+cultivating them in human hearts. The spectacle of nakedness has its moral
+value in teaching us to learn to enjoy what we do not possess, a lesson
+which is an essential part of the training for any kind of fine social
+life. The child has to learn to look at flowers and not pluck them; the
+man has to learn to look at a woman's beauty and not desire to possess it.
+The joyous conquest over that &quot;erotic kleptomania,&quot; as Ellen Key has well
+said, reveals the blossoming of a fine civilization. We fancy the conquest
+is difficult, even impossibly difficult. But it is not so. This impulse,
+like other human impulses, tends under natural conditions to develop
+temperately and wholesomely. We artificially press a stupid and brutal
+hand on it, and it is driven into the two unnatural extremes of repression
+and license, one extreme as foul as the other.</p>
+
+<p>To those who have been bred under bad conditions, it may indeed seem
+hopeless to attempt to rise to the level of the Greeks and the other finer
+tempered peoples of antiquity in realizing the moral, as well as the
+pedagogic, hygienic, and &aelig;sthetic advantages<a name='6_FNanchor_44'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_44'><sup>[44]</sup></a> of admitting into life
+the spectacle of the naked human <a name='6_Page_116'></a>body. But unless we do we hopelessly
+fetter ourselves in our march along the road of civilization, we deprive
+ourselves at once of a source of moral strength and of joyous inspiration.
+Just as Wesley once asked why the devil should have all the best tunes, so
+to-day men are beginning to ask why the human body, the most divine melody
+at its finest moments that creation has yielded, should be allowed to
+become the perquisite of those who lust for the obscene. And some are,
+further, convinced that by enlisting it on the side of purity and strength
+they are raising the most powerful of all bulwarks against the invasion of
+a vicious conception of life and the consequent degradation of sex. These
+are considerations which we cannot longer afford to neglect, however great
+the opposition they arouse among the unthinking.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Folk are afraid of such things rousing the passions,&quot; Edward
+    Carpenter remarks. &quot;No doubt the things may act that way. But
+    why, we may ask, should people be afraid of rousing passions
+    which, after all, are the great driving forces of human life?&quot; It
+    is true, the same writer continues, our conventional moral
+    formul&aelig; are no longer strong enough to control passion
+    adequately, and that we are generating steam in a boiler that is
+    cankered with rust. &quot;The cure is not to cut off the passions, or
+    to be weakly afraid of them, but to find a new, sound, healthy
+    engine of general morality and common sense within which they
+    will work&quot; (Edward Carpenter, <i>Albany Review</i>, Sept., 1907).</p>
+
+<p>    So far as I am aware, however, it was James Hinton who chiefly
+    sought to make clear the possibility of a positive morality on
+    the basis of nakedness, beauty, and sexual influence, regarded as
+    dynamic forces which, when suppressed, make for corruption and
+    when wisely used serve to inspire and ennoble life. He worked out
+    his thoughts on this matter in MSS., written from about 1870 to
+    his death two years later, which, never having been prepared for
+    publication, remain in a fragmentary state and have not been
+    published. I quote a few brief characteristic passages: &quot;Is not,&quot;
+    he wrote, &quot;the Hindu refusal to see a woman eating strangely like
+    ours to see one naked? The real sensuality of the thought is
+    visibly identical.... Suppose, because they are delicious to eat,
+    pineapples were forbidden to be seen, except in pictures, and
+    about that there was something dubious. Suppose no one might have
+    sight of a pineapple unless he were rich enough to purchase one
+    for his particular eating, the sight and the eating being so
+    indissolubly joined. What lustfulness would surround them, what
+    constant pruriency, what stealing!... Miss &mdash;&mdash; told us of her
+    Syrian adventures, and how she went into a wood-carver's shop and
+    he <a name='6_Page_117'></a>would not look at her; and how she took up a tool and worked,
+    till at last he looked, and they both burst out laughing. Will it
+    not be even so with our looking at women altogether? There will
+    come a <i>work</i>&mdash;and at last we shall look up and both burst out
+    laughing.... When men see truly what is amiss, and act with
+    reason and forethought in respect to the sexual relations, will
+    they not insist on the enjoyment of women's beauty by youths, and
+    from the earliest age, that the first feeling may be of beauty?
+    Will they not say, 'We must not allow the false purity, we must
+    have the true.' The false has been tried, and it is not good
+    enough; the power purely to enjoy beauty must be gained;
+    attempting to do with less is fatal. Every instructor of youth
+    shall say: 'This beauty of woman, God's chief work of beauty, it
+    is good you see it; it is a pleasure that serves good; all beauty
+    serves it, and above all this, for its office is to make you
+    pure. Come to it as you come to daily bread, or pure air, or the
+    cleansing bath: this is pure to you if you be pure, it will aid
+    you in your effort to be so. But if any of you are impure, and
+    make of it the feeder of impurity, then you should be ashamed and
+    pray; it is not for you our life can be ordered; it is for men
+    and not for beasts.' This must come when men open their eyes, and
+    act coolly and with reason and forethought, and not in mere panic
+    in respect to the sexual passion in its moral relations.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_40'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_40'>[40]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus Athen&aelig;us (Bk. xiii, Ch. XX) says: &quot;In the Island of
+Chios it is a beautiful sight to go to the gymnasia and the race-courses,
+and to see the young men wrestling naked with the maidens who are also
+naked.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_41'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_41'>[41]</a><div class='note'><p> Augustine (<i>De civitate Dei</i>, lib. ii, cap. XIII) refers to
+the same point, contrasting the Romans with the Greeks who honored their
+actors.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_42'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_42'>[42]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;The Evolution of Modesty&quot; in the first volume of these
+<i>Studies</i>, where this question of the relationship of nakedness to modesty
+is fully discussed.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_43'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_43'>[43]</a><div class='note'><p> C. H. Stratz, <i>Die K&ouml;rperformen in Kunst und Leben der
+Japaner</i>, Second edition, Ch. III; <i>id.</i>, <i>Frauenkleidung</i>, Third edition,
+pp. 22, 30.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_44'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_44'>[44]</a><div class='note'><p> I have not considered it in place here to emphasize the
+&aelig;sthetic influence of familiarity with nakedness. The most &aelig;sthetic
+nations (notably the Greeks and the Japanese) have been those that
+preserved a certain degree of familiarity with the naked body. &quot;In all
+arts,&quot; Maeterlinck remarks, &quot;civilized peoples have approached or departed
+from pure beauty according as they approached or departed from the habit
+of nakedness.&quot; Ungewitter insists on the advantage to the artist of being
+able to study the naked body in movement, and it may be worth mentioning
+that Fidus (Hugo H&ouml;ppener), the German artist of to-day who has exerted
+great influence by his fresh, powerful and yet reverent delineation of the
+naked human form in all its varying aspects, attributes his inspiration
+and vision to the fact that, as a pupil of Diefenbach, he was accustomed
+with his companions to work naked in the solitudes outside Munich which
+they frequented (F. Enzensberger, &quot;Fidus,&quot; <i>Deutsche Kultur</i>, Aug.,
+1906).</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_IV'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_118'></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE VALUATION OF SEXUAL LOVE.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Conception of Sexual Love&mdash;The Attitude of Medi&aelig;val Asceticism&mdash;St.
+Bernard and St. Odo of Cluny&mdash;The Ascetic Insistence on the Proximity of
+the Sexual and Excretory Centres&mdash;Love as a Sacrament of Nature&mdash;The Idea
+of the Impurity of Sex in Primitive Religions Generally&mdash;Theories of the
+Origin of This Idea&mdash;The Anti-Ascetic Element in the Bible and Early
+Christianity&mdash;Clement of Alexandria&mdash;St. Augustine's Attitude&mdash;The
+Recognition of the Sacredness of the Body by Tertullian, Rufinus and
+Athanasius&mdash;The Reformation&mdash;The Sexual Instinct regarded as Beastly&mdash;The
+Human Sexual Instinct Not Animal-like&mdash;Lust and Love&mdash;The Definition of
+Love&mdash;Love and Names for Love Unknown in Some Parts of the World&mdash;Romantic
+Love of Late Development in the White Race&mdash;The Mystery of Sexual
+Desire&mdash;Whether Love is a Delusion&mdash;The Spiritual as Well as the Physical
+Structure of the World in Part Built up on Sexual Love&mdash;The Testimony of
+Men of Intellect to the Supremacy of Love.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It will be seen that the preceding discussion of nakedness has a
+significance beyond what it appeared to possess at the outset. The
+hygienic value, physically and mentally, of familiarity with nakedness
+during the early years of life, however considerable it may be, is not the
+only value which such familiarity possesses. Beyond its &aelig;sthetic value,
+also, there lies in it a moral value, a source of dynamic energy. And now,
+taking a still further step, we may say that it has a spiritual value in
+relation to our whole conception of the sexual impulse. Our attitude
+towards the naked human body is the test of our attitude towards the
+instinct of sex. If our own and our fellows' bodies seem to us
+intrinsically shameful or disgusting, nothing will ever really ennoble or
+purify our conceptions of sexual love. Love craves the flesh, and if the
+flesh is shameful the lover must be shameful. &quot;Se la cosa amata &egrave; vile,&quot;
+as Leonardo da Vinci profoundly said, &quot;l'amante se fa vile.&quot; However
+illogical it may have been, there really was a justification for the old
+Christian identification of the flesh with the sexual instinct. They stand
+or fall <a name='6_Page_119'></a>together; we cannot degrade the one and exalt the other. As our
+feelings towards nakedness are, so will be our feelings towards love.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Man is nothing else than fetid sperm, a sack of dung, the food of
+worms.... You have never seen a viler dung-hill.&quot; Such was the outcome of
+St. Bernard's cloistered <i>Meditationes Piissim&aelig;</i>.<a name='6_FNanchor_45'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_45'><sup>[45]</sup></a> Sometimes, indeed,
+these medi&aelig;val monks would admit that the skin possessed a certain
+superficial beauty, but they only made that admission in order to
+emphasize the hideousness of the body when deprived of this film of
+loveliness, and strained all their perverse intellectual acumen, and their
+ferocious irony, as they eagerly pointed the finger of mockery at every
+detail of what seemed to them the pitiful figure of man. St. Odo of
+Cluny&mdash;charming saint as he was and a pioneer in his appreciation of the
+wild beauty of the Alps he had often traversed&mdash;was yet an adept in this
+art of reviling the beauty of the human body. That beauty only lies in the
+skin, he insists; if we could see beneath the skin women would arouse
+nothing but nausea. Their adornments are but blood and mucus and bile. If
+we refuse to touch dung and phlegm even with a fingertip, how can we
+desire to embrace a sack of dung?<a name='6_FNanchor_46'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_46'><sup>[46]</sup></a> The medi&aelig;val monks of the more
+contemplative order, indeed, often found here a delectable field of
+meditation, and the Christian world generally was content to accept their
+opinions in more or less diluted versions, or at all events never made any
+definite protest against them.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_120'></a>
+<p>Even men of science accepted these conceptions and are, indeed, only now
+beginning to emancipate themselves from such ancient superstitions. R. de
+Graef in the Preface to his famous treatise on the generative organs of
+women, <i>De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus</i>, dedicated to
+Cosmo III de Medici in 1672, considered it necessary to apologize for the
+subject of his work. Even a century later, Linn&aelig;us in his great work, <i>The
+System of Nature</i>, dismissed as &quot;abominable&quot; the exact study of the female
+genitals, although he admitted the scientific interest of such
+investigations. And if men of science have found it difficult to attain an
+objective vision of women we cannot be surprised that medieval and still
+more ancient conceptions have often been subtly mingled with the views of
+philosophical and semi-philosophical writers.<a name='6_FNanchor_47'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_47'><sup>[47]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>We may regard as a special variety of the ascetic view of sex,&mdash;for the
+ascetics, as we see, freely but not quite legitimately, based their
+asceticism largely on &aelig;sthetic considerations,&mdash;that insistence on the
+proximity of the sexual to the excretory centres which found expression in
+the early Church in Augustine's depreciatory assertion: &quot;Inter f&aelig;ces et
+urinam nascimur,&quot; and still persists among many who by no means always
+associate it with religious asceticism.<a name='6_FNanchor_48'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_48'><sup>[48]</sup></a> &quot;As a result of what
+ridiculous economy, and of what Mephistophilian irony,&quot; asks Tarde,<a name='6_FNanchor_49'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_49'><sup>[49]</sup></a>
+&quot;has Nature imagined that a function so lofty, so worthy of the poetic and
+philosophical hymns which have celebrated it, only deserved to have its
+exclusive organ shared with that of the vilest corporal functions?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It may, however, be pointed out that this view of the matter, however
+unconsciously, is itself the outcome of the ascetic depreciation of the
+body. From a scientific point of view, the <a name='6_Page_121'></a>metabolic processes of the
+body from one end to the other, whether regarded chemically or
+psychologically, are all interwoven and all of equal dignity. We cannot
+separate out any particular chemical or biological process and declare:
+This is vile. Even what we call excrement still stores up the stuff of our
+lives. Eating has to some persons seemed a disgusting process. But yet it
+has been possible to say, with Thoreau, that &quot;the gods have really
+intended that men should feed divinely, as themselves, on their own nectar
+and ambrosia.... I have felt that eating became a sacrament, a method of
+communion, an ecstatic exercise, and a sitting at the communion table of
+the world.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The sacraments of Nature are in this way everywhere woven into the texture
+of men's and women's bodies. Lips good to kiss with are indeed first of
+all chiefly good to eat and drink with. So accumulated and overlapped have
+the centres of force become in the long course of development, that the
+mucous membranes of the natural orifices, through the sensitiveness gained
+in their own offices, all become agents to thrill the soul in the contact
+of love; it is idle to discriminate high or low, pure or impure; all alike
+are sanctified already by the extreme unction of Nature. The nose receives
+the breath of life; the vagina receives the water of life. Ultimately the
+worth and loveliness of life must be measured by the worth and loveliness
+for us of the instruments of life. The swelling breasts are such divinely
+gracious insignia of womanhood because of the potential child that hangs
+at them and sucks; the large curves of the hips are so voluptuous because
+of the potential child they clasp within them; there can be no division
+here, we cannot cut the roots from the tree. The supreme function of
+manhood&mdash;the handing on of the lamp of life to future races&mdash;is carried
+on, it is true, by the same instrument that is the daily conduit of the
+bladder. It has been said in scorn that we are born between urine and
+excrement; it may be said, in reverence, that the passage through this
+channel of birth is a sacrament of Nature's more sacred and significant
+than men could ever invent.</p>
+
+<p>These relationships have been sometimes perceived and their meaning
+realized by a sort of mystical intuition. We catch <a name='6_Page_122'></a>glimpses of such an
+insight now and again, first among the poets and later among the
+physicians of the Renaissance. In 1664 Rolfincius, in his <i>Ordo et Methods
+Generationi Partium etc.</i>, at the outset of the second Part devoted to the
+sexual organs of women, sets forth what ancient writers have said of the
+Eleusinian and other mysteries and the devotion and purity demanded of
+those who approached these sacred rites. It is so also with us, he
+continues, in the rites of scientific investigation. &quot;We also operate with
+sacred things. The organs of sex are to be held among sacred things. They
+who approach these altars must come with devout minds. Let the profane
+stand without, and the doors be closed.&quot; In those days, even for science,
+faith and intuition were alone possible. It is only of recent years that
+the histologist's microscope and the physiological chemist's test-tube
+have furnished them with a rational basis. It is no longer possible to cut
+Nature in two and assert that here she is pure and there impure.<a name='6_FNanchor_50'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_50'><sup>[50]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There thus appears to be no adequate ground for agreeing with
+    those who consider that the proximity of the generative and
+    excretory centres is &quot;a stupid bungle of Nature's.&quot; An
+    association which is so ancient and primitive in Nature can only
+    seem repulsive to those whose feelings have become morbidly
+    unnatural. It may further be remarked that the anus, which is the
+    more &aelig;sthetically unattractive of the excretory centres, is
+    comparatively remote from the sexual centre, and that, as R.
+    Hellmann remarked many years ago in discussing this question
+    (<i>Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit</i>, p. 82): &quot;In the first place,
+    freshly voided urine has nothing specially unpleasant about it,
+    and in the second place, even if it had, we might reflect that a
+    rosy mouth by no means loses its charm merely because it fails to
+    invite a kiss at the moment when its possessor is vomiting.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    A clergyman writes suggesting that we may go further and find a
+    positive advantage in this proximity: &quot;I am glad that you do not
+    agree with the man who considered that Nature had bungled by
+    using the genitals for urinary purposes; apart from teleological
+    or theological grounds I could not follow that line of reasoning.
+    I think there is no need for disgust concerning the urinary
+    organs, though I feel that the <a name='6_Page_123'></a>anus can never be attractive to
+    the normal mind; but the anus is quite separate from the
+    genitals. I would suggest that the proximity serves a good end in
+    making the organs more or less secret except at times of sexual
+    emotion or to those in love. The result is some degree of
+    repulsion at ordinary times and a strong attraction at times of
+    sexual activity. Hence, the ordinary guarding of the parts, from
+    fear of creating disgust, greatly increases their attractiveness
+    at other times when sexual emotion is paramount. Further, the
+    feeling of disgust itself is merely the result of habit and
+    sentiment, however useful it may be, and according to Scripture
+    everything is clean and good. The ascetic feeling of repulsion,
+    if we go back to origin, is due to other than Christian
+    influence. Christianity came out of Judaism which had no sense of
+    the impurity of marriage, for 'unclean' in the Old Testament
+    simply means 'sacred.' The ascetic side of the religion of
+    Christianity is no part of the religion of Christ as it came from
+    the hands of its Founder, and the modern feeling on this matter
+    is a lingering remnant of the heresy of the Manich&aelig;ans.&quot; I may
+    add, however, that, as Northcote points out (<i>Christianity and
+    Sex Problems</i>, p. 14), side by side in the Old Testament with the
+    frank recognition of sexuality, there is a circle of ideas
+    revealing the feeling of impurity in sex and of shame in
+    connection with it. Christianity inherited this mixed feeling. It
+    has really been a widespread and almost universal feeling among
+    the ancient and primitive peoples that there is something impure
+    and sinful in the things of sex, so that those who would lead a
+    religious life must avoid sexual relationships; even in India
+    celibacy has commanded respect (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Westermarck,
+    <i>Marriage</i>, pp. 150 <i>et seq.</i>). As to the original foundation of
+    this notion&mdash;which it is unnecessary to discuss more fully
+    here&mdash;many theories have been put forward; St. Augustine, in his
+    <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, sets forth the ingenious idea that the penis,
+    being liable to spontaneous movements and erections that are not
+    under the control of the will, is a shameful organ and involves
+    the whole sphere of sex in its shame. Westermarck argues that
+    among nearly all peoples there is a feeling against sexual
+    relationship with members of the same family or household, and as
+    sex was thus banished from the sphere of domestic life a notion
+    of its general impurity arose; Northcote points out that from the
+    first it has been necessary to seek concealment for sexual
+    intercourse, because at that moment the couple would be a prey to
+    hostile attacks, and that it was by an easy transition that sex
+    came to be regarded as a thing that ought to be concealed, and,
+    therefore, a sinful thing. (Diderot, in his <i>Suppl&eacute;ment au Voyage
+    de Bougainville</i>, had already referred to this motive for
+    seclusion as &quot;the only natural element in modesty.&quot;) Crawley has
+    devoted a large part of his suggestive work, <i>The Mystic Rose</i>,
+    to showing that, to savage man, sex is a perilous, dangerous, and
+    enfeebling element in life, and, therefore, sinful.</p></div><a name='6_Page_124'></a>
+
+<p>It would, however, be a mistake to think that such men as St. Bernard and
+St. Odo of Cluny, admirably as they represented the ascetic and even the
+general Christian views of their own time, are to be regarded as
+altogether typical exponents of the genuine and primitive Christian view.
+So far as I have been able to discover, during the first thousand years of
+Christianity we do not find this concentrated intellectual and emotional
+ferocity of attack on the body; it only developed at the moment when, with
+Pope Gregory VII, medi&aelig;val Christianity reached the climax of its conquest
+over the souls of European men, in the establishment of the celibacy of
+the secular clergy, and the growth of the great cloistered communities of
+monks in severely regulated and secluded orders.<a name='6_FNanchor_51'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_51'><sup>[51]</sup></a> Before that the
+teachers of asceticism were more concerned to exhort to chastity and
+modesty than to direct a deliberate and systematic attack on the whole
+body; they concentrated their attention rather on spiritual virtues than
+on physical imperfections. And if we go back to the Gospels we find little
+of the medi&aelig;val ascetic spirit in the reported sayings and doings of
+Jesus, which may rather indeed be said to reveal, on the whole,
+notwithstanding their underlying asceticism, a certain tenderness and
+indulgence to the body, while even Paul, though not tender towards the
+body, exhorts to reverence towards it as a temple of the Holy Spirit.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot expect to find the Fathers of the Church sympathetic towards the
+spectacle of the naked human body, for their position was based on a
+revolt against paganism, and paganism had cultivated the body. Nakedness
+had been more especially associated with the public bath, the gymnasium,
+and the theatre; in profoundly disapproving of these pagan institutions
+Christianity <a name='6_Page_125'></a>discouraged nakedness. The fact that familiarity with
+nakedness was favorable, rather than opposed, to the chastity to which it
+attached so much importance, the Church&mdash;though indeed at one moment it
+accepted nakedness in the rite of baptism&mdash;was for the most part unable to
+see if it was indeed a fact which the special conditions of decadent
+classic life had tended to disguise. But in their decided preference for
+the dressed over the naked human body the early Christians frequently
+hesitated to take the further step of asserting that the body is a focus
+of impurity and that the physical organs of sex are a device of the devil.
+On the contrary, indeed, some of the most distinguished of the Fathers,
+especially those of the Eastern Church who had felt the vivifying breath
+of Greek thought, occasionally expressed themselves on the subject of
+Nature, sex, and the body in a spirit which would have won the approval of
+Goethe or Whitman.</p>
+
+<p>Clement of Alexandria, with all the eccentricities of his over-subtle
+intellect, was yet the most genuinely Greek of all the Fathers, and it is
+not surprising that the dying ray of classic light reflected from his mind
+shed some illumination over this question of sex. He protested, for
+instance, against that prudery which, as the sun of the classic world set,
+had begun to overshadow life. &quot;We should not be ashamed to name,&quot; he
+declared, &quot;what God has not been ashamed to create.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_52'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_52'><sup>[52]</sup></a> It was a
+memorable declaration because, while it accepted the old classic feeling
+of no shame in the presence of nature, it put that feeling on a new and
+religious basis harmonious to Christianity. Throughout, though not always
+quite consistently, Clement defends the body and the functions of sex
+against those who treated them with contempt. And as the cause of sex is
+the cause of women he always strongly asserts the dignity of women, and
+also proclaims the holiness of marriage, a state which he sometimes places
+above that of virginity.<a name='6_FNanchor_53'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_53'><sup>[53]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, it must be said, St. Augustine&mdash;another<a name='6_Page_126'></a> North African, but
+of Roman Carthage and not of Greek Alexandria&mdash;thought that he had a
+convincing answer to the kind of argument which Clement presented, and so
+great was the force of his passionate and potent genius that he was able
+in the end to make his answer prevail. For Augustine sin was hereditary,
+and sin had its special seat and symbol in the sexual organs; the fact of
+sin has modified the original divine act of creation, and we cannot treat
+sex and its organs as though there had been no inherited sin. Our sexual
+organs, he declares, have become shameful because, through sin, they are
+now moved by lust. At the same time Augustine by no means takes up the
+medi&aelig;val ascetic position of contemptuous hatred towards the body. Nothing
+can be further from Odo of Cluny than Augustine's enthusiasm about the
+body, even about the exquisite harmony of the parts beneath the skin. &quot;I
+believe it may be concluded,&quot; he even says, &quot;that in the creation of the
+human body beauty was more regarded than necessity. In truth, necessity is
+a transitory thing, and the time is coming when we shall be able to enjoy
+one another's beauty without any lust.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_54'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_54'><sup>[54]</sup></a> Even in the sphere of sex he
+would be willing to admit purity and beauty, apart from the inherited
+influence of Adam's sin. In Paradise, he says, had Paradise continued, the
+act of generation would have been as simple and free from shame as the act
+of the hand in scattering seed on to the earth. &quot;Sexual conjugation would
+have been under the control of the will without any sexual desire. The
+semen would be injected into the vagina in as simple a manner as the
+menstrual fluid is now ejected. There would not have been any words which
+could be called obscene, but all that might be said of these members would
+have been as pure as what is said of the other parts of the body.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_55'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_55'><sup>[55]</sup></a>
+That, however, for Augustine, is what <a name='6_Page_127'></a>might have been in Paradise where,
+as he believed, sexual desire had no existence. As things are, he held, we
+are right to be ashamed, we do well to blush. And it was natural that, as
+Clement of Alexandria mentions, many heretics should have gone further on
+this road and believed that while God made man down to the navel, the rest
+was made by another power; such heretics have their descendants among us
+even to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Alike in the Eastern and Western Churches, however, both before and after
+Augustine, though not so often after, great Fathers and teachers have
+uttered opinions which recall those of Clement rather than of Augustine.
+We cannot lay very much weight on the utterance of the extravagant and
+often contradictory Tertullian, but it is worth noting that, while he
+declared that woman is the gate of hell, he also said that we must
+approach Nature with reverence and not with blushes. &quot;Natura veneranda
+est, non erubescenda.&quot; &quot;No Christian author,&quot; it has indeed been said,
+&quot;has so energetically spoken against the heretical contempt of the body as
+Tertullian. Soul and body, according to Tertullian, are in the closest
+association. The soul is the life-principle of the body, but there is no
+activity of the soul which is not manifested and conditioned by the
+flesh.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_56'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_56'><sup>[56]</sup></a> More weight attaches to Rufinus Tyrannius, the friend and
+fellow-student of St. Jerome, in the fourth century, who wrote a
+commentary on the Apostles' Creed, which was greatly esteemed by the early
+and medi&aelig;val Church, and is indeed still valued even to-day. Here, in
+answer to those who declared that there was obscenity in the fact of
+Christ's birth through the sexual organs of a woman, Rufinus replies that
+God created the sexual organs, and that &quot;it is not Nature but merely human
+opinion which teaches that these parts are obscene. For the rest, all the
+parts of the body are made from the same clay, whatever differences there
+may be in their uses and functions.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_57'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_57'><sup>[57]</sup></a> He looks at the matter, we see,
+piously <a name='6_Page_128'></a>indeed, but naturally and simply, like Clement, and not, like
+Augustine, through the distorting medium of a theological system.
+Athanasius, in the Eastern Church, spoke in the same sense as Rufinus in
+the Western Church. A certain monk named Amun had been much grieved by the
+occurrence of seminal emissions during sleep, and he wrote to Athanasius
+to inquire if such emissions are a sin. In the letter he wrote in reply,
+Athanasius seeks to reassure Amun. &quot;All things,&quot; he tells him, &quot;are pure
+to the pure. For what, I ask, dear and pious friend, can there be sinful
+or naturally impure in excrement? Man is the handwork of God. There is
+certainly nothing in us that is impure.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_58'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_58'><sup>[58]</sup></a> We feel as we read these
+utterances that the seeds of prudery and pruriency are already alive in
+the popular mind, but yet we see also that some of the most distinguished
+thinkers of the early Christian Church, in striking contrast to the more
+morbid and narrow-minded medi&aelig;val ascetics, clearly stood aside from the
+popular movement. On the whole, they were submerged because Christianity,
+like Buddhism, had in it from the first a germ that lent itself to ascetic
+renunciation, and the sexual life is always the first impulse to be
+sacrificed to the passion for renunciation. But there were other germs
+also in Christianity, and Luther, who in his own plebeian way asserted the
+rights of the body, although he broke with medi&aelig;val asceticism, by no
+means thereby cast himself off from the traditions of the early Christian
+Church.</p>
+
+<p>I have thought it worth while to bring forward this evidence, although I
+am perfectly well aware that the facts of Nature gain no additional
+support from the authority of the Fathers or even of the Bible. Nature and
+humanity existed before the Bible and would continue to exist although the
+Bible should be forgotten. But the attitude of Christianity on this point
+has so often been unreservedly condemned that it seems as well to point
+out that at its finest moments, when it was a young and growing power in
+the world, the utterances of Christianity were often at one with those of
+Nature and reason. There are many, it may be added, who find it a matter
+of consolation that in following the natural <a name='6_Page_129'></a>and rational path in this
+matter they are not thereby altogether breaking with the religious
+traditions of their race.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is scarcely necessary to remark that when we turn from
+    Christianity to the other great world-religions, we do not
+    usually meet with so ambiguous an attitude towards sex. The
+    Mahommedans were as emphatic in asserting the sanctity of sex as
+    they were in asserting physical cleanliness; they were prepared
+    to carry the functions of sex into the future life, and were
+    never worried, as Luther and so many other Christians have been,
+    concerning the lack of occupation in Heaven. In India, although
+    India is the home of the most extreme forms of religious
+    asceticism, sexual love has been sanctified and divinized to a
+    greater extent than in any other part of the world. &quot;It seems
+    never to have entered into the heads of the Hindu legislators,&quot;
+    said Sir William Jones long since (<i>Works</i>, vol. ii, p. 311),
+    &quot;that anything natural could be offensively obscene, a
+    singularity which pervades all their writings, but is no proof of
+    the depravity of their morals.&quot; The sexual act has often had a
+    religious significance in India, and the minutest details of the
+    sexual life and its variations are discussed in Indian erotic
+    treatises in a spirit of gravity, while nowhere else have the
+    anatomical and physiological sexual characters of women been
+    studied with such minute and adoring reverence. &quot;Love in India,
+    both as regards theory and practice,&quot; remarks Richard Schmidt
+    (<i>Beitr&auml;ge zur Indischen Erotik</i>, p. 2) &quot;possesses an importance
+    which it is impossible for us even to conceive.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>In Protestant countries the influence of the Reformation, by
+rehabilitating sex as natural, indirectly tended to substitute in popular
+feeling towards sex the opprobrium of sinfulness by the opprobrium of
+animality. Henceforth the sexual impulse must be disguised or adorned to
+become respectably human. This may be illustrated by a passage in Pepys's
+<i>Diary</i> in the seventeenth century. On the morning after the wedding day
+it was customary to call up new married couples by music; the absence of
+this music on one occasion (in 1667) seemed to Pepys &quot;as if they had
+married like dog and bitch.&quot; We no longer insist on the music, but the
+same feeling still exists in the craving for other disguises and
+adornments for the sexual impulse. We do not always realize that love
+brings its own sanctity with it.</p>
+
+<p>Nowadays indeed, whenever the repugnance to the sexual side of life
+manifests itself, the assertion nearly always made is <a name='6_Page_130'></a>not so much that it
+is &quot;sinful&quot; as that it is &quot;beastly.&quot; It is regarded as that part of man
+which most closely allies him to the lower animals. It should scarcely be
+necessary to point out that this is a mistake. On whichever side, indeed,
+we approach it, the implication that sex in man and animals is identical
+cannot be borne out. From the point of view of those who accept this
+identity it would be much more correct to say that men are inferior,
+rather than on a level with animals, for in animals under natural
+conditions the sexual instinct is strictly subordinated to reproduction
+and very little susceptible to deviation, so that from the standpoint of
+those who wish to minimize sex, animals are nearer to the ideal, and such
+persons must say with Woods Hutchinson: &quot;Take it altogether, our animal
+ancestors have quite as good reason to be ashamed of us as we of them.&quot;
+But if we look at the matter from a wider biological standpoint of
+development, our conclusion must be very different.</p>
+
+<p>So far from being animal-like, the human impulses of sex are among the
+least animal-like acquisitions of man. The human sphere of sex differs
+from the animal sphere of sex to a singularly great extent.<a name='6_FNanchor_59'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_59'><sup>[59]</sup></a> Breathing
+is an animal function and here we cannot compete with birds; locomotion is
+an animal function and here we cannot equal quadrupeds; we have made no
+notable advance in our circulatory, digestive, renal, or hepatic
+functions. Even as regards vision and hearing, there are many animals that
+are more keen-sighted than man, and many that are capable of hearing
+sounds that to him are inaudible. But there are no animals in whom the
+sexual instinct is so sensitive, so highly developed, so varied in its
+manifestations, so constantly alert, so capable of irradiating the highest
+and remotest parts of the organism. The sexual activities of man and woman
+belong not to that lower part of our nature which degrades us to the level
+of the &quot;brute,&quot; but to the higher part which raises us towards all the
+finest activities and ideals we are capable of. It is true that it is
+chiefly in the mouths of a few ignorant and ill-bred women <a name='6_Page_131'></a>that we find
+sex referred to as &quot;bestial&quot; or &quot;the animal part of our nature.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_60'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_60'><sup>[60]</sup></a> But
+since women are the mothers and teachers of the human race this is a piece
+of ignorance and ill-breeding which cannot be too swiftly eradicated.</p>
+
+<p>There are some who seem to think that they have held the balance evenly,
+and finally stated the matter, if they admit that sexual love may be
+either beautiful or disgusting, and that either view is equally normal and
+legitimate. &quot;Listen in turn,&quot; Tarde remarks, &quot;to two men who, one cold,
+the other ardent, one chaste, the other in love, both equally educated and
+large-minded, are estimating the same thing: one judges as disgusting,
+odious, revolting, and bestial what the other judges to be delicious,
+exquisite, ineffable, divine. What, for one, is in Christian phraseology,
+an unforgivable sin, is, for the other, the state of true grace. Acts that
+for one seem a sad and occasional necessity, stains that must be carefully
+effaced by long intervals of continence, are for the other the golden
+nails from which all the rest of conduct and existence is suspended, the
+things that alone give human life its value.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_61'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_61'><sup>[61]</sup></a> Yet we may well doubt
+whether both these persons are &quot;equally well-educated and broad-minded.&quot;
+The savage feels that sex is perilous, and he is right. But the person who
+feels that the sexual impulse is bad, or even low and vulgar, is an
+absurdity in the universe, an anomaly. He is like those persons in our
+insane asylums, who feel that the instinct of nutrition is evil and so
+proceed to starve themselves. They are alike spiritual outcasts in the
+universe whose children they are. It is another matter when a man declares
+that, personally, in his own case, he cherishes an ascetic ideal which
+leads him to restrain, so far as possible, either or both impulses. The
+man, who is sanely ascetic seeks a discipline which aids the ideal he has
+personally set before himself. He may still remain theoretically in
+harmony with the universe to which he belongs. But to <a name='6_Page_132'></a>pour contempt on
+the sexual life, to throw the veil of &quot;impurity&quot; over it, is, as Nietzsche
+declared, the unpardonable sin against the Holy Ghost of Life.</p>
+
+<p>There are many who seek to conciliate prejudice and reason in their
+valuation of sex by drawing a sharp distinction between &quot;lust&quot; and &quot;love,&quot;
+rejecting the one and accepting the other. It is quite proper to make such
+a distinction, but the manner in which it is made will by no means usually
+bear examination. We have to define what we mean by &quot;lust&quot; and what we
+mean by &quot;love,&quot; and this is not easy if they are regarded as mutually
+exclusive. It is sometimes said that &quot;lust&quot; must be understood as meaning
+a reckless indulgence of the sexual impulse without regard to other
+considerations. So understood, we are quite safe in rejecting it. But that
+is an entirely arbitrary definition of the word. &quot;Lust&quot; is really a very
+ambiguous term; it is a good word that has changed its moral values, and
+therefore we need to define it very carefully before we venture to use it.
+Properly speaking, &quot;lust&quot; is an entirely colorless word<a name='6_FNanchor_62'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_62'><sup>[62]</sup></a> and merely
+means desire in general and sexual desire in particular; it corresponds to
+&quot;hunger&quot; or &quot;thirst&quot;; to use it in an offensive sense is much the same as
+though we should always assume that the word &quot;hungry&quot; had the offensive
+meaning of &quot;greedy.&quot; The result has been that sensitive minds indignantly
+reject the term &quot;lust&quot; in connection with love.<a name='6_FNanchor_63'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_63'><sup>[63]</sup></a> In the early use of
+our language, &quot;lust,&quot; &quot;lusty,&quot; and &quot;lustful&quot; conveyed the sense of
+wholesome and normal sexual vigor; now, with the partial exception of
+&quot;lusty,&quot; they have been so completely degraded to a lower sense that
+although it would be very convenient to restore them to their <a name='6_Page_133'></a>original
+and proper place, which still remains vacant, the attempt at such a
+restoration scarcely seems a hopeful task. We have so deeply poisoned the
+springs of feeling in these matters with medi&aelig;val ascetic crudities that
+all our words of sex tend soon to become bespattered with filth; we may
+pick them up from the mud into which they have fallen and seek to purify
+them, but to many eyes they will still seem dirty. One result of this
+tendency is that we have no simple, precise, natural word for the love of
+the sexes, and are compelled to fall back on the general term, which is so
+extensive in its range that in English and French and most of the other
+leading languages of Europe, it is equally correct to &quot;love&quot; God or to
+&quot;love&quot; eating.</p>
+
+<p>Love, in the sexual sense, is, summarily considered, a synthesis of lust
+(in the primitive and uncolored sense of sexual emotion) and friendship.
+It is incorrect to apply the term &quot;love&quot; in the sexual sense to elementary
+and uncomplicated sexual desire; it is equally incorrect to apply it to
+any variety or combination of varieties of friendship. There can be no
+sexual love without lust; but, on the other hand, until the currents of
+lust in the organism have been so irradiated as to affect other parts of
+the psychic organism&mdash;at the least the affections and the social
+feelings&mdash;it is not yet sexual love. Lust, the specific sexual impulse, is
+indeed the primary and essential element in this synthesis, for it alone
+is adequate to the end of reproduction, not only in animals but in men.
+But it is not until lust is expanded and irradiated that it develops into
+the exquisite and enthralling flower of love. We may call to mind what
+happens among plants: on the one hand we have the lower organisms in which
+sex is carried on summarily and cryptogamically, never shedding any shower
+of gorgeous blossoms on the world, and on the other hand the higher plants
+among whom sex has become phanersgamous and expanded enormously into form
+and color and fragrance.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>While &quot;lust&quot; is, of course, known all over the world, and there
+    are everywhere words to designate it, &quot;love&quot; is not universally
+    known, and in many languages there are no words for &quot;love.&quot; The
+    failures to find love are often remarkable and unexpected. We may
+    find it where we <a name='6_Page_134'></a>least expect it. Sexual desire became idealized
+    (as Sergi has pointed out) even by some animals, especially
+    birds, for when a bird pines to death for the loss of its mate
+    this cannot be due to the uncomplicated instinct of sex, but must
+    involve the interweaving of that instinct with the other elements
+    of life to a degree which is rare even among the most civilized
+    men. Some savage races seem to have no fundamental notion of
+    love, and (like the American Nahuas) no primary word for it,
+    while, on the other hand, in Quichua, the language of the ancient
+    Peruvians, there are nearly six hundred combinations of the verb
+    <i>munay</i>, to love. Among some peoples love seems to be confined to
+    the women. Letourneau (<i>L'Evolution Litt&eacute;raire</i>, p. 529) points
+    out that in various parts of the world women have taken a leading
+    part in creating erotic poetry. It may be mentioned in this
+    connection that suicide from erotic motives among primitive
+    peoples occurs chiefly among women (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+    Sozialwissenschaft</i>, 1899, p. 578). Not a few savages possess
+    love-poems, as, for instance, the Suahali (Velten, in his <i>Prosa
+    und Poesie der Suahali</i>, devotes a section to love-poems
+    reproduced in the Suahali language). D. G. Brinton, in an
+    interesting paper on &quot;The Conception of Love in Some American
+    Languages&quot; (<i>Proceedings American Philosophical Society</i>, vol.
+    xxiii, p. 546, 1886) states that the words for love in these
+    languages reveal four main ways of expressing the conception: (1)
+    inarticulate cries of emotion; (2) assertions of sameness or
+    similarity; (3) assertions of conjunction or union; (4)
+    assertions of a wish, desire, a longing. Brinton adds that &quot;these
+    same notions are those which underlie the majority of the words
+    of love in the great Aryan family of languages.&quot; The remarkable
+    fact emerges, however, that the peoples of Aryan tongue were slow
+    in developing their conception of sexual love. Brinton remarks
+    that the American Mayas must be placed above the peoples of early
+    Aryan culture, in that they possessed a radical word for the joy
+    of love which was in significance purely psychical, referring
+    strictly to a mental state, and neither to similarity nor desire.
+    Even the Greeks were late in developing any ideal of sexual love.
+    This has been well brought out by E. F. M. Benecke in his
+    <i>Antimachus of Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek
+    Poetry</i>, a book which contains some hazardous assertions, but is
+    highly instructive from the present point of view. The Greek
+    lyric poets wrote practically no love poems at all to women
+    before Anacreon, and his were only written in old age. True love
+    for the Greeks was nearly always homosexual. The Ionian lyric
+    poets of early Greece regarded woman as only an instrument of
+    pleasure and the founder of the family. Theognis compares
+    marriage to cattle-breeding; Alcman, when he wishes to be
+    complimentary to the Spartan girls, speaks of them as his &quot;female
+    boy-friends.&quot; &AElig;schylus makes even a father assume that his
+    daughters will misbehave if left to themselves. There is no
+    sexual love in Sophocles, <a name='6_Page_135'></a>and in Euripides it is only the women
+    who fall in love. Benecke concludes (p. 67) that in Greece sexual
+    love, down to a comparatively later period, was looked down on,
+    and held to be unworthy of public discussion and representation.
+    It was in Magna Gr&aelig;cia rather than in Greece itself that men took
+    interest in women, and it was not until the Alexandrian period,
+    and notably in Asclepiades, Benecke maintains, that the love of
+    women was regarded as a matter of life and death. Thereafter the
+    conception of sexual love, in its romantic aspects, appears in
+    European life. With the Celtic story of Tristram, as Gaston Paris
+    remarks, it finally appears in the Christian European world of
+    poetry as the chief point in human life, the great motive force
+    of conduct.</p>
+
+<p>    Romantic love failed, however, to penetrate the masses in Europe.
+    In the sixteenth century, or whenever it was that the ballad of
+    &quot;Glasgerion&quot; was written, we see it is assumed that a churl's
+    relation to his mistress is confined to the mere act of sexual
+    intercourse; he fails to kiss her on arriving or departing; it is
+    only the knight, the man of upper class, who would think of
+    offering that tender civility. And at the present day in, for
+    instance, the region between East Friesland and the Alps, Bloch
+    states (<i>Sexualleben unserer Zeit</i>, p. 29), following E. H. Meyer,
+    that the word &quot;love&quot; is unknown among the masses, and only its
+    coarse counterpart recognized.</p>
+
+<p>    On the other side of the world, in Japan, sexual love seems to be
+    in as great disrepute as it was in ancient Greece; thus Miss
+    Tsuda, a Japanese head-mistress, and herself a Christian, remarks
+    (as quoted by Mrs. Eraser in <i>World's Work and Play</i>, Dec.,
+    1906): &quot;That word 'love' has been hitherto a word unknown among
+    our girls, in the foreign sense. Duty, submission,
+    kindness&mdash;these were the sentiments which a girl was expected to
+    bring to the husband who had been chosen for her&mdash;and many happy,
+    harmonious marriages were the result. Now, your dear sentimental
+    foreign women say to our girls: 'It is wicked to marry without
+    love; the obedience to parents in such a case is an outrage
+    against nature and Christianity. If you love a man you must
+    sacrifice everything to marry him.'&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    When, however, love is fully developed it becomes an enormously
+    extended, highly complex emotion, and lust, even in the best
+    sense of that word, becomes merely a co&ouml;rdinated element among
+    many other elements. Herbert Spencer, in an interesting passage
+    of his <i>Principles of Psychology</i> (Part IV, Ch. VIII), has
+    analyzed love into as many as nine distinct and important
+    elements: (1) the physical impulse of sex; (2) the feeling for
+    beauty; (3) affection; (4) admiration and respect; (5) love of
+    approbation; (6) self-esteem; (7) proprietary feeling; (8)
+    extended liberty of action from the absence of personal barriers;
+    (9) exaltation of the sympathies. &quot;This passion,&quot; he concludes,
+    &quot;fuses into one immense aggregate most of the elementary
+    excitations of which we are capable.&quot;</p></div><a name='6_Page_136'></a>
+
+<p>It is scarcely necessary to say that to define sexual love, or even to
+analyze its components, is by no means to explain its mystery. We seek to
+satisfy our intelligence by means of a coherent picture of love, but the
+gulf between that picture and the emotional reality must always be
+incommensurable and impassable. &quot;There is no word more often pronounced
+than that of love,&quot; wrote Bonstetten many years ago, &quot;yet there is no
+subject more mysterious. Of that which touches us most nearly we know
+least. We measure the march of the stars and we do not know how we love.&quot;
+And however expert we have become in detecting and analyzing the causes,
+the concomitants, and the results of love, we must still make the same
+confession to-day. We may, as some have done, attempt to explain love as a
+form of hunger and thirst, or as a force analogous to electricity, or as a
+kind of magnetism, or as a variety of chemical affinity, or as a vital
+tropism, but these explanations are nothing more than ways of expressing
+to ourselves the magnitude of the phenomenon we are in the presence of.</p>
+
+<p>What has always baffled men in the contemplation of sexual love is the
+seeming inadequacy of its cause, the immense discrepancy between the
+necessarily circumscribed region of mucous membrane which is the final
+goal of such love and the sea of world-embracing emotions to which it
+seems as the door, so that, as Remy de Gourmont has said, &quot;the mucous
+membranes, by an ineffable mystery, enclose in their obscure folds all the
+riches of the infinite.&quot; It is a mystery before which the thinker and the
+artist are alike overcome. Donnay, in his play <i>L'Escalade</i>, makes a cold
+and stern man of science, who regards love as a mere mental disorder which
+can be cured like other disorders, at last fall desperately in love
+himself. He forces his way into the girl's room, by a ladder, at dead of
+night, and breaks into a long and passionate speech: &quot;Everything that
+touches you becomes to me mysterious and sacred. Ah! to think that a thing
+so well known as a woman's body, which sculptors have modelled, which
+poets have sung of, which men of science like myself have dissected, that
+such a thing should suddenly become an unknown mystery and an infinite joy
+merely because it is the body of one <a name='6_Page_137'></a>particular woman&mdash;what insanity! And
+yet that is what I feel.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_64'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_64'><sup>[64]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>That love is a natural insanity, a temporary delusion which the individual
+is compelled to suffer for the sake of the race, is indeed an explanation
+that has suggested itself to many who have been baffled by this mystery.
+That, as we know, was the explanation offered by Schopenhauer. When a
+youth and a girl fall into each other's arms in the ecstacy of love they
+imagine that they are seeking their own happiness. But it is not so, said
+Schopenhauer; they are deluded by the genius of the race into the belief
+that they are seeking a personal end in order that they may be induced to
+effect a far greater impersonal end: the creation of the future race. The
+intensity of their passion is not the measure of the personal happiness
+they will secure but the measure of their aptitude for producing
+offspring. In accepting passion and renouncing the counsels of cautious
+prudence the youth and the girl are really sacrificing their chances of
+selfish happiness and fulfilling the larger ends of Nature. As
+Schopenhauer saw the matter, there was here no vulgar illusion. The lovers
+thought that they were reaching towards a boundlessly immense personal
+happiness; they were probably deceived. But they were deceived not because
+the reality was less than their imagination, but because it was more;
+instead of pursuing, as they thought, a merely personal end they were
+carrying on the creative work of the world, a task better left undone, as
+Schopenhauer viewed it, but a task whose magnitude he fully
+recognized.<a name='6_FNanchor_65'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_65'><sup>[65]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that in the lower sense of deception, love may be,
+and frequently is, a delusion. A man may deceive himself, or be deceived
+by the object of his attraction, concerning <a name='6_Page_138'></a>the qualities that she
+possesses or fails to possess. In first love, occurring in youth, such
+deception is perhaps entirely normal, and in certain suggestible and
+inflammable types of people it is peculiarly apt to occur. This kind of
+deception, although far more frequent and conspicuous in matters of
+love&mdash;and more serious because of the tightness of the marriage bond&mdash;is
+liable to occur in any relation of life. For most people, however, and
+those not the least sane or the least wise, the memory of the exaltation
+of love, even when the period of that exaltation is over, still remains
+as, at the least, the memory of one of the most real and essential facts
+of life.<a name='6_FNanchor_66'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_66'><sup>[66]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Some writers seem to confuse the liability in matters of love to
+    deception or disappointment with the larger question of a
+    metaphysical illusion in Schopenhauer's sense. To some extent
+    this confusion perhaps exists in the discussion of love by
+    Renouvier and Prat in <i>La Nouvelle Monadologie</i> (pp. 216 <i>et
+    seq.</i>). In considering whether love is or is not a delusion, they
+    answer that it is or is not according as we are, or are not,
+    dominated by selfishness and injustice. &quot;It was not an essential
+    error which presided over the creation of the <i>idol</i>, for the
+    idol is only what in all things the <i>ideal</i> is. But to realize
+    the ideal in love two persons are needed, and therein is the
+    great difficulty. We are never justified,&quot; they conclude, &quot;in
+    casting contempt on our love, or even on its object, for if it is
+    true that we have not gained possession of the sovereign beauty
+    of the world it is equally true that we have not attained a
+    degree of perfection that would have entitled us justly to claim
+    so great a prize.&quot; And perhaps most of us, it may be added, must
+    admit in the end, if we are honest with ourselves, that the
+    prizes of love we have gained in the world, whatever their flaws,
+    are far greater than we deserved.</p></div>
+
+<p>We may well agree that in a certain sense not love alone but all the
+passions and desires of men are illusions. In that sense <a name='6_Page_139'></a>the Gospel of
+Buddha is justified, and we may recognize the inspiration of Shakespeare
+(in the <i>Tempest</i>) and of Calderon (in <i>La Vida es Sue&ntilde;o</i>), who felt that
+ultimately the whole world is an insubstantial dream. But short of that
+large and ultimate vision we cannot accept illusion; we cannot admit that
+love is a delusion in some special and peculiar sense that men's other
+cravings and aspirations escape. On the contrary, it is the most solid of
+realities. All the progressive forms of life are built up on the
+attraction of sex. If we admit the action of sexual selection&mdash;as we can
+scarcely fail to do if we purge it from its unessential
+accretions<a name='6_FNanchor_67'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_67'><sup>[67]</sup></a>&mdash;love has moulded the precise shape and color, the
+essential beauty, alike of animal and human life.</p>
+
+<p>If we further reflect that, as many investigators believe, not only the
+physical structure of life but also its spiritual structure&mdash;our social
+feelings, our morality, our religion, our poetry and art&mdash;are, in some
+degree at least, also built up on the impulse of sex, and would have been,
+if not non-existent, certainly altogether different had other than sexual
+methods of propagation prevailed in the world, we may easily realize that
+we can only fall into confusion by dismissing love as a delusion. The
+whole edifice of life topples down, for as the idealist Schiller long
+since said, it is entirely built up on hunger and on love. To look upon
+love as in any special sense a delusion is merely to fall into the trap of
+a shallow cynicism. Love is only a delusion in so far as the whole of life
+is a delusion, and if we accept the fact of life it is unphilosophical to
+refuse to accept the fact of love.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is unnecessary here to magnify the functions of love in the
+    world; it is sufficient to investigate its workings in its own
+    proper sphere. It may, however, be worth while to quote a few
+    expressions of thinkers, belonging to various schools, who have
+    pointed out what seemed to them the far-ranging significance of
+    the sexual emotions for the moral life. &quot;The passions are the
+    heavenly fire which gives life to the moral world,&quot; wrote
+    Helv&eacute;tius long since in <i>De l'Esprit</i>. &quot;The activity of the mind
+    depends on the activity of the passions, and it is at the period
+    of the passions, from the age of twenty-five to thirty-five <a name='6_Page_140'></a>or
+    forty that men are capable of the greatest efforts of virtue or
+    of genius.&quot; &quot;What touches sex,&quot; wrote Zola, &quot;touches the centre
+    of social life.&quot; Even our regard for the praise and blame of
+    others has a sexual origin, Professor Thomas argues
+    (<i>Psychological Review</i>, Jan., 1904, pp. 61-67), and it is love
+    which is the source of susceptibility generally and of the
+    altruistic side of life. &quot;The appearance of sex,&quot; Professor Woods
+    Hutchinson attempts to show (&quot;Love as a Factor in Evolution,&quot;
+    <i>Monist</i>, 1898), &quot;the development of maleness and femaleness, was
+    not only the birthplace of affection, the well-spring of all
+    morality, but an enormous economic advantage to the race and an
+    absolute necessity of progress. In it first we find any conscious
+    longing for or active impulse toward a fellow creature.&quot; &quot;Were
+    man robbed of the instinct of procreation, and of all that
+    spiritually springs therefrom,&quot; exclaimed Maudsley in his
+    <i>Physiology of Mind</i>, &quot;that moment would all poetry, and perhaps
+    also his whole moral sense, be obliterated from his life.&quot; &quot;One
+    seems to oneself transfigured, stronger, richer, more complete;
+    one <i>is</i> more complete,&quot; says Nietzsche (<i>Der Wille zur Macht</i>,
+    p. 389), &quot;we find here art as an organic function: we find it
+    inlaid in the most angelic instinct of 'love:' we find it as the
+    greatest stimulant of life.... It is not merely that it changes
+    the feeling of values: the lover <i>is</i> worth more, is stronger. In
+    animals this condition produces new weapons, pigments, colors,
+    and forms, above all new movements, new rhythms, a new seductive
+    music. It is not otherwise in man.... Even in art the door is
+    opened to him. If we subtract from lyrical work in words and
+    sounds the suggestions of that intestinal fever, what is left
+    over in poetry and music? <i>L'Art pour l'art</i> perhaps, the
+    quacking virtuosity of cold frogs who perish in their marsh. All
+    the rest is created by love.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It would be easy to multiply citations tending to show how many
+    diverse thinkers have come to the conclusion that sexual love
+    (including therewith parental and especially maternal love) is
+    the source of the chief manifestations of life. How far they are
+    justified in that conclusion, it is not our business now to
+    inquire.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly true that, as we have seen when discussing the erratic
+and imperfect distribution of the conception of love, and even of words
+for love, over the world, by no means all people are equally apt for
+experiencing, even at any time in their lives, the emotions of sexual
+exaltation. The difference between the knight and the churl still
+subsists, and both may sometimes be found in all social strata. Even the
+refinements of sexual enjoyment, it is unnecessary to insist, quite
+commonly remain on <a name='6_Page_141'></a>a merely physical basis, and have little effect on the
+intellectual and emotional nature.<a name='6_FNanchor_68'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_68'><sup>[68]</sup></a> But this is not the case with the
+people who have most powerfully influenced the course of the world's
+thought and feeling. The personal reality of love, its importance for the
+individual life, are facts that have been testified to by some of the
+greatest thinkers, after lives devoted to the attainment of intellectual
+labor. The experience of Renan, who toward the end of his life set down in
+his remarkable drama <i>L'Abbesse de Jouarre</i>, his conviction that, even
+from the point of view of chastity, love is, after all, the supreme thing
+in the world, is far from standing alone. &quot;Love has always appeared as an
+inferior mode of human music, ambition as the superior mode,&quot; wrote Tarde,
+the distinguished sociologist, at the end of his life. &quot;But will it always
+be thus? Are there not reasons for thinking that the future perhaps
+reserves for us the ineffable surprise of an inversion of that secular
+order?&quot; Laplace, half an hour before his death, took up a volume of his
+own <i>M&eacute;canique Celeste</i>, and said: &quot;All that is only trifles, there is
+nothing true but love.&quot; Comte, who had spent his life in building up a
+Positive Philosophy which should be absolutely real, found (as indeed it
+may be said the great English Positivist Mill also found) the culmination
+of all his ideals in a woman, who was, he said, Egeria and Beatrice and
+Laura in one, and he wrote: &quot;There is nothing real in the world but love.
+One grows tired of thinking, and even of acting; one never grows tired of
+loving, nor of saying so. In the worst tortures of affection I have never
+ceased to feel that the essential of happiness is that the heart should be
+worthily filled&mdash;even with pain, yes, even with pain, the bitterest pain.&quot;
+And Sophie Kowalewsky, after intellectual achievements which have placed
+her among the most distinguished of her sex, pathetically wrote: &quot;Why can
+no one love me? I could give more than most women, and yet the most
+insignificant women are loved and I am not.&quot; Love, they all seem to say,
+is <a name='6_Page_142'></a>the one thing that is supremely worth while. The greatest and most
+brilliant of the world's intellectual giants, in their moments of final
+insight, thus reach the habitual level of the humble and almost anonymous
+persons, cloistered from the world, who wrote <i>The Imitation of Christ</i> or
+<i>The Letters of a Portuguese Nun</i>. And how many others!</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_45'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_45'>[45]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Meditationes Piissim&aelig; de Cognitione Human&aelig; Conditionis</i>,
+Migne's <i>Patrologia</i>, vol. clxxiv, p. 489, cap. III, &quot;De Dignitate Anim&aelig;
+et Vilitate Corporis.&quot; It may be worth while to quote more at length the
+vigorous language of the original. &quot;Si diligenter consideres quid per os
+et nares c&aelig;terosque corporis meatus egrediatur, vilius sterquilinum
+numquam vidisti.... Attende, homo, quid fuisti ante ortum, et quid es ab
+ortu usque ad occasum, atque quid eris post hanc vitam. Profecto fuit
+quand non eras: postea de vili materia factus, et vilissimo panno
+involutus, menstruali sanguine in utero materno fuisti nutritus, et tunica
+tua fuit pellis secundina. Nihil aliud est homo quam sperma fetidum,
+saccus stercorum, cibus vermium.... Quid superbis, pulvis et cinis, cujus
+conceptus cula, nasci miseria, vivere p&oelig;na, mori angustia?&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_46'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_46'>[46]</a><div class='note'><p> See (in Mignes' edition) <i>S. Odonis abbatis Cluniacensis
+Collationes</i>, lib. ii, cap. IX.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_47'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_47'>[47]</a><div class='note'><p> D&uuml;hren (<i>Neue Forshungen &uuml;ber die Marquis de Sade</i>, pp. 432
+<i>et seq.</i>) shows how the ascetic view of woman's body persisted, for
+instance, in Schopenhauer and De Sade.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_48'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_48'>[48]</a><div class='note'><p> In &quot;The Evolution of Modesty,&quot; in the first volume of these
+<i>Studies</i>, and again in the fifth volume in discussing urolagnia in the
+study of &quot;Erotic Symbolism,&quot; the mutual reactions of the sexual and
+excretory centres were fully dealt with.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_49'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_49'>[49]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;La Morale Sexuelle,&quot; <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>,
+Jan., 1907.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_50'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_50'>[50]</a><div class='note'><p> The above passage, now slightly modified, originally formed
+an unpublished part of an essay on Walt Whitman in <i>The New Spirit</i>, first
+issued in 1889.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_51'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_51'>[51]</a><div class='note'><p> Even in the ninth century, however, when the monastic
+movement was rapidly developing, there were some who withstood the
+tendencies of the new ascetics. Thus, in 850, Ratramnus, the monk of
+Corbie, wrote a treatise (<i>Liber de eo quod Christus ex Virgine natus
+est</i>) to prove that Mary really gave birth to Jesus through her sexual
+organs, and not, as some high-strung persons were beginning to think could
+alone be possible, through the more conventionally decent breasts. The
+sexual organs were sanctified. &quot;Spiritus sanctus ... et thalamum tanto
+dignum sponso sanctificavit et portam&quot; (Achery, <i>Spicilegium</i>, vol. i, p.
+55).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_52'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_52'>[52]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>P&aelig;dagogus</i>, lib. ii, cap. X. Elsewhere (<i>id.</i>, lib. ii, Ch.
+VI) he makes a more detailed statement to the same effect.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_53'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_53'>[53]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Wilhelm Capitaine, <i>Die Moral des Clemens von
+Alexandrien</i>, pp. 112 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_54'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_54'>[54]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, lib. xxii, cap. XXIV. &quot;There is no need,&quot;
+he says again (<i>id.</i>, lib. xiv, cap. V) &quot;that in our sins and vices we
+accuse the nature of the flesh to the injury of the Creator, for in its
+own kind and degree the flesh is good.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_55'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_55'>[55]</a><div class='note'><p> St. Augustine, <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, lib. xiv, cap. XXIII-XXVI.
+Chrysostom and Gregory, of Nyssa, thought that in Paradise human beings
+would have multiplied by special creation, but such is not the accepted
+Catholic doctrine.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_56'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_56'>[56]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Capitaine, <i>Die Moral des Clemens von Alexandrien</i>, pp.
+112 <i>et seq.</i> Without the body, Tertullian declared, there could be no
+virginity and no salvation. The soul itself is corporeal. He carries,
+indeed, his idea of the omnipresence of the body to the absurd.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_57'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_57'>[57]</a><div class='note'><p> Rufinus, <i>Commentarius in Symbolum Apostolorum</i>, cap. XII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_58'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_58'>[58]</a><div class='note'><p> Migne, <i>Patrologia Gr&aelig;ca</i>, vol. xxvi, pp. 1170 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_59'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_59'>[59]</a><div class='note'><p> Even in physical conformation the human sexual organs, when
+compared with those of the lower animals, show marked differences (see
+&quot;The Mechanism of Detumescence,&quot; in the fifth volume of these <i>Studies</i>).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_60'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_60'>[60]</a><div class='note'><p> It may perhaps be as well to point out, with Forel (<i>Die
+Sexuelle Frage</i>, p. 208), that the word &quot;bestial&quot; is generally used quite
+incorrectly in this connection. Indeed, not only for the higher, but also
+for the lower manifestation of the sexual impulse, it would usually be
+more correct to use instead the qualification &quot;human.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_61'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_61'>[61]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Loc. cit.</i>, <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, Jan.,
+1907.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_62'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_62'>[62]</a><div class='note'><p> It has, however, become colored and suspect from an early
+period in the history of Christianity. St. Augustine (<i>De Civitate Dei</i>,
+lib. xiv, cap. XV), while admitting that libido or lust is merely the
+generic name for all desire, adds that, as specially applied to the sexual
+appetite, it is justly and properly mixed up with ideas of shame.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_63'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_63'>[63]</a><div class='note'><p> Hinton well illustrates this feeling. &quot;We call by the name
+of lust,&quot; he declares in his MSS., &quot;the most simple and natural desires.
+We might as well term hunger and thirst 'lust' as so call sex-passion,
+when expressing simply Nature's prompting. We miscall it 'lust,' cruelly
+libelling those to whom we ascribe it, and introduce absolute disorder.
+For, by foolishly confounding Nature's demands with lust, we insist upon
+restraint upon her.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_64'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_64'>[64]</a><div class='note'><p> Several centuries earlier another French writer, the
+distinguished physician, A. Laurentius (Des Laurens) in his <i>Historia
+Anatomica Humani Corporis</i> (lib. viii, Qu&aelig;stio vii) had likewise puzzled
+over &quot;the incredible desire of coitus,&quot; and asked how it was that &quot;that
+divine animal, full of reason and judgment, which we call Man, should be
+attracted to those obscene parts of women, soiled with filth, which are
+placed, like a sewer, in the lowest part of the body.&quot; It is noteworthy
+that, from the first, and equally among men of religion, men of science,
+and men of letters, the mystery of this problem has peculiarly appealed to
+the French mind.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_65'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_65'>[65]</a><div class='note'><p> Schopenhauer, <i>Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung</i>, vol. ii,
+pp. 608 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_66'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_66'>[66]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Perhaps there is scarcely a man,&quot; wrote Malthus, a
+clergyman as well as one of the profoundest thinkers of his day (<i>Essay on
+the Principle of Population</i>, 1798, Ch. XI), &quot;who has once experienced the
+genuine delight of virtuous love, however great his intellectual pleasures
+may have been, that does not look back to the period as the sunny spot in
+his whole life, where his imagination loves to bask, which he recollects
+and contemplates with the fondest regrets, and which he would most wish to
+live over again. The superiority of intellectual to sexual pleasures
+consists rather in their filling up more time, in their having a larger
+range, and in their being less liable to satiate, than in their being more
+real and essential.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_67'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_67'>[67]</a><div class='note'><p> The whole argument of the fourth volume of these <i>Studies</i>,
+on &quot;Sexual Selection in Man,&quot; points in this direction.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_68'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_68'>[68]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Perhaps most average men,&quot; Forel remarks (<i>Die Sexuelle
+Frage</i>, p. 307), &quot;are but slightly receptive to the intoxication of love;
+they are at most on the level of the <i>gourmet</i>, which is by no means
+necessarily an immoral plane, but is certainly not that of poetry.&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_V'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_143'></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FUNCTION OF CHASTITY.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Chastity Essential to the Dignity of Love&mdash;The Eighteenth Century Revolt
+Against the Ideal of Chastity&mdash;Unnatural Forms of Chastity&mdash;The
+Psychological Basis of Asceticism&mdash;Asceticism and Chastity as Savage
+Virtues&mdash;The Significance of Tahiti&mdash;Chastity Among Barbarous
+Peoples&mdash;Chastity Among the Early Christians&mdash;Struggles of the Saints with
+the Flesh&mdash;The Romance of Christian Chastity&mdash;Its Decay in Medi&aelig;val
+Times&mdash;<i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i> and the new Romance of Chaste Love&mdash;The
+Unchastity of the Northern Barbarians&mdash;The Penitentials&mdash;Influence of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation&mdash;The Revolt Against Virginity as a
+Virtue&mdash;The Modern Conception of Chastity as a Virtue&mdash;The Influences That
+Favor the Virtue of Chastity&mdash;Chastity as a Discipline&mdash;The Value of
+Chastity for the Artist&mdash;Potency and Impotence in Popular Estimation&mdash;The
+Correct Definitions of Asceticism and Chastity.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The supreme importance of chastity, and even of asceticism, has never at
+any time, or in any greatly vital human society, altogether failed of
+recognition. Sometimes chastity has been exalted in human estimation,
+sometimes it has been debased; it has frequently changed the nature of its
+manifestations; but it has always been there. It is even a part of the
+beautiful vision of all Nature. &quot;The glory of the world is seen only by a
+chaste mind,&quot; said Thoreau with his fine extravagance. &quot;To whomsoever this
+fact is not an awful but beautiful mystery there are no flowers in
+Nature.&quot; Without chastity it is impossible to maintain the dignity of
+sexual love. The society in which its estimation sinks to a minimum is in
+the last stages of degeneration. Chastity has for sexual love an
+importance which it can never lose, least of all to-day.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite true that during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries many
+men of high moral and intellectual distinction pronounced very decidedly
+their condemnation of the ideal of chastity. The great Buffon refused to
+recognize chastity as an <a name='6_Page_144'></a>ideal and referred scornfully to &quot;that kind of
+insanity which has turned a girl's virginity into a thing with a real
+existence,&quot; while William Morris, in his downright manner, once declared
+at a meeting of the Fellowship of the New Life, that asceticism is &quot;the
+most disgusting vice that afflicted human nature.&quot; Blake, though he seems
+always to have been a strictly moral man in the most conventional sense,
+felt nothing but contempt for chastity, and sometimes confers a kind of
+religious solemnity on the idea of unchastity. Shelley, who may have been
+unwise in sexual matters but can scarcely be called unchaste, also often
+seems to associate religion and morality, not with chastity, but with
+unchastity, and much the same may be said of James Hinton.<a name='6_FNanchor_69'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_69'><sup>[69]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>But all these men&mdash;with other men of high character who have pronounced
+similar opinions&mdash;were reacting against false, decayed, and conventional
+forms of chastity. They were not rebelling against an ideal; they were
+seeking to set up an ideal in a place where they realized that a
+mischievous pretense was masquerading as a moral reality.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot accept an ideal of chastity unless we ruthlessly cast aside all
+the unnatural and empty forms of chastity. If chastity is merely a
+fatiguing effort to emulate in the sexual sphere the exploits of
+professional fasting men, an effort using up all the energies of the
+organism and resulting in no achievement greater than the abstinence it
+involves, then it is surely an unworthy ideal. If it is a feeble
+submission to an external conventional law which there is no courage to
+break, then it is not an ideal at all. If it is a rule of morality imposed
+by one sex on the opposite sex, then it is an injustice and provocative of
+revolt. If it is an abstinence from the usual forms of sexuality, replaced
+by more abnormal or more secret forms, then it is simply an unreality
+based on misconception. And if it is merely an external acceptance of
+conventions without any further <a name='6_Page_145'></a>acceptance, even in act, then it is a
+contemptible farce. These are the forms of chastity which during the past
+two centuries many fine-souled men have vigorously rejected.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that chastity, or asceticism, is a real virtue, with fine uses,
+becomes evident when we realize that it has flourished at all times, in
+connection with all kinds of religions and the most various moral codes.
+We find it pronounced among savages, and the special virtues of
+savagery&mdash;hardness, endurance, and bravery&mdash;are intimately connected with
+the cultivation of chastity and asceticism.<a name='6_FNanchor_70'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_70'><sup>[70]</sup></a> It is true that savages
+seldom have any ideal of chastity in the degraded modern sense, as a state
+of permanent abstinence from sexual relationships having a merit of its
+own apart from any use. They esteem chastity for its values, magical or
+real, as a method of self-control which contributes towards the attainment
+of important ends. The ability to bear pain and restraint is nearly always
+a main element in the initiation of youths at puberty. The custom of
+refraining from sexual intercourse before expeditions of war and hunting,
+and other serious concerns involving great muscular and mental strain,
+whatever the motives assigned, is a sagacious method of economizing
+energy. The extremely widespread habit of avoiding intercourse during
+pregnancy and suckling, again, is an admirable precaution in sexual
+hygiene which it is extremely difficult to obtain the observance of in
+civilization. Savages, also, are perfectly well aware how valuable sexual
+continence is, in combination with fasting and solitude, to acquire the
+aptitude for abnormal spiritual powers.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Thus C. Hill Tout (<i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i>,
+    Jan.-June, 1905, pp. 143-145) gives an interesting account of the
+    self-discipline undergone by those among the Salish Indians of
+    British Columbia, who seek to acquire shamanistic powers. The
+    psychic effects of such training <a name='6_Page_146'></a>on these men, says Hill Tout,
+    is undoubted. &quot;It enables them to undertake and accomplish feats
+    of abnormal strength, agility, and endurance; and gives them at
+    times, besides a general exaltation of the senses, undoubted
+    clairvoyant and other supernormal mental and bodily powers.&quot; At
+    the other end of the world, as shown by the <i>Reports of the
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits</i> (vol. v, p. 321),
+    closely analogous methods of obtaining supernatural powers are
+    also customary.</p>
+
+<p>    There are fundamental psychological reasons for the wide
+    prevalence of asceticism and for the remarkable manner in which
+    it involves self-mortification, even acute physical suffering.
+    Such pain is an actual psychic stimulant, more especially in
+    slightly neurotic persons. This is well illustrated by a young
+    woman, a patient of Janet's, who suffered from mental depression
+    and was accustomed to find relief by slightly burning her hands
+    and feet. She herself clearly understood the nature of her
+    actions. &quot;I feel,&quot; she said, &quot;that I make an effort when I hold
+    my hands on the stove, or when I pour boiling water on my feet;
+    it is a violent act and it awakens me: I feel that it is really
+    done by myself and not by another.... To make a mental effort by
+    itself is too difficult for me; I have to supplement it by
+    physical efforts. I have not succeeded in any other way; that is
+    all: when I brace myself up to burn myself I make my mind freer,
+    lighter and more active for several days. Why do you speak of my
+    desire for mortification? My parents believe that, but it is
+    absurd. It would be a mortification if it brought any suffering,
+    but I enjoy this suffering, it gives me back my mind; it prevents
+    my thoughts from stopping: what would one not do to attain such
+    happiness?&quot; (P. Janet, &quot;The Pathogenesis of Some Impulsions,&quot;
+    <i>Journal of Abnormal Psychology</i>, April, 1906.) If we understand
+    this psychological process we may realize how it is that even in
+    the higher religions, however else they may differ, the practical
+    value of asceticism and mortification as the necessary door to
+    the most exalted religious state is almost universally
+    recognized, and with complete cheerfulness. &quot;Asceticism and
+    ecstacy are inseparable,&quot; as Probst-Biraben remarks at the outset
+    of an interesting paper on Mahommedan mysticism (&quot;L'Extase dans
+    le Mysticisme Musulman,&quot; <i>Revue Philosophique</i>, Nov., 1906).
+    Asceticism is the necessary ante-chamber to spiritual perfection.</p></div>
+
+<p>It thus happens that savage peoples largely base their often admirable
+enforcement of asceticism not on the practical grounds that would justify
+it, but on religious grounds that with the growth of intelligence fall
+into discredit.<a name='6_FNanchor_71'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_71'><sup>[71]</sup></a> Even, however, when <a name='6_Page_147'></a>the scrupulous observances of
+savages, whether in sexual or in non-sexual matters, are without any
+obviously sound basis it cannot be said that they are entirely useless if
+they tend to encourage self-control and the sense of reverence.<a name='6_FNanchor_72'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_72'><sup>[72]</sup></a> The
+would-be intelligent and practical peoples who cast aside primitive
+observances because they seem baseless or even ridiculous, need a still
+finer practical sense and still greater intelligence in order to realize
+that, though the reasons for the observances have been wrong, yet the
+observances themselves may have been necessary methods of attaining
+personal and social efficiency. It constantly happens in the course of
+civilization that we have to revive old observances and furnish them with
+new reasons.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In considering the moral quality of chastity among savages, we
+    must carefully separate that chastity which among semi-primitive
+    peoples is exclusively imposed upon women. This has no moral
+    quality whatever, for it is not exercised as a useful discipline,
+    but merely enforced in order to heighten the economic and erotic
+    value of the women. Many authorities believe that the regard for
+    women as property furnishes the true reason for the widespread
+    insistence on virginity in brides. Thus A. B. Ellis, speaking of
+    the West Coast of Africa (<i>Yoruba-Speaking Peoples</i>, pp. 183 <i>et
+    seq.</i>), says that girls of good class are betrothed as mere
+    children, and are carefully guarded from men, while girls of
+    lower class are seldom betrothed, and may lead any life they
+    choose. &quot;In this custom of infant or child betrothals we probably
+    find the key to that curious regard for ante-nuptial chastity
+    found not only among the tribes of the Gold and Slave Coasts, but
+    also among many other uncivilized peoples in different parts of
+    the world.&quot; In a very different part of the world, in Northern
+    Siberia, &quot;the Yakuts,&quot; Sieroshevski states (<i>Journal
+    Anthropological Institute</i>, Jan.-June, 1901, <a name='6_Page_148'></a>p. 96), &quot;see
+    nothing immoral in illicit love, providing only that nobody
+    suffers material loss by it. It is true that parents will scold a
+    daughter if her conduct threatens to deprive them of their gain
+    from the bride-price; but if once they have lost hope of marrying
+    her off, or if the bride-price has been spent, they manifest
+    complete indifference to her conduct. Maidens who no longer
+    expect marriage are not restrained at all, if they observe
+    decorum it is only out of respect to custom.&quot; Westermarck
+    (<i>History of Human Marriage</i>, pp. 123 <i>et seq.</i>) also shows the
+    connection between the high estimates of virginity and the
+    conception of woman as property, and returning to the question in
+    his later work, <i>The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>
+    (vol. ii, Ch. XLII), after pointing out that &quot;marriage by
+    purchase has thus raised the standard of female chastity,&quot; he
+    refers (p. 437) to the significant fact that the seduction of an
+    unmarried girl &quot;is chiefly, if not exclusively, regarded as an
+    offense against the parents or family of the girl,&quot; and there is
+    no indication that it is ever held by savages that any wrong has
+    been done to the woman herself. Westermarck recognizes at the
+    same time that the preference given to virgins has also a
+    biological basis in the instinctive masculine feeling of jealousy
+    in regard to women who have had intercourse with other men, and
+    especially in the erotic charm for men of the emotional state of
+    shyness which accompanies virginity. (This point has been dealt
+    with in the discussion of Modesty in vol. i of these <i>Studies</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>    It is scarcely necessary to add that the insistence on the
+    virginity of brides is by no means confined, as A. B. Ellis seems
+    to imply, to uncivilized peoples, nor is it necessary that
+    wife-purchase should always accompany it. The preference still
+    persists, not only by virtue of its natural biological basis, but
+    as a refinement and extension of the idea of woman as property,
+    among those civilized peoples who, like ourselves, inherit a form
+    of marriage to some extent based on wife-purchase. Under such
+    conditions a woman's chastity has an important social function to
+    perform, being, as Mrs. Mona Caird has put it (<i>The Morality of
+    Marriage</i>, 1897, p. 88), the watch-dog of man's property. The
+    fact that no element of ideal morality enters into the question
+    is shown by the usual absence of any demand for ante-nuptial
+    chastity in the husband.</p>
+
+<p>    It must not be supposed that when, as is most usually the case,
+    there is no complete and permanent prohibition of extra-nuptial
+    intercourse, mere unrestrained license prevails. That has
+    probably never happened anywhere among uncontaminated savages.
+    The rule probably is that, as among the tribes at Torres Straits
+    (<i>Reports Cambridge Anthropological Expedition</i>, vol. v, p. 275),
+    there is no complete continence before marriage, but neither is
+    there any unbridled license.</p>
+
+<p>    The example of Tahiti is instructive as regards the prevalence of
+    chastity among peoples of what we generally consider low grades
+    of <a name='6_Page_149'></a>civilization. Tahiti, according to all who have visited it,
+    from the earliest explorers down to that distinguished American
+    surgeon, the late Dr. Nicholas Senn, is an island possessing
+    qualities of natural beauty and climatic excellence, which it is
+    impossible to rate too highly. &quot;I seemed to be transported into
+    the garden of Eden,&quot; said Bougainville in 1768. But, mainly under
+    the influence of the early English missionaries who held ideas of
+    theoretical morality totally alien to those of the inhabitants of
+    the islands, the Tahitians have become the stock example of a
+    population given over to licentiousness and all its awful
+    results. Thus, in his valuable <i>Polynesian Researches</i> (second
+    edition, 1832, vol. i, Ch. IX) William Ellis says that the
+    Tahitians practiced &quot;the worst pollutions of which it was
+    possible for man to be guilty,&quot; though not specifying them. When,
+    however, we carefully examine the narratives of the early
+    visitors to Tahiti, before the population became contaminated by
+    contact with Europeans, it becomes clear that this view needs
+    serious modification. &quot;The great plenty of good and nourishing
+    food,&quot; wrote an early explorer, J. R. Forster (<i>Observations Made
+    on a Voyage Round the World</i>, 1778, pp. 231, 409, 422), &quot;together
+    with the fine climate, the beauty and unreserved behavior of
+    their females, invite them powerfully to the enjoyments and
+    pleasures of love. They begin very early to abandon themselves to
+    the most libidinous scenes. Their songs, their dances, and
+    dramatic performances, breathe a spirit of luxury.&quot; Yet he is
+    over and over again impelled to set down facts which bear
+    testimony to the virtues of these people. Though rather
+    effeminate in build, they are athletic, he says. Moreover, in
+    their wars they fight with great bravery and valor. They are, for
+    the rest, hospitable. He remarks that they treat their married
+    women with great respect, and that women generally are nearly the
+    equals of men, both in intelligence and in social position; he
+    gives a charming description of the women. &quot;In short, their
+    character,&quot; Forster concludes, &quot;is as amiable as that of any
+    nation that ever came unimproved out of the hands of Nature,&quot; and
+    he remarks that, as was felt by the South Sea peoples generally,
+    &quot;whenever we came to this happy island we could evidently
+    perceive the opulence and happiness of its inhabitants.&quot; It is
+    noteworthy also, that, notwithstanding the high importance which
+    the Tahitians attached to the erotic side of life, they were not
+    deficient in regard for chastity. When Cook, who visited Tahiti
+    many times, was among &quot;this benevolent humane&quot; people, he noted
+    their esteem for chastity, and found that not only were betrothed
+    girls strictly guarded before marriage, but that men also who had
+    refrained from sexual intercourse for some time before marriage
+    were believed to pass at death immediately into the abode of the
+    blessed. &quot;Their behavior, on all occasions, seems to indicate a
+    great openness and generosity of disposition. I never saw them,
+    in any misfortune, labor under the appearance of anxiety, after
+    the critical moment <a name='6_Page_150'></a>was past. Neither does care ever seem to
+    wrinkle their brow. On the contrary, even the approach of death
+    does not appear to alter their usual vivacity&quot; (<i>Third Voyage of
+    Discovery</i>, 1776-1780). Turnbull visited Tahiti at a later period
+    (<i>A Voyage Round the World in 1800</i>, etc., pp. 374-5), but while
+    finding all sorts of vices among them, he is yet compelled to
+    admit their virtues: &quot;Their manner of addressing strangers, from
+    the king to the meanest subject, is courteous and affable in the
+    extreme.... They certainly live amongst each other in more
+    harmony than is usual amongst Europeans. During the whole time I
+    was amongst them I never saw such a thing as a battle.... I never
+    remember to have seen an Otaheitean out of temper. They jest upon
+    each other with greater freedom than the Europeans, but these
+    jests are never taken in ill part.... With regard to food, it is,
+    I believe, an invariable law in Otaheite that whatever is
+    possessed by one is common to all.&quot; Thus we see that even among a
+    people who are commonly referred to as the supreme example of a
+    nation given up to uncontrolled licentiousness, the claims of
+    chastity were admitted, and many other virtues vigorously
+    flourished. The Tahitians were brave, hospitable,
+    self-controlled, courteous, considerate to the needs of others,
+    chivalrous to women, even appreciative of the advantages of
+    sexual restraint, to an extent which has rarely, if ever, been
+    known among those Christian nations which have looked down upon
+    them as abandoned to unspeakable vices.</p></div>
+
+<p>As we turn from savages towards peoples in the barbarous and civilized
+stages we find a general tendency for chastity, in so far as it is a
+common possession of the common people, to be less regarded, or to be
+retained only as a traditional convention no longer strictly observed. The
+old grounds for chastity in primitive religions and <i>tabu</i> have decayed
+and no new grounds have been generally established. &quot;Although the progress
+of civilization,&quot; wrote Gibbon long ago, &quot;has undoubtedly contributed to
+assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have been less
+favorable to the virtue of chastity,&quot; and Westermarck concludes that
+&quot;irregular connections between the sexes have, on the whole, exhibited a
+tendency to increase along with the progress of civilization.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The main difference in the social function of chastity as we pass from
+savagery to higher stages of culture seems to be that it ceases to exist
+as a general hygienic measure or a general ceremonial observance, and, for
+the most part, becomes confined <a name='6_Page_151'></a>to special philosophic or religious sects
+which cultivate it to an extreme degree in a more or less professional
+way. This state of things is well illustrated by the Roman Empire during
+the early centuries of the Christian era.<a name='6_FNanchor_73'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_73'><sup>[73]</sup></a> Christianity itself was at
+first one of these sects enamored of the ideal of chastity; but by its
+superior vitality it replaced all the others and finally imposed its
+ideals, though by no means its primitive practices, on European society
+generally.</p>
+
+<p>Chastity manifested itself in primitive Christianity in two different
+though not necessarily opposed ways. On the one hand it took a stern and
+practical form in vigorous men and women who, after being brought up in a
+society permitting a high degree of sexual indulgence, suddenly found
+themselves convinced of the sin of such indulgence. The battle with the
+society they had been born into, and with their own old impulses and
+habits, became so severe that they often found themselves compelled to
+retire from the world altogether. Thus it was that the parched solitudes
+of Egypt were peopled with hermits largely occupied with the problem of
+subduing their own flesh. Their pre-occupation, and indeed the
+pre-occupation of much early Christian literature, with sexual matters, may
+be said to be vastly greater than was the case with the pagan society they
+had left. Paganism accepted sexual indulgence and was then able to dismiss
+it, so that in classic literature we find very little insistence on sexual
+details except in writers like Martial, Juvenal and Petronius who
+introduce them mainly for satirical ends. But the Christians could not
+thus escape from the obsession of sex; it was ever with them. We catch
+interesting glimpses of their struggles, for the most part barren
+struggles, in the Epistles of St. Jerome, who had himself been an athlete
+in these ascetic contests.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Oh, how many times,&quot; wrote St. Jerome to Eustochium, the virgin
+    to whom he addressed one of the longest and most interesting of
+    his letters, &quot;when in the desert, in that vast solitude which,
+    burnt up <a name='6_Page_152'></a>by the heart of the sun, offers but a horrible dwelling
+    to monks, I imagined myself among the delights of Rome! I was
+    alone, for my soul was full of bitterness. My limbs were covered
+    by a wretched sack and my skin was as black as an Ethiopian's.
+    Every day I wept and groaned, and if I was unwillingly overcome
+    by sleep my lean body lay on the bare earth. I say nothing of my
+    food and drink, for in the desert even invalids have no drink but
+    cold water, and cooked food is regarded as a luxury. Well, I,
+    who, out of fear of hell, had condemned myself to this prison,
+    companion of scorpions and wild beasts, often seemed in
+    imagination among bands of girls. My face was pale with fasting
+    and my mind within my frigid body was burning with desire; the
+    fires of lust would still flare up in a body that already seemed
+    to be dead. Then, deprived of all help, I threw myself at the
+    feet of Jesus, washing them with my tears and drying them with my
+    hair, subjugating my rebellious flesh by long fasts. I remember
+    that more than once I passed the night uttering cries and
+    striking my breast until God sent me peace.&quot; &quot;Our century,&quot; wrote
+    St. Chrysostom in his <i>Discourse to Those Who Keep Virgins in
+    Their Houses</i>, &quot;has seen many men who have bound their bodies
+    with chains, clothed themselves in sacks, retired to the summits
+    of mountains where they have lived in constant vigil and fasting,
+    giving the example of the most austere discipline and forbidding
+    all women to cross the thresholds of their humble dwellings; and
+    yet, in spite of all the severities they have exercised on
+    themselves, it was with difficulty they could repress the fury of
+    their passions.&quot; Hilarion, says Jerome, saw visions of naked
+    women when he lay down on his solitary couch and delicious meats
+    when he sat down to his frugal table. Such experiences rendered
+    the early saints very scrupulous. &quot;They used to say,&quot; we are told
+    in an interesting history of the Egyptian anchorites, Palladius's
+    <i>Paradise of the Holy Fathers</i>, belonging to the fourth century
+    (A. W. Budge, <i>The Paradise</i>, vol. ii, p. 129), &quot;that Abb&acirc; Isaac
+    went out and found the footprint of a woman on the road, and he
+    thought about it in his mind and destroyed it saying, 'If a
+    brother seeth it he may fall.'&quot; Similarly, according to the rules
+    of St. C&aelig;sarius of Aries for nuns, no male clothing was to be
+    taken into the convent for the purpose of washing or mending.
+    Even in old age, a certain anxiety about chastity still remained.
+    One of the brothers, we are told in <i>The Paradise</i> (p. 132) said
+    to Abb&acirc; Zeno, &quot;Behold thou hast grown old, how is the matter of
+    fornication?&quot; The venerable saint replied, &quot;It knocketh, but it
+    passeth on.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    As the centuries went by the same strenuous anxiety to guard
+    chastity still remained, and the old struggle constantly
+    reappeared (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Migne's <i>Dictionnaire d'Asc&eacute;tisme</i>, art.
+    &quot;D&eacute;mon, Tentation du&quot;). Some saints, it is true, like Luigi di
+    Gonzaga, were so angelically natured that they never felt the
+    sting of sexual desire. These seem to have been the exception.
+    St. Benedict and St. Francis experienced the difficulty of
+    <a name='6_Page_153'></a>subduing the flesh. St. Magdalena de Pozzi, in order to dispel
+    sexual desires, would roll on thorny bushes till the blood came.
+    Some saints kept a special cask of cold water in their cells to
+    stand in (Lea, <i>Sacerdotal Celibacy</i>, vol. i, p. 124). On the
+    other hand, the Blessed Angela de Fulginio tells us in her
+    <i>Visiones</i> (cap. XIX) that, until forbidden by her confessor, she
+    would place hot coals in her secret parts, hoping by material
+    fire to extinguish the fire of concupiscence. St. Aldhelm, the
+    holy Bishop of Sherborne, in the eighth century, also adopted a
+    homeopathic method of treatment, though of a more literal kind,
+    for William of Malmsbury states that when tempted by the flesh he
+    would have women to sit and lie by him until he grew calm again;
+    the method proved very successful, for the reason, it was
+    thought, that the Devil felt he had been made a fool of.</p>
+
+<p>    In time the Catholic practice and theory of asceticism became
+    more formalized and elaborated, and its beneficial effects were
+    held to extend beyond the individual himself. &quot;Asceticism from
+    the Christian point of view,&quot; writes Br&eacute;nier de Montmorand in an
+    interesting study (&quot;Asc&eacute;tisme et Mysticisme,&quot; <i>Revue
+    Philosophique</i>, March, 1904) &quot;is nothing else than all the
+    therapeutic measures making for moral purification. The Christian
+    ascetic is an athlete struggling to transform his corrupt nature
+    and make a road to God through the obstacles due to his passions
+    and the world. He is not working in his own interests alone,
+    but&mdash;by virtue of the reversibility of merit which compensates
+    that of solidarity in error&mdash;for the good and for the salvation
+    of the whole of society.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>This is the aspect of early Christian asceticism most often emphasized.
+But there is another aspect which may be less familiar, but has been by no
+means less important. Primitive Christian chastity was on one side a
+strenuous discipline. On another side it was a romance, and this indeed
+was its most specifically Christian side, for athletic asceticism has been
+associated with the most various religious and philosophic beliefs. If,
+indeed, it had not possessed the charm of a new sensation, of a delicious
+freedom, of an unknown adventure, it would never have conquered the
+European world. There are only a few in that world who have in them the
+stuff of moral athletes; there are many who respond to the attraction of
+romance.</p>
+
+<p>The Christians rejected the grosser forms of sexual indulgence, but in
+doing so they entered with a more delicate ardor into the more refined
+forms of sexual intimacy. They cultivated <a name='6_Page_154'></a>a relationship of brothers and
+sisters to each other, they kissed one another; at one time, in the
+spiritual orgy of baptism, they were not ashamed to adopt complete
+nakedness.<a name='6_FNanchor_74'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_74'><sup>[74]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>A very instructive picture of the forms which chastity assumed among the
+early Christians is given us in the treatise of Chrysostom <i>Against Those
+who Keep Virgins in their Houses</i>. Our fathers, Chrysostom begins, only
+knew two forms of sexual intimacy, marriage and fornication. Now a third
+form has appeared: men introduce young girls into their houses and keep
+them there permanently, respecting their virginity. &quot;What,&quot; Chrysostom
+asks, &quot;is the reason? It seems to me that life in common with a woman is
+sweet, even outside conjugal union and fleshly commerce. That is my
+feeling; and perhaps it is not my feeling alone; it may also be that of
+these men. They would not hold their honor so cheap nor give rise to such
+scandals if this pleasure were not violent and tyrannical.... That there
+should really be a pleasure in this which produces a love more ardent than
+conjugal union may surprise you at first. But when I give you the proofs
+you will agree that it is so.&quot; The absence of restraint to desire in
+marriage, he continues, often leads to speedy disgust, and even apart from
+this, sexual intercourse, pregnancy, delivery, lactation, the bringing up
+of children, and all the pains and anxieties that accompany these things
+soon destroy youth and dull the point of pleasure. The virgin is free from
+these burdens. She retains her vigor and youthfulness, and even at the age
+of forty may rival the young nubile girl. &quot;A double ardor thus burns in
+the heart of him who lives with her, and the gratification of desire never
+extinguishes the bright flame which ever continues to increase in
+strength.&quot; Chrysostom describes minutely all the little cares and
+attentions which the modern girls of his time required, and which these
+men delighted to expend on their virginal sweethearts whether in public or
+in private. He cannot help thinking, however, that the man who lavishes
+kisses and caresses on a woman whose virginity he retains <a name='6_Page_155'></a>is putting
+himself somewhat in the position of Tantalus. But this new refinement of
+tender chastity, which came as a delicious discovery to the early
+Christians who had resolutely thrust away the licentiousness of the pagan
+world, was deeply rooted, as we discover from the frequency with which the
+grave Fathers of the Church, apprehensive of scandal, felt called upon to
+reprove it, though their condemnation is sometimes not without a trace of
+secret sympathy.<a name='6_FNanchor_75'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_75'><sup>[75]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There was one form in which the new Christian chastity flourished
+exuberantly and unchecked: it conquered literature. The most charming,
+and, we may be sure, the most popular literature of the early Church lay
+in the innumerable romances of erotic chastity&mdash;to some extent, it may
+well be, founded on fact&mdash;which are embodied to-day in the <i>Acta
+Sanctorum</i>. We can see in even the most simple and non-miraculous early
+Christian records of the martyrdom of women that the writers were fully
+aware of the delicate charm of the heroine who, like Perpetua at Carthage,
+tossed by wild cattle in the arena, rises to gather her torn garment
+around her and to put up her disheveled hair.<a name='6_FNanchor_76'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_76'><sup>[76]</sup></a> It was an easy step to
+the stories of romantic adventure. Among these delightful stories I may
+refer especially to the legend of Thekla, which has been placed,
+incorrectly it may be, as early as the first century, &quot;The Bride and
+Bridegroom of India&quot; in <i>Judas Thomas's Acts</i>, &quot;The Virgin of Antioch&quot; as
+narrated by St. Ambrose, the history of &quot;Achilleus and Nereus,&quot; &quot;Mygdonia
+and Karish,&quot; and &quot;Two Lovers of Auvergne&quot; as told by Gregory of Tours.
+Early Christian literature abounds in the stories of lovers who had indeed
+preserved their chastity, and had yet discovered the most exquisite
+secrets of love.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_156'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Thekla's day is the twenty-third of September. There is a very
+    good Syriac version (by Lipsius and others regarded as more
+    primitive than the Greek version) of the <i>Acts of Paul and
+    Thekla</i> (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Wright's <i>Apocryphal Acts</i>). These <i>Acts</i>
+    belong to the latter part of the second century. The story is
+    that Thekla, refusing to yield to the passion of the high priest
+    of Syria, was put, naked but for a girdle (<i>subligaculum</i>) into
+    the arena on the back of a lioness, which licked her feet and
+    fought for her against the other beasts, dying in her defense.
+    The other beasts, however, did her no harm, and she was finally
+    released. A queen loaded her with money, she modified her dress
+    to look like a man, travelled to meet Paul, and lived to old age.
+    Sir W. M. Ramsay has written an interesting study of these <i>Acts</i>
+    (<i>The Church in the Roman Empire</i>, Ch. XVI). He is of opinion
+    that the <i>Acts</i> are based on a first century document, and is
+    able to disentangle many elements of truth from the story. He
+    states that it is the only evidence we possess of the ideas and
+    actions of women during the first century in Asia Minor, where
+    their position was so high and their influence so great. Thekla
+    represents the assertion of woman's rights, and she administered
+    the rite of baptism, though in the existing versions of the
+    <i>Acts</i> these features are toned down or eliminated.</p>
+
+<p>    Some of the most typical of these early Christian romances are
+    described as Gnostical in origin, with something of the germs of
+    Manich&aelig;an dualism which were held in the rich and complex matrix
+    of Gnosticism, while the spirit of these romances is also largely
+    Montanist, with the combined chastity and ardor, the pronounced
+    feminine tone due to its origin in Asia Minor, which marked
+    Montanism. It cannot be denied, however, that they largely passed
+    into the main stream of Christian tradition, and form an
+    essential and important part of that tradition. (Renan, in his
+    <i>Marc-Aur&egrave;le</i>, Chs. IX and XV, insists on the immense debt of
+    Christianity to Gnostic and Montanist contributions). A
+    characteristic example is the story of &quot;The Betrothed of India&quot;
+    in <i>Judas Thomas's Acts</i> (Wright's <i>Apocryphal Acts</i>). Judas
+    Thomas was sold by his master Jesus to an Indian merchant who
+    required a carpenter to go with him to India. On disembarking at
+    the city of Sandaruk they heard the sounds of music and singing,
+    and learnt that it was the wedding-feast of the King's daughter,
+    which all must attend, rich and poor, slaves and freemen,
+    strangers and citizens. Judas Thomas went, with his new master,
+    to the banquet and reclined with a garland of myrtle placed on
+    his head. When a Hebrew flute-player came and stood over him and
+    played, he sang the songs of Christ, and it was seen that he was
+    more beautiful than all that were there and the King sent for him
+    to bless the young couple in the bridal chamber. And when all
+    were gone out and the door of the bridal chamber closed, the
+    bridegroom approached the bride, and saw, as it were, Judas<a name='6_Page_157'></a>
+    Thomas still talking with her. But it was our Lord who said to
+    him, &quot;I am not Judas, but his brother.&quot; And our Lord sat down on
+    the bed beside the young people and began to say to them:
+    &quot;Remember, my children, what my brother spake with you, and know
+    to whom he committed you, and know that if ye preserve yourselves
+    from this filthy intercourse ye become pure temples, and are
+    saved from afflictions manifest and hidden, and from the heavy
+    care of children, the end whereof is bitter sorrow. For their
+    sakes ye will become oppressors and robbers, and ye will be
+    grievously tortured for their injuries. For children are the
+    cause of many pains; either the King falls upon them or a demon
+    lays hold of them, or paralysis befalls them. And if they be
+    healthy they come to ill, either by adultery, or theft, or
+    fornication, or covetousness, or vain-glory. But if ye will be
+    persuaded by me, and keep yourselves purely unto God, ye shall
+    have living children to whom not one of these blemishes and hurts
+    cometh nigh; and ye shall be without care and without grief and
+    without sorrow, and ye shall hope for the time when ye shall see
+    the true wedding-feast.&quot; The young couple were persuaded, and
+    refrained from lust, and our Lord vanished. And in the morning,
+    when it was dawn, the King had the table furnished early and
+    brought in before the bridegroom and bride. And he found them
+    sitting the one opposite the other, and the face of the bride was
+    uncovered and the bridegroom was very cheerful. The mother of the
+    bride saith to her: &quot;Why art thou sitting thus, and art not
+    ashamed, but art as if, lo, thou wert married a long time, and
+    for many a day?&quot; And her father, too, said; &quot;Is it thy great love
+    for thy husband that prevents thee from even veiling thyself?&quot;
+    And the bride answered and said: &quot;Truly, my father, I am in great
+    love, and am praying to my Lord that I may continue in this love
+    which I have experienced this night. I am not veiled, because the
+    veil of corruption is taken from me, and I am not ashamed,
+    because the deed of shame has been removed far from me, and I am
+    cheerful and gay, and despise this deed of corruption and the
+    joys of this wedding-feast, because I am invited to the true
+    wedding-feast. I have not had intercourse with a husband, the end
+    whereof is bitter repentance, because I am betrothed to the true
+    Husband.&quot; The bridegroom answered also in the same spirit, very
+    naturally to the dismay of the King, who sent for the sorcerer
+    whom he had asked to bless his unlucky daughter. But Judas Thomas
+    had already left the city and at his inn the King's stewards
+    found only the flute-player, sitting and weeping because he had
+    not taken her with him. She was glad, however, when she heard
+    what had happened, and hastened to the young couple, and lived
+    with them ever afterwards. The King also was finally reconciled,
+    and all ended chastely, but happily.</p>
+
+<p>    In these same <i>Judas Thomas's Acts</i>, which are not later than the
+    fourth century, we find (eighth act) the story of Mygdonia and
+    Karish.<a name='6_Page_158'></a> Mygdonia, the wife of Karish, is converted by Thomas and
+    flees from her husband, naked save for the curtain of the chamber
+    door which she has wrapped around her, to her old nurse. With the
+    nurse she goes to Thomas, who pours holy oil over her head,
+    bidding the nurse to anoint her all over with it; then a cloth is
+    put round her loins and he baptizes her; then she is clothed and
+    he gives her the sacrament. The young rapture of chastity grows
+    lyrical at times, and Judas Thomas breaks out: &quot;Purity is the
+    athlete who is not overcome. Purity is the truth that blencheth
+    not. Purity is worthy before God of being to Him a familiar
+    handmaiden. Purity is the messenger of concord which bringeth the
+    tidings of peace.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Another romance of chastity is furnished by the episode of
+    Drusiana in <i>The History of the Apostles</i> traditionally
+    attributed to Abdias, Bishop of Babylon (Bk. v, Ch. IV, <i>et
+    seq.</i>). Drusiana is the wife of Andronicus, and is so pious that
+    she will not have intercourse with him. The youth Callimachus
+    falls madly in love with her, and his amorous attempts involve
+    many exciting adventures, but the chastity of Drusiana is finally
+    triumphant.</p>
+
+<p>    A characteristic example of the literature we are here concerned
+    with is St. Ambrose's story of &quot;The Virgin in the Brothel&quot;
+    (narrated in his <i>De Virginibus</i>, Migne's edition of Ambrose's
+    Works, vols. iii-iv, p. 211). A certain virgin, St. Ambrose tells
+    us, who lately lived at Antioch, was condemned either to
+    sacrifice to the gods or to go to the brothel. She chose the
+    latter alternative. But the first man who came in to her was a
+    Christian soldier who called her &quot;sister,&quot; and bade her have no
+    fear. He proposed that they should exchange clothes. This was
+    done and she escaped, while the soldier was led away to death. At
+    the place of execution, however, she ran up and exclaimed that it
+    was not death she feared but shame. He, however, maintained that
+    he had been condemned to death in her place. Finally the crown of
+    martyrdom for which they contended was adjudged to both.</p>
+
+<p>    We constantly observe in the early documents of this romantic
+    literature of chastity that chastity is insisted on by no means
+    chiefly because of its rewards after death, nor even because the
+    virgin who devotes herself to it secures in Christ an ever-young
+    lover whose golden-haired beauty is sometimes emphasized. Its
+    chief charm is represented as lying in its own joy and freedom
+    and the security it involves from all the troubles,
+    inconveniences and bondages of matrimony. This early Christian
+    movement of romantic chastity was clearly, in large measure, a
+    revolt of women against men and marriage. This is well brought
+    out in the instructive story, supposed to be of third century
+    origin, of the eunuchs Achilleus and Nereus, as narrated in the
+    <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, May 12th. Achilleus and Nereus were Christian
+    eunuchs of the bedchamber to Domitia, a virgin of noble birth,
+    related to the Emperor Domitian <a name='6_Page_159'></a>and betrothed to Aurelian, son
+    of a Consul. One day, as their mistress was putting on her jewels
+    and her purple garments embroidered with gold, they began in turn
+    to talk to her about all the joys and advantages of virginity, as
+    compared to marriage with a mere man. The conversation is
+    developed at great length and with much eloquence. Domitia was
+    finally persuaded. She suffered much from Aurelian in
+    consequence, and when he obtained her banishment to an island she
+    went thither with Achilleus and Nereus, who were put to death.
+    Incidentally, the death of Felicula, another heroine of chastity,
+    is described. When elevated on the rack because she would not
+    marry, she constantly refused to deny Jesus, whom she called her
+    lover. &quot;Ego non nego amatorem meum!&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    A special department of this literature is concerned with stories
+    of the conversions or the penitence of courtesans. St.
+    Martinianus, for instance (Feb. 13), was tempted by the courtesan
+    Zoe, but converted her. The story of St. Margaret of Cortona
+    (Feb. 22), a penitent courtesan, is late, for she belongs to the
+    thirteenth century. The most delightful document in this
+    literature is probably the latest, the fourteenth century Italian
+    devotional romance called <i>The Life of Saint Mary Magdalen</i>,
+    commonly associated with the name of Frate Domenico Cavalca. (It
+    has been translated into English). It is the delicately and
+    deliciously told romance of the chaste and passionate love of the
+    sweet sinner, Mary Magdalene, for her beloved Master.</p>
+
+<p>    As time went on the insistence on the joys of chastity in this
+    life became less marked, and chastity is more and more regarded
+    as a state only to be fully rewarded in a future life. Even,
+    however, in Gregory of Tours's charming story of &quot;The Two Lovers
+    of Auvergne,&quot; in which this attitude is clear, the pleasures of
+    chaste love in this life are brought out as clearly as in any of
+    the early romances (<i>Historia Francorum</i>, lib. i, cap. XLII). Two
+    senators of Auvergne each had an only child, and they betrothed
+    them to each other. When the wedding day came and the young
+    couple were placed in bed, the bride turned to the wall and wept
+    bitterly. The bridegroom implored her to tell him what was the
+    matter, and, turning towards him, she said that if she were to
+    weep all her days she could never wash away her grief for she had
+    resolved to give her little body immaculate to Christ, untouched
+    by men, and now instead of immortal roses she had only had on her
+    brow faded roses, which deformed rather than adorned it, and
+    instead of the dowry of Paradise which Christ had promised her
+    she had become the consort of a merely mortal man. She deplored
+    her sad fate at considerable length and with much gentle
+    eloquence. At length the bridegroom, overcome by her sweet words,
+    felt that eternal life had shone before him like a great light,
+    and declared that if she wished to abstain from carnal desires he
+    was of the same mind. She was grateful, and with clasped <a name='6_Page_160'></a>hands
+    they fell asleep. For many years they thus lived together,
+    chastely sharing the same bed. At length she died and was buried,
+    her lover restoring her immaculate to the hands of Christ. Soon
+    afterwards he died also, and was placed in a separate tomb. Then
+    a miracle happened which made manifest the magnitude of this
+    chaste love, for the two bodies were found mysteriously placed
+    together. To this day, Gregory concludes (writing in the sixth
+    century), the people of the place call them &quot;The Two Lovers.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Although Renan (<i>Marc-Aur&egrave;le</i>, Ch. XV) briefly called attention
+    to the existence of this copious early Christian literature
+    setting forth the romance of chastity, it seems as yet to have
+    received little or no study. It is, however, of considerable
+    importance, not merely for its own sake, but on account of its
+    psychological significance in making clear the nature of the
+    motive forces which made chastity easy and charming to the people
+    of the early Christian world, even when it involved complete
+    abstinence from sexual intercourse. The early Church
+    anathematized the eroticism of the Pagan world, and exorcized it
+    in the most effectual way by setting up a new and more exquisite
+    eroticism of its own.</p></div>
+
+<p>During the Middle Ages the primitive freshness of Christian chastity began
+to lose its charm. No more romances of chastity were written, and in
+actual life men no longer sought daring adventures in the field of
+chastity. So far as the old ideals survived at all it was in the secular
+field of chivalry. The last notable figure to emulate the achievements of
+the early Christians was Robert of Arbrissel in Normandy.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Robert of Arbrissel, who founded, in the eleventh century, the
+    famous and distinguished Order of Fontevrault for women, was a
+    Breton. This Celtic origin is doubtless significant, for it may
+    explain his unfailing ardor and gaiety, and his enthusiastic
+    veneration for womanhood. Even those of his friends who
+    deprecated what they considered his scandalous conduct bear
+    testimony to his unfailing and cheerful temperament, his
+    alertness in action, his readiness for any deed of humanity, and
+    his entire freedom from severity. He attracted immense crowds of
+    people of all conditions, especially women, including
+    prostitutes, and his influence over women was great. Once he went
+    into a brothel to warm his feet, and, incidentally, converted all
+    the women there. &quot;Who are you?&quot; asked one of them, &quot;I have been
+    here twenty-five years and nobody has ever come here to talk
+    about God.&quot; Robert's relation with his nuns at Fontevrault was
+    very intimate, and he would often sleep with them. This is set
+    forth precisely in letters written by friends of his, bishops and
+    abbots, one of whom remarks that Robert had &quot;discovered a new
+    <a name='6_Page_161'></a>but fruitless form of martyrdom.&quot; A royal abbess of Fontevrault
+    in the seventeenth century, pretending that the venerated founder
+    of the order could not possibly have been guilty of such
+    scandalous conduct, and that the letters must therefore be
+    spurious, had the originals destroyed, so far as possible. The
+    Bollandists, in an unscholarly and incomplete account of the
+    matter (<i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, Feb. 25), adopted this view. J. von
+    Walter, however, in a recent and thorough study of Robert of
+    Arbrissel (<i>Die Ersten Wanderprediger Frankreichs</i>, Theil I),
+    shows that there is no reason whatever to doubt the authentic and
+    reliable character of the impugned letters.</p></div>
+
+<p>The early Christian legends of chastity had, however, their successors.
+<i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i>, which was probably written in Northern France
+towards the end of the twelfth century, is above all the descendant of the
+stories in the <i>Acta Sanctorum</i> and elsewhere. It embodied their spirit
+and carried it forward, uniting their delicate feeling for chastity and
+purity with the ideal of monogamic love. <i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i> was the
+death-knell of the primitive Christian romance of chastity. It was the
+discovery that the chaste refinements of delicacy and devotion were
+possible within the strictly normal sphere of sexual love.</p>
+
+<p>There were at least two causes which tended to extinguish the primitive
+Christian attraction to chastity, even apart from the influence of the
+Church authorities in repressing its romantic manifestations. In the first
+place, the submergence of the old pagan world, with its practice and, to
+some extent, ideal of sexual indulgence, removed the foil which had given
+grace and delicacy to the tender freedom of the young Christians. In the
+second place, the austerities which the early Christians had gladly
+practised for the sake of their soul's health, were robbed of their charm
+and spontaneity by being made a formal part of codes of punishment for
+sin, first in the Penitentials and afterwards at the discretion of
+confessors. This, it may be added, was rendered the more necessary because
+the ideal of Christian chastity was no longer largely the possession of
+refined people who had been rendered immune to Pagan license by being
+brought up in its midst, and even themselves steeped in it. It was clearly
+from the first a serious matter for the violent North Africans to maintain
+the ideal of chastity, and when Christianity <a name='6_Page_162'></a>spread to Northern Europe it
+seemed almost a hopeless task to acclimatize its ideals among the wild
+Germans. Hereafter it became necessary for celibacy to be imposed on the
+regular clergy by the stern force of ecclesiastical authority, while
+voluntary celibacy was only kept alive by a succession of religious
+enthusiasts perpetually founding new Orders. An asceticism thus enforced
+could not always be accompanied by the ardent exaltation necessary to
+maintain it, and in its artificial efforts at self-preservation it
+frequently fell from its insecure heights to the depths of unrestrained
+license.<a name='6_FNanchor_77'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_77'><sup>[77]</sup></a> This fatality of all hazardous efforts to overpass humanity's
+normal limits begun to be realized after the Middle Ages were over by
+clear-sighted thinkers. &quot;Qui veut faire l'ange,&quot; said Pascal, pungently
+summing up this view of the matter, &quot;fait la b&ecirc;te.&quot; That had often been
+illustrated in the history of the Church.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Penitentials began to come into use in the seventh century,
+    and became of wide prevalence and authority during the ninth and
+    tenth centuries. They were bodies of law, partly spiritual and
+    partly secular, and were thrown into the form of catalogues of
+    offences with the exact measure of penance prescribed for each
+    offence. They represented the introduction of social order among
+    untamed barbarians, and were codes of criminal law much more than
+    part of a system of sacramental confession and penance. In France
+    and Spain, where order on a Christian basis already existed, they
+    were little needed. They had their origin in Ireland and England,
+    and especially flourished in Germany; Charlemagne supported them
+    (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Lea, <i>History of Auricular Confession</i>, vol. ii, p.
+    96, also Ch. XVII; Hugh Williams, edition of Gildas, Part II,
+    Appendix 3; the chief Penitentials are reproduced in
+    Wasserschleben's <i>Bussordnungen</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    In 1216 the Lateran Council, under Innocent III, made confession
+    obligatory. The priestly prerogative of regulating the amount of
+    penance according to circumstances, with greater flexibility than
+    the rigid Penitentials admitted, was first absolutely asserted by
+    Peter of Poitiers.<a name='6_Page_163'></a> Then Alain de Lille threw aside the
+    Penitentials as obsolete, and declared that the priest himself
+    must inquire into the circumstances of each sin and weigh
+    precisely its guilt (Lea, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 171).</p>
+
+<p>    Long before this period, however, the ideals of chastity, so far
+    as they involved any considerable degree of continence, although
+    they had become firmly hardened into the conventional traditions
+    and ideals of the Christian Church, had ceased to have any great
+    charm or force for the people living in Christendom. Among the
+    Northern barbarians, with different traditions of a more vigorous
+    and natural order behind them, the demands of sex were often
+    frankly exhibited. The monk Ordericus Vitalis, in the eleventh
+    century, notes what he calls the &quot;lasciviousness&quot; of the wives of
+    the Norman conquerors of England who, when left alone at home,
+    sent messages that if their husbands failed to return speedily
+    they would take new ones. The celibacy of the clergy was only
+    established with the very greatest difficulty, and when it was
+    established, priests became unchaste. Archbishop Odo of Rouen, in
+    the thirteenth century, recorded in the diary of his diocesan
+    visitations that there was one unchaste priest in every five
+    parishes, and even as regards the Italy of the same period the
+    friar Salimbene in his remarkable autobiography shows how little
+    chastity was regarded in the religious life. Chastity could now
+    only be maintained by force, usually the moral force of
+    ecclesiastical authority, which was itself undermined by
+    unchastity, but sometimes even physical force. It was in the
+    thirteenth century, in the opinion of some, that the girdle of
+    chastity (<i>cingula castitatis</i>) first begins to appear, but the
+    chief authority, Caufeynon (<i>La Ceinture de Chastet&eacute;</i>, 1904)
+    believes it only dates from the Renaissance (Schultz, <i>Das
+    H&ouml;fische Leben zur Zeit der Minnes&auml;nger</i>, vol. i, p. 595; Dufour,
+    <i>Histoire de la Prostitution</i>, vol. v, p. 272; Krauss,
+    <i>Anthropophyteia</i>, vol. iii, p. 247). In the sixteenth century
+    convents were liable to become almost brothels, as we learn on
+    the unimpeachable authority of Burchard, a Pope's secretary, in
+    his <i>Diarium</i>, edited by Thuasne who brings together additional
+    authorities for this statement in a footnote (vol. ii, p. 79);
+    that they remained so in the eighteenth century we see clearly in
+    the pages of Casanova's <i>M&eacute;moires</i>, and in many other documents
+    of the period.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Renaissance and the rise of humanism undoubtedly affected the feeling
+towards asceticism and chastity. On the one hand a new and ancient
+sanction was found for the disregard of virtues which men began to look
+upon as merely monkish, and on the other hand the finer spirits affected
+by the new movement began to realize that chastity might be better
+cultivated and observed by those who were free to do as they would than by
+<a name='6_Page_164'></a>those who were under the compulsion of priestly authority. That is the
+feeling that prevails in Montaigne, and that is the idea of Rabelais when
+he made it the only rule of his Abbey of Thel&egrave;me: &quot;Fay ce que vouldras.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>A little later this doctrine was repeated in varying tones by
+    many writers more or less tinged by the culture brought into
+    fashion by the Renaissance. &quot;As long as Danae was free,&quot; remarks
+    Ferrand in his sixteenth century treatise, <i>De la Maladie
+    d'Amour</i>, &quot;she was chaste.&quot; And Sir Kenelm Digby, the latest
+    representative of the Renaissance spirit, insists in his <i>Private
+    Memoirs</i> that the liberty which Lycurgus, &quot;the wisest human
+    law-maker that ever was,&quot; gave to women to communicate their
+    bodies to men to whom they were drawn by noble affection, and the
+    hope of generous offspring, was the true cause why &quot;real chastity
+    flourished in Sparta more than in any other part of the world.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>In Protestant countries the ascetic ideal of chastity was still further
+discredited by the Reformation movement which was in considerable part a
+revolt against compulsory celibacy. Religion was thus no longer placed on
+the side of chastity. In the eighteenth century, if not earlier, the
+authority of Nature also was commonly invoked against chastity. It has
+thus happened that during the past two centuries serious opinion
+concerning chastity has only been partially favorable to it. It began to
+be felt that an unhappy and injurious mistake had been perpetrated by
+attempting to maintain a lofty ideal which encouraged hypocrisy. &quot;The
+human race would gain much,&quot; as S&eacute;nancour wrote early in the nineteenth
+century in his remarkable book on love, &quot;if virtue were made less
+laborious. The merit would not be so great, but what is the use of an
+elevation which can rarely be sustained?&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_78'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_78'><sup>[78]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that the undue discredit into which the idea of
+chastity began to fall from the eighteenth century <a name='6_Page_165'></a>onwards was largely
+due to the existence of that merely external and conventional physical
+chastity which was arbitrarily enforced so far as it could be
+enforced,&mdash;and is indeed in some degree still enforced, nominally or
+really,&mdash;upon all respectable women outside marriage. The conception of
+the physical virtue of virginity had degraded the conception of the
+spiritual virtue of chastity. A mere routine, it was felt, prescribed to a
+whole sex, whether they would or not, could never possess the beauty and
+charm of a virtue. At the same time it began to be realized that, as a
+matter of fact, the state of compulsory virginity is not only not a state
+especially favorable to the cultivation of real virtues, but that it is
+bound up with qualities which are no longer regarded as of high value.<a name='6_FNanchor_79'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_79'><sup>[79]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;How arbitrary, artificial, contrary to Nature, is the life now
+    imposed upon women in this matter of chastity!&quot; wrote James
+    Hinton forty years ago. &quot;Think of that line: 'A woman who
+    deliberates is lost.' We <i>make</i> danger, making all womanhood hang
+    upon a point like this, and surrounding it with unnatural and
+    preternatural dangers. There is a wanton unreason embodied in the
+    life of woman now; the present 'virtue' is a morbid unhealthy
+    plant. Nature and God never poised the life of a woman upon such
+    a needle's point. The whole modern idea of chastity has in it
+    sensual exaggeration, surely, in part, remaining to us from other
+    times, with what was good in it in great part gone.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The whole grace of virginity,&quot; wrote another philosopher,
+    Guyau,<a name='6_Page_166'></a> &quot;is ignorance. Virginity, like certain fruits, can only
+    be preserved by a process of desiccation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    M&eacute;rim&eacute;e pointed out the same desiccating influence of virginity.
+    In a letter dated 1859 he wrote: &quot;I think that nowadays people
+    attach far too much importance to chastity. Not that I deny that
+    chastity is a virtue, but there are degrees in virtues just as
+    there are in vices. It seems to be absurd that a woman should be
+    banished from society for having had a lover, while a woman who
+    is miserly, double-faced and spiteful goes everywhere. The
+    morality of this age is assuredly not that which is taught in the
+    Gospel. In my opinion it is better to love too much than not
+    enough. Nowadays dry hearts are stuck up on a pinnacle&quot; (<i>Revue
+    des Deux Mondes</i>, April, 1896).</p>
+
+<p>    Dr. H. Paul has developed an allied point. She writes: &quot;There are
+    girls who, even as children, have prostituted themselves by
+    masturbation and lascivious thoughts. The purity of their souls
+    has long been lost and nothing remains unknown to them, but&mdash;they
+    have preserved their hymens! That is for the sake of the future
+    husband. Let no one dare to doubt their innocence with that
+    unimpeachable evidence! And if another girl, who has passed her
+    childhood in complete purity, now, with awakened senses and warm
+    impetuous womanliness, gives herself to a man in love or even
+    only in passion, they all stand up and scream that she is
+    'dishonored!' And, not least, the prostituted girl with the
+    hymen. It is she indeed who screams loudest and throws the
+    biggest stones. Yet the 'dishonored' woman, who is sound and
+    wholesome, need not fear to tell what she has done to the man who
+    desires her in marriage, speaking as one human being to another.
+    She has no need to blush, she has exercised her human rights, and
+    no reasonable man will on that account esteem her the less&quot; (Dr.
+    H. Paul, &quot;Die Uebersch&auml;tzung der Jungfernschaft,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. ii, p. 14, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>    In a similar spirit writes F. Erhard (<i>Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. i, p. 408): &quot;Virginity in one sense has its
+    worth, but in the ordinary sense it is greatly overestimated.
+    Apart from the fact that a girl who possesses it may yet be
+    thoroughly perverted, this over-estimation of virginity leads to
+    the girl who is without it being despised, and has further
+    resulted in the development of a special industry for the
+    preparation, by means of a prudishly cloistral education, of
+    girls who will bring to their husbands the peculiar dainty of a
+    bride who knows nothing about anything. Naturally, this can only
+    be achieved at the expense of any rational education. What the
+    undeveloped little goose may turn into, no man can foresee.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Freud (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, March, 1908) also points out the evil
+    results of the education for marriage which is given to girls on
+    the basis of this ideal of virginity. &quot;Education undertakes the
+    task of repressing the girl's sensuality until the time of
+    betrothal. It not only <a name='6_Page_167'></a>forbids sexual relations and sets a high
+    premium on innocence, but it also withdraws the ripening womanly
+    individuality from temptation, maintaining a state of ignorance
+    concerning the practical side of the part she is intended to play
+    in life, and enduring no stirring of love which cannot lead to
+    marriage. The result is that when she is suddenly permitted to
+    fall in love by the authority of her elders, the girl cannot
+    bring her psychic disposition to bear, and goes into marriage
+    uncertain of her own feelings. As a consequence of this
+    artificial retardation of the function of love she brings nothing
+    but deception to the husband who has set all his desires upon
+    her, and manifests frigidity in her physical relations with him.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    S&eacute;nancour (<i>De l'Amour</i>, vol. i, p. 285) even believes that, when
+    it is possible to leave out of consideration the question of
+    offspring, not only will the law of chastity become equal for the
+    two sexes, but there will be a tendency for the situation of the
+    sexes to be, to some extent, changed. &quot;Continence becomes a
+    counsel rather than a precept, and it is in women that the
+    voluptuous inclination will be regarded with most indulgence. Man
+    is made for work; he only meets pleasure in passing; he must be
+    content that women should occupy themselves with it more than he.
+    It is men whom it exhausts, and men must always, in part,
+    restrain their desires.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>As, however, we liberate ourselves from the bondage of a compulsory
+physical chastity, it becomes possible to rehabilitate chastity as a
+virtue. At the present day it can no longer be said that there is on the
+part of thinkers and moralists any active hostility to the idea of
+chastity; there is, on the contrary, a tendency to recognize the value of
+chastity. But this recognition has been accompanied by a return to the
+older and sounder conception of chastity. The preservation of a rigid
+sexual abstinence, an empty virginity, can only be regarded as a
+pseudo-chastity. The only positive virtue which Aristotle could have
+recognized in this field was a temperance involving restraint of the lower
+impulses, a wise exercise and not a non-exercise.<a name='6_FNanchor_80'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_80'><sup>[80]</sup></a> The best thinkers of
+the Christian Church adopted the same conception; St. Basil in his
+important monastic rules laid no weight on self-discipline as an end in
+itself, but regarded it as an instrument for enabling the spirit to gain
+power over the flesh. St. Augustine declared that continence is only
+excellent when practised <a name='6_Page_168'></a>in the faith of the highest good,<a name='6_FNanchor_81'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_81'><sup>[81]</sup></a> and he
+regarded chastity as &quot;an orderly movement of the soul subordinating lower
+things to higher things, and specially to be manifested in conjugal
+relationships&quot;; Thomas Aquinas, defining chastity in much the same way,
+defined impurity as the enjoyment of sexual pleasure not according to
+right reason, whether as regards the object or the conditions.<a name='6_FNanchor_82'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_82'><sup>[82]</sup></a> But for
+a time the voices of the great moralists were unheard. The virtue of
+chastity was swamped in the popular Christian passion for the annihilation
+of the flesh, and that view was, in the sixteenth century, finally
+consecrated by the Council of Trent, which formally pronounced an anathema
+upon anyone who should declare that the state of virginity and celibacy
+was not better than the state of matrimony. Nowadays the pseudo-chastity
+that was of value on the simple ground that any kind of continence is of
+higher spiritual worth than any kind of sexual relationship belongs to the
+past, except for those who adhere to ancient ascetic creeds. The mystic
+value of virginity has gone; it seems only to arouse in the modern man's
+mind the idea of a piquancy craved by the hardened rake;<a name='6_FNanchor_83'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_83'><sup>[83]</sup></a> it is men who
+have themselves long passed the age of innocence who attach so much
+importance to the innocence of their brides. The conception of life-long
+continence as an ideal has also gone; at the best it is regarded as a mere
+matter of personal preference. And the conventional simulation of
+universal chastity, at the bidding of respectability, is coming to be
+regarded as a hindrance rather than a help to the cultivation of any real
+chastity.<a name='6_FNanchor_84'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_84'><sup>[84]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_169'></a>
+<p>The chastity that is regarded by the moralist of to-day as a virtue has
+its worth by no means in its abstinence. It is not, in St. Theresa's
+words, the virtue of the tortoise which withdraws its limbs under its
+carapace. It is a virtue because it is a discipline in self-control,
+because it helps to fortify the character and will, and because it is
+directly favorable to the cultivation of the most beautiful, exalted, and
+effective sexual life. So viewed, chastity may be opposed to the demands
+of debased medi&aelig;val Catholicism, but it is in harmony with the demands of
+our civilized life to-day, and by no means at variance with the
+requirements of Nature.</p>
+
+<p>There is always an analogy between the instinct of reproduction and the
+instinct of nutrition. In the matter of eating it is the influence of
+science, of physiology, which has finally put aside an exaggerated
+asceticism, and made eating &quot;pure.&quot; The same process, as James Hinton well
+pointed out, has been made possible in the sexual relationships; &quot;science
+has in its hands the key to purity.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_85'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_85'><sup>[85]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Many influences have, however, worked together to favor an insistence on
+chastity. There has, in the first place, been an inevitable reaction
+against the sexual facility which had come to be regarded as natural. Such
+facility was found to have no moral value, for it tended to relaxation of
+moral fibre and was unfavorable to the finest sexual satisfaction. It
+could not even claim to be natural in any broad sense of the word, for, in
+Nature generally, sexual gratification tends to be rare and difficult.<a name='6_FNanchor_86'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_86'><sup>[86]</sup></a>
+Courtship is arduous and long, the season of love is strictly delimited,
+pregnancy interrupts sexual relationships. Even among savages, so long as
+they have been untainted by civilization, virility is usually maintained
+by a fine asceticism; the <a name='6_Page_170'></a>endurance of hardship, self-control and
+restraint, tempered by rare orgies, constitute a discipline which covers
+the sexual as well as every other department of savage life. To preserve
+the same virility in civilized life, it may well be felt, we must
+deliberately cultivate a virtue which under savage conditions of life is
+natural.<a name='6_FNanchor_87'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_87'><sup>[87]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The influence of Nietzsche, direct and indirect, has been on the side of
+the virtue of chastity in its modern sense. The command: &quot;Be hard,&quot; as
+Nietzsche used it, was not so much an injunction to an unfeeling
+indifference towards others as an appeal for a more strenuous attitude
+towards one's self, the cultivation of a self-control able to gather up
+and hold in the forces of the soul for expenditure on deliberately
+accepted ends. &quot;A relative chastity,&quot; he wrote, &quot;a fundamental and wise
+foresight in the face of erotic things, even in thought, is part of a fine
+reasonableness in life, even in richly endowed and complete natures.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_88'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_88'><sup>[88]</sup></a>
+In this matter Nietzsche is a typical representative of the modern
+movement for the restoration of chastity to its proper place as a real and
+beneficial virtue, and not a mere empty convention. Such a movement could
+not fail to make itself felt, for all that favors facility and luxurious
+softness in sexual matters is quickly felt to degrade character as well as
+to diminish the finest erotic satisfaction. For erotic satisfaction, in
+its highest planes, is only possible when we have secured for the sexual
+impulse a high degree of what Colin Scott calls &quot;irradiation,&quot; that is to
+say a wide diffusion through the whole of the psychic organism. And that
+can only be attained by placing impediments in the way of the swift and
+direct gratification of sexual desire, by compelling it to increase its
+force, to take long circuits, to charge the whole organism so highly that
+the final climax of gratified love is not the trivial detumescence of a
+petty desire but the immense consummation of a longing in which the whole
+soul as well as the whole body has its part. &quot;Only the <a name='6_Page_171'></a>chaste can be
+really obscene,&quot; said Huysmans. And on a higher plane, only the chaste can
+really love.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Physical purity,&quot; remarks Hans Menjago (&quot;Die Uebersch&auml;tzung der
+    Physischen Reinheit,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, vol. ii,
+    Part VIII) &quot;was originally valued as a sign of greater strength
+    of will and firmness of character, and it marked a rise above
+    primitive conditions. This purity was difficult to preserve in
+    those unsure days; it was rare and unusual. From this rarity rose
+    the superstition of supernatural power residing in the virgin.
+    But this has no meaning as soon as such purity becomes general
+    and a specially conspicuous degree of firmness of character is no
+    longer needed to maintain it.... Physical purity can only possess
+    value when it is the result of individual strength of character,
+    and not when it is the result of compulsory rules of morality.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Konrad H&ouml;ller, who has given special attention to the sexual
+    question in schools, remarks in relation to physical exercise:
+    &quot;The greatest advantage of physical exercises, however, is not
+    the development of the active and passive strength of the body
+    and its skill, but the establishment and fortification of the
+    authority of the will over the body and its needs, so much given
+    up to indolence. He who has learnt to endure and overcome, for
+    the sake of a definite aim, hunger and thirst and fatigue, will
+    be the better able to withstand sexual impulses and the
+    temptation to gratify them, when better insight and &aelig;sthetic
+    feeling have made clear to him, as one used to maintain authority
+    over his body, that to yield would be injurious or disgraceful&quot;
+    (K. H&ouml;ller, &quot;Die Aufgabe der Volksschule,&quot; <i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, p.
+    70). Professor Sch&auml;fenacker (<i>id.</i>, p. 102), who also emphasizes
+    the importance of self-control and self-restraint, thinks a youth
+    must bear in mind his future mission, as citizen and father of a
+    family.</p>
+
+<p>    A subtle and penetrative thinker of to-day, Jules de Gaultier,
+    writing on morals without reference to this specific question,
+    has discussed what new internal inhibitory motives we can appeal
+    to in replacing the old external inhibition of authority and
+    belief which is now decayed. He answers that the state of feeling
+    on which old faiths were based still persists. &quot;May not,&quot; he
+    asks, &quot;the desire for a thing that we love and wish for
+    beneficently replace the belief that a thing is by divine will,
+    or in the nature of things? Will not the presence of a bridle on
+    the frenzy of instinct reveal itself as a useful attitude adopted
+    by instinct itself for its own conservation, as a symptom of the
+    force and health of instinct? Is not empire over oneself, the
+    power of regulating one's acts, a mark of superiority and a
+    motive for self-esteem? Will not this joy of pride have the same
+    authority in preserving the <a name='6_Page_172'></a>instincts as was once possessed by
+    religious fear and the pretended imperatives of reason?&quot; (Jules
+    de Gaultier, <i>La D&eacute;pendance de la Morale et l'Ind&eacute;pendance des
+    M&oelig;urs</i>, p. 153.)</p>
+
+<p>    H. G. Wells (in <i>A Modern Utopia</i>), pointing out the importance of
+    chastity, though rejecting celibacy, invokes, like Jules de
+    Gaultier, the motive of pride. &quot;Civilization has developed far
+    more rapidly than man has modified. Under the unnatural
+    perfection of security, liberty, and abundance our civilization
+    has attained, the normal untrained human being is disposed to
+    excess in almost every direction; he tends to eat too much and
+    too elaborately, to drink too much, to become lazy faster than
+    his work can be reduced, to waste his interest upon displays, and
+    to make love too much and too elaborately. He gets out of
+    training, and concentrates upon egoistic or erotic broodings. Our
+    founders organized motives from all sorts of sources, but I think
+    the chief force to give men self-control is pride. Pride may not
+    be the noblest thing in the soul, but it is the best king there,
+    for all that. They looked to it to keep a man clean and sound and
+    sane. In this matter, as in all matters of natural desire, they
+    held no appetite must be glutted, no appetite must have
+    artificial whets, and also and equally that no appetite should be
+    starved. A man must come from the table satisfied, but not
+    replete. And, in the matter of love, a straight and clean desire
+    for a clean and straight fellow-creature was our founders' ideal.
+    They enjoined marriage between equals as the duty to the race,
+    and they framed directions of the precisest sort to prevent that
+    uxorious inseparableness, that connubiality, that sometimes
+    reduces a couple of people to something jointly less than
+    either.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    With regard to chastity as an element of erotic satisfaction,
+    Edward Carpenter writes (<i>Love's Coming of Age</i>, p. 11): &quot;There
+    is a kind of illusion about physical desire similar to that which
+    a child suffers from when, seeing a beautiful flower, it
+    instantly snatches the same, and destroys in a few moments the
+    form and fragrance which attracted it. He only gets the full
+    glory who holds himself back a little, and truly possesses, who
+    is willing, if need be, not to possess. He is indeed a master of
+    life who, accepting the grosser desires as they come to his body,
+    and not refusing them, knows how to transform them at will into
+    the most rare and fragrant flowers of human emotion.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Beyond its functions in building up character, in heightening and
+ennobling the erotic life, and in subserving the adequate fulfilment of
+family and social duties, chastity has a more special value for those who
+cultivate the arts. We may not always be inclined to believe the writers
+who have declared that their verse alone is wanton, but their lives
+chaste. It is certainly true, however, <a name='6_Page_173'></a>that a relationship of this kind
+tends to occur. The stuff of the sexual life, as Nietzsche says, is the
+stuff of art; if it is expended in one channel it is lost for the other.
+The masters of all the more intensely emotional arts have frequently
+cultivated a high degree of chastity. This is notably the case as regards
+music; one thinks of Mozart,<a name='6_FNanchor_89'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_89'><sup>[89]</sup></a> of Beethoven, of Schubert, and many
+lesser men. In the case of poets and novelists chastity may usually seem
+to be less prevalent but it is frequently well-marked, and is not seldom
+disguised by the resounding reverberations which even the slightest
+love-episode often exerts on the poetic organism. Goethe's life seems, at
+a first glance, to be a long series of continuous love-episodes. Yet when
+we remember that it was the very long life of a man whose vigor remained
+until the end, that his attachments long and profoundly affected his
+emotional life and his work, and that with most of the women he has
+immortalized he never had actual sexual relationships at all, and when we
+realize, moreover, that, throughout, he accomplished an almost
+inconceivably vast amount of work, we shall probably conclude that sexual
+indulgence had a very much smaller part in Goethe's life than in that of
+many an average man on whom it leaves no obvious emotional or intellectual
+trace whatever. Sterne, again, declared that he must always have a
+Dulcinea dancing in his head, yet the amount of his intimate relations
+with women appears to have been small. Balzac spent his life toiling at
+his desk and carrying on during many years a love correspondence with a
+woman he scarcely ever saw and at the end only spent a few months of
+married life with. The like experience has befallen many artistic
+creators. For, in the words of Landor, &quot;absence is the invisible and
+incorporeal mother of ideal beauty.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We do well to remember that, while the auto-erotic manifestations through
+the brain are of infinite variety and importance, <a name='6_Page_174'></a>the brain and the
+sexual organs are yet the great rivals in using up bodily energy, and that
+there is an antagonism between extreme brain vigor and extreme sexual
+vigor, even although they may sometimes both appear at different periods
+in the same individual.<a name='6_FNanchor_90'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_90'><sup>[90]</sup></a> In this sense there is no paradox in the
+saying of Ramon Correa that potency is impotence and impotence potency,
+for a high degree of energy, whether in athletics or in intellect or in
+sexual activity, is unfavorable to the display of energy in other
+directions. Every high degree of potency has its related impotencies.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It may be added that we may find a curiously inconsistent proof
+    of the excessive importance attached to sexual function by a
+    society which systematically tries to depreciate sex, in the
+    disgrace which is attributed to the lack of &quot;virile&quot; potency.
+    Although civilized life offers immense scope for the activities
+    of sexually impotent persons, the impotent man is made to feel
+    that, while he need not be greatly concerned if he suffers from
+    nervous disturbances of digestion, if he should suffer just as
+    innocently from nervous disturbances of the sexual impulse, it is
+    almost a crime. A striking example of this was shown, a few years
+    ago, when it was plausibly suggested that Carlyle's relations
+    with his wife might best be explained by supposing that he
+    suffered from some trouble of sexual potency. At once admirers
+    rushed forward to &quot;defend&quot; Carlyle from this &quot;disgraceful&quot;
+    charge; they were more shocked than if it had been alleged that
+    he was a syphilitic. Yet impotence is, at the most, an infirmity,
+    whether due to some congenital anatomical defect or to a
+    disturbance of nervous balance in the delicate sexual mechanism,
+    such as is apt to occur in men of abnormally sensitive
+    temperament. It is no more disgraceful to suffer from it than
+    from dyspepsia, with which, indeed, it may be associated. Many
+    men of genius and high moral character have been sexually
+    deformed. This was the case with Cowper (though this significant
+    fact is suppressed by his biographers); Ruskin was divorced for a
+    reason of this kind; and J. S. Mill, it is said, was sexually of
+    little more than infantile development.</p></div>
+
+<p>Up to this point I have been considering the quality of chastity and the
+quality of asceticism in their most general sense <a name='6_Page_175'></a>and without any attempt
+at precise differentiation.<a name='6_FNanchor_91'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_91'><sup>[91]</sup></a> But if we are to accept these as modern
+virtues, valid to-day, it is necessary that we should be somewhat more
+precise in defining them. It seems most convenient, and most strictly
+accordant also with etymology, if we agree to mean by asceticism or
+<i>ascesis</i>, the athlete quality of self-discipline, controlling, by no
+means necessarily for indefinitely prolonged periods, the gratification of
+the sexual impulse. By chastity, which is primarily the quality of purity,
+and secondarily that of holiness, rather than of abstinence, we may best
+understand a due proportion between erotic claims and the other claims of
+life. &quot;Chastity,&quot; as Ellen Key well says, &quot;is harmony between body and
+soul in relation to love.&quot; Thus comprehended, asceticism is the virtue of
+control that leads up to erotic gratification, and chastity is the virtue
+which exerts its harmonizing influence in the erotic life itself.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that asceticism by no means necessarily involves perpetual
+continence. Properly understood, asceticism is a discipline, a training,
+which has reference to an end not itself. If it is compulsorily perpetual,
+whether at the dictates of a religious dogma, or as a mere fetish, it is
+no longer on a natural basis, and it is no longer moral, for the restraint
+of a man who has spent his whole life in a prison is of no value for life.
+If it is to be natural and to be moral asceticism must have an end outside
+itself, it must subserve the ends of vital activity, which cannot be
+subserved by a person who is engaged in a perpetual struggle with his own
+natural instincts. A man may, indeed, as a matter of taste or preference,
+live his whole life in sexual abstinence, freely and easily, but in that
+case he is not an ascetic, and his abstinence is neither a subject for
+applause nor for criticism.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_176'></a>
+<p>In the same way chastity, far from involving sexual abstinence, only has
+its value when it is brought within the erotic sphere. A purity that is
+ignorance, when the age of childish innocence is once passed, is mere
+stupidity; it is nearer to vice than to virtue. Nor is purity consonant
+with effort and struggle; in that respect it differs from asceticism. &quot;We
+conquer the bondage of sex,&quot; Rosa Mayreder says, &quot;by acceptance, not by
+denials, and men can only do this with the help of women.&quot; The would-be
+chastity of cold calculation is equally unbeautiful and unreal, and
+without any sort of value. A true and worthy chastity can only be
+supported by an ardent ideal, whether, as among the early Christians, this
+is the erotic ideal of a new romance, or, as among ourselves, a more
+humanly erotic ideal. &quot;Only erotic idealism,&quot; says Ellen Key, &quot;can arouse
+enthusiasm for chastity.&quot; Chastity in a healthily developed person can
+thus be beautifully exercised only in the actual erotic life; in part it
+is the natural instinct of dignity and temperance; in part it is the art
+of touching the things of sex with hands that remember their aptness for
+all the fine ends of life. Upon the doorway of entrance to the inmost
+sanctuary of love there is thus the same inscription as on the doorway to
+the Epidaurian Sanctuary of Aesculapius: &quot;None but the pure shall enter
+here.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It will be seen that the definition of chastity remains somewhat
+    lacking in precision. That is inevitable. We cannot grasp purity
+    tightly, for, like snow, it will merely melt in our hands.
+    &quot;Purity itself forbids too minute a system of rules for the
+    observance of purity,&quot; well says Sidgwick (<i>Methods of Ethics</i>,
+    Bk. iii, Ch. IX). Elsewhere (<i>op. cit.</i>, Bk. iii, Ch. XI) he
+    attempts to answer the question: What sexual relations are
+    essentially impure? and concludes that no answer is possible.
+    &quot;There appears to be no distinct principle, having any claim to
+    self-evidence, upon which the question can be answered so as to
+    command general assent.&quot; Even what is called &quot;Free Love,&quot; he
+    adds, &quot;in so far as it is earnestly advocated as a means to a
+    completer harmony of sentiment between men and women, cannot be
+    condemned as impure, for it seems paradoxical to distinguish
+    purity from impurity merely by less rapidity of transition.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Moll, from the standpoint of medical psychology, reaches the same
+    conclusion as Sidgwick from that of ethics. In a report on the
+    &quot;Value of Chastity for Men,&quot; published as an appendix to the
+    third edition<a name='6_Page_177'></a> (1899) of his <i>Kontr&auml;re Sexualempfindung</i>, the
+    distinguished Berlin physician discusses the matter with much
+    vigorous common sense, insisting that &quot;chaste and unchaste are
+    <i>relative ideas</i>.&quot; We must not, he states, as is so often done,
+    identify &quot;chaste&quot; with &quot;sexually abstinent.&quot; He adds that we are
+    not justified in describing all extra-marital sexual intercourse
+    as unchaste, for, if we do so, we shall be compelled to regard
+    nearly all men, and some very estimable women, as unchaste. He
+    rightly insists that in this matter we must apply the same rule
+    to women as to men, and he points out that even when it involves
+    what may be technically adultery sexual intercourse is not
+    necessarily unchaste. He takes the case of a girl who, at
+    eighteen, when still mentally immature, is married to a man with
+    whom she finds it impossible to live and a separation
+    consequently occurs, although a divorce may be impossible to
+    obtain. If she now falls passionately in love with a man her love
+    may be entirely chaste, though it involves what is technically
+    adultery.</p></div>
+
+<p>In thus understanding asceticism and chastity, and their beneficial
+functions in life, we see that they occupy a place midway between the
+artificially exaggerated position they once held and that to which they
+were degraded by the inevitable reaction of total indifference or actual
+hostility which followed. Asceticism and chastity are not rigid
+categorical imperatives; they are useful means to desirable ends; they are
+wise and beautiful arts. They demand our estimation, but not our
+over-estimation. For in over-estimating them, it is too often forgotten,
+we over-estimate the sexual instinct. The instinct of sex is indeed
+extremely important. Yet it has not that all-embracing and supereminent
+importance which some, even of those who fight against it, are accustomed
+to believe. That artificially magnified conception of the sexual impulse
+is fortified by the artificial emphasis placed upon asceticism. We may
+learn the real place of the sexual impulse in learning how we may
+reasonably and naturally view the restraints on that impulse.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_69'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_69'>[69]</a><div class='note'><p> For Blake and for Shelley, as well as, it may be added, for
+Hinton, chastity, as Todhunter remarks in his <i>Study of Shelley</i>, is &quot;a
+type of submission to the actual, a renunciation of the infinite, and is
+therefore hated by them. The chaste man, <i>i.e.</i>, the man of prudence and
+self-control, is the man who has lost the nakedness of his primitive
+innocence.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_70'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_70'>[70]</a><div class='note'><p> For evidence of the practices of savages in this matter, see
+Appendix <i>A</i> to the third volume of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;The Sexual Instinct
+in Savages.&quot; <i>Cf.</i> also Chs. IV and VII of Westermarck's <i>History of Human
+Marriage</i>, and also Chs. XXXVIII and XLI of the same author's <i>Origin and
+Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. ii; Frazer's <i>Golden Bough</i> contains
+much bearing on this subject, as also Crawley's <i>Mystic Rose</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_71'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_71'>[71]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of the
+Moral Ideas</i>, vol. ii, pp. 412 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_72'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_72'>[72]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus an old Maori declared, a few years ago, that the
+decline of his race has been entirely due to the loss of the ancient
+religious faith in the <i>tabu</i>. &quot;For,&quot; said he (I quote from an Auckland
+newspaper), &quot;in the olden-time our <i>tapu</i> ramified the whole social
+system. The head, the hair, spots where apparitions appeared, places which
+the <i>tohungas</i> proclaimed as sacred, we have forgotten and disregarded.
+Who nowadays thinks of the sacredness of the head? See when the kettle
+boils, the young man jumps up, whips the cap off his head, and uses it for
+a kettle-holder. Who nowadays but looks on with indifference when the
+barber of the village, if he be near the fire, shakes the loose hair off
+his cloth into it, and the joke and the laughter goes on as if no sacred
+operation had just been concluded. Food is consumed on places which, in
+bygone days, it dared not even be carried over.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_73'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_73'>[73]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, long before Christian monks arose, the ascetic life of
+the cloister on very similar lines existed in Egypt in the worship of
+Serapis (Dill, <i>Roman Society</i>, p. 79).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_74'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_74'>[74]</a><div class='note'><p> At night, in the baptistry, with lamps dimly burning, the
+women were stripped even of their tunics, plunged three times in the pool,
+then anointed, dressed in white, and kissed.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_75'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_75'>[75]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus Jerome, in his letter to Eustochium, refers to those
+couples who &quot;share the same room, often even the same bed, and call us
+suspicious if we draw any conclusions,&quot; while Cyprian (<i>Epistola</i>, 86) is
+unable to approve of those men he hears of, one a deacon, who live in
+familiar intercourse with virgins, even sleeping in the same bed with
+them, for, he declares, the feminine sex is weak and youth is wanton.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_76'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_76'>[76]</a><div class='note'><p> Perpetua (<i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, March 7) is termed by Hort and
+Mayor &quot;that fairest flower in the garden of post-Apostolic Christendom.&quot;
+She was not, however, a virgin, but a young mother with a baby at her
+breast.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_77'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_77'>[77]</a><div class='note'><p> The strength of early Christian asceticism lay in its
+spontaneous and voluntary character. When, in the ninth century, the
+Carlovingians attempted to enforce monastic and clerical celibacy, the
+result was a great outburst of unchastity and crime; nunneries became
+brothels, nuns were frequently guilty of infanticide, monks committed
+unspeakable abominations, the regular clergy formed incestuous relations
+with their nearest female relatives (Lea, <i>History of Sacerdotal
+Celibacy</i>, vol. i, pp, 155 <i>et seq.</i>).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_78'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_78'>[78]</a><div class='note'><p> S&eacute;nancour, <i>De l'Amour</i>, vol. ii, p. 233. Islam has placed
+much less stress on chastity than Christianity, but practically, it would
+appear, there is often more regard for chastity under Mohammedan rule than
+under Christian rule. Thus it is stated by &quot;Viator&quot; (<i>Fortnightly Review</i>,
+Dec., 1908) that formerly, under Turkish Moslem rule, it was impossible to
+buy the virtue of women in Bosnia, but that now, under the Christian rule
+of Austria, it is everywhere possible to buy women near the Austrian
+frontier.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_79'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_79'>[79]</a><div class='note'><p> The basis of this feeling was strengthened when it was shown
+by scholars that the physical virtue of &quot;virginity&quot; had been masquerading
+under a false name. To remain a virgin seems to have meant at the first,
+among peoples of early Aryan culture, by no means to take a vow of
+chastity, but to refuse to submit to the yoke of patriarchal marriage. The
+women who preferred to stand outside marriage were &quot;virgins,&quot; even though
+mothers of large families, and &AElig;schylus speaks of the Amazons as
+&quot;virgins,&quot; while in Greek the child of an unmarried girl was always &quot;the
+virgin's son.&quot; The history of Artemis, the most primitive of Greek
+deities, is instructive from this point of view. She was originally only
+virginal in the sense that she rejected marriage, being the goddess of a
+nomadic and matriarchal hunting people who had not yet adopted marriage,
+and she was the goddess of childbirth, worshipped with orgiastic dances
+and phallic emblems. It was by a late transformation that Artemis became
+the goddess of chastity (Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>, vol. ii,
+pp. 442 <i>et seq.</i>; Sir W. M. Ramsay, <i>Cities of Phrygia</i>, vol. i, p. 96;
+Paul Lafargue, &quot;Les Mythes Historiques,&quot; <i>Revue des Id&eacute;es</i>, Dec., 1904).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_80'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_80'>[80]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. iii, Ch. XIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_81'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_81'>[81]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, lib. xv, cap. XX. A little further on
+(lib. xvi, cap. XXV) he refers to Abraham as a man able to use women as a
+man should, his wife temperately, his concubine compliantly, neither
+immoderately.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_82'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_82'>[82]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Summa</i>, Migne's edition, vol. iii, qu. 154, art. I.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_83'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_83'>[83]</a><div class='note'><p> See the Study of Modesty in the first volume of these
+<i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_84'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_84'>[84]</a><div class='note'><p> The majority of chaste youths, remarks an acute critic of
+modern life (Hellpach, <i>Nervosit&auml;t und Kultur</i>, p. 175), are merely
+actuated by traditional principles, or by shyness, fear of venereal
+infections, lack of self-confidence, want of money, very seldom by any
+consideration for a future wife, and that indeed would be a tragi-comic
+error, for a woman lays no importance on intact masculinity. Moreover, he
+adds, the chaste man is unable to choose a wife wisely, and it is among
+teachers and clergymen&mdash;the chastest class&mdash;that most unhappy marriages
+are made. Milton had already made this fact an argument for facility of
+divorce.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_85'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_85'>[85]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;In eating,&quot; said Hinton, &quot;we have achieved the task of
+combining pleasure with an absence of 'lust.' The problem for man and
+woman is so to use and possess the sexual passion as to make it the
+minister to higher things, with no restraint on it but that. It is
+essentially connected with things of the spiritual order, and would
+naturally revolve round them. To think of it as merely bodily is a
+mistake.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_86'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_86'>[86]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;Analysis of the Sexual Impulse,&quot; and Appendix, &quot;The
+Sexual Instinct in Savages,&quot; in vol. iii of these <i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_87'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_87'>[87]</a><div class='note'><p> I have elsewhere discussed more at length the need in modern
+civilized life of a natural and sincere asceticism (see <i>Affirmations</i>,
+1898) &quot;St. Francis and Others.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_88'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_88'>[88]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Der Wille zur Macht</i>, p. 392.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_89'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_89'>[89]</a><div class='note'><p> At the age of twenty-five, when he had already produced much
+fine work, Mozart wrote in his letters that he had never touched a woman,
+though he longed for love and marriage. He could not afford to marry, he
+would not seduce an innocent girl, a venial relation was repulsive to
+him.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_90'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_90'>[90]</a><div class='note'><p> Reibmayr, <i>Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und
+Genies.</i>, Bd. i, p. 437.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_91'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_91'>[91]</a><div class='note'><p> We may exclude altogether, it is scarcely necessary to
+repeat, the quality of virginity&mdash;that is to say, the possession of an
+intact hymen&mdash;since this is a merely physical quality with no necessary
+ethical relationships. The demand for virginity in women is, for the most
+part, either the demand for a better marketable article, or for a more
+powerful stimulant to masculine desire. Virginity involves no moral
+qualities in its possessor. Chastity and asceticism, on the other hand,
+are meaningless terms, except as demands made by the spirit on itself or
+on the body it controls.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_VI'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_178'></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Influence of Tradition&mdash;The Theological Conception of Lust&mdash;Tendency
+of These Influences to Degrade Sexual Morality&mdash;Their Result in Creating
+the Problem of Sexual Abstinence&mdash;The Protests Against Sexual
+Abstinence&mdash;Sexual Abstinence and Genius&mdash;Sexual Abstinence in Women&mdash;The
+Advocates of Sexual Abstinence&mdash;Intermediate Attitude&mdash;Unsatisfactory
+Nature of the Whole Discussion&mdash;Criticism of the Conception of Sexual
+Abstinence&mdash;Sexual Abstinence as Compared to Abstinence from Food&mdash;No
+Complete Analogy&mdash;The Morality of Sexual Abstinence Entirely Negative&mdash;Is
+It the Physician's Duty to Advise Extra-Conjugal Sexual
+Intercourse?&mdash;Opinions of Those Who Affirm or Deny This Duty&mdash;The
+Conclusion Against Such Advice&mdash;The Physician Bound by the Social and
+Moral Ideas of His Age&mdash;The Physician as Reformer&mdash;Sexual Abstinence and
+Sexual Hygiene&mdash;Alcohol&mdash;The Influence of Physical and Mental
+Exercise&mdash;The Inadequacy of Sexual Hygiene in This Field&mdash;The Unreal
+Nature of the Conception of Sexual Abstinence&mdash;The Necessity of Replacing
+It by a More Positive Ideal.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>When we look at the matter from a purely abstract or even purely
+biological point of view, it might seem that in deciding that asceticism
+and chastity are of high value for the personal life we have said all that
+is necessary to say. That, however, is very far from being the case. We
+soon realize here, as at every point in the practical application of
+sexual psychology, that it is not sufficient to determine the abstractly
+right course along biological lines. We have to harmonize our biological
+demands with social demands. We are ruled not only by natural instincts
+but by inherited traditions, that in the far past were solidly based on
+intelligible grounds, and that even still, by the mere fact of their
+existence, exert a force which we cannot and ought not to ignore.</p>
+
+<p>In discussing the valuation of the sexual impulse we found that we had
+good ground for making a very high estimate of love. In discussing
+chastity and asceticism we found that they also are highly to be valued.
+And we found that, so far from any <a name='6_Page_179'></a>contradiction being here involved,
+love and chastity are intertwined in all their finest developments, and
+that there is thus a perfect harmony in apparent opposition. But when we
+come to consider the matter in detail, in its particular personal
+applications, we find that a new factor asserts itself. We find that our
+inherited social and religious traditions exert a pressure, all on one
+side, which makes it impossible to place the relations of love and
+chastity simply on the basis of biology and reason. We are confronted at
+the outset by our traditions. On the one side these traditions have
+weighted the word &quot;lust&quot;&mdash;considered as expressing all the manifestations
+of the sexual impulse which are outside marriage or which fail to have
+marriage as their direct and ostentatious end&mdash;with deprecatory and
+sinister meanings. And on the other side these traditions have created the
+problem of &quot;sexual abstinence,&quot; which has nothing to do with either
+asceticism or chastity as these have been defined in the previous chapter,
+but merely with the purely negative pressure on the sexual impulse,
+exerted, independently of the individual's wishes, by his religious and
+social environment.</p>
+
+<p>The theological conception of &quot;lust,&quot; or &quot;libido,&quot; as sin, followed
+logically the early Christian conception of &quot;the flesh,&quot; and became
+inevitable as soon as that conception was firmly established. Not only,
+indeed, had early Christian ideals a degrading influence on the estimation
+of sexual desire <i>per se</i>, but they tended to depreciate generally the
+dignity of the sexual relationship. If a man made sexual advances to a
+woman outside marriage, and thus brought her within the despised circle of
+&quot;lust,&quot; he was injuring her because he was impairing her religious and
+moral value.<a name='6_FNanchor_92'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_92'><sup>[92]</sup></a> The only way he could repair the damage done was by
+paying her money or by entering into a forced and therefore probably
+unfortunate marriage with her. That is to say that sexual relationships
+were, by the ecclesiastical traditions, <a name='6_Page_180'></a>placed on a pecuniary basis, on
+the same level as prostitution. By its well-meant intentions to support
+the theological morality which had developed on an ascetic basis, the
+Church was thus really undermining even that form of sexual relationship
+which it sanctified.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Gregory the Great ordered that the seducer of a virgin shall
+    marry her, or, in case of refusal, be severely punished
+    corporally and shut up in a monastery to perform penance.
+    According to other ecclesiastical rules, the seducer of a virgin,
+    though held to no responsibility by the civil forum, was required
+    to marry her, or to find a husband and furnish a dowry for her.
+    Such rules had their good side, and were especially equitable
+    when seduction had been accomplished by deceit. But they largely
+    tended in practice to subordinate all questions of sexual
+    morality to a money question. The reparation to the woman, also,
+    largely became necessary because the ecclesiastical conception of
+    lust caused her value to be depreciated by contact with lust, and
+    the reparation might be said to constitute a part of penance.
+    Aquinas held that lust, in however slight a degree, is a mortal
+    sin, and most of the more influential theologians took a view
+    nearly or quite as rigid. Some, however, held that a certain
+    degree of delectation is possible in these matters without mortal
+    sin, or asserted, for instance, that to feel the touch of a soft
+    and warm hand is not mortal sin so long as no sexual feeling is
+    thereby aroused. Others, however, held that such distinctions are
+    impossible, and that all pleasures of this kind are sinful. Tom&aacute;s
+    Sanchez endeavored at much length to establish rules for the
+    complicated problems of delectation that thus arose, but he was
+    constrained to admit that no rules are really possible, and that
+    such matters must be left to the judgment of a prudent man. At
+    that point casuistry dissolves and the modern point of view
+    emerges (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Lea, <i>History of Auricular Confession</i>,
+    vol. ii, pp. 57, 115, 246, etc.).</p></div>
+
+<p>Even to-day the influence of the old traditions of the Church still
+unconsciously survives among us. That is inevitable as regards religious
+teachers, but it is found also in men of science, even in Protestant
+countries. The result is that quite contradictory dogmas are found side by
+side, even in the same writer. On the one hand, the manifestations of the
+sexual impulse are emphatically condemned as both unnecessary and evil; on
+the other hand, marriage, which is fundamentally (whatever else it may
+also be) a manifestation of the sexual impulse, receives equally emphatic
+approval as the only proper and moral form of <a name='6_Page_181'></a>living.<a name='6_FNanchor_93'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_93'><sup>[93]</sup></a> There can be no
+reasonable doubt whatever that it is to the surviving and pervading
+influence of the ancient traditional theological conception of <i>libido</i>
+that we must largely attribute the sharp difference of opinions among
+physicians on the question of sexual abstinence and the otherwise
+unnecessary acrimony with which these opinions have sometimes been stated.</p>
+
+<p>On the one side, we find the emphatic statement that sexual intercourse is
+necessary and that health cannot be maintained unless the sexual
+activities are regularly exercised.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;All parts of the body which are developed for a definite use are kept in
+health, and in the enjoyment of fair growth and of long youth, by the
+fulfilment of that use, and by their appropriate exercise in the
+employment to which they are accustomed.&quot; In that statement, which occurs
+in the great Hippocratic treatise &quot;On the Joints,&quot; we have the classic
+expression of the doctrine which in ever varying forms has been taught by
+all those who have protested against sexual abstinence. When we come down
+to the sixteenth century outbreak of Protestantism we find that Luther's
+revolt against Catholicism was in part a protest against the teaching of
+sexual abstinence. &quot;He to whom the gift of continence is not given,&quot; he
+said in his <i>Table Talk</i>, &quot;will not become chaste by fasting and vigils.
+For my own part I was not excessively tormented [though elsewhere he
+speaks of the great fires of lust by which he had been troubled], but all
+the same the more I macerated myself the more I burnt.&quot; And three hundred
+years later, Bebel, the would-be nineteenth century Luther of a different
+Protestantism, took the same attitude towards sexual abstinence, while
+Hinton the physician and philosopher, living in a land of rigid sexual
+conventionalism and prudery, and moved by keen sympathy for the sufferings
+he saw around him, would break into passionate sarcasm when confronted by
+the doctrine of sexual abstinence. &quot;There are innumerable ills&mdash;terrible
+destructions, madness even, the ruin of lives&mdash;for which the embrace of
+man and woman would be a remedy. No one thinks of <a name='6_Page_182'></a>questioning it.
+Terrible evils and a remedy in a delight and joy! And man has chosen so to
+muddle his life that he must say: 'There, that would be a remedy, but I
+cannot use it. I <i>must be virtuous!</i>'&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>If we confine ourselves to modern times and to fairly precise
+    medical statements, we find in Schurig's <i>Spermatologia</i> (1720,
+    pp. 274 <i>et seq.</i>), not only a discussion of the advantages of
+    moderate sexual intercourse in a number of disorders, as
+    witnessed by famous authorities, but also a list of
+    results&mdash;including anorexia, insanity, impotence, epilepsy, even
+    death&mdash;which were believed to have been due to sexual abstinence.
+    This extreme view of the possible evils of sexual abstinence
+    seems to have been part of the Renaissance traditions of medicine
+    stiffened by a certain opposition between religion and science.
+    It was still rigorously stated by Lallemand early in the
+    nineteenth century. Subsequently, the medical statements of the
+    evil results of sexual abstinence became more temperate and
+    measured, though still often pronounced. Thus Gyurkovechky
+    believes that these results may be as serious as those of sexual
+    excess. Krafft-Ebing showed that sexual abstinence could produce
+    a state of general nervous excitement (<i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r
+    Psychiatrie</i>, Bd. viii, Heft 1 and 2). Schrenck-Notzing regards
+    sexual abstinence as a cause of extreme sexual hyper&aelig;sthesia and
+    of various perversions (in a chapter on sexual abstinence in his
+    <i>Kriminalpsychologische und Psychopathologische Studien</i>, 1902,
+    pp. 174-178). He records in illustration the case of a man of
+    thirty-six who had masturbated in moderation as a boy, but
+    abandoned the practice entirely, on moral grounds, twenty years
+    ago, and has never had sexual intercourse, feeling proud to enter
+    marriage a chaste man, but now for years has suffered greatly
+    from extreme sexual hyper&aelig;sthesia and concentration of thought on
+    sexual subjects, notwithstanding a strong will and the resolve
+    not to masturbate or indulge in illicit intercourse. In another
+    case a vigorous and healthy man, not inverted, and with strong
+    sexual desires, who remained abstinent up to marriage, suffers
+    from psychic impotence, and his wife remains a virgin
+    notwithstanding all her affection and caresses. Ord considered
+    that sexual abstinence might produce many minor evils. &quot;Most of
+    us,&quot; he wrote (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Aug. 2, 1884) &quot;have, no
+    doubt, been consulted by men, chaste in act, who are tormented by
+    sexual excitement. They tell one stories of long-continued local
+    excitement, followed by intense muscular weariness, or by severe
+    aching pain in the back and legs. In some I have had complaints
+    of swelling and stiffness in the legs, and of pains in the
+    joints, particularly in the knees;&quot; he gives the case of a man
+    who suffered after prolonged chastity from inflammatory
+    conditions of knees and was only cured by marriage.<a name='6_Page_183'></a> Pearce
+    Gould, it may be added, finds that &quot;excessive ungratified sexual
+    desire&quot; is one of the causes of acute orchitis. Remondino (&quot;Some
+    Observations on Continence as a Factor in Health and Disease,&quot;
+    <i>Pacific Medical Journal</i>, Jan., 1900) records the case of a
+    gentleman of nearly seventy who, during the prolonged illness of
+    his wife, suffered from frequent and extreme priapism, causing
+    insomnia. He was very certain that his troubles were not due to
+    his continence, but all treatment failed and there were no
+    spontaneous emissions. At last Remondino advised him to, as he
+    expresses it, &quot;imitate Solomon.&quot; He did so, and all the symptoms
+    at once disappeared. This case is of special interest, because
+    the symptoms were not accompanied by any conscious sexual desire.
+    It is no longer generally believed that sexual abstinence tends
+    to produce insanity, and the occasional cases in which prolonged
+    and intense sexual desire in young women is followed by insanity
+    will usually be found to occur on a basis of hereditary
+    degeneration. It is held by many authorities, however, that minor
+    mental troubles, of a more or less vague character, as well as
+    neurasthenia and hysteria, are by no means infrequently due to
+    sexual abstinence. Thus Freud, who has carefully studied
+    angstneurosis, the obsession of anxiety, finds that it is a
+    result of sexual abstinence, and may indeed be considered as a
+    vicarious form of such abstinence (Freud, <i>Sammlung Kleiner
+    Schriften zur Neurosenlehre</i>, 1906, pp. 76 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    The whole subject of sexual abstinence has been discussed at
+    length by Nystr&ouml;m, of Stockholm, in <i>Das Geschlechtsleben und
+    seine Gesetze</i>, Ch. III. He concludes that it is desirable that
+    continence should be preserved as long as possible in order to
+    strengthen the physical health and to develop the intelligence
+    and character. The doctrine of permanent sexual abstinence,
+    however, he regards as entirely false, except in the case of a
+    small number of religious or philosophic persons. &quot;Complete
+    abstinence during a long period of years cannot be borne without
+    producing serious results both on the body and the mind....
+    Certainly, a young man should repress his sexual impulses as long
+    as possible and avoid everything that may artificially act as a
+    sexual stimulant. If, however, he has done so, and still suffers
+    from unsatisfied normal sexual desires, and if he sees no
+    possibility of marriage within a reasonable time, no one should
+    dare to say that he is committing a sin if, with mutual
+    understanding, he enters into sexual relations with a woman
+    friend, or forms temporary sexual relationships, provided, that
+    is, that he takes the honorable precaution of begetting no
+    children, unless his partner is entirely willing to become a
+    mother, and he is prepared to accept all the responsibilities of
+    fatherhood.&quot; In an article of later date (&quot;Die Einwirkung der
+    Sexuellen Abstinenz auf die Gesundheit,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, July,
+    1908) Nystr&ouml;m vigorously sums up his views. He includes among the
+    results of sexual abstinence orchitis, <a name='6_Page_184'></a>frequent involuntary
+    seminal emissions, impotence, neurasthenia, depression, and a
+    great variety of nervous disturbances of vaguer character,
+    involving diminished power of work, limited enjoyment of life,
+    sleeplessness, nervousness, and pre-occupation with sexual desires
+    and imaginations. More especially there is heightened sexual
+    irritability with erections, or even seminal emissions on the
+    slightest occasion, as on gazing at an attractive woman or in
+    social intercourse with her, or in the presence of works of art
+    representing naked figures. Nystr&ouml;m has had the opportunity of
+    investigating and recording ninety cases of persons who have
+    presented these and similar symptoms as the result, he believes,
+    of sexual abstinence. He has published some of these cases
+    (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Oct., 1908), but it may be
+    added that Rohleder (&quot;Die Abstinentia Sexualis,&quot; <i>ib.</i>, Nov.,
+    1908) has criticized these cases, and doubts whether any of them
+    are conclusive. Rohleder believes that the bad results of sexual
+    abstinence are never permanent, and also that no anatomically
+    pathological states (such as orchitis) can be thereby produced.
+    But he considers, nevertheless, that even incomplete and
+    temporary sexual abstinence may produce fairly serious results,
+    and especially neurasthenic disturbances of various kinds, such
+    as nervous irritability, anxiety, depression, disinclination for
+    work; also diurnal emissions, premature ejaculations, and even a
+    state approaching satyriasis; and in women hysteria,
+    hystero-epilepsy, and nymphomaniacal manifestations; all these
+    symptoms may, however, he believes, be cured when the abstinence
+    ceases.</p>
+
+<p>    Many advocates of sexual abstinence have attached importance to
+    the fact that men of great genius have apparently been completely
+    continent throughout life. This is certainly true (see <i>ante</i>, p.
+    173). But this fact can scarcely be invoked as an argument in
+    favor of the advantages of sexual abstinence among the ordinary
+    population. J. F. Scott selects Jesus, Newton, Beethoven, and Kant
+    as &quot;men of vigor and mental acumen who have lived chastely as
+    bachelors.&quot; It cannot, however, be said that Dr. Scott has been
+    happy in the four figures whom he has been able to select from
+    the whole history of human genius as examples of life-long sexual
+    abstinence. We know little with absolute certainty of Jesus, and
+    even if we reject the diagnosis which Professor Binet-Sangl&eacute; (in
+    his <i>Folie de Jesus</i>) has built up from a minute study of the
+    Gospels, there are many reasons why we should refrain from
+    emphasizing the example of his sexual abstinence; Newton, apart
+    from his stupendous genius in a special field, was an incomplete
+    and unsatisfactory human being who ultimately reached a condition
+    very like insanity; Beethoven was a thoroughly morbid and
+    diseased man, who led an intensely unhappy existence; Kant, from
+    first to last, was a feeble valetudinarian. It would probably be
+    difficult to find a healthy normal man who would voluntarily
+    accept the life led by any of these four, even as the price <a name='6_Page_185'></a>of
+    their fame. J. A. Godfrey (<i>Science of Sex</i>, pp. 139-147)
+    discusses at length the question whether sexual abstinence is
+    favorable to ordinary intellectual vigor, deciding that it is
+    not, and that we cannot argue from the occasional sexual
+    abstinence of men of genius, who are often abnormally
+    constituted, and physically below the average, to the normally
+    developed man. Sexual abstinence, it may be added, is by no means
+    always a favorable sign, even in men who stand intellectually
+    above the average. &quot;I have not obtained the impression,&quot; remarks
+    Freud (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, March, 1908), &quot;that sexual abstinence
+    is helpful to energetic and independent men of action or original
+    thinkers, to courageous liberators or reformers. The sexual
+    conduct of a man is often symbolic of his whole method of
+    reaction in the world. The man who energetically grasps the
+    object of his sexual desire may be trusted to show a similarly
+    relentless energy in the pursuit of other aims.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Many, though not all, who deny that prolonged sexual abstinence is
+harmless, include women in this statement. There are some authorities
+indeed who believe that, whether or not any conscious sexual desire is
+present, sexual abstinence is less easily tolerated by women than by
+men.<a name='6_FNanchor_94'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_94'><sup>[94]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Cabanis, in his famous and pioneering work, <i>Rapports du Physique
+    et du Moral</i>, said in 1802, that women not only bear sexual
+    excess more easily than men, but sexual privations with more
+    difficulty, and a cautious and experienced observer of to-day,
+    L&ouml;wenfeld (<i>Sexualleben und Nervenleiden</i>, 1899, p. 53), while
+    not considering that normal women bear sexual abstinence less
+    easily than men, adds that this is not the case with women of
+    neuropathic disposition, who suffer much more from this cause,
+    and either masturbate when sexual intercourse is impossible or
+    fall into hystero-neurasthenic states. Busch stated (<i>Das
+    Geschlechtsleben des Weibes</i>, 1839, vol. i, pp. 69, 71) that not
+    only is the working of the sexual functions in the organism
+    stronger in women than in men, but that the bad results of sexual
+    abstinence are more marked in women. Sir Benjamin Brodie said
+    long ago that the evils of continence to women are perhaps
+    greater than those of incontinence, and to-day Hammer (<i>Die
+    Gesundheitlichen Gefahren der Geschlechtlichen Enthaltsamkeit</i>,
+    1904) states that, so far as reasons of health are concerned,
+    sexual abstinence is no more to be recommended to women than to
+    men. Nystr&ouml;m is of the same opinion, though he thinks that women
+    bear sexual abstinence better than men, and has discussed this
+    special question at length in a section of his <i>Geschlechtsleben
+    und seine Gesetze</i>. He agrees with the <a name='6_Page_186'></a>experienced Erb that a
+    large number of completely chaste women of high character, and
+    possessing distinguished qualities of mind and heart, are more or
+    less disordered through their sexual abstinence; this is
+    specially often the case with women married to impotent men,
+    though it is frequently not until they approach the age of
+    thirty, Nystr&ouml;m remarks, that women definitely realize their
+    sexual needs.</p>
+
+<p>    A great many women who are healthy, chaste, and modest, feel at
+    times such powerful sexual desire that they can scarcely resist
+    the temptation to go into the street and solicit the first man
+    they meet. Not a few such women, often of good breeding, do
+    actually offer themselves to men with whom they may have perhaps
+    only the slightest acquaintance. Routh records such cases
+    (<i>British Gyn&aelig;cological Journal</i>, Feb., 1887), and most men have
+    met with them at some time. When a woman of high moral character
+    and strong passions is subjected for a very long period to the
+    perpetual strain of such sexual craving, especially if combined
+    with love for a definite individual, a chain of evil results,
+    physical and moral, may be set up, and numerous distinguished
+    physicians have recorded such cases, which terminated at once in
+    complete recovery as soon as the passion was gratified. Lauvergne
+    long since described a case. A fairly typical case of this kind
+    was reported in detail by Brachet (<i>De l'Hypochondrie</i>, p. 69)
+    and embodied by Griesinger in his classic work on &quot;Mental
+    Pathology.&quot; It concerned a healthy married lady, twenty-six years
+    old, having three children. A visiting acquaintance completely
+    gained her affections, but she strenuously resisted the seducing
+    influence, and concealed the violent passion that he had aroused
+    in her. Various serious symptoms, physical and mental, slowly
+    began to appear, and she developed what seemed to be signs of
+    consumption. Six months' stay in the south of France produced no
+    improvement, either in the bodily or mental symptoms. On
+    returning home she became still worse. Then she again met the
+    object of her passion, succumbed, abandoned her husband and
+    children, and fled with him. Six months later she was scarcely
+    recognizable; beauty, freshness and plumpness had taken the place
+    of emaciation; while the symptoms of consumption and all other
+    troubles had entirely disappeared. A somewhat similar case is
+    recorded by Camill Lederer, of Vienna (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r
+    Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene</i>, 1906, Heft 3). A widow, a
+    few months after her husband's death, began to cough, with
+    symptoms of bronchial catarrh, but no definite signs of lung
+    disease. Treatment and change of climate proved entirely
+    unavailing to effect a cure. Two years later, as no signs of
+    disease had appeared in the lungs, though the symptoms continued,
+    she married again. Within a very few weeks all symptoms had
+    disappeared, and she was entirely fresh and well.</p>
+
+<p>    Numerous distinguished gyn&aelig;cologists have recorded their belief
+    <a name='6_Page_187'></a>that sexual excitement is a remedy for various disorders of the
+    sexual system in women, and that abstinence is a cause of such
+    disorders. Matthews Duncan said that sexual excitement is the
+    only remedy for amenorrh&oelig;a; &quot;the only emmenagogue
+    medicine that I know of,&quot; he wrote (<i>Medical Times</i>, Feb. 2,
+    1884), &quot;is not to be found in the Pharmacop&oelig;ia: it is
+    erotic excitement. Of the value of erotic excitement there is no
+    doubt.&quot; Anstie, in his work on <i>Neuralgia</i>, refers to the
+    beneficial effect of sexual intercourse on dysmenorrh&oelig;a,
+    remarking that the necessity of the full natural exercise of the
+    sexual function is shown by the great improvement in such cases
+    after marriage, and especially after childbirth. (It may be
+    remarked that not all authorities find dysmenorrh&oelig;a
+    benefited by marriage, and some consider that the disease is
+    often thereby aggravated; see, <i>e.g.</i>, Wythe Cook, <i>American
+    Journal Obstetrics</i>, Dec., 1893.) The distinguished gyn&aelig;cologist,
+    Tilt, at a somewhat earlier date (<i>On Uterine and Ovarian
+    Inflammation</i>, 1862, p. 309), insisted on the evil results of
+    sexual abstinence in producing ovarian irritation, and perhaps
+    subacute ovaritis, remarking that this was specially pronounced
+    in young widows, and in prostitutes placed in penitentiaries.
+    Intense desire, he pointed out, determines organic movements
+    resembling those required for the gratification of the desire.
+    These burning desires, which can only be quenched by their
+    legitimate satisfaction, are still further heightened by the
+    erotic influence of thoughts, books, pictures, music, which are
+    often even more sexually stimulating than social intercourse with
+    men, but the excitement thus produced is not relieved by that
+    natural collapse which should follow a state of vital
+    turgescence. After referring to the biological facts which show
+    the effect of psychic influences on the formative powers of the
+    ovario-uterine organs in animals, Tilt continues: &quot;I may fairly
+    infer that similar incitements on the mind of females may have a
+    stimulating effect on the organs of ovulation. I have frequently
+    known menstruation to be irregular, profuse, or abnormal in type
+    during courtship in women in whom nothing similar had previously
+    occurred, and that this protracted the treatment of chronic
+    ovaritis and of uterine inflammation.&quot; Bonnifield, of Cincinnati
+    (<i>Medical Standard</i>, Dec., 1896), considers that unsatisfied
+    sexual desire is an important cause of catarrhal endometritis. It
+    is well known that uterine fibroids bear a definite relation to
+    organic sexual activity, and that sexual abstinence, more
+    especially the long-continued deprivation of pregnancy, is a very
+    important cause of the disease. This is well shown by an analysis
+    by A. E. Giles (<i>Lancet</i>, March 2, 1907) of one hundred and fifty
+    cases. As many as fifty-six of these cases, more than a third,
+    were unmarried women, though nearly all were over thirty years of
+    age. Of the ninety-four married women, thirty-four had never been
+    pregnant; of those who had been pregnant, thirty-six had not been
+    so for at least ten years. Thus eighty-four per <a name='6_Page_188'></a>cent, had either
+    not been pregnant at all, or had had no pregnancy for at least
+    ten years. It is, therefore, evident that deprivation of sexual
+    function, whether or not involving abstinence from sexual
+    intercourse, is an important cause of uterine fibroid tumors.
+    Balls-Headley, of Victoria (<i>Evolution of the Diseases of Women</i>,
+    1894, and &quot;Etiology of Diseases of Female Genital Organs,&quot;
+    Allbutt and Playfair, <i>System of Gyn&aelig;cology</i>,) believes that
+    unsatisfied sexual desire is a factor in very many disorders of
+    the sexual organs in women. &quot;My views,&quot; he writes in a private
+    letter, &quot;are founded on a really special gyn&aelig;cological practice
+    of twenty years, during which I have myself taken about seven
+    thousand most careful records. The normal woman is sexually
+    well-formed and her sexual feelings require satisfaction in the
+    direction of the production of the next generation, but under the
+    restrictive and now especially abnormal conditions of
+    civilization some women undergo hereditary atrophy, and the
+    uterus and sexual feelings are feeble; in others of good average
+    local development the feeling is in restraint; in others the
+    feelings, as well as the organs, are strong, and if normal use be
+    withheld evils ensue. Bearing in mind these varieties of
+    congenital development in relation to the respective condition of
+    virginity, or sterile or parous married life, the mode of
+    occurrence and of progress of disease grows on the physician's
+    mind, and there is no more occasion for bewilderment than to the
+    mathematician studying conic sections, when his knowledge has
+    grown from the basis of the science. The problem is suggested:
+    Has a crowd of unassociated diseases fallen as through a sieve on
+    woman, or have these affections almost necessarily ensued from
+    the circumstances of her unnatural environment?&quot; It may be added
+    that Kisch (<i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>), while protesting against any
+    exaggerated estimate of the effects of sexual abstinence,
+    considers that in women it may result, not only in numerous local
+    disorders, but also in nervous disturbance, hysteria, and even
+    insanity, while in neurasthenic women &quot;regulated sexual
+    intercourse has an actively beneficial effect which is often
+    striking.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It is important to remark that the evil results of sexual
+    abstinence in women, in the opinion of many of those who insist
+    upon their importance, are by no means merely due to unsatisfied
+    sexual desire. They may be pronounced even when the woman herself
+    has not the slightest consciousness of sexual needs. This was
+    clearly pointed out forty years ago by the sagacious Anstie (<i>op.
+    cit.</i>) In women, especially, he remarks, &quot;a certain restless
+    hyperactivity of mind, and perhaps of body also, seems to be the
+    expression of Nature's unconscious resentment of the <i>neglect of
+    sexual functions</i>.&quot; Such women, he adds, have kept themselves
+    free from masturbation &quot;at the expense of a perpetual and almost
+    fierce activity of mind and muscle.&quot; Anstie had found that some
+    of the worst cases of the form of nervosity and neurasthenia
+    which he termed<a name='6_Page_189'></a> &quot;spinal irritation,&quot; often accompanied by
+    irritable stomach and an&aelig;mia, get well on marriage. &quot;There can be
+    no question,&quot; he continues, &quot;that a very large proportion of
+    these cases in single women (who form by far the greater number
+    of subjects of spinal irritation) are due to this conscious or
+    unconscious irritation kept up by an unsatisfied sexual want. It
+    is certain that very many young persons (women more especially)
+    are tormented by the irritability of the sexual organs without
+    having the least consciousness of sexual desire, and present the
+    sad spectacle of a <i>vie manqu&eacute;e</i> without ever knowing the true
+    source of the misery which incapacitates them for all the active
+    duties of life. It is a singular fact that in occasional
+    instances one may even see two sisters, inheriting the same kind
+    of nervous organization, both tormented with the symptoms of
+    spinal irritation and both probably suffering from repressed
+    sexual functions, but of whom one shall be pure-minded and
+    entirely unconscious of the real source of her troubles, while
+    the other is a victim to conscious and fruitless sexual
+    irritation.&quot; In this matter Anstie may be regarded as a
+    forerunner of Freud, who has developed with great subtlety and
+    analytic power the doctrine of the transformation of repressed
+    sexual instinct in women into morbid forms. He considers that the
+    nervosity of to-day is largely due to the injurious action on the
+    sexual life of that repression of natural instincts on which our
+    civilization is built up. (Perhaps the clearest brief statement
+    of Freud's views on the matter is to be found in a very
+    suggestive article, &quot;Die 'Kulturelle' Sexualmoral und die Moderne
+    Nervosit&auml;t,&quot; in <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, March, 1908, reprinted in the
+    second series of Freud's <i>Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur
+    Neurosenlehre</i>, 1909). We possess the aptitude, he says, of
+    sublimating and transforming our sexual activities into other
+    activities of a psychically related character, but non-sexual.
+    This process cannot, however, be carried out to an unlimited
+    extent any more than can the conversion of heat into mechanical
+    work in our machines. A certain amount of direct sexual
+    satisfaction is for most organizations indispensable, and the
+    renunciation of this individually varying amount is punished by
+    manifestations which we are compelled to regard as morbid. The
+    process of sublimation, under the influence of civilization,
+    leads both to sexual perversions and to psycho-neuroses. These
+    two conditions are closely related, as Freud views the process of
+    their development; they stand to each other as positive and
+    negative, sexual perversions being the positive pole and
+    psycho-neuroses the negative. It often happens, he remarks, that
+    a brother may be sexually perverse, while his sister, with a
+    weaker sexual temperament, is a neurotic whose symptoms are a
+    transformation of her brother's perversion; while in many
+    families the men are immoral, the women pure and refined but
+    highly nervous. In the case of women who have no defect of sexual
+    impulse there is yet the same pressure of civilized <a name='6_Page_190'></a>morality
+    pushing them into neurotic states. It is a terribly serious
+    injustice, Freud remarks, that the civilized standard of sexual
+    life is the same for all persons, because though some, by their
+    organization, may easily accept it, for others it involves the
+    most difficult psychic sacrifices. The unmarried girl, who has
+    become nervously weak, cannot be advised to seek relief in
+    marriage, for she must be strong in order to &quot;bear&quot; marriage,
+    while we urge a man on no account to marry a girl who is not
+    strong. The married woman who has experienced the deceptions of
+    marriage has usually no way of relief left but by abandoning her
+    virtue. &quot;The more strenuously she has been educated, and the more
+    completely she has been subjected to the demands of civilization,
+    the more she fears this way of escape, and in the conflict
+    between her desires and her sense of duty, she also seeks
+    refuge&mdash;in neurosis. Nothing protects her virtue so surely as
+    disease.&quot; Taking a still wider view of the influence of the
+    narrow &quot;civilized&quot; conception of sexual morality on women, Freud
+    finds that it is not limited to the production of neurotic
+    conditions; it affects the whole intellectual aptitude of women.
+    Their education denies them any occupation with sexual problems,
+    although such problems are so full of interest to them, for it
+    inculcates the ancient prejudice that any curiosity in such
+    matters is unwomanly and a proof of wicked inclinations. They are
+    thus terrified from thinking, and knowledge is deprived of worth.
+    The prohibition to think extends, automatically and inevitably,
+    far beyond the sexual sphere. &quot;I do not believe,&quot; Freud
+    concludes, &quot;that there is any opposition between intellectual
+    work and sexual activity such as was supposed by M&ouml;bius. I am of
+    opinion that the unquestionable fact of the intellectual
+    inferiority of so many women is due to the inhibition of thought
+    imposed upon them for the purpose of sexual repression.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It is only of recent years that this problem has been realized
+    and faced, though solitary thinkers, like Hinton, have been
+    keenly conscious of its existence; for &quot;sorrowing virtue,&quot; as
+    Mrs. Ella Wheeler Wilcox puts it, &quot;is more ashamed of its woes
+    than unhappy sin, because the world has tears for the latter and
+    only ridicule for the former.&quot; &quot;It is an almost cynical trait of
+    our age,&quot; Hellpach wrote a few years ago, &quot;that it is constantly
+    discussing the theme of prostitution, of police control, of the
+    age of consent, of the 'white slavery,' and passes over the moral
+    struggle of woman's soul without an attempt to answer her burning
+    questions.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>On the other hand we find medical writers not only asserting with much
+moral fervor that sexual intercourse outside marriage is always and
+altogether unnecessary, but declaring, moreover, the harmlessness or even
+the advantages of sexual abstinence.</p><a name='6_Page_191'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Ribbing, the Swedish professor, in his <i>Hygi&egrave;ne Sexuelle</i>,
+    advocates sexual abstinence outside marriage, and asserts its
+    harmlessness. Gilles de la Tourette, F&eacute;r&eacute;, and Augagneur in
+    France agree. In Germany F&uuml;rbringer (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health
+    and Disease in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 228) asserts
+    that continence is possible and necessary, though admitting that
+    it may, however, mean serious mischief in exceptional cases.
+    Eulenburg (<i>Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, p. 14) doubts whether anyone,
+    who otherwise lived a reasonable life, ever became ill, or more
+    precisely neurasthenic, through sexual abstinence. Hegar,
+    replying to the arguments of Bebel in his well-known book on
+    women, denies that sexual abstinence can ever produce satyriasis
+    or nymphomania. N&auml;cke, who has frequently discussed the problem
+    of sexual abstinence (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Archiv f&uuml;r
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie</i>, 1903, Heft 1, and <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>,
+    June, 1908), maintains that sexual abstinence can, at most,
+    produce rare and slight unfavorable results, and that it is no
+    more likely to produce insanity, even in predisposed individuals,
+    than are the opposite extremes of sexual excess and masturbation.
+    He adds that, so far as his own observations are concerned, the
+    patients in asylums suffer scarcely at all from their compulsory
+    sexual abstinence.</p>
+
+<p>    It is in England, however, that the virtues of sexual abstinence
+    have been most loudly and emphatically proclaimed, sometimes
+    indeed with considerable lack of cautious qualification. Acton,
+    in his <i>Reproductive Organs</i>, sets forth the traditional English
+    view, as well as Beale in his <i>Morality and the Moral Question</i>.
+    A more distinguished representative of the same view was Paget,
+    who, in his lecture on &quot;Sexual Hypochondriasis,&quot; coupled sexual
+    intercourse with &quot;theft or lying.&quot; Sir William Gowers (<i>Syphilis
+    and the Nervous System</i>, 1892, p. 126) also proclaims the
+    advantages of &quot;unbroken chastity,&quot; more especially as a method of
+    avoiding syphilis. He is not hopeful, however, even as regards
+    his own remedy, for he adds: &quot;We can trace small ground for hope
+    that the disease will thus be materially reduced.&quot; He would
+    still, however, preach chastity to the individual, and he does so
+    with all the ascetic ardor of a medi&aelig;val monk. &quot;With all the
+    force that any knowledge I possess, and any authority I have, can
+    give, I assert that no man ever yet was in the slightest degree
+    or way the worse for continence or better for incontinence. From
+    the latter all are worse morally; a clear majority are worse
+    physically; and in no small number the result is, and ever will
+    be, utter physical shipwreck on one of the many rocks, sharp,
+    jagged-edged, which beset the way, or on one of the many beds of
+    festering slime which no care can possibly avoid.&quot; In America the
+    same view widely prevails, and Dr. J. F. Scott, in his
+    <i>Sexual-Instinct</i> (second edition, 1908, Ch. III), argues very
+    vigorously and at great length in favor of sexual abstinence. He
+    will not even admit that there <a name='6_Page_192'></a>are two sides to the question,
+    though if that were the case, the length and the energy of his
+    arguments would be unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>    Among medical authorities who have discussed the question of
+    sexual abstinence at length it is not, indeed, usually possible
+    to find such unqualified opinions in its favor as those I have
+    quoted. There can be no doubt, however, that a large proportion
+    of physicians, not excluding prominent and distinguished
+    authorities, when casually confronted with the question whether
+    sexual abstinence is harmless, will at once adopt the obvious
+    path of least resistance and reply: Yes. In only a few cases will
+    they even make any qualification of this affirmative answer. This
+    tendency is very well illustrated by an inquiry made by Dr.
+    Ludwig Jacobsohn, of St. Petersburgh (&quot;Die Sexuelle
+    Enthaltsamkeit im Lichte der Medizin,&quot; <i>St. Petersburger
+    Medicinische Wochenschrift</i>, March 17, 1907). He wrote to over
+    two hundred distinguished Russian and German professors of
+    physiology, neurology, psychiatry, etc., asking them if they
+    regarded sexual abstinence as harmless. The majority returned no
+    answer; eleven Russian and twenty-eight Germans replied, but four
+    of them merely said that &quot;they had no personal experience,&quot; etc.;
+    there thus remained thirty-five. Of these E. Pfl&uuml;ger, of Bonn,
+    was skeptical of the advantage of any propaganda of abstinence:
+    &quot;if all the authorities in the world declared the harmlessness of
+    abstinence that would have no influence on youth. Forces are here
+    in play that break through all obstacles.&quot; The harmlessness of
+    abstinence was affirmed by Kr&auml;pelin, Cramer, G&auml;rtner, Tuczek,
+    Schottelius, Gaffky, Finkler, Selenew, Lassar, Seifert, Gruber;
+    the last, however, added that he knew very few abstinent young
+    men, and himself only considered abstinence good before full
+    development, and intercourse not dangerous in moderation even
+    before then. Brieger knew cases of abstinence without harmful
+    results, but himself thought that no general opinion could be
+    given. J&uuml;rgensen said that abstinence <i>in itself</i> is not harmful,
+    but that in some cases intercourse exerts a more beneficial
+    influence. Hoffmann said that abstinence is harmless, adding that
+    though it certainly leads to masturbation, that is better than
+    gonorrh&oelig;a, to say nothing of syphilis, and is easily
+    kept within bounds. Str&uuml;mpell replied that sexual abstinence is
+    harmless, and indirectly useful as preserving from the risk of
+    venereal disease, but that sexual intercourse, being normal, is
+    always more desirable. Hensen said that abstinence is not to be
+    unconditionally approved. Rumpf replied that abstinence was not
+    harmful for most before the age of thirty, but after that age
+    there was a tendency to mental obsessions, and marriage should
+    take place at twenty-five. Leyden also considered abstinence
+    harmless until towards thirty, when it leads to psychic
+    anomalies, especially states of anxiety, and a certain
+    affectation. Hein replied that abstinence is harmless for most,
+    but in some leads to hysterical manifestations and indirectly to
+    <a name='6_Page_193'></a>bad results from masturbation, while for the normal man
+    abstinence cannot be directly beneficial, since intercourse is
+    natural. Gr&uuml;tzner thought that abstinence is almost never
+    harmful. Nescheda said it is harmless in itself, but harmful in
+    so far as it leads to unnatural modes of gratification. Neisser
+    believes that more prolonged abstinence than is now usual would
+    be beneficial, but admitted the sexual excitations of our
+    civilization; he added that of course he saw no harm for healthy
+    men in intercourse. Hoche replied that abstinence is quite
+    harmless in normal persons, but not always so in abnormal
+    persons. Weber thought it had a useful influence in increasing
+    will-power. Tarnowsky said it is good in early manhood, but
+    likely to be unfavorable after twenty-five. Orlow replied that,
+    especially in youth, it is harmless, and a man should be as
+    chaste as his wife. Popow said that abstinence is good at all
+    ages and preserves the energy. Blumenau said that in adult age
+    abstinence is neither normal nor beneficial, and generally leads
+    to masturbation, though not generally to nervous disorders; but
+    that even masturbation is better than syphilis. Tschiriew saw no
+    harm in abstinence up to thirty, and thought sexual weakness more
+    likely to follow excess than abstinence. Tschish regarded
+    abstinence as beneficial rather than harmful up to twenty-five or
+    twenty-eight, but thought it difficult to decide after that age
+    when nervous alterations seem to be caused. Darkschewitcz
+    regarded abstinence as harmless up to twenty-five. Fr&auml;nkel said
+    it was harmless for most, but that for a considerable proportion
+    of people intercourse is a necessity. Erb's opinion is regarded
+    by Jacobsohn as standing alone; he placed the age below which
+    abstinence is harmless at twenty; after that age he regarded it
+    as injurious to health, seriously impeding work and capacity,
+    while in neurotic persons it leads to still more serious results.
+    Jacobsohn concludes that the general opinion of those answering
+    the inquiry may thus be expressed: &quot;Youth should be abstinent.
+    Abstinence can in no way injure them; on the contrary, it is
+    beneficial. If our young people will remain abstinent and avoid
+    extra-conjugal intercourse they will maintain a high ideal of
+    love and preserve themselves from venereal diseases.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The harmlessness of sexual abstinence was likewise affirmed in
+    America in a resolution passed by the American Medical
+    Association in 1906. The proposition thus formally accepted was
+    thus worded: &quot;Continence is not incompatible with health.&quot; It
+    ought to be generally realized that abstract propositions of this
+    kind are worthless, because they mean nothing. Every sane person,
+    when confronted by the demand to boldly affirm or deny the
+    proposition, &quot;Continence is not incompatible with health,&quot; is
+    bound to affirm it. He might firmly believe that continence is
+    incompatible with the health of most people, and that prolonged
+    continence is incompatible with anyone's health, and yet, if he
+    is to be honest in the use of language, it would be impossible
+    for him <a name='6_Page_194'></a>to deny the vague and abstract proposition that
+    &quot;Continence is not incompatible with health.&quot; Such propositions
+    are therefore not only without value, but actually misleading.</p>
+
+<p>    It is obvious that the more extreme and unqualified opinions in
+    favor of sexual abstinence are based not on medical, but on what
+    the writers regard as moral considerations. Moreover, as the same
+    writers are usually equally emphatic in regard to the advantages
+    of sexual intercourse in marriage, it is clear that they have
+    committed themselves to a contradiction. The same act, as N&auml;cke
+    rightly points out, cannot become good or bad according as it is
+    performed in or out of marriage. There is no magic efficacy in a
+    few words pronounced by a priest or a government official.</p>
+
+<p>    Remondino (<i>loc. cit.</i>) remarks that the authorities who have
+    committed themselves to declarations in favor of the
+    unconditional advantages of sexual abstinence tend to fall into
+    three errors: (1) they generalize unduly, instead of considering
+    each case individually, on its own merits; (2) they fail to
+    realize that human nature is influenced by highly mixed and
+    complex motives and cannot be assumed to be amenable only to
+    motives of abstract morality; (3) they ignore the great army of
+    masturbators and sexual perverts who make no complaint of sexual
+    suffering, but by maintaining a rigid sexual abstinence, so far
+    as normal relationships are concerned, gradually drift into
+    currents whence there is no return.</p></div>
+
+<p>Between those who unconditionally affirm or deny the harmlessness of
+sexual abstinence we find an intermediate party of authorities whose
+opinions are more qualified. Many of those who occupy this more guarded
+position are men whose opinions carry much weight, and it is probable that
+with them rather than with the more extreme advocates on either side the
+greater measure of reason lies. So complex a question as this cannot be
+adequately investigated merely in the abstract, and settled by an
+unqualified negative or affirmative. It is a matter in which every case
+requires its own special and personal consideration.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Where there is such a marked opposition of opinion truth is not
+    exclusively on one side,&quot; remarks L&ouml;wenfeld (<i>Sexualleben und
+    Nervenleiden</i>, second edition, p. 40). Sexual abstinence is
+    certainly often injurious to neuropathic persons. (This is now
+    believed by a large number of authorities, and was perhaps first
+    decisively stated by Krafft-Ebing, &quot;Ueber Neurosen durch
+    Abstinenz,&quot; <i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>, 1889, p. 1). L&ouml;wenfeld
+    finds no special proclivity to neurasthenia <a name='6_Page_195'></a>among the Catholic
+    clergy, and when it does occur, there is no reason to suppose a
+    sexual causation. &quot;In healthy and not hereditarily neuropathic
+    men complete abstinence is possible without injury to the nervous
+    system.&quot; Injurious effects, he continues, when they appear,
+    seldom occur until between twenty-four and thirty-six years of
+    age, and even then are not usually serious enough to lead to a
+    visit to a doctor, consisting mainly in frequency of nocturnal
+    emissions, pain in testes or rectum, hyper&aelig;sthesia in the
+    presence of women or of sexual ideas. If, however, conditions
+    arise which specially stimulate the sexual emotions, neurasthenia
+    may be produced. L&ouml;wenfeld agrees with Freud and Gattel that the
+    neurosis of anxiety tends to occur in the abstinent, careful
+    examination showing that the abstinence is a factor in its
+    production in both sexes. It is common among young women married
+    to much older men, often appearing during the first years of
+    marriage. Under special circumstances, therefore, abstinence can
+    be injurious, but on the whole the difficulties due to such
+    abstinence are not severe, and they only exceptionally call forth
+    actual disturbance in the nervous or psychic spheres. Moll takes
+    a similar temperate and discriminating view. He regards sexual
+    abstinence before marriage as the ideal, but points out that we
+    must avoid any doctrinal extremes in preaching sexual abstinence,
+    for such preaching will merely lead to hypocrisy. Intercourse
+    with prostitutes, and the tendency to change a woman like a
+    garment, induce loss of sensitiveness to the spiritual and
+    personal element in woman, while the dangers of sexual abstinence
+    must no more be exaggerated than the dangers of sexual
+    intercourse (Moll, <i>Libido Sexualis</i>, 1898, vol. i, p. 848;
+    <i>id.</i>, <i>Kontr&auml;re Sexualempfindung</i>, 1899, p. 588). Bloch also (in
+    a chapter on the question of sexual abstinence in his
+    <i>Sexualleben unserer Zeit</i>, 1908) takes a similar standpoint. He
+    advocates abstention during early life and temporary abstention
+    in adult life, such abstention being valuable, not only for the
+    conservation and transformation of energy, but also to emphasize
+    the fact that life contains other matters to strive for beyond
+    the ends of sex. Redlich (<i>Medizinische Klinik</i>, 1908, No. 7)
+    also, in a careful study of the medical aspects of the question,
+    takes an intermediate standpoint in relation to the relative
+    advantages and disadvantages of sexual abstinence. &quot;We may say
+    that sexual abstinence is not a condition which must, under all
+    circumstances and at any price, be avoided, though it is true
+    that for the majority of healthy adult persons regular sexual
+    intercourse is advantageous, and sometimes is even to be
+    recommended.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It may be added that from the standpoint of Christian religious
+    morality this same attitude, between the extremes of either
+    party, recognizing the advantages of sexual abstinence, but not
+    insisting that they shall be purchased at any price, has also
+    found representation.<a name='6_Page_196'></a> Thus, in England, an Anglican clergyman,
+    the Rev. H. Northcote (<i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, pp. 58,
+    60) deals temperately and sympathetically with the difficulties
+    of sexual abstinence, and is by no means convinced that such
+    abstinence is always an unmixed advantage; while in Germany a
+    Catholic priest, Karl Jentsch (<i>Sexualethik, Sexualjustiz,
+    Sexualpolizei</i>, 1900) sets himself to oppose the rigorous and
+    unqualified assertions of Ribbing in favor of sexual abstinence.
+    Jentsch thus expresses what he conceives ought to be the attitude
+    of fathers, of public opinion, of the State and the Church
+    towards the young man in this matter: &quot;Endeavor to be abstinent
+    until marriage. Many succeed in this. If you can succeed, it is
+    good. But, if you cannot succeed, it is unnecessary to cast
+    reproaches on yourself and to regard yourself as a scoundrel or a
+    lost sinner. Provided that you do not abandon yourself to mere
+    enjoyment or wantonness, but are content with what is necessary
+    to restore your peace of mind, self-possession, and cheerful
+    capacity for work, and also that you observe the precautions
+    which physicians or experienced friends impress upon you.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>When we thus analyze and investigate the the three main streams of expert
+opinions in regard to this question of sexual abstinence&mdash;the opinions in
+favor of it, the opinions in opposition to it, and the opinions which take
+an intermediate course&mdash;we can scarcely fail to conclude how
+unsatisfactory the whole discussion is. The state of &quot;sexual abstinence&quot;
+is a completely vague and indefinite state. The indefinite and even
+meaningless character of the expression &quot;sexual abstinence&quot; is shown by
+the frequency with which those who argue about it assume that it can, may,
+or even must, involve masturbation. That fact alone largely deprives it of
+value as morality and altogether as abstinence. At this point, indeed, we
+reach the most fundamental criticism to which the conception of &quot;sexual
+abstinence&quot; lies open. Rohleder, an experienced physician and a recognized
+authority on questions of sexual pathology, has submitted the current
+views on &quot;sexual abstinence&quot; to a searching criticism in a lengthy and
+important paper.<a name='6_FNanchor_95'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_95'><sup>[95]</sup></a> He denies altogether that strict sexual abstinence
+exists at all. &quot;Sexual abstinence,&quot; he points out, in any strict scenes of
+the term, must involve abstinence not merely from sexual intercourse but
+from auto-erotic manifestations, from masturbation, <a name='6_Page_197'></a>from homosexual acts,
+from all sexually perverse practices. It must further involve a permanent
+abstention from indulgence in erotic imaginations and voluptuous reverie.
+When, however, it is possible thus to render the whole psychic field a
+<i>tabula rasa</i> so far as sexual activity is concerned&mdash;and if it fails to
+be so constantly and consistently there is no strict sexual
+abstinence&mdash;then, Rohleder points out, we have to consider whether we are
+not in presence of a case of sexual an&aelig;sthesia, of <i>anaphrodisia
+sexualis</i>. That is a question which is rarely, if ever, faced by those who
+discuss sexual abstinence. It is, however, an extremely pertinent
+question, because, as Rohleder insists, if sexual an&aelig;sthesia exists the
+question of sexual abstinence falls to the ground, for we can only
+&quot;abstain&quot; from actions that are in our power. Complete sexual an&aelig;sthesia
+is, however, so rare a state that it may be practically left out of
+consideration, and as the sexual impulse, if it exists, must by
+physiological necessity sometimes become active in some shape&mdash;even if
+only, according to Freud's view, by transformation into some morbid
+neurotic condition&mdash;we reach the conclusion that &quot;sexual abstinence&quot; is
+strictly impossible. Rohleder has met with a few cases in which there
+seemed to him no escape from the conclusion that sexual abstinence
+existed, but in all of these he subsequently found that he was mistaken,
+usually owing to the practice of masturbation, which he believes to be
+extremely common and very frequently accompanied by a persistent attempt
+to deceive the physician concerning its existence. The only kind of
+&quot;sexual abstinence&quot; that exists is a partial and temporary abstinence.
+Instead of saying, as some say, &quot;Permanent abstinence is unnatural and
+cannot exist without physical and mental injury,&quot; we ought to say,
+Rohleder believes, &quot;Permanent abstinence is unnatural and has never
+existed.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible not to feel as we contemplate this chaotic mass of
+opinions, that the whole discussion is revolving round a purely negative
+idea, and that fundamental fact is responsible for what at first seem to
+be startling conflicts of statement. If indeed we were to eliminate what
+is commonly regarded as the religious and moral aspect of the matter&mdash;an
+aspect, be it <a name='6_Page_198'></a>remembered, which has no bearing on the essential natural
+facts of the question&mdash;we cannot fail to perceive that these ostentatious
+differences of conviction would be reduced within very narrow and trifling
+limits.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot strictly coordinate the impulse of reproduction with the impulse
+of nutrition. There are very important differences between them, more
+especially the fundamental difference that while the satisfaction of the
+one impulse is absolutely necessary both to the life of the individual and
+of the race, the satisfaction of the other is absolutely necessary only to
+the life of the race. But when we reduce this question to one of &quot;sexual
+abstinence&quot; we are obviously placing it on the same basis as that of
+abstinence from food, that is to say at the very opposite pole to which we
+place it when (as in the previous chapter) we consider it from the point
+of view of asceticism and chastity. It thus comes about that on this
+negative basis there really is an interesting analogy between nutritive
+abstinence, though necessarily only maintained incompletely and for a
+short time, and sexual abstinence, maintained more completely and for a
+longer time. A patient of Janet's seems to bring out clearly this
+resemblance. Nadia, whom Janet was able to study during five years, was a
+young woman of twenty-seven, healthy and intelligent, not suffering from
+hysteria nor from anorexia, for she had a normal appetite. But she had an
+idea; she was anxious to be slim and to attain this end she cut down her
+meals to the smallest size, merely a little soup and a few eggs. She
+suffered much from the abstinence she thus imposed on herself, and was
+always hungry, though sometimes her hunger was masked by the inevitable
+stomach trouble caused by so long a persistence in this <i>r&eacute;gime</i>. At
+times, indeed, she had been so hungry that she had devoured greedily
+whatever she could lay her hands on, and not infrequently she could not
+resist the temptation to eat a few biscuits in secret. Such actions caused
+her horrible remorse, but, all the same, she would be guilty of them
+again. She realized the great efforts demanded by her way of life, and
+indeed looked upon herself as a heroine for resisting so long.
+&quot;Sometimes,&quot; she told Janet, &quot;I passed whole hours in thinking about food,
+I was so <a name='6_Page_199'></a>hungry. I swallowed my saliva, I bit my handkerchief, I rolled
+on the ground, I wanted to eat so badly. I searched books for descriptions
+of meals and feasts, I tried to deceive my hunger by imagining that I too
+was enjoying all these good things. I was really famished, and in spite of
+a few weaknesses for biscuits I know that I showed much courage.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_96'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_96'><sup>[96]</sup></a>
+Nadia's motive idea, that she wished to be slim, corresponds to the
+abstinent man's idea that he wishes to be &quot;moral,&quot; and only differs from
+it by having the advantage of being somewhat more positive and personal,
+for the idea of the person who wishes to avoid sexual indulgence because
+it is &quot;not right&quot; is often not merely negative but impersonal and imposed
+by the social and religious environment. Nadia's occasional outbursts of
+reckless greediness correspond to the sudden impulses to resort to
+prostitution, and her secret weaknesses for biscuits, followed by keen
+remorse, to lapses into the habit of masturbation. Her fits of struggling
+and rolling on the ground are precisely like the outbursts of futile
+desire which occasionally occur to young abstinent men and women in health
+and strength. The absorption in thoughts about meals and in literary
+descriptions of meals is clearly analogous to the abstinent man's
+absorption in wanton thoughts and erotic books. Finally, Nadia's
+conviction that she is a heroine corresponds exactly to the attitude of
+self-righteousness which often marks the sexually abstinent.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn to Freud's penetrating and suggestive study of the problem of
+sexual abstinence in relation to &quot;civilized&quot; sexual morality, we find
+that, though he makes no reference to the analogy with abstinence from
+food, his words would for the most part have an equal application to both
+cases. &quot;The task of subduing so powerful an instinct as the sexual
+impulse, otherwise than by giving it satisfaction,&quot; he writes, &quot;is one
+which may employ the whole strength of a man. Subjugation through
+sublimation, by guiding the sexual forces into higher civilizational
+paths, may succeed with a minority, and even with these only for a time,
+least easily during the years of ardent youthful energy.<a name='6_Page_200'></a> Most others
+become neurotic or otherwise come to grief. Experience shows that the
+majority of people constituting our society are constitutionally unequal
+to the task of abstinence. We say, indeed, that the struggle with this
+powerful impulse and the emphasis the struggle involves on the ethical and
+&aelig;sthetic forces in the soul's life 'steels' the character, and for a few
+favorably organized natures this is true; it must also be acknowledged
+that the differentiation of individual character so marked in our time
+only becomes possible through sexual limitations. But in by far the
+majority of cases the struggle with sensuality uses up the available
+energy of character, and this at the very time when the young man needs
+all his strength in order to win his place in the world.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_97'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_97'><sup>[97]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>When we have put the problem on this negative basis of abstinence it is
+difficult to see how we can dispute the justice of Freud's conclusions.
+They hold good equally for abstinence from food and abstinence from sexual
+love. When we have placed the problem on a more positive basis, and are
+able to invoke the more active and fruitful motives of asceticism and
+chastity this unfortunate fight against a natural impulse is abolished. If
+chastity is an ideal of the harmonious play of all the organic impulses of
+the soul and body, if asceticism, properly understood, is the athletic
+striving for a worthy object which causes, for the time, an indifference
+to the gratification of sexual impulses, we are on wholesome and natural
+ground, and there is no waste of energy in fruitless striving for a
+negative end, whether imposed artificially from without, as it usually is,
+or voluntarily chosen by the individual himself.</p><a name='6_Page_201'></a>
+
+<p>For there is really no complete analogy between sexual desire and hunger,
+between abstinence from sexual relations and abstinence from food. When we
+put them both on the basis of abstinence we put them on a basis which
+covers the impulse for food but only half covers the impulse for sexual
+love. We confer no pleasure and no service on our food when we eat it. But
+the half of sexual love, perhaps the most important and ennobling half,
+lies in what we give and not in what we take. To reduce this question to
+the low level of abstinence, is not only to centre it in a merely negative
+denial but to make it a solely self-regarding question. Instead of asking:
+How can I bring joy and strength to another? we only ask: How can I
+preserve my empty virtue?</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it is that from whatever aspect we consider the
+question,&mdash;whether in view of the flagrant contradiction between the
+authorities who have discussed this question, or of the illegitimate
+mingling here of moral and physiological considerations, or of the merely
+negative and indeed unnatural character of the &quot;virtue&quot; thus set up, or of
+the failure involved to grasp the ennoblingly altruistic and mutual side
+of sexual love,&mdash;from whatever aspect we approach the problem of &quot;sexual
+abstinence&quot; we ought only to agree to do so under protest.</p>
+
+<p>If we thus decide to approach it, and if we have reached the
+conviction&mdash;which, in view of all the evidence we can scarcely
+escape&mdash;that, while sexual abstinence in so far as it may be recognized as
+possible is not incompatible with health, there are yet many adults for
+whom it is harmful, and a very much larger number for whom when prolonged
+it is undesirable, we encounter a serious problem. It is a problem which
+confronts any person, and especially the physician, who may be called upon
+to give professional advice to his fellows on this matter. If sexual
+relationships are sometimes desirable for unmarried persons, or for
+married persons who, for any reason, are debarred from conjugal union, is
+a physician justified in recommending such sexual relationships to his
+patient? This is a question that has frequently been debated and decided
+in opposing senses.</p><a name='6_Page_202'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Various distinguished physicians, especially in Germany, have
+    proclaimed the duty of the doctor to recommend sexual intercourse
+    to his patient whenever he considers it desirable. Gyurkovechky,
+    for instance, has fully discussed this question, and answered it
+    in the affirmative. Nystr&ouml;m (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, July, 1908, p.
+    413) states that it is the physician's duty, in some cases of
+    sexual weakness, when all other methods of treatment have failed,
+    to recommend sexual intercourse as the best remedy. Dr. Max
+    Marcuse stands out as a conspicuous advocate of the unconditional
+    duty of the physician to advocate sexual intercourse in some
+    cases, both to men and to women, and has on many occasions argued
+    in this sense (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Darf der Arzt zum Ausserehelichen
+    Geschlechtsverkehr raten?</i> 1904). Marcuse is strongly of opinion
+    that a physician who, allowing himself to be influenced by moral,
+    sociological, or other considerations, neglects to recommend
+    sexual intercourse when he considers it desirable for the
+    patient's health, is unworthy of his profession, and should
+    either give up medicine or send his patients to other doctors.
+    This attitude, though not usually so emphatically stated, seems
+    to be widely accepted. Lederer goes even further when he states
+    (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene</i>, 1906,
+    Heft 3) that it is the physician's duty in the case of a woman
+    who is suffering from her husband's impotence, to advise her to
+    have intercourse with another man, adding that &quot;whether she does
+    so with her husband's consent is no affair of the physician's,
+    for he is not the guardian of morality, but the guardian of
+    health.&quot; The physicians who publicly take this attitude are,
+    however, a small minority. In England, so far as I am aware, no
+    physician of eminence has openly proclaimed the duty of the
+    doctor to advise sexual intercourse outside marriage, although,
+    it is scarcely necessary to add, in England, as elsewhere, it
+    happens that doctors, including women doctors, from time to time
+    privately point out to their unmarried and even married patients,
+    that sexual intercourse would probably be beneficial.</p>
+
+<p>    The duty of the physician to recommend sexual intercourse has
+    been denied as emphatically as it has been affirmed. Thus
+    Eulenburg (<i>Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, p. 43), would by no means
+    advise extra-conjugal relations to his patient; &quot;such advice is
+    quite outside the physician's competence.&quot; It is, of course,
+    denied by those who regard sexual abstinence as always harmless,
+    if not beneficial. But it is also denied by many who consider
+    that, under some circumstances, sexual intercourse would do good.</p>
+
+<p>    Moll has especially, and on many occasions, discussed the duty of
+    the physician in relation to the question of advising sexual
+    intercourse outside marriage (<i>e.g.</i>, in his comprehensive work,
+    <i>Aerztliche Ethik</i>, 1902; also <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Aerztliche
+    Fortbildung</i>, 1905, Nos. 12-15;<a name='6_Page_203'></a> <i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1905, Heft 3;
+    <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, vol. ii, Heft 8). At the outset
+    Moll had been disposed to assert the right of the physician to
+    recommend sexual intercourse under some circumstances; &quot;so long
+    as marriage is unduly delayed and sexual intercourse outside
+    marriage exists,&quot; he wrote (<i>Die Contr&auml;re Sexualempfindung</i>,
+    second edition, p. 287), &quot;so long, I think, we may use such
+    intercourse therapeutically, provided that the rights of no third
+    person (husband or wife) are injured.&quot; In all his later writings,
+    however, Moll ranges himself clearly and decisively on the
+    opposite side. He considers that the physician has no right to
+    overlook the possible results of his advice in inflicting
+    venereal disease, or, in the case of a woman, pregnancy, on his
+    patient, and he believes that these serious results are far more
+    likely to happen than is always admitted by those who defend the
+    legitimacy of such advice. Nor will Moll admit that the physician
+    is entitled to overlook the moral aspects of the question. A
+    physician may know that a poor man could obtain many things good
+    for his health by stealing, but he cannot advise him to steal.
+    Moll takes the case of a Catholic priest who is suffering from
+    neurasthenia due to sexual abstinence. Even although the
+    physician feels certain that the priest may be able to avoid all
+    the risks of disease as well as of publicity, he is not entitled
+    to urge him to sexual intercourse. He has to remember that in
+    thus causing a priest to break his vows of chastity he may induce
+    a mental conflict and a bitter remorse which may lead to the
+    worst results, even on his patient's physical health. Similar
+    results, Moll remarks, may follow such advice when given to a
+    married man or woman, to say nothing of possible divorce
+    proceedings and accompanying evils.</p>
+
+<p>    Rohleder (<i>Vorlesungen &uuml;ber Geschlechtstrieb und Gesamtes
+    Geschlechtsleben der Menschen</i>) adopts a somewhat qualified
+    attitude in this matter. As a general rule he is decidedly
+    against recommending sexual intercourse outside marriage to those
+    who are suffering from partial or temporary abstinence (the only
+    form of abstinence he recognizes), partly on the ground that the
+    evils of abstinence are not serious or permanent, and partly
+    because the patient is fairly certain to exercise his own
+    judgment in the matter. But in some classes of cases he
+    recommends such intercourse, and notably to bisexual persons, on
+    the ground that he is thus preserving his patient from the
+    criminal risks of homosexual practices.</p></div>
+
+<p>It seems to me that there should be no doubt whatever as to the correct
+professional attitude of the physician in relation to this question of
+advice concerning sexual intercourse. The physician is never entitled to
+advise his patient to adopt sexual <a name='6_Page_204'></a>intercourse outside marriage nor any
+method of relief which is commonly regarded as illegitimate. It is said
+that the physician has nothing to do with considerations of conventional
+morality. If he considers that champagne would be good for a poor patient
+he ought to recommend him to take champagne; he is not called upon to
+consider whether the patient will beg, borrow, or steal the champagne.
+But, after all, even if that be admitted, it must still be said that the
+physician knows that the champagne, however obtained, is not likely to be
+poisonous. When, however, he prescribes sexual intercourse, with the same
+lofty indifference to practical considerations, he has no such knowledge.
+In giving such a prescription the physician has in fact not the slightest
+knowledge of what he may be prescribing. He may be giving his patient a
+venereal disease; he may be giving the anxieties and responsibilities of
+an illegitimate child; the prescriber is quite in the dark. He is in the
+same position as if he had prescribed a quack medicine of which the
+composition was unknown to him, with the added disadvantage that the
+medicine may turn out to be far more potently explosive than is the case
+with the usually innocuous patent medicine. The utmost that a physician
+can properly permit himself to do is to put the case impartially before
+his patient and to present to him all the risks. The solution must be for
+the patient himself to work out, as best he can, for it involves social
+and other considerations which, while they are indeed by no means outside
+the sphere of medicine, are certainly entirely outside the control of the
+individual private practitioner of medicine.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Moll also is of opinion that this impartial presentation of the
+    case for and against sexual intercourse corresponds to the
+    physician's duty in the matter. It is, indeed, a duty which can
+    scarcely be escaped by the physician in many cases. Moll points
+    out that it can by no means be assimilated, as some have
+    supposed, with the recommendation of sexual intercourse. It is,
+    on the contrary, he remarks, much more analogous to the
+    physician's duty in reference to operations. He puts before the
+    patient the nature of the operation, its advantages and its
+    risks, but he leaves it to the patient's judgment to accept or
+    reject the operation. Lewitt also (<i>Geschlechtliche
+    Enthaltsamkeit und Gesundheitsst&ouml;rungen</i>, 1905), after discussing
+    the various opinions on this <a name='6_Page_205'></a>question, comes to the conclusion
+    that the physician, if he thinks that intercourse outside
+    marriage might be beneficial, should explain the difficulties and
+    leave the patient himself to decide.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is another reason why, having regard to the prevailing moral
+opinions at all events among the middle classes, a physician should
+refrain from advising extra-conjugal intercourse: he places himself in a
+false relation to his social environment. He is recommending a remedy the
+nature of which he could not publicly avow, and so destroying the public
+confidence in himself. The only physician who is morally entitled to
+advise his patients to enter into extra-conjugal relationships is one who
+openly acknowledges that he is prepared to give such advice. The doctor
+who is openly working for social reform has perhaps won the moral right to
+give advice in accordance with the tendency of his public activity, but
+even then his advice may be very dubiously judicious, and he would be
+better advised to confine his efforts at social reform to his public
+activities. The voice of the physician, as Professor Max Flesch of
+Frankfort observes, is more and more heard in the development and new
+growth of social institutions; he is a natural leaders in such movements,
+and proposals for reform properly come from him. &quot;But,&quot; as Flesch
+continues, &quot;publicly to accept the excellence of existing institutions and
+in the privacy of the consulting-room to give advice which assumes the
+imperfection of those institutions is illogical and confusing. It is the
+physician's business to give advice which is in accordance with the
+interests of the community as a whole, and those interests require that
+sexual relationships should be entered into between healthy men and women
+who are able and willing to accept the results of their union. That should
+be the physician's rule of conduct. Only so can he become, what to-day he
+is often proclaimed to be, the leader of the nation.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_98'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_98'><sup>[98]</sup></a> This view is
+not, as we see, entirely in accord with that which assumes that the
+physician's duty is solely and entirely to his patient, without regard to
+the bearing of his advice on social conduct. The patient's interests are
+primary, but they are not entitled to be <a name='6_Page_206'></a>placed in antagonism to the
+interests of society. The advice given by the wise physician must always
+be in harmony with the social and moral tone of his age. Thus it is that
+the tendency among the younger generation of physicians to-day to take an
+active interest in raising that tone and in promoting social reform&mdash;a
+tendency which exists not only in Germany where such interests have long
+been acute, but also in so conservative a land as England&mdash;is full of
+promise for the future.</p>
+
+<p>The physician is usually content to consider his duty to his patient in
+relationship to sexual abstinence as sufficiently fulfilled when he
+attempts to allay sexual hyper&aelig;sthesia by medical or hygienic treatment.
+It can scarcely be claimed, however, that the results of such treatment
+are usually satisfactory, and sometimes indeed the treatment has a result
+which is the reverse of that intended. The difficulty generally is that in
+order to be efficacious the treatment must be carried to an extreme which
+exhausts or inhibits not only the genital activities alone but the
+activities of the whole organism, and short of that it may prove a
+stimulant rather than a sedative. It is difficult and usually impossible
+to separate out a man's sexual activities and bring influence to bear on
+these activities alone. Sexual activity is so closely intertwined with the
+other organic activities, erotic exuberance is so much a flower which is
+rooted in the whole organism, that the blow which crushes it may strike
+down the whole man. The bromides are universally recognized as powerful
+sexual sedatives, but their influence in this respect only makes itself
+felt when they have dulled all the finest energies of the organism.
+Physical exercise is universally recommended to sexually hyper&aelig;sthetic
+patients. Yet most people, men and women, find that physical exercise is a
+positive stimulus to sexual activity. This is notably so as regards
+walking, and exuberantly energetic young women who are troubled by the
+irritant activity of their healthy sexual emotions sometimes spend a large
+part of their time in the vain attempt to lull their activity by long
+walks. Physical exercise only proves efficacious in this respect when it
+is carried to an extent which produces general exhaustion. Then indeed the
+sexual activity is lulled; but so are all the mental and <a name='6_Page_207'></a>physical
+activities. It is undoubtedly true that exercises and games of all sorts
+for young people of both sexes have a sexually hygienic as well as a
+generally hygienic influence which is undoubtedly beneficial. They are, on
+all grounds, to be preferred to prolonged sedentary occupations. But it is
+idle to suppose that games and exercises will suppress the sexual
+impulses, for in so far as they favor health, they favor all the impulses
+that are the result of health. The most that can be expected is that they
+may tend to restrain the manifestations of sex by dispersing the energy
+they generate.</p>
+
+<p>There are many physical rules and precautions which are advocated, not
+without reason, as tending to inhibit or diminish sexual activity. The
+avoidance of heat and the cultivation of cold is one of the most important
+of these. Hot climates, a close atmosphere, heavy bed-clothing, hot baths,
+all tend powerfully to excite the sexual system, for that system is a
+peripheral sensory organ, and whatever stimulates the skin generally,
+stimulates the sexual system.<a name='6_FNanchor_99'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_99'><sup>[99]</sup></a> Cold, which contracts the skin, also
+deadens the sexual feelings, a fact which the ascetics of old knew and
+acted upon. The garments and the posture of the body are not without
+influence. Constriction or pressure in the neighborhood of the sexual
+region, even tight corsets, as well as internal pressure, as from a
+distended bladder, are sources of sexual irritation. Sleeping on the back,
+which congests the spinal centres, also acts in the same way, as has long
+been known by those who attend to sexual hygiene; thus it is stated that
+in the Franciscan order it is prohibited to lie on the back. Food and
+drink are, further, powerful sexual stimulants. This is true even of the
+simplest and most wholesome nourishment, but it is more especially true of
+flesh meat, and, above all, of alcohol in its stronger forms such as
+spirits, liqueurs, sparkling and heavy wines, and even many English beers.
+This has always been clearly realized by those who cultivate asceticism,
+and it is one of the powerful reasons why alcohol should not be given in
+early youth. As St. Jerome wrote, when telling Eustochium that she must
+avoid wine like poison, &quot;wine and youth are the <a name='6_Page_208'></a>two fires of lust. Why
+add oil to the flame?&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_100'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_100'><sup>[100]</sup></a> Idleness, again, especially when combined with
+rich living, promotes sexual activity, as Burton sets forth at length in
+his <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, and constant occupation, on the other hand,
+concentrates the wandering activities.</p>
+
+<p>Mental exercise, like physical exercise, has sometimes been advocated as a
+method of calming sexual excitement, but it seems to be equally equivocal
+in its action. If it is profoundly interesting and exciting it may stir up
+rather than lull the sexual emotions. If it arouses little interest it is
+unable to exert any kind of influence. This is true even of mathematical
+occupations which have been advocated by various authorities, including
+Broussais, as aids to sexual hygiene.<a name='6_FNanchor_101'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_101'><sup>[101]</sup></a> &quot;I have tried mechanical mental
+work,&quot; a lady writes, &quot;such as solving arithmetical or algebraic problems,
+but it does no good; in fact it seems only to increase the excitement.&quot; &quot;I
+studied and especially turned my attention to mathematics,&quot; a clergyman
+writes, &quot;with a view to check my sexual tendencies. To a certain extent I
+was successful. But at the approach of an old friend, a voice or a touch,
+these tendencies came back again with renewed strength. I found
+mathematics, however, the best thing on the whole to take off my attention
+from women, better than religious exercises which I tried when younger
+(twenty-two to thirty).&quot; At the best, however, such devices are of merely
+temporary efficacy.</p>
+
+<p>It is easier to avoid arousing the sexual impulses than to impose silence
+on them by hygienic measures when once they are <a name='6_Page_209'></a>aroused. It is,
+therefore, in childhood and youth that all these measures may be most
+reasonably observed in order to avoid any premature sexual excitement. In
+one group of stolidly normal children influences that might be expected to
+act sexually pass away unperceived. At the other extreme, another group of
+children are so neurotically and precociously sensitive that no
+precautions will preserve them from such influences. But between these
+groups there is another, probably much the largest, who resist slight
+sexual suggestions but may succumb to stronger or longer influences, and
+on these the cares of sexual hygiene may profitably be bestowed.<a name='6_FNanchor_102'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_102'><sup>[102]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>After puberty, when the spontaneous and inner voice of sex may at any
+moment suddenly make itself heard, all hygienic precautions are liable to
+be flung to the winds, and even the youth or maiden most anxious to retain
+the ideals of chastity can often do little but wait till the storm has
+passed. It sometimes happens that a prolonged period of sexual storm and
+stress occurs soon after puberty, and then dies away although there has
+been little or no sexual gratification, to be succeeded by a period of
+comparative calm. It must be remembered that in many, and perhaps most,
+individuals, men and women, the sexual appetite, unlike hunger or thirst,
+can after a prolonged struggle, be reduced to a more or less quiescent
+state which, far from injuring, may even benefit the physical and psychic
+vigor generally. This may happen whether or not sexual gratification has
+been obtained. If there has never been any such gratification, the
+struggle is less severe and sooner over, unless the individual is of
+highly erotic <a name='6_Page_210'></a>temperament. If there has been gratification, if the mind
+is filled not merely with desires but with joyous experience to which the
+body also has grown accustomed, then the struggle is longer and more
+painfully absorbing. The succeeding relief, however, if it comes, is
+sometimes more complete and is more likely to be associated with a state
+of psychic health. For the fundamental experiences of life, under normal
+conditions, bring not only intellectual sanity, but emotional
+pacification. A conquest of the sexual appetites which has never at any
+period involved a gratification of these appetites seldom produces results
+that commend themselves as rich and beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>In these combats there are, however, no permanent conquests. For a very
+large number of people, indeed, though there may be emotional changes and
+fluctuations dependent on a variety of circumstances, there can scarcely
+be said to be any conquest at all. They are either always yielding to the
+impulses that assail them, or always resisting those impulses, in the
+first case with remorse, in the second with dissatisfaction. In either
+case much of their lives, at the time when life is most vigorous, is
+wasted. With women, if they happen to be of strong passions and reckless
+impulses to abandonment, the results may be highly enervating, if not
+disastrous to the general psychic life. It is to this cause, indeed, that
+some have been inclined to attribute the frequent mediocrity of women's
+work in artistic and intellectual fields. Women of intellectual force are
+frequently if not generally women of strong passions, and if they resist
+the tendency to merge themselves in the duties of maternity their lives
+are often wasted in emotional conflict and their psychic natures
+impoverished.<a name='6_FNanchor_103'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_103'><sup>[103]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_211'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The extent to which sexual abstinence and the struggles it
+    involves may hamper and absorb the individual throughout life is
+    well illustrated in the following case. A lady, vigorous, robust,
+    and generally healthy, of great intelligence and high character,
+    has reached middle life without marrying, or ever having sexual
+    relationships. She was an only child, and when between three and
+    four years of age, a playmate some six years older, initiated her
+    into the habit of playing with her sexual parts. She was,
+    however, at this age quite devoid of sexual feelings, and the
+    habit dropped naturally, without any bad effects, as soon as she
+    left the neighborhood of this girl a year or so later. Her health
+    was good and even brilliant, and she developed vigorously at
+    puberty. At the age of sixteen, however, a mental shock caused
+    menstruation to diminish in amount during some years, and
+    simultaneously with this diminution persistent sexual excitement
+    appeared spontaneously, for the first time. She regarded such
+    feelings as abnormal and unhealthy, and exerted all her powers of
+    self-control in resisting them. But will power had no effect in
+    diminishing the feelings. There was constant and imperious
+    excitement, with the sense of vibration, tension, pressure,
+    dilatation and tickling, accompanied, it may be, by some ovarian
+    congestion, for she felt that on the left side there was a
+    network of sexual nerves, and retroversion of the uterus was
+    detected some years later. Her life was strenuous with many
+    duties, but no occupation could be pursued without this
+    undercurrent of sexual hyper&aelig;sthesia involving perpetual
+    self-control. This continued more or less acutely for many years,
+    when menstruation suddenly stopped altogether, much before the
+    usual period of the climacteric. At the same time the sexual
+    excitement ceased, and she became calm, peaceful, and happy.
+    Diminished menstruation was associated with sexual excitement,
+    but abundant menstruation and its complete absence were both
+    accompanied by the relief of excitement. This lasted for two
+    years. Then, for the treatment of a trifling degree of an&aelig;mia,
+    she was subjected to a long, and, in her case, injudicious course
+    of hypodermic injections of strychnia. From that time, five years
+    ago, up to the present, there has been constant sexual
+    excitement, and she has always to be on guard lest she should be
+    overtaken by a sexual spasm. Her torture is increased by the fact
+    that her traditions make it impossible for her (except under very
+    exceptional circumstances) to allude to the cause of her
+    sufferings. &quot;A woman is handicapped,&quot; she writes. &quot;She may never
+    speak to anyone on such a subject. She must live her tragedy
+    alone, smiling as much as she can under the strain of her
+    terrible burden.&quot; To add to her trouble, two years ago, she felt
+    impelled to resort to masturbation, and has done so about once a
+    month since; this not only brings no real relief, and leaves
+    irritability, wakefulness, and dark marks under the eyes, but is
+    a cause of remorse to her, for she regards masturbation as
+    <a name='6_Page_212'></a>entirely abnormal and unnatural. She has tried to gain benefit,
+    not merely by the usual methods of physical hygiene, but by
+    suggestion, Christian Science, etc., but all in vain. &quot;I may
+    say,&quot; she writes, &quot;that it is the most passionate desire of my
+    heart to be freed from this bondage, that I may relax the
+    terrible years-long tension of resistance, and be happy in my own
+    way. If I had this affliction once a month, once a week, even
+    twice a week, to stand against it would be child's play. I should
+    scorn to resort to unnatural means, however moderately. But
+    self-control itself has its revenges, and I sometimes feel as if
+    it is no longer to be borne.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Thus while it is an immense benefit in physical and psychic development if
+the eruption of the disturbing sexual emotions can be delayed until
+puberty or adolescence, and while it is a very great advantage, after that
+eruption has occurred, to be able to gain control of these emotions, to
+crush altogether the sexual nature would be a barren, if not, indeed, a
+perilous victory, bringing with it no satisfaction. &quot;If I had only had
+three weeks' happiness,&quot; said a woman, &quot;I would not quarrel with Fate, but
+to have one's whole life so absolutely empty is horrible.&quot; If such vacuous
+self-restraint may, by courtesy, be termed a virtue, it is but a negative
+virtue. The persons who achieve it, as the result of congenitally feeble
+sexual aptitudes, merely (as Gyurkovechky, F&uuml;rbringer, and L&ouml;wenfeld have
+all alike remarked) made a virtue of their weakness. Many others, whose
+instincts were less weak, when they disdainfully put to flight the desires
+of sex in early life, have found that in later life that foe returns in
+tenfold force and perhaps in unnatural shapes.<a name='6_FNanchor_104'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_104'><sup>[104]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_213'></a>
+<p>The conception of &quot;sexual abstinence&quot; is, we see, an entirely false and
+artificial conception. It is not only ill-adjusted to the hygienic facts
+of the case but it fails even to invoke any genuinely moral motive, for it
+is exclusively self-regarding and self-centred. It only becomes genuinely
+moral, and truly inspiring, when we transform it into the altruistic
+virtue of self-sacrifice. When we have done so we see that the element of
+abstinence in it ceases to be essential, &quot;Self-sacrifice,&quot; writes the
+author of a thoughtful book on the sexual life, &quot;is acknowledged to be the
+basis of virtue; the noblest instances of self-sacrifice are those
+dictated by sexual affection. Sympathy is the secret of altruism; nowhere
+is sympathy more real and complete than in love. Courage, both moral and
+physical, the love of truth and honor, the spirit of enterprise, and the
+admiration of moral worth, are all inspired by love as by nothing else in
+human nature. Celibacy denies itself that inspiration or restricts its
+influence, according to the measure of its denial of sexual intimacy. Thus
+the deliberate adoption of a consistently celibate life implies the
+narrowing down of emotional and moral experience to a degree which is,
+from the broad scientific standpoint, unjustified by any of the advantages
+piously supposed to accrue from it.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_105'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_105'><sup>[105]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In a sane natural order all the impulses are centred in the fulfilment of
+needs and not in their denial. Moreover, in this special matter of sex, it
+is inevitable that the needs of others, and not merely the needs of the
+individual himself, should determine action. It is more especially the
+needs of the female which are the determining factor; for those needs are
+more various, complex and elusive, and in his attentiveness to their
+gratification the male finds a source of endless erotic satisfaction. It
+might be thought that the introduction of an altruistic motive here is
+merely the claim of theoretical morality insisting that there shall be a
+firm curb on animal instinct. But, as we have again and again seen
+throughout the long course of these <i>Studies</i>, it is not so. The animal
+instinct itself makes this demand. It is a <a name='6_Page_214'></a>biological law that rules
+throughout the zo&ouml;logical world and has involved the universality of
+courtship. In man it is only modified because in man sexual needs are not
+entirely concentrated in reproduction, but more or less penetrate the
+whole of life.</p>
+
+<p>While from the point of view of society, as from that of Nature, the end
+and object of the sexual impulse is procreation, and nothing beyond
+procreation, that is by no means true for the individual, whose main
+object it must be to fulfil himself harmoniously with that due regard for
+others which the art of living demands. Even if sexual relationships had
+no connection with procreation whatever&mdash;as some Central Australian tribes
+believe&mdash;they would still be justifiable, and are, indeed, an
+indispensable aid to the best moral development of the individual, for it
+is only in so intimate a relationship as that of sex that the finest
+graces and aptitudes of life have full scope. Even the saints cannot
+forego the sexual side of life. The best and most accomplished saints from
+Jerome to Tolstoy&mdash;even the exquisite Francis of Assisi&mdash;had stored up in
+their past all the experiences that go to the complete realization of
+life, and if it were not so they would have been the less saints.</p>
+
+<p>The element of positive virtue thus only enters when the control of the
+sexual impulse has passed beyond the stage of rigid and sterile abstinence
+and has become not merely a deliberate refusal of what is evil in sex, but
+a deliberate acceptance of what is good. It is only at that moment that
+such control becomes a real part of the great art of living. For the art
+of living, like any other art, is not compatible with rigidity, but lies
+in the weaving of a perpetual harmony between refusing and accepting,
+between giving and taking.<a name='6_FNanchor_106'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_106'><sup>[106]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The future, it is clear, belongs ultimately to those who are slowly
+building up sounder traditions into the structure of life. The &quot;problem of
+sexual abstinence&quot; will more and more sink into insignificance. There
+remain the great solid fact of love, the great solid fact of chastity.
+Those are eternal. Between them <a name='6_Page_215'></a>there is nothing but harmony. The
+development of one involves the development of the other.</p>
+
+<p>It has been necessary to treat seriously this problem of &quot;sexual
+abstinence&quot; because we have behind us the traditions of two thousand years
+based on certain ideals of sexual law and sexual license, together with
+the long effort to build up practices more or less conditioned by those
+ideals. We cannot immediately escape from these traditions even when we
+question their validity for ourselves. We have not only to recognize their
+existence, but also to accept the fact that for some time to come they
+must still to a considerable extent control the thoughts and even in some
+degree the actions of existing communities.</p>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly deplorable. It involves the introduction of an
+artificiality into a real natural order. Love is real and positive;
+chastity is real and positive. But sexual abstinence is unreal and
+negative, in the strict sense perhaps impossible. The underlying feelings
+of all those who have emphasized its importance is that a physiological
+process can be good or bad according as it is or is not carried out under
+certain arbitrary external conditions, which render it licit or illicit.
+An act of sexual intercourse under the name of &quot;marriage&quot; is beneficial;
+the very same act, under the name of &quot;incontinence,&quot; is pernicious. No
+physiological process, and still less any spiritual process, can bear such
+restriction. It is as much as to say that a meal becomes good or bad,
+digestible or indigestible, according as a grace is or is not pronounced
+before the eating of it.</p>
+
+<p>It is deplorable because, such a conception being essentially unreal, an
+element of unreality is thus introduced into a matter of the gravest
+concern alike to the individual and to society. Artificial disputes have
+been introduced where no matter of real dispute need exist. A contest has
+been carried on marked by all the ferocity which marks contests about
+metaphysical or pseudo-metaphysical differences having no concrete basis
+in the actual world. As will happen in such cases, there has, after all,
+been no real difference between the disputants because the point they
+quarreled over was unreal. In truth each side was right and each side was
+wrong.</p><a name='6_Page_216'></a>
+
+<p>It is necessary, we see, that the balance should be held even. An absolute
+license is bad; an absolute abstinence&mdash;even though some by nature or
+circumstances are urgently called to adopt it&mdash;is also bad. They are both
+alike away from the gracious equilibrium of Nature. And the force, we see,
+which naturally holds this balance even is the biological fact that the
+act of sexual union is the satisfaction of the erotic needs, not of one
+person, but of two persons.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_92'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_92'>[92]</a><div class='note'><p> This view was an ambiguous improvement on the view,
+universally prevalent, as Westermarck has shown, among primitive peoples,
+that the sexual act involves indignity to a woman or depreciation of her
+only in so far as she is the property of another person who is the really
+injured party.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_93'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_93'>[93]</a><div class='note'><p> This implicit contradiction has been acutely pointed out
+from the religious side by the Rev. H. Northcote, <i>Christianity and Sex
+Problems</i>, p. 53.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_94'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_94'>[94]</a><div class='note'><p> It has already been necessary to discuss this point briefly
+in &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women,&quot; vol. iii of these <i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_95'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_95'>[95]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Die Abstinentia Sexualis,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Nov., 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_96'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_96'>[96]</a><div class='note'><p> P. Janet, &quot;La Maladie du Scrupule,&quot; <i>Revue Philosophique</i>,
+May, 1901.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_97'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_97'>[97]</a><div class='note'><p> S. Freud, <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, March, 1908. As Adele Schreiber
+also points out (<i>Mutterschutz</i>, Jan., 1907, p. 30), it is not enough to
+prove that abstinence is not dangerous; we have to remember that the
+spiritual and physical energy used up in repressing this mighty instinct
+often reduces a joyous and energetic nature to a weary and faded shadow.
+Similarly, Helene St&ouml;cker (<i>Die Liebe und die Frauen</i>, p. 105) says: &quot;The
+question whether abstinence is harmful is, to say the truth, a ridiculous
+question. One needs to be no nervous specialist to know, as a matter of
+course, that a life of happy love and marriage is the healthy life, and
+its complete absence cannot fail to lead to severe psychic depression,
+even if no direct physiological disturbances can be demonstrated.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_98'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_98'>[98]</a><div class='note'><p> Max Flesch, &quot;Ehe, Hygine und Sexuelle Moral,&quot;
+<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1905, Heft 7.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_99'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_99'>[99]</a><div class='note'><p> See the Section on Touch in the fourth volume of these
+<i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_100'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_100'>[100]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;I have had two years' close experience and connexion with
+the Trappists,&quot; wrote Dr. Butterfield, of Natal (<i>British Medical
+Journal</i>, Sept. 15, 1906, p. 668), &quot;both as medical attendant and as being
+a Catholic in creed myself. I have studied them and investigated their
+life, habits and diet, and though I should be very backward in adopting it
+myself, as not suited to me individually, the great bulk of them are in
+absolute ideal health and strength, seldom ailing, capable of vast work,
+mental and physical. Their life is very simple and very regular. A
+healthier body of men and women, with perfect equanimity of temper&mdash;this
+latter I lay great stress on&mdash;it would be difficult to find. Health beams
+in their eyes and countenance and actions. Only in sickness or prolonged
+journeys are they allowed any strong foods&mdash;meats, eggs, etc.&mdash;or any
+alcohol.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_101'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_101'>[101]</a><div class='note'><p> F&eacute;r&eacute;, <i>L'Instinct Sexuel</i>, second edition, p. 332.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_102'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_102'>[102]</a><div class='note'><p> Rural life, as we have seen when discussing its relation to
+sexual precocity, <i>is</i> on one side the reverse of a safeguard against
+sexual influences. But, on the other hand, in so far as it involves hard
+work and simple living under conditions that are not nervously
+stimulating, it is favorable to a considerably delayed sexual activity in
+youth and to a relative continence. Ammon, in the course of his
+anthropological investigations of Baden conscripts, found that sexual
+intercourse was rare in the country before twenty, and even sexual
+emissions during sleep rare before nineteen or twenty. It is said, also,
+he repeats, that no one has a right to run after girls who does not yet
+carry a gun, and the elder lads sometimes brutally ill-treat any younger
+boy found going about with a girl. No doubt this is often preliminary to
+much license later.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_103'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_103'>[103]</a><div class='note'><p> The numerical preponderance which celibate women teachers
+have now gained in the American school system has caused much misgiving
+among many sagacious observers, and is said to be unsatisfactory in its
+results on the pupils of both sexes. A distinguished authority, Professor
+McKeen Cattell (&quot;The School and the Family,&quot; <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>,
+Jan., 1909), referring to this preponderance of &quot;devitalized and unsexed
+spinsters,&quot; goes so far as to say that &quot;the ultimate result of letting the
+celibate female be the usual teacher has been such as to make it a
+question whether it would not be an advantage to the country if the whole
+school plant could be scrapped.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_104'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_104'>[104]</a><div class='note'><p> Corre (<i>Les Criminels</i>, p. 351) mentions that of thirteen
+priests convicted of crime, six were guilty of sexual attempts on
+children, and of eighty-three convicted lay teachers, forty-eight had
+committed similar offenses. This was at a time when lay teachers were in
+practice almost compelled to live a celibate life; altered conditions have
+greatly diminished this class of offense among them. Without going so far
+as crime, many moral and religious men, clergymen and others, who have led
+severely abstinent lives in youth, sometimes experience in middle age or
+later the eruption of almost uncontrollable sexual impulses, normal or
+abnormal. In women such manifestations are apt to take the form of
+obsessional thoughts of sexual character, as <i>e.g.</i>, the case
+(<i>Comptes-Rendus Congr&egrave;s International de M&eacute;decine</i>, Moscow, 1897, vol.
+iv, p. 27) of a chaste woman who was compelled to think about and look at
+the sexual organs of men.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_105'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_105'>[105]</a><div class='note'><p> J. A. Godfrey, <i>The Science of Sex</i>, p. 138.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_106'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_106'>[106]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Havelock Ellis, &quot;St. Francis and Others,&quot;
+<i>Affirmations</i>.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_VII'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_217'></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>PROSTITUTION.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>I. <i>The Orgy:</i>&mdash;The Religious Origin of the Orgy&mdash;The Feast of
+Fools&mdash;Recognition of the Orgy by the Greeks and Romans&mdash;The Orgy Among
+Savages&mdash;The Drama&mdash;The Object Subserved by the Orgy.</p></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>II. <i>The Origin and Development of Prostitution:</i>&mdash;The Definition of
+Prostitution&mdash;Prostitution Among Savages&mdash;The Conditions Under Which
+Professional Prostitution Arises&mdash;Sacred Prostitution&mdash;The Rite of
+Mylitta&mdash;The Practice of Prostitution to Obtain a Marriage Portion&mdash;The
+Rise of Secular Prostitution in Greece&mdash;Prostitution in the East&mdash;India,
+China, Japan, etc.&mdash;Prostitution in Rome&mdash;The Influence of Christianity on
+Prostitution&mdash;The Effort to Combat Prostitution&mdash;The Medi&aelig;val Brothel&mdash;The
+Appearance of the Courtesan&mdash;Tullia D'Aragona&mdash;Veronica Franco&mdash;Ninon de
+Lenclos&mdash;Later Attempts to Eradicate Prostitution&mdash;The Regulation of
+Prostitution&mdash;Its Futility Becoming Recognized.</p></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>III. <i>The Causes of Prostitution:</i>&mdash;Prostitution as a Part of the Marriage
+System&mdash;The Complex Causation of Prostitution&mdash;The Motives Assigned by
+Prostitutes&mdash;(1) Economic Factor of Prostitution&mdash;Poverty Seldom the Chief
+Motive for Prostitution&mdash;But Economic Pressure Exerts a Real
+Influence&mdash;The Large Proportion of Prostitutes Recruited from Domestic
+Service&mdash;Significance of This Fact&mdash;(2) The Biological Factor of
+Prostitution&mdash;The So-called Born-Prostitute&mdash;Alleged Identity with the
+Born-Criminal&mdash;The Sexual Instinct in Prostitutes&mdash;The Physical and
+Psychic Characters of Prostitutes&mdash;(3) Moral Necessity as a Factor in the
+Existence of Prostitution&mdash;The Moral Advocates of Prostitution&mdash;The
+Moral Attitude of Christianity Towards Prostitution&mdash;The Attitude
+of Protestantism&mdash;Recent Advocates of the Moral Necessity
+of Prostitution&mdash;(4) Civilizational Value as a Factor of
+Prostitution&mdash;The Influence of Urban Life&mdash;The Craving for Excitement&mdash;Why
+Servant-girls so Often Turn to Prostitution&mdash;The Small Part Played by
+Seduction&mdash;Prostitutes Come Largely from the Country&mdash;The Appeal of
+Civilization Attracts Women to Prostitution&mdash;The Corresponding Attraction
+Felt by Men&mdash;The Prostitute as Artist and Leader of Fashion&mdash;The Charm of
+Vulgarity.</p></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>IV. <i>The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution:</i>&mdash;The Decay of the
+Brothel&mdash;The Tendency to the Humanization of Prostitution&mdash;The Monetary
+Aspects of Prostitution&mdash;The Geisha&mdash;The Hetaira&mdash;The<a name='6_Page_218'></a> Moral Revolt
+Against Prostitution&mdash;Squalid Vice Based on Luxurious Virtue&mdash;The Ordinary
+Attitude Towards Prostitutes&mdash;Its Cruelty Absurd&mdash;The Need of Reforming
+Prostitution&mdash;The Need of Reforming Marriage&mdash;These These Two Needs
+Closely Correlated&mdash;The Dynamic Relationships Involved.</p></div>
+<br />
+<hr />
+<a name='6_I'></a><h4>I. The Orgy.</h4>
+
+<p>Traditional morality, religion, and established convention combine to
+promote not only the extreme of rigid abstinence but also that of reckless
+license. They preach and idealize the one extreme; they drive those who
+cannot accept it to adopt the opposite extreme. In the great ages of
+religion it even happens that the severity of the rule of abstinence is
+more or less deliberately tempered by the permission for occasional
+outbursts of license. We thus have the orgy, which flourished in medi&aelig;val
+days and is, indeed, in its largest sense, a universal manifestation,
+having a function to fulfil in every orderly and laborious civilization,
+built up on natural energies that are bound by more or less inevitable
+restraints.</p>
+
+<p>The consideration of the orgy, it may be said, lifts us beyond the merely
+sexual sphere, into a higher and wider region which belongs to religion.
+The Greek <i>orgeia</i> referred originally to ritual things done with a
+religious purpose, though later, when dances of Bacchanals and the like
+lost their sacred and inspiring character, the idea was fostered by
+Christianity that such things were immoral.<a name='6_FNanchor_107'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_107'><sup>[107]</sup></a> Yet Christianity was
+itself in its origin an orgy of the higher spiritual activities released
+from the uncongenial servitude of classic civilization, a great festival
+of the poor and the humble, of the slave and the sinner. And when, with
+the necessity for orderly social organization, Christianity had ceased to
+be this it still recognized, as Paganism had done, the need for an
+occasional orgy. It appears that in 743 at a Synod held in Hainault
+reference was made to the February debauch (<i>de Spurcalibus in februario</i>)
+as a pagan practice; yet it was precisely this pagan festival which was
+embodied in the accepted customs of the Christian Church as the chief orgy
+of the ecclesiastical <a name='6_Page_219'></a>year, the great Carnival prefixed to the long fast
+of Lent. The celebration on Shrove Tuesday and the previous Sunday
+constituted a Christian Bacchanalian festival in which all classes joined.
+The greatest freedom and activity of physical movement was encouraged;
+&quot;some go about naked without shame, some crawl on all fours, some on
+stilts, some imitate animals.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_108'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_108'><sup>[108]</sup></a> As time went on the Carnival lost its
+most strongly marked Bacchanalian features, but it still retains its
+essential character as a permitted and temporary relaxation of the tension
+of customary restraints and conventions. The Medi&aelig;val Feast of Fools&mdash;a
+New Year's Revel well established by the twelfth century, mainly in
+France&mdash;presented an expressive picture of a Christian orgy in its extreme
+form, for here the most sacred ceremonies of the Church became the subject
+of fantastic parody. The Church, according to Nietzsche's saying, like all
+wise legislators, recognized that where great impulses and habits have to
+be cultivated, intercalary days must be appointed in which these impulses
+and habits may be denied, and so learn to hunger anew.<a name='6_FNanchor_109'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_109'><sup>[109]</sup></a> The clergy
+took the leading part in these folk-festivals, for to the men of that age,
+as M&eacute;ray remarks, &quot;the temple offered the complete notes of the human
+gamut; they found there the teaching of all duties, the consolation of all
+sorrows, the satisfaction <a name='6_Page_220'></a>of all joys. The sacred festivals of medi&aelig;val
+Christianity were not a survival from Roman times; they leapt from the
+very heart of Christian society.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_110'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_110'><sup>[110]</sup></a> But, as M&eacute;ray admits, all great and
+vigorous peoples, of the East and the West, have found it necessary
+sometimes to play with their sacred things.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Greeks and Romans this need is everywhere visible, not only in
+their comedy and their literature generally, but in everyday life. As
+Nietzsche truly remarks (in his <i>Geburt der Trag&ouml;die</i>) the Greeks
+recognized all natural impulses, even those that are seemingly unworthy,
+and safeguarded them from working mischief by providing channels into
+which, on special days and in special rites, the surplus of wild energy
+might harmlessly flow. Plutarch, the last and most influential of the
+Greek moralists, well says, when advocating festivals (in his essay &quot;On
+the Training of Children&quot;), that &quot;even in bows and harps we loosen their
+strings that we may bend and wind them up again.&quot; Seneca, perhaps the most
+influential of Roman if not of European moralists, even recommended
+occasional drunkenness. &quot;Sometimes,&quot; he wrote in his <i>De Tranquillilate</i>,
+&quot;we ought to come even to the point of intoxication, not for the purpose
+of drowning ourselves but of sinking ourselves deep in wine. For it washes
+away cares and raises our spirits from the lowest depths. The inventor of
+wine is called <i>Liber</i> because he frees the soul from the servitude of
+care, releases it from slavery, quickens it, and makes it bolder for all
+undertakings.&quot; The Romans were a sterner and more serious people than the
+Greeks, but on that very account they recognized the necessity of
+occasionally relaxing their moral fibres in order to preserve their tone,
+and encouraged the prevalence of festivals which were marked by much more
+abandonment than those of Greece. When these <a name='6_Page_221'></a>festivals began to lose
+their moral sanction and to fall into decay the decadence of Rome had
+begun.</p>
+
+<p>All over the world, and not excepting the most primitive savages&mdash;for even
+savage life is built up on systematic constraints which sometimes need
+relaxation&mdash;the principle of the orgy is recognized and accepted. Thus
+Spencer and Gillen describe<a name='6_FNanchor_111'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_111'><sup>[111]</sup></a> the Nathagura or fire-ceremony of the
+Warramunga tribe of Central Australia, a festival taken part in by both
+sexes, in which all the ordinary rules of social life are broken, a kind
+of Saturnalia in which, however, there is no sexual license, for sexual
+license is, it need scarcely be said, no essential part of the orgy, even
+when the orgy lightens the burden of sexual constraints. In a widely
+different part of the world, in British Columbia, the Salish Indians,
+according to Hill Tout,<a name='6_FNanchor_112'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_112'><sup>[112]</sup></a> believed that, long before the whites came,
+their ancestors observed a Sabbath or seventh day ceremony for dancing and
+praying, assembling at sunrise and dancing till noon. The Sabbath, or
+periodically recurring orgy,&mdash;not a day of tension and constraint but a
+festival of joy, a rest from all the duties of everyday life,&mdash;has, as we
+know, formed an essential part of many of the orderly ancient
+civilizations on which our own has been built;<a name='6_FNanchor_113'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_113'><sup>[113]</sup></a> it is highly probable
+that the stability of these ancient civilizations was intimately
+associated with their recognition of the need of a Sabbath orgy. Such
+festivals are, indeed, as Crawley observes, processes of purification and
+reinvigoration, the effort to put off &quot;the old man&quot; and put on &quot;the new
+man,&quot; to enter with fresh energy on the path of everyday life.<a name='6_FNanchor_114'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_114'><sup>[114]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_222'></a>
+<p>The orgy is an institution which by no means has its significance only for
+the past. On the contrary, the high tension, the rigid routine, the gray
+monotony of modern life insistently call for moments of organic relief,
+though the precise form that that orgiastic relief takes must necessarily
+change with other social changes. As Wilhelm von Humboldt said, &quot;just as
+men need suffering in order to become strong so they need joy in order to
+become good.&quot; Charles Wagner, insisting more recently (in his <i>Jeunesse</i>)
+on the same need of joy in our modern life, regrets that dancing in the
+old, free, and natural manner has gone out of fashion or become
+unwholesome. Dancing is indeed the most fundamental and primitive form of
+the orgy, and that which most completely and healthfully fulfils its
+object. For while it is undoubtedly, as we see even among animals, a
+process by which sexual tumescence is accomplished,<a name='6_FNanchor_115'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_115'><sup>[115]</sup></a> it by no means
+necessarily becomes focused in sexual detumescence but it may itself
+become a detumescent discharge of accumulated energy. It was on this
+account that, at all events in former days, the clergy in Spain, on moral
+grounds, openly encouraged the national passion for dancing. Among
+cultured people in modern times, the orgy tends to take on a purely
+cerebral form, which is less wholesome because it fails to lead to
+harmonious discharge along motor channels. In these comparatively passive
+forms, however, the orgy tends to become more and more pronounced under
+the conditions of civilization. Aristotle's famous statement concerning
+the function of tragedy as &quot;purgation&quot; seems to be a recognition of the
+beneficial effects of the orgy.<a name='6_FNanchor_116'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_116'><sup>[116]</sup></a> Wagner's music-dramas appeal
+powerfully to this need; the theatre, now as ever, fulfils a great
+function of the same kind, inherited from the ancient days when it was the
+ordered expression of a sexual festival.<a name='6_FNanchor_117'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_117'><sup>[117]</sup></a><a name='6_Page_223'></a> The theatre, indeed, tends
+at the present time to assume a larger importance and to approximate to
+the more serious dramatic performances of classic days by being
+transferred to the day-time and the open-air. France has especially taken
+the initiative in these performances, analogous to the Dionysiac festivals
+of antiquity and the Mysteries and Moralities of the Middle Ages. The
+movement began some years ago at Orange. In 1907 there were, in France, as
+many as thirty open-air theatres (&quot;Th&eacute;&acirc;tres de la Nature,&quot; &quot;Th&eacute;&acirc;tres du
+Soleil,&quot; etc.,) while it is in Marseilles that the first formal open-air
+theatre has been erected since classic days.<a name='6_FNanchor_118'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_118'><sup>[118]</sup></a> In England, likewise,
+there has been a great extension of popular interest in dramatic
+performances, and the newly instituted Pageants, carried out and taken
+part in by the population of the region commemorated in the Pageant, are
+festivals of the same character. In England, however, at the present time,
+the real popular orgiastic festivals are the Bank holidays, with which may
+be associated the more occasional celebrations, &quot;Maffekings,&quot; etc., often
+called out by comparatively insignificant national events but still
+adequate to arouse orgiastic emotions as genuine as those of antiquity,
+though they are lacking in beauty and religious consecration. It is easy
+indeed for the narrowly austere person to view such manifestations with a
+supercilious smile, but in the eyes of the moralist and the philosopher
+these orgiastic festivals exert a salutary and preservative function. In
+every age of dull and monotonous routine&mdash;and all civilization involves
+such routine&mdash;many natural impulses and functions tend to become
+suppressed, atrophied, or perverted. They need these moments of joyous
+exercise and expression, moments in which they may not necessarily attain
+their full activity but in which they will at all events be able, as
+Cyples expresses it, to rehearse their great possibilities.<a name='6_FNanchor_119'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_119'><sup>[119]</sup></a></p>
+<br /><a name='6_Page_224'></a>
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_II'></a><h4>II. The Origin and Development of Prostitution.</h4>
+
+<p>The more refined forms of the orgy flourish in civilization, although on
+account of their mainly cerebral character they are not the most
+beneficent or the most effective. The more primitive and muscular forms of
+the orgy tend, on the other hand, under the influence of civilization, to
+fall into discredit and to be so far as possible suppressed altogether. It
+is partly in this way that civilization encourages prostitution. For the
+orgy in its primitive forms, forbidden to show itself openly and
+reputably, seeks the darkness, and allying itself with a fundamental
+instinct to which civilized society offers no complete legitimate
+satisfaction, it firmly entrenches itself in the very centre of civilized
+life, and thereby constitutes a problem of immense difficulty and
+importance.<a name='6_FNanchor_120'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_120'><sup>[120]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is commonly said that prostitution has existed always and everywhere.
+That statement is far from correct. A kind of amateur prostitution is
+occasionally found among savages, but usually it is only when barbarism is
+fully developed and is already approaching the stage of civilization that
+well developed prostitution is found. It exists in a systematic form in
+every civilization.</p>
+
+<p>What is prostitution? There has been considerable discussion as to the
+correct definition of prostitution.<a name='6_FNanchor_121'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_121'><sup>[121]</sup></a> The Roman Ulpian said that a
+prostitute was one who openly abandons her body to a number of men without
+choice, for money.<a name='6_FNanchor_122'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_122'><sup>[122]</sup></a> Not all modern definitions have been so
+satisfactory. It is sometimes said a prostitute is a woman who gives
+herself to numerous men. To be sound, however, a definition must be
+applicable to both <a name='6_Page_225'></a>sexes alike and we should certainly hesitate to
+describe a man who had sexual intercourse with many women as a prostitute.
+The idea of venality, the intention to sell the favors of the body, is
+essential to the conception of prostitution. Thus Guyot defines a
+prostitute as &quot;any person for whom sexual relationships are subordinated
+to gain.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_123'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_123'><sup>[123]</sup></a> It is not, however, adequate to define a prostitute simply
+as a woman who sells her body. That is done every day by women who become
+wives in order to gain a home and a livelihood, yet, immoral as this
+conduct may be from any high ethical standpoint, it would be inconvenient
+and even misleading to call it prostitution.<a name='6_FNanchor_124'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_124'><sup>[124]</sup></a> It is better, therefore,
+to define a prostitute as a woman who temporarily sells her sexual favors
+to various persons. Thus, according to Wharton's <i>Law-lexicon</i> a
+prostitute is &quot;a woman who indiscriminately consorts with men for hire&quot;;
+Bonger states that &quot;those women are prostitutes who sell their bodies for
+the exercise of sexual acts and make of this a profession&quot;;<a name='6_FNanchor_125'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_125'><sup>[125]</sup></a> Richard
+again states that &quot;a prostitute is a woman who publicly gives herself to
+the first comer in return for a pecuniary remuneration.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_126'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_126'><sup>[126]</sup></a> As, finally,
+the prevalence of homosexuality has led to the existence of male
+prostitutes, the definition must be put in a form irrespective of sex, and
+we may, therefore, say that a prostitute is a person who makes it a
+profession <a name='6_Page_226'></a>to gratify the lust of various persons of the opposite sex or
+the same sex.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is essential that the act of prostitution should be habitually
+    performed with &quot;various persons.&quot; A woman who gains her living by
+    being mistress to a man, to whom she is faithful, is not a
+    prostitute, although she often becomes one afterwards, and may
+    have been one before. The exact point at which a woman begins to
+    be a prostitute is a question of considerable importance in
+    countries in which prostitutes are subject to registration. Thus
+    in Berlin, not long ago, a girl who was mistress to a rich
+    cavalry officer and supported by him, during the illness of the
+    officer accidentally met a man whom she had formerly known, and
+    once or twice invited him to see her, receiving from him presents
+    in money. This somehow came to the knowledge of the police, and
+    she was arrested and sentenced to one day's imprisonment as an
+    unregistered prostitute. On appeal, however, the sentence was
+    annulled. Liszt, in his <i>Strafrecht</i>, lays it down that a girl
+    who obtains whole or part of her income from &quot;fixed
+    relationships&quot; is not practicing unchastity for gain in the sense
+    of the German law (<i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Jahrgang 1,
+    Heft 9, p. 345).</p></div>
+
+<p>It is not altogether easy to explain the origin of the systematized
+professional prostitution with the existence of which we are familiar in
+civilization. The amateur kind of prostitution which has sometimes been
+noted among primitive peoples&mdash;the fact, that is, that a man may give a
+woman a present in seeking to persuade her to allow him to have
+intercourse with her&mdash;is really not prostitution as we understand it. The
+present in such a case is merely part of a kind of courtship leading to a
+temporary relationship. The woman more or less retains her social position
+and is not forced to make an avocation of selling herself because
+henceforth no other career is possible to her. When Cook came to New
+Zealand his men found that the women were not impregnable, &quot;but the terms
+and manner of compliance were as decent as those in marriage among us,&quot;
+and according &quot;to their notions the agreement was as innocent.&quot; The
+consent of the woman's friends was necessary, and when the preliminaries
+were settled it was also necessary to treat this &quot;Juliet of a night&quot; with
+&quot;the same delicacy as is here required with the wife for life, and the
+lover who presumed to take any liberties by which this was <a name='6_Page_227'></a>violated was
+sure to be disappointed.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_127'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_127'><sup>[127]</sup></a> In some of the Melanesian Islands, it is
+said that women would sometimes become prostitutes, or on account of their
+bad conduct be forced to become prostitutes for a time; they were not,
+however, particularly despised, and when they had in this way accumulated
+a certain amount of property they could marry well, after which it would
+not be proper to refer to their former career.<a name='6_FNanchor_128'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_128'><sup>[128]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>When prostitution first arises among a primitive people it sometimes
+happens that little or no stigma is attached to it for the reason that the
+community has not yet become accustomed to attach any special value to the
+presence of virginity. Schurtz quotes from the old Arabic geographer
+Al-Bekri some interesting remarks about the Slavs: &quot;The women of the
+Slavs, after they have married, are faithful to their husbands. If,
+however, a young girl falls in love with a man she goes to him and
+satisfies her passion. And if a man marries and finds his wife a virgin he
+says to her: 'If you were worth anything men would have loved you, and you
+would have chosen one who would have taken away your virginity.' Then he
+drives her away and renounces her.&quot; It is a feeling of this kind which,
+among some peoples, leads a girl to be proud of the presents she has
+received from her lovers and to preserve them as a dowry for her marriage,
+knowing that her value will thus be still further heightened. Even among
+the Southern Slavs of modern Europe, who have preserved much of the
+primitive sexual freedom, this freedom, as Krauss, who has minutely
+studied the manners and customs of these peoples, declares, is
+fundamentally different from vice, licentiousness, or immodesty.<a name='6_FNanchor_129'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_129'><sup>[129]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Prostitution tends to arise, as Schurtz has pointed out, in every society
+in which early marriage is difficult and intercourse outside marriage is
+socially disapproved. &quot;Venal women everywhere appear as soon as the free
+sexual intercourse of young people is repressed, without the necessary
+consequences being <a name='6_Page_228'></a>impeded by unusually early marriages.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_130'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_130'><sup>[130]</sup></a> The
+repression of sexual intimacies outside marriage is a phenomenon of
+civilization, but it is not itself by any means a measure of a people's
+general level, and may, therefore, begin to appear at an early period. But
+it is important to remember that the primitive and rudimentary forms of
+prostitution, when they occur, are merely temporary, and
+frequently&mdash;though not invariably&mdash;involve no degrading influence on the
+woman in public estimation, sometimes indeed increasing her value as a
+wife. The woman who sells herself for money purely as a professional
+matter, without any thought of love or passion, and who, by virtue of her
+profession, belongs to a pariah class definitely and rigidly excluded from
+the main body of her sex, is a phenomenon which can seldom be found except
+in developed civilization. It is altogether incorrect to speak of
+prostitutes as a mere survival from primitive times.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, while among savages sexual relationships are sometimes free
+before marriage, as well as on the occasion of special festivals, they are
+rarely truly promiscuous and still more rarely venal. When savage women
+nowadays sell themselves, or are sold by their husbands, it has usually
+been found that we are concerned with the contamination of European
+civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The definite ways in which professional prostitution may arise are no
+doubt many.<a name='6_FNanchor_131'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_131'><sup>[131]</sup></a> We may assent to the general principle, laid down by
+Schurtz, that whenever the free union of young people is impeded under
+conditions in which early marriage is also difficult prostitution must
+certainly arise. There are, however, different ways in which this
+principle may take shape. So far as our western civilization is
+concerned&mdash;the civilization, that <a name='6_Page_229'></a>is to say, which has its cradle in the
+Mediterranean basin&mdash;it would seem that the origin of prostitution is to
+be found primarily in a religious custom, religion, the great conserver of
+social traditions, preserving in a transformed shape a primitive freedom
+that was passing out of general social life.<a name='6_FNanchor_132'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_132'><sup>[132]</sup></a> The typical example is
+that recorded by Herodotus, in the fifth century before Christ, at the
+temple of Mylitta, the Babylonian Venus, where every woman once in her
+life had to come and give herself to the first stranger who threw a coin
+in her lap, in worship of the goddess. The money could not be refused,
+however small the amount, but it was given as an offertory to the temple,
+and the woman, having followed the man and thus made oblation to Mylitta,
+returned home and lived chastely ever afterwards.<a name='6_FNanchor_133'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_133'><sup>[133]</sup></a> Very similar
+customs existed in other parts of Western Asia, in North Africa, in Cyprus
+and other islands of the Eastern Mediterranean, and also in Greece, where
+the Temple of Aphrodite on the fort at Corinth possessed over a thousand
+hierodules, dedicated to the service of the goddess, from time to time, as
+Strabo states, by those who desired to make thank-offering for mercies
+vouchsafed to them. Pindar refers to the hospitable young Corinthian women
+ministrants whose thoughts often turn towards Ourania<a name='6_Page_230'></a> Aphrodite<a name='6_FNanchor_134'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_134'><sup>[134]</sup></a> in
+whose temple they burned incense; and Athen&aelig;us mentions the importance
+that was attached to the prayers of the Corinthian prostitutes in any
+national calamity.<a name='6_FNanchor_135'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_135'><sup>[135]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>We seem here to be in the presence, not merely of a religiously preserved
+survival of a greater sexual freedom formerly existing,<a name='6_FNanchor_136'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_136'><sup>[136]</sup></a> but of a
+specialized and ritualized development of that primitive cult of the
+generative forces of Nature which involves the belief that all natural
+fruitfulness is associated with, and promoted by, acts of human sexual
+intercourse which thus acquire a religious significance. At a later stage
+acts of sexual intercourse having a religious significance become
+specialized and localized in temples, and by a rational transition of
+ideas it becomes believed that such acts of sexual intercourse in the
+service of the god, or with persons devoted to the god's service, brought
+benefits to the individual who performed them, more especially, if a
+woman, by insuring her fertility. Among primitive peoples generally this
+conception is embodied mainly in seasonal festivals, but among the peoples
+of Western Asia who had ceased to be primitive, and among whom traditional
+priestly and hieratic influences had acquired very great influence, the
+earlier <a name='6_Page_231'></a>generative cult had thus, it seems probable, naturally changed
+its form in becoming attached to the temples.<a name='6_FNanchor_137'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_137'><sup>[137]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The theory that religious prostitution developed, as a general
+    rule, out of the belief that the generative activity of human
+    beings possessed a mysterious and sacred influence in promoting
+    the fertility of Nature generally seems to have been first set
+    forth by Mannhardt in his <i>Antike Wald- und Feldkulte</i> (pp. 283
+    <i>et seq.</i>). It is supported by Dr. F. S. Krauss
+    (&quot;Beischlafaus&uuml;bung als Kulthandlung,&quot; <i>Anthropophyteia</i>, vol.
+    iii, p. 20), who refers to the significant fact that in Baruch's
+    time, at a period long anterior to Herodotus, sacred prostitution
+    took place under the trees. Dr. J. G. Frazer has more especially
+    developed this conception of the origin of sacred prostitution in
+    his <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>. He thus summarizes his lengthy
+    discussion: &quot;We may conclude that a great Mother Goddess, the
+    personification of all the reproductive energies of nature, was
+    worshipped under different names, but with a substantial
+    similarity of myth and ritual by many peoples of western Asia;
+    that associated with her was a lover, or rather series of lovers,
+    divine yet mortal, with whom she mated year by year, their
+    commerce being deemed essential to the propagation of animals and
+    plants, each in their several kind; and further, that the
+    fabulous union of the divine pair was simulated, and, as it were,
+    multiplied on earth by the real, though temporary, union of the
+    human sexes at the sanctuary of the goddess for the sake of
+    thereby ensuring the fruitfulness of the ground and the increase
+    of man and beast. In course of time, as the institution of
+    individual marriage grew in favor, and the old communism fell
+    more and more into discredit, the revival of the ancient
+    practice, even for a single occasion in a woman's life, became
+    ever more repugnant to the moral sense of the people, and
+    accordingly they resorted to various expedients for evading in
+    practice the obligation which they still acknowledged in
+    theory.... But while the majority of women thus contrived to
+    observe the form of religion without sacrificing their virtue, it
+    was still thought necessary to the general welfare that a certain
+    number of them should discharge the old obligation in the old
+    way. These became prostitutes, either for life or for a term of
+    years, at one of the temples: dedicated to the service of
+    religion, they were invested with a sacred <a name='6_Page_232'></a>character, and their
+    vocation, far from being deemed infamous, was probably long
+    regarded by the laity as an exercise of more than common virtue,
+    and rewarded with a tribute of mixed wonder, reverence, and pity,
+    not unlike that which in some parts of the world is still paid to
+    women who seek to honor their Creator in a different way by
+    renouncing the natural functions of their sex and the tenderest
+    relations of humanity&quot; (J. G. Frazer, <i>Adonis, Attis, Osiris</i>,
+    1907, pp. 23 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    It is difficult to resist the conclusion that this theory
+    represents the central and primitive idea which led to the
+    development of sacred prostitution. It seems equally clear,
+    however, that as time went on, and especially as temple cults
+    developed and priestly influence increased, this fundamental and
+    primitive idea tended to become modified, and even transformed.
+    The primitive conception became specialized in the belief that
+    religious benefits, and especially the gift of fruitfulness, were
+    gained <i>by the worshipper</i>, who thus sought the goddess's favor
+    by an act of unchastity which might be presumed to be agreeable
+    to an unchaste deity. The rite of Mylitta, as described by
+    Herodotus, was a late development of this kind in an ancient
+    civilization, and the benefit sought was evidently for the
+    worshipper herself. This has been pointed out by Dr. Westermarck,
+    who remarks that the words spoken to the woman by her partner as
+    he gives her the coin&mdash;&quot;May the goddess be auspicious to
+    thee!&quot;&mdash;themselves indicate that the object of the act was to
+    insure her fertility, and he refers also to the fact that
+    strangers frequently had a semi-supernatural character, and their
+    benefits a specially efficacious character (Westermarck, <i>Origin
+    and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. ii, p. 446). It may be
+    added that the rite of Mylitta thus became analogous with another
+    Mediterranean rite, in which the act of simulating intercourse
+    with the representative of a god, or his image, ensured a woman's
+    fertility. This is the rite practiced by the Egyptians of Mendes,
+    in which a woman went through the ceremony of simulated
+    intercourse with the sacred goat, regarded as the representative
+    of a deity of Pan-like character (Herodotus, Bk. ii, Ch. XLVI;
+    and see Dulaure, <i>Des Divinit&eacute;s G&eacute;n&eacute;ratrices</i>, Ch. II; <i>cf.</i> vol.
+    v of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;Erotic Symbolism,&quot; Sect. IV). This rite
+    was maintained by Roman women, in connection with the statues of
+    Priapus, to a very much later date, and St. Augustine mentions
+    how Roman matrons placed the young bride on the erect member of
+    Priapus (<i>De Civitate Dei</i>, Bk. iii, Ch. IX). The idea evidently
+    running through this whole group of phenomena is that the deity,
+    or the representative or even mere image of the deity, is able,
+    through a real or simulated act of intercourse, to confer on the
+    worshipper a portion of its own exalted generative activity.</p></div>
+
+<p>At a later period, in Corinth, prostitutes were still the priestesses of
+Venus, more or less loosely attached to her <a name='6_Page_233'></a>temples, and so long as that
+was the case they enjoyed a considerable degree of esteem. At this stage,
+however, we realize that religious prostitution was developing a
+utilitarian side. These temples flourished chiefly in sea-coast towns, in
+islands, in large cities to which many strangers and sailors came. The
+priestesses of Cyprus burnt incense on her altars and invoked her sacred
+aid, but at the same time Pindar addresses them as &quot;young girls who
+welcome all strangers and give them hospitality.&quot; Side by side with the
+religious significance of the act of generation the needs of men far from
+home were already beginning to be definitely recognized. The Babylonian
+woman had gone to the temple of Mylitta to fulfil a personal religious
+duty; the Corinthian priestess had begun to act as an avowed minister to
+the sexual needs of men in strange cities.</p>
+
+<p>The custom which Herodotus noted in Lydia of young girls prostituting
+themselves in order to acquire a marriage portion which they may dispose
+of as they think fit (Bk. I, Ch. 93) may very well have developed (as
+Frazer also believes) out of religious prostitution; we can indeed trace
+its evolution in Cyprus where eventually, at the period when Justinian
+visited the island, the money given by strangers to the women was no
+longer placed on the altar but put into a chest to form marriage-portions
+for them. It is a custom to be found in Japan and various other parts of
+the world, notably among the Ouled-Nail of Algeria,<a name='6_FNanchor_138'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_138'><sup>[138]</sup></a> and is not
+necessarily always based on religious prostitution; but it obviously
+cannot exist except among peoples who see nothing very derogatory in free
+sexual intercourse for the purpose of obtaining money, so that the custom
+of Mylitta furnished a natural basis for it.<a name='6_FNanchor_139'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_139'><sup>[139]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_234'></a>
+<p>As a more spiritual conception of religion developed, and as the growth of
+civilization tended to deprive sexual intercourse of its sacred halo,
+religious prostitution in Greece was slowly abolished, though on the
+coasts of Asia Minor both religious prostitution and prostitution for the
+purpose of obtaining a marriage portion persisted to the time of
+Constantine, who put an end to these ancient customs.<a name='6_FNanchor_140'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_140'><sup>[140]</sup></a> Superstition
+was on the side of the old religious prostitution; it was believed that
+women who had never sacrificed to Aphrodite became consumed by lust, and
+according to the legend recorded by Ovid&mdash;a legend which seems to point to
+a certain antagonism between sacred and secular prostitution&mdash;this was the
+case with the women who first became public prostitutes. The decay of
+religious prostitution, doubtless combined with the cravings always born
+of the growth of civilization, led up to the first establishment,
+attributed by legend to Solon, of a public brothel, a purely secular
+establishment for a purely secular end: the safeguarding of the virtue of
+the general population and the increase of the public revenue. With that
+institution the evolution of prostitution, and of the modern marriage
+system of which it forms part, was completed. The Athenian <i>dikterion</i> is
+the modern brothel; the <i>dikteriade</i> is the modern state-regulated
+prostitute. The free <i>hetair&aelig;</i>, indeed, subsequently arose, educated women
+having no taint of the <i>dikterion</i>, but they likewise had no official part
+in public worship.<a name='6_FNanchor_141'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_141'><sup>[141]</sup></a> The primitive conception of the sanctity of sexual
+intercourse in the divine service had been utterly lost.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>A fairly typical example of the conditions existing among savages
+    is to be found in the South Sea Island of Rotuma, where
+    &quot;prostitution for money or gifts was quite unknown.&quot; Adultery
+    after marriage was <a name='6_Page_235'></a>also unknown. But there was great freedom in
+    the formation of sexual relationships before marriage (J. Stanley
+    Gardiner, <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i>, February, 1898, p.
+    409). Much the same is said of the Bantu Ba mbola of Africa (<i>op.
+    cit.</i>, July-December, 1905, p. 410).</p>
+
+<p>    Among the early Cymri of Wales, representing a more advanced
+    social stage, prostitution appears to have been not absolutely
+    unknown, but public prostitution was punished by loss of valuable
+    privileges (R. B. Holt, &quot;Marriage Laws and Customs of the Cymri,&quot;
+    <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i>, August-November, 1898, pp.
+    161-163).</p>
+
+<p>    Prostitution was practically unknown in Burmah, and regarded as
+    shameful before the coming of the English and the example of the
+    modern Hindus. The missionaries have unintentionally, but
+    inevitably, favored the growth of prostitution by condemning free
+    unions (<i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, November, 1903, p.
+    720). The English brought prostitution to India. &quot;That was not
+    specially the fault of the English,&quot; said a Brahmin to Jules
+    Bois, &quot;it is the crime of your civilization. We have never had
+    prostitutes. I mean by that horrible word the brutalized servants
+    of the gross desire of the passerby. We had, and we have, castes
+    of singers and dancers who are married to trees&mdash;yes, to
+    trees&mdash;by touching ceremonies which date from Vedic times; our
+    priests bless them and receive much money from them. They do not
+    refuse themselves to those who love them and please them. Kings
+    have made them rich. They represent all the arts; they are the
+    visible beauty of the universe&quot; (Jules Bois, <i>Visions de l'Inde</i>,
+    p. 55).</p>
+
+<p>    Religious prostitutes, it may be added, &quot;the servants of the
+    god,&quot; are connected with temples in Southern India and the
+    Deccan. They are devoted to their sacred calling from their
+    earliest years, and it is their chief business to dance before
+    the image of the god, to whom they are married (though in Upper
+    India professional dancing girls are married to inanimate
+    objects), but they are also trained in arousing and assuaging the
+    desires of devotees who come on pilgrimage to the shrine. For the
+    betrothal rites by which, in India, sacred prostitutes are
+    consecrated, see, <i>e.g.</i>, A. Van Gennep, <i>Rites de Passage</i>, p.
+    142.</p>
+
+<p>    In many parts of Western Asia, where barbarism had reached a high
+    stage of development, prostitution was not unknown, though
+    usually disapproved. The Hebrews knew it, and the historical
+    Biblical references to prostitutes imply little reprobation.
+    Jephtha was the son of a prostitute, brought up with the
+    legitimate children, and the story of Tamar is instructive. But
+    the legal codes were extremely severe on Jewish maidens who
+    became prostitutes (the offense was quite tolerable in strange
+    women), while Hebrew moralists exercised their invectives against
+    prostitution; it is sufficient to refer to a well-known passage
+    in the Book of Proverbs (see art. &quot;Harlot,&quot; by Cheyne, in the
+    <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Biblica</i>). Mahomed also severely condemned
+    prostitution, though somewhat <a name='6_Page_236'></a>more tolerant to it in slave
+    women; according to Haleby, however, prostitution was practically
+    unknown in Islam during the first centuries after the Prophet's
+    time.</p>
+
+<p>    The Persian adherents of the somewhat ascetic <i>Zendavesta</i> also
+    knew prostitution, and regarded it with repulsion: &quot;It is the
+    Gahi [the courtesan, as an incarnation of the female demon,
+    Gahi], O Spitama Zarathustra! who mixes in her the seed of the
+    faithful and the unfaithful, of the worshipper of Mazda and the
+    worshipper of the D&aelig;vas, of the wicked and the righteous. Her
+    look dries up one-third of the mighty floods that run from the
+    mountains, O Zarathustra; her look withers one-third of the
+    beautiful, golden-hued, growing plants, O Zarathustra; her look
+    withers one-third of the strength of Spenta Armaiti [the earth];
+    and her touch withers in the faithful one-third of his good
+    thoughts, of his good words, of his good deeds, one-third of his
+    strength, of his victorious power, of his holiness. Verily I say
+    unto thee, O Spitama Zarathustra! such creatures ought to be
+    killed even more than gliding snakes, than howling wolves, than
+    the she-wolf that falls upon the fold, or than the she-frog that
+    falls upon the waters with her thousandfold brood&quot; (<i>Zend-Avesta,
+    the Vendidad</i>, translated by James Darmesteter, Farfad XVIII).</p>
+
+<p>    In practice, however, prostitution is well established in the
+    modern East. Thus in the Tartar-Turcoman region houses of
+    prostitution lying outside the paths frequented by Christians
+    have been described by a writer who appears to be well informed
+    (&quot;Orientalische Prostitution,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>,
+    1907, Bd. ii, Heft 1). These houses are not regarded as immoral
+    or forbidden, but as places in which the visitor will find a
+    woman who gives him for a few hours the illusion of being in his
+    own home, with the pleasure of enjoying her songs, dances, and
+    recitations, and finally her body. Payment is made at the door,
+    and no subsequent question of money arises; the visitor is
+    henceforth among friends, almost as if in his own family. He
+    treats the prostitute almost as if she were his wife, and no
+    indecorum or coarseness of speech occurs. &quot;There is no obscenity
+    in the Oriental brothel.&quot; At the same time there is no artificial
+    pretence of innocence.</p>
+
+<p>    In Eastern Asia, among the peoples of Mongolian stock, especially
+    in China, we find prostitution firmly established and organized
+    on a practical business basis. Prostitution is here accepted and
+    viewed with no serious disfavor, but the prostitute herself is,
+    nevertheless, treated with contempt. Young children are
+    frequently sold to be trained to a life of prostitution, educated
+    accordingly, and kept shut up from the world. Young widows
+    (remarriage being disapproved) frequently also slide into a life
+    of prostitution. Chinese prostitutes often end through opium and
+    the ravages of syphilis (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Coltman's <i>The Chinese</i>,
+    1900, Ch. VII). In ancient China, it is said prostitutes were a
+    superior <a name='6_Page_237'></a>class and occupied a position somewhat similar to that
+    of the <i>hetair&aelig;</i> in Greece. Even in modern China, however, where
+    they are very numerous, and the flower boats, in which in towns
+    by the sea they usually live, very luxurious, it is chiefly for
+    entertainment, according to some writers, that they are resorted
+    to. Tschang Ki Tong, military attach&eacute; in Paris (as quoted by
+    Ploss and Bartels), describes the flower boat as less analogous
+    to a European brothel than to a <i>caf&eacute; chantant</i>; the young
+    Chinaman comes here for music, for tea, for agreeable
+    conversation with the flower-maidens, who are by no means
+    necessarily called upon to minister to the lust of their
+    visitors.</p>
+
+<p>    In Japan, the prostitute's lot is not so degraded as in China.
+    The greater refinement of Japanese civilization allows the
+    prostitute to retain a higher degree of self-respect. She is
+    sometimes regarded with pity, but less often with contempt. She
+    may associate openly with men, ultimately be married, even to men
+    of good social class, and rank as a respectable woman. &quot;In riding
+    from Tokio to Yokohama, the past winter,&quot; Coltman observes (<i>op.
+    cit.</i>, p. 113), &quot;I saw a party of four young men and three quite
+    pretty and gaily-painted prostitutes, in the same car, who were
+    having a glorious time. They had two or three bottles of various
+    liquors, oranges, and fancy cakes, and they ate, drank and sang,
+    besides playing jokes on each other and frolicking like so many
+    kittens. You may travel the whole length of the Chinese Empire
+    and never witness such a scene.&quot; Yet the history of Japanese
+    prostitutes (which has been written in an interesting and
+    well-informed book, <i>The Nightless City</i>, by an English student
+    of sociology who remains anonymous) shows that prostitution in
+    Japan has not only been severely regulated, but very widely
+    looked down upon, and that Japanese prostitutes have often had to
+    suffer greatly; they were at one time practically slaves and
+    often treated with much hardship. They are free now, and any
+    condition approaching slavery is strictly prohibited and guarded
+    against. It would seem, however, that the palmiest days of
+    Japanese prostitution lay some centuries back. Up to the middle
+    of the eighteenth century Japanese prostitutes were highly
+    accomplished in singing, dancing, music, etc. Towards this
+    period, however, they seem to have declined in social
+    consideration and to have ceased to be well educated. Yet even
+    to-day, says Matignon (&quot;La Prostitution au Japon,&quot; <i>Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, October, 1906), less infamy attaches
+    to prostitution in Japan than in Europe, while at the same time
+    there is less immorality in Japan than in Europe. Though
+    prostitution is organized like the postal or telegraph service,
+    there is also much clandestine prostitution. The prostitution
+    quarters are clean, beautiful and well-kept, but the Japanese
+    prostitutes have lost much of their native good taste in costume
+    by trying to imitate European fashions. It was when prostitution
+    began to decline two centuries ago, that the geishas first
+    appeared and were <a name='6_Page_238'></a>organized in such a way that they should not,
+    if possible, compete as prostitutes with the recognized and
+    licensed inhabitants of the Yoshiwara, as the quarter is called
+    to which prostitutes are confined. The geishas, of course, are
+    not prostitutes, though their virtue may not always be
+    impregnable, and in social position they correspond to actresses
+    in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>    In Korea, at all events before Korea fell into the hands of the
+    Japanese, it would seem that there was no distinction between the
+    class of dancing girls and prostitutes. &quot;Among the courtesans,&quot;
+    Angus Hamilton states, &quot;the mental abilities are trained and
+    developed with a view to making them brilliant and entertaining
+    companions. These 'leaves of sunlight' are called <i>gisaing</i>, and
+    correspond to the geishas of Japan. Officially, they are attached
+    to a department of government, and are controlled by a bureau of
+    their own, in common with the Court musicians. They are supported
+    from the national treasury, and they are in evidence at official
+    dinners and all palace entertainments. They read and recite; they
+    dance and sing; they become accomplished artists and musicians.
+    They dress with exceptional taste; they move with exceeding
+    grace; they are delicate in appearance, very frail and very
+    human, very tender, sympathetic, and imaginative.&quot; But though
+    they are certainly the prettiest women in Korea, move in the
+    highest society, and might become concubines of the Emperor, they
+    are not allowed to marry men of good class (Angus Hamilton,
+    <i>Korea</i>, p. 52).</p></div>
+
+<p>The history of European prostitution, as of so many other modern
+institutions, may properly be said to begin in Rome. Here at the outset we
+already find that inconsistently mixed attitude towards prostitution which
+to-day is still preserved. In Greece it was in many respects different.
+Greece was nearer to the days of religious prostitution, and the sincerity
+and refinement of Greek civilization made it possible for the better kind
+of prostitute to exert, and often be worthy to exert, an influence in all
+departments of life which she has never been able to exercise since,
+except perhaps occasionally, in a much slighter degree, in France. The
+course, vigorous, practical Roman was quite ready to tolerate the
+prostitute, but he was not prepared to carry that toleration to its
+logical results; he never felt bound to harmonize inconsistent facts of
+life. Cicero, a moralist of no mean order, without expressing approval of
+prostitution, yet could not understand how anyone should wish to prohibit
+youths from commerce <a name='6_Page_239'></a>with prostitutes, such severity being out of harmony
+with all the customs of the past or the present.<a name='6_FNanchor_142'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_142'><sup>[142]</sup></a> But the superior
+class of Roman prostitutes, the <i>bon&aelig; mulieres</i>, had no such dignified
+position as the Greek <i>hetair&aelig;</i>. Their influence was indeed immense, but
+it was confined, as it is in the case of their European successors to-day,
+to fashions, customs, and arts. There was always a certain moral rigidity
+in the Roman which prevented him from yielding far in this direction. He
+encouraged brothels, but he only entered them with covered head and face
+concealed in his cloak. In the same way, while he tolerated the
+prostitute, beyond a certain point he sharply curtailed her privileges.
+Not only was she deprived of all influence in the higher concerns of life,
+but she might not even wear the <i>vitta</i> or the <i>stola</i>; she could indeed
+go almost naked if she pleased, but she must not ape the emblems of the
+respectable Roman matron.<a name='6_FNanchor_143'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_143'><sup>[143]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The rise of Christianity to political power produced on the whole less
+change of policy than might have been anticipated. The Christian rulers
+had to deal practically as best they might with a very mixed, turbulent,
+and semi-pagan world. The leading fathers of the Church were inclined to
+tolerate prostitution for the avoidance of greater evils, and Christian
+emperors, like their pagan predecessors, were willing to derive a tax from
+prostitution. The right of prostitution to exist was, however, no longer
+so unquestionably recognized as in pagan days, and from time to time some
+vigorous ruler sought to repress prostitution by severe enactments. The
+younger Theodosius and Valentinian definitely ordained that there should
+be no more brothels and that anyone giving shelter to a prostitute should
+be punished. Justinian confirmed that measure and ordered that all panders
+were to be exiled on pain of death. These enactments were quite vain. But
+during a thousand years they were repeated again and again in various
+parts of Europe, and invariably with the same fruitless or worse than
+fruitless results. Theodoric, king of the<a name='6_Page_240'></a> Visigoths, punished with death
+those who promoted prostitution, and Recared, a Catholic king of the same
+people in the sixth century, prohibited prostitution altogether and
+ordered that a prostitute, when found, should receive three hundred
+strokes of the whip and be driven out of the city. Charlemagne, as well as
+Genserich in Carthage, and later Frederick Barbarossa in Germany, made
+severe laws against prostitution which were all of no effect, for even if
+they seemed to be effective for the time the reaction was all the greater
+afterwards.<a name='6_FNanchor_144'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_144'><sup>[144]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is in France that the most persistent efforts have been made to combat
+prostitution. Most notable of all were the efforts of the King and Saint,
+Louis IX. In 1254 St. Louis ordained that prostitutes should be driven out
+altogether and deprived of all their money and goods, even to their
+mantles and gowns. In 1256 he repeated this ordinance and in 1269, before
+setting out for the Crusades, he ordered the destruction of all places of
+prostitution. The repetition of those decrees shows how ineffectual they
+were. They even made matters worse, for prostitutes were forced to mingle
+with the general population and their influence was thus extended. St.
+Louis was unable to put down prostitution even in his own camp in the
+East, and it existed outside his own tent. His legislation, however, was
+frequently imitated by subsequent rulers of France, even to the middle of
+the seventeenth century, always with the same ineffectual and worse
+results. In 1560 an edict of Charles IX abolished brothels, but the number
+of prostitutes was thereby increased rather than diminished, while many
+new kinds of brothels appeared in unsuspected shapes and were more
+dangerous than the more recognized brothels which had been
+suppressed.<a name='6_FNanchor_145'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_145'><sup>[145]</sup></a> In spite of all such legislation, or because of it, there
+has been no country in which prostitution has played a more conspicuous
+part.<a name='6_FNanchor_146'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_146'><sup>[146]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_241'></a>
+<p>At Mantua, so great was the repulsion aroused by prostitutes that they
+were compelled to buy in the markets any fruit or bread that had been
+soiled by the mere touch of their hands. It was so also in Avignon in
+1243. In Catalonia they could not sit at the same table as a lady or a
+knight or kiss any honorable person.<a name='6_FNanchor_147'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_147'><sup>[147]</sup></a> Even in Venice, the paradise of
+prostitution, numerous and severe regulations were passed against it, and
+it was long before the Venetian rulers resigned themselves to its
+toleration and regulation.<a name='6_FNanchor_148'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_148'><sup>[148]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The last vigorous attempt to uproot prostitution in Europe was that of
+Maria Theresa at Vienna in the middle of the eighteenth century. Although
+of such recent date it may be mentioned here because it was medi&aelig;val alike
+in its conception and methods. Its object indeed, was to suppress not only
+prostitution, but fornication generally, and the means adopted were fines,
+imprisonment, whipping and torture. The supposed causes of fornication
+were also dealt with severely; short dresses were prohibited; billiard
+rooms and caf&eacute;s were inspected; no waitresses were allowed, and when
+discovered, a waitress was liable to be handcuffed and carried off by the
+police. The Chastity Commission, under which these measures were
+rigorously carried out, was, apparently, established in 1751 and was
+quietly abolished by the Emperor Joseph II, in the early years of his
+reign. It was the general opinion that this severe legislation was really
+ineffective, and that it caused much more serious evils than it
+cured.<a name='6_FNanchor_149'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_149'><sup>[149]</sup></a> It is certain in any case that, for a long time <a name='6_Page_242'></a>past,
+illegitimacy has been more prevalent in Vienna than in any other great
+European capital.</p>
+
+<p>Yet the attitude towards prostitutes was always mixed and inconsistent at
+different places or different times, or even at the same time and place.
+Dufour has aptly compared their position to that of the medi&aelig;val Jews;
+they were continually persecuted, ecclesiastically, civilly, and socially,
+yet all classes were glad to have recourse to them and it was impossible
+to do without them. In some countries, including England in the fourteenth
+century, a special costume was imposed on prostitutes as a mark of
+infamy.<a name='6_FNanchor_150'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_150'><sup>[150]</sup></a> Yet in many respects no infamy whatever attached to
+prostitution. High placed officials could claim payment of their expenses
+incurred in visiting prostitutes when traveling on public business.
+Prostitution sometimes played an official part in festivities and
+receptions accorded by great cities to royal guests, and the brothel might
+form an important part of the city's hospitality. When the Emperor
+Sigismund came to Ulm in 1434 the streets were illuminated at such times
+as he or his suite desired to visit the common brothel. Brothels under
+municipal protection are found in the thirteenth century in Augsburg, in
+Vienna, in Hamburg.<a name='6_FNanchor_151'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_151'><sup>[151]</sup></a> In France the best known <i>abbayes</i> of prostitutes
+were those of Toulouse and Montpellier.<a name='6_FNanchor_152'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_152'><sup>[152]</sup></a> Durkheim is of opinion that
+in the early middle ages, before this period, free love and marriage were
+less severely differentiated. It was the rise of the middle class, he
+considers, anxious to protect their wives and daughters, which led to a
+regulated and publicly recognized attempt to direct debauchery into a
+separate channel, brought under control.<a name='6_FNanchor_153'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_153'><sup>[153]</sup></a> These brothels constituted a
+kind of public service, the directors of them being regarded almost as
+public officials, bound to keep a certain number of prostitutes, to charge
+according to a fixed tariff, and not to receive into their houses girls
+belonging to the neighborhood. The institutions of <a name='6_Page_243'></a>this kind lasted for
+three centuries. It was, in part, perhaps, the impetus of the new
+Protestant movement, but mainly the terrible devastation produced by the
+introduction of syphilis from America at the end of the fifteenth century
+which, as Burckhardt and others have pointed out, led to the decline of
+the medi&aelig;val brothels.<a name='6_FNanchor_154'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_154'><sup>[154]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The superior modern prostitute, the &quot;courtesan&quot; who had no connection with
+the brothel, seems to have been the outcome of the Renaissance and made
+her appearance in Italy at the end of the fifteenth century. &quot;Courtesan&quot;
+or &quot;cortegiana&quot; meant a lady following the court, and the term began at
+this time to be applied to a superior prostitute observing a certain
+degree of decorum and restraint.<a name='6_FNanchor_155'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_155'><sup>[155]</sup></a> In the papal court of Alexander
+Borgia the courtesan flourished even when her conduct was not altogether
+dignified. Burchard, the faithful and unimpeachable chronicler of this
+court, describes in his diary how, one evening, in October, 1501, the Pope
+sent for fifty courtesans to be brought to his chamber; after supper, in
+the presence of C&aelig;sar Borgia and his young sister Lucrezia, they danced
+with the servitors and others who were present, at first clothed,
+afterwards naked. The candlesticks with lighted candles were then placed
+upon the floor and chestnuts thrown among them, to be gathered by the
+women crawling between the candlesticks on their hands and feet. Finally a
+number of prizes were brought forth to be awarded to those men &quot;qui
+pluries dictos meretrices carnaliter agnoscerent,&quot; the victor in the
+contest being decided according to the judgment of the spectators.<a name='6_FNanchor_156'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_156'><sup>[156]</sup></a>
+This scene, enacted publicly in the Apostolic <a name='6_Page_244'></a>palace and serenely set
+forth by the impartial secretary, is at once a notable episode in the
+history of modern prostitution and one of the most illuminating
+illustrations we possess of the paganism of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Before the term &quot;courtesan&quot; came into repute, prostitutes were
+    even in Italy commonly called &quot;sinners,&quot; <i>peccatrice</i>. The
+    change, Graf remarks in a very interesting study of the
+    Renaissance prostitute (&quot;Una Cortigiana fra Mille,&quot; <i>Attraverso
+    il Cinquecento</i>, pp. 217-351), &quot;reveals a profound alteration in
+    ideas and in life;&quot; a term that suggested infamy gave place to
+    one that suggested approval, and even honor, for the courts of
+    the Renaissance period represented the finest culture of the
+    time. The best of these courtesans seem to have been not
+    altogether unworthy of the honor they received. We can detect
+    this in their letters. There is a chapter on the letters of
+    Renaissance prostitutes, especially those of Camilla de Pisa
+    which are marked by genuine passion, in Lothar Schmidt's
+    <i>Frauenbriefe der Renaissance</i>. The famous Imperia, called by a
+    Pope in the early years of the sixteenth century &quot;nobilissimum
+    Rom&aelig; scortum,&quot; knew Latin and could write Italian verse. Other
+    courtesans knew Italian and Latin poetry by heart, while they
+    were accomplished in music, dancing, and speech. We are reminded
+    of ancient Greece, and Graf, discussing how far the Renaissance
+    courtesans resembled the hetair&aelig;, finds a very considerable
+    likeness, especially in culture and influence, though with some
+    differences due to the antagonism between religion and
+    prostitution at the later period.</p>
+
+<p>    The most distinguished figure in every respect among the
+    courtesans of that time was certainly Tullia D'Aragona. She was
+    probably the daughter of Cardinal D'Aragona (an illegitimate
+    scion of the Spanish royal family) by a Ferrarese courtesan who
+    became his mistress. Tullia has gained a high reputation by her
+    verse. Her best sonnet is addressed to a youth of twenty, whom
+    she passionately loved, but who did not return her love. Her
+    <i>Guerrino Meschino</i>, a translation from the Spanish, is a very
+    pure and chaste work. She was a woman of refined instincts and
+    aspirations, and once at least she abandoned her life of
+    prostitution. She was held in high esteem and respect. When, in
+    1546, Cosimo, Duke of Florence, ordered all prostitutes to wear a
+    yellow veil or handkerchief as a public badge of their
+    profession, Tullia appealed to the Duchess, a Spanish lady of
+    high character, and received permission to dispense with this
+    badge on account of her &quot;rara scienzia di poesia et filosofia.&quot;
+    She dedicated her <i>Rime</i> to the Duchess. Tullia D'Aragona was
+    very beautiful, with yellow hair, and remarkably large and bright
+    eyes, which dominated those who came near her. She was of proud
+    bearing and inspired unusual respect (G. Biagi, &quot;Un' Etera
+    Romana,&quot;<a name='6_Page_245'></a> <i>Nuova Antologia</i>, vol. iv, 1886, pp. 655-711; S.
+    Bongi, <i>Rivista critica della Letteratura Italiana</i>, 1886, IV, p.
+    186).</p>
+
+<p>    Tullia D'Aragona was clearly not a courtesan at heart. Perhaps
+    the most typical example of the Renaissance courtesan at her best
+    is furnished by Veronica Franco, born in 1546 at Venice, of
+    middle class family and in early life married to a doctor. Of her
+    also it has been said that, while by profession a prostitute, she
+    was by inclination a poet. But she appears to have been well
+    content with her profession, and never ashamed of it. Her life
+    and character have been studied by Arturo Graf, and more slightly
+    in a little book by Tassini. She was highly cultured, and knew
+    several languages; she also sang well and played on many
+    instruments. In one of her letters she advises a youth who was
+    madly in love with her that if he wishes to obtain her favors he
+    must leave off importuning her and devote himself tranquilly to
+    study. &quot;You know well,&quot; she adds, &quot;that all those who claim to be
+    able to gain my love, and who are extremely dear to me, are
+    strenuous in studious discipline.... If my fortune allowed it I
+    would spend all my time quietly in the academies of virtuous
+    men.&quot; The Diotimas and Aspasias of antiquity, as Graf comments,
+    would not have demanded so much of their lovers. In her poems it
+    is possible to trace some of her love histories, and she often
+    shows herself torn by jealousy at the thought that perhaps
+    another woman may approach her beloved. Once she fell in love
+    with an ecclesiastic, possibly a bishop, with whom she had no
+    relationships, and after a long absence, which healed her love,
+    she and he became sincere friends. Once she was visited by Henry
+    III of France, who took away her portrait, while on her part she
+    promised to dedicate a book to him; she so far fulfilled this as
+    to address some sonnets to him and a letter; &quot;neither did the
+    King feel ashamed of his intimacy with the courtesan,&quot; remarks
+    Graf, &quot;nor did she suspect that he would feel ashamed of it.&quot;
+    When Montaigne passed through Venice she sent him a little book
+    of hers, as we learn from his <i>Journal</i>, though they do not
+    appear to have met. Tintoret was one of her many distinguished
+    friends, and she was a strenuous advocate of the high qualities
+    of modern, as compared with ancient, art. Her friendships were
+    affectionate, and she even seems to have had various grand ladies
+    among her friends. She was, however, so far from being ashamed of
+    her profession of courtesan that in one of her poems she affirms
+    she has been taught by Apollo other arts besides those he is
+    usually regarded as teaching:</p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i5'>&quot;Cosi dolce e gustevole divento,<br /></span>
+<span class='i5'>Quando mi trovo con persona in letto<br /></span>
+<span class='i5'>Da cui amata e gradita mi sento.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In a certain <i>catalogo</i> of the prices of Venetian courtesans
+    Veronica is assigned only 2 scudi for her favors, while the
+    courtesan to whom the <a name='6_Page_246'></a>catalogue is dedicated is set down at 25
+    scudi. Graf thinks there may be some mistake or malice here, and
+    an Italian gentleman of the time states that she required not
+    less than 50 scudi from those to whom she was willing to accord
+    what Montaigne called the &quot;negotiation enti&egrave;re.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In regard to this matter it may be mentioned that, as stated by
+    Bandello, it was the custom for a Venetian prostitute to have six
+    or seven gentlemen at a time as her lovers. Each was entitled to
+    come to sup and sleep with her on one night of the week, leaving
+    her days free. They paid her so much per month, but she always
+    definitely reserved the right to receive a stranger passing
+    through Venice, if she wished, changing the time of her
+    appointment with her lover for the night. The high and special
+    prices which we find recorded are, of course, those demanded from
+    the casual distinguished stranger who came to Venice as, once in
+    the sixteenth century, Montaigne came.</p>
+
+<p>    In 1580 (when not more than thirty-four) Veronica confessed to
+    the Holy Office that she had had six children. In the same year
+    she formed the design of founding a home, which should not be a
+    monastery, where prostitutes who wished to abandon their mode of
+    life could find a refuge with their children, if they had any.
+    This seems to have led to the establishment of a Casa del
+    Soccorso. In 1591 she died of fever, reconciled with God and
+    blessed by many unfortunates. She had a good heart and a sound
+    intellect, and was the last of the great Renaissance courtesans
+    who revived Greek hetairism (Graf, <i>Attraverso il Cinquecento</i>,
+    pp. 217-351). Even in sixteenth century Venice, however, it will
+    be seen, Veronica Franco seems to have been not altogether at
+    peace in the career of a courtesan. She was clearly not adapted
+    for ordinary marriage, yet under the most favorable conditions
+    that the modern world has ever offered it may still be doubted
+    whether a prostitute's career can offer complete satisfaction to
+    a woman of large heart and brain.</p>
+
+<p>    Ninon de Lenclos, who is frequently called &quot;the last of the great
+    courtesans,&quot; may seem an exception to the general rule as to the
+    inability of a woman of good heart, high character, and fine
+    intelligence to find satisfaction in a prostitute's life. But it
+    is a total misconception alike of Ninon de Lenclos's temperament
+    and her career to regard her as in any true sense a prostitute at
+    all. A knowledge of even the barest outlines of her life ought to
+    prevent such a mistake. Born early in the seventeenth century,
+    she was of good family on both sides; her mother was a woman of
+    severe life, but her father, a gentleman of Touraine, inspired
+    her with his own Epicurean philosophy as well as his love of
+    music. She was extremely well educated. At the age of sixteen or
+    seventeen she had her first lover, the noble and valiant Gaspard
+    de Coligny; he was followed for half a century by a long
+    succession of other lovers, sometimes more than one at a time;
+    three years was the longest period during which she was faithful
+    to one lover. Her attractions <a name='6_Page_247'></a>lasted so long that, it is said,
+    three generations of S&eacute;vign&eacute;s were among her lovers. Tallemant
+    des R&eacute;aux enables us to study in detail her <i>liaisons</i>.</p>
+
+<p>    It is not, however, the abundance of lovers which makes a woman a
+    prostitute, but the nature of her relationships with them.
+    Sainte-Beuve, in an otherwise admirable study of Ninon de Lenclos
+    (<i>Causeries du Lundi</i>, vol. iv), seems to reckon her among the
+    courtesans. But no woman is a prostitute unless she uses men as a
+    source of pecuniary gain. Not only is there no evidence that this
+    was the case with Ninon, but all the evidence excludes such a
+    relationship. &quot;It required much skill,&quot; said Voltaire, &quot;and a
+    great deal of love on her part, to induce her to accept
+    presents.&quot; Tallemant, indeed, says that she sometimes took money
+    from her lovers, but this statement probably involves nothing
+    beyond what is contained in Voltaire's remark, and, in any case,
+    Tallemant's gossip, though usually well-informed, was not always
+    reliable. All are agreed as to her extreme disinterestedness.</p>
+
+<p>    When we hear precisely of Ninon de Lenclos in connection with
+    money, it is not as receiving a gift, but only as repaying a debt
+    to an old lover, or restoring a large sum left with her for safe
+    keeping when the owner was exiled. Such incidents are far from
+    suggesting the professional prostitute of any age; they are
+    rather the relationships which might exist between men friends.
+    Ninon de Lenclos's character was in many respects far from
+    perfect, but she combined many masculine virtues, and especially
+    probity, with a temperament which, on the whole, was certainly
+    feminine; she hated hypocrisy, and she was never influenced by
+    pecuniary considerations. She was, moreover, never reckless, but
+    always retained a certain self-restraint and temperance, even in
+    eating and drinking, and, we are told, she never drank wine. She
+    was, as Sainte-Beuve has remarked, the first to realize that
+    there must be the same virtues for men and for women, and that it
+    is absurd to reduce all feminine virtues to one. &quot;Our sex has
+    been burdened with all the frivolities,&quot; she wrote, &quot;and men have
+    reserved to themselves the essential qualities: I have made
+    myself a man.&quot; She sometimes dressed as a man when riding (see,
+    <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Correspondence Authentique</i> of Ninon de Lenclos, with a
+    good introduction by Emile Colombey). Consciously or not, she
+    represented a new feminine idea at a period when&mdash;as we may see
+    in many forgotten novels written by the women of that time&mdash;ideas
+    were beginning to emerge in the feminine sphere. She was the
+    first, and doubtless, from one point of view, the most extreme
+    representative of a small and distinguished group of French women
+    among whom Georges Sand is the finest personality.</p>
+
+<p>    Thus it is idle to attempt to adorn the history of prostitution
+    with the name of Ninon de Lenclos. A debauched old prostitute
+    would never, like Ninon towards the end of her long life, have
+    been able to retain or <a name='6_Page_248'></a>to conquer the affection and the esteem
+    of many of the best men and women of her time; even to the
+    austere Saint-Simon it seemed that there reigned in her little
+    court a decorum which the greatest princesses cannot achieve. She
+    was not a prostitute, but a woman of unique personality with a
+    little streak of genius in it. That she was inimitable we need
+    not perhaps greatly regret. In her old age, in 1699, her old
+    friend and former lover, Saint-Evremond, wrote to her, with only
+    a little exaggeration, that there were few princesses and few
+    saints who would not leave their courts and their cloisters to
+    change places with her. &quot;If I had known beforehand what my life
+    would be I would have hanged myself,&quot; was her oft-quoted answer.
+    It is, indeed, a solitary phrase that slips in, perhaps as the
+    expression of a momentary mood; one may make too much of it. More
+    truly characteristic is the fine saying in which her Epicurean
+    philosophy seems to stretch out towards Nietzsche: &quot;La joie de
+    l'esprit en marque la force.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>The frank acceptance of prostitution by the spiritual or even the temporal
+power has since the Renaissance become more and more exceptional. The
+opposite extreme of attempting to uproot prostitution has also in practice
+been altogether abandoned. Sporadic attempts have indeed been made, here
+and there, to put down prostitution with a strong hand even in quite
+modern times. It is now, however, realized that in such a case the remedy
+is worse than the disease.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In 1860 a Mayor of Portsmouth felt it his duty to attempt to
+    suppress prostitution. &quot;In the early part of his mayoralty,&quot;
+    according to a witness before the Select Committee on the
+    Contagious Diseases Acts (p. 393), &quot;there was an order passed
+    that every beerhouse-keeper and licensed victualer in the borough
+    known to harbor these women would be dealt with, and probably
+    lose his license. On a given day about three hundred or four
+    hundred of these forlorn outcasts were bundled wholesale into the
+    streets, and they formed up in a large body, many of them with
+    only a shift and a petticoat on, and with a lot of drunken men
+    and boys with a fife and fiddle they paraded the streets for
+    several days. They marched in a body to the workhouse, but for
+    many reasons they were refused admittance.... These women
+    wandered about for two or three days shelterless, and it was felt
+    that the remedy was very much worse than the disease, and the
+    women were allowed to go back to their former places.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Similar experiments have been made even more recently in America.
+    &quot;In Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1891, the houses of prostitutes
+    were <a name='6_Page_249'></a>closed, the inmates turned out upon the streets, and were
+    refused lodging and even food by the citizens of that place. A
+    wave of popular remonstrance, all over the country, at the
+    outrage on humanity, created a reaction which resulted in a last
+    condition by no means better than the first.&quot; In the same year
+    also a similar incident occurred in New York with the same
+    unfortunate results (Isidore Dyer, &quot;The Municipal Control of
+    Prostitution in the United States,&quot; report presented to the
+    Brussels International Conference in 1899).</p></div>
+
+<p>There grew up instead the tendency to regulate prostitution, to give it a
+semi-official toleration which enabled the authorities to exercise a
+control over it, and to guard as far as possible against its evil by
+medical and police inspection. The new brothel system differed from the
+ancient medi&aelig;val houses of prostitution in important respects; it involved
+a routine of medical inspection and it endeavored to suppress any rivalry
+by unlicensed prostitutes outside. Bernard Mandeville, the author of the
+<i>Fable of the Bees</i>, and an acute thinker, was a pioneer in the advocacy
+of this system. In 1724, in his <i>Modest Defense of Publick Stews</i>, he
+argues that &quot;the encouraging of public whoring will not only prevent most
+of the mischievous effects of this vice, but even lessen the quantity of
+whoring in general, and reduce it to the narrowest bounds which it can
+possibly be contained in.&quot; He proposed to discourage private prostitution
+by giving special privileges and immunities to brothels by Act of
+Parliament. His scheme involved the erection of one hundred brothels in a
+special quarter of the city, to contain two thousand prostitutes and one
+hundred matrons of ability and experience with physicians and surgeons, as
+well as commissioners to oversee the whole. Mandeville was regarded merely
+as a cynic or worse, and his scheme was ignored or treated with contempt.
+It was left to the genius of Napoleon, eighty years later, to establish
+the system of &quot;maisons de tol&eacute;rance,&quot; which had so great an influence over
+modern European practice during a large part of the last century and even
+still in its numerous survivals forms the subject of widely divergent
+opinions.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, however, it must be said that the system of registering,
+examining, and regularizing prostitutes now belongs <a name='6_Page_250'></a>to the past. Many
+great battles have been fought over this question; the most important is
+that which raged for many years in England over the Contagious Diseases
+Acts, and is embodied in the 600 pages of a Report by a Select Committee
+on these Acts issued in 1882. The majority of the members of the Committee
+reported favorably to the Acts which were, notwithstanding, repealed in
+1886, since which date no serious attempt has been made in England to
+establish them again.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time, although the old system still stands in many
+countries with the inert stolidity of established institutions, it no
+longer commands general approval. As Paul and Victor Margueritte have
+truly stated, in the course of an acute examination of the phenomena of
+state-regulated prostitution as found in Paris, the system is &quot;barbarous
+to start with and almost inefficacious as well.&quot; The expert is every day
+more clearly demonstrating its inefficacy while the psychologist and the
+sociologist are constantly becoming more convinced that it is barbarous.</p>
+
+<p>It can indeed by no means be said that any unanimity has been attained. It
+is obviously so urgently necessary to combat the flood of disease and
+misery which proceeds directly from the spread of syphilis and gonorrh&oelig;a,
+and indirectly from the prostitution which is the chief propagator
+of these diseases, that we cannot be surprised that many should eagerly
+catch at any system which seems to promise a palliation of the evils. At
+the present time, however, it is those best acquainted with the operation
+of the system of control who have most clearly realized that the supposed
+palliation is for the most part illusory,<a name='6_FNanchor_157'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_157'><sup>[157]</sup></a> and in any case attained at
+the cost of the artificial production of other evils. In France, where the
+system of the registration and control of <a name='6_Page_251'></a>prostitutes has been
+established for over a century,<a name='6_FNanchor_158'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_158'><sup>[158]</sup></a> and where consequently its
+advantages, if such there are, should be clearly realized, it meets with
+almost impassioned opposition from able men belonging to every section of
+the community. In Germany the opposition to regularized control has long
+been led by well-equipped experts, headed by Blaschko of Berlin. Precisely
+the same conclusions are being reached in America. Gottheil, of New York,
+finds that the municipal control of prostitution is &quot;neither successful
+nor desirable.&quot; Heidingsfeld concludes that the regulation and control
+system in force in Cincinnati has done little good and much harm; under
+the system among the private patients in his own clinic the proportion of
+cases of both syphilis and gonorrh&oelig;a has increased; &quot;suppression
+of prostitutes is impossible and control is impracticable.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_159'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_159'><sup>[159]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is in Germany that the attempt to regulate prostitution still
+    remains most persistent, with results that in Germany itself are
+    regarded as unfortunate. Thus the German law inflicts a penalty
+    on householders who permit illegitimate sexual intercourse in
+    their houses. This is meant to strike the unlicensed prostitute,
+    but it really encourages prostitution, for a decent youth and
+    girl who decide to form a relationship which later may develop
+    into marriage, and which is not illegal (for extra-marital sexual
+    intercourse <i>per se</i> is not in Germany, as it is by the
+    antiquated laws of several American States, a punishable
+    offense), are subjected to so much trouble and annoyance by the
+    suspicious police that it is much easier for the girl to become a
+    prostitute and put herself under the protection of the police.
+    The law was largely directed against those who live on the
+    profits of prostitution. But in practice it works out
+    differently. The prostitute simply has to pay extravagantly high
+    rents, so that her landlord really lives on the fruits of her
+    trade, while she has to carry on her business with increased
+    activity and on a larger scale in order to cover her heavy
+    expenses (P. Hausmeister, &quot;Zur Analyse der Prostitution,&quot;
+    <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, vol. ii, 1907, p. 294).</p>
+
+<p>    In Italy, opinion on this matter is much divided. The regulation
+    of prostitution has been successively adopted, abandoned, and
+    readopted. In Switzerland, the land of governmental experiments,
+    various plans are <a name='6_Page_252'></a>tried in different cantons. In some there is
+    no attempt to interfere with prostitution, except under special
+    circumstances; in others all prostitution, and even fornication
+    generally, is punishable; in Geneva only native prostitutes are
+    permitted to practice; in Zurich, since 1897, prostitution is
+    prohibited, but care is taken to put no difficulties in the path
+    of free sexual relationships which are not for gain. With these
+    different regulations, morals in Switzerland generally are said
+    to be much on the same level as elsewhere (Moreau-Christophe, <i>Du
+    Probl&egrave;me de la Mis&egrave;re</i>, vol. iii, p. 259). The same conclusion
+    holds good of London. A disinterested observer, F&eacute;lix Remo (<i>La
+    Vie Galante en Angleterre</i>, 1888, p. 237), concluded that,
+    notwithstanding its free trade in prostitution, its alcoholic
+    excesses, its vices of all kinds, &quot;London is one of the most
+    moral capitals in Europe.&quot; The movement towards freedom in this
+    matter has been evidenced in recent years by the abandonment of
+    the system of regulation by Denmark in 1906.</p></div>
+
+<p>Even the most ardent advocates of the registration of prostitutes
+recognize that not only is the tendency of civilization opposed rather
+than favorable to the system, but that in the numerous countries where the
+system persists registered prostitutes are losing ground in the struggle
+against clandestine prostitutes. Even in France, the classic land of
+police-controlled prostitutes, the &quot;maisons de tol&eacute;rance&quot; have long been
+steadily decreasing in number, by no means because prostitution is
+decreasing but because low-class <i>brasseries</i> and small <i>caf&eacute;s-chantants</i>,
+which are really unlicensed brothels, are taking their place.<a name='6_FNanchor_160'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_160'><sup>[160]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The wholesale regularization of prostitution in civilized centres is
+nowadays, indeed, advocated by few, if any, of the authorities who belong
+to the newer school. It is at most claimed as desirable in certain places
+under special circumstances.<a name='6_FNanchor_161'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_161'><sup>[161]</sup></a> Even those who would still be glad to
+see prostitution thoroughly <a name='6_Page_253'></a>in the control of the police now recognize
+that experience shows this to be impossible. As many girls begin their
+career as prostitutes at a very early age, a sound system of regulation
+should be prepared to enroll as permanent prostitutes even girls who are
+little more than children. That, however, is a logical conclusion against
+which the moral sense, and even the common sense, of a community
+instinctively revolts. In Paris girls may not be inscribed as prostitutes
+until they have reached the age of sixteen and some consider even that age
+too low.<a name='6_FNanchor_162'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_162'><sup>[162]</sup></a> Moreover, whenever she becomes diseased, or grows tired of
+her position, the registered woman may always slip out of the hands of the
+police and establish herself elsewhere as a clandestine prostitute. Every
+rigid attempt to keep prostitution within the police ring leads to
+offensive interference with the actions and the freedom of respectable
+women which cannot fail to be intolerable in any free community. Even in a
+city like London, where prostitution is relatively free, the supervision
+of the police has led to scandalous police charges against women who have
+done nothing whatever which should legitimately arouse suspicion of their
+behavior. The escape of the infected woman from the police cordon has, it
+is obvious, an effect in raising the apparent level of health of
+registered women, and the police statistics are still further fallaciously
+improved by the fact that the inmates of brothels are older on the average
+than clandestine prostitutes and have become immune to disease.<a name='6_FNanchor_163'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_163'><sup>[163]</sup></a> These
+facts are now becoming fairly obvious and well recognized. The state
+regulation of prostitution <a name='6_Page_254'></a>is undesirable, on moral grounds for the
+oft-emphasized reason that it is only applied to one sex, and on practical
+grounds because it is ineffective. Society allows the police to harass the
+prostitute with petty persecutions under the guise of charges of
+&quot;solicitation,&quot; &quot;disorderly conduct,&quot; etc., but it is no longer convinced
+that she ought to be under the absolute control of the police.</p>
+
+<p>The problem of prostitution, when we look at it narrowly, seems to be in
+the same position to-day as at any time in the course of the past three
+thousand years. In order, however, to comprehend the real significance of
+prostitution, and to attain a reasonable attitude towards it, we must look
+at it from a broader point of view; we must consider not only its
+evolution and history, but its causes and its relation to the wider
+aspects of modern social life. When we thus view the problem from a
+broader standpoint we shall find that there is no conflict between the
+claims of ethics and those of social hygiene, and that the co&ouml;rdinated
+activity of both is involved in the progressive refinement and
+purification of civilized sexual relationships.</p>
+<br />
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_III'></a><h4>III. The Causes of Prostitution.</h4>
+
+<p>The history of the rise and development of prostitution enables us to see
+that prostitution is not an accident of our marriage system, but an
+essential constituent which appears concurrently with its other essential
+constituents. The gradual development of the family on a patriarchal and
+largely monogamic basis rendered it more and more difficult for a woman to
+dispose of her own person. She belongs in the first place to her father,
+whose interest it was to guard her carefully until a husband appeared who
+could afford to purchase her. In the enhancement of her value the new idea
+of the market value of virginity gradually developed, and where a &quot;virgin&quot;
+had previously meant a woman who was free to do as she would with her own
+body its meaning was now reversed and it came to mean a woman who was
+precluded from having intercourse with men. When she was transferred from
+her father to a husband, she <a name='6_Page_255'></a>was still guarded with the same care;
+husband and father alike found their interest in preserving their women
+from unmarried men. The situation thus produced resulted in the existence
+of a large body of young men who were not yet rich enough to obtain wives,
+and a large number of young women, not yet chosen as wives, and many of
+whom could never expect to become wives. At such a point in social
+evolution prostitution is clearly inevitable; it is not so much the
+indispensable concomitant of marriage as an essential part of the whole
+system. Some of the superfluous or neglected women, utilizing their money
+value and perhaps at the same time reviving traditions of an earlier
+freedom, find their social function in selling their favors to gratify the
+temporary desires of the men who have not yet been able to acquire wives.
+Thus every link in the chain of the marriage system is firmly welded and
+the complete circle formed.</p>
+
+<p>But while the history of the rise and development of prostitution shows us
+how indestructible and essential an element prostitution is of the
+marriage system which has long prevailed in Europe&mdash;under very varied
+racial, political, social, and religious conditions&mdash;it yet fails to
+supply us in every respect with the data necessary to reach a definite
+attitude towards prostitution to-day. In order to understand the place of
+prostitution in our existing system, it is necessary that we should
+analyze the chief factors of prostitution. We may most conveniently learn
+to understand these if we consider prostitution, in order, under four
+aspects. These are: (1) <i>economic</i> necessity; (2) <i>biological</i>
+predisposition; (3) <i>moral</i> advantages; and (4) what may be called its
+<i>civilizational</i> value.</p>
+
+<p>While these four factors of prostitution seem to me those that here
+chiefly concern us, it is scarcely necessary to point out that many other
+causes contribute to produce and modify prostitution. Prostitutes
+themselves often seek to lead other girls to adopt the same paths;
+recruits must be found for brothels, whence we have the &quot;white slave
+trade,&quot; which is now being energetically combated in many parts of the
+world; while all the forms of seduction towards this life are favored and
+often predisposed to by alcoholism. It will generally be found that
+several <a name='6_Page_256'></a>causes have combined to push a girl into the career of
+prostitution.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The ways in which various factors of environment and suggestion
+    unite to lead a girl into the paths of prostitution are indicated
+    in the following statement in which a correspondent has set forth
+    his own conclusions on this matter as a man of the world: &quot;I have
+    had a somewhat varied experience among loose women, and can say,
+    without hesitation, that not more than 1 per cent, of the women I
+    have known could be regarded as educated. This indicates that
+    almost invariably they are of humble origin, and the terrible
+    cases of overcrowding that are daily brought to light suggest
+    that at very early ages the sense of modesty becomes extinct, and
+    long before puberty a familiarity with things sexual takes place.
+    As soon as they are old enough these girls are seduced by their
+    sweethearts; the familiarity with which they regard sexual
+    matters removes the restraint which surrounds a girl whose early
+    life has been spent in decent surroundings. Later they go to work
+    in factories and shops; if pretty and attractive, they consort
+    with managers and foremen. Then the love of finery, which forms
+    so large a part of the feminine character, tempts the girl to
+    become the 'kept' woman of some man of means. A remarkable thing
+    in this connection is the fact that they rarely enjoy excitement
+    with their protectors, preferring rather the coarser embraces of
+    some man nearer their own station in life, very often a soldier.
+    I have not known many women who were seduced and deserted, though
+    this is a fiction much affected by prostitutes. Barmaids supply a
+    considerable number to the ranks of prostitution, largely on
+    account of their addiction to drink; drunkenness invariably leads
+    to laxness of moral restraint in women. Another potent factor in
+    the production of prostitutes lies in the flare of finery
+    flaunted by some friend who has adopted the life. A girl, working
+    hard to live, sees some friend, perhaps making a call in the
+    street where the hard-working girl lives, clothed in finery,
+    while she herself can hardly get enough to eat. She has a
+    conversation with her finely-clad friend who tells her how easily
+    she can earn money, explaining what a vital asset the sexual
+    organs are, and soon another one is added to the ranks.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    There is some interest in considering the reasons assigned for
+    prostitutes entering their career. In some countries this has
+    been estimated by those who come closely into official or other
+    contact with prostitutes. In other countries, it is the rule for
+    girls, before they are registered as prostitutes, to state the
+    reasons for which they desire to enter the career.</p>
+
+<p>    Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, whose work on prostitutes in Paris is still an
+    authority, presented the first estimate of this kind. He found
+    that of over five thousand prostitutes, 1441 were influenced by
+    poverty, 1425 by <a name='6_Page_257'></a>seduction of lovers who had abandoned them,
+    1255 by the loss of parents from death or other cause. By such an
+    estimate, nearly the whole number are accounted for by
+    wretchedness, that is by economic causes, alone
+    (Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, <i>De la Prostitution</i>, 1857, vol. i, p. 107).</p>
+
+<p>    In Brussels during a period of twenty years (1865-1884) 3505
+    women were inscribed as prostitutes. The causes they assigned for
+    desiring to take to this career present a different picture from
+    that shown by Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, but perhaps a more reliable one,
+    although there are some marked and curious discrepancies. Out of
+    the 3505, 1523 explained that extreme poverty was the cause of
+    their degradation; 1118 frankly confessed that their sexual
+    passions were the cause; 420 attributed their fall to evil
+    company; 316 said they were disgusted and weary of their work,
+    because the toil was so arduous and the pay so small; 101 had
+    been abandoned by their lovers; 10 had quarrelled with their
+    parents; 7 were abandoned by their husbands; 4 did not agree with
+    their guardians; 3 had family quarrels; 2 were compelled to
+    prostitute themselves by their husbands, and 1 by her parents
+    (<i>Lancet</i>, June 28, 1890, p. 1442).</p>
+
+<p>    In London, Merrick found that of 16,022 prostitutes who passed
+    through his hands during the years he was chaplain at Millbank
+    prison, 5061 voluntarily left home or situation for &quot;a life of
+    pleasure;&quot; 3363 assigned poverty as the cause; 3154 were
+    &quot;seduced&quot; and drifted on to the street; 1636 were betrayed by
+    promises of marriage and abandoned by lover and relations. On the
+    whole, Merrick states, 4790, or nearly one-third of the whole
+    number, may be said to owe the adoption of their career directly
+    to men, 11,232 to other causes. He adds that of those pleading
+    poverty a large number were indolent and incapable (G. P. Merrick,
+    <i>Work Among the Fallen</i>, p. 38).</p>
+
+<p>    Logan, an English city missionary with an extensive acquaintance
+    with prostitutes, divided them into the following groups: (1)
+    One-fourth of the girls are servants, especially in public
+    houses, beer shops, etc., and thus led into the life; (2)
+    one-fourth come from factories, etc.; (3) nearly one-fourth are
+    recruited by procuresses who visit country towns, markets, etc.;
+    (4) a final group includes, on the one hand, those who are
+    induced to become prostitutes by destitution, or indolence, or a
+    bad temper, which unfits them for ordinary avocations, and, on
+    the other hand, those who have been seduced by a false promise of
+    marriage (W. Logan, <i>The Great Social Evil</i>, 1871, p. 53).</p>
+
+<p>    In America Sanger has reported the results of inquiries made of
+    two thousand New York prostitutes as to the causes which induced
+    them to take up their avocation:</p></div><a name='6_Page_258'></a>
+
+<pre>
+                Destitution                                        525
+                Inclination                                        513
+                Seduced and abandoned                              258
+                Drink and desire for drink                         181
+                Ill-treatment by parents, relations, or husbands   164
+                As an easy life                                    124
+                Bad company                                         84
+                Persuaded by prostitutes                            71
+                Too idle to work                                    29
+                Violated                                            27
+                Seduced on emigrant ship                            16
+                Seduced in emigrant boarding homes                   8
+                                                                 -----
+                                                                 2,000</pre>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>(Sanger, <i>History of Prostitution</i>, p. 488.)
+
+<p>    In America, again, more recently, Professor Woods Hutchinson put
+    himself into communication with some thirty representative men in
+    various great metropolitan centres, and thus summarizes the
+    answers as regards the etiology of prostitution:</p></div>
+
+<pre>
+                                                      Per cent.
+
+                Love of display, luxury and idleness            42.1
+                Bad family surroundings                         23.8
+                Seduction in which they were innocent victims   11.3
+                Lack of employment                               9.4
+                Heredity                                         7.8
+                Primary sexual appetite                          5.6</pre>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>(Woods Hutchinson, &quot;The Economics of Prostitution,&quot; <i>American
+    Gyn&aelig;cologic and Obstetric Journal</i>, September, 1895; <i>Id., The
+    Gospel According to Darwin</i>, p. 194.)</p>
+
+<p>    In Italy, in 1881, among 10,422 inscribed prostitutes from the
+    age of seventeen upwards, the causes of prostitution were
+    classified as follows:</p></div>
+
+<pre>
+                Vice and depravity                            2,752
+                Death of parents, husband, etc.               2,139
+                Seduction by lover                            1,653
+                Seduction by employer                           927
+                Abandoned by parents, husband, etc.             794
+                Love of luxury                                  698
+                Incitement by lover or other persons outside
+                  family                                        666
+                Incitement by parents or husband                400
+                To support parents or children                  393</pre>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>(Ferriani, <i>Minorenni Delinquenti</i>, p. 193.) The reasons<a name='6_Page_259'></a>
+    assigned by Russian prostitutes for taking up their career are
+    (according to Federow) as follows:</p></div>
+
+<pre>
+                38.5 per cent. insufficient wages.
+                21.  per cent. desire for amusement.
+                14.  per cent. loss of place.
+                 9.5 per cent. persuasion by women friends.
+                 6.5 per cent. loss of habit of work.
+                 5.5 per cent. chagrin, and to punish lover.
+                  .5 per cent. drunkenness.</pre>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>(Summarized in <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, Nov. 15,
+    1901.)</p></div>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Economic Causation of Prostitution</i>.&mdash;Writers on prostitution
+frequently assert that economic conditions lie at the root of prostitution
+and that its chief cause is poverty, while prostitutes themselves often
+declare that the difficulty of earning a livelihood in other ways was a
+main cause in inducing them to adopt this career. &quot;Of all the causes of
+prostitution,&quot; Parent-Duch&acirc;telet wrote a century ago, &quot;particularly in
+Paris, and probably in all large cities, none is more active than lack of
+work and the misery which is the inevitable result of insufficient wages.&quot;
+In England, also, to a large extent, Sherwell states, &quot;morals fluctuate
+with trade.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_164'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_164'><sup>[164]</sup></a> It is equally so in Berlin where the number of
+registered prostitutes increases during bad years.<a name='6_FNanchor_165'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_165'><sup>[165]</sup></a> It is so also in
+America. It is the same in Japan; &quot;the cause of causes is poverty.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_166'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_166'><sup>[166]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Thus the broad and general statement that prostitution is largely or
+mainly an economic phenomenon, due to the low wages of women or to sudden
+depressions in trade, is everywhere made by investigators. It must,
+however, be added that these general statements are considerably qualified
+in the light of the detailed investigations made by careful inquirers.
+Thus Str&ouml;hmberg, who minutely investigated 462 prostitutes, found that
+only one assigned destitution as the reason for adopting her career, and
+on investigation this was found to be an impudent lie.<a name='6_FNanchor_167'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_167'><sup>[167]</sup></a> Hammer <a name='6_Page_260'></a>found
+that of ninety registered German prostitutes not one had entered on the
+career out of want or to support a child, while some went on the street
+while in the possession of money, or without wishing to be paid.<a name='6_FNanchor_168'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_168'><sup>[168]</sup></a>
+Pastor Buschmann, of the Teltow Magdalene Home in Berlin, finds that it is
+not want but indifference to moral considerations which leads girls to
+become prostitutes. In Germany, before a girl is put on the police
+register, due care is always taken to give her a chance of entering a Home
+and getting work; in Berlin, in the course of ten years, only two
+girls&mdash;out of thousands&mdash;were willing to take advantage of this
+opportunity. The difficulty experienced by English Rescue Homes in finding
+girls who are willing to be &quot;rescued&quot; is notorious. The same difficulty is
+found in other cities, even where entirely different conditions prevail;
+thus it is found in Madrid, according to Bernaldo de Quir&oacute;s and Llanas
+Aguilaniedo, that the prostitutes who enter the Homes, notwithstanding all
+the devotion of the nuns, on leaving at once return to their old life.
+While the economic factor in prostitution undoubtedly exists, the undue
+frequency and emphasis with which it is put forward and accepted is
+clearly due, in part to ignorance of the real facts, in part to the fact
+that such an assumption appeals to those whose weakness it is to explain
+all social phenomena by economic causes, and in part to its obvious
+plausibility.<a name='6_FNanchor_169'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_169'><sup>[169]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Prostitutes are mainly recruited from the ranks of factory girls, domestic
+servants, shop girls, and waitresses. In some <a name='6_Page_261'></a>of these occupations it is
+difficult to obtain employment all the year round. In this way many
+milliners, dressmakers and tailoresses become prostitutes when business is
+slack, and return to business when the season begins. Sometimes the
+regular work of the day is supplemented concurrently by prostitution in
+the street in the evening. It is said, possibly with some truth, that
+amateur prostitution of this kind is extremely prevalent in England, as it
+is not checked by the precautions which, in countries where prostitution
+is regulated, the clandestine prostitute must adopt in order to avoid
+registration. Certain public lavatories and dressing-rooms in central
+London are said to be used by the girls for putting on, and finally
+washing off before going home, the customary paint.<a name='6_FNanchor_170'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_170'><sup>[170]</sup></a> It is certain
+that in England a large proportion of parents belonging to the working and
+even lower middle class ranks are unacquainted with the nature of the
+lives led by their own daughters. It must be added, also, that
+occasionally this conduct of the daughter is winked at or encouraged by
+the parents; thus a correspondent writes that he &quot;knows some towns in
+England where prostitution is not regarded as anything disgraceful, and
+can remember many cases where the mother's house has been used by the
+daughter with the mother's knowledge.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Acton, in a well-informed book on London prostitution, written in the
+middle of the last century, said that prostitution is &quot;a transitory stage,
+through which an untold number of British women are ever on their
+passage.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_171'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_171'><sup>[171]</sup></a> This statement was strenuously denied at the time by many
+earnest moralists who refused to admit that it was possible for a woman
+who had sunk into so deep a pit of degradation ever to climb out again,
+respectably safe and sound. Yet it is certainly true as regards a
+considerable proportion of women, not only in England, but in other
+countries also. Thus Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, the greatest authority on French
+prostitution, stated that &quot;prostitution is for the majority only a
+transitory stage; it is quitted usually during the first year; very <a name='6_Page_262'></a>few
+prostitutes continue until extinction.&quot; It is difficult, however, to
+ascertain precisely of how large a proportion this is true; there are no
+data which would serve as a basis for exact estimation,<a name='6_FNanchor_172'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_172'><sup>[172]</sup></a> and it is
+impossible to expect that respectable married women would admit that they
+had ever been &quot;on the streets&quot;; they would not, perhaps, always admit it
+even to themselves.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The following case, though noted down over twenty years ago, is
+    fairly typical of a certain class, among the lower ranks of
+    prostitution, in which the economic factor counts for much, but
+    in which we ought not too hastily to assume that it is the sole
+    factor.</p>
+
+<p>    Widow, aged thirty, with two children. Works in an umbrella
+    manufactory in the East End of London, earning eighteen shillings
+    a week by hard work, and increasing her income by occasionally
+    going out on the streets in the evenings. She haunts a quiet side
+    street which is one of the approaches to a large city railway
+    terminus. She is a comfortable, almost matronly-looking woman,
+    quietly dressed in a way that is only noticeable from the skirts
+    being rather short. If spoken to she may remark that she is
+    &quot;waiting for a lady friend,&quot; talks in an affected way about the
+    weather, and parenthetically introduces her offers. She will
+    either lead a man into one of the silent neighboring lanes filled
+    with warehouses, or will take him home with her. She is willing
+    to accept any sum the man may be willing or able to give;
+    occasionally it is a sovereign, sometimes it is only a sixpence;
+    on an average she earns a few shillings in an evening. She had
+    only been in London for ten months; before that she lived in
+    Newcastle. She did not go on the streets there; &quot;circumstances
+    alter cases,&quot; she sagely remarks. Though <a name='6_Page_263'></a>not speaking well of
+    the police, she says they do not interfere with her as they do
+    with some of the girls. She never gives them money, but hints
+    that it is sometimes necessary to gratify their desires in order
+    to keep on good terms with them.</p></div>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered, for it is sometimes forgotten by socialists
+and social reformers, that while the pressure of poverty exerts a markedly
+modifying influence on prostitution, in that it increases the ranks of the
+women who thereby seek a livelihood and may thus be properly regarded as a
+factor of prostitution, no practicable raising of the rate of women's
+wages could possibly serve, directly and alone, to abolish prostitution.
+De Molinari, an economist, after remarking that &quot;prostitution is an
+industry&quot; and that if other competing industries can offer women
+sufficiently high pecuniary inducements they will not be so frequently
+attracted to prostitution, proceeds to point out that that by no means
+settles the question. &quot;Like every other industry prostitution is governed
+by the demand of the need to which it responds. As long as that need and
+that demand persist, they will provoke an offer. It is the need and the
+demand that we must act on, and perhaps science will furnish us the means
+to do so.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_173'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_173'><sup>[173]</sup></a> In what way Molinari expects science to diminish the
+demand for prostitutes, however, is not clearly brought out.</p>
+
+<p>Not only have we to admit that no practicable rise in the rate of wages
+paid to women in ordinary industries can possibly compete with the wages
+which fairly attractive women of quite ordinary ability can earn by
+prostitution,<a name='6_FNanchor_174'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_174'><sup>[174]</sup></a> but we have also to realize that a rise in general
+prosperity&mdash;which alone can render a rise of women's wages healthy and
+normal&mdash;involves a rise in the wages of prostitution, and an increase in
+the number of prostitutes. So that if good wages is to be regarded as the
+antagonist of prostitution, we can only say that it more than <a name='6_Page_264'></a>gives back
+with one hand what it takes with the other. To so marked a degree is this
+the case that Despr&eacute;s in a detailed moral and demographic study of the
+distribution of prostitution in France comes to the conclusion that we
+must reverse the ancient doctrine that &quot;poverty engenders prostitution&quot;
+since prostitution regularly increases with wealth,<a name='6_FNanchor_175'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_175'><sup>[175]</sup></a> and as a
+d&eacute;partement rises in wealth and prosperity, so the number both of its
+inscribed and its free prostitutes rises also. There is indeed a fallacy
+here, for while it is true, as Despr&eacute;s argues, that wealth demands
+prostitution, it is also true that a wealthy community involves the
+extreme of poverty as well as of riches and that it is among the poorer
+elements that prostitution chiefly finds its recruits. The ancient dictum
+that &quot;poverty engenders prostitution&quot; still stands, but it is complicated
+and qualified by the complex conditions of civilization. Bonger, in his
+able discussion of the economic side of the question, has realized the
+wide and deep basis of prostitution when he reaches the conclusion that it
+is &quot;on the one hand the inevitable complement of the existing legal
+monogamy, and on the other hand the result of the bad conditions in which
+many young girls grow up, the result of the physical and psychical
+wretchedness in which the women of the people live, and the consequence
+also of the inferior position of women in our actual society.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_176'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_176'><sup>[176]</sup></a> A
+narrowly economic consideration of prostitution can by no means bring us
+to the root of the matter.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>One circumstance alone should have sufficed to indicate that the
+    inability of many women to secure &quot;a living wage,&quot; is far from
+    being the most fundamental cause of prostitution: a large
+    proportion of prostitutes come from the ranks of domestic
+    service. Of all the great groups of female workers, domestic
+    servants are the freest from economic anxieties; they do not pay
+    for food or for lodging; they often live as well as their
+    mistresses, and in a large proportion of cases they have fewer
+    money anxieties than their mistresses. Moreover, they supply an
+    almost universal demand, so that there is never any need for even
+    very moderately competent servants to be in want of work. They
+    constitute, it is true, a very large body which could not fail to
+    supply a certain contingent of recruits to prostitution. But when
+    we see that domestic <a name='6_Page_265'></a>service is the chief reservoir from which
+    prostitutes are drawn, it should be clear that the craving for
+    food and shelter is by no means the chief cause of prostitution.</p>
+
+<p>    It may be added that, although the significance of this
+    predominance of servants among prostitutes is seldom realized by
+    those who fancy that to remove poverty is to abolish
+    prostitution, it has not been ignored by the more thoughtful
+    students of social questions. Thus Sherwell, while pointing out
+    truly that, to a large extent, &quot;morals fluctuate with trade,&quot;
+    adds that, against the importance of the economic factor, it is a
+    suggestive and in every way impressive fact that the majority of
+    the girls who frequent the West End of London (88 per cent.,
+    according to the Salvation Army's Registers) are drawn from
+    domestic service where the economic struggle is not severely felt
+    (Arthur Sherwell, <i>Life in West London</i>, Ch. V, &quot;Prostitution&quot;).</p>
+
+<p>    It is at the same time worthy of note that by the conditions of
+    their lives servants, more than any other class, resemble
+    prostitutes (Bernaldo de Quir&oacute;s and Llanas Aguilaniedo have
+    pointed this out in <i>La Mala Vida en Madrid</i>, p. 240). Like
+    prostitutes, they are a class of women apart; they are not
+    entitled to the considerations and the little courtesies usually
+    paid to other women; in some countries they are even registered,
+    like prostitutes; it is scarcely surprising that when they suffer
+    from so many of the disadvantages of the prostitute, they should
+    sometimes desire to possess also some of her advantages. Lily
+    Braun (<i>Frauenfrage</i>, pp. 389 <i>et seq.</i>) has set forth in detail
+    these unfavorable conditions of domestic labor as they bear on
+    the tendency of servant-girls to become prostitutes. R. de
+    Ryck&egrave;re, in his important work, <i>La Servante Criminelle</i> (1907,
+    pp. 460 <i>et seq.</i>; <i>cf.</i>, the same author's article, &quot;La
+    Criminalit&eacute; Ancillaire,&quot; <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>,
+    July and December, 1906), has studied the psychology of the
+    servant-girl. He finds that she is specially marked by lack of
+    foresight, vanity, lack of invention, tendency to imitation, and
+    mobility of mind. These are characters which ally her to the
+    prostitute. De Ryck&egrave;re estimates the proportion of former
+    servants among prostitutes generally as fifty per cent., and adds
+    that what is called the &quot;white slavery&quot; here finds its most
+    complacent and docile victims. He remarks, however, that the
+    servant prostitute is, on the whole, not so much immoral as
+    non-moral.</p>
+
+<p>    In Paris Parent-Duch&acirc;telet found that, in proportion to their
+    number, servants furnished the largest contingent to
+    prostitution, and his editors also found that they head the list
+    (Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, edition 1857, vol. i, p. 83). Among
+    clandestine prostitutes at Paris, Commenge has more recently
+    found that former servants constitute forty per cent. In Bordeaux
+    Jeannel (<i>De le Prostitution Publique</i>, p. 102) also found that
+    in 1860 forty per cent, of prostitutes had been servants,
+    seamstresses coming next with thirty-seven per cent.</p><a name='6_Page_266'></a>
+
+<p>    In Germany and Austria it has long been recognized that domestic
+    service furnishes the chief number of recruits to prostitution.
+    Lippert, in Germany, and Gross-Hoffinger, in Austria, pointed out
+    this predominance of maid-servants and its significance before
+    the middle of the nineteenth century, and more recently Blaschko
+    has stated (&quot;Hygiene der Syphilis&quot; in Weyl's <i>Handbuch der
+    Hygiene</i>, Bd. ii, p. 40) that among Berlin prostitutes in 1898
+    maid-servants stand at the head with fifty-one per cent.
+    Baumgarten has stated that in Vienna the proportion of servants
+    is fifty-eight per cent.</p>
+
+<p>    In England, according to the Report of a Select Committee of the
+    Lords on the laws for the protection of children, sixty per cent,
+    of prostitutes have been servants. F. Remo, in his <i>Vie Galante
+    en Angleterre</i>, states the proportion as eighty per cent. It
+    would appear to be even higher as regards the West End of London.
+    Taking London as a whole the extensive statistics of Merrick
+    (<i>Work Among the Fallen</i>), chaplain of the Millbank Prison,
+    showed that out of 14,790 prostitutes, 5823, or about forty per
+    cent., had previously been servants, laundresses coming next, and
+    then dressmakers; classifying his data somewhat more summarily
+    and roughly, Merrick found that the proportion of servants was
+    fifty-three per cent.</p>
+
+<p>    In America, among two thousand prostitutes, Sanger states that
+    forty-three per cent, had been servants, dressmakers coming next,
+    but at a long interval, with six per cent. (Sanger, <i>History of
+    Prostitution</i>, p. 524). Among Philadelphia prostitutes, Goodchild
+    states that &quot;domestics are probably in largest proportion,&quot;
+    although some recruits may be found from almost any occupation.</p>
+
+<p>    It is the same in other countries. In Italy, according to Tammeo
+    (<i>La Prostituzione</i>, p. 100), servants come first among
+    prostitutes with a proportion of twenty-eight per cent., followed
+    by the group of dressmakers, tailoresses and milliners, seventeen
+    per cent. In Sardinia, A Mantegazza states, most prostitutes are
+    servants from the country. In Russia, according to Fiaux, the
+    proportion is forty-five per cent. In Madrid, according to Eslava
+    (as quoted by Bernaldo de Quir&oacute;s and Llanas Aguilaniedo (<i>La Mala
+    Vida, en Madrid</i>, p. 239)), servants come at the head of
+    registered prostitutes with twenty-seven per cent.&mdash;almost the
+    same proportion as in Italy&mdash;and are followed by dressmakers. In
+    Sweden, according to Welander (<i>Monatshefte f&uuml;r Praktische
+    Dermatologie</i>, 1899, p. 477) among 2541 inscribed prostitutes,
+    1586 (or sixty-two per cent.) were domestic servants; at a long
+    interval followed 210 seamstresses, then 168 factory workers,
+    etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Biological Factor of Prostitution</i>.&mdash;Economic considerations, as
+we see, have a highly important modificatory <a name='6_Page_267'></a>influence on prostitution,
+although it is by no means correct to assert that they form its main
+cause. There is another question which has exercised many investigators:
+To what extent are prostitutes predestined to this career by organic
+constitution? It is generally admitted that economic and other conditions
+are an exciting cause of prostitution; in how far are those who succumb
+predisposed by the possession of abnormal personal characteristics? Some
+inquirers have argued that this predisposition is so marked that
+prostitution may fairly be regarded as a feminine equivalent for
+criminality, and that in a family in which the men instinctively turn to
+crime, the women instinctively turn to prostitution. Others have as
+strenuously denied this conclusion.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Lombroso has more especially advocated the doctrine that
+    prostitution is the vicarious equivalent of criminality. In this
+    he was developing the results reached, in the important study of
+    the Jukes family, by Dugdale, who found that &quot;there where the
+    brothers commit crime, the sisters adopt prostitution;&quot; the fines
+    and imprisonments of the women of the family were not for
+    violations of the right of property, but mainly for offences
+    against public decency. &quot;The psychological as well as anatomical
+    identity of the criminal and the born prostitute,&quot; Lombroso and
+    Ferrero concluded, &quot;could not be more complete: both are
+    identical with the moral insane, and therefore, according to the
+    axiom, equal to each other. There is the same lack of moral
+    sense, the same hardness of heart, the same precocious taste for
+    evil, the same indifference to social infamy, the same
+    volatility, love of idleness, and lack of foresight, the same
+    taste for facile pleasures, for the orgy and for alcohol, the
+    same, or almost the same, vanity. Prostitution is only the
+    feminine side of criminality. And so true is it that prostitution
+    and criminality are two analogous, or, so to say, parallel,
+    phenomena, that at their extremes they meet. The prostitute is,
+    therefore, psychologically a criminal: if she commits no offenses
+    it is because her physical weakness, her small intelligence, the
+    facility of acquiring what she wants by more easy methods,
+    dispenses her from the necessity of crime, and on these very
+    grounds prostitution represents the specific form of feminine
+    criminality.&quot; The authors add that &quot;prostitution is, in a certain
+    sense, socially useful as an outlet for masculine sexuality and a
+    preventive of crime&quot; (Lombroso and Ferrero, <i>La Donna
+    Delinquente</i>, 1893, p. 571).</p>
+
+<p>    Those who have opposed this view have taken various grounds, and
+    by no means always understood the position they are attacking.
+    Thus<a name='6_Page_268'></a> W. Fischer (in <i>Die Prostitution</i>) vigorously argues that
+    prostitution is not an inoffensive equivalent of criminality, but
+    a factor of criminality. F&eacute;r&eacute;, again (in <i>D&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;rescence et
+    Criminalit&eacute;</i>), asserts that criminality and prostitution are not
+    equivalent, but identical. &quot;Prostitutes and criminals,&quot; he holds,
+    &quot;have as a common character their unproductiveness, and
+    consequently they are both anti-social. Prostitution thus
+    constitutes a form of criminality.&quot; The essential character of
+    criminals is not, however, their unproductiveness, for that they
+    share with a considerable proportion of the wealthiest of the
+    upper classes; it must be added, also, that the prostitute,
+    unlike the criminal, is exercising an activity for which there is
+    a demand, for which she is willingly paid, and for which she has
+    to work (it has sometimes been noted that the prostitute looks
+    down on the thief, who &quot;does not work&quot;); she is carrying on a
+    profession, and is neither more nor less productive than those
+    who carry on many more reputable professions. Aschaffenburg, also
+    believing himself in opposition to Lombroso, argues, somewhat
+    differently from F&eacute;r&eacute;, that prostitution is not indeed, as F&eacute;r&eacute;
+    said, a form of criminality, but that it is too frequently united
+    with criminality to be regarded as an equivalent. M&ouml;nkem&ouml;ller has
+    more recently supported the same view. Here, however, as usual,
+    there is a wide difference of opinion as to the proportion of
+    prostitutes of whom this is true. It is recognized by all
+    investigators to be true of a certain number, but while
+    Baumgarten, from an examination of eight thousand prostitutes,
+    only found a minute proportion who were criminals, Str&ouml;hmberg
+    found that among 462 prostitutes there were as many as 175
+    thieves. From another side, Morasso (as quoted in <i>Archivio di
+    Psichiatria</i>, 1896, fasc. I), on the strength of his own
+    investigations, is more clearly in opposition to Lombroso, since
+    he protests altogether against any purely degenerative view of
+    prostitutes which would in any way assimilate them with
+    criminals.</p></div>
+
+<p>The question of the sexuality of prostitutes, which has a certain bearing
+on the question of their tendency to degeneration, has been settled by
+different writers in different senses. While some, like Morasso, assert
+that sexual impulse is a main cause inducing women to adopt a prostitute's
+career, others assert that prostitutes are usually almost devoid of sexual
+impulse. Lombroso refers to the prevalence of sexual frigidity among
+prostitutes.<a name='6_FNanchor_177'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_177'><sup>[177]</sup></a> In London, Merrick, speaking from a knowledge of over
+16,000 prostitutes, states that he has met with &quot;only a very <a name='6_Page_269'></a>few cases&quot;
+in which gross sexual desire has been the motive to adopt a life of
+prostitution. In Paris, Raciborski had stated at a much earlier period
+that &quot;among prostitutes one finds very few who are prompted to libertinage
+by sexual ardor.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_178'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_178'><sup>[178]</sup></a> Commenge, again, a careful student of the Parisian
+prostitute, cannot admit that sexual desire is to be classed among the
+serious causes of prostitution. &quot;I have made inquiries of thousands of
+women on this point,&quot; he states, &quot;and only a very small number have told
+me that they were driven to prostitution for the satisfaction of sexual
+needs. Although girls who give themselves to prostitution are often
+lacking in frankness, on this point, I believe, they have no wish to
+deceive. When they have sexual needs they do not conceal them, but, on the
+contrary, show a certain <i>amour-propre</i> in acknowledging them, as a
+sufficient sort of justification for their life; so that if only a very
+small minority avow this motive the reason is that for the great majority
+it has no existence.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that the statements made regarding the sexual
+frigidity of prostitutes are often much too unqualified. This is in part
+certainly due to the fact that they are usually made by those who speak
+from a knowledge of old prostitutes whose habitual familiarity with normal
+sexual intercourse in its least attractive aspects has resulted in
+complete indifference to such intercourse, so far as their clients are
+concerned.<a name='6_FNanchor_179'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_179'><sup>[179]</sup></a> It may be stated with truth that to the woman of deep
+passions the ephemeral and superficial relationships of prostitution can
+offer no temptation. And it may be added that the majority of prostitutes
+begin their career at a very early age, long before the somewhat late
+period at which in women the tendency for passion to <a name='6_Page_270'></a>become strong, has
+yet arrived.<a name='6_FNanchor_180'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_180'><sup>[180]</sup></a> It may also be said that an indifference to sexual
+relationships, a tendency to attach no personal value to them, is often a
+predisposing cause in the adoption of a prostitute's career; the general
+mental shallowness of prostitutes may well be accompanied by shallowness
+of physical emotion. On the other hand, many prostitutes, at all events
+early in their careers, appear to show a marked degree of sensuality, and
+to women of coarse sexual fibre the career of prostitution has not been
+without attractions from this point of view; the gratification of physical
+desire is known to act as a motive in some cases and is clearly indicated
+in others.<a name='6_FNanchor_181'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_181'><sup>[181]</sup></a> This is scarcely surprising when we remember that
+prostitutes are in a very large proportion of cases remarkably robust and
+healthy persons in general respects.<a name='6_FNanchor_182'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_182'><sup>[182]</sup></a> They withstand without
+difficulty the risks of their profession, and though under its influence
+the manifestations of sexual feeling can scarcely fail to become modified
+or perverted in course of time, that is no proof of the original absence
+of sexual sensibility. It is not even a proof of its loss, for the real
+sexual nature of the normal prostitute, and her possibilities of sexual
+ardor, are chiefly manifested, not in her professional relations with her
+clients, but in her relations with her &quot;fancy boy&quot; or &quot;bully.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_183'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_183'><sup>[183]</sup></a> It is
+quite true that the conditions of her life often make it practically
+advantageous to the prostitute to have attached to her a man who is
+devoted to her interests <a name='6_Page_271'></a>and will defend them if necessary, but that is
+only a secondary, occasional, and subsidiary advantage of the &quot;fancy boy,&quot;
+so far as prostitutes generally are concerned. She is attracted to him
+primarily because he appeals to her personally and she wants him for
+herself. The motive of her attachment is, above all, erotic, in the full
+sense, involving not merely sexual relations but possession and common
+interests, a permanent and intimate life led together. &quot;You know that what
+one does in the way of business cannot fill one's heart,&quot; said a German
+prostitute; &quot;Why should we not have a husband like other women? I, too,
+need love. If that were not so we should not want a bully.&quot; And he, on his
+part, reciprocates this feeling and is by no means merely moved by
+self-interest.<a name='6_FNanchor_184'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_184'><sup>[184]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>One of my correspondents, who has had much experience of
+    prostitutes, not only in Britain, but also in Germany, France,
+    Belgium and Holland, has found that the normal manifestations of
+    sexual feeling are much more common in British than in
+    continental prostitutes. &quot;I should say,&quot; he writes, &quot;that in
+    normal coitus foreign women are generally unconscious of sexual
+    excitement. I don't think I have ever known a foreign woman who
+    had any semblance of orgasm. British women, on the other hand, if
+    a man is moderately kind, and shows that he has some feelings
+    beyond mere sensual gratification, often abandon themselves to
+    the wildest delights of sexual excitement. Of course in this
+    life, as in others, there is keen competition, and a woman, to
+    vie with her competitors, must please her gentlemen friends; but
+    a man of the world can always distinguish between real and
+    simulated passion.&quot; (It is possible, however, that he may be most
+    successful in arousing the feelings of his own fellow-country
+    women.) On the other hand, this writer finds that the foreign
+    women are more anxious to provide for the enjoyment of their
+    temporary consorts and to ascertain what pleases <a name='6_Page_272'></a>them. &quot;The
+    foreigner seems to make it the business of her life to discover
+    some abnormal mode of sexual gratification for her consort.&quot; For
+    their own pleasure also foreign prostitutes frequently ask for
+    <i>cunnilinctus</i>, in preference to normal coitus, while anal coitus
+    is also common. The difference evidently is that the British
+    women, when they seek gratification, find it in normal coitus,
+    while the foreign women prefer more abnormal methods. There is,
+    however, one class of British prostitutes which this
+    correspondent finds to be an exception to the general rule: the
+    class of those who are recruited from the lower walks of the
+    stage. &quot;Such women are generally more licentious&mdash;that is to say,
+    more acquainted with the bizarre in sexualism&mdash;than girls who
+    come from shops or bars; they show a knowledge of <i>fellatio</i>, and
+    even anal coitus, and during menstruation frequently suggest
+    inter-mammary coitus.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>On the whole it would appear that prostitutes, though not usually impelled
+to their life by motives of sensuality, on entering and during the early
+part of their career possess a fairly average amount of sexual impulse,
+with variations in both directions of excess and deficiency as well as of
+perversion. At a somewhat later period it is useless to attempt to measure
+the sexual impulse of prostitutes by the amount of pleasure they take in
+the professional performance of sexual intercourse. It is necessary to
+ascertain whether they possess sexual instincts which are gratified in
+other ways. In a large proportion of cases this is found to be so.
+Masturbation, especially, is extremely common among prostitutes
+everywhere; however prevalent it may be among women who have no other
+means of obtaining sexual gratification it is admitted by all to be still
+more prevalent among prostitutes, indeed almost universal.<a name='6_FNanchor_185'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_185'><sup>[185]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Homosexuality, though not so common as masturbation, is very frequently
+found among prostitutes&mdash;in France, it would seem, more frequently than in
+England&mdash;and it may indeed be <a name='6_Page_273'></a>said that it occurs more often among
+prostitutes than among any other class of women. It is favored by the
+acquired distaste for normal coitus due to professional intercourse with
+men, which leads homosexual relationships to be regarded as pure and ideal
+by comparison. It would appear also that in a considerable proportion of
+cases prostitutes present a congenital condition of sexual inversion, such
+a condition, with an accompanying indifference to intercourse with men,
+being a predisposing cause of the adoption of a prostitute's career.
+Kurella even regards prostitutes as constituting a sub-variety of
+congenital inverts. Anna R&uuml;ling in Germany states that about twenty per
+cent. prostitutes are homosexual; when asked what induced them to become
+prostitutes, more than one inverted woman of the street has replied to her
+that it was purely a matter of business, sexual feeling not coming into
+the question except with a friend of the same sex.<a name='6_FNanchor_186'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_186'><sup>[186]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The occurrence of congenital inversion among prostitutes&mdash;although we need
+not regard prostitutes as necessarily degenerate as a class&mdash;suggests the
+question whether we are likely to find an unusually large number of
+physical and other anomalies among them. It cannot be said that there is
+unanimity of opinion on this point. For some authorities prostitutes are
+merely normal ordinary women of low social rank, if indeed their instincts
+are not even a little superior to those of the class in which they were
+born. Other investigators find among them so large a proportion of
+individuals deviating from the normal that they are inclined to place
+prostitutes generally among one or other of the abnormal classes.<a name='6_FNanchor_187'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_187'><sup>[187]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_274'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Baumgarten, in Vienna, from a knowledge of over 8000 prostitutes,
+    concluded that only a very minute proportion are either criminal
+    or psychopathic in temperament or organization (<i>Archiv f&uuml;r
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie</i>, vol. xi, 1902). It is not clear,
+    however, that Baumgarten carried out any detailed and precise
+    investigations. Mr. Lane, a London police magistrate, has stated
+    as the result of his own observation, that prostitution is &quot;at
+    once a symptom and outcome of the same deteriorated physique and
+    decadent moral fibre which determine the manufacture of male
+    tramps, petty thieves, and professional beggars, of whom the
+    prostitute is in general the female analogue&quot; (<i>Ethnological
+    Journal</i>, April, 1905, p. 41). This estimate is doubtless correct
+    as regards a considerable proportion of the women, often
+    enfeebled by drink, who pass through the police courts, but it
+    could scarcely be applied without qualification to prostitutes
+    generally.</p>
+
+<p>    Morasso (<i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, 1896, fasc. I) has protested
+    against a purely degenerative view of prostitutes on the strength
+    of his own observations. There is, he states, a category of
+    prostitutes, unknown to scientific inquirers, which he calls that
+    of the <i>prostitute di alto bordo</i>. Among these the signs of
+    degeneration, physical or moral, are not to be found in greater
+    number than among women who do not belong to prostitution. They
+    reveal all sorts of characters, some of them showing great
+    refinement, and are chiefly marked off by the possession of an
+    unusual degree of sexual appetite. Even among the more degraded
+    group of the <i>bassa prostituzione</i>, he asserts, we find a
+    predominance of sexual, as well as professional, characters,
+    rather than the signs of degeneration. It is sufficient to quote
+    one more testimony, as set down many years ago by a woman of high
+    intelligence and character, Mrs. Craik, the novelist: &quot;The women
+    who fall are by no means the worst of their station,&quot; she wrote.
+    &quot;I have heard it affirmed by more than one lady&mdash;by one in
+    particular whose experience was as large as her benevolence&mdash;that
+    many of them are of the very best, refined, intelligent,
+    truthful, and affectionate. 'I don't know how it is,' she would
+    say, 'whether their very superiority makes them dissatisfied with
+    their own rank&mdash;such brutes or clowns as laboring men often
+    are!&mdash;so that they fall easier victims to the rank above them; or
+    whether, though this theory will shock many people, other virtues
+    can exist and flourish entirely distinct <a name='6_Page_275'></a>from, and after the
+    loss of, that which we are accustomed to believe the
+    indispensable prime virtue of our sex&mdash;chastity. I cannot explain
+    it; I can only say that it is so, that some of my most promising
+    village girls have been the first to come to harm; and some of
+    the best and most faithful servants I ever had, have been girls
+    who have fallen into shame, and who, had I not gone to the rescue
+    and put them in the way to do well, would infallibly have become
+    &quot;lost women&quot;'&quot; (<i>A Woman's Thoughts About Women</i>, 1858, p. 291).
+    Various writers have insisted on the good moral qualities of
+    prostitutes. Thus in France, Despine first enumerates their vices
+    as (1) greediness and love of drink, (2) lying, (3) anger, (4)
+    want of order and untidiness, (5) mobility of character, (6) need
+    of movement, (7) tendency to homosexuality; and then proceeds to
+    detail their good qualities: their maternal and filial affection,
+    their charity to each other; and their refusal to denounce each
+    other; while they are frequently religious, sometimes modest, and
+    generally very honest (Despine, <i>Psychologie Naturelle</i>, vol.
+    iii, pp. 207 <i>et seq.</i>; as regards Sicilian prostitutes, <i>cf.</i>
+    Callari, <i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, fasc. IV, 1903). The charity
+    towards each other, often manifested in distress, is largely
+    neutralized by a tendency to professional suspicion and jealousy
+    of each other.</p>
+
+<p>    Lombroso believes that the basis of prostitution must be found in
+    moral idiocy. If by moral idiocy we are to understand a condition
+    at all closely allied with insanity, this assertion is dubious.
+    There seems no clear relationship between prostitution and
+    insanity, and Tammeo has shown (<i>La Prostituzione</i>, p. 76) that
+    the frequency of prostitutes in the various Italian provinces is
+    in inverse ratio to the frequency of insane persons; as insanity
+    increases, prostitution decreases. But if we mean a minor degree
+    of moral imbecility&mdash;that is to say, a bluntness of perception
+    for the ordinary moral considerations of civilization which,
+    while it is largely due to the hardening influence of an
+    unfavorable early environment, may also rest on a congenital
+    predisposition&mdash;there can be no doubt that moral imbecility of
+    slight degree is very frequently found among prostitutes. It
+    would be plausible, doubtless, to say that every woman who gives
+    her virginity in exchange for an inadequate return is an
+    imbecile. If she gives herself for love, she has, at the worst,
+    made a foolish mistake, such as the young and inexperienced may
+    at any time make. But if she deliberately proposes to sell
+    herself, and does so for nothing or next to nothing, the case is
+    altered. The experiences of Commenge in Paris are instructive on
+    this point. &quot;For many young girls,&quot; he writes, &quot;modesty has no
+    existence, they experience no emotion in showing themselves
+    completely undressed, they abandon themselves to any chance
+    individual whom they will never see again. They attach no
+    importance to their virginity; they are deflowered under the
+    strangest conditions, without the least thought or care about the
+    act they are <a name='6_Page_276'></a>accomplishing. No sentiment, no calculation, pushes
+    them into a man's arms. They let themselves go without reflexion
+    and without motive, in an almost animal manner, from indifference
+    and without pleasure.&quot; He was acquainted with forty-five girls
+    between the ages of twelve and seventeen who were deflowered by
+    chance strangers whom they never met again; they lost their
+    virginity, in Dumas's phrase, as they lost their milk-teeth, and
+    could give no plausible account of the loss. A girl of fifteen,
+    mentioned by Commenge, living with her parents who supplied all
+    her wants, lost her virginity by casually meeting a man who
+    offered her two francs if she would go with him; she did so
+    without demur and soon begun to accost men on her own account. A
+    girl of fourteen, also living comfortably with her parents,
+    sacrificed her virginity at a fair in return for a glass of beer,
+    and henceforth begun to associate with prostitutes. Another girl
+    of the same age, at a local f&ecirc;te, wishing to go round on the
+    hobby horse, spontaneously offered herself to the man directing
+    the machinery for the pleasure of a ride. Yet another girl, of
+    fifteen, at another f&ecirc;te, offered her virginity in return for the
+    same momentary joy (Commenge, <i>Prostitution Clandestine</i>, 1897,
+    pp. 101 <i>et seq.</i>). In the United States, Dr. W. Travis Gibb,
+    examining physician to the New York Society for the Prevention of
+    Cruelty to Children, bears similar testimony to the fact that in
+    a fairly large proportion of &quot;rape&quot; cases the child is the
+    willing victim. &quot;It is horribly pathetic,&quot; he says (<i>Medical
+    Record</i>, April 20, 1907), &quot;to learn how far a nickel or a quarter
+    will go towards purchasing the virtue of these children.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In estimating the tendency of prostitutes to display congenital
+    physical anomalies, the crudest and most obvious test, though not
+    a precise or satisfactory one, is the general impression produced
+    by the face. In France, when nearly 1000 prostitutes were divided
+    into five groups from the point of view of their looks, only from
+    seven to fourteen per cent, were found to belong to the first
+    group, or that of those who could be said to possess youth and
+    beauty (Jeannel, <i>De la Prostitution Publique</i>, 1860, p. 168).
+    Woods Hutchinson, again, judging from an extensive acquaintance
+    with London, Paris, Vienna, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago,
+    asserts that a handsome or even attractive-looking prostitute, is
+    rare, and that the general average of beauty is lower than in any
+    other class of women. &quot;Whatever other evils,&quot; he remarks, &quot;the
+    fatal power of beauty may be responsible for, it has nothing to
+    do with prostitution&quot; (Woods Hutchinson, &quot;The Economics of
+    Prostitution,&quot; <i>American Gyn&aelig;cological and Obstetric Journal</i>,
+    September, 1895). It must, of course, be borne in mind that these
+    estimates are liable to be vitiated through being based chiefly
+    on the inspection of women who most obviously belong to the class
+    of prostitutes and have already been coarsened by their
+    profession.</p>
+
+<p>    If we may conclude&mdash;and the fact is probably undisputed&mdash;that
+    <a name='6_Page_277'></a>beautiful, agreeable, and harmoniously formed faces are rare
+    rather than common among prostitutes, we may certainly say that
+    minute examination will reveal a large number of physical
+    abnormalities. One of the earliest important physical
+    investigations of prostitutes was that of Dr. Pauline Tarnowsky
+    in Russia (first published in the <i>Vratch</i> in 1887, and
+    afterwards as <i>Etudes anthropom&eacute;triques sur les Prostitu&eacute;es et
+    les Voleuses</i>). She examined fifty St. Petersburg prostitutes who
+    had been inmates of a brothel for not less than two years, and
+    also fifty peasant women of, so far as possible, the same age and
+    mental development. She found that (1) the prostitute showed
+    shorter anterior-posterior and transverse diameters of skull; (2)
+    a proportion equal to eighty-four per cent. showed various signs
+    of physical degeneration (irregular skull, asymmetry of face,
+    anomalies of hard palate, teeth, ears, etc.). This tendency to
+    anomaly among the prostitutes was to some extent explained when
+    it was found that about four-fifths of them had parents who were
+    habitual drunkards, and nearly one-fifth were the last survivors
+    of large families; such families have been often produced by
+    degenerate parents.</p>
+
+<p>    The frequency of hereditary degeneration has been noted by
+    Bonhoeffer among German prostitutes. He investigated 190 Breslau
+    prostitutes in prison, and therefore of a more abnormal class
+    than ordinary prostitutes, and found that 102 were hereditarily
+    degenerate, and mostly with one or both parents who were
+    drunkards; 53 also showed feeble-mindedness (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r die
+    Gesamte Strafwissenschaft</i>, Bd. xxiii, p. 106).</p>
+
+<p>    The most detailed examinations of ordinary non-criminal
+    prostitutes, both anthropometrically and as regards the
+    prevalence of anomalies, have been made in Italy, though not on a
+    sufficiently large number of subjects to yield absolutely
+    decisive results. Thus Fornasari made a detailed examination of
+    sixty prostitutes belonging chiefly to Emilia and Venice, and
+    also of twenty-seven others belonging to Bologna, the latter
+    group being compared with a third group of twenty normal women
+    belonging to Bologna (<i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, 1892, fasc. VI).
+    The prostitutes were found to be of lower type than the normal
+    individuals, having smaller heads and larger faces. As the author
+    himself points out, his subjects were not sufficiently numerous
+    to justify far-reaching generalizations, but it may be worth
+    while to summarize some of his results. At equal heights the
+    prostitutes showed greater weight; at equal ages they were of
+    shorter stature than other women, not only of well-to-do, but of
+    the poor class: height of face, bi-zygomatic diameter (though not
+    the distance between zygomas), the distance from chin to external
+    auditory meatus, and the size of the jaw were all greater in the
+    prostitutes; the hands were longer and broader, compared to the
+    palm, than in ordinary women; the foot also was longer in
+    prostitutes, and the thigh, as compared to the calf, was larger.
+    It is noteworthy that in <a name='6_Page_278'></a>most particulars, and especially in
+    regard to head measurements, the variations were much greater
+    among the prostitutes than among the other women examined; this
+    is to some extent, though not entirely, to be accounted for by
+    the slightly greater number of the former.</p>
+
+<p>    Ardu (in the same number of the <i>Archivio</i>) gave the result of
+    observations (undertaken at Lombroso's suggestion) as to the
+    frequency of abnormalities among prostitutes. The subjects were
+    seventy-four in number and belonged to Professor Giovannini's
+    <i>Clinica Sifilopatica</i> at Turin. The abnormalities investigated
+    were virile distribution of hair on pubes, chest, and limbs,
+    hypertrichosis on forehead, left-handedness, atrophy of nipple,
+    and tattooing (which was only found once). Combining Ardu's
+    observations with another series of observations on fifty-five
+    prostitutes examined by Lombroso, it is found that virile
+    disposition of hair is found in fifteen per cent. as against six
+    per cent. in normal women; some degree of hypertrichosis in
+    eighteen per cent.; left-handedness in eleven per cent. (but in
+    normal women as high as twelve per cent. according to Gallia);
+    and atrophy of nipple in twelve per cent.</p>
+
+<p>    Giuffrida-Ruggeri, again (<i>Atti della, Societ&agrave; Romana di
+    Antropologia</i>, 1897, p. 216), on examining eighty-two prostitutes
+    found anomalies in the following order of decreasing frequency:
+    tendency of eyebrows to meet, lack of cranial symmetry,
+    depression at root of nose, defective development of calves,
+    hypertrichosis and other anomalies of hair, adherent or absent
+    lobule, prominent zigoma, prominent forehead or frontal bones,
+    bad implantation of teeth, Darwinian tubercle of ear, thin
+    vertical lips. These signs are separately of little or no
+    importance, though together not without significance as an
+    indication of general anomaly.</p>
+
+<p>    More recently Ascarilla, in an elaborate study (<i>Archivio di
+    Psichiatria</i>, 1906, fasc. VI, p. 812) of the finger prints of
+    prostitutes, comes to the conclusion that even in this respect
+    prostitutes tend to form a class showing morphological
+    inferiority to normal women. The patterns tend to show unusual
+    simplicity and uniformity, and the significance of this is
+    indicated by the fact that a similar uniformity is shown by the
+    finger prints of the insane and deaf-mutes (De Sanctis and
+    Toscano, <i>Atti Societ&agrave; Romana Antropologia</i>, vol. viii, 1901,
+    fasc. II).</p>
+
+<p>    In Chicago Dr. Harriet Alexander, in conjunction with Dr. E. S.
+    Talbot and Dr. J. G. Kiernan, examined thirty prostitutes in the
+    Bridewell, or House of Correction; only the &quot;obtuse&quot; class of
+    professional prostitutes reach this institution, and it is not
+    therefore surprising that they were found to exhibit very marked
+    stigmata of degeneracy. In race nearly half of those examined
+    were Celtic Irish. In sixteen the zygomatic processes were
+    unequal and very prominent. Other facial asymmetries were common.
+    In three cases the heads were of Mongoloid type; sixteen were
+    epignathic, and eleven prognathic; five showed arrest <a name='6_Page_279'></a>of
+    development of face. Brachycephaly predominated (seventeen
+    cases); the rest were mesaticephalic; there were no
+    dolichocephals. Abnormalities in shape of the skull were
+    numerous, and twenty-nine had defective ears. Four were
+    demonstrably insane, and one was an epileptic (H. C. B. Alexander,
+    &quot;Physical Abnormalities in Prostitutes,&quot; Chicago Academy of
+    Medicine, April, 1893; E. S. Talbot, <i>Degeneracy</i>, p. 320; <i>Id.,
+    Irregularities of the Teeth</i>, fourth edition, p. 141).</p></div>
+
+<p>It would seem, on the whole, so far as the evidence at present goes, that
+prostitutes are not quite normal representatives of the ranks into which
+they were born. There has been a process of selection of individuals who
+slightly deviate congenitally from the normal average and are,
+correspondingly, slightly inapt for normal life.<a name='6_FNanchor_188'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_188'><sup>[188]</sup></a> The psychic
+characteristics which accompany such deviation are not always necessarily
+of an obviously unfavorable nature; the slightly neurotic girl of low
+class birth&mdash;disinclined for hard work, through defective energy, and
+perhaps greedy and selfish&mdash;may even seem to possess a refinement superior
+to her station. While, however, there is a tendency to anomaly among
+prostitutes, it must be clearly recognized that that tendency remains
+slight so long as we consider impartially the whole class of prostitutes.
+Those investigators who have reached the conclusion that prostitutes are a
+highly degenerate and abnormal class have only observed special groups of
+prostitutes, more especially those who are frequently found in prison. It
+is not possible to form a just conception of prostitutes by studying them
+only in prison, any more than it would be possible to form a just
+conception of clergymen, doctors, or lawyers by studying them exclusively
+in prison, and this remains true even although a much larger proportion of
+prostitutes than of members of the more reputable professions pass through
+prisons; that fact no doubt partly indicates the greater abnormality of
+prostitutes.</p>
+
+<p>It has, of course, to be remembered that the special conditions of the
+lives of prostitutes tend to cause in them the appearance of certain
+professional characteristics which are entirely acquired and not
+congenital. In that way we may account for the gradual modification of the
+feminine secondary and tertiary <a name='6_Page_280'></a>sexual characters, and the appearance of
+masculine characters, such as the frequent deep voice, etc.<a name='6_FNanchor_189'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_189'><sup>[189]</sup></a> But with
+all due allowance for these acquired characters, it remains true that such
+comparative investigations as have so far been made, although
+inconclusive, seem to indicate that, even apart from the prevalence of
+acquired anomalies, the professional selection of their avocation tends to
+separate out from the general population of the same social class,
+individuals who possess anthropometrical characters varying in a definite
+direction. The observations thus made seem, in this way, to indicate that
+prostitutes tend to be in weight over the average, though not in stature,
+that in length of arm they are inferior though the hands are longer (this
+has been found alike in Italy and Russia); they have smaller ankles and
+larger calves, and still larger thighs in proportion to their large
+calves. The estimated skull capacity and the skull circumference and
+diameters are somewhat below the normal, not only when compared with
+respectable women but also with thieves; there is a tendency to
+brachycephaly (both in Italy and Russia); the cheek-bones are usually
+prominent and the jaws developed; the hair is darker than in respectable
+women though less so than in thieves; it is also unusually abundant, not
+only on the head but also on the pudenda and elsewhere; the eyes have been
+found to be decidedly darker than those of either respectable women or
+criminals.<a name='6_FNanchor_190'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_190'><sup>[190]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>So far as the evidence goes it serves to indicate that prostitutes tend to
+approximate to the type which, as was shown in the previous volume, there
+is reason to regard as specially indicative of developed sexuality. It is,
+however, unnecessary to discuss this question until our anthropometrical
+knowledge of prostitutes is more extended and precise.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Moral Justification of Prostitution</i>.&mdash;There are and always have
+been moralists&mdash;many of them people whose opinions are deserving of the
+most serious respect&mdash;who consider that, <a name='6_Page_281'></a>allowing for the need of
+improved hygienic conditions, the existence of prostitution presents no
+serious problem for solution. It is, at most, they say, a necessary evil,
+and, at best, a beneficent institution, the bulwark of the home, the
+inevitable reverse of which monogamy is the obverse. &quot;The immoral guardian
+of public morality,&quot; is the definition of prostitutes given by one writer,
+who takes the humble view of the matter, and another, taking the loftier
+ground, writes: &quot;The prostitute fulfils a social mission. She is the
+guardian of virginal modesty, the channel to carry off adulterous desire,
+the protector of matrons who fear late maternity; it is her part to act as
+the shield of the family.&quot; &quot;Female Decii,&quot; said Balzac in his <i>Physiologie
+du Mariage</i> of prostitutes, &quot;they sacrifice themselves for the republic
+and make of their bodies a rampart for the protection of respectable
+families.&quot; In the same way Schopenhauer called prostitutes &quot;human
+sacrifices on the altar of monogamy.&quot; Lecky, again, in an oft-quoted
+passage of rhetoric,<a name='6_FNanchor_191'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_191'><sup>[191]</sup></a> may be said to combine both the higher and the
+lower view of the prostitute's mission in human society, to which he even
+seeks to give a hieratic character. &quot;The supreme type of vice,&quot; he
+declared, &quot;she is ultimately the most efficient guardian of virtue. But
+for her, the unchallenged purity of countless happy homes would be
+polluted, and not a few who, in the pride of their untempted chastity,
+think of her with an indignant shudder, would have known the agony of
+remorse and of despair. On that one degraded and ignoble form are
+concentrated the passions that might have filled the world with shame. She
+remains, while creeds and civilizations rise and fall, the eternal
+priestess of humanity, blasted for the sins of the people.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_192'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_192'><sup>[192]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>I am not aware that the Greeks were greatly concerned with <a name='6_Page_282'></a>the moral
+justification of prostitution. They had not allowed it to assume very
+offensive forms and for the most part they were content to accept it. The
+Romans usually accepted it, too, but, we gather, not quite so easily.
+There was an austerely serious, almost Puritanic, spirit in the Romans of
+the old stock and they seem sometimes to have felt the need to assure
+themselves that prostitution really was morally justifiable. It is
+significant to note that they were accustomed to remember that Cato was
+said to have expressed satisfaction on seeing a man emerge from a brothel,
+for otherwise he might have gone to lie with his neighbor's wife.<a name='6_FNanchor_193'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_193'><sup>[193]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The social necessity of prostitution is the most ancient of all the
+arguments of moralists in favor of the toleration of prostitutes; and if
+we accept the eternal validity of the marriage system with which
+prostitution developed, and of the theoretical morality based on that
+system, this is an exceedingly forcible, if not an unanswerable, argument.</p>
+
+<p>The advent of Christianity, with its special attitude towards the &quot;flesh,&quot;
+necessarily caused an enormous increase of attention to the moral aspects
+of prostitution. When prostitution was not morally denounced, it became
+clearly necessary to morally justify it; it was impossible for a Church,
+whose ideals were more or less ascetic, to be benevolently indifferent in
+such a matter. As a rule we seem to find throughout that while the more
+independent and irresponsible divines take the side of denunciation, those
+theologians who have had thrust upon them the grave responsibilities of
+ecclesiastical statesmanship have rather tended towards the reluctant
+moral justification of prostitution. Of this we have an example of the
+first importance in St. Augustine, after St. Paul the chief builder of the
+Christian Church. In a treatise written in 386 to justify the Divine
+regulation of the world, we find him declaring that just as the
+executioner, however repulsive he may be, occupies a necessary place in
+society, so the prostitute and her like, however sordid and ugly and
+wicked they may be, are equally necessary; remove <a name='6_Page_283'></a>prostitutes from human
+affairs and you would pollute the world with lust: &quot;Aufer meretrices de
+rebus humanis, turbaveris omnia libidinibus.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_194'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_194'><sup>[194]</sup></a> Aquinas, the only
+theological thinker of Christendom who can be named with Augustine, was of
+the same mind with him on this question of prostitution. He maintained the
+sinfulness of fornication but he accepted the necessity of prostitution as
+a beneficial part of the social structure, comparing it to the sewers
+which keep a palace pure.<a name='6_FNanchor_195'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_195'><sup>[195]</sup></a> &quot;Prostitution in towns is like the sewer in
+a palace; take away the sewers and the palace becomes an impure and
+stinking place.&quot; Liguori, the most influential theologian of more modern
+times, was of the like opinion.</p>
+
+<p>This wavering and semi-indulgent attitude towards prostitution was indeed
+generally maintained by theologians. Some, following Augustine and
+Aquinas, would permit prostitution for the avoidance of greater evils;
+others were altogether opposed to it; others, again, would allow it in
+towns but nowhere else. It was, however, universally held by theologians
+that the prostitute has a right to her wages, and is not obliged to make
+restitution.<a name='6_FNanchor_196'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_196'><sup>[196]</sup></a> The earlier Christian moralists found no difficulty in
+maintaining that there is no sin in renting a house to a prostitute for
+the purposes of her trade; absolution was always granted for this and
+abstention not required.<a name='6_FNanchor_197'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_197'><sup>[197]</sup></a> Fornication, however, always remained a sin,
+and from the twelfth century onwards the Church made a series of organized
+attempts to reclaim prostitutes. All Catholic theologians hold that a
+prostitute is bound to confess the sin of prostitution, and most, though
+not all, theologians have believed that a man also must confess
+intercourse with a prostitute. At the same time, while there was a certain
+indulgence to the prostitute herself, the Church was always very severe on
+those <a name='6_Page_284'></a>who lived on the profits of promoting prostitution, on the
+<i>lenones</i>. Thus the Council of Elvira, which was ready to receive without
+penance the prostitute who married, refused reconciliation, even at death,
+to persons who had been guilty of <i>lenocinium</i>.<a name='6_FNanchor_198'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_198'><sup>[198]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Protestantism, in this as in many other matters of sexual morality, having
+abandoned the confessional, was usually able to escape the necessity for
+any definite and responsible utterances concerning the moral status of
+prostitution. When it expressed any opinion, or sought to initiate any
+practical action, it naturally founded itself on the Biblical injunctions
+against fornication, as expressed by St. Paul, and showed no mercy for
+prostitutes and no toleration for prostitution. This attitude, which was
+that of the Puritans, was the more easy since in Protestant countries,
+with the exception of special districts at special periods&mdash;such as Geneva
+and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries&mdash;theologians
+have in these matters been called upon to furnish religious exhortation
+rather than to carry out practical policies. The latter task they have
+left to others, and a certain confusion and uncertainty has thus often
+arisen in the lay Protestant mind. This attitude in a thoughtful and
+serious writer, is well illustrated in England by Burton, writing a
+century after the Reformation. He refers with mitigated approval to &quot;our
+Pseudo-Catholics,&quot; who are severe with adultery but indulgent to
+fornication, being perhaps of Cato's mind that it should be encouraged to
+avoid worse mischiefs at home, and who holds brothels &quot;as necessary as
+churches&quot; and &quot;have whole Colleges of Courtesans in their towns and
+cities.&quot; &quot;They hold it impossible,&quot; he continues, &quot;for idle persons,
+young, rich and lusty, so many servants, monks, friars, to live honest,
+too tyrannical a burden to compel them to be chaste, and most unfit to
+suffer poor men, younger brothers and soldiers at all to marry, as also
+diseased persons, votaries, priests, servants. Therefore as well to keep
+and ease the one as the other, they tolerate and wink at these kind of
+brothel-houses and stews. Many probable arguments they have to prove the
+lawfulness, the necessity, and a <a name='6_Page_285'></a>toleration of them, as of usery; and
+without question in policy they are not to be contradicted, but altogether
+in religion.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_199'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_199'><sup>[199]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It was not until the beginning of the following century that the ancient
+argument of St. Augustine for the moral justification of prostitution was
+boldly and decisively stated in Protestant England, by Bernard Mandeville
+in his <i>Fable of the Bees</i>, and at its first promulgation it seemed so
+offensive to the public mind that the book was suppressed. &quot;If courtesans
+and strumpets were to be prosecuted with as much rigor as some silly
+people would have it,&quot; Mandeville wrote, &quot;what locks or bars would be
+sufficient to preserve the honor of our wives and daughters?... It is
+manifest that there is a necessity of sacrificing one part of womankind to
+preserve the other, and prevent a filthiness of a more heinous nature.
+From whence I think I may justly conclude that chastity may be supported
+by incontinence, and the best of virtues want the assistance of the worst
+of vices.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_200'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_200'><sup>[200]</sup></a> After Mandeville's time this view of prostitution began to
+become common in Protestant as well as in other countries, though it was
+not usually so clearly expressed.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It may be of interest to gather together a few more modern
+    examples of statements brought forward for the moral
+    justification of prostitution.</p>
+
+<p>    Thus in France Meusnier de Querlon, in his story of <i>Psaphion</i>,
+    written in the middle of the eighteenth century, puts into the
+    mouth of a Greek courtesan many interesting reflections
+    concerning the life and position of the prostitute. She defends
+    her profession with much skill, and argues that while men imagine
+    that prostitutes are merely the despised victims of their
+    pleasures, these would-be tyrants are really dupes who are
+    ministering to the needs of the women they trample beneath their
+    feet, and themselves equally deserve the contempt they bestow.
+    &quot;We return disgust for disgust, as they must surely perceive. We
+    often abandon to them merely a statue, and while inflamed by
+    their own desires they consume themselves on insensible charms,
+    our tranquil coldness leisurely enjoys their sensibility. Then it
+    is we resume all our <a name='6_Page_286'></a>rights. A little hot blood has brought
+    these proud creatures to our feet, and rendered us mistresses of
+    their fate. On which side, I ask, is the advantage?&quot; But all men,
+    she adds, are not so unjust towards the prostitute, and she
+    proceeds to pronounce a eulogy, not without a slight touch of
+    irony in it, of the utility, facility, and convenience of the
+    brothel.</p>
+
+<p>    A large number of the modern writers on prostitution insist on
+    its socially beneficial character. Thus Charles Richard concludes
+    his book on the subject with the words: &quot;The conduct of society
+    with regard to prostitution must proceed from the principle of
+    gratitude without false shame for its utility, and compassion for
+    the poor creatures at whose expense this is attained&quot; (<i>La
+    Prostitution devant le Philosophe</i>, 1882, p. 171). &quot;To make
+    marriage permanent is to make it difficult,&quot; an American medical
+    writer observes; &quot;to make it difficult is to defer it; to defer
+    it is to maintain in the community an increasing number of
+    sexually perfect individuals, with normal, or, in cases where
+    repression is prolonged, excessive sexual appetites. The social
+    evil is the natural outcome of the physical nature of man, his
+    inherited impulses, and the artificial conditions under which he
+    is compelled to live&quot; (&quot;The Social Evil,&quot; <i>Medicine</i>, August and
+    September, 1906). Woods Hutchinson, while speaking with strong
+    disapproval of prostitution and regarding prostitutes as &quot;the
+    worst specimens of the sex,&quot; yet regards prostitution as a social
+    agency of the highest value. &quot;From a medico-economic point of
+    view I venture to claim it as one of the grand selective and
+    eliminative agencies of nature, and of highest value to the
+    community. It may be roughly characterized as a safety valve for
+    the institution of marriage&quot; (<i>The Gospel According to Darwin</i>,
+    p. 193; <i>cf.</i> the same author's article on &quot;The Economics of
+    Prostitution,&quot; summarized in <i>Boston Medical and Surgical
+    Journal</i>, November 21, 1895). Adolf Gerson, in a somewhat similar
+    spirit, argues (&quot;Die Ursache der Prostitution,&quot;
+    <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, September, 1908) that &quot;prostitution is one of
+    the means used by Nature to limit the procreative activity of
+    men, and especially to postpone the period of sexual maturity.&quot;
+    Molinari considers that the social benefits of prostitution have
+    been manifested in various ways from the first; by sterilizing,
+    for instance, the more excessive manifestations of the sexual
+    impulse prostitution suppressed the necessity for the infanticide
+    of superfluous children, and led to the prohibition of that
+    primitive method of limiting the population (G. de Molinari, <i>La
+    Viriculture</i>, p. 45). In quite another way than that mentioned by
+    Molinari, prostitution has even in very recent times led to the
+    abandonment of infanticide. In the Chinese province of Ping-Yang,
+    Matignon states, it was usual not many years ago for poor parents
+    to kill forty per cent. of the girl children, or even all of
+    them, at birth, for they were too expensive to rear and brought
+    nothing in, since men who wished to marry could easily obtain a
+    wife <a name='6_Page_287'></a>in the neighboring province of Wenchu, where women were
+    very easy to obtain. Now, however, the line of steamships along
+    the coast makes it very easy for girls to reach the brothels of
+    Shang-Hai, where they can earn money for their families; the
+    custom of killing them has therefore died out (Matignon,
+    <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, 1896, p. 72). &quot;Under
+    present conditions,&quot; writes Dr. F. Erhard (&quot;Auch ein Wort zur
+    Ehereform,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Jahrgang I, Heft 9),
+    &quot;prostitution (in the broadest sense, including free
+    relationships) is necessary in order that young men may, in some
+    degree, learn to know women, for conventional conversation cannot
+    suffice for this; an exact knowledge of feminine thought and
+    action is, however, necessary for a proper choice, since it is
+    seldom possible to rely on the certainty of instinct. It is good
+    also that men should wear off their horns before marriage, for
+    the polygamous tendency will break through somewhere.
+    Prostitution will only spoil those men in whom there is not much
+    to spoil, and if the desire for marriage is thus lost, the man's
+    unbegotten children may have cause to thank him.&quot; Neisser, N&auml;cke,
+    and many others, have pleaded for prostitution, and even for
+    brothels, as &quot;necessary evils.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It is scarcely necessary to add that many, among even the
+    strongest upholders of the moral advantages of prostitution,
+    believe that some improvement in method is still desirable. Thus
+    B&eacute;rault looks forward to a time when regulated brothels will
+    become less contemptible. Various improvements may, he thinks, in
+    the near future, &quot;deprive them of the barbarous attributes which
+    mark them out for the opprobrium of the skeptical or ignorant
+    multitude, while their recognizable advantages will put an end to
+    the contempt aroused by their cynical aspect&quot; (<i>La Maison de
+    Tol&eacute;rance</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1904).</p></div>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Civilizational Value of Prostitution.</i>&mdash;The moral argument for
+prostitution is based on the belief that our marriage system is so
+infinitely precious that an institution which serves as its buttress must
+be kept in existence, however ugly or otherwise objectionable it may in
+itself be. There is, however, another argument in support of prostitution
+which scarcely receives the emphasis it deserves. I refer to its influence
+in adding an element, in some form or another necessary, of gaiety and
+variety to the ordered complexity of modern life, a relief from the
+monotony of its mechanical routine, a distraction from its dull and
+respectable monotony. This is distinct from the more specific function of
+prostitution as an outlet for superfluous sexual energy, and may even
+affect those who have <a name='6_Page_288'></a>little or no commerce with prostitutes. This
+element may be said to constitute the civilizational value of
+prostitution.</p>
+
+<p>It is not merely the general conditions of civilization, but more
+specifically the conditions of urban life, which make this factor
+insistent. Urban life imposes by the stress of competition a very severe
+and exacting routine of dull work. At the same time it makes men and women
+more sensitive to new impressions, more enamored of excitement and change.
+It multiplies the opportunities of social intercourse; it decreases the
+chances of detection of illegitimate intercourse while at the same time it
+makes marriage more difficult, for, by heightening social ambitions and
+increasing the expenses of living, it postpones the time when a home can
+be created. Urban life delays marriage and yet renders the substitutes for
+marriage more imperative.<a name='6_FNanchor_201'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_201'><sup>[201]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There cannot be the slightest doubt that it is this motive&mdash;the effort to
+supplement the imperfect opportunities for self-development offered by our
+restrained, mechanical, and laborious civilization&mdash;which plays one of the
+chief parts in inducing women to adopt, temporarily or permanently, a
+prostitute's life. We have seen that the economic factor is not, as was
+once supposed, by any means predominant in this choice. Nor, again, is
+there any reason to suppose that an over-mastering sexual impulse is a
+leading factor. But a large number of young women turn instinctively to a
+life of prostitution because they are moved by an obscure impulse which
+they can scarcely define to themselves or express, and are often ashamed
+to confess. It is, therefore, surprising that this motive should find so
+large a place even in the formal statistics of the factors of
+prostitution. Merrick, in London, found that 5000, or nearly a third, of
+the prostitutes he investigated, voluntarily gave up home or situation
+&quot;for a life of pleasure,&quot; and he puts this at the head of the causes of
+<a name='6_Page_289'></a>prostitution.<a name='6_FNanchor_202'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_202'><sup>[202]</sup></a> In America Sanger found that &quot;inclination&quot; came almost
+at the head of the causes of prostitution, while Woods Hutchinson found
+&quot;love of display, luxury and idleness&quot; by far at the head. &quot;Disgusted and
+wearied with work&quot; is the reason assigned by a large number of Belgian
+girls when stating to the police their wish to be enrolled as prostitutes.
+In Italy a similar motive is estimated to play an important part. In
+Russia &quot;desire for amusement&quot; comes second among the causes of
+prostitution. There can, I think, be little doubt that, as a thoughtful
+student of London life has concluded, the problem of prostitution is &quot;at
+bottom a mad and irresistible craving for excitement, a serious and wilful
+revolt against the monotony of commonplace ideals, and the uninspired
+drudgery of everyday life.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_203'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_203'><sup>[203]</sup></a> It is this factor of prostitution, we may
+reasonably conclude, which is mainly responsible for the fact, pointed out
+by F. Schiller,<a name='6_FNanchor_204'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_204'><sup>[204]</sup></a> that with the development of civilization the supply
+of prostitutes tends to outgrow the demand.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Charles Booth seems to be of the same opinion, and quotes (<i>Life
+    and Labor of the People</i>, Third Series, vol. vii, p. 364) from a
+    Rescue Committee Report: &quot;The popular idea is, that these women
+    are eager to leave a life of sin. The plain and simple truth is
+    that, for the most part, they have no desire at all to be
+    rescued. So many of these women do not, and will not, regard
+    prostitution as a sin. 'I am taken out to dinner and to some
+    place of amusement every night; why should I give it up?'&quot;
+    Merrick, who found that five per cent. of 14,000 prostitutes who
+    passed through Millbank Prison, were accustomed to combine
+    religious observance with the practice of their profession, also
+    remarks in regard to their feelings about morality: &quot;I am
+    convinced that there are many poor men and women who do not in
+    the least understand what is <a name='6_Page_290'></a>implied in the term 'immorality.'
+    Out of courtesy to you, they may assent to what you say, but they
+    do not comprehend your meaning when you talk of virtue or purity;
+    you are simply talking over their heads&quot; (Merrick, <i>op. cit.</i>, p.
+    28). The same attitude may be found among prostitutes everywhere.
+    In Italy Ferriani mentions a girl of fifteen who, when accused of
+    indecency with a man in a public garden, denied with tears and
+    much indignation. He finally induced her to confess, and then
+    asked her: &quot;Why did you try to make me believe you were a good
+    girl?&quot; She hesitated, smiled, and said: &quot;Because <i>they say</i> girls
+    ought not to do what I do, but ought to work. But I am what I am,
+    and it is no concern of theirs.&quot; This attitude is often more than
+    an instinctive feeling; in intelligent prostitutes it frequently
+    becomes a reasoned conviction. &quot;I can bear everything, if so it
+    must be,&quot; wrote the author of the <i>Tagebuch einer Verlorenen</i> (p.
+    291), &quot;even serious and honorable contempt, but I cannot bear
+    scorn. Contempt&mdash;yes, if it is justified. If a poor and pretty
+    girl with sick and bitter heart stands alone in life, cast off,
+    with temptations and seductions offering on every side, and, in
+    spite of that, out of inner conviction she chooses the grey and
+    monotonous path of renunciation and middle-class morality, I
+    recognize in that girl a personality, who has a certain
+    justification in looking down with contemptuous pity on weaker
+    girls. But those geese who, under the eyes of their shepherds and
+    life-long owners, have always been pastured in smooth green
+    fields, have certainly no right to laugh scornfully at others who
+    have not been so fortunate.&quot; Nor must it be supposed that there
+    is necessarily any sophistry in the prostitute's justification of
+    herself. Some of our best thinkers and observers have reached a
+    conclusion that is not dissimilar. &quot;The actual conditions of
+    society are opposed to any high moral feeling in women,&quot; Marro
+    observes (<i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, p. 462), &quot;for between those who sell
+    themselves to prostitution and those who sell themselves to
+    marriage, the only difference is in price and duration of the
+    contract.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>We have already seen how very large a part in prostitution is furnished by
+those who have left domestic service to adopt this life (<i>ante</i> p. 264).
+It is not difficult to find in this fact evidence of the kind of impulse
+which impels a woman to adopt the career of prostitution. &quot;The servant, in
+our society of equality,&quot; wrote Goncourt, recalling somewhat earlier days
+when she was often admitted to a place in the family life, &quot;has become
+nothing but a paid pariah, a machine for doing household work, and is no
+longer allowed to share the employer's human life.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_205'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_205'><sup>[205]</sup></a> And in England,
+<a name='6_Page_291'></a>even half a century ago, we already find the same statements concerning
+the servant's position: &quot;domestic service is a complete slavery,&quot; with
+early hours and late hours, and constant running up and down stairs till
+her legs are swollen; &quot;an amount of ingenuity appears too often to be
+exercised, worthy of a better cause, in obtaining the largest possible
+amount of labor out of the domestic machine&quot;; in addition she is &quot;a kind
+of lightning conductor,&quot; to receive the ill-temper and morbid feelings of
+her mistress and the young ladies; so that, as some have said, &quot;I felt so
+miserable I did not care what became of me, I wished I was dead.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_206'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_206'><sup>[206]</sup></a> The
+servant is deprived of all human relationships; she must not betray the
+existence of any simple impulse, or natural need. At the same time she
+lives on the fringe of luxury; she is surrounded by the tantalizing
+visions of pleasure and amusement for which her fresh young nature
+craves.<a name='6_FNanchor_207'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_207'><sup>[207]</sup></a> It is not surprising that, repelled by unrelieved drudgery
+and attracted by idle luxury, she should take the plunge which will alone
+enable her to enjoy the glittering aspects of civilization which seem so
+desirable to her.<a name='6_FNanchor_208'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_208'><sup>[208]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is sometimes stated that the prevalence of prostitution among
+    girls who were formerly servants is due to the immense numbers of
+    servants who are seduced by their masters or the young men of the
+    family, and are thus forced on to the streets. Undoubtedly in a
+    certain proportion of cases, perhaps sometimes a fairly
+    considerable proportion, this is a decisive factor in the matter,
+    but it scarcely seems to be the chief factor. The existence of
+    relationships between servants and masters, it must be
+    remembered, by no means necessarily implies seduction.<a name='6_Page_292'></a> In a
+    large number of cases the servant in a household is, in sexual
+    matters, the teacher rather than the pupil. (In &quot;The Sexual
+    Impulse in Women,&quot; in the third volume of these <i>Studies</i>, I have
+    discussed the part played by servants as sexual initiators of the
+    young boys in the households in which they are placed.) The more
+    precise statistics of the causes of prostitution seldom assign
+    seduction as the main determining factor in more than about
+    twenty per cent. of cases, though this is obviously one of the
+    most easily avowable motives (see <i>ante</i>, p. 256). Seduction by
+    any kind of employer constitutes only a proportion (usually less
+    than half) even of these cases. The special case of seduction of
+    servants by masters can thus play no very considerable part as a
+    factor of prostitution.</p>
+
+<p>    The statistics of the parentage of illegitimate children have
+    some bearing on this question. In a series of 180 unmarried
+    mothers assisted by the Berlin Bund f&uuml;r Mutterschutz, particulars
+    are given of the occupations both of the mothers, and, as far as
+    possible, of the fathers. The former were one-third
+    servant-girls, and the great majority of the remainder assistants
+    in trades or girls carrying on work at home. At the head of the
+    fathers (among 120 cases) came artisans (33), followed by
+    tradespeople (22); only a small proportion (20 to 25) could be
+    described as &quot;gentlemen,&quot; and even this proportion loses some of
+    its significance when it is pointed out that some of the girls
+    were also of the middle-class; in nineteen cases the fathers were
+    married men (<i>Mutterschutz</i>, January, 1907, p. 45).</p>
+
+<p>    Most authorities in most countries are of opinion that girls who
+    eventually (usually between the ages of fifteen and twenty)
+    become prostitutes have lost their virginity at an early age, and
+    in the great majority of cases through men of their own class.
+    &quot;The girl of the people falls by the people,&quot; stated Reuss in
+    France (<i>La Prostitution</i>, p. 41). &quot;It is her like, workers like
+    herself, who have the first fruits of her beauty and virginity.
+    The man of the world who covers her with gold and jewels only has
+    their leavings.&quot; Martineau, again (<i>De la Prostitution
+    Clandestine</i>, 1885), showed that prostitutes are usually
+    deflowered by men of their own class. And Jeannel, in Bordeaux,
+    found reason for believing that it is not chiefly their masters
+    who lead servants astray; they often go into service because they
+    have been seduced in the country, while lazy, greedy, and
+    unintelligent girls are sent from the country into the town to
+    service. In Edinburgh, W. Tait (<i>Magdalenism</i>, 1842) found that
+    soldiers more than any other class in the community are the
+    seducers of women, the Highlanders being especially notorious in
+    this respect. Soldiers have this reputation everywhere, and in
+    Germany especially it is constantly found that the presence of
+    the soldiery in a country district, as at the annual man&oelig;uvres,
+    is the cause of unchastity and illegitimate births; it is
+    so also in Austria, where, long ago,<a name='6_Page_293'></a> Gross-Hoffinger stated that
+    soldiers were responsible for at least a third of all
+    illegitimate births, a share out of all proportion to their
+    numbers. In Italy, Marro, investigating the occasion of the loss
+    of virginity in twenty-two prostitutes, found that ten gave
+    themselves more or less spontaneously to lovers or masters, ten
+    yielded in the expectation of marriage, and two were outraged
+    (<i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, p. 461). The loss of virginity, Marro adds, though
+    it may not be the direct cause of prostitution, often leads on to
+    it. &quot;When a door has once been broken in,&quot; a prostitute said to
+    him, &quot;it is difficult to keep it closed.&quot; In Sardinia, as A.
+    Mantegazza and Ciuffo found, prostitutes are very largely
+    servants from the country who have already been deflowered by men
+    of their own class.</p></div>
+
+<p>This civilizational factor of prostitution, the influence of luxury and
+excitement and refinement in attracting the girl of the people, as the
+flame attracts the moth, is indicated by the fact that it is the
+country-dwellers who chiefly succumb to the fascination. The girls whose
+adolescent explosive and orgiastic impulses, sometimes increased by a
+slight congenital lack of nervous balance, have been latent in the dull
+monotony of country life and heightened by the spectacle of luxury acting
+on the unrelieved drudgery of town life, find at last their complete
+gratification in the career of a prostitute. To the town girl, born and
+bred in the town, this career has not usually much attraction, unless she
+has been brought up from the first in an environment that predisposes her
+to adopt it. She is familiar from childhood with the excitements of urban
+civilization and they do not intoxicate her; she is, moreover, more shrewd
+to take care of herself than the country girl, and too well acquainted
+with the real facts of the prostitute's life to be very anxious to adopt
+her career. Beyond this, also, it is probable that the stocks she belongs
+to possess a native or acquired power of resistance to unbalancing
+influences which has enabled them to survive in urban life. She has become
+immune to the poisons of that life.<a name='6_FNanchor_209'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_209'><sup>[209]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_294'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In all great cities a large proportion, if not the majority, of
+    the inhabitants have usually been born outside the city (in
+    London only about fifty per cent. of heads of households are
+    definitely reported as born in London); and it is not therefore
+    surprising that prostitutes also should often be outsiders. Still
+    it remains a significant fact that so typically urban a
+    phenomenon as prostitution should be so largely recruited from
+    the country. This is everywhere the case. Merrick enumerates the
+    regions from which came some 14,000 prostitutes who passed
+    through Millbank Prison. Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Devon
+    are the counties that stand at the head, and Merrick estimates
+    that the contingent of London from the four counties which make
+    up London was 7000, or one-half of the whole; military towns like
+    Colchester and naval ports like Plymouth supply many prostitutes
+    to London; Ireland furnished many more than Scotland, and Germany
+    far more than any other European country, France being scarcely
+    represented at all (Merrick, <i>Work Among the Fallen</i>, 1890, pp.
+    14-18). It is, of course, possible that the proportions among
+    those who pass through a prison do not accurately represent the
+    proportions among prostitutes generally. The registers of the
+    London Salvation Army Rescue Home show that sixty per cent. of
+    the girls and women come from the provinces (A. Sherwell, <i>Life
+    in West London</i>, Ch. V). This is exactly the same proportion as
+    Tait found among prostitutes generally, half a century earlier,
+    in Edinburgh. Sanger found that of 2000 prostitutes in New York
+    as many as 1238 were born abroad (706 in Ireland), while of the
+    remaining 762 only half were born in the State of New York, and
+    clearly (though the exact figures are not given) a still smaller
+    proportion in New York City. Prostitutes come from the
+    North&mdash;where the climate is uncongenial, and manufacturing and
+    sedentary occupations prevail&mdash;much more than from the South;
+    thus Maine, a cold bleak maritime State, sent twenty-four of
+    these prostitutes to New York, while equidistant Virginia, which
+    at the same rate should have sent seventy-two, only sent nine;
+    there was a similar difference between Rhode Island and Maryland
+    (Sanger, <i>History of Prostitution</i>, p. 452). It is instructive to
+    see here the influence of a dreary climate and monotonous labor
+    in stimulating the appetite for a &quot;life of pleasure.&quot; In France,
+    as shown by a map in Parent-Duch&acirc;telet's work (vol. i, pp. 37-64,
+    1857), if the country is divided into five zones, on the whole
+    running east and west, there is a steady and progressive decrease
+    in the number of prostitutes each zone sends to Paris, as we
+    descend southwards. Little more than a third seem to belong to
+    Paris, and, as in America, it is the serious and hard-working
+    North, with its relatively cold climate, which furnishes the
+    largest contingent; even in old France, Dufour remarks (<i>op.
+    cit.</i>, vol. iv, Ch. XV), prostitution, as the <i>fabliaux</i> and
+    <i>romans</i> show, was less infamous in the <i>langue d'oil</i> than in
+    the <i>langue d'oc</i>, so that they were <a name='6_Page_295'></a>doubtless rare in the
+    South. At a later period Reuss states (<i>La Prostitution</i>, p. 12)
+    that &quot;nearly all the prostitutes of Paris come from the
+    provinces.&quot; Jeannel found that of one thousand Bordeaux
+    prostitutes only forty-six belonged to the city itself, and
+    Potton (Appendix to Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, vol. ii, p. 446) states
+    that of nearly four thousand Lyons prostitutes only 376 belonged
+    to Lyons. In Vienna, in 1873, Schrank remarks that of over 1500
+    prostitutes only 615 were born in Vienna. The general rule, it
+    will be seen, though the variations are wide, is that little more
+    than a third of a city's prostitutes are children of the city.</p>
+
+<p>    It is interesting to note that this tendency of the prostitute to
+    reach cities from afar, this migratory tendency&mdash;which they
+    nowadays share with waiters&mdash;is no merely modern phenomenon.
+    &quot;There are few cities in Lombardy, or France, or Gaul,&quot; wrote St.
+    Boniface nearly twelve centuries ago, &quot;in which there is not an
+    adulteress or prostitute of the English nation,&quot; and the Saint
+    attributes this to the custom of going on pilgrimage to foreign
+    shrines. At the present time there is no marked English element
+    among Continental prostitutes. Thus in Paris, according to Reuss
+    (<i>La Prostitution</i>, p. 12), the foreign prostitutes in decreasing
+    order are Belgian, German (Alsace-Lorraine), Swiss (especially
+    Geneva), Italian, Spanish, and only then English. Connoisseurs in
+    this matter say, indeed, that the English prostitute, as compared
+    with her Continental (and especially French) sister, fails to
+    show to advantage, being usually grasping as regards money and
+    deficient in charm.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is the appeal of civilization, though not of what is finest and best in
+civilization, which more than any other motive, calls women to the career
+of a prostitute. It is now necessary to point out that for the man also,
+the same appeal makes itself felt in the person of the prostitute. The
+common and ignorant assumption that prostitution exists to satisfy the
+gross sensuality of the young unmarried man, and that if he is taught to
+bridle gross sexual impulse or induced to marry early the prostitute must
+be idle, is altogether incorrect. If all men married when quite young, not
+only would the remedy be worse than the disease&mdash;a point which it would be
+out of place to discuss here&mdash;but the remedy would not cure the disease.
+The prostitute is something more than a channel to drain off superfluous
+sexual energy, and her attraction by no means ceases when men are married,
+for a large number of the men who visit prostitutes, if not the majority,
+<a name='6_Page_296'></a>are married. And alike whether they are married or unmarried the motive
+is not one of uncomplicated lust.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In England, a well-informed writer remarks that &quot;the value of
+    marriage as a moral agent is evidenced by the fact that all the
+    better-class prostitutes in London are almost entirely supported
+    by married men,&quot; while in Germany, as stated in the interesting
+    series of reminiscences by a former prostitute, Hedwig Hard's
+    <i>Beichte einer Gefallenen</i>, (p. 208), the majority of the men who
+    visit prostitutes are married. The estimate is probably
+    excessive. Neisser states that only twenty-five per cent. of
+    cases of gonorrh&oelig;a occur in married men. This indication
+    is probably misleading in the opposite direction, as the married
+    would be less reckless than the young and unmarried. As regards
+    the motives which lead married men to prostitutes, Hedwig Hard
+    narrates from her own experiences an incident which is
+    instructive and no doubt typical. In the town in which she lived
+    quietly as a prostitute a man of the best social class was
+    introduced by a friend, and visited her habitually. She had often
+    seen and admired his wife, who was one of the beauties of the
+    place, and had two charming children; husband and wife seemed
+    devoted to each other, and every one envied their happiness. He
+    was a man of intellect and culture who encouraged Hedwig's love
+    of books; she became greatly attached to him, and one day
+    ventured to ask him how he could leave his lovely and charming
+    wife to come to one who was not worthy to tie her shoe-lace.
+    &quot;Yes, my child,&quot; he answered, &quot;but all her beauty and culture
+    brings nothing to my heart. She is cold, cold as ice, proper,
+    and, above all, phlegmatic. Pampered and spoilt, she lives only
+    for herself; we are two good comrades, and nothing more. If, for
+    instance, I come back from the club in the evening and go to her
+    bed, perhaps a little excited, she becomes nervous and she thinks
+    it improper to wake her. If I kiss her she defends herself, and
+    tells me that I smell horribly of cigars and wine. And if perhaps
+    I attempt more, she jumps out of bed, bristles up as though I
+    were assaulting her, and threatens to throw herself out of the
+    window if I touch her. So, for the sake of peace, I leave her
+    alone and come to you.&quot; There can be no doubt whatever that this
+    is the experience of many married men who would be well content
+    to find the sweetheart as well as the friend in their wives. But
+    the wives, from a variety of causes, have proved incapable of
+    becoming the sexual mates of their husbands. And the husbands,
+    without being carried away by any impulse of strong passion or
+    any desire for infidelity, seek abroad what they cannot find at
+    home.</p>
+
+<p>    This is not the only reason why married men visit prostitutes.
+    Even men who are happily married to women in all chief respects
+    fitted to them, are apt to find, after some years of married
+    life, a mysterious <a name='6_Page_297'></a>craving for variety. They are not tired of
+    their wives, they have not the least wish or intention to abandon
+    them, they will not, if they can help it, give them the slightest
+    pain. But from time to time they are led by an almost
+    irresistible and involuntary impulse to seek a temporary intimacy
+    with women to whom nothing would persuade them to join themselves
+    permanently. Pepys, whose <i>Diary</i>, in addition to its other
+    claims upon us, is a psychological document of unique importance,
+    furnishes a very characteristic example of this kind of impulse.
+    He had married a young and charming wife, to whom he is greatly
+    attached, and he lives happily with her, save for a few
+    occasional domestic quarrels soon healed by kisses; his love is
+    witnessed by his jealousy, a jealousy which, as he admits, is
+    quite unreasonable, for she is a faithful and devoted wife. Yet a
+    few years after marriage, and in the midst of a life of strenuous
+    official activity, Pepys cannot resist the temptation to seek the
+    temporary favors of other women, seldom prostitutes, but nearly
+    always women of low social class&mdash;shop women, workmen's wives,
+    superior servant-girls. Often he is content to invite them to a
+    quiet ale-house, and to take a few trivial liberties. Sometimes
+    they absolutely refuse to allow more than this; when that happens
+    he frequently thanks Almighty God (as he makes his entry in his
+    <i>Diary</i> at night) that he has been saved from temptation and from
+    loss of time and money; in any case, he is apt to vow that it
+    shall never occur again. It always does occur again. Pepys is
+    quite sincere with himself; he makes no attempt at justification
+    or excuse; he knows that he has yielded to a temptation; it is an
+    impulse that comes over him at intervals, an impulse that he
+    seems unable long to resist. Throughout it all he remains an
+    estimable and diligent official, and in most respects a tolerably
+    virtuous man, with a genuine dislike of loose people and loose
+    talk. The attitude of Pepys is brought out with incomparable
+    simplicity and sincerity because he is setting down these things
+    for his own eyes only, but his case is substantially that of a
+    vast number of other men, perhaps indeed of the typical <i>homme
+    moyen sensuel</i> (see Pepys, <i>Diary</i>, ed. Wheatley; <i>e.g.</i>, vol.
+    iv, passim).</p>
+
+<p>    There is a third class of married men, less considerable in
+    number but not unimportant, who are impelled to visit
+    prostitutes: the class of sexually perverted men. There are a
+    great many reasons why such men may desire to be married, and in
+    some cases they marry women with whom they find it possible to
+    obtain the particular form of sexual gratification they crave.
+    But in a large proportion of cases this is not possible. The
+    conventionally bred woman often cannot bring herself to humor
+    even some quite innocent fetishistic whim of her husband's, for
+    it is too alien to her feelings and too incomprehensible to her
+    ideas, even though she may be genuinely in love with him; in many
+    cases the husband would not venture to ask, and scarcely even
+    wish, that his wife <a name='6_Page_298'></a>should lend herself to play the fantastic or
+    possibly degrading part his desires demand. In such a case he
+    turns naturally to the prostitute, the only woman whose business
+    it is to fulfil his peculiar needs. Marriage has brought no
+    relief to these men, and they constitute a noteworthy proportion
+    of a prostitute's clients in every great city. The most ordinary
+    prostitute of any experience can supply cases from among her own
+    visitors to illustrate a treatise of psychopathic sexuality. It
+    may suffice here to quote a passage from the confessions of a
+    young London (Strand) prostitute as written down from her lips by
+    a friend to whom I am indebted for the document; I have merely
+    turned a few colloquial terms into more technical forms. After
+    describing how, when she was still a child of thirteen in the
+    country, a rich old gentleman would frequently come and exhibit
+    himself before her and other girls, and was eventually arrested
+    and imprisoned, she spoke of the perversities she had met with
+    since she had become a prostitute. She knew a young man, about
+    twenty-five, generally dressed in a sporting style, who always
+    came with a pair of live pigeons, which he brought in a basket.
+    She and the girl with whom she lived had to undress and take the
+    pigeons and wring their necks; he would stand in front of them,
+    and as the necks were wrung orgasm occurred. Once a man met her
+    in the street and asked her if he might come with her and lick
+    her boots. She agreed, and he took her to a hotel, paid half a
+    guinea for a room, and, when she sat down, got under the table
+    and licked her boots, which were covered with mud; he did nothing
+    more. Then there were some things, she said, that were too dirty
+    to repeat; well, one man came home with her and her friend and
+    made them urinate into his mouth. She also had stories of
+    flagellation, generally of men who whipped the girls, more rarely
+    of men who liked to be whipped by them. One man, who brought a
+    new birch every time, liked to whip her friend until he drew
+    blood. She knew another man who would do nothing but smack her
+    nates violently. Now all these things, which come into the
+    ordinary day's work of the prostitute, are rooted in deep and
+    almost irresistible impulses (as will be clear to any reader of
+    the discussion of Erotic Symbolism in the previous volume of
+    these <i>Studies</i>). They must find some outlet. But it is only the
+    prostitute who can be relied upon, through her interests and
+    training, to overcome the natural repulsion to such actions, and
+    gratify desires which, without gratification, might take on other
+    and more dangerous forms.</p></div>
+
+<p>Although Woods Hutchinson quotes with approval the declaration of a
+friend, &quot;Out of thousands I have never seen one with good table manners,&quot;
+there is still a real sense in which the prostitute represents, however
+inadequately, the attraction of <a name='6_Page_299'></a>civilization. &quot;There was no house in
+which I could habitually see a lady's face and hear a lady's voice,&quot; wrote
+the novelist Anthony Trollope in his <i>Autobiography</i>, concerning his early
+life in London. &quot;No allurement to decent respectability came in my way. It
+seems to me that in such circumstances the temptations of loose life will
+almost certainly prevail with a young man. The temptation at any rate
+prevailed with me.&quot; In every great city, it has been said, there are
+thousands of men who have no right to call any woman but a barmaid by her
+Christian name.<a name='6_FNanchor_210'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_210'><sup>[210]</sup></a> All the brilliant fever of civilization pulses round
+them in the streets but their lips never touch it. It is the prostitute
+who incarnates this fascination of the city, far better than the virginal
+woman, even if intimacy with her were within reach. The prostitute
+represents it because she herself feels it, because she has even
+sacrificed her woman's honor in the effort to identify herself with it.
+She has unbridled feminine instincts, she is a mistress of the feminine
+arts of adornment, she can speak to him concerning the mysteries of
+womanhood and the luxuries of sex with an immediate freedom and knowledge
+the innocent maiden cloistered in her home would be incapable of. She
+appeals to him by no means only because she can gratify the lower desires
+of sex, but also because she is, in her way, an artist, an expert in the
+art of feminine exploitation, a leader of feminine fashions. For she is
+this, and there are, as Simmel has stated in his <i>Philosophie der Mode</i>,
+good psychological reasons why she always should be this. Her uncertain
+social position makes all that is conventional and established hateful to
+her, while her temperament makes perpetual novelty delightful. In new
+fashions she finds &quot;an &aelig;sthetic form of that instinct of destruction which
+seems peculiar to all pariah existences, in so far as they are not
+completely enslaved in spirit.&quot;</p>
+<a name='6_Page_300'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;However surprising it may seem to some,&quot; a modern writer
+    remarks, &quot;prostitutes must be put on the same level as artists.
+    Both use their gifts and talents for the joy and pleasure of
+    others, and, as a rule, for payment. What is the essential
+    difference between a singer who gives pleasure to hearers by her
+    throat and a prostitute who gives pleasure to those who seek her
+    by another part of her body? All art works on the senses.&quot; He
+    refers to the significant fact that actors, and especially
+    actresses, were formerly regarded much as prostitutes are now (R.
+    Hellmann, <i>Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit</i>, pp. 245-252).</p>
+
+<p>    Bernaldo de Quir&oacute;s and Llanas Aguilaniedo (<i>La Mala Vida en
+    Madrid</i>, p. 242) trace the same influence still lower in the
+    social scale. They are describing the more squalid kind of <i>caf&eacute;
+    chantant</i>, in which, in Spain and elsewhere, the most vicious and
+    degenerate feminine creatures become waitresses (and occasionally
+    singers and dancers), playing the part of amiable and
+    distinguished <i>hetair&aelig;</i> to the public of carmen and shop-boys who
+    frequent these resorts. &quot;Dressed with what seems to the youth
+    irreproachable taste, with hair elaborately prepared, and clean
+    face adorned with flowers or trinkets, affable and at times
+    haughty, superior in charm and in finery to the other women he is
+    able to know, the waitresses become the most elevated example of
+    the <i>femme galante</i> whom he is able to contemplate and talk to,
+    the courtesan of his sphere.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>But while to the simple, ignorant, and hungry youth the prostitute appeals
+as the embodiment of many of the refinements and perversities of
+civilization, on many more complex and civilized men she exerts an
+attraction of an almost reverse kind. She appeals by her fresh and natural
+coarseness, her frank familiarity with the crudest facts of life; and so
+lifts them for a moment out of the withering atmosphere of artificial
+thought and unreal sentiment in which so many civilized persons are
+compelled to spend the greater part of their lives. They feel in the words
+which the royal friend of a woman of this temperament is said to have used
+in explaining her incomprehensible influence over him: &quot;She is so
+splendidly vulgar!&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In illustration of this aspect of the appeal of prostitution, I
+    may quote a passage in which the novelist, Hermant, in his
+    <i>Confession d'un Enfant d'Hier</i> (Lettre VII), has set down the
+    reasons which may lead the super-refined child of a cultured age,
+    yet by no means radically or completely vicious, to find
+    satisfaction in commerce with prostitutes: &quot;As long as my heart
+    was not touched the object of my satisfaction was completely
+    indifferent to me. I was, moreover, a great lover of absolute
+    <a name='6_Page_301'></a>liberty, which is only possible in the circle of these anonymous
+    creatures and in their reserved dwelling. There everything became
+    permissible. With other women, however low we may seek them,
+    certain convenances must be observed, a kind of protocol. To
+    these one can say everything: one is protected by incognito and
+    assured that nothing will be divulged. I profited by this
+    freedom, which suited my age, but with a perverse fancy which was
+    not characteristic of my years. I scarcely know where I found
+    what I said to them, for it was the opposite of my tastes, which
+    were simple, and, if I may venture to say so, classic. It is true
+    that, in matters of love, unrestrained naturalism always tends to
+    perversion, a fact that can only seem paradoxical at first sight.
+    Primitive peoples have many traits in common with degenerates. It
+    was, however, only in words that I was unbridled; and that was
+    the only occasion on which I can recollect seriously lying. But
+    that necessity, which I then experienced, of expelling a lower
+    depth of ignoble instincts, seems to me characteristic and
+    humiliating. I may add that even in the midst of these
+    dissipations I retained a certain reserve. The contacts to which
+    I exposed myself failed to soil me; nothing was left when I had
+    crossed the threshold. I have always retained, from that forcible
+    and indifferent commerce, the habit of attributing no consequence
+    to the action of the flesh. The amorous function, which religion
+    and morality have surrounded with mystery or seasoned with sin,
+    seems to me a function like any other, a little vile, but
+    agreeable, and one to which the usual epilogue is too long....
+    This kind of companionship only lasted for a short time.&quot; This
+    analysis of the attitude of a certain common type of civilized
+    modern man seems to be just, but it may perhaps occur to some
+    readers that a commerce which led to &quot;the action of the flesh&quot;
+    being regarded as of no consequence can scarcely be said to have
+    left no taint.</p>
+
+<p>    In a somewhat similar manner, Henri de R&eacute;gnier, in his novel,
+    <i>Les Rencontres de Monsieur Br&eacute;ot</i> (p. 50), represents Bercaill&eacute;
+    as deliberately preferring to take his pleasures with
+    servant-girls rather than with ladies, for pleasure was, to his
+    mind, a kind of service, which could well be accommodated with
+    the services they are accustomed to give; and then they are
+    robust and agreeable, they possess the <i>na&iuml;vet&eacute;</i> which is always
+    charming in the common people, and they are not apt to be
+    repelled by those little accidents which might offend the
+    fastidious sensibilities of delicately bred ladies.</p>
+
+<p>    Bloch, who has especially emphasized this side of the appeal of
+    prostitution (<i>Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit</i>, pp. 359-362),
+    refers to the delicate and sensitive young Danish writer, J. P.
+    Jakobsen, who seems to have acutely felt the contrast between the
+    higher and more habitual impulses, and the occasional outburst of
+    what he felt to be lower instincts; in his <i>Niels Lyhne</i> he
+    describes the kind of double life in which a man is true for a
+    fortnight to the god he worships, and is then <a name='6_Page_302'></a>overcome by other
+    powers which madly bear him in their grip towards what he feels
+    to be humiliating, perverse, and filthy. &quot;At such moments,&quot; Bloch
+    remarks, &quot;the man is another being. The 'two souls' in the breast
+    become a reality. Is that the famous scholar, the lofty idealist,
+    the fine-souled &aelig;sthetician, the artist who has given us so many
+    splendid and pure works in poetry and painting? We no longer
+    recognize him, for at such moments another being has come to the
+    surface, another nature is moving within him, and with the power
+    of an elementary force is impelling him towards things at which
+    his 'upper consciousness,' the civilized man within him, would
+    shudder.&quot; Bloch believes that we are here concerned with a kind
+    of normal masculine masochism, which prostitution serves to
+    gratify.</p></div>
+<br />
+<hr />
+<a name='6_IV'></a><h4>IV. The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution.</h4>
+
+<p>We have now surveyed the complex fact of prostitution in some of its most
+various and typical aspects, seeking to realise, intelligently and
+sympathetically, the fundamental part it plays as an elementary
+constituent of our marriage system. Finally we have to consider the
+grounds on which prostitution now appears to a large and growing number of
+persons not only an unsatisfactory method of sexual gratification but a
+radically bad method.</p>
+
+<p>The movement of antagonism towards prostitution manifests itself most
+conspicuously, as might beforehand have been anticipated, by a feeling of
+repugnance towards the most ancient and typical, once the most credited
+and best established prostitutional manifestation, the brothel. The growth
+of this repugnance is not confined to one or two countries but is
+international, and may thus be regarded as corresponding to a real
+tendency in our civilization. It is equally pronounced in prostitutes
+themselves and in the people who are their clients. The distaste on the
+one side increases the distaste on the other. Since only the most helpless
+or the most stupid prostitutes are nowadays willing to accept the
+servitude of the brothel, the brothel-keeper is forced to resort to
+extraordinary methods for entrapping victims, and even to take part in
+that cosmopolitan trade in &quot;white slaves&quot;<a name='6_Page_303'></a> which exists solely to feed
+brothels.<a name='6_FNanchor_211'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_211'><sup>[211]</sup></a> This state of things has a natural reaction in prejudicing
+the clients of prostitution against an institution which is going out of
+fashion and out of credit. An even more fundamental antipathy is
+engendered by the fact that the brothel fails to respond to the high
+degree of personal freedom and variety which civilization produces, and
+always demands even when it fails to produce. On one side the prostitute
+is disinclined to enter into a slavery which usually fails even to bring
+her any reward; on the other side her client feels it as part of the
+fascination of prostitution under civilized conditions that he shall enjoy
+a freedom and choice the brothel cannot provide.<a name='6_FNanchor_212'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_212'><sup>[212]</sup></a> Thus it comes about
+that brothels which once contained nearly all the women who made it a
+business to minister to the sexual needs of men, now contain only a
+decreasing minority, and that the transformation of cloistered
+prostitution into free prostitution is approved by many social reformers
+as a gain to the cause of morality.<a name='6_FNanchor_213'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_213'><sup>[213]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The decay of brothels, whether as cause or as effect, has been associated
+with a vast increase of prostitution outside brothels. But the repugnance
+to brothels in many essential respects also applies to prostitution
+generally, and, as we shall see, it is exerting a profoundly modifying
+influence on that prostitution.</p>
+
+<p>The changing feeling in regard to prostitution seems to express itself
+mainly in two ways. On the one hand there are those who, without desiring
+to abolish prostitution, resent the abnegation which accompanies it, and
+are disgusted by its sordid aspects. They may have no moral scruples
+against prostitution, <a name='6_Page_304'></a>and they know no reason why a woman should not
+freely do as she will with her own person. But they believe that, if
+prostitution is necessary, the relationships of men with prostitutes
+should be humane and agreeable to each party, and not degrading to either.
+It must be remembered that under the conditions of civilized urban life,
+the discipline of work is often too severe, and the excitements of urban
+existence too constant, to render an abandonment to orgy a desirable
+recreation. The gross form of orgy appeals, not to the town-dweller but to
+the peasant, and to the sailor or soldier who reaches the town after long
+periods of dreary routine and emotional abstinence. It is a mistake, even,
+to suppose that the attraction of prostitution is inevitably associated
+with the fulfilment of the sexual act. So far is this from being the case
+that the most attractive prostitute may be a woman who, possessing few
+sexual needs of her own, desires to please by the charm of her
+personality; these are among those who most often find good husbands.
+There are many men who are even well content merely to have a few hours'
+free intimacy with an agreeable woman, without any further favor, although
+that may be open to them. For a very large number of men under urban
+conditions of existence the prostitute is ceasing to be the degraded
+instrument of a moment's lustful desire; they seek an agreeable human
+person with whom they may find relaxation from the daily stress or routine
+of life. When an act of prostitution is thus put on a humane basis,
+although it by no means thereby becomes conducive to the best development
+of either party, it at least ceases to be hopelessly degrading. Otherwise
+it would not have been possible for religious prostitution to flourish for
+so long in ancient days among honorable women of good birth on the shores
+of the Mediterranean, even in regions like Lydia, where the position of
+women was peculiarly high.<a name='6_FNanchor_214'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_214'><sup>[214]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is true that the monetary side of prostitution would still exist. But
+it is possible to exaggerate its importance. It must <a name='6_Page_305'></a>be pointed out that,
+though it is usual to speak of the prostitute as a woman who &quot;sells
+herself,&quot; this is rather a crude and inexact way of expressing, in its
+typical form, the relationship of a prostitute to her client. A prostitute
+is not a commodity with a market-price, like a loaf or a leg of mutton.
+She is much more on a level with people belonging to the professional
+classes, who accept fees in return for services rendered; the amount of
+the fee varies, on the one hand in accordance with professional standing,
+on the other hand in accordance with the client's means, and under special
+circumstances may be graciously dispensed with altogether. Prostitution
+places on a venal basis intimate relationships which ought to spring up
+from natural love, and in so doing degrades them. But strictly speaking
+there is in such a case no &quot;sale.&quot; To speak of a prostitute &quot;selling
+herself&quot; is scarcely even a pardonable rhetorical exaggeration; it is both
+inexact and unjust.<a name='6_FNanchor_215'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_215'><sup>[215]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>This tendency in an advanced civilization towards the
+    humanization of prostitution is the reverse process, we may note,
+    to that which takes place at an earlier stage of civilization
+    when the ancient conception of the religious dignity of
+    prostitution begins to fall into disrepute. When men cease to
+    reverence women who are prostitutes in the service of a goddess
+    they set up in their place prostitutes who are merely abject
+    slaves, flattering themselves that they are thereby working in
+    the cause of &quot;progress&quot; and &quot;morality.&quot; On the shores of the
+    Mediterranean this process took place more than two thousand
+    years ago, and is associated with the name of Solon. To-day we
+    may see the same process going on in India. In some parts of
+    India (as at Jejuri, near Poonah) first born girls are dedicated
+    to Khandoba or other gods; they are married to the god and termed
+    <i>muralis</i>. They serve in the temple, sweep it, and wash <a name='6_Page_306'></a>the holy
+    vessels, also they dance, sing and prostitute themselves. They
+    are forbidden to marry, and they live in the homes of their
+    parents, brothers, or sisters; being consecrated to religious
+    service, they are untouched by degradation. Nowadays, however,
+    Indian &quot;reformers,&quot; in the name of &quot;civilization and science,&quot;
+    seek to persuade the <i>muralis</i> that they are &quot;plunged in a career
+    of degradation.&quot; No doubt in time the would-be moralists will
+    drive the <i>muralis</i> out of their temples and their homes, deprive
+    them of all self-respect, and convert them into wretched
+    outcasts, all in the cause of &quot;science and civilization&quot; (see,
+    <i>e.g.</i>, an article by Mrs. Kashibai Deodhar, <i>The New Reformer</i>,
+    October, 1907). So it is that early reformers create for the
+    reformers of a later day the task of humanizing prostitution
+    afresh.</p>
+
+<p>    There can be no doubt that this more humane conception of
+    prostitution is to-day beginning to be realized in the actual
+    civilized life of Europe. Thus in writing of prostitution in
+    Paris, Dr. Robert Michels (&quot;Erotische Streifz&uuml;ge,&quot;
+    <i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1906, Heft 9, p. 368) remarks: &quot;While in Germany
+    the prostitute is generally considered as an 'outcast' creature,
+    and treated accordingly, an instrument of masculine lust to be
+    used and thrown away, and whom one would under no circumstances
+    recognize in public, in France the prostitute plays in many
+    respects the part which once give significance and fame to the
+    <i>hetair&aelig;</i> of Athens.&quot; And after describing the consideration and
+    respect which the Parisian prostitute is often able to require of
+    her friends, and the non-sexual relation of comradeship which she
+    can enter into with other men, the writer continues: &quot;A girl who
+    certainly yields herself for money, but by no means for the first
+    comer's money, and who, in addition to her 'business friends,'
+    feels the need of, so to say, non-sexual companions with whom she
+    can associate in a free comrade-like way, and by whom she is
+    treated and valued as a free human being, is not wholly lost for
+    the moral worth of humanity.&quot; All prostitution is bad, Michels
+    concludes, but we should have reason to congratulate ourselves if
+    love-relationships of this Parisian species represented the
+    lowest known form of extra-conjugal sexuality. (As bearing on the
+    relative consideration accorded to prostitutes I may mention that
+    a Paris prostitute remarked to a friend of mine that Englishmen
+    would ask her questions which no Frenchman would venture to ask.)</p>
+
+<p>    It is not, however, only in Paris, although here more markedly
+    and prominently, that this humanizing change in prostitution is
+    beginning to make itself felt. It is manifested, for instance, in
+    the greater openness of a man's sexual life. &quot;While he formerly
+    slinked into a brothel in a remote street,&quot; Dr. Willy Hellpach
+    remarks (<i>Nervosit&auml;t und Kultur</i>, p. 169), &quot;he now walks abroad
+    with his 'liaison,' visiting the theatres and caf&eacute;s, without
+    indeed any anxiety to meet his acquaintances, but with no
+    embarrassment on that point. The thing is becoming more
+    commonplace, <a name='6_Page_307'></a>more&mdash;natural.&quot; It is also, Hellpach proceeds to
+    point out, thus becoming more moral also, and much unwholesome
+    prudery and pruriency is being done away with.</p>
+
+<p>    In England, where change is slow, this tendency to the
+    humanization of prostitution may be less pronounced. But it
+    certainly exists. In the middle of the last century Lecky wrote
+    (<i>History of European Morals</i>, vol. ii, p. 285) that habitual
+    prostitution &quot;is in no other European country so hopelessly
+    vicious or so irrevocable.&quot; That statement, which was also made
+    by Parent-Duch&acirc;telet and other foreign observers, is fully
+    confirmed by the evidence on record. But it is a statement which
+    would hardly be made to-day, except perhaps, in reference to
+    special confined areas of our cities. It is the same in America,
+    and we may doubtless find this tendency reflected in the report
+    on <i>The Social Evil</i> (1902), drawn up by a committee in New York,
+    who gave it (p. 176) as one of their chief recommendations that
+    prostitution should no longer be regarded as a crime, in which
+    light, one gathers, it had formerly been regarded in New York.
+    That may seem but a small step in the path of humanization, but
+    it is in the right direction.</p>
+
+<p>    It is by no means only in lands of European civilization that we
+    may trace with developing culture the refinement and humanization
+    of the slighter bonds of relationship with women. In Japan
+    exactly the same demands led, several centuries ago, to the
+    appearance of the geisha. In the course of an interesting and
+    precise study of the geisha Mr. R. T. Farrer remarks (<i>Nineteenth
+    Century</i>, April, 1904): &quot;The geisha is in no sense necessarily a
+    courtesan. She is a woman educated to attract; perfected from her
+    childhood in all the intricacies of Japanese literature;
+    practiced in wit and repartee; inured to the rapid give-and-take
+    of conversation on every topic, human and divine. From her
+    earliest youth she is broken into an inviolable charm of manner
+    incomprehensible to the finest European, yet she is almost
+    invariably a blossom of the lower classes, with dumpy claws, and
+    squat, ugly nails. Her education, physical and moral, is far
+    harder than that of the <i>ballerina</i>, and her success is achieved
+    only after years of struggle and a bitter agony of torture....
+    And the geisha's social position may be compared with that of the
+    European actress. The Geisha-house offers prizes as desirable as
+    any of the Western stage. A great geisha with twenty nobles
+    sitting round her, contending for her laughter, and kept in
+    constant check by the flashing bodkin of her wit, holds a
+    position no less high and famous than that of Sarah Bernhardt in
+    her prime. She is equally sought, equally flattered, quite as
+    madly adored, that quiet little elderly plain girl in dull blue.
+    But she is prized thus primarily for her tongue, whose power only
+    ripens fully as her physical charms decline. She demands vast
+    sums for her owners, and even so often appears and dances only at
+    her own pleasure. Few, if any, Westerners ever see a <a name='6_Page_308'></a>really
+    famous geisha. She is too great to come before a European, except
+    for an august or imperial command. Finally she may, and
+    frequently does, marry into exalted places. In all this there is
+    not the slightest necessity for any illicit relation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In some respects the position of the ancient Greek <i>hetaira</i> was
+    more analogous to that of the Japanese <i>geisha</i> than to that of
+    the prostitute in the strict sense. For the Greeks, indeed, the
+    <i>hetaira</i>, was not strictly a <i>porne</i> or prostitute at all. The
+    name meant friend or companion, and the woman to whom the name
+    was applied held an honorable position, which could not be
+    accorded to the mere prostitute. Athen&aelig;us (Bk. xiii, Chs.
+    XXVIII-XXX) brings together passages showing that the <i>hetaira</i>
+    could be regarded as an independent citizen, pure, simple, and
+    virtuous, altogether distinct from the common crew of
+    prostitutes, though these might ape her name. The <i>hetair&aelig;</i> &quot;were
+    almost the only Greek women,&quot; says Donaldson (<i>Woman</i>, p. 59),
+    &quot;who exhibited what was best and noblest in women's nature.&quot; This
+    fact renders it more intelligible why a woman of such
+    intellectual distinction as Aspasia should have been a <i>hetaira</i>.
+    There seems little doubt as to her intellectual distinction.
+    &quot;&AElig;schines, in his dialogue entitled 'Aspasia,'&quot; writes Gomperz,
+    the historian of Greek philosophy (<i>Greek Thinkers</i>, vol. iii,
+    pp. 124 and 343), &quot;puts in the mouth of that distinguished woman
+    an incisive criticism of the mode of life traditional for her
+    sex. It would be exceedingly strange,&quot; Gomperz adds, in arguing
+    that an inference may thus be drawn concerning the historical
+    Aspasia, &quot;if three authors&mdash;Plato, Xenophon and &AElig;schines&mdash;had
+    agreed in fictitiously enduing the companion of Pericles with
+    what we might very reasonably have expected her to possess&mdash;a
+    highly cultivated mind and intellectual influence.&quot; It is even
+    possible that the movement for woman's right which, as we dimly
+    divine through the pages of Aristophanes, took place in Athens in
+    the fourth century B. C., was led by <i>hetair&aelig;</i>. According to Ivo
+    Bruns (<i>Frauenemancipation in Athen</i>, 1900, p. 19) &quot;the most
+    certain information which we possess concerning Aspasia bears a
+    strong resemblance to the picture which Euripides and
+    Aristophanes present to us of the leaders of the woman movement.&quot;
+    It was the existence of this movement which made Plato's ideas on
+    the community of women appear far less absurd than they do to us.
+    It may perhaps be thought by some that this movement represented
+    on a higher plane that love of distruction, or, as we should
+    better say, that spirit of revolt and aspiration, which Simmel
+    finds to mark the intellectual and artistic activity of those who
+    are unclassed or dubiously classed in the social hierarchy. Ninon
+    de Lenclos, as we have seen, was not strictly a courtesan, but
+    she was a pioneer in the assertion of woman's rights. Aphra Behn
+    who, a little later in England, occupied a similarly dubious
+    social position, was likewise a pioneer in generous humanitarian
+    aspirations, which have since been adopted in the world at
+    large.</p><a name='6_Page_309'></a>
+
+<p>    These refinements of prostitution may be said to be chiefly the
+    outcome of the late and more developed stages in civilization. As
+    Schurtz has put it (<i>Altersklassen und M&auml;nnerb&uuml;nde</i>, p. 191):
+    &quot;The cheerful, skilful and artistically accomplished <i>hetaira</i>
+    frequently stands as an ideal figure in opposition to the
+    intellectually uncultivated wife banished to the interior of the
+    house. The courtesan of the Italian Renaissance, Japanese
+    geishas, Chinese flower-girls, and Indian bayaderas, all show
+    some not unnoble features, the breath of a free artistic
+    existence. They have achieved&mdash;with, it is true, the sacrifice of
+    their highest worth&mdash;an independence from the oppressive rule of
+    man and of household duties, and a part of the feminine endowment
+    which is so often crippled comes in them to brilliant
+    development. Prostitution in its best form may thus offer a path
+    by which these feminine characteristics may exert a certain
+    influence on the development of civilization. We may also believe
+    that the artistic activity of women is in some measure able to
+    offer a counterpoise to the otherwise less pleasant results of
+    sexual abandonment, preventing the coarsening and destruction of
+    the emotional life; in his <i>Magda</i> Sudermann has described a type
+    of woman who, from the standpoint of strict morality, is open to
+    condemnation, but in her art finds a foothold, the strength of
+    which even ill-will must unwillingly recognize.&quot; In his <i>Sex and
+    Character</i>, Weininger has developed in a more extreme and
+    extravagant manner the conception of the prostitute as a
+    fundamental and essential part of life, a permanent feminine
+    type.</p></div>
+
+<p>There are others, apparently in increasing numbers, who approach the
+problem of prostitution not from an &aelig;sthetic standpoint but from a moral
+standpoint. This moral attitude is not, however, that conventionalized
+morality of Cato and St. Augustine and Lecky, set forth in previous pages,
+according to which the prostitute in the street must be accepted as the
+guardian of the wife in the home. These moralists reject indeed the claim
+of that belief to be considered moral at all. They hold that it is not
+morally possible that the honor of some women shall be purchaseable at the
+price of the dishonor of other women, because at such a price virtue loses
+all moral worth. When they read that, as Goncourt stated, &quot;the most
+luxurious articles of women's <i>trousseaux</i>, the bridal chemises of girls
+with dowries of six hundred thousand francs, are made in the prison of
+Clairvaux,&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_216'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_216'><sup>[216]</sup></a> they see the symbol of the intimate dependence of our
+luxurious <a name='6_Page_310'></a>virtue on our squalid vice. And while they accept the
+historical and sociological evidence which shows that prostitution is an
+inevitable part of the marriage system which still survives among us, they
+ask whether it is not possible so to modify our marriage system that it
+shall not be necessary to divide feminine humanity into &quot;disreputable&quot;
+women, who make sacrifices which it is dishonorable to make, and
+&quot;respectable&quot; women, who take sacrifices which it cannot be less
+dishonorable to accept.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Prostitutes, a distinguished man of science has said (Duclaux,
+    <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne Sociale</i>, p. 243), &quot;have become things which the
+    public uses when it wants them, and throws on the dungheap when
+    it has made them vile. In its pharisaism it even has the
+    insolence to treat their trade as shameful, as though it were not
+    just as shameful to buy as to sell in this market.&quot; Bloch
+    (<i>Sexualleben unserer Zeit</i>, Ch. XV) insists that prostitution
+    must be ennobled, and that only so can it be even diminished.
+    Isidore Dyer, of New Orleans, also argues that we cannot check
+    prostitution unless we create &quot;in the minds of men and women a
+    spirit of tolerance instead of intolerance of fallen women.&quot; This
+    point may be illustrated by a remark by the prostitute author of
+    the <i>Tagebuch einer Verlorenen</i>. &quot;If the profession of yielding
+    the body ceased to be a shameful one,&quot; she wrote, &quot;the army of
+    'unfortunates' would diminish by four-fifths&mdash;I will even say
+    nine-tenths. Myself, for example! How gladly would I take a
+    situation as companion or governess!&quot; &quot;One of two things,&quot; wrote
+    the eminent sociologist Tarde (&quot;La Morale Sexuelle,&quot; <i>Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, January, 1907), &quot;either prostitution
+    will disappear through continuing to be dishonorable and will be
+    replaced by some other institution which will better remedy the
+    defects of monogamous marriage, or it will survive by becoming
+    respectable, that is to say, by making itself respected, whether
+    liked or disliked.&quot; Tarde thought this might perhaps come about
+    by a better organization of prostitutes, a more careful selection
+    among those who desired admission to their ranks and the
+    cultivation of professional virtues which would raise their moral
+    level. &quot;If courtesans fulfil a need,&quot; Balzac had already said in
+    his <i>Physiologie du Mariage</i>, &quot;they must become an institution.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>This moral attitude is supported and enforced by the inevitable democratic
+tendency of civilization which, although it by no means destroys the idea
+of class, undermines that idea as the mark of fundamental human
+distinctions and renders it superficial. Prostitution no longer makes a
+woman a slave; it ought not to make her even a pariah: &quot;My body is my
+own,&quot; said <a name='6_Page_311'></a>the young German prostitute of to-day, &quot;and what I do with it
+is nobody else's concern.&quot; When the prostitute was literally a slave moral
+duty towards her was by no means necessarily identical with moral duty
+towards the free woman. But when, even in the same family, the prostitute
+may be separated by a great and impassable social gulf from her married
+sister, it becomes possible to see, and in the opinion of many
+imperatively necessary to see, that a readjustment of moral values is
+required. For thousands of years prostitution has been defended on the
+ground that the prostitute is necessary to ensure the &quot;purity of women.&quot;
+In a democratic age it begins to be realized that prostitutes also are
+women.</p>
+
+<p>The developing sense of a fundamental human equality underlying the
+surface divisions of class tends to make the usual attitude towards the
+prostitute, the attitude of her clients even more than that of society
+generally, seem painfully cruel. The callous and coarsely frivolous tone
+of so many young men about prostitutes, it has been said, is &quot;simply
+cruelty of a peculiarly brutal kind,&quot; not to be discerned in any other
+relation of life.<a name='6_FNanchor_217'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_217'><sup>[217]</sup></a> And if this attitude is cruel even in speech it is
+still more cruel in action, whatever attempts may be made to disguise its
+cruelty.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Canon Lyttelton's remarks may be taken to refer chiefly to young
+    men of the upper middle class. Concerning what is perhaps the
+    usual attitude of lower middle class people towards prostitution,
+    I may quote from a remarkable communication which has reached me
+    from Australia: &quot;What are the views of a young man brought up in
+    a middle-class Christian English family on prostitutes? Take my
+    father, for instance. He first mentioned prostitutes to me, if I
+    remember rightly, when speaking of his life before marriage. And
+    he spoke of them as he would speak of a horse he had hired, paid
+    for, and dismissed from his mind when it had rendered him
+    service. Although my mother was so kind and good she spoke of
+    abandoned women with disgust and scorn as of some unclean animal.
+    As it flatters vanity and pride to be able with good countenance
+    and universal consent to look down on something, I soon grasped
+    the situation and adopted an attitude which is, in the main, that
+    of most <a name='6_Page_312'></a>middle-class Christian Englishmen towards prostitutes.
+    But as puberty develops this attitude has to be accommodated with
+    the wish to make use of this scum, these moral lepers. The
+    ordinary young man, who likes a spice of immorality and has it
+    when in town, and thinks it is not likely to come to his mother's
+    or sisters' ears, does not get over his arrogance and disgust or
+    abate them in the least. He takes them with him, more or less
+    disguised, to the brothel, and they color his thoughts and
+    actions all the time he is sleeping with prostitutes, or kissing
+    them, or passing his hands over them, as he would over a mare,
+    getting as much as he can for his money. To tell the truth, on
+    the whole, that was my attitude too. But if anyone had asked me
+    for the smallest reason for this attitude, for this feeling of
+    superiority, pride, <i>hauteur</i>, and prejudice, I should, like any
+    other 'respectable' young man, have been entirely at a loss, and
+    could only have gaped foolishly.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>From the modern moral standpoint which now concerns us, not only is the
+cruelty involved in the dishonor of the prostitute absurd, but not less
+absurd, and often not less cruel, seems the honor bestowed on the
+respectable women on the other side of the social gulf. It is well
+recognized that men sometimes go to prostitutes to gratify the excitement
+aroused by fondling their betrothed.<a name='6_FNanchor_218'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_218'><sup>[218]</sup></a> As the emotional and physical
+results of ungratified excitement are not infrequently more serious in
+women than in men, the betrothed women in these cases are equally
+justified in seeking relief from other men, and the vicious circle of
+absurdity might thus be completed.</p>
+
+<p>From the point of view of the modern moralist there is another
+consideration which was altogether overlooked in the conventional and
+traditional morality we have inherited, and was indeed practically
+non-existent in the ancient days when that morality was still a living
+reality. Women are no longer divided only into the two groups of wives who
+are to be honored, and prostitutes who are the dishonored guardians of
+that honor; there is a large third class of women who are neither wives
+nor prostitutes.<a name='6_Page_313'></a> For this group of the unmarried virtuous the traditional
+morality had no place at all; it simply ignored them. But the new
+moralist, who is learning to recognize both the claims of the individual
+and the claims of society, begins to ask whether on the one hand these
+women are not entitled to the satisfaction of their affectional and
+emotional impulses if they so desire, and on the other hand whether, since
+a high civilization involves a diminished birthrate, the community is not
+entitled to encourage every healthy and able-bodied woman to contribute to
+maintain the birthrate when she so desires.</p>
+
+<p>All the considerations briefly indicated in the preceding pages&mdash;the
+fundamental sense of human equality generated by our civilization, the
+repugnance to cruelty which accompanies the refinement of urban life, the
+ugly contrast of extremes which shock our developing democratic
+tendencies, the growing sense of the rights of the individual to authority
+over his own person, the no less strongly emphasized right of the
+community to the best that the individual can yield&mdash;all these
+considerations are every day more strongly influencing the modern moralist
+to assume towards the prostitute an attitude altogether different from
+that of the morality which we derived from Cato and Augustine. He sees the
+question in a larger and more dynamic manner. Instead of declaring that it
+is well worth while to tolerate and at the same time to condemn the
+prostitute, in order to preserve the sanctity of the wife in her home, he
+is not only more inclined to regard each as the proper guardian of her own
+moral freedom, but he is less certain about the time-honored position of
+the prostitute, and moreover, by no means sure that the wife in the home
+may not be fully as much in need of rescuing as the prostitute in the
+street; he is prepared to consider whether reform in this matter is not
+most likely to take place in the shape of a fairer apportionment of sexual
+privileges and sexual duties to women generally, with an inevitably
+resultant elevation in the sexual lives of men also.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The revolt of many serious reformers against the injustice and
+    degradation now involved by our system of prostitution is so
+    profound that some have declared themselves ready to accept any
+    revolution of <a name='6_Page_314'></a>ideas which would bring about a more wholesome
+    transmutation of moral values. &quot;Better indeed were a saturnalia
+    of <i>free</i> men and women,&quot; exclaims Edward Carpenter (<i>Love's
+    Coming of Age</i>, p. 62), &quot;than the spectacle which, as it is, our
+    great cities present at night.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Even those who would be quite content with as conservative a
+    treatment as possible of social institutions still cannot fail to
+    realize that prostitution is unsatisfactory, unless we are
+    content to make very humble claims of the sexual act. &quot;The act of
+    prostitution,&quot; Godfrey declares (<i>The Science of Sex</i>, p. 202),
+    &quot;may be physiologically complete, but it is complete in no other
+    sense. All the moral and intellectual factors which combine with
+    physical desire to form the perfect sexual attraction are absent.
+    All the higher elements of love&mdash;admiration, respect, honor, and
+    self-sacrificing devotion&mdash;are as foreign to prostitution as to
+    the egoistic act of masturbation. The principal drawbacks to the
+    morality of the act lie in its associations more than in the act
+    itself. Any affectional quality which a more or less promiscuous
+    connection might possess is at once destroyed by the intrusion of
+    the monetary element. In the resulting degradation the woman has
+    the largest share, since it makes her a pariah and involves her
+    in all the hardening and depraving influences of social
+    ostracism. But her degradation only serves to render her
+    influence on her partners more demoralizing. Prostitution,&quot; he
+    concludes, &quot;has a strong tendency towards emphasizing the
+    naturally selfish attitude of men towards women, and encouraging
+    them in the delusion, born of unregulated passions, that the
+    sexual act itself is the aim and end of the sex life.
+    Prostitution can therefore make no claim to afford even a
+    temporary solution to the sex problem. It fulfils only that
+    mission which has made it a 'necessary evil'&mdash;the mission of
+    palliative to the physical rigors of celibacy and monogamy. It
+    does so at the cost of a considerable amount of physical and
+    moral deterioration, much of which is undoubtedly due to the
+    action of society in completing the degradation of the prostitute
+    by persistent ostracism. Prostitution was not so great an evil
+    when it was not thought so great, yet even at its best it was a
+    real evil, a melancholy and sordid travesty of sincere and
+    natural passional relations. It is an evil which we are bound to
+    have with us so long as celibacy is a custom and monogamy a law.&quot;
+    It is the wife as well as the prostitute who is degraded by a
+    system which makes venal love possible. &quot;The time has gone past,&quot;
+    the same writer remarks elsewhere (p. 195) &quot;when a mere ceremony
+    can really sanctify what is base and transform lust and greed
+    into the sincerity of sexual affection. If, to enter into sexual
+    connections with a man for a solely material end is a disgrace to
+    humanity, it is a disgrace under the marriage bond just as much
+    as apart from the hypocritical blessing of the church or the law.
+    If the public prostitute is a being who deserves to be treated as
+    a pariah, it is hopelessly irrational to withhold every sort <a name='6_Page_315'></a>of
+    moral opprobrium from the woman who leads a similar life under a
+    different set of external circumstances. Either the prostitute
+    wife must come under the moral ban, or there must be an end to
+    the complete ostracism under which the prostitute labors.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The thinker who more clearly and fundamentally than others, and
+    first of all, realized the dynamical relationships of
+    prostitution, as dependent upon a change in the other social
+    relationships of life, was James Hinton. More than thirty years
+    ago, in fragmentary writings that still remain unpublished, since
+    he never worked them into an orderly form, Hinton gave vigorous
+    and often passionate expression to this fundamental idea. It may
+    be worth while to quote a few brief passages from Hinton's MSS.:
+    &quot;I feel that the laws of force should hold also amid the waves of
+    human passion, that the relations of mechanics are true, and will
+    rule also in human life.... There is a tension, a crushing of the
+    soul, by our modern life, and it is ready for a sudden spring to
+    a different order in which the forces shall rearrange themselves.
+    It is a dynamical question presented in moral terms.... Keeping a
+    portion of the woman population without prospect of marriage
+    means having prostitutes, that is women as instruments of man's
+    mere sensuality, and this means the killing, in many of them, of
+    all pure love or capacity of it. This is the fact we have to
+    face.... To-day I saw a young woman whose life was being consumed
+    by her want of love, a case of threatened utter misery: now see
+    the price at which we purchase her ill-health; for her ill-health
+    we pay the crushing of another girl into hell. We give that for
+    it; her wretchedness of soul and body are bought by prostitution;
+    we have prostitutes made for that.... We devote some women
+    recklessly to perdition to make a hothouse Heaven for the
+    rest.... One wears herself out in vainly trying to endure
+    pleasures she is not strong enough to enjoy, while other women
+    are perishing for lack of these very pleasures. If marriage is
+    this, is it not embodied lust? The happy Christian homes are the
+    true dark places of the earth.... Prostitution for man, restraint
+    for woman&mdash;they are two sides of the same thing, and both are
+    denials of love, like luxury and asceticism. The mountains of
+    restraint must be used to fill up the abysses of luxury.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Some of Hinton's views were set forth by a writer intimately
+    acquainted with him in a pamphlet entitled <i>The Future of
+    Marriage: An Eirenicon for a Question of To-day</i>, by a
+    Respectable Woman (1885). &quot;When once the conviction is forced
+    home upon the 'good' women,&quot; the writer remarks, &quot;that their
+    place of honor and privilege rests upon the degradation of others
+    as its basis, they will never rest till they have either
+    abandoned it or sought for it some other pedestal. If our
+    inflexible marriage system has for its essential condition the
+    existence side by side with it of prostitution, then one of two
+    things follows: either prostitution <a name='6_Page_316'></a>must be shown to be
+    compatible with the well-being, moral and physical, of the women
+    who practice it, or our marriage system must be condemned. If it
+    was clearly put before anyone, he could not seriously assert that
+    to be 'virtue' which could only be practiced at the expense of
+    another's vice.... Whilst the laws of physics are becoming so
+    universally recognized that no one dreams of attempting to
+    annihilate a particle of matter, or of force, yet we do not
+    instinctively apply the same conception to moral forces, but
+    think and act as if we could simply do away with an evil, while
+    leaving unchanged that which gives it its strength. This is the
+    only view of the social problem which can give us hope. That
+    prostitution should simply cease, leaving everything else as it
+    is, would be disastrous if it were possible. But it is not
+    possible. The weakness of all existing efforts to put down
+    prostitution is that they are directed against it as an isolated
+    thing, whereas it is only one of the symptoms proceeding from a
+    common disease.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Ellen Key, who during recent years has been the chief apostle of
+    a gospel of sexual morality based on the needs of women as the
+    mothers of the race, has, in a somewhat similar spirit, denounced
+    alike prostitution and rigid marriage, declaring (in her <i>Essays
+    on Love and Marriage</i>) that &quot;the development of erotic personal
+    consciousness is as much hindered by socially regulated
+    'morality' as by socially regulated 'immorality,'&quot; and that &quot;the
+    two lowest and socially sanctioned expressions of sexual dualism,
+    rigid marriage and prostitution, will gradually become
+    impossible, because with the conquest of the idea of erotic unity
+    they will no longer correspond to human needs.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>We may sum up the present situation as regards prostitution by saying that
+on the one hand there is a tendency for its elevation, in association with
+the growing humanity and refinement of civilization, characteristics which
+must inevitably tend to mark more and more both those women who become
+prostitutes and those men who seek them; on the other hand, but perhaps
+through the same dynamic force, there is a tendency towards the slow
+elimination of prostitution by the successful competition of higher and
+purer methods of sexual relationship freed from pecuniary considerations.
+This refinement and humanization, this competition by better forms of
+sexual love, are indeed an essential part of progress as civilization
+becomes more truly sound, wholesome, and sincere.</p>
+
+<p>This moral change cannot, it seems probable, fail to be accompanied by the
+realization that the facts of human life are <a name='6_Page_317'></a>more important than the
+forms. For all changes from lower to higher social forms, from savagery to
+civilization, are accompanied&mdash;in so far as they are vital changes&mdash;by a
+slow and painful groping towards the truth that it is only in natural
+relations that sanity and sanctity can be found, for, as Nietzsche said,
+the &quot;return&quot; to Nature should rather be called the &quot;ascent.&quot; Only so can
+we achieve the final elimination from our hearts of that clinging
+tradition that there is any impurity or dishonor in acts of love for which
+the reasonable, and not merely the conventional, conditions have been
+fulfilled. For it is vain to attempt to cleanse our laws, or even our
+by-laws, until we have first cleansed our hearts.</p>
+
+<p>It would be out of place here to push further the statement of the moral
+question as it is to-day beginning to shape itself in the sphere of sex.
+In a psychological discussion we are only concerned to set down the actual
+attitude of the moralist, and of civilization. The practical outcome of
+that attitude must be left to moralists and sociologists and the community
+generally to work out.</p>
+
+<p>Our inquiry has also, it may be hoped, incidentally tended to show that in
+practically dealing with the question of prostitution it is pre-eminently
+necessary to remember the warning which, as regards many other social
+problems, has been embodied by Herbert Spencer in his famous illustration
+of the bent iron plate. In trying to make the bent plate smooth, it is
+useless, Spencer pointed out, to hammer directly on the buckled up part;
+if we do so we merely find that we have made matters worse; our hammering,
+to be effective, must be around, and not directly on, the offensive
+elevation we wish to reduce; only so can the iron plate be hammered
+smooth.<a name='6_FNanchor_219'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_219'><sup>[219]</sup></a> But this elementary <a name='6_Page_318'></a>law has not been understood by
+moralists. The plain, practical, common-sense reformer, as he fancied
+himself to be&mdash;from the time of Charlemagne onwards&mdash;has over and over
+again brought his heavy fist directly down on to the evil of prostitution
+and has always made matters worse. It is only by wisely working outside
+and around the evil that we can hope to lessen it effectually. By aiming
+to develop and raise the relationships of men to women, and of women to
+women, by modifying our notions of sexual relationships, and by
+introducing a saner and truer conception of womanhood and of the
+responsibilities of women as well as of men, by attaining, socially as
+well as economically, a higher level of human living&mdash;it is only by such
+methods as these that we can reasonably expect to see any diminution and
+alleviation of the evil of prostitution. So long as we are incapable of
+such methods we must be content with the prostitution we deserve, learning
+to treat it with the pity, and the respect, which so intimate a failure of
+our civilization is entitled to.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_107'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_107'>[107]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Cheetham's Hulsean Lectures, <i>The Mysteries,
+Pagan and Christian</i>, pp. 123, 136.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_108'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_108'>[108]</a><div class='note'><p> Hormayr's <i>Taschenbuch</i>, 1835, p. 255. Hagelstange, in a
+chapter on medi&aelig;val festivals in his <i>S&uuml;ddeutsches Bauernleben im
+Mittelalter</i>, shows how, in these Christian orgies which were really of
+pagan origin, the German people reacted with tremendous and boisterous
+energy against the laborious and monotonous existence of everyday life.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_109'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_109'>[109]</a><div class='note'><p> This was clearly realized by the more intelligent upholders
+of the Feast of Fools. Austere persons wished to abolish this Feast, and
+in a remarkable petition sent up to the Theological Faculty of Paris (and
+quoted by Flogel, <i>Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen</i>, fourth edition, p.
+204) the case for the Feast is thus presented: &quot;We do this according to
+ancient custom, in order that folly, which is second nature to man and
+seems to be inborn, may at least once a year have free outlet. Wine casks
+would burst if we failed sometimes to remove the bung and let in air. Now
+we are all ill-bound casks and barrels which would let out the wine of
+wisdom if by constant devotion and fear of God we allowed it to ferment.
+We must let in air so that it may not be spoilt. Thus on some days we give
+ourselves up to sport, so that with the greater zeal we may afterwards
+return to the worship of God.&quot; The Feast of Fools was not suppressed until
+the middle of the sixteenth century, and relics of it persisted (as at
+Aix) till near the end of the eighteenth century.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_110'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_110'>[110]</a><div class='note'><p> A M&eacute;ray, <i>La Vie au Temps des Libres Pr&ecirc;cheurs</i>, vol. ii,
+Ch. X. A good and scholarly account of the Feast of Fools is given by E. K.
+Chambers, <i>The Medi&aelig;val Stage</i>, Ch. XIII. It is true that the Church and
+the early Fathers often anathematized the theatre. But Gregory of
+Nazianzen wished to found a Christian theatre; the Medi&aelig;val Mysteries were
+certainly under the protection of the clergy; and St. Thomas Aquinas, the
+greatest of the schoolmen, only condemns the theatre with cautious
+qualifications.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_111'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_111'>[111]</a><div class='note'><p> Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i>,
+Ch. XII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_112'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_112'>[112]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i>, July-Dec., 1904, p.
+329.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_113'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_113'>[113]</a><div class='note'><p> Westermarck (<i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>,
+vol. ii, pp. 283-9) shows how widespread is the custom of setting apart a
+periodical rest day.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_114'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_114'>[114]</a><div class='note'><p> A. E. Crawley, <i>The Mystic Rose</i>, pp. 273 <i>et seq.</i>, Crawley
+brings into association with this function of great festivals the custom,
+found in some parts of the world, of exchanging wives at these times. &quot;It
+has nothing whatever to do with the marriage system, except as breaking it
+for a season, women of forbidden degree being lent, on the same grounds as
+conventions and ordinary relations are broken at festivals of the
+Saturnalia type, the object being to change life and start afresh, by
+exchanging every thing one can, while the very act of exchange coincides
+with the other desire, to weld the community together&quot; (<i>Ib.</i>, p. 479).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_115'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_115'>[115]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse&quot; in vol. iii of
+these <i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_116'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_116'>[116]</a><div class='note'><p> G. Murray, <i>Ancient Greek Literature</i>, p. 211.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_117'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_117'>[117]</a><div class='note'><p> The Greek drama probably arose out of a folk-festival of
+more or less sexual character, and it is even possible that the medi&aelig;val
+drama had a somewhat similar origin (see Donaldson, <i>The Greek Theatre</i>;
+Gilbert Murray, <i>loc. cit.</i>; Karl Pearson, <i>The Chances of Death</i>, vol.
+ii, pp. 135-6, 280 <i>et seq.</i>).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_118'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_118'>[118]</a><div class='note'><p> R. Canudo, &quot;Les Chor&egrave;ges Fran&ccedil;ais,&quot; <i>Mercure de France</i>,
+May 1, 1907, p. 180.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_119'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_119'>[119]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;This is, in fact,&quot; Cyples declares (<i>The Process of Human
+Experience</i>, p. 743), &quot;Art's great function&mdash;to rehearse within us greater
+egoistic possibilities, to habituate us to larger actualizations of
+personality in a rudimentary manner,&quot; and so to arouse, &quot;aimlessly but
+splendidly, the sheer as yet unfulfilled possibilities within us.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_120'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_120'>[120]</a><div class='note'><p> Even when monotonous labor is intellectual, it is not
+thereby protected against degrading orgiastic reactions. Prof. L. Gurlitt
+shows (<i>Die Neue Generation</i>, January, 1909, pp. 31-6) how the strenuous,
+unremitting intellectual work of Prussian seminaries leads among both
+teachers and scholars to the worst forms of the orgy.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_121'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_121'>[121]</a><div class='note'><p> Rabutaux discusses various definitions of prostitution, <i>De
+la Prostitution en Europe</i>, pp. 119 <i>et seq.</i> For the origin of the names
+to designate the prostitute, see Schrader, <i>Reallexicon</i>, art.
+&quot;Beischl&auml;ferin.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_122'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_122'>[122]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Digest</i>, lib. xxiii, tit. ii, p. 43. If she only gave
+herself to one or two persons, though for money, it was not prostitution.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_123'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_123'>[123]</a><div class='note'><p> Guyot, <i>La Prostitution</i>, p. 8. The element of venality is
+essential, and religious writers (like Robert Wardlaw, D. D., of Edinburgh,
+in his <i>Lectures on Female Prostitution</i>, 1842, p. 14) who define
+prostitution as &quot;the illicit intercourse of the sexes,&quot; and synonymous
+with theological &quot;fornication,&quot; fall into an absurd confusion.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_124'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_124'>[124]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Such marriages are sometimes stigmatized as 'legalized
+prostitution,'&quot; remarks Sidgwick (<i>Methods of Ethics</i>, Bk. iii, Ch. XI),
+&quot;but the phrase is felt to be extravagant and paradoxical.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_125'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_125'>[125]</a><div class='note'><p> Bonger, <i>Criminalit&eacute; et Conditions Economiques</i>, p. 378.
+Bonger believes that the act of prostitution is &quot;intrinsically equal to
+that of a man or woman who contracts a marriage for economical reasons.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_126'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_126'>[126]</a><div class='note'><p> E. Richard, <i>La Prostitution &agrave; Paris</i>, 1890, p. 44. It may
+be questioned whether publicity or notoriety should form an essential part
+of the definition; it seems, however, to be involved, or the prostitute
+cannot obtain clients. Reuss states that she must, in addition, be
+absolutely without means of subsistence; that is certainly not essential.
+Nor is it necessary, as the <i>Digest</i> insisted, that the act should be
+performed &quot;without pleasure;&quot; that may be as it will, without affecting
+the prostitutional nature of the act.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_127'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_127'>[127]</a><div class='note'><p> Hawkesworth, <i>Account of the Voyages</i>, etc., 1775, vol. ii,
+p. 254.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_128'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_128'>[128]</a><div class='note'><p> R. W. Codrington, <i>The Melanesians</i>, p. 235.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_129'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_129'>[129]</a><div class='note'><p> F. S. Krauss, <i>Romanische Forschungen</i>, 1903, p. 290.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_130'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_130'>[130]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Schurtz, <i>Altersklassen und M&auml;nnerb&uuml;nde</i>, 1902, p. 190.
+In this work Schurtz brings together (pp. 189-201) some examples of the
+germs of prostitution among primitive peoples. Many facts and references
+are given by Westermarck (<i>History of Human Marriage</i>, pp. 66 <i>et seq.</i>,
+and <i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. ii, pp. 441 <i>et
+seq.</i>).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_131'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_131'>[131]</a><div class='note'><p> Bachofen (more especially in his <i>Mutterrecht</i> and <i>Sage
+von Tanaquil</i>) argued that even religious prostitution sprang from the
+resistance of primitive instincts to the individualization of love. <i>Cf.</i>
+Robertson Smith, <i>Religion of Semites</i>, second edition, p. 59.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_132'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_132'>[132]</a><div class='note'><p> Whatever the reason may be, there can be no doubt that
+there is a widespread tendency for religion and prostitution to be
+associated; it is possibly to some extent a special case of that general
+connection between the religious and sexual impulses which has been
+discussed elsewhere (Appendix C to vol. i of these <i>Studies</i>). Thus A. B.
+Ellis, in his book on <i>The Ewe-speaking Peoples of West Africa</i> (pp. 124,
+141) states that here women dedicated to a god become promiscuous
+prostitutes. W. G. Sumner (<i>Folkways</i>, Ch. XVI) brings together many facts
+concerning the wide distribution of religious prostitution.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_133'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_133'>[133]</a><div class='note'><p> Herodotus, Bk. I, Ch. CXCIX; Baruch, Ch. VI, p. 43. Modern
+scholars confirm the statements of Herodotus from the study of Babylonian
+literature, though inclined to deny that religious prostitution occupied
+so large a place as he gives it. A tablet of the Gilgamash epic, according
+to Morris Jastrow, refers to prostitutes as attendants of the goddess
+Ishtar in the city Uruk (or Erech), which was thus a centre, and perhaps
+the chief centre, of the rites described by Herodotus (Morris Jastrow,
+<i>The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i>, 1898, p. 475). Ishtar was the
+goddess of fertility, the great mother goddess, and the prostitutes were
+priestesses, attached to her worship, who took part in ceremonies intended
+to symbolize fertility. These priestesses of Ishtar were known by the
+general name Kadishtu, &quot;the holy ones&quot; (<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 485, 660).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_134'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_134'>[134]</a><div class='note'><p> It is usual among modern writers to associate Aphrodite
+Pandemos, rather than Ourania, with venal or promiscuous sexuality, but
+this is a complete mistake, for the Aphrodite Pandemos was purely
+political and had no sexual significance. The mistake was introduced,
+perhaps intentionally, by Plato. It has been suggested that that
+arch-juggler, who disliked democratic ideas, purposely sought to pervert
+and vulgarize the conception of Aphrodite Pandemos (Farnell, <i>Cults of
+Greek States</i>, vol. ii, p. 660).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_135'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_135'>[135]</a><div class='note'><p> Athen&aelig;us, Bk. xiii, cap. XXXII. It appears that the only
+other Hellenic community where the temple cult involved unchastity was a
+city of the Locri Epizephyrii (Farnell, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 636).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_136'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_136'>[136]</a><div class='note'><p> I do not say an earlier &quot;promiscuity,&quot; for the theory of a
+primitive sexual promiscuity is now widely discredited, though there can
+be no reasonable doubt that the early prevalence of mother-right was more
+favorable to the sexual freedom of women than the later patriarchal
+system. Thus in very early Egyptian days a woman could give her favors to
+any man she chose by sending him her garment, even if she were married. In
+time the growth of the rights of men led to this being regarded as
+criminal, but the priestesses of Amen retained the privilege to the last,
+as being under divine protection (Flinders Petrie, <i>Egyptian Tales</i>, pp.
+10, 48).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_137'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_137'>[137]</a><div class='note'><p> It should be added that Farnell (&quot;The Position of Women in
+Ancient Religion,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r Religionswissenschaft</i>, 1904, p. 88) seeks
+to explain the religious prostitution of Babylonia as a special religious
+modification of the custom of destroying virginity before marriage in
+order to safeguard the husband from the mystic dangers of defloration.
+E. S. Hartland, also (&quot;Concerning the Rite at the Temple of Mylitta,&quot;
+<i>Anthropological Essays Presented to E. B. Tyler</i>, p. 189), suggests that
+this was a puberty rite connected with ceremonial defloration. This theory
+is not, however, generally accepted by Semitic scholars.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_138'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_138'>[138]</a><div class='note'><p> The girls of this tribe, who are remarkably pretty, after
+spending two or three years in thus amassing a little dowry, return home
+to marry, and are said to make model wives and mothers. They are described
+by Bertherand in Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, <i>La Prostitution &agrave; Paris</i>, vol. ii, p.
+539.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_139'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_139'>[139]</a><div class='note'><p> In Abyssinia (according to Fiaschi, <i>British Medical
+Journal</i>, March 13, 1897), where prostitution has always been held in high
+esteem, the prostitutes, who are now subject to medical examination twice
+a week, still attach no disgrace to their profession, and easily find
+husbands afterwards. Potter (<i>Sohrab and Rustem</i>, pp. 168 <i>et seq.</i>) gives
+references as regards peoples, widely dispersed in the Old World and the
+New, among whom the young women have practiced prostitution to obtain a
+dowry.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_140'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_140'>[140]</a><div class='note'><p> At Tralles, in Lydia, even in the second century A.D., as
+Sir W. M. Ramsay notes (<i>Cities of Phrygia</i>, vol. i, pp. 94, 115), sacred
+prostitution was still an honorable practice for women of good birth who
+&quot;felt themselves called upon to live the divine life under the influence
+of divine inspiration.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_141'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_141'>[141]</a><div class='note'><p> The gradual secularization of prostitution from its earlier
+religious form has been traced by various writers (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Dupouey,
+<i>La Prostitution dans l'Antiquit&eacute;</i>). The earliest complimentary reference
+to the <i>Hetaira</i> in literature is to be found, according to Benecke
+(<i>Antimachus of Colophon</i>, p. 36), in Bacchylides.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_142'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_142'>[142]</a><div class='note'><p> Cicero, <i>Oratio pr&ocirc; Coelio</i>, Cap. XX.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_143'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_143'>[143]</a><div class='note'><p> Pierre Dufour, <i>Histoire de la Prostitution</i>, vol. ii, Chs.
+XIX-XX. The real author of this well-known history of prostitution, which,
+though not scholarly in its methods, brings together a great mass of
+interesting information, is said to be Paul Lacroix.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_144'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_144'>[144]</a><div class='note'><p> Rabutaux, in his <i>Histoire de la Prostitution en Europe</i>,
+describes many attempts to suppress prostitution; <i>cf.</i> Dufour, <i>op.
+cit.</i>, vol. iii.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_145'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_145'>[145]</a><div class='note'><p> Dufour, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. vi, Ch. XLI. It was in the reign
+of the homosexual Henry III that the tolerance of brothels was
+established.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_146'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_146'>[146]</a><div class='note'><p> In the eighteenth century, especially, houses of
+prostitution in Paris attained to an astonishing degree of elaboration and
+prosperity. Owing to the constant watchful attention of the police a vast
+amount of detailed information concerning these establishments was
+accumulated, and during recent years much of it has been published. A
+summary of this literature will be found in D&uuml;hren's <i>Neue Forshungen &uuml;ber
+den Marquis de Sade und seine Zeit</i>, 1904, pp. 97 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_147'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_147'>[147]</a><div class='note'><p> Rabutaux, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 54.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_148'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_148'>[148]</a><div class='note'><p> Calza has written the history of Venetian prostitution; and
+some of the documents he found have been reproduced by Mantegazza, <i>Gli
+Amori degli Uomimi</i>, cap. XIV. At the beginning of the seventeenth
+century, a comparatively late period, Coryat visited Venice, and in his
+<i>Crudities</i> gives a full and interesting account of its courtesans, who
+then numbered, he says, at least 20,000; the revenue they brought into the
+State maintained a dozen galleys.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_149'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_149'>[149]</a><div class='note'><p> J. Schrank, <i>Die Prostitution in Wien</i>, Bd. I, pp.
+152-206.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_150'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_150'>[150]</a><div class='note'><p> U. Robert, <i>Les Signes d'Infamie au Moyen Age</i>, Ch. IV.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_151'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_151'>[151]</a><div class='note'><p> Rudeck (<i>Geschichte der &ouml;ffentlichen Sittlichkeit in
+Deutschland</i>, pp. 26-36) gives many details concerning the important part
+played by prostitutes and brothels in medi&aelig;val German life.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_152'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_152'>[152]</a><div class='note'><p> They are described by Rabutaux, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 90 <i>et
+seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_153'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_153'>[153]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>L'Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>, seventh year, 1904, p. 440.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_154'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_154'>[154]</a><div class='note'><p> Bloch, <i>Der Ursprung der Syphilis</i>. As regards the German
+&quot;Frauenhausen&quot; see Max Bauer, <i>Das Geschlechtsleben in der Deutschen
+Vergangenheit</i>, pp. 133-214. In Paris, Dufour states (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. v,
+Ch. XXXIV), brothels under the ordinances of St. Louis had many rights
+which they lost at last in 1560, when they became merely tolerated houses,
+without statutes, special costumes, or confinement to special streets.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_155'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_155'>[155]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Cortegiana, hoc est meretrix honesta,&quot; wrote Burchard, the
+Pope's Secretary, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, <i>Diarium</i>,
+ed. Thuasne, vol. ii, p. 442; other authorities are quoted by Thuasne in a
+note.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_156'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_156'>[156]</a><div class='note'><p> Burchard, <i>Diarium</i>, vol. iii, p. 167. Thuasne quotes other
+authorities in confirmation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_157'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_157'>[157]</a><div class='note'><p> The example of Holland, where some large cities have
+adopted the regulation of prostitution and others have not, is instructive
+as regards the illusory nature of the advantages of regulation. In 1883
+Dr. Despr&eacute;s brought forward figures, supplied by Dutch officials, showing
+that in Rotterdam, where prostitution was regulated, both prostitution and
+venereal diseases were more prevalent than in Amsterdam, a city without
+regulation (A. Despr&eacute;s, <i>La Prostitution en France</i>, p. 122).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_158'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_158'>[158]</a><div class='note'><p> It was in 1802 that the medical inspection of prostitutes
+in Paris brothels was introduced, though not until 1825 fully established
+and made general.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_159'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_159'>[159]</a><div class='note'><p> M. L. Heidingsfeld, &quot;The Control of Prostitution,&quot; <i>Journal
+American Medical Association</i>, January 30, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_160'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_160'>[160]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, G. B&eacute;rault, <i>La Maison de Tol&eacute;rance</i>, Th&egrave;se de
+Paris, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_161'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_161'>[161]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus the circumstances of the English army in India are of
+a special character. A number of statements (from the reports of
+committees, official publications, etc.) regarding the good influence of
+regulation in reducing venereal diseases in India are brought together by
+Surgeon-Colonel F. H. Welch, &quot;The Prevention of Syphilis,&quot; <i>Lancet</i>, August
+12, 1899. The system has been abolished, but only as the result of a
+popular outcry and not on the question of its merits.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_162'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_162'>[162]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus Richard, who accepts regulation and was instructed to
+report on it for the Paris Municipal Council, would not have girls
+inscribed as professional prostitutes until they are of age and able to
+realize what they are binding themselves to (E. Richard, <i>La Prostitution
+&agrave; Paris</i>, p. 147). But at that age a large proportion of prostitutes have
+been practicing their profession for years.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_163'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_163'>[163]</a><div class='note'><p> In Germany, where the cure of infected prostitutes under
+regulation is nearly everywhere compulsory, usually at the cost of the
+community, it is found that 18 is the average age at which they are
+affected by syphilis; the average age of prostitutes in brothels is higher
+than that of those outside, and a much larger proportion have therefore
+become immune to disease (Blaschko, &quot;Hygiene der Syphilis,&quot; in Weyl's
+<i>Handbuch der Hygiene</i>, Bd. ii, p. 62, 1900).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_164'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_164'>[164]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Sherwell, <i>Life in West London</i>, 1897, Ch. V.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_165'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_165'>[165]</a><div class='note'><p> Bonger brings together statistics illustrating this point,
+<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 402-6.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_166'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_166'>[166]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>The Nightless City</i>, p. 125.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_167'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_167'>[167]</a><div class='note'><p> Str&ouml;hmberg, as quoted by Aschaffenburg, <i>Das Verbrechen</i>,
+1903, p. 77.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_168'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_168'>[168]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene</i>,
+1906. Heft 10, p. 460. But this cause is undoubtedly effective in some
+cases of unmarried women in Germany unable to get work (see article by
+Sister Henrietta Arendt, Police-Assistant at Stuttgart, <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>,
+December, 1908).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_169'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_169'>[169]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, for instance, we find Irma von Troll-Borosty&aacute;ni
+saying in her book, <i>Im Freien Reich</i> (p. 176): &quot;Go and ask these
+unfortunate creatures if they willingly and freely devoted themselves to
+vice. And nearly all of them will tell you a story of need and
+destitution, of hunger and lack of work, which compelled them to it, or
+else of love and seduction and the fear of the discovery of their false
+step which drove them out of their homes, helpless and forsaken, into the
+pool of vice from which there is hardly any salvation.&quot; It is, of course,
+quite true that the prostitute is frequently ready to tell such stories to
+philanthropic persons who expect to hear them, and sometimes even put the
+words into her mouth.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_170'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_170'>[170]</a><div class='note'><p> C. Booth, <i>Life and Labour</i>, final volume, p. 125.
+Similarly in Sweden, Kullberg states that girls of thirteen to seventeen,
+living at home with their parents in comfortable circumstances, have often
+been found on the streets.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_171'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_171'>[171]</a><div class='note'><p> W. Acton, <i>Prostitution</i>, 1870, pp. 39, 49.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_172'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_172'>[172]</a><div class='note'><p> In Lyons, according to Potton, of 3884 prostitutes, 3194
+abandoned, or apparently abandoned, their profession; in Paris a very
+large number became servants, dressmakers, or tailoresses, occupations
+which, in many cases, doubtless, they had exercised before
+(Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, <i>De la Prostitution</i>, 1857, vol. i, p. 584; vol. ii,
+p. 451). Sloggett (quoted by Acton) stated that at Davenport, 250 of the
+1775 prostitutes there married. It is well known that prostitutes
+occasionally marry extremely well. It was remarked nearly a century ago
+that marriages of prostitutes to rich men were especially frequent in
+England, and usually turned out well; the same seems to be true still. In
+their own social rank they not infrequently marry cabmen and policemen,
+the two classes of men with whom they are brought most closely in contact
+in the streets. As regards Germany, C. K. Schneider (<i>Die Prostituirte und
+die Gesellschaft</i>), states that young prostitutes take up all sorts of
+occupations and situations, sometimes, if they have saved a little money,
+establishing a business, while old prostitutes become procuresses,
+brothel-keepers, lavatory women, and so on. Not a few prostitutes marry,
+he adds, but the proportion among inscribed German prostitutes is very
+small, less than 2 per cent.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_173'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_173'>[173]</a><div class='note'><p> G. de Molinari, <i>La Viriculture</i>, 1897, p. 155.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_174'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_174'>[174]</a><div class='note'><p> Reuss and other writers have reproduced typical extracts
+from the private account books of prostitutes, showing the high rate of
+their earnings. Even in the common brothels, in Philadelphia (according to
+Goodchild, &quot;The Social Evil in Philadelphia,&quot; <i>Arena</i>, March, 1896), girls
+earn twenty dollars or more a week, which is far more than they could earn
+in any other occupation open to them.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_175'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_175'>[175]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Despr&eacute;s, <i>La Prostitution en France</i>, 1883.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_176'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_176'>[176]</a><div class='note'><p> Bonger, <i>Criminalit&eacute; et Conditions Economiques</i>, 1905, pp.
+378-414.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_177'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_177'>[177]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>La Donna Delinquente</i>, p. 401.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_178'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_178'>[178]</a><div class='note'><p> Raciborski, <i>Trait&eacute; de l'Impuissance</i>, p. 20. It may be
+added that Bergh, a leading authority on the anatomical peculiarities of
+the external female sexual organs, who believe that strong development of
+the external genital organs accompanies libidinous tendencies, has not
+found such development to be common among prostitutes.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_179'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_179'>[179]</a><div class='note'><p> Hammer, who has had much opportunity of studying the
+psychology of prostitutes, remarks that he has seen no reason to suspect
+sexual coldness (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene</i>,
+1906, Heft 2, p. 85), although, as he has elsewhere stated, he is of
+opinion that indolence, rather than excess of sensuality, is the chief
+cause of prostitution.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_180'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_180'>[180]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women,&quot; in the third volume of
+these <i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_181'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_181'>[181]</a><div class='note'><p> Tait stated that in Edinburgh many married women living
+with their husbands in comfortable circumstances, and having children,
+were found to be acting as prostitutes, that is, in the regular habit of
+making assignations with strangers (W. Tait, <i>Magdalenism in Edinburgh</i>,
+1842, p. 16).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_182'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_182'>[182]</a><div class='note'><p> Janke brings together opinions to this effect, <i>Die
+Willk&uuml;rliche Hervorbringen des Geschlechts</i>, p. 275. &quot;If we compare a
+prostitute of thirty-five with her respectable sister,&quot; Acton remarked
+(<i>Prostitution</i>, 1870, p. 39), &quot;we seldom find that the constitutional
+ravages often thought to be necessary consequences of prostitution exceed
+those attributable to the cares of a family and the heart-wearing
+struggles of virtuous labor.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_183'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_183'>[183]</a><div class='note'><p> Hirschfeld states (<i>Wesen der Liebe</i>, p. 35) that the
+desire for intercourse with a sympathetic person is heightened, and not
+decreased, by a professional act of coitus.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_184'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_184'>[184]</a><div class='note'><p> This has been clearly shown by Hans Ostwald (from whom I
+take the above-quoted observation of a prostitute), one of the best
+authorities on prostitute life and character; see, <i>e.g.</i>, his article,
+&quot;Die erotischen Beziehungen zwischen Dirne und Zuh&auml;lter,&quot;
+<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, June, 1908. In the subsequent number of the same
+periodical (July, 1908, p. 393) Dr. Max Marcuse supports Ostwald's
+experiences, and says that the letters of prostitutes and their bullies
+are love-letters exactly like those of respectable people of the same
+class, and with the same elements of love and jealousy; these
+relationships, he remarks, often prove very enduring. The prostitute
+author of the <i>Tagebuch einer Verlorenen</i> (p. 147) also has some remarks
+on the prostitute's relations to her bully, stating that it is simply the
+natural relationship of a girl to her lover.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_185'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_185'>[185]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus Moraglia found that among 180 prostitutes in North
+Italian brothels, and among 23 elegant Italian and foreign cocottes, every
+one admitted that she masturbated, preferably by friction of the clitoris;
+113 of them, the majority, declared that they preferred solitary or mutual
+masturbation to normal coitus. Hammer states (<i>Zehn Lebensl&auml;ufe Berliner
+Kontrollm&auml;dchen</i> in Ostwald's series of &quot;Grosstadt Dokumente,&quot; 1905) that
+when in hospital all but three or four of sixty prostitutes masturbate,
+and those who do not are laughed at by the rest.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_186'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_186'>[186]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Sexuelle Zwischenstufen</i>, Jahrgang VII, 1905,
+p. 148; &quot;Sexual Inversion,&quot; vol. ii of these <i>Studies</i>, Ch. IV. Hammer
+found that of twenty-five prostitutes in a reformatory as many as
+twenty-three were homosexual, or, on good grounds, suspected to be such.
+Hirschfeld (<i>Berlins Drittes Geschlecht</i>, p. 65) mentions that prostitutes
+sometimes accost better-class women who, from their man-like air, they
+take to be homosexual; from persons of their own sex prostitutes will
+accept a smaller remuneration, and sometimes refuse payment altogether.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_187'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_187'>[187]</a><div class='note'><p> With prostitution, as with criminality, it is of course
+difficult to disentangle the element of heredity from that of environment,
+even when we have good grounds for believing that the factor of heredity
+here, as throughout the whole of life, cannot fail to carry much weight.
+It is certain, in any case, that prostitution frequently runs in families.
+&quot;It has often been my experience,&quot; writes a former prostitute (Hedwig
+Hard, <i>Beichte einer Gefallenen</i>, p. 156) &quot;that when in a family a girl
+enters this path, her sister soon afterwards follows her: I have met with
+innumerable cases; sometimes three sisters will all be on the register,
+and I knew a case of four sisters, whose mother, a midwife, had been in
+prison, and the father drank. In this case, all four sisters, who were
+very beautiful, married, one at least very happily, to a rich doctor who
+took her out of the brothel at sixteen and educated her.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_188'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_188'>[188]</a><div class='note'><p> This fact is not contradicted by the undoubted fact that
+prostitutes are by no means always contented with the life they choose.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_189'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_189'>[189]</a><div class='note'><p> This point has been discussed by Bloch, <i>Sexualleben
+unserer Zeit</i>, Ch. XIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_190'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_190'>[190]</a><div class='note'><p> Various series of observations are summarized by Lombroso
+and Ferrero, <i>La Donna Delinquente</i>, 1893, Part III, cap. IV.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_191'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_191'>[191]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>History of European Morals</i>, vol. iii, p. 283.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_192'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_192'>[192]</a><div class='note'><p> Similarly Lord Morley has written (<i>Diderot</i>, vol. ii, p.
+20): &quot;The purity of the family, so lovely and dear as it is, has still
+only been secured hitherto by retaining a vast and dolorous host of female
+outcasts ... upon whose heads, as upon the scapegoat of the Hebrew
+ordinance, we put all the iniquities of the children of the house, and all
+their transgressions in all their sins, and then banish them with
+maledictions into the foul outer wilderness and the land not inhabited.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_193'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_193'>[193]</a><div class='note'><p> Horace, <i>Satires</i>, lib. i, 2.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_194'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_194'>[194]</a><div class='note'><p> Augustine, <i>De Ordine</i>, Bk. II, Ch. IV.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_195'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_195'>[195]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>De Regimine Principum</i> (<i>Opuscula XX</i>), lib. iv, cap. XIV.
+I am indebted to the Rev. H. Northcote for the reference to the precise
+place where this statement occurs; it is usually quoted more vaguely.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_196'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_196'>[196]</a><div class='note'><p> Lea, <i>History of Auricular Confession</i>, vol. ii, p. 69.
+There was even, it seems, an eccentric decision of the Salamanca
+theologians that a nun might so receive money, &quot;licite et valide.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_197'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_197'>[197]</a><div class='note'><p> Lea, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, pp. 263, 399.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_198'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_198'>[198]</a><div class='note'><p> Rabutaux, <i>De la Prostitution en Europe</i>, pp. 22 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_199'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_199'>[199]</a><div class='note'><p> Burton, <i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, Part III, Sect. III, Mem.
+IV, Subs. II.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_200'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_200'>[200]</a><div class='note'><p> B. Mandeville, <i>Remarks to Fable of the Bees</i>, 1714, pp.
+93-9; <i>cf.</i> P. Sakmann, <i>Bernard de Mandeville</i>, pp. 101-4.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_201'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_201'>[201]</a><div class='note'><p> These conditions favor temporary free unions, but they also
+favor prostitution. The reason is, according to Adolf Gerson
+(<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, September, 1908), that the woman of good class will
+not have free unions. Partly moved by moral traditions, and partly by the
+feeling that a man should be legally her property, she will not give
+herself out of love to a man; and he therefore turns to the lower-class
+woman who gives herself for money.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_202'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_202'>[202]</a><div class='note'><p> Many girls, said Ellice Hopkins, get into mischief merely
+because they have in them an element of the &quot;black kitten,&quot; which must
+frolic and play, but has no desire to get into danger. &quot;Do you not think
+it a little hard,&quot; she added, &quot;that men should have dug by the side of her
+foolish dancing feet a bottomless pit, and that she cannot have her jump
+and fun in safety, and put on her fine feathers like the silly bird-witted
+thing she is, without a single false step dashing her over the brink, and
+leaving her with the very womanhood dashed out of her?&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_203'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_203'>[203]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Sherwell, <i>Life in West London</i>, 1897, Ch. V.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_204'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_204'>[204]</a><div class='note'><p> As quoted by Bloch, <i>Sexualleben Unserer Zeit</i>, p. 358. In
+Berlin during recent years the number of prostitutes has increased at
+nearly double the rate at which the general population has increased. It
+is no doubt probable that the supply tends to increase the demand.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_205'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_205'>[205]</a><div class='note'><p> Goncourt, <i>Journal</i>, vol. iii, p. 49.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_206'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_206'>[206]</a><div class='note'><p> Vanderkiste, <i>The Dens of London</i>, 1854, p. 242.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_207'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_207'>[207]</a><div class='note'><p> Bonger (<i>Criminalit&eacute; et Conditions Economiques</i>, p. 406)
+refers to the prevalence of prostitution among dressmakers and milliners,
+as well as among servants, as showing the influence of contact with
+luxury, and adds that the rich women, who look down on prostitution, do
+not always realize that they are themselves an important factor of
+prostitution, both by their luxury and their idleness; while they do not
+seem to be aware that they would themselves act in the same way if placed
+under the same conditions.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_208'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_208'>[208]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Lippert, in his book on prostitution in Hamburg, laid
+much stress on the craving for dress and adornment as a factor of
+prostitution, and Bloch (<i>Das Sexualleben unsurer Zeit</i>, p. 372) considers
+that this factor is usually underestimated, and that it exerts an
+especially powerful influence on servants.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_209'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_209'>[209]</a><div class='note'><p> Since this was written the influence of several generations
+of town-life in immunizing a stock to the evils of that life (though
+without reference to prostitution) has been set forth by Reibmayr, <i>Die
+Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies</i>, 1908, vol. ii, pp. 73 <i>et
+seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_210'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_210'>[210]</a><div class='note'><p> In France this intimacy is embodied in the delicious
+privilege of <i>tutoiement</i>. &quot;The mystery of <i>tutoiement!</i>&quot; exclaims Ernest
+La Jennesse in <i>L'Holocauste:</i> &quot;Barriers broken down, veils drawn away,
+and the ease of existence! At a time when I was very lonely, and trying to
+grow accustomed to Paris and to misfortune, I would go miles&mdash;on foot,
+naturally&mdash;to see a girl cousin and an aunt, merely to have something to
+<i>tutoyer</i>. Sometimes they were not at home, and I had to come back with my
+<i>tu</i>, my thirst for confidence and familiarity and brotherliness.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_211'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_211'>[211]</a><div class='note'><p> For some facts and references to the extensive literature
+concerning this trade, see, <i>e.g.</i>, Bloch, <i>Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit</i>,
+pp. 374-376; also K. M. Baer, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Sept.,
+1908; Paulucci de Calboli, <i>Nuova Antologia</i>, April, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_212'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_212'>[212]</a><div class='note'><p> These considerations do not, it is true, apply to many
+kinds of sexual perverts who form an important proportion of the clients
+of brothels. These can frequently find what they crave inside a brothel
+much more easily than outside.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_213'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_213'>[213]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus Charles Booth, in his great work on <i>Life and Labor in
+London</i>, final volume (p. 128), recommends that &quot;houses of accommodation,&quot;
+instead of being hunted out, should be tolerated as a step towards the
+suppression of brothels.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_214'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_214'>[214]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Towns like Woolwich, Aldershot, Portsmouth, Plymouth,&quot; it
+has been said, &quot;abound with wretched, filthy monsters that bear no
+resemblance to women; but it is drink, scorn, brutality and disease which
+have reduced them to this state, not the mere fact of associating with
+men.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_215'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_215'>[215]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;The contract of prostitution in the opinion of prostitutes
+themselves,&quot; Bernaldo de Quir&oacute;s and Llanas Aguilaniedo remark (<i>La Mala
+Vida en Madrid</i>, p. 254), &quot;cannot be assimilated to a sale, nor to a
+contract of work, nor to any other form of barter recognized by the civil
+law. They consider that in these pacts there always enters an element
+which makes it much more like a gift in a matter in which no payment could
+be adequate. 'A woman's body is without price' is an axiom of
+prostitution. The money placed in the hands of her who procures the
+satisfaction of sexual desire is not the price of the act, but an offering
+which the priestess of Venus applies to her maintenance.&quot; To the Spaniard,
+it is true, every transaction which resembles trade is repugnant, but the
+principle underlying this feeling holds good of prostitution generally.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_216'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_216'>[216]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Journal des Goncourt</i>, vol. iii; this was in 1866.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_217'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_217'>[217]</a><div class='note'><p> Rev. the Hon. C. Lyttelton, <i>Training of the Young in Laws
+of Sex</i>, p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_218'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_218'>[218]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, R. W. Taylor, <i>Treatise on Sexual Disorders</i>,
+1897, pp. 74-5. Georg Hirth (<i>Wege zur Heimat</i>, 1909, p. 619) narrates the
+case of a young officer who, being excited by the caresses of his
+betrothed and having too much respect for her to go further than this, and
+too much respect for himself to resort to masturbation, knew nothing
+better than to go to a prostitute. Syphilis developed a few days after the
+wedding. Hirth adds, briefly, that the results were terrible.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_219'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_219'>[219]</a><div class='note'><p> It is an oft-quoted passage, but can scarcely be quoted too
+often: &quot;You see that this wrought-iron plate is not quite flat: it sticks
+up a little, here towards the left&mdash;'cockles,' as we say. How shall we
+flatten it? Obviously, you reply, by hitting down on the part that is
+prominent. Well, here is a hammer, and I give the plate a blow as you
+advise. Harder, you say. Still no effect. Another stroke? Well, there is
+one, and another, and another. The prominence remains, you see: the evil
+is as great as ever&mdash;greater, indeed. But that is not all. Look at the
+warp which the plate has got near the opposite edge. Where it was flat
+before it is now curved. A pretty bungle we have made of it. Instead of
+curing the original defect we have produced a second. Had we asked an
+artisan practiced in 'planishing,' as it is called, he would have told us
+that no good was to be done, but only mischief, by hitting down on the
+projecting part. He would have taught us how to give variously-directed
+and specially-adjusted blows with a hammer elsewhere: so attacking the
+evil, not by direct, but by indirect actions. The required process is less
+simple than you thought. Even a sheet of metal is not to be successfully
+dealt with after those common-sense methods in which you have so much
+confidence. What, then, shall we say about a society?... Is humanity more
+readily straightened than an iron plate?&quot; (<i>The Study of Sociology</i>, p.
+270.)</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_VIII'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_319'></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE CONQUEST OF THE VENEREAL DISEASES.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Significance of the Venereal Diseases&mdash;The History of Syphilis&mdash;The
+Problem of Its Origin&mdash;The Social Gravity of Syphilis&mdash;The Social Dangers
+of Gonorrh&oelig;a&mdash;The Modern Change in the Methods of Combating
+Venereal Diseases&mdash;Causes of the Decay of the System of Police
+Regulation&mdash;Necessity of Facing the Facts&mdash;The Innocent Victims of
+Venereal Diseases&mdash;Diseases Not Crimes&mdash;The Principle of Notification&mdash;The
+Scandinavian System&mdash;Gratuitous Treatment&mdash;Punishment for Transmitting
+Venereal Diseases&mdash;Sexual Education in Relation to Venereal
+Diseases&mdash;Lectures, Etc.&mdash;Discussion in Novels and on the Stage&mdash;The
+&quot;Disgusting&quot; Not the &quot;Immoral.&quot;</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It may, perhaps, excite surprise that in the preceding discussion of
+prostitution scarcely a word has been said of venereal diseases. In the
+eyes of many people, the question of prostitution is simply the question
+of syphilis. But from the psychological point of view with which we are
+directly concerned, as from the moral point of view with which we cannot
+fail to be indirectly concerned, the question of the diseases which may
+be, and so frequently are, associated with prostitution cannot be placed
+in the first line of significance. The two questions, however intimately
+they may be mingled, are fundamentally distinct. Not only would venereal
+diseases still persist even though prostitution had absolutely ceased,
+but, on the other hand, when we have brought syphilis under the same
+control as we have brought the somewhat analogous disease of leprosy, the
+problem of prostitution would still remain.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, even from the standpoint which we here occupy, it is scarcely
+possible to ignore the question of venereal disease, for the psychological
+and moral aspects of prostitution, and even the whole question of the
+sexual relationships, are, to some extent, affected by the existence of
+the serious diseases which are specially liable to be propagated by sexual
+intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>Fournier, one of the leading authorities on this subject, has well said
+that syphilis, alcoholism, and tuberculosis are the three <a name='6_Page_320'></a>modern plagues.
+At a much earlier period (1851) Schopenhauer in <i>Parerga und Paralipomena</i>
+had expressed the opinion that the two things which mark modern social
+life, in distinction from that of antiquity, and to the advantage of the
+latter, are the knightly principle of honor and venereal disease;
+together, he added, they have poisoned life, and introduced a hostile and
+even diabolical element into the relations of the sexes, which has
+indirectly affected all other social relationships.<a name='6_FNanchor_220'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_220'><sup>[220]</sup></a> It is like a
+merchandise, says Havelburg, of syphilis, which civilization has
+everywhere carried, so that only a very few remote districts of the globe
+(as in Central Africa and Central Brazil) are to-day free from it.<a name='6_FNanchor_221'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_221'><sup>[221]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly true that in the older civilized countries the
+manifestations of syphilis, though still severe and a cause of physical
+deterioration in the individual and the race, are less severe than they
+were even a generation ago.<a name='6_FNanchor_222'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_222'><sup>[222]</sup></a> This is partly the result of earlier and
+better treatment, partly, it is possible, the result also of the
+syphilization of the race, some degree of immunity having now become an
+inherited possession, although it must be remembered that an attack of
+syphilis does not necessarily confer immunity from the actual attack of
+the disease even in the same individual. But it must be added that, even
+though it has become less severe, syphilis, in the opinion of many, is
+nevertheless still spreading, even in the chief centres of civilization;
+this has been noted alike in Paris and in London.<a name='6_FNanchor_223'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_223'><sup>[223]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_321'></a>
+<p>According to the belief which is now tending to prevail, syphilis was
+brought to Europe at the end of the fifteenth century by the first
+discoverers of America. In Seville, the chief European port for America,
+it was known as the Indian disease, but when Charles VIII and his army
+first brought it to Italy in 1495, although this connection with the
+French was only accidental, it was called the Gallic disease, &quot;a monstrous
+disease,&quot; said Cataneus, &quot;never seen in previous centuries and altogether
+unknown in the world.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The synonyms of syphilis were at first almost innumerable. It was in his
+Latin poem <i>Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus</i>, written before 1521 and
+published at Verona in 1530, that Fracastorus finally gave the disease its
+now universally accepted name, inventing a romantic myth to account for
+its origin.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Although the weight of authoritative opinion now seems to incline
+    towards the belief that syphilis was brought to Europe from
+    America, on the discovery of the New World, it is only within
+    quite recent years that that belief has gained ground, and it
+    scarcely even yet seems certain that what the Spaniards brought
+    back from America was really a disease absolutely new to the Old
+    World, and not a more virulent form of an old disease of which
+    the manifestations had become benign. Buret, for instance (<i>Le
+    Syphilis Aujourd'hui et chez les Anciens</i>, 1890), who some years
+    ago reached &quot;the deep conviction that syphilis dates from the
+    creation of man,&quot; and believed, from a minute study of classic
+    authors, that syphilis existed in Rome under the C&aelig;sars, was of
+    opinion that it has broken out at different places and at
+    different times, in epidemic bursts exhibiting different
+    combinations of its manifold symptoms, so that it passed
+    unnoticed at ordinary times, and at the times of its more intense
+    manifestation was looked upon as a hitherto unknown disease. It
+    was thus regarded in classic times, he considers, as coming from
+    Egypt, though he looked upon its real home as Asia. Leopold Gl&uuml;ck
+    has likewise quoted (<i>Archiv f&uuml;r Dermatologie und Syphilis</i>,
+    January, 1899) passages from the medical epigrams of a sixteenth
+    century physician, Gabriel Ayala, declaring that syphilis is not
+    really a new disease, though popularly supposed to be so, but an
+    old disease which has broken out with hitherto unknown violence.
+    There is, however, no conclusive reason for believing that
+    syphilis was known at all in classic antiquity. A. V. Notthaft
+    (&quot;Die Legende von der Althertums-syphilis,&quot; in the Rindfleisch
+    <i>Festschrift</i>, 1907, pp. 377-592) has critically investigated the
+    passages in classic authors which were supposed by Rosenbaum,
+    Buret,<a name='6_Page_322'></a> Proksch and others to refer to syphilis. It is quite
+    true, Notthaft admits, that many of these passages might possibly
+    refer to syphilis, and one or two would even better fit syphilis
+    than any other disease. But, on the whole, they furnish no proof
+    at all, and no syphilologist, he concludes, has ever succeeded in
+    demonstrating that syphilis was known in antiquity. That belief
+    is a legend. The most damning argument against it, Notthaft
+    points out, is the fact that, although in antiquity there were
+    great physicians who were keen observers, not one of them gives
+    any description of the primary, secondary, tertiary, and
+    congenital forms of this disease. China is frequently mentioned
+    as the original home of syphilis, but this belief is also quite
+    without basis, and the Japanese physician, Okamura, has shown
+    (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r praktische Dermatologie</i>, vol. xxviii, pp.
+    296 <i>et seq.</i>) that Chinese records reveal nothing relating to
+    syphilis earlier than the sixteenth century. At the Paris Academy
+    of Medicine in 1900 photographs from Egypt were exhibited by
+    Fouquet of human remains which date from B.C. 2400, showing bone
+    lesions which seemed to be clearly syphilitic; Fournier, however,
+    one of the greatest of authorities, considered that the diagnosis
+    of syphilis could not be maintained until other conditions liable
+    to produce somewhat similar bone lesions had been eliminated
+    (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, September 29, 1900, p. 946). In
+    Florida and various regions of Central America, in undoubtedly
+    pre-Columbian burial places, diseased bones have been found which
+    good authorities have declared could not be anything else than
+    syphilitic (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, November 20, 1897,
+    p. 1487), though it may be noted that so recently as 1899 the
+    cautious Virchow stated that pre-Columbian syphilis in America
+    was still for him an open question (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>,
+    Heft 2 and 3, 1899, p. 216). From another side, Seler, the
+    distinguished authority on Mexican antiquity, shows (<i>Zeitschrift
+    f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1895, Heft 5, p. 449) that the ancient Mexicans
+    were acquainted with a disease which, as they described it, might
+    well have been syphilis. It is obvious, however, that while the
+    difficulty of demonstrating syphilitic diseased bones in America
+    is as great as in Europe, the demonstration, however complete,
+    would not suffice to show that the disease had not already an
+    existence also in the Old World. The plausible theory of Ayala
+    that fifteenth century syphilis was a virulent recrudescence of
+    an ancient disease has frequently been revived in more modern
+    times. Thus J. Knott (&quot;The Origin of Syphilis,&quot; <i>New York Medical
+    Journal</i>, October 31, 1908) suggests that though not new in
+    fifteenth century Europe, it was then imported afresh in a form
+    rendered more aggravated by coming from an exotic race, as is
+    believed often to be the case.</p>
+
+<p>    It was in the eighteenth century that Jean Astruc began the
+    rehabilitation of the belief that syphilis is really a
+    comparatively modern disease of American origin, and since then
+    various authorities of <a name='6_Page_323'></a>weight have given their adherence to this
+    view. It is to the energy and learning of Dr. Iwan Bloch, of
+    Berlin (the first volume of whose important work, <i>Der Ursprung
+    der Syphilis</i>, was published in 1901) that we owe the fullest
+    statement of the evidence in favor of the American origin of
+    syphilis. Bloch regards Ruy Diaz de Isla, a distinguished Spanish
+    physician, as the weightiest witness for the Indian origin of the
+    disease, and concludes that it was brought to Europe by
+    Columbus's men from Central America, more precisely from the
+    Island of Haiti, to Spain in 1493 and 1494, and immediately
+    afterwards was spread by the armies of Charles VIII in an
+    epidemic fashion over Italy and the other countries of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>    It may be added that even if we have to accept the theory that
+    the central regions of America constitute the place of origin of
+    European syphilis, we still have to recognize that syphilis has
+    spread in the North American continent very much more slowly and
+    partially than it has in Europe, and even at the present day
+    there are American Indian tribes among whom it is unknown.
+    Holder, on the basis of his own experiences among Indian tribes,
+    as well as of wide inquiries among agency physicians, prepared a
+    table showing that among some thirty tribes and groups of tribes,
+    eighteen were almost or entirely free from venereal disease,
+    while among thirteen it was very prevalent. Almost without
+    exception, the tribes where syphilis is rare or unknown refuse
+    sexual intercourse with strangers, while those among whom such
+    disease is prevalent are morally lax. It is the whites who are
+    the source of infection among these tribes (A. B. Holder, &quot;Gynecic
+    Notes Among the American Indians,&quot; <i>American Journal of
+    Obstetrics</i>, 1892, No. 1).</p></div>
+
+<p>Syphilis is only one, certainly the most important, of a group of three
+entirely distinct &quot;venereal diseases&quot; which have only been distinguished
+in recent times, and so far as their precise nature and causation are
+concerned, are indeed only to-day beginning to be understood, although two
+of them were certainly known in antiquity. It is but seventy years ago
+since Ricord, the great French syphilologist, following Bassereau, first
+taught the complete independence of syphilis both from gonorrh&oelig;a
+and soft chancre, at the same time expounding clearly the three stages,
+primary, secondary and tertiary, through which syphilitic manifestations
+tend to pass, while the full extent of tertiary syphilitic symptoms is
+scarcely yet grasped, and it is only to-day beginning to be generally
+realized that two of the most prevalent and serious diseases of the brain
+and nervous system&mdash;general paralysis and <a name='6_Page_324'></a>tabes dorsalis or locomotor
+ataxia&mdash;have their predominant though not sole and exclusive cause in the
+invasion of the syphilitic poison many years before. In 1879 a new stage
+of more precise knowledge of the venereal diseases began with Neisser's
+discovery of the gonococcus which is the specific cause of gonorrh&oelig;a.
+This was followed a few years later by the discovery by Ducrey and
+Unna of the bacillus of soft chancre, the least important of the venereal
+diseases because exclusively local in its effects. Finally, in 1905&mdash;after
+Metchnikoff had prepared the way by succeeding in carrying syphilis from
+man to monkey, and Lassar, by inoculation, from monkey to monkey&mdash;Fritz
+Schaudinn made his great discovery of the protozoal <i>Spiroch&oelig;ta
+pallida</i> (since sometimes called <i>Treponema pallidum</i>), which is now
+generally regarded as the cause of syphilis, and thus revealed the final
+hiding place of one of the most dangerous and insidious foes of
+humanity.<a name='6_FNanchor_224'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_224'><sup>[224]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>There is no more subtle poison than that of syphilis. It is not, like
+smallpox or typhoid, a disease which produces a brief and sudden storm, a
+violent struggle with the forces of life, in which it tends, even without
+treatment, provided the organism is healthy, to succumb, leaving little or
+no traces of its ravages behind. It penetrates ever deeper and deeper into
+the organism, with the passage of time leading to ever new manifestations,
+and no tissue is safe from its attack. And so subtle is this all-pervading
+poison that though its outward manifestations are amenable to prolonged
+treatment, it is often difficult to say that the poison has been finally
+killed out.<a name='6_FNanchor_225'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_225'><sup>[225]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The immense importance of syphilis, and the chief reason <a name='6_Page_325'></a>why it is
+necessary to consider it here, lies in the fact that its results are not
+confined to the individual himself, nor even to the persons to whom he may
+impart it by the contagion due to contact in or out of sexual
+relationships: it affects the offspring, and it affects the power to
+produce offspring. It attacks men and women at the centre of life, as the
+progenitors of the coming race, inflicting either sterility or the
+tendency to aborted and diseased products of conception. The father alone
+can perhaps transmit syphilis to his child, even though the mother escapes
+infection, and the child born of syphilitic parents may come into the
+world apparently healthy only to reveal its syphilitic origin after a
+period of months or even years. Thus syphilis is probably a main cause of
+the enfeeblement of the race.<a name='6_FNanchor_226'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_226'><sup>[226]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Alike in the individual and in his offspring syphilis shows its
+deteriorating effects on all the structures of the body, but especially on
+the brain and nervous system. There are, as has been pointed out by Mott,
+a leading authority in this matter,<a name='6_FNanchor_227'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_227'><sup>[227]</sup></a> five ways in which syphilis
+affects the brain and nervous system: (1) by moral shock; (2) by the
+effects of the poison in producing an&aelig;mia and impaired general nutrition;
+(3) by causing inflammation of the membranes and tissues of the brain; (4)
+by producing arterial degeneration, leading on to brain-softening,
+paralysis, and dementia; (5) as a main cause of the para-syphilitic
+affections of general paralysis and tabes dorsalis.</p>
+
+<p>It is only within recent years that medical men have recognized the
+preponderant part played by acquired or inherited syphilis in producing
+general paralysis, which so largely helps to fill lunatic asylums, and
+tabes dorsalis which is the most important disease of the spinal cord.
+Even to-day it can scarcely <a name='6_Page_326'></a>be said that there is complete agreement as
+to the supreme importance of the factor of syphilis in these diseases.
+There can, however, be little doubt that in about ninety-five per cent. at
+least of cases of general paralysis syphilis is present.<a name='6_FNanchor_228'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_228'><sup>[228]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Syphilis is not indeed by itself an adequate cause of general paralysis
+for among many savage peoples syphilis is very common while general
+paralysis is very rare. It is, as Krafft-Ebing was accustomed to say,
+syphilization and civilization working together which produce general
+paralysis, perhaps in many cases, there is reason for thinking, on a
+nervous soil that is hereditarily degenerated to some extent; this is
+shown by the abnormal prevalence of congenital stigmata of degeneration
+found in general paralytics by N&auml;cke and others. &quot;Paralyticus nascitur
+atque fit,&quot; according to the dictum of Obersteiner. Once undermined by
+syphilis, the deteriorated brain is unable to resist the jars and strains
+of civilized life, and the result is general paralysis, truly described as
+&quot;one of the most terrible scourges of modern times.&quot; In 1902 the
+Psychological Section of the British Medical Association, embodying the
+most competent English authority on this question, unanimously passed a
+resolution recommending that the attention of the Legislature and other
+public bodies should be called to the necessity for immediate action in
+view of the fact that &quot;general paralysis, a very grave and frequent form
+of brain disease, together with other varieties of insanity, is largely
+due to syphilis, and is therefore preventable.&quot; Yet not a single step has
+yet been taken in this direction.</p>
+
+<p>The dangers of syphilis lie not alone in its potency and its persistence
+but also in its prevalence. It is difficult to state the exact incidence
+of syphilis, but a great many partial investigations have been made in
+various countries, and it would appear that <a name='6_Page_327'></a>from five to twenty per cent.
+of the population in European countries is syphilitic, while about fifteen
+per cent. of the syphilitic cases die from causes directly or indirectly
+due to the disease.<a name='6_FNanchor_229'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_229'><sup>[229]</sup></a> In France generally, Fournier estimates that
+seventeen per cent. of the whole population have had syphilis, and at
+Toulouse, Audry considers that eighteen per cent. of all his patients are
+syphilitic. In Copenhagen, where notification is obligatory, over four per
+cent. of the population are said to be syphilitic. In America a committee
+of the Medical Society of New York, appointed to investigate the question,
+reported as the result of exhaustive inquiry that in the city of New York
+not less than a quarter of a million of cases of venereal disease occurred
+every year, and a leading New York dermatologist has stated that among the
+better class families he knows intimately at least one-third of the sons
+have had syphilis. In Germany eight hundred thousand cases of venereal
+disease are by one authority estimated to occur yearly, and in the larger
+universities twenty-five per cent. of the students are infected every
+term, venereal disease being, however, specially common among students.
+The yearly number of men invalided in the German army by venereal diseases
+equals a third of the total number wounded in the Franco-Prussian war. Yet
+the German army stands fairly high as regards freedom from venereal
+disease when compared with the British army which is more syphilized than
+any other European army.<a name='6_FNanchor_230'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_230'><sup>[230]</sup></a> The British army, however, being
+professional and not <a name='6_Page_328'></a>national, is less representative of the people than
+is the case in countries where some form of conscription prevails. At one
+London hospital it could be ascertained that ten per cent. of the patients
+had had syphilis; this probably means a real proportion of about fifteen
+per cent., a high though not extremely high ratio. Yet it is obvious that
+even if the ratio is really lower than this the national loss in life and
+health, in defective procreation and racial deterioration, must be
+enormous and practically incalculable. Even in cash the venereal budget is
+comparable in amount to the general budget of a great nation. Stritch
+estimates that the cost to the British nation of venereal diseases in the
+army, navy and Government departments alone, amounts annually to
+&pound;3,000,000, and when allowance is made for superannuations and sick-leave
+indirectly occasioned through these diseases, though not appearing in the
+returns as such, the more accurate estimate of the cost to the nation is
+stated to be &pound;7,000,000. The adoption of simple hygienic measures for the
+prevention and the speedy cure of venereal diseases will be not only
+indirectly but even directly a source of immense wealth to the nation.</p>
+
+<p>Syphilis is the most obviously and conspicuously appalling of the venereal
+diseases. Yet it is less frequent and in some respects less dangerously
+insidious than the other chief venereal disease, gonorrh&oelig;a.<a name='6_FNanchor_231'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_231'><sup>[231]</sup></a>
+At one time the serious nature of gonorrh&oelig;a, especially in women,
+was little realized. Men accepted it with a light heart as a trivial
+accident; women ignored it. This failure to realize the gravity of
+gonorrh&oelig;a, <a name='6_Page_329'></a>even sometimes on the part of the medical
+profession&mdash;so that it has been popularly looked upon, in Grandin's words,
+as of little more significance than a cold in the nose&mdash;has led to a
+reaction on the part of some towards an opposite extreme, and the risks
+and dangers of gonorrh&oelig;a have been even unduly magnified. This is
+notably the case as regards sterility. The inflammatory results of
+gonorrh&oelig;a are indubitably a potent cause of sterility in both
+sexes; some authorities have stated that not only eighty per cent. of the
+deaths from inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs and the majority of
+the cases of chronic invalidism in women, but ninety per cent. of
+involuntary sterile marriages, are due to gonorrh&oelig;a. Neisser, a
+great authority, ascribes to this disease without doubt fifty per cent, of
+such marriages. Even this estimate is in the experience of some observers
+excessive. It is fully proved that the great majority of men who have had
+gonorrh&oelig;a, even if they marry within two years of being infected,
+fail to convey the disease to their wives, and even of the women infected
+by their husbands more than half have children. This is, for instance, the
+result of Erb's experience, and Kisch speaks still more strongly in the
+same sense. Bumm, again, although regarding gonorrh&oelig;a as one of
+the two chief causes of sterility in women, finds that it is not the most
+frequent cause, being only responsible for about one-third of the cases;
+the other two-thirds are due to developmental faults in the genital
+organs. Dunning in America has reached results which are fairly concordant
+with Bumm's.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to another of the terrible results of gonorrh&oelig;a, the
+part it plays in producing life-long blindness from infection of the eyes
+at birth, there has long been no sort of doubt. The Committee of the
+Ophthalmological Society in 1884, reported that thirty to forty-one per
+cent. of the inmates of four asylums for the blind in England owed their
+blindness to this cause.<a name='6_FNanchor_232'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_232'><sup>[232]</sup></a> In German asylums Reinhard found that thirty
+per cent. lost their sight from the same cause. The total number of
+persons blind from gonorrh&oelig;al infection from their mothers at
+birth is <a name='6_Page_330'></a>enormous. The British Royal Commission on the Condition of the
+Blind estimated there were about seven thousand persons in the United
+Kingdom alone (or twenty-two per cent. of the blind persons in the
+country) who became blind as the result of this disease, and Mookerji
+stated in his address on Ophthalmalogy at the Indian Medical Congress of
+1894 that in Bengal alone there were six hundred thousand totally blind
+beggars, forty per cent. of whom lost their sight at birth through
+maternal gonorrh&oelig;a; and this refers to the beggar class alone.</p>
+
+<p>Although gonorrh&oelig;a is liable to produce many and various
+calamities,<a name='6_FNanchor_233'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_233'><sup>[233]</sup></a>
+there can be no doubt that the majority of gonorrh&oelig;al
+persons escape either suffering or inflicting any very serious
+injury. The special reason why gonorrh&oelig;a has become so peculiarly
+serious a scourge is its extreme prevalence. It is difficult to estimate
+the proportion of men and women in the general population who have had
+gonorrh&oelig;a, and the estimates vary within wide limits. They are
+often set too high. Erb, of Heidelberg, anxious to disprove exaggerated
+estimates of the prevalence of gonorrh&oelig;a, went over the records
+of two thousand two hundred patients in his private practice (excluding
+all hospital patients) and found the proportion of those who had suffered
+from gonorrh&oelig;a was 48.5 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>Among the working classes the disease is much less prevalent than among
+higher-class people. In a Berlin Industrial Sick Club, 412 per 10,000 men
+and 69 per 10,000 women had gonorrh&oelig;a in a year; taking a series
+of years the Club showed a steady increase in the number of men, and
+decrease in the number of women, with venereal infection; this seems to
+indicate that the laboring classes are beginning to have intercourse more
+with prostitutes and less with respectable girls.<a name='6_FNanchor_234'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_234'><sup>[234]</sup></a> In America Wood
+Ruggles has given (as had Noggerath previously, for New York), the
+prevalence of gonorrh&oelig;a among adult males as from 75 to 80 per
+cent.; Tenney places it much lower, 20 per cent. for males <a name='6_Page_331'></a>and 5 per
+cent. for females. In England, a writer in the <i>Lancet</i>, some years
+ago,<a name='6_FNanchor_235'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_235'><sup>[235]</sup></a> found as the result of experience and inquiries that 75 per
+cent. adult males have had gonorrh&oelig;a once, 40 per cent. twice, 15
+per cent. three or more times. According to Dulberg about twenty per cent.
+of new cases occur in married men of good social class, the disease being
+comparatively rare among married men of the working class in England.</p>
+
+<p>Gonorrh&oelig;a in its prevalence is thus only second to measles and in
+the gravity of its results scarcely second to tuberculosis. &quot;And yet,&quot; as
+Grandin remarks in comparing gonorrh&oelig;a to tuberculosis, &quot;witness
+the activity of the crusade against the latter and the criminal apathy
+displayed when the former is concerned.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_236'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_236'><sup>[236]</sup></a> The public must learn to
+understand, another writer remarks, that &quot;gonorrh&oelig;a is a pest
+that concerns its highest interests and most sacred relations as much as
+do smallpox, cholera, diphtheria, or tuberculosis.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_237'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_237'><sup>[237]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It cannot fairly be said that no attempts have been made to beat back the
+flood of venereal disease. On the contrary, such attempts have been made
+from the first. But they have never been effectual;<a name='6_FNanchor_238'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_238'><sup>[238]</sup></a> they have never
+been modified to changed condition; <a name='6_Page_332'></a>at the present day they are
+hopelessly unscientific and entirely opposed alike to the social and the
+individual demands of modern peoples. At the various conferences on this
+question which have been held during recent years the only generally
+accepted conclusion which has emerged is that all the existing
+systems of interference or non-interference with prostitution are
+unsatisfactory.<a name='6_FNanchor_239'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_239'><sup>[239]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The character of prostitution has changed and the methods of dealing with
+it must change. Brothels, and the systems of official regulation which
+grew up with special reference to brothels, are alike out of date; they
+have about them a medi&aelig;val atmosphere, an antiquated spirit, which now
+render them unattractive and suspected. The conspicuously distinctive
+brothel is falling into disrepute; the liveried prostitute absolutely
+under municipal control can scarcely be said to exist. Prostitution tends
+to become more diffused, more intimately mingled with social life
+generally, less easily distinguished as a definitely separable part of
+life. We can nowadays only influence it by methods of permeation which
+bear upon the whole of our social life.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The objection to the regulation of prostitution is still of slow
+    growth, but it is steadily developing everywhere, and may be
+    traced equally in scientific opinion and in popular feeling. In
+    France the municipalities of some of the largest cities have
+    either suppressed the system of regulation entirely or shown
+    their disapproval of it, while an inquiry among several hundred
+    medical men showed that less than one-third were in favor of
+    maintaining regulation (<i>Die Neue Generation</i>, June, 1909, p.
+    244). In Germany, where there is in some respects more <a name='6_Page_333'></a>patient
+    endurance of interference with the liberty of the individual than
+    in France, England, or America, various elaborate systems for
+    organizing prostitution and dealing with venereal disease
+    continue to be maintained, but they cannot be completely carried
+    out, and it is generally admitted that in any case they could not
+    accomplish the objects sought. Thus in Saxony no brothels are
+    officially tolerated, though as a matter of fact they
+    nevertheless exist. Here, as in many other parts of Germany, most
+    minute and extensive regulations are framed for the use of
+    prostitutes. Thus at Leipzig they must not sit on the benches in
+    public promenades, nor go to picture galleries, or theatres, or
+    concerts, or restaurants, nor look out of their windows, nor
+    stare about them in the street, nor smile, nor wink, etc., etc.
+    In fact, a German prostitute who possesses the heroic
+    self-control to carry out conscientiously all the self-denying
+    ordinances officially decreed for her guidance would seem to be
+    entitled to a Government pension for life.</p>
+
+<p>    Two methods of dealing with prostitution prevail in Germany. In
+    some cities public houses of prostitution are tolerated (though
+    not licensed); in other cities prostitution is &quot;free,&quot; though
+    &quot;secret.&quot; Hamburg is the most important city where houses of
+    prostitution are tolerated and segregated. But, it is stated,
+    &quot;everywhere, by far the larger proportion of the prostitutes
+    belong to the so-called 'secret' class.&quot; In Hamburg, alone, are
+    suspected men, when accused of infecting women, officially
+    examined; men of every social class must obey a summons of this
+    kind, which is issued secretly, and if diseased, they are bound
+    to go under treatment, if necessary under compulsory treatment in
+    the city hospital, until no longer dangerous to the community.</p>
+
+<p>    In Germany it is only when a woman has been repeatedly observed
+    to act suspiciously in the streets that she is quietly warned; if
+    the warning is disregarded she is invited to give her name and
+    address to the police, and interviewed. It is not until these
+    methods fail that she is officially inscribed as a prostitute.
+    The inscribed women, in some cities at all events, contribute to
+    a sick benefit fund which pays their expenses when in hospital.
+    The hesitation of the police to inscribe a woman on the official
+    list is legitimate and inevitable, for no other course would be
+    tolerated; yet the majority of prostitutes begin their careers
+    very young, and as they tend to become infected very early after
+    their careers begin, it is obvious that this delay contributes to
+    render the system of regulation ineffective. In Berlin, where
+    there are no officially recognized brothels, there are some six
+    thousand inscribed prostitutes, but it is estimated that there
+    are over sixty thousand prostitutes who are not inscribed. (The
+    foregoing facts are taken from a series of papers describing
+    personal investigations in Germany made by Dr. F. Bierhoff, of
+    New York, &quot;Police Methods for the Sanitary Control of
+    Prostitution,&quot; <i>New York Medical Journal</i>, August, 1907.) The
+    estimation <a name='6_Page_334'></a>of the amount of clandestine prostitution can indeed
+    never be much more than guesswork; exactly the same figure of
+    sixty thousand is commonly brought forward as the probable number
+    of prostitutes not only in Berlin, but also in London and in New
+    York. It is absolutely impossible to say whether it is under or
+    over the real number, for secret prostitution is quite
+    intangible. Even if the facts were miraculously revealed there
+    would still remain the difficulty of deciding what is and what is
+    not prostitution. The avowed and public prostitute is linked by
+    various gradations on the one side to the respectable girl living
+    at home who seeks some little relief from the oppression of her
+    respectability, and on the other hand to the married woman who
+    has married for the sake of a home. In any case, however, it is
+    very certain that public prostitutes living entirely on the
+    earnings of prostitution form but a small proportion of the vast
+    army of women who may be said, in a wide sense of the word, to be
+    prostitutes, <i>i.e.</i>, who use their attractiveness to obtain from
+    men not love alone, but money or goods.</p></div>
+
+<p>&quot;The struggle against syphilis is only possible if we agree to regard its
+victims as unfortunate and not as guilty.... We must give up the prejudice
+which has led to the creation of the term 'shameful diseases,' and which
+commands silence concerning this scourge of the family and of humanity.&quot;
+In these words of Duclaux, the distinguished successor of Pasteur at the
+Pasteur Institute, in his noble and admirable work <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne Sociale</i>, we
+have indicated to us, I am convinced, the only road by which we can
+approach the rational and successful treatment of the great social problem
+of venereal disease.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The supreme importance of this key to the solution of a problem
+    which has often seemed insoluble is to-day beginning to become
+    recognized in all quarters, and in every country. Thus a
+    distinguished German authority, Professor Finger (<i>Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. i, Heft 5) declares that venereal disease must
+    not be regarded as the well-merited punishment for a debauched
+    life, but as an unhappy accident. It seems to be in France,
+    however, that this truth has been proclaimed with most courage
+    and humanity, and not alone by the followers of science and
+    medicine, but by many who might well be excused from interfering
+    with so difficult and ungrateful a task. Thus the brothers, Paul
+    and Victor Margueritte, who occupy a brilliant and honorable
+    place in contemporary French letters, have distinguished
+    themselves by advocating a more humane attitude towards
+    prostitutes, and a more modern method of dealing with the
+    question of venereal <a name='6_Page_335'></a>disease. &quot;The true method of prevention is
+    that which makes it clear to all that syphilis is not a
+    mysterious and terrible thing, the penalty of the sin of the
+    flesh, a sort of shameful evil branded by Catholic malediction,
+    but an ordinary disease which may be treated and cured.&quot; It may
+    be remarked that the aversion to acknowledge venereal disease is
+    at least as marked in France as in any other country; &quot;maladies
+    honteuses&quot; is a consecrated French term, just as &quot;loathsome
+    disease&quot; is in English; &quot;in the hospital,&quot; says Landret, &quot;it
+    requires much trouble to obtain an avowal of gonorrh&oelig;a,
+    and we may esteem ourselves happy if the patient acknowledges the
+    fact of having had syphilis.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>No evils can be combated until they are recognized, simply and frankly,
+and honestly discussed. It is a significant and even symbolic fact that
+the bacteria of disease rarely flourish when they are open to the free
+currents of pure air. Obscurity, disguise, concealment furnish the best
+conditions for their vigor and diffusion, and these favoring conditions we
+have for centuries past accorded to venereal diseases. It was not always
+so, as indeed the survival of the word 'venereal' itself in this
+connection, with its reference to a goddess, alone suffices to show. Even
+the name &quot;syphilis&quot; itself, taken from a romantic poem in which
+Fracastorus sought a mythological origin for the disease, bears witness to
+the same fact. The romantic attitude is indeed as much out of date as that
+of hypocritical and shamefaced obscurantism. We need to face these
+diseases in the same simple, direct, and courageous way which has already
+been adopted successfully in the ease of smallpox, a disease which, of
+old, men thought analogous to syphilis and which was indeed once almost as
+terrible in its ravages.</p>
+
+<p>At this point, however, we encounter those who say that it is unnecessary
+to show any sort of recognition of venereal diseases, and immoral to do
+anything that might seem to involve indulgence to those who suffer from
+such diseases; they have got what they deserve and may well be left to
+perish. Those who take this attitude place themselves so far outside the
+pale of civilization&mdash;to say nothing of morality or religion&mdash;that they
+might well be disregarded. The progress of the race, the development of
+humanity, in fact and in feeling, has consisted in the elimination of an
+attitude which it is an insult to primitive peoples to term <a name='6_Page_336'></a>savage. Yet
+it is an attitude which should not be ignored for it still carries weight
+with many who are too weak to withstand those who juggle with fine moral
+phrases. I have even seen in a medical quarter the statement that venereal
+disease cannot be put on the same level with other infectious diseases
+because it is &quot;the result of voluntary action.&quot; But all the diseases,
+indeed all the accidents and misfortunes of suffering human beings, are
+equally the involuntary results of voluntary actions. The man who is run
+over in crossing the street, the family poisoned by unwholesome food, the
+mother who catches the disease of the child she is nursing, all these
+suffer as the involuntary result of the voluntary act of gratifying some
+fundamental human instinct&mdash;the instinct of activity, the instinct of
+nutrition, the instinct of affection. The instinct of sex is as
+fundamental as any of these, and the involuntary evils which may follow
+the voluntary act of gratifying it stand on exactly the same level. This
+is the essential fact: a human being in following the human instincts
+implanted within him has stumbled and fallen. Any person who sees, not
+this essential fact but merely some subsidiary aspect of it, reveals a
+mind that is twisted and perverted; he has no claim to arrest our
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>But even if we were to adopt the standpoint of the would-be moralist, and
+to agree that everyone must be left to suffer his deserts, it is far
+indeed from being the fact that all those who contract venereal diseases
+are in any sense receiving their deserts. In a large number of cases the
+disease has been inflicted on them in the most absolutely involuntary
+manner. This is, of course, true in the case of the vast number of infants
+who are infected at conception or at birth. But it is also true in a
+scarcely less absolute manner of a large proportion of persons infected in
+later life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Syphilis insontium</i>, or syphilis of the innocent, as it is commonly
+called, may be said to fall into five groups: (1) the vast army of
+congenitally syphilitic infants who inherit the disease from father or
+mother; (2) the constantly occurring cases of syphilis contracted, in the
+course of their professional duties, by doctors, midwives and wet-nurses;
+(3) infection as a result of <a name='6_Page_337'></a>affection, as in simple kissing; (4)
+accidental infection from casual contacts and from using in common the
+objects and utensils of daily life, such as cups, towels, razors, knives
+(as in ritual circumcision), etc; (5) the infection of wives by their
+husbands.<a name='6_FNanchor_240'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_240'><sup>[240]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Hereditary congenital syphilis belongs to the ordinary pathology of the
+disease and is a chief element in its social danger since it is
+responsible for an enormous infantile mortality.<a name='6_FNanchor_241'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_241'><sup>[241]</sup></a> The risks of
+extragenital infection in the professional activity of doctors, midwives
+and wet-nurses is also universally recognized. In the case of wet-nurses
+infected by their employers' syphilitic infants at their breast, the
+penalty inflicted on the innocent is peculiarly harsh and unnecessary. The
+influence of infected low-class midwives is notably dangerous, for they
+may inflict widespread injury in ignorance; thus the case has been
+recorded of a midwife, whose finger became infected in the course of her
+duties, and directly or indirectly contaminated one hundred persons.
+Kissing is an extremely common source of syphilitic infection, and of all
+extragenital regions the mouth is by far the most frequent seat of primary
+syphilitic sores. In some cases, it is true, especially in prostitutes,
+this is the result of abnormal sexual contacts. But in the majority of
+cases it is the result of ordinary and slight kisses as between young
+children, between parents and children, between lovers and friends and
+acquaintances.<a name='6_Page_338'></a> Fairly typical examples, which have been reported, are
+those of a child, kissed by a prostitute, who became infected and
+subsequently infected its mother and grandmother; of a young French bride
+contaminated on her wedding-day by one of the guests who, according to
+French custom, kissed her on the cheek after the ceremony; of an American
+girl who, returning from a ball, kissed, at parting, the young man who had
+accompanied her home, thus acquiring the disease which she not long
+afterwards imparted in the same way to her mother and three sisters. The
+ignorant and unthinking are apt to ridicule those who point out the
+serious risks of miscellaneous kissing. But it remains nevertheless true
+that people who are not intimate enough to know the state of each other's
+health are not intimate enough to kiss each other. Infection by the use of
+domestic utensils, linen, etc., while comparatively rare among the better
+social classes, is extremely common among the lower classes and among the
+less civilized nations; in Russia, according to Tarnowsky, the chief
+authority, seventy per cent. of all cases of syphilis in the rural
+districts are due to this cause and to ordinary kissing, and a special
+conference in St. Petersburg in 1897, for the consideration of the methods
+of dealing with venereal disease, recorded its opinion to the same effect;
+much the same seems to be true regarding Bosnia and various parts of the
+Balkan peninsula where syphilis is extremely prevalent among the
+peasantry. As regards the last group, according to Bulkley in America,
+fifty per cent. of women generally contract syphilis innocently, chiefly
+from their husbands, while Fournier states that in France seventy-five per
+cent. of married women with syphilis have been infected by their husbands,
+most frequently (seventy per cent.) by husbands who were themselves
+infected before marriage and supposed that they were cured. Among men the
+proportion of syphilitics who have been accidentally infected, though less
+than among women, is still very considerable; it is stated to be at least
+ten per cent., and possibly it is a much larger proportion of cases. The
+scrupulous moralist who is anxious that all should have their deserts
+cannot fail to be still more anxious to prevent the innocent from
+suffering in place of the guilty. But it is <a name='6_Page_339'></a>absolutely impossible for him
+to combine these two aims; syphilis cannot be at the same time perpetuated
+for the guilty and abolished for the innocent.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>I have been taking only syphilis into account, but nearly all
+    that is said of the accidental infection of syphilis applies with
+    equal or greater force to gonorrh&oelig;a, for though
+    gonorrh&oelig;a does not enter into the system by so many
+    channels as syphilis, it is a more common as well as a more
+    subtle and elusive disease.</p>
+
+<p>    The literature of Syphilis Insontium is extremely extensive.
+    There is a bibliography at the end of Duncan Bulkley's <i>Syphilis
+    in the Innocent</i>, and a comprehensive summary of the question in
+    a Leipzig Inaugural Dissertation by F. Moses, <i>Zur Kasuistik der
+    Extragenitalen Syphilis-infektion</i>, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<p>Even, however, when we have put aside the vast number of venereally
+infected people who may be said to be, in the narrowest and most
+conventionally moral sense, &quot;innocent&quot; victims of the diseases they have
+contracted, there is still much to be said on this question. It must be
+remembered that the majority of those who contract venereal diseases by
+illegitimate sexual intercourse are young. They are youths, ignorant of
+life, scarcely yet escaped from home, still undeveloped, incompletely
+educated, and easily duped by women; in many cases they have met, as they
+thought, a &quot;nice&quot; girl, not indeed strictly virtuous but, it seemed to
+them, above all suspicion of disease, though in reality she was a
+clandestine prostitute. Or they are young girls who have indeed ceased to
+be absolutely chaste, but have not yet lost all their innocence, and who
+do not consider themselves, and are not by others considered, prostitutes;
+that indeed, is one of the rocks on which the system of police regulation
+of prostitution comes to grief, for the police cannot catch the prostitute
+at a sufficiently early stage. Of women who become syphilitic, according
+to Fournier, twenty per cent. are infected before they are nineteen; in
+hospitals the proportion is as high as forty per cent.; and of men fifteen
+per cent. cases occur between eleven and twenty-one years of age. The age
+of maximum frequency of infection is for women twenty years (in the rural
+population eighteen), and for men twenty-three years. In Germany Erb
+<a name='6_Page_340'></a>finds that as many as eighty-five per cent men with gonorrh&oelig;a
+contracted the disease between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five, a very
+small percentage being infected after thirty. These young things for the
+most part fell into a trap which Nature had baited with her most
+fascinating lure; they were usually ignorant; not seldom they were
+deceived by an attractive personality; often they were overcome by
+passion; frequently all prudence and reserve had been lost in the fumes of
+wine. From a truly moral point of view they were scarcely less innocent
+than children.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;I ask,&quot; says Duclaux, &quot;whether when a young man, or a young
+    girl, abandon themselves to a dangerous caress society has done
+    what it can to warn them. Perhaps its intentions were good, but
+    when the need came for precise knowledge a silly prudery has held
+    it back, and it has left its children without <i>viaticum</i>.... I
+    will go further, and proclaim that in a large number of cases the
+    husbands who contaminate their wives are innocent. No one is
+    responsible for the evil which he commits without knowing it and
+    without willing it.&quot; I may recall the suggestive fact, already
+    referred to, that the majority of husbands who infect their wives
+    contracted the disease before marriage. They entered on marriage
+    believing that their disease was cured, and that they had broken
+    with their past. Doctors have sometimes (and quacks frequently)
+    contributed to this result by too sanguine an estimate of the
+    period necessary to destroy the poison. So great an authority as
+    Fournier formerly believed that the syphilitic could safely be
+    allowed to marry three or four years after the date of infection,
+    but now, with increased experience, he extends the period to four
+    or five years. It is undoubtedly true that, especially when
+    treatment has been thorough and prompt, the diseased
+    constitution, in a majority of cases, can be brought under
+    complete control in a shorter period than this, but there is
+    always a certain proportion of cases in which the powers of
+    infection persist for many years, and even when the syphilitic
+    husband is no longer capable of infecting his wife he may still
+    perhaps be in a condition to effect a disastrous influence on the
+    offspring.</p></div>
+
+<p>In nearly all these cases there was more or less ignorance&mdash;which is but
+another word for innocence as we commonly understand innocence&mdash;and when
+at last, after the event, the facts are more or less bluntly explained to
+the victim he frequently exclaims: &quot;Nobody told me!&quot; It is this fact which
+condemns the <a name='6_Page_341'></a>pseudo-moralist. If he had seen to it that mothers began to
+explain the facts of sex to their little boys and girls from childhood, if
+he had (as Dr. Joseph Price urges) taught the risks of venereal disease in
+the Sunday-school, if he had plainly preached on the relations of the
+sexes from the pulpit, if he had seen to it that every youth at the
+beginning of adolescence received some simple technical instruction from
+his family doctor concerning sexual health and sexual disease&mdash;then,
+though there would still remain the need of pity for those who strayed
+from a path that must always be difficult to walk in, the would-be
+moralist at all events would in some measure be exculpated. But he has
+seldom indeed lifted a finger to do any of these things.</p>
+
+<p>Even those who may be unwilling to abandon an attitude of private moral
+intolerance towards the victims of venereal diseases may still do well to
+remember that since the public manifestation of their intolerance is
+mischievous, and at the best useless, it is necessary for them to restrain
+it in the interests of society. They would not be the less free to order
+their own personal conduct in the strictest accordance with their superior
+moral rigidity; and that after all is for them the main thing. But for the
+sake of society it is necessary for them to adopt what they may consider
+the convention of a purely hygienic attitude towards these diseases. The
+erring are inevitably frightened by an attitude of moral reprobation into
+methods of concealment, and these produce an endless chain of social evils
+which can only be dissipated by openness. As Duclaux has so earnestly
+insisted, it is impossible to grapple successfully with venereal disease
+unless we consent not to introduce our prejudices, or even our morals and
+religion, into the question, but treat it purely and simply as a sanitary
+question. And if the pseudo-moralist still has difficulty in co&ouml;perating
+towards the healing of this social sore he may be reminded that he
+himself&mdash;like every one of us little though we may know it&mdash;has certainly
+had a great army of syphilitic and gonorrh&oelig;al persons among his
+own ancestors during the past four centuries. We are all bound together,
+and it is absurd, even when it is not inhuman, to cast contempt on our own
+flesh and blood.</p>
+
+<p>I have discussed rather fully the attitude of those who plead <a name='6_Page_342'></a>morality as
+a reason for ignoring the social necessity of combating venereal disease,
+because although there may not be many who seriously and understandingly
+adopt so anti-social and inhuman an attitude there are certainly many who
+are glad at need of the existence of so fine an excuse for their moral
+indifference or their mental indolence.<a name='6_FNanchor_242'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_242'><sup>[242]</sup></a> When they are confronted by
+this great and difficult problem they find it easy to offer the remedy of
+conventional morality, although they are well aware that on a large scale
+that remedy has long been proved to be ineffectual. They ostentatiously
+affect to proffer the useless thick end of the wedge at a point where it
+is only possible with much skill and prudence to insinuate the thin
+working end.</p>
+
+<p>The general acceptance of the fact that syphilis and gonorrh&oelig;a
+are diseases, and not necessarily crimes or sins, is the condition for any
+practical attempt to deal with this question from the sanitary point of
+view which is now taking the place of the antiquated and ineffective
+police point of view. The Scandinavian countries of Europe have been the
+pioneers in practical modern hygienic methods of dealing with venereal
+disease. There are several reasons why this has come about. All the
+problems of sex&mdash;of sexual love as well as of sexual disease&mdash;have long
+been prominent in these countries, and an impatience with prudish
+hypocrisy seems here to have been more pronounced than elsewhere; we see
+this spirit, for instance, emphatically embodied in the plays of Ibsen,
+and to some extent in Bj&ouml;rnson's works. The fearless and energetic temper
+of the people impels them to deal practically with sexual difficulties,
+while their strong instincts of independence render them averse to the
+bureaucratic police methods which have flourished in Germany and France.
+The Scandinavians have thus been the natural pioneers of the methods of
+combating venereal diseases which are now becoming <a name='6_Page_343'></a>generally recognized
+to be the methods of the future, and they have fully organized the system
+of putting venereal diseases under the ordinary law and dealing with them
+as with other contagious diseases.</p>
+
+<p>The first step in dealing with a contagious disease is to apply to it the
+recognized principles of notification. Every new application of the
+principle, it is true, meets with opposition. It is without practical
+result, it is an unwarranted inquisition into the affairs of the
+individual, it is a new tax on the busy medical practitioner, etc.
+Certainly notification by itself will not arrest the progress of any
+infectious disease. But it is an essential element in every attempt to
+deal with the prevention of disease. Unless we know precisely the exact
+incidence, local variations, and temporary fluctuations of a disease we
+are entirely in the dark and can only beat about at random. All progress
+in public hygiene has been accompanied by the increased notification of
+disease, and most authorities are agreed that such notification must be
+still further extended, any slight inconvenience thus caused to
+individuals being of trifling importance compared to the great public
+interests at stake. It is true that so great an authority as Neisser has
+expressed doubt concerning the extension of notification to gonorrh&oelig;a;
+the diagnosis cannot be infallible, and the patients often give
+false names. These objections, however, seem trivial; diagnosis can very
+seldom be infallible (though in this field no one has done so much for
+exact diagnosis as Neisser himself), and names are not necessary for
+notification, and are not indeed required in the form of compulsory
+notification of venereal disease which existed a few years ago in Norway.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the compulsory notification of venereal diseases seems to
+have been first established in Prussia, where it dates from 1835. The
+system here, however, is only partial, not being obligatory in all cases
+but only when in the doctor's opinion secrecy might be harmful to the
+patient himself or to the community; it is only obligatory when the
+patient is a soldier. This method of notification is indeed on a wrong
+basis, it is not part of a comprehensive sanitary system but merely an
+auxiliary to police methods of dealing with prostitution. According to
+the<a name='6_Page_344'></a> Scandinavian system, notification, though not an essential part of
+this system, rests on an entirely different basis.</p>
+
+<p>The Scandinavian plan in a modified form has lately been established in
+Denmark. This little country, so closely adjoining Germany, for some time
+followed in this matter the example of its great neighbor and adopted the
+police regulation of prostitution and venereal disease. The more
+fundamental Scandinavian affinities of Denmark were, however, eventually
+asserted, and in 1906, the system of regulation was entirely abandoned and
+Denmark resolved to rely on thorough and systematic application of the
+sanitary principle already accepted in the country, although something of
+German influence still persists in the strict regulation of the streets
+and the penalties imposed upon brothel-keepers, leaving prostitution
+itself free. The decisive feature of the present system is, however, that
+the sanitary authorities are now exclusively medical. Everyone, whatever
+his social or financial position, is entitled to the free treatment of
+venereal disease. Whether he avails himself of it or not, he is in any
+case bound to undergo treatment. Every diseased person is thus, so far as
+it can be achieved, in a doctor's hands. All doctors have their
+instructions in regard to such cases, they have not only to inform their
+patients that they cannot marry so long as risks of infection are
+estimated to be present, but that they are liable for the expenses of
+treatment, as well as the dangers suffered, by any persons whom they may
+infect. Although it has not been possible to make the system at every
+point thoroughly operative, its general success is indicated by the entire
+reliance now placed on it, and the abandonment of the police regulation of
+prostitution. A system very similar to that of Denmark was established
+some years previously in Norway. The principle of the treatment of
+venereal disease at the public expense exists also in Sweden as well as in
+Finland, where treatment is compulsory.<a name='6_FNanchor_243'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_243'><sup>[243]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_345'></a>
+<p>It can scarcely be said that the principle of notification has yet been
+properly applied on a large scale to venereal diseases. But it is
+constantly becoming more widely advocated, more especially in England and
+the United States,<a name='6_FNanchor_244'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_244'><sup>[244]</sup></a> where national temperament and political
+traditions render the system of the police regulation of prostitution
+impossible&mdash;even if it were more effective than it practically is&mdash;and
+where the system of dealing with venereal disease on the basis of public
+health has to be recognized as not only the best but the only possible
+system.<a name='6_FNanchor_245'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_245'><sup>[245]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In association with this, it is necessary, as is also becoming ever more
+widely recognized, that there should be the most ample facilities for the
+gratuitous treatment of venereal diseases; the general establishment of
+free dispensaries, open in the evenings, is especially necessary, for many
+can only seek advice and help at this time. It is largely to the
+systematic introduction of facilities for gratuitous treatment that the
+enormous reduction in venereal disease in Sweden, Norway, and Bosnia is
+attributed. It is the absence of the facilities for treatment, the implied
+feeling that the victims of venereal disease are not sufferers but merely
+offenders not entitled to care, that has in the past operated so
+disastrously in artificially promoting the dissemination of preventable
+diseases which might be brought under control.</p>
+
+<p>If we dispense with the paternal methods of police regulation, if we rely
+on the general principles of medical hygiene, and for the rest allow the
+responsibility for his own good or bad actions to rest on the individual
+himself, there is a further step, already fully recognized in principle,
+which we cannot neglect to take: We must look on every person as
+accountable for the venereal diseases he transmits. So long as we refuse
+to recognize venereal diseases as on the same level as other infectious
+diseases, and so long as we offer no full and fair facilities for their
+treatment, <a name='6_Page_346'></a>it is unjust to bring the individual to account for spreading
+them. But if we publicly recognize the danger of infectious venereal
+diseases, and if we leave freedom to the individual, we must inevitably
+declare, with Duclaux, that every man or woman must be held responsible
+for the diseases he or she communicates.</p>
+
+<p>According to the Oldenburg Code of 1814 it was a punishable offence for a
+venereally diseased person to have sexual intercourse with a healthy
+person, whether or not infection resulted. In Germany to-day, however,
+there is no law of this kind, although eminent German legal authorities,
+notably Von Liszt, are of opinion that a paragraph should be added to the
+Code declaring that sexual intercourse on the part of a person who knows
+that he is diseased should be punishable by imprisonment for a period not
+exceeding two years, the law not to be applied as between married couples
+except on the application of one of the parties. At the present time in
+Germany the transmission of venereal disease is only punishable as a
+special case of the infliction of bodily injury.<a name='6_FNanchor_246'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_246'><sup>[246]</sup></a> In this matter
+Germany is behind most of the Scandinavian countries where individual
+responsibility for venereal infection is well recognized and actively
+enforced.</p>
+
+<p>In France, though the law is not definite and satisfactory, actions for
+the transmission of syphilis are successfully brought before the courts.
+Opinion seems to be more decisively in favor of punishment for this
+offense than it is in Germany. In 1883 Despr&eacute;s discussed the matter and
+considered the objections. Few may avail themselves of the law, he
+remarks, but all would be rendered more cautious by the fear of infringing
+it; while the difficulties of tracing and proving infection are not
+greater, he points out, than those of tracing and proving paternity in the
+case of illegitimate children. Despr&eacute;s would punish with imprisonment for
+not more than two years any person, knowing himself to be diseased, who
+transmitted a venereal disease, and would <a name='6_Page_347'></a>merely fine those who
+communicated the contagion by imprudence, not realizing that they were
+diseased.<a name='6_FNanchor_247'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_247'><sup>[247]</sup></a> The question has more recently been discussed by Aurientis
+in a Paris thesis. He states that the present French law as regards the
+transmission of sexual diseases is not clearly established and is
+difficult to act upon, but it is certainly just that those who have been
+contaminated and injured in this way should easily be able to obtain
+reparation. Although it is admitted in principle that the communication of
+syphilis is an offence even under common law he is in agreement with those
+who would treat it as a special offence, making a new and more practical
+law.<a name='6_FNanchor_248'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_248'><sup>[248]</sup></a> Heavy damages are even at the present time obtained in the
+French courts from men who have infected young women in sexual
+intercourse, and also from the doctors as well as the mothers of
+syphilitic infants who have infected the foster-mothers they were
+entrusted to. Although the French Penal Code forbids in general the
+disclosure of professional secrets, it is the duty of the medical
+practitioner to warn the foster-mother in such a case of the danger she is
+incurring, but without naming the disease; if he neglects to give this
+warning he may be held liable.</p>
+
+<p>In England, as well as in the United States, the law is more
+unsatisfactory and more helpless, in relation to this class of offences,
+than it is in France. The mischievous and barbarous notion, already dealt
+with, according to which venereal disease is the result of illicit
+intercourse and should be tolerated as a just visitation of God, seems
+still to flourish in these countries with fatal persistency. In England
+the communication of venereal disease by illicit intercourse is not an
+actionable wrong if the act of intercourse has been voluntary, even
+although there has been wilful and intentional concealment of the disease.
+<i>Ex turpi caus&acirc; non oritur actio</i>, it is sententiously said; for there is
+much dormitative virtue in a Latin maxim. No legal offence has still been
+committed if a husband contaminates his wife, or a <a name='6_Page_348'></a>wife her husband.<a name='6_FNanchor_249'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_249'><sup>[249]</sup></a>
+The &quot;freedom&quot; enjoyed in this matter by England and the United States is
+well illustrated by an American case quoted by Dr. Isidore Dyer, of New
+Orleans, in his report to the Brussels Conference on the Prevention of
+Venereal Diseases, in 1899: &quot;A patient with primary syphilis refused even
+charitable treatment and carried a book wherein she kept the number of men
+she had inoculated. When I first saw her she declared the number had
+reached two hundred and nineteen and that she would not be treated until
+she had had revenge on five hundred men.&quot; In a community where the most
+elementary rules of justice prevailed facilities would exist to enable
+this woman to obtain damages from the man who had injured her or even to
+secure his conviction to a term of imprisonment. In obtaining some
+indemnity for the wrong done her, and securing the &quot;revenge&quot; she craved,
+she would at the same time have conferred a benefit on society. She is
+shut out from any action against the one person who injured her; but as a
+sort of compensation she is allowed to become a radiating focus of
+disease, to shorten many lives, to cause many deaths, to pile up
+incalculable damages; and in so doing she is to-day perfectly within her
+legal rights. A community which encourages this state of things is not
+only immoral but stupid.</p>
+
+<p>There seems, however, to be a growing body of influential opinion, both in
+England and in the United States, in favor of making the transmission of
+venereal disease an offence punishable by heavy fine or by
+imprisonment.<a name='6_FNanchor_250'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_250'><sup>[250]</sup></a> In any enactment no stress <a name='6_Page_349'></a>should be put on the
+infection being conveyed &quot;knowingly.&quot; Any formal limitation of this kind
+is unnecessary, as in such a case the Court always takes into account the
+offender's ignorance or mere negligence, and it is mischievous because it
+tends to render an enactment ineffective and to put a premium on
+ignorance; the husbands who infect their wives with gonorrh&oelig;a
+immediately after marriage have usually done so from ignorance, and it
+should be at least necessary for them to prove that they have been
+fortified in their ignorance by medical advice. It is sometimes said that
+the existing law could be utilized for bringing actions of this kind, and
+that no greater facilities should be offered for fear of increasing
+attempts at blackmail. The inutility of the law at present for this
+purpose is shown by the fact that it seldom or never happens that any
+attempt is made to utilize it, while not only are there a number of
+existing punishable offences which form the subject of attempts at
+blackmail, but blackmail can still be demanded even in regard to
+disreputable actions that are not legally punishable at all. Moreover, the
+attempt to levy blackmail is itself an offence always sternly dealt with
+in the courts.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible to trace the beginning of a recognition that the
+transmission of a venereal disease is a matter of which legal cognizance
+may be taken in the English law courts. It is now well settled that the
+infection of a wife by her husband may be held to constitute the legal
+cruelty which, according to the present law, must be proved, in addition
+to adultery, before a wife can obtain divorce from her husband. In 1777
+Restif de la Bretonne proposed in his <i>Gynographes</i> that the communication
+of a venereal disease should itself be an adequate ground for divorce;
+this, however, is not at present generally accepted.<a name='6_FNanchor_251'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_251'><sup>[251]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is sometimes said that it is very well to make the individual legally
+responsible for the venereal disease he communicates, but that the
+difficulties of bringing that responsibility <a name='6_Page_350'></a>home would still remain. And
+those who admit these difficulties frequently reply that at the worst we
+should have in our hands a means of educating responsibility; the man who
+deliberately ran the risk of transmitting such infection would be made to
+feel that he was no longer fairly within his legal rights but had done a
+bad action. We are thus led on finally to what is now becoming generally
+recognized as the chief and central method of combating venereal disease,
+if we are to accept the principle of individual responsibility as ruling
+in this sphere of life. Organized sanitary and medical precautions, and
+proper legal protection for those who have been injured, are inoperative
+without the educative influence of elementary hygienic instruction placed
+in the possession of every young man and woman. In a sphere that is
+necessarily so intimate medical organization and legal resort can never be
+all-sufficing; knowledge is needed at every step in every individual to
+guide and even to awaken that sense of personal moral responsibility which
+must here always rule. Wherever the importance of these questions is
+becoming acutely realized&mdash;and notably at the Congresses of the German
+Society for Combating Venereal Disease&mdash;the problem is resolving itself
+mainly into one of education.<a name='6_FNanchor_252'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_252'><sup>[252]</sup></a> And although opinion and practice in
+this matter are to-day more advanced in Germany than elsewhere the
+conviction of this necessity is becoming scarcely less pronounced in all
+other civilized countries, in England and America as much as in France and
+the Scandinavian lands.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the risks of disease by sexual intercourse, both in and out
+of marriage,&mdash;and indeed, apart from sexual intercourse altogether,&mdash;is a
+further stage of that sexual education which, as we have already seen,
+must begin, so far as the elements are concerned, at a very early age.
+Youths and girls should be taught, as the distinguished Austrian
+economist, Anton von Menger wrote, shortly before his death, in his
+excellent little book, <i>Neue Sittenlehre</i>, that the production of children
+is a crime when <a name='6_Page_351'></a>the parents are syphilitic or otherwise incompetent
+through transmissible chronic diseases. Information about venereal disease
+should not indeed be given until after puberty is well established. It is
+unnecessary and undesirable to impart medical knowledge to young boys and
+girls and to warn them against risks they are yet little liable to be
+exposed to. It is when the age of strong sexual instinct, actual or
+potential, begins that the risks, under some circumstances, of yielding to
+it, need to be clearly present to the mind. No one who reflects on the
+actual facts of life ought to doubt that it is in the highest degree
+desirable that every adolescent youth and girl ought to receive some
+elementary instruction in the general facts of venereal disease,
+tuberculosis, and alcoholism. These three &quot;plagues of civilization&quot; are so
+widespread, so subtle and manifold in their operation, that everyone
+comes in contact with them during life, and that everyone is liable to
+suffer, even before he is aware, perhaps hopelessly and forever, from the
+results of that contact. Vague declamation about immorality and vaguer
+warnings against it have no effect and possess no meaning, while
+rhetorical exaggeration is unnecessary. A very simple and concise
+statement of the actual facts concerning the evils that beset life is
+quite sufficient and adequate, and quite essential. To ignore this need is
+only possible to those who take a dangerously frivolous view of life.</p>
+
+<p>It is the young woman as much as the youth who needs this enlightenment.
+There are still some persons so ill-informed as to believe that though it
+may be necessary to instruct the youth it is best to leave his sister
+unsullied, as they consider it, by a knowledge of the facts of life. This
+is the very reverse of the truth. It is desirable indeed that all should
+be acquainted with facts so vital to humanity, even although not
+themselves personally concerned. But the girl is even more concerned than
+the youth. A man has the matter more within his own grasp, and if he so
+chooses he may avoid all the grosser risks of contact with venereal
+disease. But it is not so with the woman. Whatever her own purity, she
+cannot be sure that she may not have to guard against the possibility of
+disease in her future husband as well as in those to whom she may entrust
+her child. It is a <a name='6_Page_352'></a>possibility which the educated woman, so far from
+being dispensed from, is more liable to encounter than is the
+working-class woman, for venereal disease is less prevalent among the poor
+than the rich.<a name='6_FNanchor_253'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_253'><sup>[253]</sup></a> The careful physician, even when his patient is a
+minister of religion, considers it his duty to inquire if he has had
+syphilis, and the clergyman of most severely correct life recognizes the
+need of such inquiry and may perhaps smile, but seldom feels himself
+insulted. The relationship between husband and wife is even much more
+intimate and important than that between doctor and patient, and a woman
+is not dispensed from the necessity of such inquiry concerning her future
+husband by the conviction that the reply must surely be satisfactory.
+Moreover, it may well be in some cases that, if she is adequately
+enlightened, she may be the means of saving him, before it is too late,
+from the guilt of premature marriage and its fateful consequences, so
+deserving to earn his everlasting gratitude. Even if she fails in winning
+that, she still has her duty to herself and to the future race which her
+children will help to form.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In most countries there is a growing feeling in favor of the
+    enlightenment of young women equally with young men as regards
+    venereal diseases. Thus in Germany Max Flesch, in his
+    <i>Prostitution und Frauenkrankheiten</i>, considers that at the end
+    of their school days all girls should receive instruction
+    concerning the grave physical and social dangers to which women
+    are exposed in life. In France Duclaux (in his <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne
+    Sociale</i>) is emphatic that women must be taught. &quot;Already,&quot; he
+    states, &quot;doctors who by custom have been made, in spite of
+    themselves, the husband's accomplices, will tell you of the
+    ironical gaze they sometimes encounter when they seek to lead a
+    wife astray concerning the causes of her ills. The day is
+    approaching of a revolt against the social lie which has made so
+    many victims, and you will be obliged to teach women what they
+    need to know in order to guard themselves against you.&quot; It is the
+    same in America. Reform in this field, Isidore<a name='6_Page_353'></a> Dyer declares,
+    must emblazon on its flag the motto, &quot;Knowledge is Health,&quot; as
+    well of mind as of body, for women as well as for men. In a
+    discussion introduced by Denslow Lewis at the annual meeting of
+    the American Medical Association in 1901 on the limitation of
+    venereal diseases (<i>Medico-Legal Journal</i>, June and September,
+    1903), there was a fairly general agreement among all the
+    speakers that almost or quite the chief method of prevention lay
+    in education, the education of women as much as of men.
+    &quot;Education lies at the bottom of the whole thing,&quot; declared one
+    speaker (Seneca Egbert, of Philadelphia), &quot;and we will never gain
+    much headway until every young man, and every young woman, even
+    before she falls in love and becomes engaged, knows what these
+    diseases are, and what it will mean if she marries a man who has
+    contracted them.&quot; &quot;Educate father and mother, and they will
+    educate their sons and daughters,&quot; exclaims Egbert Grandin, more
+    especially in regard to gonorrh&oelig;a (<i>Medical Record</i>, May
+    26, 1906); &quot;I lay stress on the daughter because she becomes the
+    chief sufferer from inoculation, and it is her right to know that
+    she should protect herself against the gonorrh&oelig;ic as
+    well as against the alcoholic.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>We must fully face the fact that it is the woman herself who must be
+accounted responsible, as much as a man, for securing the right conditions
+of a marriage she proposes to enter into. In practice, at the outset, that
+responsibility may no doubt be in part delegated to parents or guardians.
+It is unreasonable that any false delicacy should be felt about this
+matter on either side. Questions of money and of income are discussed
+before marriage, and as public opinion grows sounder none will question
+the necessity of discussing the still more serious question of health,
+alike that of the prospective bridegroom and of the bride. An incalculable
+amount of disease and marital unhappiness would be prevented if before an
+engagement was finally concluded each party placed himself or herself in
+the hands of a physician and authorized him to report to the other party.
+Such a report would extend far beyond venereal disease. If its necessity
+became generally recognized it would put an end to much fraud which now
+takes place when entering the marriage bond. It constantly happens at
+present that one party or the other conceals the existence of some serious
+disease or disability which is speedily discovered after marriage,
+sometimes with a painful and alarming shock&mdash;as when a man discovers his
+wife in an epileptic fit on <a name='6_Page_354'></a>the wedding night&mdash;and always with the bitter
+and abiding sense of having been duped. There can be no reasonable doubt
+that such concealment is an adequate cause of divorce. Sir Thomas More
+doubtless sought to guard against such frauds when he ordained in his
+<i>Utopia</i> that each party should before marriage be shown naked to the
+other. The quaint ceremony he describes was based on a reasonable idea,
+for it is ludicrous, if it were not often tragic in its results, that any
+person should be asked to undertake to embrace for life a person whom he
+or she has not so much as seen.</p>
+
+<p>It may be necessary to point out that every movement in this direction
+must be the spontaneous action of individuals directing their own lives
+according to the rules of an enlightened conscience, and cannot be
+initiated by the dictation of the community as a whole enforcing its
+commands by law. In these matters law can only come in at the end, not at
+the beginning. In the essential matters of marriage and procreation laws
+are primarily made in the brains and consciences of individuals for their
+own guidance. Unless such laws are already embodied in the actual practice
+of the great majority of the community it is useless for parliaments to
+enact them by statute. They will be ineffective or else they will be worse
+than ineffective by producing undesigned mischiefs. We can only go to the
+root of the matter by insisting on education in moral responsibility and
+instruction, in matters of fact.</p>
+
+<p>The question arises as to the best person to impart this instruction. As
+we have seen there can be little doubt that before puberty the parents,
+and especially the mother, are the proper instructors of their children in
+esoteric knowledge. But after puberty the case is altered. The boy and the
+girl are becoming less amenable to parental influence, there is greater
+shyness on both sides, and the parents rarely possess the more technical
+knowledge that is now required. At this stage it seems that the assistance
+of the physician, of the family doctor if he has the proper qualities for
+the task, should be called in. The plan usually adopted, and now widely
+carried out, is that of lectures setting forth the main facts concerning
+venereal diseases, their <a name='6_Page_355'></a>dangers, and allied topics.<a name='6_FNanchor_254'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_254'><sup>[254]</sup></a> This method is
+quite excellent. Such lectures should be delivered at intervals by medical
+lecturers at all urban, educational, manufacturing, military, and naval
+centres, wherever indeed a large number of young persons are gathered
+together. It should be the business of the central educational authority
+either to carry them out or to enforce on those controlling or employing
+young persons the duty of providing such lectures. The lectures should be
+free to all who have attained the age of sixteen.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In Germany the principle of instruction by lectures concerning
+    venereal diseases seems to have become established, at all events
+    so far as young men are concerned, and such lectures are
+    constantly becoming more usual. In 1907 the Minister of Education
+    established courses of lectures by doctors on sexual hygiene and
+    venereal diseases for higher schools and educational
+    institutions, though attendance was not made compulsory. The
+    courses now frequently given by medical men to the higher classes
+    in German secondary schools on the general principles of sexual
+    anatomy and physiology nearly always include sexual hygiene with
+    special reference to venereal diseases (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+    <i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, pp. 131-153). In Austria, also, lectures on
+    personal hygiene and the dangers of venereal disease are
+    delivered to students about to leave the gymnasium for the
+    university; and the working men's clubs have instituted regular
+    courses of lectures on the same subjects delivered by physicians.
+    In France many distinguished men, both inside and outside the
+    medical profession, are working for the cause of the instruction
+    of the young in sexual hygiene, though they have to contend
+    against a more obstinate degree of prejudice and prudery on the
+    part of the middle class than is to be found in the Germanic
+    lands. The Commission Extraparlementaire du R&eacute;gime des M&oelig;urs,
+    with the conjunction of Augagneur, Alfred Fournier, Yves
+    Guyot, Gide, and other distinguished professors, teachers, etc.,
+    has lately pronounced in favor of the official establishment of
+    instruction in sexual hygiene, to be given in the highest classes
+    at the lyc&eacute;es, or in the earliest class at higher educational
+    colleges; such instruction, it is argued, would not only furnish
+    needed enlightenment, but also educate the sense of moral
+    responsibility. There is in France, also, an active and
+    distinguished though unofficial Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Fran&ccedil;aise de Prophylaxie
+    Sanitaire et Morale, which delivers public lectures on sexual
+    hygiene. Fournier, Pinard, Burlureaux and other <a name='6_Page_356'></a>eminent
+    physicians have written pamphlets on this subject for popular
+    distribution (see, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Le Progr&egrave;s M&eacute;dical</i> of September,
+    1907). In England and the United States very little has yet been
+    done in this direction, but in the United States, at all events,
+    opinion in favor of action is rapidly growing (see, <i>e.g.</i>, W. A.
+    Funk, &quot;The Venereal Peril,&quot; <i>Medical Record</i>, April 13, 1907).
+    The American Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis (based on
+    the parent society founded in Paris in 1900 by Fournier) was
+    established in New York in 1905. There are similar societies in
+    Chicago and Philadelphia. The main object is to study venereal
+    diseases and to work toward their social control. Doctors,
+    laymen, and women are members. Lectures and short talks are now
+    given under the auspices of these societies to small groups of
+    young women in social settlements, and in other ways, with
+    encouraging success; it is found to be an excellent method of
+    reaching the young women of the working classes. Both men and
+    women physicians take part in the lectures (Clement Cleveland,
+    Presidential Address on &quot;Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases,&quot;
+    <i>Transactions American Gynecological Society</i>, Philadelphia, vol.
+    xxxii, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>    An important auxiliary method of carrying out the task of sexual
+    hygiene, and at the same time of spreading useful enlightenment,
+    is furnished by the method of giving to every syphilitic patient
+    in clinics where such cases are treated a card of instruction for
+    his guidance in hygienic matters, together with a warning of the
+    risks of marriage within four or five years after infection, and
+    in no case without medical advice. Such printed instruction, in
+    clear, simple, and incisive language, should be put into the
+    hands of every syphilitic patient as a matter of routine, and it
+    might be as well to have a corresponding card for gonorrh&oelig;al
+    patients. This plan has already been introduced at some
+    hospitals, and it is so simple and unobjectionable a precaution
+    that it will, no doubt, be generally adopted. In some countries
+    this measure is carried out on a wider scale. Thus in Austria, as
+    the result of a movement in which several university professors
+    have taken an active part, leaflets and circulars, explaining
+    briefly the chief symptoms of venereal diseases and warning
+    against quacks and secret remedies, are circulated among young
+    laborers and factory hands, matriculating students, and scholars
+    who are leaving trade schools.</p>
+
+<p>    In France, where great social questions are sometimes faced with
+    a more chivalrous daring than elsewhere, the dangers of syphilis,
+    and the social position of the prostitute, have alike been dealt
+    with by distinguished novelists and dramatists. Huysmans
+    inaugurated this movement with his first novel, <i>Marthe</i>, which
+    was immediately suppressed by the police. Shortly afterwards
+    Edmond de Goncourt published <i>La Fille Elisa</i>, the first notable
+    novel of the kind by a distinguished author. It was written with
+    much reticence, and was not indeed a work of high <a name='6_Page_357'></a>artistic
+    value, but it boldly faced a great social problem and clearly set
+    forth the evils of the common attitude towards prostitution. It
+    was dramatized and played by Antoine at the Th&eacute;&acirc;tre Libre, but
+    when, in 1891, Antoine wished to produce it at the
+    Porte-Saint-Martin Theatre, the censor interfered and prohibited
+    the play on account of its &quot;contexture g&eacute;n&eacute;rale.&quot; The Minister of
+    Education defended this decision on the ground that there was
+    much in the play that might arouse repugnance and disgust.
+    &quot;Repugnance here is more moral than attraction,&quot; exclaimed M.
+    Paul D&eacute;roul&egrave;de, and the newspapers criticized a censure which
+    permitted on the stage all the trivial indecencies which favor
+    prostitution, but cannot tolerate any attack on prostitution. In
+    more recent years the brothers Margueritte, both in novels and in
+    journalism, have largely devoted their distinguished abilities
+    and high literary skill to the courageous and enlightened
+    advocacy of many social reforms. Victor Margueritte, in his
+    <i>Prostitu&eacute;e</i> (1907)&mdash;a novel which has attracted wide attention
+    and been translated into various languages&mdash;has sought to
+    represent the condition of women in our actual society, and more
+    especially the condition of the prostitute under what he regards
+    as the odious and iniquitous system still prevailing. The book is
+    a faithful picture of the real facts, thanks to the assistance
+    the author received from the Paris Pr&eacute;fecture of Police, and
+    largely for that reason is not altogether a satisfactory work of
+    art, but it vividly and poignantly represents the cruelty,
+    indifference, and hypocrisy so often shown by men towards women,
+    and is a book which, on that account, cannot be too widely read.
+    One of the most notable of modern plays is Brieux's <i>Les Avari&eacute;s</i>
+    (1902). This distinguished dramatist, himself a medical man,
+    dedicates his play to Fournier, the greatest of syphilographers.
+    &quot;I think with you,&quot; he writes here, &quot;that syphilis will lose much
+    of its danger when it is possible to speak openly of an evil
+    which is neither a shame nor a punishment, and when those who
+    suffer from it, knowing what evils they may propagate, will
+    better understand their duties towards others and towards
+    themselves.&quot; The story developed in the drama is the old and
+    typical story of the young man who has spent his bachelor days in
+    what he considers a discrete and regular manner, having only had
+    two mistresses, neither of them prostitutes, but at the end of
+    this period, at a gay supper at which he bids farewell to his
+    bachelor life, he commits a fatal indiscretion and becomes
+    infected by syphilis; his marriage is approaching and he goes to
+    a distinguished specialist who warns him that treatment takes
+    time, and that marriage is impossible for several years; he finds
+    a quack, however, who undertakes to cure him in six months; at
+    the end of the time he marries; a syphilitic child is born; the
+    wife discovers the state of things and forsakes her home to
+    return to her parents; her indignant father, a deputy in
+    Parliament, arrives in Paris; the last word is with the great
+    specialist who <a name='6_Page_358'></a>brings finally some degree of peace and hope into
+    the family. The chief morals Brieux points out are that it is the
+    duty of the bride's parents before marriage to ascertain the
+    bridegroom's health; that the bridegroom should have a doctor's
+    certificate; that at every marriage the part of the doctors is at
+    least as important as that of the lawyers. Even if it were a less
+    accomplished work of art than it is, <i>Les Avari&eacute;s</i> is a play
+    which, from the social and educative point of view alone, all who
+    have reached the age of adolescence should be compelled to see.</p>
+
+<p>    Another aspect of the same problem has been presented in <i>Plus
+    Fort que le Mal</i>, a book written in dramatic form (though not as
+    a properly constituted play intended for the stage) by a
+    distinguished French medical author who here adopts the name of
+    Espy de Metz. The author (who is not, however, pleading <i>pro
+    domo</i>) calls for a more sympathetic attitude towards those who
+    suffer from syphilis, and though he writes with much less
+    dramatic skill than Brieux, and scarcely presents his moral in so
+    unequivocal a form, his work is a notable contribution to the
+    dramatic literature of syphilis.</p>
+
+<p>    It will probably be some time before these questions, poignant as
+    they are from the dramatic point of view, and vitally important
+    from the social point of view, are introduced on the English or
+    the American stage. It is a remarkable fact that, notwithstanding
+    the Puritanic elements which still exist in Anglo-Saxon thought
+    and feeling generally, the Puritanic aspect of life has never
+    received embodiment in the English or American drama. On the
+    English stage it is never permitted to hint at the tragic side of
+    wantonness; vice must always be made seductive, even though a
+    <i>deus ex machina</i> causes it to collapse at the end of the
+    performance. As Mr. Bernard Shaw has said, the English theatrical
+    method by no means banishes vice; it merely consents that it
+    shall be made attractive; its charms are advertised and its
+    penalties suppressed. &quot;Now, it is futile to plead that the stage
+    is not the proper place for the representation and discussion of
+    illegal operations, incest, and venereal disease. If the stage is
+    the proper place for the exhibition and discussion of seduction,
+    adultery, promiscuity, and prostitution, it must be thrown open
+    to all the consequences of these things, or it will demoralize
+    the nation.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The impulse to insist that vice shall always be made attractive
+    is not really, notwithstanding appearances, a vicious impulse. It
+    arises from a mental confusion, a common psychic tendency, which
+    is by no means confined to Anglo-Saxon lands, and is even more
+    well marked among the better educated in the merely literary
+    sense, than among the worse educated people. The &aelig;sthetic is
+    confused with the moral, and what arouses disgust is thus
+    regarded as immoral. In France the novels of Zola, the most
+    pedestrianally moralistic of writers, were for a long time
+    supposed to be immoral because they were often disgusting. The
+    <a name='6_Page_359'></a>same feeling is still more widespread in England. If a
+    prostitute is brought on the stage, and she is pretty,
+    well-dressed, seductive, she may gaily sail through the play and
+    every one is satisfied. But if she were not particularly pretty,
+    well-dressed, or seductive, if it were made plain that she was
+    diseased and was reckless in infecting others with that disease,
+    if it were hinted that she could on occasion be foul-mouthed, if,
+    in short, a picture were shown from life&mdash;then we should hear
+    that the unfortunate dramatist had committed something that was
+    &quot;disgusting&quot; and &quot;immoral.&quot; Disgusting it might be, but, on that
+    very account, it would be moral. There is a distinction here that
+    the psychologist cannot too often point out or the moralist too
+    often emphasize.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is not for the physician to complicate and confuse his own task as
+teacher by mixing it up with considerations which belong to the spiritual
+sphere. But in carrying out impartially his own special work of
+enlightenment he will always do well to remember that there is in the
+adolescent mind, as it has been necessary to point out in a previous
+chapter, a spontaneous force working on the side of sexual hygiene. Those
+who believe that the adolescent mind is merely bent on sensual indulgence
+are not less false and mischievous in their influence than are those who
+think it possible and desirable for adolescents to be preserved in sheer
+sexual ignorance. However concealed, suppressed, or deformed&mdash;usually by
+the misplaced and premature zeal of foolish parents and teachers&mdash;there
+arise at puberty ideal impulses which, even though they may be rooted in
+sex, yet in their scope transcend sex. These are capable of becoming far
+more potent guides of the physical sex impulse than are merely material or
+even hygienic considerations.</p>
+
+<p>It is time to summarize and conclude this discussion of the prevention of
+venereal disease, which, though it may seem to the superficial observer to
+be merely a medical and sanitary question outside the psychologist's
+sphere, is yet seen on closer view to be intimately related even to the
+most spiritual conception of the sexual relationships. Not only are
+venereal diseases the foes to the finer development of the race, but we
+cannot attain to any wholesome and beautiful vision of the relationships
+of sex so long as such relationships are liable at every moment to be
+corrupted and undermined at their source. We cannot yet precisely <a name='6_Page_360'></a>measure
+the interval which must elapse before, so far as Europe at least is
+concerned, syphilis and gonorrh&oelig;a are sent to that limbo of
+monstrous old dead diseases to which plague and leprosy have gone and
+smallpox is already drawing near. But society is beginning to realize
+that into this field also must be brought the weapons of light and air,
+the sword and the breastplate with which all diseases can alone be
+attacked. As we have seen, there are four methods by which in the more
+enlightened countries venereal disease is now beginning to be
+combated.<a name='6_FNanchor_255'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_255'><sup>[255]</sup></a> (1) By proclaiming openly that the venereal diseases are
+diseases like any other disease, although more subtle and terrible than
+most, which may attack anyone from the unborn baby to its grandmother, and
+that they are not, more than other diseases, the shameful penalties of
+sin, from which relief is only to be sought, if at all, by stealth, but
+human calamities; (2) by adopting methods of securing official information
+concerning the extent, distribution, and variation of venereal disease,
+through the already recognized plan of notification and otherwise, and by
+providing such facilities for treatment, especially for free treatment, as
+may be found necessary; (3) by training the individual sense of moral
+responsibility, so that every member of the community may realize that to
+inflict a serious disease on another person, even only as a result of
+reckless negligence, is a more serious offence than if he or she had used
+the knife or the gun or poison as the method of attack, and that it is
+necessary to introduce special legal provision in every country to assist
+the recovery of damages for such injuries and to inflict penalties by loss
+of liberty or otherwise; (4) by the spread of hygienic knowledge, so that
+all adolescents, youths and girls alike, may be furnished at the outset of
+adult life with an equipment of information which will assist them to
+avoid the grosser risks of contamination and enable them to recognize and
+avoid danger at the earliest stages.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_361'></a>
+<p>A few years ago, when no method of combating venereal disease was known
+except that system of police regulation which is now in its decadence, it
+would have been impossible to bring forward such considerations as these;
+they would have seemed Utopian. To-day they are not only recognizable as
+practical, but they are being actually put into practice, although, it is
+true, with very varying energy and insight in different countries. Yet it
+is certain that in the competition of nationalities, as Max von Niessen
+has well said, &quot;that country will best take a leading place in the march
+of civilization which has the foresight and courage to introduce and carry
+through those practical movements of sexual hygiene which have so wide and
+significant a bearing on its own future, and that of the human race
+generally.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_256'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_256'><sup>[256]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_220'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_220'>[220]</a><div class='note'><p> It is probable that Schopenhauer felt a more than merely
+speculative interest in this matter. Bloch has shown good reason for
+believing that Schopenhauer himself contracted syphilis in 1813, and that
+this was a factor in constituting his conception of the world and in
+confirming his constitutional pessimism (<i>Medizinische Klinik</i>, Nos. 25
+and 26, 1906).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_221'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_221'>[221]</a><div class='note'><p> Havelburg, in Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, pp. 186-189.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_222'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_222'>[222]</a><div class='note'><p> This is the very definite opinion of Lowndes after an
+experience of fifty-four years in the treatment of venereal diseases in
+Liverpool (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Feb. 9, 1907, p. 334). It is further
+indicated by the fact (if it is a real fact) that since 1876 there has
+been a decline of both the infantile and general mortality from syphilis
+in England.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_223'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_223'>[223]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;There is no doubt whatever that syphilis is on the
+increase in London, judging from hospital work alone,&quot; says Pernet
+(<i>British Medical Journal</i>, March 30, 1907). Syphilis was evidently very
+prevalent, however, a century or two ago, and there is no ground for
+asserting positively that it is more prevalent to-day.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_224'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_224'>[224]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, A. Neisser, <i>Die experimentelle
+Syphilisforschung</i>, 1906, and E. Hoffmann (who was associated with
+Schaudinn's discovery), <i>Die Aetiologie der Syphilis</i>, 1906; D'Arcy Power,
+<i>A System of Syphilis</i>, 1908, etc.; F. W. Mott, &quot;Pathology of Syphilis in
+the Light of Modern Research,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>, February 20,
+1909; also, <i>Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry</i>, vol. iv, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_225'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_225'>[225]</a><div class='note'><p> There is some difference of opinion on this point, and
+though it seems probable that early and thorough treatment usually cures
+the disease in a few years and renders further complications highly
+improbable, it is not possible, even under the most favorable
+circumstances, to speak with absolute certainty as to the future.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_226'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_226'>[226]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;That syphilis has been, and is, one of the chief causes of
+physical degeneration in England cannot be denied, and it is a fact that
+is acknowledged on all sides,&quot; writes Lieutenant-Colonel Lambkin, the
+medical officer in command of the London Military Hospital for Venereal
+Diseases. &quot;To grapple with the treatment of syphilis among the civil
+population of England ought to be the chief object of those interested in
+that most burning question, the physical degeneration of our race&quot;
+(<i>British Medical Journal</i>, August 19, 1905).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_227'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_227'>[227]</a><div class='note'><p> F. W. Mott, &quot;Syphilis as a Cause of Insanity,&quot; <i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, October 18, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_228'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_228'>[228]</a><div class='note'><p> It can seldom be proved in more than eighty per cent. of
+cases, but in twenty per cent. of old syphilitic cases it is commonly
+impossible to find traces of the disease or to obtain a history of it.
+Crocker found that it was only in eighty per cent. of cases of absolutely
+certain syphilitic skin diseases that he could obtain a history of
+syphilitic infection, and Mott found exactly the same percentage in
+absolutely certain syphilitic lesions of the brain; Mott believes (<i>e.g.</i>,
+&quot;Syphilis in Relation to the Nervous System,&quot; <i>British Medical Journal</i>,
+January 4, 1908) that syphilis is the essential cause of general paralysis
+and tabes.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_229'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_229'>[229]</a><div class='note'><p> Audry. <i>La Semaine M&eacute;dicale</i>, June 26, 1907. When Europeans
+carry syphilis to lands inhabited by people of lower race, the results are
+often very much worse than this. Thus Lambkin, as a result of a special
+mission to investigate syphilis in Uganda, found that in some districts as
+many as ninety per cent, of the people suffer from syphilis, and fifty to
+sixty per cent, of the infant mortality is due to this cause. These people
+are Baganda, a highly intelligent, powerful, and well-organized tribe
+before they received, in the gift of syphilis, the full benefit of
+civilization and Christianity, which (Lambkin points out) has been largely
+the cause of the spread of the disease by breaking down social customs and
+emancipating the women. Christianity is powerful enough to break down the
+old morality, but not powerful enough to build up a new morality (<i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, October 3, 1908, p. 1037).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_230'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_230'>[230]</a><div class='note'><p> Even within the limits of the English army it is found In
+India (H. C. French, <i>Syphilis in the Army</i>, 1907) that venereal disease is
+ten times more frequent among British troops than among Native troops.
+Outside of national armies it is found, by admission to hospital and death
+rates, that the United States stands far away at the head for frequency of
+venereal disease, being followed by Great Britain, then France and
+Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_231'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_231'>[231]</a><div class='note'><p> There is no
+dispute concerning the antiquity of gonorrh&oelig;a
+in the Old World as there is regarding syphilis. The disease was
+certainly known at a very remote period. Even Esarhaddon, the famous King
+of Assyria, referred to in the Old Testament, was treated by the priests
+for a disorder which, as described in the cuneiform documents of the time,
+could only have been gonorrh&oelig;a. The disease was also well known
+to the ancient Egyptians, and evidently common, for they recorded many
+prescriptions for its treatment (Oefele, &quot;Gonorrhoe 1350 vor Christi
+Geburt,&quot; <i>Monatshefte f&uuml;r Praktische Dermatologie</i>, 1899, p. 260).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_232'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_232'>[232]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Cf.</i> Memorandum by Sydney Stephenson, Report of Ophthalmia
+Neonatorum Committee, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, May 8, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_233'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_233'>[233]</a><div class='note'><p> The extent of these evils is set forth, <i>e.g.</i>, in a
+comprehensive essay by Taylor, <i>American Journal Obstetrics</i>, January,
+1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_234'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_234'>[234]</a><div class='note'><p> Neisser brings together figures bearing on the prevalence
+of gonorrh&oelig;a in Germany, Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease
+in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. ii, pp. 486-492.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_235'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_235'>[235]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Lancet</i>, September 23, 1882. As regards women, Dr. Frances
+Ivens (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, June 19, 1909) has found at Liverpool
+that 14 per cent. of gyn&aelig;cological cases revealed the presence of
+gonorrh&oelig;a. They were mostly poor respectable married women. This
+is probably a high proportion, as Liverpool is a busy seaport, but it is
+less than S&auml;nger's estimate of 18 per cent.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_236'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_236'>[236]</a><div class='note'><p> E. H. Grandin, <i>Medical Record</i>, May 26, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_237'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_237'>[237]</a><div class='note'><p> E. W. Cushing, &quot;Sociological
+Aspects of Gonorrh&oelig;a,&quot;
+<i>Transactions American Gynecological Society</i>, vol. xxii, 1897.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_238'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_238'>[238]</a><div class='note'><p> It is only in very small communities ruled by an autocratic
+power with absolute authority to control conditions and to examine persons
+of both sexes that reglementation becomes in any degree effectual. This is
+well shown by Dr. W. E. Harwood, who describes the system he organized in
+the mines of the Minnesota Iron Company (<i>Journal American Medical
+Association</i>, December 22, 1906). The women in the brothels on the
+company's estate were of the lowest class, and disease was very prevalent.
+Careful examination of the women was established, and control of the men,
+who, immediately on becoming diseased, were bound to declare by what woman
+they had been infected. The woman was responsible for the medical bill of
+the man she infected, and even for his board, if incapacitated, and the
+women were compelled to maintain a fund for their own hospital expenses
+when required. In this way venereal disease, though not entirely uprooted,
+was very greatly diminished.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_239'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_239'>[239]</a><div class='note'><p> A clear and comprehensive statement of the present position
+of the question is given by Iwan Bloch, <i>Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit</i>,
+Chs. XIII-XV. How ineffectual the system of police regulation is, even in
+Germany, where police interference is tolerated to so marked a degree, may
+be illustrated by the case of Mannheim. Here the regulation of
+prostitution is very severe and thorough, yet a careful inquiry in 1905
+among the doctors of Mannheim (ninety-two of whom sent in detailed
+returns) showed that of six hundred cases of venereal disease in men,
+nearly half had been contracted from prostitutes. About half the remaining
+cases (nearly a quarter of the whole) were due to waitresses and
+bar-maids; then followed servant-girls (Lion and Loeb, in
+<i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, the Proceedings of the Third German Congress for
+Combating Venereal Diseases, 1907, p. 295).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_240'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_240'>[240]</a><div class='note'><p> A sixth less numerous class might be added of the young
+girls, often no more than children, who have been practically raped by men
+who believe that intercourse with a virgin is a cure for obstinate
+venereal disease. In America this belief is frequently held by Italians,
+Chinese, negroes, etc. W. Travis Gibb, Examining Physician of the New York
+Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, has examined over 900
+raped children (only a small proportion, he states, of the cases actually
+occurring), and finds that thirteen per cent have venereal diseases. A
+fairly large proportion of these cases, among girls from twelve to
+sixteen, are, he states, willing victims. Dr. Flora Pollack, also, of the
+Johns Hopkins Hospital Dispensary, estimates that in Baltimore alone from
+800 to 1,000 children between the ages of one and fifteen are venereally
+infected every year. The largest number, she finds, is at the age of six,
+and the chief cause appears to be, not lust, but superstition.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_241'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_241'>[241]</a><div class='note'><p> For a discussion of inherited syphilis, see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+Clement Lucas, <i>Lancet</i>, February 1, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_242'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_242'>[242]</a><div class='note'><p> Much harm has been done in some countries by the foolish
+and mischievous practice of friendly societies and sick clubs of ignoring
+venereal diseases, and not according free medical aid or sick pay to those
+members who suffer from them. This practice prevailed, for instance, in
+Vienna until 1907, when a more humane and enlightened policy was
+inaugurated, venereal diseases being placed on the same level as other
+diseases.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_243'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_243'>[243]</a><div class='note'><p> Active measures against venereal disease were introduced in
+Sweden early in the last century, and compulsory and gratuitous treatment
+established. Compulsory notification was introduced many years ago in
+Norway, and by 1907 there was a great diminution in the prevalence of
+venereal diseases; there is compulsory treatment.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_244'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_244'>[244]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Morrow, <i>Social Diseases and Marriage</i>, Ch.
+XXXVII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_245'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_245'>[245]</a><div class='note'><p> A committee of the Medical Society of New York, appointed
+in 1902 to consider this question, reported in favor of notification
+without giving names and addresses, and Dr. C. R. Drysdale, who took an
+active part in the Brussels International Conference of 1899, advocated a
+similar plan in England, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, February 3, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_246'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_246'>[246]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus in Munich,
+in 1908, a man who had given gonorrh&oelig;a
+to a servant-girl was sent to prison for ten months on this
+ground. The state of German opinion to-day on this subject is summarized
+by Bloch, <i>Sexualleben unserer Zeit</i>, p. 424.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_247'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_247'>[247]</a><div class='note'><p> A. Despr&eacute;s, <i>La Prostitution &agrave; Paris</i>, p. 191.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_248'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_248'>[248]</a><div class='note'><p> F. Aurientis, <i>Etude Medico-l&eacute;gale sur la jurisprudence
+actuelle &agrave; propos de la Transmission des Maladies Ven&eacute;riennes</i>, Th&egrave;se de
+Paris, 1906.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_249'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_249'>[249]</a><div class='note'><p> In England at present &quot;a husband knowingly and wilfully
+infecting his wife with the venereal disease, cannot be convicted
+criminally, either under a charge of assault or of inflicting grievous
+bodily harm&quot; (N. Geary, <i>The Law of Marriage</i>, p. 479). This was decided
+in 1888 in the case of <i>R. v. Clarence</i> by nine judges to four judges in
+the Court for the Consideration of Crown Cases Reserved.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_250'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_250'>[250]</a><div class='note'><p> Modern democratic sentiment is opposed to the sequestration
+of a prostitute merely because she is diseased. But there can be no
+reasonable doubt whatever that if a diseased prostitute infects another
+person, and is unable to pay the very heavy damages which should be
+demanded in such a case, she ought to be secluded and subjected to
+treatment. That is necessary in the interests of the community. But it is
+also necessary, to avoid placing a premium on the commission of an offence
+which would ensure gratuitous treatment and provision for a prostitute
+without means, that she should be furnished with facilities for treatment
+in any case.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_251'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_251'>[251]</a><div class='note'><p> It has, however, been decided by the Paris Court of Appeal
+that for a husband to marry when knowingly suffering from a venereal
+disease and to communicate that disease to his wife is a sufficient cause
+for divorce (<i>Semaine M&eacute;dicale</i>, May, 1896).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_252'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_252'>[252]</a><div class='note'><p> The large volume, entitled <i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, containing
+the Proceedings of the Third of these Congresses, almost ignores the
+special subject of venereal disease, and is devoted to the questions
+involved by the general sexual education of the young, which, as many of
+the speakers maintained, must begin with the child at his mother's knee.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_253'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_253'>[253]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Workmen, soldiers, and so on,&quot; Neisser remarks (Senator
+and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. ii, p.
+485), &quot;can more easily find non-prostitute girls of their own class
+willing to enter into amorous relations with them which result in sexual
+intercourse, and they are therefore less exposed to the danger of
+infection than those men who have recourse almost exclusively to
+prostitutes&quot; (see also Bloch, <i>Sexualleben unserer Zeit</i>, p. 437).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_254'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_254'>[254]</a><div class='note'><p> The character and extent of such lectures are fully
+discussed in the Proceedings of the Third Congress of the German Society
+for Combating Venereal Diseases, <i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, 1907.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_255'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_255'>[255]</a><div class='note'><p> I leave out of account, as beyond the scope of the present
+work, the auxiliary aids to the suppression of venereal diseases furnished
+by the promising new methods, only now beginning to be understood, of
+treating or even aborting such diseases (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Metchnikoff, <i>The
+New Hygiene</i>, 1906).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_256'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_256'>[256]</a><div class='note'><p> Max von Niessen, &quot;Herr Doktor, darf ich heiraten?&quot;
+<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1906, p. 352.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_IX'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_362'></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>SEXUAL MORALITY.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Prostitution in Relation to Our Marriage System&mdash;Marriage and
+Morality&mdash;The Definition of the Term &quot;Morality&quot;&mdash;Theoretical Morality&mdash;Its
+Division Into Traditional Morality and Ideal Morality&mdash;Practical
+Morality&mdash;Practical Morality Based on Custom&mdash;The Only Subject of
+Scientific Ethics&mdash;The Reaction Between Theoretical and Practical
+Morality&mdash;Sexual Morality in the Past an Application of Economic
+Morality&mdash;The Combined Rigidity and Laxity of This Morality&mdash;The
+Growth of a Specific Sexual Morality and the Evolution of Moral
+Ideals&mdash;Manifestations of Sexual Morality&mdash;Disregard of the Forms of
+Marriage&mdash;Trial Marriage&mdash;Marriage After Conception of Child&mdash;Phenomena in
+Germany, Anglo-Saxon Countries, Russia, etc.&mdash;The Status of Woman&mdash;The
+Historical Tendency Favoring Moral Equality of Women with Men&mdash;The Theory
+of the Matriarchate&mdash;Mother-Descent&mdash;Women in Babylonia&mdash;Egypt&mdash;Rome&mdash;The
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries&mdash;The Historical Tendency
+Favoring Moral Inequality of Woman&mdash;The Ambiguous Influence of
+Christianity&mdash;Influence of Teutonic Custom and Feudalism&mdash;Chivalry&mdash;Woman
+in England&mdash;The Sale of Wives&mdash;The Vanishing Subjection of
+Woman&mdash;Inaptitude of the Modern Man to Domineer&mdash;The Growth of Moral
+Responsibility in Women&mdash;The Concomitant Development of Economic
+Independence&mdash;The Increase of Women Who Work&mdash;Invasion of the Modern
+Industrial Field by Women&mdash;In How Far This Is Socially Justifiable&mdash;The
+Sexual Responsibility of Women and Its Consequences&mdash;The Alleged Moral
+Inferiority of Women&mdash;The &quot;Self-Sacrifice&quot; of Women&mdash;Society Not Concerned
+with Sexual Relationships&mdash;Procreation the Sole Sexual Concern of the
+State&mdash;The Supreme Importance of Maternity.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It has been necessary to deal fully with the phenomena of prostitution
+because, however aloof we may personally choose to hold ourselves from
+those phenomena, they really bring us to the heart of the sexual question
+in so far as it constitutes a social problem. If we look at prostitution
+from the outside, as an objective phenomenon, as a question of social
+dynamics, it is seen to be not a merely accidental and eliminable incident
+of our present marriage system but an integral part of it, without which
+it would fall to pieces. This will probably be fairly clear to all who
+have followed the preceding exposition of prostitutional <a name='6_Page_363'></a>phenomena. There
+is, however, more than this to be said. Not only is prostitution to-day,
+as it has been for more than two thousand years, the buttress of our
+marriage system, but if we look at marriage, not from the outside as a
+formal institution, but from the inside with relation to the motives that
+constitute it, we find that marriage in a large proportion of cases is
+itself in certain respects a form of prostitution. This has been
+emphasized so often and from so many widely different standpoints that it
+may seem hardly necessary to labor the point here. But the point is one of
+extreme importance in relation to the question of sexual morality. Our
+social conditions are unfavorable to the development of a high moral
+feeling in woman. The difference between the woman who sells herself in
+prostitution and the woman who sells herself in marriage, according to the
+saying of Marro already quoted, &quot;is only a difference in price and
+duration of the contract.&quot; Or, as Forel puts it, marriage is &quot;a more
+fashionable form of prostitution,&quot; that is to say, a mode of obtaining, or
+disposing of, for monetary considerations, a sexual commodity. Marriage
+is, indeed, not merely a more fashionable form of prostitution, it is a
+form sanctified by law and religion, and the question of morality is not
+allowed to intrude. Morality may be outraged with impunity provided that
+law and religion have been invoked. The essential principle of
+prostitution is thus legalized and sanctified among us. That is why it is
+so difficult to arouse any serious indignation, or to maintain any
+reasoned objections, against our prostitution considered by itself. The
+most plausible ground is that of those<a name='6_FNanchor_257'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_257'><sup>[257]</sup></a> who, bringing marriage down to
+the level of prostitution, maintain that the prostitute is a &quot;blackleg&quot;
+who is accepting less than the &quot;market rate of wages,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>, marriage,
+for the sexual services she renders. But even this low ground is quite
+unsafe. The prostitute is really paid extremely well considering how
+little she gives in return; the wife is really paid extremely badly
+considering how much she often gives, and how much she necessarily gives
+up. For the sake of the advantage of economic dependence on her <a name='6_Page_364'></a>husband,
+she must give up, as Ellen Key observes, those rights over her children,
+her property, her work, and her own person which she enjoys as an
+unmarried woman, even, it may be added, as a prostitute. The prostitute
+never signs away the right over her own person, as the wife is compelled
+to do; the prostitute, unlike the wife, retains her freedom and her
+personal rights, although these may not often be of much worth. It is the
+wife rather than the prostitute who is the &quot;blackleg.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is by no means only during recent years that our marriage
+    system has been arraigned before the bar of morals. Forty years
+    ago James Hinton exhausted the vocabulary of denunciation in
+    describing the immorality and selfish licentiousness which our
+    marriage system covers with the cloak of legality and sanctity.
+    &quot;There is an unsoundness in our marriage relations,&quot; Hinton
+    wrote. &quot;Not only practically are they dreadful, but they do not
+    answer to feelings and convictions far too widespread to be
+    wisely ignored. Take the case of women of marked eminence
+    consenting to be a married man's mistress; of pure and simple
+    girls saying they cannot see why they should have a marriage by
+    law; of a lady saying that if she were in love she would not have
+    any legal tie; of its being necessary&mdash;or thought so by good and
+    wise men&mdash;to keep one sex in bitter and often fatal ignorance.
+    These things (and how many more) show some deep unsoundness in
+    the marriage relations. This must be probed and searched to the
+    bottom.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    At an earlier date, in 1847, Gross-Hoffinger, in his <i>Die
+    Schicksale der Frauen und die Prostitution</i>&mdash;a remarkable book
+    which Bloch, with little exaggeration, describes as possessing an
+    epoch-marking significance&mdash;vigorously showed that the problem of
+    prostitution is in reality the problem of marriage, and that we
+    can only reform away prostitution by reforming marriage, regarded
+    as a compulsory institution resting on an antiquated economic
+    basis. Gross-Hoffinger was a pioneering precursor of Ellen Key.</p>
+
+<p>    More than a century and a half earlier a man of very different
+    type scathingly analyzed the morality of his time, with a brutal
+    frankness, indeed, that seemed to his contemporaries a
+    revoltingly cynical attitude towards their sacred institutions,
+    and they felt that nothing was left to them save to burn his
+    books. Describing modern marriage in his <i>Fable of the Bees</i>
+    (1714, p. 64), and what that marriage might legally cover,
+    Mandeville wrote: &quot;The fine gentleman I spoke of need not
+    practice any greater self-denial than the savage, and the latter
+    acted more according to the laws of nature and sincerity than the
+    first. The man that gratifies his appetite after the manner the
+    custom of the country <a name='6_Page_365'></a>allows of, has no censure to fear. If he
+    is hotter than goats or bulls, as soon as the ceremony is over,
+    let him sate and fatigue himself with joy and ecstasies of
+    pleasure, raise and indulge his appetite by turns, as
+    extravagantly as his strength and manhood will give him leave. He
+    may, with safety, laugh at the wise men that should reprove him:
+    all the women and above nine in ten of the men are of his side;
+    nay, he has the liberty of valuing himself upon the fury of his
+    unbridled passions, and the more he wallows in lust and strains
+    every faculty to be abandonedly voluptuous, the sooner he shall
+    have the good-will and gain the affection of the women, not the
+    young, vain, and lascivious only, but the prudent, grave, and
+    most sober matrons.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Thus the charge brought against our marriage system from the
+    point of view of morality is that it subordinates the sexual
+    relationship to considerations of money and of lust. That is
+    precisely the essence of prostitution.</p></div>
+
+<p>The only legitimately moral end of marriage&mdash;whether we regard it from the
+wider biological standpoint or from the narrower standpoint of human
+society&mdash;is as a sexual selection, effected in accordance with the laws of
+sexual selection, and having as its direct object a united life of
+complete mutual love and as its indirect object the procreation of the
+race. Unless procreation forms part of the object of marriage, society has
+nothing whatever to do with it and has no right to make its voice heard.
+But if procreation is one of the ends of marriage, then it is imperative
+from the biological and social points of view that no influences outside
+the proper natural influence of sexual selection should be permitted to
+affect the choice of conjugal partners, for in so far as wholesome sexual
+selection is interfered with the offspring is likely to be injured and the
+interests of the race affected.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It must, of course, be clearly understood that the idea of
+    marriage as a form of sexual union based not on biological but on
+    economic considerations, is very ancient, and is sometimes found
+    in societies that are almost primitive. Whenever, however,
+    marriage on a purely property basis, and without due regard to
+    sexual selection, has occurred among comparatively primitive and
+    vigorous peoples, it has been largely deprived of its evil
+    results by the recognition of its merely economic character, and
+    by the absence of any desire to suppress, even nominally, other
+    sexual relationships on a more natural basis which were outside
+    this artificial form of marriage. Polygamy especially tended to
+    conciliate <a name='6_Page_366'></a>unions on an economic basis with unions on a natural
+    sexual basis. Our modern marriage system has, however, acquired
+    an artificial rigidity which excludes the possibility of this
+    natural safeguard and compensation. Whatever its real moral
+    content may be, a modern marriage is always &quot;legal&quot; and &quot;sacred.&quot;
+    We are indeed so accustomed to economic forms of marriage that,
+    as Sidgwick truly observed (<i>Method of Ethics</i>, Bk. ii, Ch. XI),
+    when they are spoken of as &quot;legalized prostitution&quot; it constantly
+    happens that &quot;the phrase is felt to be extravagant and
+    paradoxical.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>A man who marries for money or for ambition is departing from the
+biological and moral ends of marriage. A woman who sells herself for life
+is morally on the same level as one who sells herself for a night. The
+fact that the payment seems larger, that in return for rendering certain
+domestic services and certain personal complacencies&mdash;services and
+complacencies in which she may be quite inexpert&mdash;she will secure an
+almshouse in which she will be fed and clothed and sheltered for life
+makes no difference in the moral aspect of her case. The moral
+responsibility is, it need scarcely be said, at least as much the man's as
+the woman's. It is largely due to the ignorance and even the indifference
+of men, who often know little or nothing of the nature of women and the
+art of love. The unintelligence with which even men who might, one thinks,
+be not without experience, select as a mate, a woman who, however fine and
+charming she may be, possesses none of the qualities which her wooer
+really craves, is a perpetual marvel. To refrain from testing and proving
+the temper and quality of the woman he desires for a mate is no doubt an
+amiable trait of humility on a man's part. But it is certain that a man
+should never be content with less than the best of what a woman's soul and
+body have to give, however unworthy he may feel himself of such a
+possession. This demand, it must be remarked, is in the highest interests
+of the woman herself. A woman can offer to a man what is a part at all
+events of the secret of the universe. The woman degrades herself who sinks
+to the level of a candidate for an asylum for the destitute.</p>
+
+<p>Our discussion of the psychic facts of sex has thus, it will be seen,
+brought us up to the question of morality. Over and <a name='6_Page_367'></a>over again, in
+setting forth the phenomena of prostitution, it has been necessary to use
+the word &quot;moral.&quot; That word, however, is vague and even, it may be,
+misleading because it has several senses. So far, it has been left to the
+intelligent reader, as he will not fail to perceive, to decide from the
+context in what sense the word was used. But at the present point, before
+we proceed to discuss sexual psychology in relation to marriage, it is
+necessary, in order to avoid ambiguity, to remind the reader what
+precisely are the chief main senses in which the word &quot;morality&quot; is
+commonly used.</p>
+
+<p>The morality with which ethical treatises are concerned is <i>theoretical
+morality</i>. It is concerned with what people &quot;ought&quot;&mdash;or what is &quot;right&quot;
+for them&mdash;to do. Socrates in the Platonic dialogues was concerned with
+such theoretical morality: what &quot;ought&quot; people to seek in their actions?
+The great bulk of ethical literature, until recent times one may say the
+whole of it, is concerned with that question. Such theoretical morality
+is, as Sidgwick said, a study rather than a science, for science can only
+be based on what is, not on what ought to be.</p>
+
+<p>Even within the sphere of theoretical morality there are two very
+different kinds of morality, so different indeed that sometimes each
+regards the other as even inimical or at best only by courtesy, with yet a
+shade of contempt, &quot;moral.&quot; These two kinds of theoretical morality are
+<i>traditional morality</i> and <i>ideal morality</i>. Traditional morality is
+founded on the long established practices of a community and possesses the
+stability of all theoretical ideas based in the past social life and
+surrounding every individual born into the community from his earliest
+years. It becomes the voice of conscience which speaks automatically in
+favor of all the rules that are thus firmly fixed, even when the
+individual himself no longer accepts them. Many persons, for example, who
+were brought up in childhood to the Puritanical observance of Sunday, will
+recall how, long after they had ceased to believe that such observances
+were &quot;right,&quot; they yet in the violation of them heard the protest of the
+automatically aroused voice of &quot;conscience,&quot; that is to say the expression
+within the individual of customary rules which have indeed now <a name='6_Page_368'></a>ceased to
+be his own but were those of the community in which he was brought up.</p>
+
+<p>Ideal morality, on the other hand, refers not to the past of the community
+but to its future. It is based not on the old social actions that are
+becoming antiquated, and perhaps even anti-social in their tendency, but
+on new social actions that are as yet only practiced by a small though
+growing minority of the community. Nietzsche in modern times has been a
+conspicuous champion of ideal morality, the heroic morality of the
+pioneer, of the individual of the coming community, against traditional
+morality, or, as he called it, herd-morality, the morality of the crowd.
+These two moralities are necessarily opposed to each other, but, we have
+to remember, they are both equally sound and equally indispensable, not
+only to those who accept them but to the community which they both
+contribute to hold in vital theoretical balance. We have seen them both,
+for instance, applied to the question of prostitution; traditional
+morality defends prostitution, not for its own sake, but for the sake of
+the marriage system which it regards as sufficiently precious to be worth
+a sacrifice, while ideal morality refuses to accept the necessity of
+prostitution, and looks forward to progressive changes in the marriage
+system which will modify and diminish prostitution.</p>
+
+<p>But altogether outside theoretical morality, or the question of what
+people &quot;ought&quot; to do, there remains <i>practical morality</i>, or the question
+of what, as a matter of fact, people actually do. This is the really
+fundamental and essential morality. Latin <i>mores</i> and Greek &#7968;&#952;&#959;&#962;
+both refer to <i>custom</i>, to the things that are, and not to the
+things that &quot;ought&quot; to be, except in the indirect and secondary sense that
+whatever the members of the community, in the mass, actually do, is the
+thing that they feel they ought to do. In the first place, however, a
+moral act was not done because it was felt that it ought to be done, but
+for reasons of a much deeper and more instinctive character.<a name='6_FNanchor_258'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_258'><sup>[258]</sup></a> It <a name='6_Page_369'></a>was
+not first done because it was felt it ought to be done, but it was felt it
+&quot;ought&quot; to be done because it had actually become the custom to do it.</p>
+
+<p>The actions of a community are determined by the vital needs of a
+community under the special circumstances of its culture, time, and land.
+When it is the general custom for children to kill their aged parents that
+custom is always found to be the best not only for the community but even
+for the old people themselves, who desire it; the action is both
+practically moral and theoretically moral.<a name='6_FNanchor_259'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_259'><sup>[259]</sup></a> And when, as among
+ourselves, the aged are kept alive, that action is also both practically
+and theoretically moral; it is in no wise dependent on any law or rule
+opposed to the taking of life, for we glory in the taking of life under
+the patriotic name of &quot;war,&quot; and are fairly indifferent to it when
+involved by the demands of our industrial system; but the killing of the
+aged no longer subserves any social need and their preservation ministers
+to our civilized emotional needs. The killing of a man is indeed
+notoriously an act which differs widely in its moral value at different
+periods and in different countries. It was quite moral in England two
+centuries ago and less, to kill a man for trifling offences against
+property, for such punishment commended itself as desirable to the general
+sense of the educated community. To-day it would be regarded as highly
+immoral. We are even yet only beginning to doubt the morality of
+condemning to death and imprisoning for life an unmarried girl who
+destroyed her infant at birth, solely actuated, against all her natural
+impulses, by the primitive instinct of self-defense. It cannot be said
+that we have yet begun to doubt the morality of killing men in war, though
+we no longer approve of killing women and children, or even non-combatants
+generally. Every age or land has its own morality.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;Custom, in the strict sense of the word,&quot; well says Westermarck,
+&quot;involves a moral rule.... Society is the school in which men learn to
+distinguish between right and wrong.<a name='6_Page_370'></a> The headmaster is custom.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_260'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_260'><sup>[260]</sup></a>
+Custom is not only the basis of morality but also of law. &quot;Custom is
+law.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_261'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_261'><sup>[261]</sup></a> The field of theoretical morality has been found so fascinating
+a playground for clever philosophers that there has sometimes been a
+danger of forgetting that, after all, it is not theoretical morality but
+practical morality, the question of what men in the mass of a community
+actually do, which constitutes the real stuff of morals.<a name='6_FNanchor_262'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_262'><sup>[262]</sup></a> If we define
+more precisely what we mean by morals, on the practical side, we may say
+that it is constituted by those customs which the great majority of the
+members of a community regard as conducive to the welfare of the community
+at some particular time and place. It is for this reason&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, because
+it is a question of what is and not of merely what some think ought to
+be&mdash;that practical morals form the proper subject of science. &quot;If the word
+'ethics' is to be used as the name for a science,&quot; Westermarck says, &quot;the
+object of that science can only be to study the moral consciousness as a
+fact.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_263'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_263'><sup>[263]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Lecky's <i>History of European Morals</i> is a study in practical
+    rather than in theoretical morals. Dr. Westermarck's great work,
+    <i>The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, is a more modern
+    example of the objectively scientific discussion of morals,
+    although this is not perhaps clearly brought out by the title. It
+    is essentially a description of the actual historical facts of
+    what has been, and not of what &quot;ought&quot; to be. Mr. L. T. Hobhouse's
+    <i>Morals in Evolution</i>, published almost at the same time, is
+    similarly a work which, while professedly dealing with ideas,<a name='6_Page_371'></a>
+    <i>i.e.</i>, with rules and regulations, and indeed disclaiming the
+    task of being &quot;the history of conduct,&quot; yet limits itself to
+    those rules which are &quot;in fact, the normal conduct of the average
+    man&quot; (vol. i, p. 26). In other words, it is essentially a history
+    of practical morality, and not of theoretical morality. One of
+    the most subtle and suggestive of living thinkers, M. Jules de
+    Gaultier, in several of his books, and notably in <i>La D&eacute;pendance
+    de la Morale et l'Ind&eacute;pendance des M&oelig;urs</i> (1907), has
+    analyzed the conception of morals in a somewhat similar sense.
+    &quot;Phenomena relative to conduct,&quot; as he puts it (<i>op. cit.</i>, p.
+    58), &quot;are given in experience like other phenomena, so that
+    morality, or the totality of the laws which at any given moment
+    of historic evolution are applied to human practice, is dependent
+    on customs.&quot; I may also refer to the masterly exposition of this
+    aspect of morality in L&eacute;vy-Bruhl's <i>La Morale et la Science des
+    M&oelig;urs</i> (there is an English translation).</p></div>
+
+<p>Practical morality is thus the solid natural fact which forms the
+biological basis of theoretical morality, whether traditional or ideal.
+The excessive fear, so widespread among us, lest we should injure morality
+is misplaced. We cannot hurt morals though we can hurt ourselves. Morals
+is based on nature and can at the most only be modified. As Crawley
+rightly insists,<a name='6_FNanchor_264'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_264'><sup>[264]</sup></a> even the categorical imperatives of our moral
+traditions, so far from being, as is often popularly supposed, attempts to
+suppress Nature, arise in the desire to assist Nature; they are simply an
+attempt at the rigid formulation of natural impulses. The evil of them
+only lies in the fact that, like all things that become rigid and dead,
+they tend to persist beyond the period when they were a beneficial vital
+reaction to the environment. They thus provoke new forms of ideal
+morality; and practical morals develops new structures, in accordance with
+new vital relationships, to replace older and desiccated traditions.</p>
+
+<p>There is clearly an intimate relationship between theoretical morals and
+practical morals or morality proper. For not only is theoretical morality
+the outcome in consciousness of realized <a name='6_Page_372'></a>practices embodied in the
+general life of the community, but, having thus become conscious, it
+reacts on those practices and tends to support them or, by its own
+spontaneous growth, to modify them. This action is diverse, according as
+we are dealing with one or the other of the strongly marked divisions of
+theoretical morality: traditional and posterior morality, retarding the
+vital growth of moral practice, or ideal and anterior morality,
+stimulating the vital growth of moral practice. Practical morality, or
+morals proper, may be said to stand between these two divisions of
+theoretical morality. Practice is perpetually following after anterior
+theoretical morality, in so far of course as ideal morality really is
+anterior and not, as so often happens, astray up a blind alley. Posterior
+or traditional morality always follows after practice. The result is that
+while the actual morality, in practice at any time or place, is always
+closely related to theoretical morality, it can never exactly correspond
+to either of its forms. It always fails to catch up with ideal morality;
+it is always outgrowing traditional morality.</p>
+
+<p>It has been necessary at this point to formulate definitely the three
+chief forms in which the word &quot;moral&quot; is used, although under one shape or
+another they cannot but be familiar to the reader. In the discussion of
+prostitution it has indeed been easily possible to follow the usual custom
+of allowing the special sense in which the word was used to be determined
+by the context. But now, when we are, for the moment, directly concerned
+with the specific question of the evolution of sexual morality, it is
+necessary to be more precise in formulating the terms we use. In this
+chapter, except when it is otherwise stated, we are concerned primarily
+with morals proper, with actual conduct as it develops among the masses of
+a community, and only secondarily with anterior morality or with posterior
+morality.</p>
+
+<p>Sexual morality, like all other kinds of morality, is necessarily
+constituted by inherited traditions modified by new adaptations to the
+changing social environment. If the influence of tradition becomes unduly
+pronounced the moral life tends to decay and lose its vital adaptability.
+If adaptability becomes too facile the moral life tends to become unstable
+and to lose <a name='6_Page_373'></a>authority. It is only by a reasonable synthesis of structure
+and function&mdash;of what is called the traditional with what is called the
+ideal&mdash;that the moral life can retain its authority without losing its
+reality. Many, even among those who call themselves moralists, have found
+this hard to understand. In a vain desire for an impossible logicality
+they have over-emphasized either the ideal influence on practical morals
+or, still more frequently, the traditional influence, which has appealed
+to them because of the impressive authority its <i>dicta</i> seem to convey.
+The results in the sphere we are here concerned with have often been
+unfortunate, for no social impulse is so rebellious to decayed traditions,
+so volcanically eruptive, as that of sex.</p>
+
+<p>We are accustomed to identify our present marriage system with &quot;morality&quot;
+in the abstract, and for many people, perhaps for most, it is difficult to
+realize that the slow and insensible movement which is always affecting
+social life at the present time, as at every other time, is profoundly
+affecting our sexual morality. A transference of values is constantly
+taking place; what was once the very standard of morality becomes immoral,
+what was once without question immoral becomes a new standard. Such a
+process is almost as bewildering as for the European world two thousand
+years ago was the great struggle between the Roman city and the Christian
+Church, when it became necessary to realize that what Marcus Aurelius, the
+great pattern of morality, had sought to crush as without question
+immoral,<a name='6_FNanchor_265'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_265'><sup>[265]</sup></a> was becoming regarded as the supreme standard of morality.
+The classic world considered love and pity and self-sacrifice as little
+better than weakness and sometimes worse; the Christian world not only
+regarded them as moralities but incarnated them in a god. Our sexual
+morality has likewise disregarded natural human emotions, and is incapable
+of understanding those who declare that to retain unduly traditional laws
+that are opposed to the vital needs of human societies is not a morality
+but an immorality.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_374'></a>
+<p>The reason why the gradual evolution of moral ideals, which is always
+taking place, tends in the sexual sphere, at all events among ourselves,
+to reach a stage in which there seems to be an opposition between
+different standards lies in the fact that as yet we really have no
+specific sexual morality at all.<a name='6_FNanchor_266'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_266'><sup>[266]</sup></a> That may seem surprising at first to
+one who reflects on the immense weight which is usually attached to
+&quot;sexual morality.&quot; And it is undoubtedly true that we have a morality
+which we apply to the sphere of sex. But that morality is one which
+belongs mainly to the sphere of property and was very largely developed on
+a property basis. All the historians of morals in general, and of marriage
+in particular, have set forth this fact, and illustrated it with a wealth
+of historical material. We have as yet no generally recognized sexual
+morality which has been based on the specific sexual facts of life. That
+becomes clear at once when we realize the central fact that the sexual
+relationship is based on love, at the very least on sexual desire, and
+that that basis is so deep as to be even physiological, for in the absence
+of such sexual desire it is physiologically impossible for a man to effect
+intercourse with a woman. Any specific sexual morality must be based on
+that fact. But our so-called &quot;sexual morality,&quot; so far from being based on
+that fact, attempts to ignore it altogether. It makes contracts, it
+arranges sexual relationships beforehand, it offers to guarantee
+permanency of sexual inclinations. It introduces, that is, considerations
+of a kind that is perfectly sound in the economic sphere to which such
+considerations rightly belong, but ridiculously incongruous in the sphere
+of sex to which they have solemnly been applied. The economic
+relationships of life, in the large sense, are, as we shall see, extremely
+important in the evolution of any sound sexual morality, but they belong
+to the conditions of its development and do not constitute its basis.<a name='6_FNanchor_267'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_267'><sup>[267]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_375'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The fact that, from the legal point of view, marriage is
+    primarily an arrangement for securing the rights of property and
+    inheritance is well illustrated by the English divorce law
+    to-day. According to this law, if a woman has sexual intercourse
+    with any man beside her husband, he is entitled to divorce her;
+    if, however, the husband has intercourse with another woman
+    beside his wife, she is not entitled to a divorce; that is only
+    accorded if, in addition, he has also been cruel to her, or
+    deserted her, and from any standpoint of ideal morality such a
+    law is obviously unjust, and it has now been discarded in nearly
+    all civilized lands except England.</p>
+
+<p>    But from the standpoint of property and inheritance it is quite
+    intelligible, and on that ground it is still supported by the
+    majority of Englishmen. If the wife has intercourse with other
+    men there is a risk that the husband's property will be inherited
+    by a child who is not his own. But the sexual intercourse of the
+    husband with other women is followed by no such risk. The
+    infidelity of the wife is a serious offence against property; the
+    infidelity of the husband is no offence against property, and
+    cannot possibly, therefore, be regarded as a ground for divorce
+    from our legal point of view. The fact that his adultery
+    complicated by cruelty is such a ground, is simply a concession
+    to modern feeling. Yet, as Helena St&ouml;cker truly points out
+    (&quot;Verschiedenheit im Liebesleben des Weibes und des Mannes,&quot;
+    <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Dec., 1908), a married man
+    who has an unacknowledged child with a woman outside of marriage,
+    has committed an act as seriously anti-social as a married woman
+    who has a child without acknowledging that the father is not her
+    husband. In the first case, the husband, and in the second case,
+    the wife, have placed an undue amount of responsibility on
+    another person. (The same point is brought forward by the author
+    of <i>The Question of English Divorce</i>, p. 56.)</p>
+
+<p>    I insist here on the economic element in our sexual morality,
+    because that is the element which has given it a kind of
+    stability and become established in law. But if we take a wider
+    view of our sexual morality, we cannot ignore the ancient element
+    of asceticism, which has given religious passion and sanction to
+    it. Our sexual morality is thus, in reality, a bastard born of
+    the union of property-morality with primitive ascetic morality,
+    neither in true relationship to the vital facts of the sexual
+    life. It is, indeed, the property element which, with a few
+    inconsistencies, has become finally the main concern of our law,
+    but the ascetic element (with, in the past, a wavering
+    relationship to law) has had an important part in moulding
+    popular sentiment and in creating an attitude of reprobation
+    towards sexual intercourse <i>per se</i>, although such intercourse is
+    regarded as an essential part of the property-based and
+    religiously sanctified institution of legal marriage.</p>
+
+<p>    The glorification of virginity led by imperceptible stages to the
+    <a name='6_Page_376'></a>formulation of &quot;fornication&quot; as a deadly sin, and finally as an
+    actual secular &quot;crime.&quot; It is sometimes stated that it was not
+    until the Council of Trent that the Church formally anathematized
+    those who held that the state of marriage was higher than that of
+    virginity, but the opinion had been more or less formally held
+    from almost the earliest ages of Christianity, and is clear in
+    the epistles of Paul. All the theologians agree that fornication
+    is a mortal sin. Caramuel, indeed, the distinguished Spanish
+    theologian, who made unusual concessions to the demands of reason
+    and nature, held that fornication is only evil because it is
+    forbidden, but Innocent XI formally condemned that proposition.
+    Fornication as a mortal sin became gradually secularized into
+    fornication as a crime. Fornication was a crime in France even as
+    late as the eighteenth century, as Tarde found in his historical
+    investigations of criminal procedure in P&eacute;rigord; adultery was
+    also a crime and severely punished quite independently of any
+    complaint from either of the parties (Tarde, &quot;Arch&eacute;ologie
+    Criminelle en P&eacute;rigord,&quot; <i>Archives de l'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle</i>, Nov. 15, 1898).</p>
+
+<p>    The Puritans of the Commonwealth days in England (like the
+    Puritans of Geneva) followed the Catholic example and adopted
+    ecclesiastical offences against chastity into the secular law. By
+    an Act passed in 1653 fornication became punishable by three
+    months' imprisonment inflicted on both parties. By the same Act
+    the adultery of a wife (nothing is said of a husband) was made
+    felony, both for her and her partner in guilt, and therefore
+    punishable by death (Scobell, <i>Acts and Ordinances</i>, p. 121).</p></div>
+
+<p>The action of a pseudo-morality, such as our sexual morality has been, is
+double-edged. On the one side it induces a secret and shamefaced laxity,
+on the other it upholds a rigid and uninspiring theoretical code which so
+few can consistently follow that theoretical morality is thereby degraded
+into a more or less empty form. &quot;The human race would gain much,&quot; said the
+wise S&eacute;nancour, &quot;if virtue were made less laborious. The merit would not
+be so great, but what is the use of an elevation which can rarely be
+sustained?&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_268'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_268'><sup>[268]</sup></a> At present, as a more recent moralist, Ellen Key, puts
+it, we only have an immorality which favors vice and makes virtue
+irrealizable, and, as she exclaims with pardonable extravagance, to preach
+a sounder morality to the young, <a name='6_Page_377'></a>without at the same time condemning the
+society which encourages the prevailing immorality, is &quot;worse than folly,
+it is crime.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>It is on the lines along which S&eacute;nancour a century ago and Ellen Key
+to-day are great pioneers that the new forms of anterior or ideal
+theoretical morality are now moving, in advance, according to the general
+tendency in morals, of traditional morality and even of practice.</p>
+
+<p>There is one great modern movement of a definite kind which will serve to
+show how clearly sexual morality is to-day moving towards a new
+standpoint. This is the changing attitude of the bulk of the community
+towards both State marriage and religious marriage, and the growing
+tendency to disallow State interference with sexual relationships, apart
+from the production of children.</p>
+
+<p>There has no doubt always been a tendency among the masses of the
+population in Europe to dispense with the official sanction of sexual
+relationships until such relationships have been well established and the
+hope of offspring has become justifiable. This tendency has been
+crystallized into recognized customs among numberless rural communities
+little touched either by the disturbing influences of the outside world or
+the controlling influences of theological Christian conceptions. But at
+the present day this tendency is not confined to the more primitive and
+isolated communities of Europe among whom, on the contrary, it has tended
+to die out. It is an unquestionable fact, says Professor Bruno Meyer, that
+far more than the half of sexual intercourse now takes place outside legal
+marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_269'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_269'><sup>[269]</sup></a> It is among the intelligent classes and in prosperous and
+progressive communities that this movement is chiefly marked. We see
+throughout the world the practical common sense of the people shaping
+itself in the direction which has been pioneered by the ideal moralists
+who invariably precede the new growth of practical morality.</p>
+
+<p>The voluntary childless marriages of to-day have served to show the
+possibility of such unions outside legal marriage, and <a name='6_Page_378'></a>such free unions
+are becoming, as Mrs. Parsons points out, &quot;a progressive substitute for
+marriage.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_270'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_270'><sup>[270]</sup></a> The gradual but steady rise in the age for entering on
+legal marriage also points in the same direction, though it indicates not
+merely an increase of free unions but an increase of all forms of normal
+and abnormal sexuality outside marriage. Thus in England and Wales, in
+1906, only 43 per 1,000 husbands and 146 per 1,000 wives were under age,
+while the average age for husbands was 28.6 years and for wives 26.4
+years. For men the age has gone up some eight months during the past forty
+years, for women more than this. In the large cities, like London, where
+the possibilities of extra-matrimonial relationships are greater, the age
+for legal marriage is higher than in the country.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>If we are to regard the age of legal marriage as, on the whole,
+    the age at which the population enters into sexual unions, it is
+    undoubtedly too late. Beyer, a leading German neurologist, finds
+    that there are evils alike in early and in late marriage, and
+    comes to the conclusion that in temperate zones the best age for
+    women to marry is the twenty-first year, and for men the
+    twenty-fifth year.</p>
+
+<p>    Yet, under bad economic conditions and with a rigid marriage law,
+    early marriages are in every respect disastrous. They are among
+    the poor a sign of destitution. The very poorest marry first, and
+    they do so through the feeling that their condition cannot be
+    worse. (Dr. Michael Ryan brought together much interesting
+    evidence concerning the causes of early marriage in Ireland in
+    his <i>Philosophy of Marriage</i>, 1837, pp. 58-72). Among the poor,
+    therefore, early marriage is always a misfortune. &quot;Many good
+    people,&quot; says Mr. Thomas Holmes, Secretary of the Howard
+    Association and missionary at police courts (in an interview,
+    <i>Daily Chronicle</i>, Sept. 8, 1906), &quot;advise boys and girls to get
+    married in order to prevent what they call a 'disgrace.' This I
+    consider to be absolutely wicked, and it leads to far greater
+    evils than it can possibly avert.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Early marriages are one of the commonest causes both of
+    prostitution and divorce. They lead to prostitution in
+    innumerable cases, even when no outward separation takes place.
+    The fact that they lead to divorce is shown by the significant
+    circumstance that in England, although only 146 per 1,000 women
+    are under twenty-one at marriage, <a name='6_Page_379'></a>of the wives concerned in
+    divorce cases, 280 per 1,000 were under twenty-one at marriage,
+    and this discrepancy is even greater than it appears, for in the
+    well-to-do class, which can alone afford the luxury of divorce,
+    the normal age at marriage is much higher than for the population
+    generally. Inexperience, as was long ago pointed out by Milton
+    (who had learnt this lesson to his cost), leads to shipwreck in
+    marriage. &quot;They who have lived most loosely,&quot; he wrote, &quot;prove
+    most successful in their matches, because their wild affections,
+    unsettling at will, have been so many divorces to teach them
+    experience.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Miss Clapperton, referring to the educated classes, advocates
+    very early marriage, even during student life, which might then
+    be to some extent carried on side by side (<i>Scientific
+    Meliorism</i>, Ch. XVII). Ellen Key, also, advocates early marriage.
+    But she wisely adds that it involves the necessity for easy
+    divorce. That, indeed, is the only condition which can render
+    early marriage generally desirable. Young people&mdash;unless they
+    possess very simple and inert natures&mdash;can neither foretell the
+    course of their own development and their own strongest needs,
+    nor estimate accurately the nature and quality of another
+    personality. A marriage formed at an early age very speedily
+    ceases to be a marriage in anything but name. Sometimes a young
+    girl applies for a separation from her husband even on the very
+    day after marriage.</p></div>
+
+<p>The more or less permanent free unions formed among us in Europe are
+usually to be regarded merely as trial-marriages. That is to say they are
+a precaution rendered desirable both by uncertainty as to either the
+harmony or the fruitfulness of union until actual experiment has been
+made, and by the practical impossibility of otherwise rectifying any
+mistake in consequence of the antiquated rigidity of most European divorce
+laws. Such trial marriages are therefore demanded by prudence and caution,
+and as foresight increases with the development of civilization, and
+constantly grows among us, we may expect that there will be a parallel
+development in the frequency of trial marriage and in the social attitude
+towards such unions. The only alternative&mdash;that a radical reform in
+European marriage laws should render the divorce of a legal marriage as
+economical and as convenient as the divorce of a free marriage&mdash;cannot yet
+be expected, for law always lags behind public opinion and public
+practice.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, we take a wider historical view, we find that we are in
+presence of a phenomenon which, though favored by <a name='6_Page_380'></a>modern conditions, is
+very ancient and widespread, dating, so far as Europe is concerned, from
+the time when the Church first sought to impose ecclesiastical marriage,
+so that it is practically a continuation of the ancient European custom of
+private marriage.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Trial-marriages pass by imperceptible gradations into the group
+    of courtship customs which, while allowing the young couple to
+    spend the night together, in a position of more or less intimacy,
+    exclude, as a rule, actual sexual intercourse. Night-courtship
+    flourishes in stable and well-knit European communities not
+    liable to disorganization by contact with strangers. It seems to
+    be specially common in Teutonic and Celtic lands, and is known by
+    various names, as <i>Proben&auml;chte, fensterln, Kiltgang,
+    hand-fasting, bundling, sitting-up, courting on the bed, etc</i>. It
+    is well known in Wales; it is found in various English counties
+    as in Cheshire; it existed in eighteenth century Ireland
+    (according to Richard Twiss's <i>Travels</i>); in New England it was
+    known as <i>tarrying</i>; in Holland it is called <i>questing</i>. In
+    Norway, where it is called <i>night-running</i>, on account of the
+    long distance between the homesteads, I am told that it is
+    generally practiced, though the clergy preach against it; the
+    young girl puts on several extra skirts and goes to bed, and the
+    young man enters by door or window and goes to bed with her; they
+    talk all night, and are not bound to marry unless it should
+    happen that the girl becomes pregnant.</p>
+
+<p>    Rhys and Brynmor-Jones (<i>Welsh People</i>, pp. 582-4) have an
+    interesting passage on this night-courtship with numerous
+    references. As regards Germany see, <i>e.g.</i>, Rudeck, <i>Geschichte
+    der &ouml;ffentlichen Sittlichkeit</i>, pp. 146-154. With reference to
+    trial-marriage generally many facts and references are given by
+    M. A. Potter (<i>Sohrab and Rustem</i>, pp. 129-137).</p>
+
+<p>    The custom of free marriage unions, usually rendered legal before
+    or after the birth of children, seems to be fairly common in
+    many, or perhaps all, rural parts of England. The union is made
+    legal, if found satisfactory, even when there is no prospect of
+    children. In some counties it is said to be almost a universal
+    practice for the women to have sexual relationships before legal
+    marriage; sometimes she marries the first man whom she tries;
+    sometimes she tries several before finding the man who suits her.
+    Such marriages necessarily, on the whole, turn out better than
+    marriages in which the woman, knowing nothing of what awaits her
+    and having no other experiences for comparison, is liable to be
+    disillusioned or to feel that she &quot;might have done better.&quot; Even
+    when legal recognition is not sought until after the birth of
+    children, it by no means follows that any moral deterioration is
+    involved. Thus in <a name='6_Page_381'></a>some parts of Staffordshire where it is the
+    custom of the women to have a child before marriage,
+    notwithstanding this &quot;corruption,&quot; we are told (Burton, <i>City of
+    the Saints</i>, Appendix IV), the women are &quot;very good neighbors,
+    excellent, hard-working, and affectionate wives and mothers.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The lower social classes, especially peasants,&quot; remarks Dr.
+    Ehrhard (&quot;Auch Ein Wort zur Ehereform,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft</i>, Jahrgang I, Heft 10), &quot;know better than we that
+    the marriage bed is the foundation of marriage. On that account
+    they have retained the primitive custom of trial-marriage which,
+    in the Middle Ages, was still practiced even in the best circles.
+    It has the further advantage that the marriage is not concluded
+    until it has shown itself to be fruitful. Trial-marriage assumes,
+    of course, that virginity is not valued beyond its true worth.&quot;
+    With regard to this point it may be mentioned that in many parts
+    of the world a woman is more highly esteemed if she has had
+    intercourse before marriage (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Potter, <i>op. cit.</i>, pp.
+    163 <i>et seq.</i>). While virginity is one of the sexual attractions
+    a woman may possess, an attraction that is based on a natural
+    instinct (see &quot;The Evolution of Modesty,&quot; in vol. i of these
+    <i>Studies</i>), yet an exaggerated attention to virginity can only be
+    regarded as a sexual perversion, allied to <i>paidophilia</i>, the
+    sexual attraction to children.</p>
+
+<p>    In very small co&ouml;rdinated communities the primitive custom of
+    trial-marriage tends to decay when there is a great invasion of
+    strangers who have not been brought up to the custom (which seems
+    to them indistinguishable from the license of prostitution), and
+    who fail to undertake the obligations which trial-marriage
+    involves. This is what happened in the case of the so-called
+    &quot;island custom&quot; of Portland, which lasted well on into the
+    nineteenth century; according to this custom a woman before
+    marriage lived with her lover until pregnant and then married
+    him; she was always strictly faithful to him while living with
+    him, but if no pregnancy occurred the couple might decide that
+    they were not meant for each other, and break off relations. The
+    result was that for a long period of years no illegitimate
+    children were born, and few marriages were childless. But when
+    the Portland stone trade was developed, the workmen imported from
+    London took advantage of the &quot;island custom,&quot; but refused to
+    fulfil the obligation of marriage when pregnancy occurred. The
+    custom consequently fell into disuse (see, <i>e.g.</i>, translator's
+    note to Bloch's <i>Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, p. 237, and the
+    quotation there given from Hutchins, <i>History and Antiquities of
+    Dorset</i>, vol. ii, p. 820).</p>
+
+<p>    It is, however, by no means only in rural districts, but in great
+    cities also that marriages are at the outset free unions. Thus in
+    Paris Despr&eacute;s stated more than thirty years ago (<i>La Prostitution
+    &agrave; Paris</i>, p. 137) that in an average arrondissement nine out of
+    ten legal marriages are the consolidation of a free union;
+    though, while that was an average, <a name='6_Page_382'></a>in a few arrondissements it
+    was only three out of ten. Much the same conditions prevail in
+    Paris to-day; at least half the marriages, it is stated, are of
+    this kind.</p>
+
+<p>    In Teutonic lands the custom of free unions is very ancient and
+    well-established. Thus in Sweden, Ellen Key states (<i>Liebe und
+    Ehe</i>, p. 123), the majority of the population begin married life
+    in this way. The arrangement is found to be beneficial, and
+    &quot;marital fidelity is as great as pre-marital freedom is
+    unbounded.&quot; In Denmark, also, a large number of children are
+    conceived before the unions of the parents are legalized (Rubin
+    and Westergaard, quoted by Gaedeken, <i>Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle</i>, Feb. 15, 1909).</p>
+
+<p>    In Germany not only is the proportion of illegitimate births very
+    high, since in Berlin it is 17 per cent., and in some towns very
+    much higher, but ante-nuptial conceptions take place in nearly
+    half the marriages, and sometimes in the majority. Thus in Berlin
+    more than 40 per cent, of all legitimate firstborn children are
+    conceived before marriage, while in some rural provinces (where
+    the proportion of illegitimate births is lower) the percentage of
+    marriages following ante-nuptial conceptions is much higher than
+    in Berlin. The conditions in rural Germany have been especially
+    investigated by a committee of Lutheran pastors, and were set
+    forth a few years ago in two volumes, <i>Die Geschlecht-sittlich
+    Verh&auml;ltnisse im Deutschen Reiche</i>, which are full of instruction
+    concerning German sexual morality. In Hanover, it is said in this
+    work, the majority of authorities state that intercourse before
+    marriage is the rule. At the very least, a <i>probe</i>, or trial, is
+    regarded as a matter-of-course preliminary to a marriage, since
+    no one wishes &quot;to buy a pig in a poke.&quot; In Saxony, likewise, we
+    are told, it is seldom that a girl fails to have intercourse
+    before marriage, or that her first child is not born, or at all
+    events conceived, outside marriage. This is justified as a proper
+    proving of a bride before taking her for good. &quot;One does not buy
+    even a penny pipe without trying it,&quot; a German pastor was
+    informed. Around Stettin, in twelve districts (nearly half the
+    whole), sexual intercourse before marriage is a recognized
+    custom, and in the remainder, if not exactly a custom, it is very
+    common, and is not severely or even at all condemned by public
+    opinion. In some districts marriage immediately follows
+    pregnancy. In the Dantzig neighborhood, again, according to the
+    Lutheran Committee, intercourse before marriage occurs in more
+    than half the cases, but marriage by no means always follows
+    pregnancy. Nearly all the girls who go as servants have lovers,
+    and country people in engaging servants sometimes tell them that
+    at evening and night they may do as they like. This state of
+    things is found to be favorable to conjugal fidelity. The German
+    peasant girl, as another authority remarks (E. H. Meyer, <i>Deutsche
+    Volkskunde</i>, 1898, pp. 154, 164), has her own room; she may
+    receive her lover; it is no great <a name='6_Page_383'></a>shame if she gives herself to
+    him. The number of women who enter legal marriage still virgins
+    is not large (this refers more especially to Baden), but public
+    opinion protects them, and such opinion is unfavorable to the
+    disregard of the responsibilities involved by sexual
+    relationships. The German woman is less chaste before marriage
+    than her French or Italian sister. But, Meyer adds, she is
+    probably more faithful after marriage than they are.</p>
+
+<p>    It is assumed by many that this state of German morality as it
+    exists to-day is a new phenomenon, and the sign of a rapid
+    national degeneration. That is by no means the case. In this
+    connection we may accept the evidence of Catholic priests, who,
+    by the experience of the confessional, are enabled to speak with
+    authority. An old Bavarian priest thus writes (<i>Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft</i>, 1907, Bd. ii, Heft I): &quot;At Moral Congresses we
+    hear laudation of 'the good old times' when, faith and morality
+    prevailed among the people. Whether that is correct is another
+    question. As a young priest I heard of as many and as serious
+    sins as I now hear of as an old man. The morality of the people
+    is not greater nor is it less. The error is the belief that
+    immorality goes out of the towns and poisons the country. People
+    talk as though the country were a pure Paradise of innocence. I
+    will by no means call our country people immoral, but from an
+    experience of many years I can say that in sexual respects there
+    is no difference between town and country. I have learnt to know
+    more than a hundred different parishes, and in the most various
+    localities, in the mountain and in the plain, on poor land and on
+    rich land. But everywhere I find the same morals and lack of
+    morals. There are everywhere the same men, though in the country
+    there are often better Christians than in the towns.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    If, however, we go much farther back than the memories of a
+    living man it seems highly probable that the sexual customs of
+    the German people of the present day are not substantially
+    different&mdash;though it may well be that at different periods
+    different circumstances have accentuated them&mdash;from what they
+    were in the dawn of Teutonic history. This is the opinion of one
+    of the profoundest students of Indo-Germanic origins. In his
+    <i>Reallexicon</i> (art. &quot;Keuschheit&quot;) O. Schrader points out that the
+    oft-quoted Tacitus, strictly considered, can only be taken to
+    prove that women were chaste after marriage, and that no
+    prostitution existed. There can be no doubt, he adds, and the
+    earliest historical evidence shows, that women in ancient Germany
+    were not chaste before marriage. This fact has been disguised by
+    the tendency of the old classic writers to idealize the Northern
+    peoples.</p>
+
+<p>    Thus we have to realize that the conception of &quot;German virtue,&quot;
+    which has been rendered so familiar to the world by a long
+    succession of German writers, by no means involves any special
+    devotion to the virtue of chastity. Tacitus, indeed, in the
+    passage more often quoted in<a name='6_Page_384'></a> Germany than any other passage in
+    classic literature, while correctly emphasizing the late puberty
+    of the Germans and their brutal punishment of conjugal infidelity
+    on the part of the wife, seemed to imply that they were also
+    chaste. But we have always to remark that Tacitus wrote as a
+    satirizing moralist as well as a historian, and that, as he
+    declaimed concerning the virtues of the German barbarians, he had
+    one eye on the Roman gallery whose vices he desired to lash. Much
+    the same perplexing confusion has been created by Gildas, who, in
+    describing the results of the Saxon Conquest of Britain, wrote as
+    a preacher as well as a historian, and the same moral purpose (as
+    Dill has pointed out) distorts Salvian's picture of the vices of
+    fifth century Gaul. (I may add that some of the evidence in favor
+    of the sexual freedom involved by early Teutonic faiths and
+    customs is brought together in the study of &quot;Sexual Periodicity&quot;
+    in the first volume of these <i>Studies</i>; <i>cf.</i> also, Rudeck,
+    <i>Geschichte der &ouml;ffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland</i>, 1897,
+    pp. 146 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    The freedom and tolerance of Russian sexual customs is fairly
+    well-known. As a Russian correspondent writes to me, &quot;the
+    liberalism of Russian manners enables youths and girls to enjoy
+    complete independence. They visit each other alone, they walk out
+    alone, and they return home at any hour they please. They have a
+    liberty of movement as complete as that of grown-up persons; some
+    avail themselves of it to discuss politics and others to make
+    love. They are able also to procure any books they please; thus
+    on the table of a college girl I knew I saw the <i>Elements of
+    Social Science</i>, then prohibited in Russia; this girl lived with
+    her aunt, but she had her own room, which only her friends were
+    allowed to enter: her aunt or other relations never entered it.
+    Naturally, she went out and came back at what hours she pleased.
+    Many other college girls enjoy the same freedom in their
+    families. It is very different in Italy, where girls have no
+    freedom of movement, and can neither go out alone nor receive
+    gentlemen alone, and where, unlike Russia, a girl who has sexual
+    intercourse outside marriage is really 'lost' and 'dishonored'&quot;
+    (<i>cf.</i> <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Aug., 1908, p. 506).</p>
+
+<p>    It would appear that freedom of sexual relationships in
+    Russia&mdash;apart from the influence of ancient custom&mdash;has largely
+    been rendered necessary by the difficulty of divorce. Married
+    couples, who were unable to secure divorce, separated and found
+    new partners without legal marriage. In 1907, however, an attempt
+    was made to remedy this defect in the law; a liberal divorce law
+    has been introduced, mutual consent with separation for a period
+    of over a year being recognized as adequate ground for divorce
+    (Beiblatt to <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. ii, Heft 5, p.
+    145).</p>
+
+<p>    During recent years there has developed among educated young men
+    and women in Russia a movement of sexual license, which, though
+    it <a name='6_Page_385'></a>is doubtless supported by the old traditions of sexual
+    freedom, must by no means be confused with that freedom, since it
+    is directly due to causes of an entirely different order. The
+    strenuous revolutionary efforts made during the last years of the
+    past century to attain political freedom absorbed the younger and
+    more energetic section of the educated classes, involved a high
+    degree of mental tension, and were accompanied by a tendency to
+    asceticism. The prospect of death was constantly before their
+    eyes, and any pre-occupation with sexual matters would have been
+    felt as out of harmony with the spirit of revolution. But during
+    the present century revolutionary activity has largely ceased. It
+    has been, to a considerable extent, replaced by a movement of
+    interest in sexual problems and of indulgence in sexual
+    unrestraint, often taking on a somewhat licentious and sensual
+    character. &quot;Free love&quot; unions have been formed by the students of
+    both sexes for the cultivation of these tendencies. A novel,
+    Artzibascheff's <i>Ssanin</i>, has had great influence in promoting
+    these tendencies. It is not likely that this movement, in its
+    more extravagant forms, will be of long duration. (For some
+    account of this movement, see, <i>e.g.</i>, Werner Daya, &quot;Die Sexuelle
+    Bewegung in Russland,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>,
+    Aug., 1908; also, &quot;Les Associations Erotiques en Russe,&quot; <i>Journal
+    du Droit International Priv&eacute;</i>, Jan., 1909, fully summarized in
+    <i>Revue des Id&eacute;es</i>, Feb., 1909.)</p>
+
+<p>    The movement of sexual freedom in Russia lies much deeper,
+    however, than this fashion of sensual license; it is found in
+    remote and uncontaminated parts of the country, and is connected
+    with very ancient customs.</p>
+
+<p>    There is considerable interest in realizing the existence of
+    long-continued sexual freedom&mdash;by some incorrectly termed
+    &quot;immorality,&quot; for what is in accordance with the customs or
+    <i>mores</i> of a people cannot be immoral&mdash;among peoples so virile
+    and robust, so eminently capable of splendid achievements, as the
+    Germans and the Russians. There is, however, a perhaps even
+    greater interest in tracing the development of the same tendency
+    among new prosperous and highly progressive communities who have
+    either not inherited the custom of sexual freedom or are now only
+    reviving it. We may, for instance, take the case of Australia and
+    New Zealand. This development may not, indeed, be altogether
+    recent. The frankness of sexual freedom in Australia and the
+    tolerance in regard to it were conspicuous thirty years ago to
+    those who came from England to live in the Southern continent,
+    and were doubtless equally visible at an earlier date. It seems,
+    however, to have developed with the increase of self-conscious
+    civilization. &quot;After careful inquiry,&quot; says the Rev. H.
+    Northcote, who has lived for many years in the Southern
+    hemisphere (<i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, Ch. VIII), &quot;the
+    writer finds sufficient evidence that of recent years intercourse
+    out of wedlock has tended towards an actual increase in parts of
+    Australia.&quot; Coghlan, the <a name='6_Page_386'></a>chief authority on Australian
+    statistics, states more precisely in his <i>Childbirth in New South
+    Wales</i>, published a few years ago: &quot;The prevalence of births of
+    ante-nuptial conception&mdash;a matter hitherto little understood&mdash;has
+    now been completely investigated. In New South Wales, during six
+    years, there were 13,366 marriages, in respect of which there was
+    ante-nuptial conception, and, as the total number of marriages
+    was 49,641, at least twenty-seven marriages in a hundred followed
+    conception. During the same period the illegitimate births
+    numbered 14,779; there were, therefore, 28,145 cases of
+    conception amongst unmarried women; in 13,366 instances marriage
+    preceded the birth of the child, so that the children were
+    legitimatized in rather more than forty-seven cases out of one
+    hundred. A study of the figures of births of ante-nuptial
+    conception makes it obvious that in a very large number of
+    instances pre-marital intercourse is not an anticipation of
+    marriage already arranged, but that the marriages are forced upon
+    the parties, and would not be entered into were it not for the
+    condition of the woman&quot; (<i>cf.</i> Powys, <i>Biometrika</i>, vol. i,
+    1901-2, p. 30). That marriage should be, as Coghlan puts it,
+    &quot;forced upon the parties,&quot; is not, of course, desirable in the
+    general moral interests, and it is also a sign of imperfect moral
+    responsibility in the parties themselves.</p>
+
+<p>    The existence of such a state of things, in a young country
+    belonging to a part of the world where the general level of
+    prosperity, intelligence, morality and social responsibility may
+    perhaps be said to be higher than in any other region inhabited
+    by people of white race, is a fact of the very first significance
+    when we are attempting to forecast the direction in which
+    civilized morality is moving.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is sometimes said, or at least implied, that in this movement women are
+taking only a passive part, and that the initiative lies with men who are
+probably animated by a desire to escape the responsibilities of marriage.
+This is very far from being the case.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The active part taken by German girls in sexual matters is
+    referred to again and again by the Lutheran pastors in their
+    elaborate and detailed report. Of the Dantzig district it is said
+    &quot;the young girls give themselves to the youths, or even seduce
+    them.&quot; The military man&oelig;uvres are frequently a source of
+    unchastity in rural districts. &quot;The fault is not merely with the
+    soldiers, but chiefly with the girls, who become half mad as soon
+    as they see a soldier,&quot; it is reported from the Dresden district.
+    And in summarizing conditions in East Germany the report states:
+    &quot;In sexual wantonness girls are not behind the young men; they
+    allow themselves to be seduced only too willingly; even grown-up
+    girls <a name='6_Page_387'></a>often go with half-grown youths, and girls frequently give
+    themselves to several men, one after the other. It is by no means
+    always the youth who effects the seduction, it is very frequently
+    the girls who entice the youth to sexual intercourse; they do not
+    always wait till the men come to their rooms, but will go to the
+    men's rooms and await them in their beds. With this inclination
+    to sexual intercourse, it is not surprising that many believe
+    that after sixteen no girl is a virgin. Unchastity among the
+    rural laboring classes is universal, and equally pronounced in
+    both sexes&quot; (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, 218).</p>
+
+<p>    Among women of the educated classes the conditions are somewhat
+    different. Restraints, both internal and external, are very much
+    greater. Virginity, at all events in its physical fact, is
+    retained, for the most part, till long past girlhood, and when it
+    is lost that loss is concealed with a scrupulous care and
+    prudence unknown to the working-classes. Yet the fundamental
+    tendencies remain the same. So far as England is concerned,
+    Geoffrey Mortimer quite truly writes (<i>Chapters on Human Love</i>,
+    1898, p. 117) that the two groups of (1) women who live in
+    constant secret association with a single lover, and (2) women
+    who give themselves to men, without fear, from the force of their
+    passions, are &quot;much larger than is generally supposed. In all
+    classes of society there are women who are only virgins by
+    repute. Many have borne children without being even suspected of
+    cohabitation; but the majority adopt methods of preventing
+    conception. A doctor in a small provincial town declared to me
+    that such irregular intimacies were the rule, and not by any
+    means the exception in his district.&quot; As regards Germany, a lady
+    doctor, Frau Adams-Lehmann, states in a volume of the
+    Transactions of the German Society for Combating Venereal Disease
+    (<i>Sexualp&auml;dagogik</i>, p. 271): &quot;I can say that during consultation
+    hours I see very few virgins over thirty. These women,&quot; she adds,
+    &quot;are sensible, courageous and natural, often the best of their
+    sex; and we ought to give them our moral support. They are
+    working towards a new age.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>It is frequently stated that the pronounced tendency witnessed at the
+present time to dispense as long as possible with the formal ceremony of
+binding marriage is unfortunate because it places women in a
+disadvantageous position. In so far as the social environment in which she
+lives views with disapproval sexual relationship without formal marriage,
+the statement is obviously to that extent true, though it must be
+remarked, on the other hand, that when social opinion strongly favors
+legal marriage it acts as a compelling force in the direction of
+legitimating free unions. But if the absence of the formal marriage <a name='6_Page_388'></a>bond
+constituted a real and intrinsic disadvantage to women in sexual relations
+they would not show themselves so increasingly ready to dispense with it.
+And, as a matter of fact, those who are intimately acquainted with the
+facts declare that the absence of formal marriage tends to give increased
+consideration to women and is even favorable to fidelity and to the
+prolongation of the union. This seems to be true as regards people of the
+most different social classes and even of different races. It is probably
+based on fundamental psychological facts, for the sense of compulsion
+always tends to produce a movement of exasperation and revolt. We are not
+here concerned with the question as to how far formal marriage also is
+based on natural facts; that is a question which will come up for
+discussion at a later stage.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The advantage for women of free sexual unions over compulsory
+    marriage is well recognized in the case of the working classes of
+    London, among whom sexual relationships before marriage are not
+    unusual, and are indulgently regarded. It is, for instance,
+    clearly asserted in the monumental work of C. Booth, <i>Life and
+    Labour of the People</i>. &quot;It is even said of rough laborers,&quot; we
+    read, for instance, in the final volume of this work (p. 41),
+    &quot;that they behave best if not married to the woman with whom they
+    live.&quot; The evidence on this point is often the more impressive
+    because brought forward by people who are very far indeed from
+    being anxious to base any general conclusions on it. Thus in the
+    same volume a clergyman is quoted as saying: &quot;These people manage
+    to live together fairly peaceably so long as they are not
+    married, but if they marry it always seems to lead to blows and
+    rows.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It may be said that in such a case we witness not so much the
+    operation of a natural law as the influences of a great centre of
+    civilization exerting its moralizing effects even on those who
+    stand outside the legally recognized institution of marriage.
+    That contention may, however, be thrust aside. We find exactly
+    the same tendency in Jamaica where the population is largely
+    colored, and the stress of a high civilization can scarcely be
+    said to exist. Legal marriage is here discarded to an even
+    greater extent than in London, for little care is taken to
+    legitimate children by marriage. It was found by a committee
+    appointed to inquire into the marriage laws of Jamaica, that
+    three out of every five births are illegitimate, that is to say
+    that legal illegitimacy has ceased to be immoral, having become
+    the recognized custom of the majority of the inhabitants. There
+    is no social feeling against illegitimacy. The men approve of the
+    decay of legal marriage, because they <a name='6_Page_389'></a>say the women work better
+    in the house when they are not married; the women approve of it,
+    because they say that men are more faithful when not bound by
+    legal marriage. This has been well brought out by W. P.
+    Livingstone in his interesting book, <i>Black Jamaica</i> (1899). The
+    people recognize, he tells us (p. 210), that &quot;faithful living
+    together constitutes marriage;&quot; they say that they are &quot;married
+    but not parsoned.&quot; One reason against legal marriage is that they
+    are disinclined to incur the expense of the official sanction.
+    (In Venezuela, it may be added, where also the majority of births
+    take place outside official marriage, the chief reason is stated
+    to be, not moral laxity, but the same disinclination to pay the
+    expenses of legal weddings.) Frequently in later life, sometimes
+    when they have grown up sons and daughters, couples go through
+    the official ceremony. (In Abyssinia, also, it is stated by
+    Hugues Le Roux, where the people are Christian and marriage is
+    indissoluble and the ceremony expensive, it is not usual for
+    married couples to make their unions legal until old age is
+    coming on, <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, April, 1908, p. 217.) It is
+    significant that this condition of things in Jamaica, as
+    elsewhere, is associated with the superiority of women. &quot;The
+    women of the peasant class,&quot; remarks Livingstone (p. 212), &quot;are
+    still practically independent of the men, and are frequently
+    their superiors, both in physical and mental capacity.&quot; They
+    refuse to bind themselves to a man who may turn out to be good
+    for nothing, a burden instead of a help and protection. So long
+    as the unions are free they are likely to be permanent. If made
+    legal, the risk is that they will become intolerable, and cease
+    by one of the parties leaving the other. &quot;The necessity for
+    mutual kindness and forbearance establishes a condition that is
+    the best guarantee of permanency&quot; (p. 214). It is said, however,
+    that under the influence of religious and social pressure the
+    people are becoming more anxious to adopt &quot;respectable&quot; ideas of
+    sexual relationships, though it seems evident, in view of
+    Livingstone's statement, that such respectability is likely to
+    involve a decrease of real morality. Livingstone points out,
+    however, one serious defect in the present conditions which makes
+    it easy for immoral men to escape paternal responsibilities, and
+    this is the absence of legal provision for the registration of
+    the father's name on birth certificates (p. 256). In every
+    country where the majority of births are illegitimate it is an
+    obvious social necessity that the names of both parents should be
+    duly registered on all birth certificates. It has been an
+    unpardonable failure on the part of the Jamaican Government to
+    neglect the simple measure needed to give &quot;each child born in the
+    country a legal father&quot; (p. 258).</p></div>
+
+<p>We thus see that we have to-day reached a position in which&mdash;partly owing
+to economic causes and partly to causes which are <a name='6_Page_390'></a>more deeply rooted in
+the tendencies involved by civilization&mdash;women are more often detached
+than of old from legal sexual relationship with men and both sexes are
+less inclined than in earlier stages of civilization to sacrifice their
+own independence even when they form such relationships. &quot;I never heard of
+a woman over sixteen years of age who, prior to the breakdown of
+aboriginal customs after the coming of the whites, had not a husband,&quot;
+wrote Curr of the Australian Blacks.<a name='6_FNanchor_271'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_271'><sup>[271]</sup></a> Even as regards some parts of
+Europe, it is still possible to-day to make almost the same statement. But
+in all the richer, more energetic, and progressive countries very
+different conditions prevail. Marriage is late and a certain proportion of
+men, and a still larger proportion of women (who exceed the men in the
+general population) never marry at all.<a name='6_FNanchor_272'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_272'><sup>[272]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Before we consider the fateful significance of this fact of the growing
+proportion of adult unmarried women whose sexual relationships are
+unrecognized by the state and largely unrecognized altogether, it may be
+well to glance summarily at the two historical streams of tendency, both
+still in action among us, which affect the status of women, the one
+favoring the social equality of the sexes, the other favoring the social
+subjection of women. It is not difficult to trace these two streams both
+in conduct and opinion, in practical morality and in theoretical morality.</p>
+
+<p>At one time it was widely held that in early states of society, before the
+establishment of the patriarchal stage which places women under the
+protection of men, a matriarchal stage prevailed in which women possessed
+supreme power.<a name='6_FNanchor_273'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_273'><sup>[273]</sup></a> Bachofen, half a <a name='6_Page_391'></a>century ago, was the great champion
+of this view. He found a typical example of a matriarchal state among the
+ancient Lycians of Asia Minor with whom, Herodotus stated, the child takes
+the name of the mother, and follows her status, not that of the
+father.<a name='6_FNanchor_274'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_274'><sup>[274]</sup></a> Such peoples, Bachofen believed, were gyn&aelig;cocratic; power was
+in the hands of women. It can no longer be said that this opinion, in the
+form held by Bachofen, meets with any considerable support. As to the
+widespread prevalence of descent through the mother, there is no doubt
+whatever that it has prevailed very widely. But such descent through the
+mother, it has become recognized, by no means necessarily involves the
+power of the mother, and mother-descent may even be combined with a
+patriarchal system.<a name='6_FNanchor_275'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_275'><sup>[275]</sup></a> There has even been a tendency to run to the
+opposite extreme from Bachofen and to deny that mother-descent conferred
+any special claim for consideration on women. That, however, seems
+scarcely in accordance with the evidence and even in the absence of
+evidence could scarcely be regarded as probable. It would seem that we may
+fairly take as a type of the matriarchal family that based on the <i>ambil
+anak</i> marriage of Sumatra, in which the husband lives in the wife's
+family, paying nothing and occupying a subordinate position. The example
+of the Lycians is here in point, for although, as reported by Herodotus,
+there is nothing to show that there was anything of the nature of a
+gyn&aelig;cocracy in Lycia, we know that women in all these regions of Asia
+Minor enjoyed high consideration and influence, traces of which may be
+detected in the early literature and history of Christianity. A decisive
+and better known example of the favorable influence of mother-descent on
+the status of woman is afforded by the <i>beena</i> marriage of early Arabia.
+Under such a system the wife is not only preserved <a name='6_Page_392'></a>from the subjection
+involved by purchase, which always casts upon her some shadow of the
+inferiority belonging to property, but she herself is the owner of the
+tent and the household property, and enjoys the dignity always involved by
+the possession of property and the ability to free herself from her
+husband.<a name='6_FNanchor_276'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_276'><sup>[276]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is also impossible to avoid connecting the primitive tendency to
+mother-descent, and the emphasis it involved on maternal rather than
+paternal generative energy, with the tendency to place the goddess rather
+than the god in the forefront of primitive pantheons, a tendency which
+cannot possibly fail to reflect honor on the sex to which the supreme
+deity belongs, and which may be connected with the large part which
+primitive women often play in the functions of religion. Thus, according
+to traditions common to all the central tribes of Australia, the woman
+formerly took a much greater share in the performance of sacred ceremonies
+which are now regarded as coming almost exclusively within the masculine
+province, and in at least one tribe which seems to retain ancient
+practices the women still actually take part in these ceremonies.<a name='6_FNanchor_277'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_277'><sup>[277]</sup></a> It
+seems to have been much the same in Europe. We observe, too, both in the
+Celtic pantheon and among Mediterranean peoples, that while all the
+ancient divinities have receded into the dim background yet the goddesses
+loom larger than the gods.<a name='6_FNanchor_278'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_278'><sup>[278]</sup></a> In Ireland, where ancient custom and
+tradition have always been very tenaciously preserved, women retained a
+very high position, and much freedom both before and after marriage.
+&quot;Every woman,&quot; it was said, &quot;is to go the way she willeth freely,&quot; and
+after marriage she enjoyed a better position and greater freedom of
+divorce than was afforded <a name='6_Page_393'></a>either by the Christian Church or the English
+common law.<a name='6_FNanchor_279'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_279'><sup>[279]</sup></a> There is less difficulty in recognizing that
+mother-descent was peculiarly favorable to the high status of women when
+we realize that even under very unfavorable conditions women have been
+able to exert great pressure on the men and to resist successfully the
+attempts to tyrannize over them.<a name='6_FNanchor_280'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_280'><sup>[280]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>If we consider the status of woman in the great empires of antiquity we
+find on the whole that in their early stage, the stage of growth, as well
+as in their final stage, the stage of fruition, women tend to occupy a
+favorable position, while in their middle stage, usually the stage of
+predominating military organization on a patriarchal basis, women occupy a
+less favorable position. This cyclic movement seems to be almost a natural
+law of the development of great social groups. It was apparently well
+marked in the very stable and orderly growth of Babylonia. In the earliest
+times a Babylonian woman had complete independence and equal rights with
+her brothers and her husband; later (as shown by the code of Hamurabi) a
+woman's rights, though not her duties, were more circumscribed; in the
+still later Neo-Babylonian periods, she again acquired equal rights with
+her husband.<a name='6_FNanchor_281'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_281'><sup>[281]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In Egypt the position of women stood highest at the end, but it seems to
+have been high throughout the whole of the long course of Egyptian
+history, and continuously improving, while the fact that little regard was
+paid to prenuptial chastity and that marriage contracts placed no stress
+on virginity indicate the absence of the conception of women as property.
+More than three thousand five hundred years ago men and women were
+recognized as equal in Egypt. The high position of the Egyptian woman is
+significantly indicated by the fact that her child was never illegitimate;
+illegitimacy was not recognized even in the <a name='6_Page_394'></a>case of a slave woman's
+child.<a name='6_FNanchor_282'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_282'><sup>[282]</sup></a> &quot;It is the glory of Egyptian morality,&quot; says Am&eacute;lineau, &quot;to
+have been the first to express the Dignity of Woman.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_283'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_283'><sup>[283]</sup></a> The idea of
+marital authority was altogether unknown in Egypt. There can be no doubt
+that the high status of woman in two civilizations so stable, so vital, so
+long-lived, and so influential on human culture as Babylonia and Egypt, is
+a fact of much significance.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Among the Jews there seems to have been no intermediate stage of
+    subordination of women, but instead a gradual progress throughout
+    from complete subjection of the woman as wife to ever greater
+    freedom. At first the husband could repudiate his wife at will
+    without cause. (This was not an extension of patriarchal
+    authority, but a purely marital authority.) The restrictions on
+    this authority gradually increased, and begin to be observable
+    already in the Book of Deuteronomy. The Mishnah went further and
+    forbade divorce whenever the wife's condition inspired pity (as
+    in insanity, captivity, etc.). By A.D. 1025, divorce was no
+    longer possible except for legitimate reasons or by the wife's
+    consent. At the same time, the wife also began to acquire the
+    right of divorce in the form of compelling the husband to
+    repudiate her on penalty of punishment in case of refusal. On
+    divorce the wife became an independent woman in her own right,
+    and was permitted to carry off the dowry which her husband gave
+    her on marriage. Thus, notwithstanding Jewish respect for the
+    letter of the law, the flexible jurisprudence of the Rabbis, in
+    harmony with the growth of culture, accorded an ever-growing
+    measure of sexual justice and equality to women (D. W. Amram, <i>The
+    Jewish Law of Divorce</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Arabs the tendency of progress has also been favorable
+    to women in many respects, especially as regards inheritance.
+    Before Mahommed, in accordance with the system prevailing at
+    Medina, women had little or no right of inheritance. The
+    legislation of the Koran modified this rule, without entirely
+    abolishing it, and placed women in a much better position. This
+    is attributed largely to the fact that Mahommed belonged not to
+    Medina, but to Mecca, where traces of matriarchal custom still
+    survived (W. Mar&ccedil;ais, <i>Des Parents et des Alli&eacute;s Successibles en
+    Droit Musulman</i>).</p><a name='6_Page_395'></a>
+
+<p>    It may be pointed out&mdash;for it is not always realized&mdash;that even
+    that stage of civilization&mdash;when it occurs&mdash;which involves the
+    subordination and subjection of woman and her rights really has
+    its origin in the need for the protection of women, and is
+    sometimes even a sign of the acquirement of new privileges by
+    women. They are, as it were, locked up, not in order to deprive
+    them of their rights, but in order to guard those rights. In the
+    later more stable phase of civilization, when women are no longer
+    exposed to the same dangers, this motive is forgotten and the
+    guardianship of woman and her rights seems, and indeed has really
+    become, a hardship rather than an advantage.</p></div>
+
+<p>Of the status of women at Rome in the earliest periods we know little or
+nothing; the patriarchal system was already firmly established when Roman
+history begins to become clear and it involved unusually strict
+subordination of the woman to her father first and then to her husband.
+But nothing is more certain than that the status of women in Rome rose
+with the rise of civilization, exactly in the same way as in Babylonia and
+in Egypt. In the case of Rome, however, the growing refinement of
+civilization, and the expansion of the Empire, were associated with the
+magnificent development of the system of Roman law, which in its final
+forms consecrated the position of women. In the last days of the Republic
+women already began to attain the same legal level as men, and later the
+great Antonine jurisconsults, guided by their theory of natural law,
+reached the conception of the equality of the sexes as a principle of the
+code of equity. The patriarchal subordination of women fell into complete
+discredit, and this continued until, in the days of Justinian, under the
+influence of Christianity, the position of women began to suffer.<a name='6_FNanchor_284'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_284'><sup>[284]</sup></a> In
+the best days the older forms of Roman marriage gave place to a form
+(apparently old but not hitherto considered reputable) which amounted in
+law to a temporary deposit of the woman by her family. She was independent
+of her husband (more especially as she came to him with her own dowry) and
+only nominally dependent on her family. Marriage was a private contract,
+accompanied by a religious ceremony if desired, and being a contract it
+could be <a name='6_Page_396'></a>dissolved, for any reason, in the presence of competent
+witnesses and with due legal forms, after the advice of the family council
+had been taken. Consent was the essence of this marriage and no shame,
+therefore, attached to its dissolution. Nor had it any evil effect either
+on the happiness or the morals of Roman women.<a name='6_FNanchor_285'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_285'><sup>[285]</sup></a> Such a system is
+obviously more in harmony with modern civilized feeling than any system
+that has ever been set up in Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>In Rome, also, it is clear that this system was not a mere legal invention
+but the natural outgrowth of an enlightened public feeling in favor of the
+equality of men and women, often even in the field of sexual morality.
+Plautus, who makes the old slave Syra ask why there is not the same law in
+this respect for the husband as for the wife,<a name='6_FNanchor_286'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_286'><sup>[286]</sup></a> had preceded the legist
+Ulpian who wrote: &quot;It seems to be very unjust that a man demands chastity
+of his wife while he himself shows no example of it.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_287'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_287'><sup>[287]</sup></a> Such demands
+lie deeper than social legislation, but the fact that these questions
+presented themselves to typical Roman men indicates the general attitude
+towards women. In the final stage of Roman society the bond of the
+patriarchal system so far as women were concerned dwindled to a mere
+thread binding them to their fathers and leaving them quite free face to
+face with their husbands. &quot;The Roman matron of the Empire,&quot; says Hobhouse,
+&quot;was more fully her own mistress than the married woman of any earlier
+civilization, with the possible exception of a certain period of Egyptian
+history, and, it must be added, than the wife of any later civilization
+down to our own generation.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_288'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_288'><sup>[288]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>On the strength of the statements of two satirical writers,
+    Juvenal and Tacitus, it has been supposed by many that Roman
+    women of the late period were given up to license. It is,
+    however, idle to seek in satirists any balanced picture of a
+    great civilization. Hobhouse (<i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 216) concludes that
+    on the whole, Roman women worthily retained the position of their
+    husbands' companions, counsellors and <a name='6_Page_397'></a>friends which they had
+    held when an austere system placed them legally in his power.
+    Most authorities seem now to be of this opinion, though at an
+    earlier period Friedl&auml;nder expressed himself more dubiously. Thus
+    Dill, in his judicious <i>Roman Society</i> (p. 163), states that the
+    Roman woman's position, both in law and in fact, rose during the
+    Empire; without being less virtuous or respected, she became far
+    more accomplished and attractive; with fewer restraints she had
+    greater charm and influence, even in public affairs, and was more
+    and more the equal of her husband. &quot;In the last age of the
+    Western Empire there is no deterioration in the position and
+    influence of women.&quot; Principal Donaldson, also, in his valuable
+    historical sketch, <i>Woman</i>, considers (p. 113) that there was no
+    degradation of morals in the Roman Empire; &quot;the licentiousness of
+    Pagan Rome is nothing to the licentiousness of Christian Africa,
+    Rome, and Gaul, if we can put any reliance on the description of
+    Salvian.&quot; Salvian's description of Christendom is probably
+    exaggerated and one-sided, but exactly the same may be said in an
+    even greater degree of the descriptions of ancient Rome left by
+    clever Pagan satirists and ascetic Christian preachers.</p></div>
+
+<p>It thus becomes necessary to leap over considerably more than a thousand
+years before we reach a stage of civilization in any degree approaching in
+height the final stage of Roman society. In the eighteenth and nineteenth
+centuries, at first in France, then in England, we find once more the
+moral and legal movement tending towards the equalization of women with
+men. We find also a long series of pioneers of that movement foreshadowing
+its developments: Mary Astor, &quot;Sophia, a Lady of Quality,&quot; S&eacute;gur, Mrs.
+Wheeler, and very notably Mary Wollstonecraft in <i>A Vindication of the
+Rights of Woman</i>, and John Stuart Mill in <i>The Subjection of Women</i>.<a name='6_FNanchor_289'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_289'><sup>[289]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The main European stream of influences in this matter within historical
+times has involved, we can scarcely doubt when we take into consideration
+its complex phenomena as a whole, the maintenance of an inequality to the
+disadvantage of women. The fine legacy of Roman law to Europe was indeed
+favorable to women, but that legacy was dispersed and for the most part
+lost in the more predominating influence of tenacious Teutonic <a name='6_Page_398'></a>custom
+associated with the vigorously organized Christian Church. Notwithstanding
+that the facts do not all point in the same direction, and that there is
+consequently some difference of opinion, it seems evident that on the
+whole both Teutonic custom and Christian religion were unfavorable to the
+equality of women with men. Teutonic custom in this matter was determined
+by two decisive factors: (1) the existence of marriage by purchase which
+although, as Crawley has pointed out, it by no means necessarily involves
+the degradation of women, certainly tends to place them in an inferior
+position, and (2) pre-occupation with war which is always accompanied by a
+depreciation of peaceful and feminine occupations and an indifference to
+love. Christianity was at its origin favorable to women because it
+liberated and glorified the most essentially feminine emotions, but when
+it became an established and organized religion with definitely ascetic
+ideals, its whole emotional tone grew unfavorable to women. It had from
+the first excluded them from any priestly function. It now regarded them
+as the special representatives of the despised element of sex in
+life.<a name='6_FNanchor_290'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_290'><sup>[290]</sup></a> The eccentric Tertullian had once declared that woman was
+<i>janua Diaboli</i>; nearly seven hundred years later, even the gentle and
+philosophic Anselm wrote: <i>Femina fax est Satan&aelig;</i>.<a name='6_FNanchor_291'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_291'><sup>[291]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Thus among the Franks, with whom the practice of monogamy
+    prevailed, a woman was never free; she could not buy or sell or
+    inherit without the permission of those to whom she belonged. She
+    passed into the possession of her husband by acquisition, and
+    when he fixed the wedding day he gave her parents coins of small
+    money as <i>arrha</i>, and the day after the wedding she received from
+    him a present, the <i>morgengabe</i>. A widow belonged to her parents
+    again (Bedolli&egrave;re, <i>Histoire de M&oelig;urs des Fran&ccedil;ais</i>,
+    vol. i, p. 180). It is true that the Salic law ordained a
+    pecuniary fine for touching a woman, even for squeezing her
+    finger, but it is clear that the offence thus committed was an
+    offence against property, and by no means against the sanctity of
+    a woman's personality. The primitive German husband could sell
+    his children, and <a name='6_Page_399'></a>sometimes his wife, even into slavery. In the
+    eleventh century cases of wife-selling are still heard of, though
+    no longer recognized by law.</p>
+
+<p>    The traditions of Christianity were more favorable to sexual
+    equality than were Teutonic customs, but in becoming amalgamated
+    with those customs they added their own special contribution as
+    to woman's impurity. This spiritual inferiority of woman was
+    significantly shown by the restrictions sometimes placed on women
+    in church, and even in the right to enter a church; in some
+    places they were compelled to remain in the narthex, even in
+    non-monastic churches (see for these rules, Smith and Cheetham,
+    <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>, art. &quot;Sexes, Separation
+    of&quot;).</p>
+
+<p>    By attempting to desexualize the idea of man and to oversexualize
+    the idea of woman, Christianity necessarily degraded the position
+    of woman and the conception of womanhood. As Donaldson well
+    remarks, in pointing this out (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 182), &quot;I may define
+    man as a male human being and woman as a female human being....
+    What the early Christians did was to strike the 'male' out of the
+    definition of man, and 'human being' out of the definition of
+    woman.&quot; Religion generally appears to be a powerfully depressing
+    influence on the position of woman notwithstanding the appeal
+    which it makes to woman. Westermarck considers, indeed (<i>Origin
+    and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. i, p. 669), that
+    religion &quot;has probably been the most persistent cause of the
+    wife's subjection to her husband's rule.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It is sometimes said that the Christian tendency to place women
+    in an inferior spiritual position went so far that a church
+    council formally denied that women have souls. This foolish story
+    has indeed been repeated in a parrot-like fashion by a number of
+    writers. The source of the story is probably to be found in the
+    fact, recorded by Gregory of Tours, in his history (lib. viii,
+    cap. XX), that at the Council of M&acirc;con, in 585, a bishop was in
+    doubt as to whether the term &quot;man&quot; included woman, but was
+    convinced by the other members of the Council that it did. The
+    same difficulty has presented itself to lawyers in more modern
+    times, and has not always been resolved so favorably to woman as
+    by the Christian Council of M&acirc;con.</p>
+
+<p>    The low estimate of women that prevailed even in the early Church
+    is admitted by Christian scholars. &quot;We cannot but notice,&quot; writes
+    Meyrick (art. &quot;Marriage,&quot; Smith and Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of
+    Christian Antiquities</i>), &quot;even in the greatest of the Christian
+    fathers a lamentably low estimate of woman, and consequently of
+    the marriage relationship. Even St. Augustine can see no
+    justification for marriage, except in a grave desire deliberately
+    adopted of having children; and in accordance with this view, all
+    married intercourse, except for this single purpose, is harshly
+    condemned. If marriage is sought after for the sake of children,
+    it is justifiable; if entered into as a <i>remedium</i> to avoid worse
+    evils, it <a name='6_Page_400'></a>is pardonable; the idea of the mutual society, help,
+    and comfort that the one ought to have of the other, both in
+    prosperity and adversity, hardly existed, and could hardly yet
+    exist.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    From the woman's point of view, Lily Braun, in her important work
+    on the woman question (<i>Die Frauenfrage</i>, 1901, pp. 28 <i>et seq.</i>)
+    concludes that, in so far as Christianity was favorable to women,
+    we must see that favorable influence in the placing of women on
+    the same moral level as men, as illustrated in the saying of
+    Jesus, &quot;Let him who is without sin amongst you cast the first
+    stone,&quot; implying that each sex owes the same fidelity. It
+    reached, she adds, no further than this. &quot;Christianity, which
+    women accepted as a deliverance with so much enthusiasm, and died
+    for as martyrs, has not fulfilled their hopes.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Even as regards the moral equality of the sexes in marriage, the
+    position of Christian authorities was sometimes equivocal. One of
+    the greatest of the Fathers, St. Basil, in the latter half of the
+    fourth century, distinguished between adultery and fornication as
+    committed by a married man; if with a married woman, it was
+    adultery; if with an unmarried woman, it was merely fornication.
+    In the former case, a wife should not receive her husband back;
+    in the latter case, she should (art. &quot;Adultery,&quot; Smith and
+    Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>). Such a
+    decision, by attaching supreme importance to a distinction which
+    could make no difference to the wife, involved a failure to
+    recognize her moral personality. Many of the Fathers in the
+    Western Church, however, like Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose,
+    could see no reason why the moral law should not be the same for
+    the husband as for the wife, but as late Roman feeling both on
+    the legal and popular side was already approximating to that
+    view, the influence of Christianity was scarcely required to
+    attain it. It ultimately received formal sanction in the Roman
+    Canon Law, which decreed that adultery is equally committed by
+    either conjugal party in two degrees: (1) <i>simplex</i>, of the
+    married with the unmarried, and (2) <i>duplex</i>, of the married with
+    the married.</p>
+
+<p>    It can scarcely be said, however, that Christianity succeeded in
+    attaining the inclusion of this view of the moral equality of the
+    sexes into actual practical morality. It was accepted in theory;
+    it was not followed in practice. W. G. Sumner, discussing this
+    question (<i>Folkways</i>, pp. 359-361), concludes: &quot;Why are these
+    views not in the <i>mores?</i> Undoubtedly it is because they are
+    dogmatic in form, invented or imposed by theological authority or
+    philosophical speculation. They do not grow out of the experience
+    of life, and cannot be verified by it. The reasons are in
+    ultimate physiological facts, by virtue of which one is a woman
+    and the other is a man.&quot; There is, however, more to be said on
+    this point later.</p></div><a name='6_Page_401'></a>
+
+<p>It was probably, however, not so much the Church as Teutonic customs and
+the development of the feudal system, with the masculine and military
+ideals it fostered, that was chiefly decisive in fixing the inferior
+position of women in the medi&aelig;val world. Even the ideas of chivalry, which
+have often been supposed to be peculiarly favorable to women, so far as
+they affected women seem to have been of little practical significance.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In his great work on chivalry Gautier brings forward much
+    evidence to show that the feudal spirit, like the military spirit
+    always and everywhere, on the whole involved at bottom a disdain
+    for women, even though it occasionally idealized them. &quot;Go into
+    your painted and gilded rooms,&quot; we read in <i>Renaus de Montauban</i>,
+    &quot;sit in the shade, make yourselves comfortable, drink, eat, work
+    tapestry, dye silk, but remember that you must not occupy
+    yourselves with our affairs. Our business is to strike with the
+    steel sword. Silence!&quot; And if the woman insists she is struck on
+    the face till the blood comes. The husband had a legal right to
+    beat his wife, not only for adultery, but even for contradicting
+    him. Women were not, however, entirely without power, and in a
+    thirteenth century collection of <i>Coutumes</i>, it is set down that
+    a husband must only beat his wife reasonably, <i>resnablement</i>. (As
+    regards the husband's right to chastise his wife, see also
+    Hobhouse, <i>Morals in Evolution</i>, vol. i, p. 234. In England it
+    was not until the reign of Charles II, from which so many modern
+    movements date, that the husband was deprived of this legal
+    right.)</p>
+
+<p>    In the eyes of a feudal knight, it may be added, the beauty of a
+    horse competed, often successfully, with the beauty of a woman.
+    In <i>Girbers de Metz</i>, two knights, Garin and his cousin Girbert,
+    ride by a window at which sits a beautiful girl with the face of
+    a rose and the white flesh of a lily. &quot;Look, cousin Girbert,
+    look! By Saint Mary, a beautiful woman!&quot; &quot;Ah,&quot; Girbert replies,
+    &quot;a beautiful beast is my horse!&quot; &quot;I have never seen anything so
+    charming as that young girl with her fresh color and her dark
+    eyes,&quot; says Garin. &quot;I know no steed to compare with mine,&quot;
+    retorts Girbert. When the men were thus absorbed in the things
+    that pertain to war, it is not surprising that amorous advances
+    were left to young girls to make. &quot;In all the <i>chansons de
+    geste</i>,&quot; Gautier remarks, &quot;it is the young girls who make the
+    advances, often with effrontery,&quot; though, he adds, wives are
+    represented as more virtuous (L. Gautier, <i>La Chevalerie</i>, pp.
+    236-8, 348-50).</p>
+
+<p>    In England Pollock and Maitland (<i>History of English Law</i>, vol.
+    ii, p. 437) do not believe that a life-long tutela of women ever
+    existed as among other Teutonic peoples. &quot;From the Conquest
+    onwards,&quot; Hobhouse states (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 224), &quot;the
+    unmarried English woman, on attaining <a name='6_Page_402'></a>her majority, becomes
+    fully equipped with all legal and civil rights, as much a legal
+    personality as the Babylonian woman had been three thousand years
+    before.&quot; But the developed English law more than made up for any
+    privileges thus accorded to the unmarried by the inconsistent
+    manner in which it swathed up the wife in endless folds of
+    irresponsibility, except when she committed the supreme offence
+    of injuring her lord and master. The English wife, as Hobhouse
+    continues (<i>loc. cit.</i>) was, if not her husband's slave, at any
+    rate his liege subject; if she killed him it was &quot;petty treason,&quot;
+    the revolt of a subject against a sovereign in a miniature
+    kingdom, and a more serious offence than murder. Murder she could
+    not commit in his presence, for her personality was merged in
+    him; he was responsible for most of her crimes and offences (it
+    was that fact which gave him the right to chastise her), and he
+    could not even enter into a contract with her, for that would be
+    entering into a contract with himself. &quot;The very being and legal
+    existence of a woman is suspended during marriage,&quot; said
+    Blackstone, &quot;or at least is incorporated and consolidated into
+    that of her husband, under whose wing, protection and cover she
+    performs everything. So great a favorite,&quot; he added, &quot;is the
+    female sex of the laws of England.&quot; &quot;The strength of woman,&quot; says
+    Hobhouse, interpreting the sense of the English law, &quot;was her
+    weakness. She conquered by yielding. Her gentleness had to be
+    guarded from the turmoil of the world, her fragrance to be kept
+    sweet and fresh, away from the dust and the smoke of battle.
+    Hence her need of a champion and guardian.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In France the wife of the medi&aelig;val and Renaissance periods
+    occupied much the same position in her husband's house. He was
+    her absolute master and lord, the head and soul of &quot;the feminine
+    and feeble creature&quot; who owed to him &quot;perfect love and
+    obedience.&quot; She was his chief servant, the eldest of his
+    children, his wife and subject; she signed herself &quot;your humble
+    obedient daughter and friend,&quot; when she wrote to him. The
+    historian, De Maulde la Clavi&egrave;re, who has brought together
+    evidence on this point in his <i>Femmes de la Renaissance</i>, remarks
+    that even though the husband enjoyed this lofty and superior
+    position in marriage, it was still generally he, and not the
+    wife, who complained of the hardships of marriage.</p></div>
+
+<p>Law and custom assumed that a woman should be more or less under the
+protection of a man, and even the ideals of fine womanhood which arose in
+this society, during feudal and later times, were necessarily tinged by
+the same conception. It involved the inequality of women as compared with
+men, but under the social conditions of a feudal society such inequality
+was to woman's advantage. Masculine force was the determining <a name='6_Page_403'></a>factor in
+life and it was necessary that every woman should have a portion of this
+force on her side. This sound and reasonable idea naturally tended to
+persist even after the growth of civilization rendered force a much less
+decisive factor in social life. In England in Queen Elizabeth's time no
+woman must be masterless, although the feminine subjects of Queen
+Elizabeth had in their sovereign the object lesson of a woman who could
+play a very brilliant and effective part in life and yet remain absolutely
+masterless. Still later, in the eighteenth century, even so fine a
+moralist as Shaftesbury, in his <i>Characteristics</i>, refers to lovers of
+married women as invaders of property. If such conceptions still ruled
+even in the best minds, it is not surprising that in the same century,
+even in the following century, they were carried out into practice by less
+educated people who frankly bought and sold women.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Schrader, in his <i>Reallexicon</i> (art. &quot;Brautkauf&quot;), points out
+    that, originally, the purchase of a wife was the purchase of her
+    person, and not merely of the right of protecting her. The
+    original conception probably persisted long in Great Britain on
+    account of its remoteness from the centres of civilization. In
+    the eleventh century Gregory VII desired Lanfranc to stop the
+    sale of wives in Scotland and elsewhere in the island of the
+    English (Pike, <i>History of Crime in England</i>, vol. i, p. 99). The
+    practice never quite died out, however, in remote country
+    districts.</p>
+
+<p>    Such transactions have taken place even in London. Thus in the
+    <i>Annual Register</i> for 1767 (p. 99) we read: &quot;About three weeks
+    ago a bricklayer's laborer at Marylebone sold a woman, whom he
+    had cohabited with for several years, to a fellow-workman for a
+    quarter guinea and a gallon of beer. The workman went off with
+    the purchase, and she has since had the good fortune to have a
+    legacy of &pound;200, and some plate, left her by a deceased uncle in
+    Devonshire. The parties were married last Friday.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The Rev. J. Edward Vaux (<i>Church Folk-lore</i>, second edition, p.
+    146) narrates two authentic cases in which women had been bought
+    by their husbands in open market in the nineteenth century. In
+    one case the wife, with her own full consent, was brought to
+    market with a halter round her neck, sold for half a crown, and
+    led to her new home, twelve miles off by the new husband who had
+    purchased her; in the other case a publican bought another man's
+    wife for a two-gallon jar of gin.</p>
+
+<p>    It is the same conception of woman as property which, even to the
+    present, has caused the retention in many legal codes of clauses
+    rendering <a name='6_Page_404'></a>a man liable to pay pecuniary damages to a woman,
+    previously a virgin, whom he has intercourse with and
+    subsequently forsakes (Natalie Fuchs, &quot;Die Jungfernschaft im
+    Recht und Sitte,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Feb., 1908). The woman is
+    &quot;dishonored&quot; by sexual intercourse, depreciated in her market
+    value, exactly as a new garment becomes &quot;second-hand,&quot; even if it
+    has but once been worn. A man, on the other hand, would disdain
+    the idea that his personal value could be diminished by any
+    number of acts of sexual intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>    This fact has even led some to advocate the &quot;abolition of
+    physical virginity.&quot; Thus the German authoress of <i>Una
+    Poenitentium</i> (1907), considering that the protection of a woman
+    is by no means so well secured by a little piece of membrane as
+    by the presence of a true and watchful soul inside, advocates the
+    operation of removal of the hymen in childhood. It is undoubtedly
+    true that the undue importance attached to the hymen has led to a
+    false conception of feminine &quot;honor,&quot; and to an unwholesome
+    conception of feminine purity.</p></div>
+
+<p>Custom and law are slowly changing in harmony with changed social
+conditions which no longer demand the subjection of women either in their
+own interests or in the interests of the community. Concomitantly with
+these changes a different ideal of womanly personality is developing. It
+is true that the ancient ideal of the lordship of the husband over the
+wife is still more or less consciously affirmed around us. The husband
+frequently dictates to the wife what avocations she may not pursue, what
+places she may not visit, what people she may not know, what books she may
+not read. He assumes to control her, even in personal matters having no
+direct concern with himself, by virtue of the old masculine prerogative of
+force which placed a woman under the hand, as the ancient patriarchal
+legists termed it, of a man. It is, however, becoming more and more widely
+recognized that such a part is not suited to the modern man. The modern
+man, as Rosa Mayreder has pointed out in a thoughtful essay,<a name='6_FNanchor_292'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_292'><sup>[292]</sup></a> is no
+longer equipped to play this domineering part in relation to his wife. The
+&quot;noble savage,&quot; leading a wild life on mountain and in forest, hunting
+dangerous beasts and scalping enemies when necessary, may occasionally
+bring his club gently and effectively on to the head of his wife, even, it
+may be, with <a name='6_Page_405'></a>grateful appreciation on her part.<a name='6_FNanchor_293'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_293'><sup>[293]</sup></a> But the modern man,
+who for the most part spends his days tamely at a desk, who has been
+trained to endure silently the insults and humiliations which superior
+officials or patronizing clients may inflict upon him, this typical modern
+man is no longer able to assume effectually the part of the &quot;noble savage&quot;
+when he returns to his home. He is indeed so unfitted for the part that
+his wife resents his attempts to play it. He is gradually recognizing
+this, even apart from any consciousness of the general trend of
+civilization. The modern man of ideas recognizes that, as a matter of
+principle, his wife is entitled to equality with himself; the modern man
+of the world feels that it would be both ridiculous and inconvenient not
+to accord his wife much the same kind of freedom which he himself
+possesses. And, moreover, while the modern man has to some extent acquired
+feminine qualities, the modern woman has to a corresponding extent
+acquired masculine qualities.</p>
+
+<p>Brief and summary as the preceding discussion has necessarily been, it
+will have served to bring us face to face with the central fact in the
+sexual morality which the growth of civilization has at the present day
+rendered inevitable: personal responsibility. &quot;The responsible human
+being, man or woman, is the centre of modern ethics as of modern law;&quot;
+that is the conclusion reached by Hobhouse in his discussion of the
+evolution of human morality.<a name='6_FNanchor_294'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_294'><sup>[294]</sup></a> The movement which is taking place among
+us to liberate sexual relationships from an excessive bondage to fixed and
+arbitrary regulations would have been impossible and mischievous but for
+the concomitant growth of a sense of personal responsibility in the
+members of the community. It could not indeed have subsisted for a single
+year without degenerating into license and disorder. Freedom in sexual
+relations involves <a name='6_Page_406'></a>mutual trust and that can only rest on a basis of
+personal responsibility. Where there can be no reliance on personal
+responsibility there can be no freedom. In most fields of moral action
+this sense of personal responsibility is acquired at a fairly early stage
+of social progress. Sexual morality is the last field of morality to be
+brought within the sphere of personal responsibility. The community
+imposes the most varied, complicated, and artificial codes of sexual
+morality on its members, especially its feminine members, and, naturally
+enough, it is always very suspicious of their ability to observe these
+codes, and is careful to allow them, so far as possible, no personal
+responsibility in the matter. But a training in restraint, when carried
+through a long series of generations, is the best preparation for freedom.
+The law laid on the earlier generations, as old theology stated the
+matter, has been the schoolmaster to bring the later generations to
+Christ; or, as new science expresses exactly the same idea, the later
+generations have become immunized and have finally acquired a certain
+degree of protection against the virus which would have destroyed the
+earlier generations.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The process by which a people acquires the sense of personal
+    responsibility is slow, and perhaps it cannot be adequately
+    acquired at all by races lacking a high grade of nervous
+    organization. This is especially the case as regards sexual
+    morality, and has often been illustrated on the contact of a
+    higher with a lower civilization. It has constantly happened that
+    missionaries&mdash;entirely against their own wishes, it need not be
+    said&mdash;by overthrowing the strict moral system they have found
+    established, and by substituting the freedom of European customs
+    among people entirely unprepared for such freedom, have exerted
+    the most disastrous effects on morality. This has been the case
+    among the formerly well-organized and highly moral Baganda of
+    Central Africa, as recorded in an official report by Colonel
+    Lambkin (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Oct. 3, 1908).</p>
+
+<p>    As regards Polynesia, also, R. L. Stevenson, in his interesting
+    book, <i>In the South Seas</i> (Ch. V), pointed out that, while before
+    the coming of the whites the Polynesians were, on the whole,
+    chaste, and the young carefully watched, now it is far otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>    Even in Fiji, where, according to Lord Stanmore&mdash;who was High
+    Commissioner of the Pacific, and an independent
+    critic&mdash;missionary effort has been &quot;wonderfully successful,&quot;
+    where all own at least nominal allegiance to Christianity, which
+    has much modified life and character, <a name='6_Page_407'></a>yet chastity has suffered.
+    This was shown by a Royal Commission on the condition of the
+    native races in Fiji. Mr. Fitchett, commenting on this report
+    (Australasian <i>Review of Reviews</i>, Oct., 1897) remarks: &quot;Not a
+    few witnesses examined by the commission declare that the moral
+    advance in Fiji is of a curiously patchy type. The abolition of
+    polygamy, for example, they say, has not told at every point in
+    favor of women. The woman is the toiler in Fiji; and when the
+    support of the husband was distributed over four wives, the
+    burden on each wife was less than it is now, when it has to be
+    carried by one. In heathen times female chastity was guarded by
+    the club; a faithless wife, an unmarried mother, was summarily
+    put to death. Christianity has abolished club-law, and purely
+    moral restraints, or the terror of the penalties of the next
+    world, do not, to the limited imagination of the Fijian, quite
+    take its place. So the standard of Fijian chastity is
+    distressingly low.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It must always be remembered that when the highly organized
+    primitive system of mixed spiritual and physical restraints is
+    removed, chastity becomes more delicately and unstably poised.
+    The controlling power of personal responsibility, valuable and
+    essential as it is, cannot permanently and unremittingly restrain
+    the volcanic forces of the passion of love even in high
+    civilizations. &quot;No perfection of moral constitution in a woman,&quot;
+    Hinlon has well said, &quot;no power of will, no wish and resolution
+    to be 'good,' no force of religion or control of custom, can
+    secure what is called the virtue of woman. The emotion of
+    absolute devotion with which some man may inspire her will sweep
+    them all away. Society, in choosing to erect itself on that
+    basis, chooses inevitable disorder, and so long as it continues
+    to choose it will continue to have that result.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>It is necessary to insist for a while on this personal responsibility in
+matters of sexual morality, in the form in which it is making itself felt
+among us, and to search out its implications. The most important of these
+is undoubtedly economic independence. That is indeed so important that
+moral responsibility in any fine sense can scarcely be said to have any
+existence in its absence. Moral responsibility and economic independence
+are indeed really identical; they are but two sides of the same social
+fact. The responsible person is the person who is able to answer for his
+actions and, if need be, to pay for them. The economically dependent
+person can accept a criminal responsibility; he can, with an empty purse,
+go to prison or to death. But in the ordinary sphere of everyday morality
+that large penalty is not required of him; if he goes against the wishes
+of his family or <a name='6_Page_408'></a>his friends or his parish, they may turn their backs on
+him but they cannot usually demand against him the last penalties of the
+law. He can exert his own personal responsibility, he can freely choose to
+go his own way and to maintain himself in it before his fellowmen on one
+condition, that he is able to pay for it. His personal responsibility has
+little or no meaning except in so far as it is also economic independence.</p>
+
+<p>In civilized societies as they attain maturity, the women tend to acquire
+a greater and greater degree alike of moral responsibility and economic
+independence. Any freedom and seeming equality of women, even when it
+actually assumes the air of superiority, which is not so based, is unreal.
+It is only on sufferance; it is the freedom accorded to the child, because
+it asks for it so prettily or may scream if it is refused. This is merely
+parasitism.<a name='6_FNanchor_295'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_295'><sup>[295]</sup></a> The basis of economic independence ensures a more real
+freedom. Even in societies which by law and custom hold women in strict
+subordination, the woman who happens to be placed in possession of
+property enjoys a high degree alike of independence and of
+responsibility.<a name='6_FNanchor_296'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_296'><sup>[296]</sup></a> The growth of a high civilization seems indeed to be
+so closely identified with the economic freedom and independence of women
+that it is difficult to say which is cause and which effect. Herodotus, in
+his fascinating account of Egypt, a land which he regarded as admirable
+beyond all other lands, noted with surprise that, totally unlike the
+fashion of Greece, women left the men at home to the management of the
+loom and went to market to transact the <a name='6_Page_409'></a>business of commerce.<a name='6_FNanchor_297'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_297'><sup>[297]</sup></a> It is
+the economic factor in social life which secures the moral responsibility
+of women and which chiefly determines the position of the wife in relation
+to her husband.<a name='6_FNanchor_298'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_298'><sup>[298]</sup></a> In this respect in its late stages civilization
+returns to the same point it had occupied at the beginning, when, as has
+already been noted, we find greater equality with men and at the same time
+greater economic independence.<a name='6_FNanchor_299'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_299'><sup>[299]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In all the leading modern civilized countries, for a century past, custom
+and law have combined to give an ever greater economic independence to
+women. In some respects England took the lead by inaugurating the great
+industrial movement which slowly swept women into its ranks,<a name='6_FNanchor_300'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_300'><sup>[300]</sup></a> and made
+inevitable the legal changes which, by 1882, insured to a married woman
+the possession of her own earnings. The same movement, with its same
+consequences, is going on elsewhere. In the United States, just as in
+England, there is a vast army of five million women, rapidly increasing,
+who earn their own living, and their position in relation to men workers
+is even better than in England. In France from twenty-five to seventy-five
+per cent. of the workers in most of the chief industries&mdash;the liberal
+professions, <a name='6_Page_410'></a>commerce, agriculture, factory industries&mdash;are women, and in
+some of the very largest, such as home industries and textile industries,
+more women are employed than men. In Japan, it is said, three-fifths of
+the factory workers are women, and all the textile industries are in the
+hands of women.<a name='6_FNanchor_301'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_301'><sup>[301]</sup></a> This movement is the outward expression of the modern
+conception of personal rights, personal moral worth, and personal
+responsibility, which, as Hobhouse has remarked, has compelled women to
+take their lives into their own hands, and has at the same time rendered
+the ancient marriage laws an anachronism, and the ancient ideals of
+feminine innocence shrouded from the world a mere piece of false
+sentiment.<a name='6_FNanchor_302'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_302'><sup>[302]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There can be no doubt that the entrance of women into the field
+    of industrial work, in rivalry with men and under somewhat the
+    same conditions as men, raises serious questions of another
+    order. The general tendency of civilization towards the economic
+    independence and the moral responsibility of women is
+    unquestionable. But it is by no means absolutely clear that it is
+    best for women, and, therefore, for the community, that women
+    should exercise all the ordinary avocations and professions of
+    men on the same level as men. Not only have the conditions of the
+    avocations and professions developed in accordance with the
+    special aptitudes of men, but the fact that the sexual processes
+    by which the race is propagated demand an incomparably greater
+    expenditure of time and energy on the part of women than of men,
+    precludes women in the mass from devoting themselves so
+    exclusively as men to industrial work. For some biologists,
+    indeed, it seems clear that outside the home and the school women
+    should not work at all. &quot;Any nation that works its women is
+    damned,&quot; says Woods Hutchinson (<i>The Gospel According to Darwin</i>,
+    p. 199). That view is extreme. Yet from the economic side, also,
+    Hobson, in summing up this question, regards the tendency of
+    machine-industry to drive women away from the home as &quot;a tendency
+    antagonistic to civilization.&quot; The neglect of the home, he
+    states, is, &quot;on the whole, the worst injury modern industry has
+    inflicted on our lives, and it is difficult to see how it can be
+    compensated by any increase of material products. Factory life
+    for women, save in extremely rare cases, saps the physical and
+    moral health of the family. The exigencies of factory life are
+    inconsistent with the position of a good mother, a good <a name='6_Page_411'></a>wife, or
+    the maker of a home. Save in extreme circumstances, no increase
+    of the family wage can balance these losses, whose values stand
+    upon a higher qualitative level&quot; (J. A. Hobson, <i>Evolution of
+    Modern Capitalism</i>, Ch. XII; <i>cf.</i> what has been said in Ch. I of
+    the present volume). It is now beginning to be recognized that
+    the early pioneers of the &quot;woman's movement&quot; in working to remove
+    the &quot;subjection of woman&quot; were still dominated by the old ideals
+    of that subjection, according to which the masculine is in all
+    main respects the superior sex. Whatever was good for man, they
+    thought, must be equally good for woman. That has been the source
+    of all that was unbalanced and unstable, sometimes both a little
+    pathetic and a little absurd, in the old &quot;woman's movement.&quot;
+    There was a failure to perceive that, first of all, women must
+    claim their right to their own womanhood as mothers of the race,
+    and thereby the supreme law-givers in the sphere of sex and the
+    large part of life dependent on sex. This special position of
+    woman seems likely to require a readjustment of economic
+    conditions to their needs, though it is not likely that such
+    readjustment would be permitted to affect their independence or
+    their responsibility. We have had, as Madame Juliette Adam has
+    put it, the rights of men sacrificing women, followed by the
+    rights of women sacrificing the child; that must be followed by
+    the rights of the child reconstituting the family. It has already
+    been necessary to touch on this point in the first chapter of
+    this volume, and it will again be necessary in the last chapter.</p></div>
+
+<p>The question as to the method by which the economic independence of women
+will be completely insured, and the part which the community may be
+expected to take in insuring it, on the ground of woman's special
+child-bearing functions, is from the present point of view subsidiary.
+There can be no doubt, however, as to the reality of the movement in that
+direction, whatever doubt there may be as to the final adjustment of the
+details. It is only necessary in this place to touch on some of the
+general and more obvious respects in which the growth of woman's
+responsibility is affecting sexual morality.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most obvious way in which the sense of moral responsibility
+works is in an insistence on reality in the relationships of sex. Moral
+irresponsibility has too often combined with economic dependence to induce
+a woman to treat the sexual event in her life which is biologically of
+most fateful gravity as a merely gay and trivial event, at the most an
+event which has given her a triumph over her rivals and over the <a name='6_Page_412'></a>superior
+male, who, on his part, willingly condescends, for the moment, to assume
+the part of the vanquished. &quot;Gallantry to the ladies,&quot; we are told of the
+hero of the greatest and most typical of English novels, &quot;was among his
+principles of honor, and he held it as much incumbent on him to accept a
+challenge to love as if it had been a challenge to fight;&quot; he heroically
+goes home for the night with a lady of title he meets at a masquerade,
+though at the time very much in love with the girl whom he eventually
+marries.<a name='6_FNanchor_303'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_303'><sup>[303]</sup></a> The woman whose power lies only in her charms, and who is
+free to allow the burden of responsibility to fall on a man's
+shoulder,<a name='6_FNanchor_304'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_304'><sup>[304]</sup></a> could lightly play the seducing part, and thereby exert
+independence and authority in the only shapes open to her. The man on his
+part, introducing the misplaced idea of &quot;honor&quot; into the field from which
+the natural idea of responsibility has been banished, is prepared to
+descend at the lady's bidding into the arena, according to the old legend,
+and rescue the glove, even though he afterwards flings it contemptuously
+in her face. The ancient conception of gallantry, which Tom Jones so well
+embodies, is the direct outcome of a system involving the moral
+irresponsibility and economic dependence of women, and is as opposed to
+the conceptions, prevailing in the earlier and later civilized stages, of
+approximate sexual equality as it is to the biological traditions of
+natural courtship in the world generally.</p>
+
+<p>In controlling her own sexual life, and in realizing that her
+responsibility for such control can no longer be shifted on to the
+shoulders of the other sex, women will also indirectly affect the sexual
+lives of men, much as men already affect the sexual lives of women. In
+what ways that influence will in the main be exerted it is still premature
+to say. According to some, just as formerly men bought their wives and
+demanded prenuptial virginity in the article thus purchased, so nowadays,
+among the better classes, women are able to buy their husbands, <a name='6_Page_413'></a>and in
+their turn are disposed to demand continence.<a name='6_FNanchor_305'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_305'><sup>[305]</sup></a> That, however, is too
+simple-minded a way of viewing the question. It is enough to refer to the
+fact that women are not attracted to virginal innocence in men and that
+they frequently have good ground for viewing such innocence with
+suspicion.<a name='6_FNanchor_306'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_306'><sup>[306]</sup></a> Yet it may well be believed that women will more and more
+prefer to exert a certain discrimination in the approval of their
+husbands' past lives. However instinctively a woman may desire that her
+husband shall be initiated in the art of making love to her, she may often
+well doubt whether the finest initiation is to be secured from the average
+prostitute. Prostitution, as we have seen, is ultimately as incompatible
+with complete sexual responsibility as is the patriarchal marriage system
+with which it has been so closely associated. It is an arrangement mainly
+determined by the demands of men, to whatever extent it may have
+incidentally subserved various needs of women. Men arranged that one group
+of women should be set apart to minister exclusively to their sexual
+necessities, while another group should be brought up in asceticism as
+candidates for the privilege of ministering to their household and family
+necessities. That this has been in many respects a most excellent
+arrangement is sufficiently proved by the fact that it has nourished for
+so long a period, notwithstanding the influences that are antagonistic to
+it. But it is obviously only possible during a certain stage of
+civilization and in association with a certain social organization. It is
+not completely congruous with a democratic stage of civilization involving
+the economic independence and the sexual responsibility of both sexes
+alike in all social classes. It is possible that women may begin to
+realize this fact earlier than men.</p>
+
+<p>It is also believed by many that women will realize that a high degree of
+moral responsibility is not easily compatible with the practice of
+dissimulation and that economic independence will deprive deceit&mdash;which is
+always the resort of the weak&mdash;of <a name='6_Page_414'></a>whatever moral justification it may
+possess. Here, however, it is necessary to speak with caution or we may be
+unjust to women. It must be remarked that in the sphere of sex men also
+are often the weak, and are therefore apt to resort to the refuge of the
+weak. With the recognition of that fact we may also recognize that
+deception in women has been the cause of much of the age-long blunders of
+the masculine mind in the contemplation of feminine ways. Men have
+constantly committed the double error of overlooking the dissimulation of
+women and of over-estimating it. This fact has always served to render
+more difficult still the inevitably difficult course of women through the
+devious path of sexual behavior. Pepys, who represents so vividly and so
+frankly the vices and virtues of the ordinary masculine mind, tells how
+one day when he called to see Mrs. Martin her sister Doll went out for a
+bottle of wine and came back indignant because a Dutchman had pulled her
+into a stable and tumbled and tossed her. Pepys having been himself often
+permitted to take liberties with her, it seemed to him that her
+indignation with the Dutchman was &quot;the best instance of woman's falseness
+in the world.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_307'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_307'><sup>[307]</sup></a> He assumes without question that a woman who has
+accorded the privilege of familiarity to a man she knows and, one hopes,
+respects, would be prepared to accept complacently the brutal attentions
+of the first drunken stranger she meets in the street.</p>
+
+<p>It was the assumption of woman's falseness which led the ultra-masculine
+Pepys into a sufficiently absurd error. At this point, indeed, we
+encounter what has seemed to some a serious obstacle to the full moral
+responsibility of women. Dissimulation, Lombroso and Ferrero argue, is in
+woman &quot;almost physiological,&quot; and they give various grounds for this
+conclusion.<a name='6_FNanchor_308'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_308'><sup>[308]</sup></a> The theologians, on their side, have reached a similar
+conclusion. &quot;A confessor must not immediately believe a woman's words,&quot;
+says Father Gury, &quot;for women are habitually inclined to lie.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_309'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_309'><sup>[309]</sup></a><a name='6_Page_415'></a> This
+tendency, which seems to be commonly believed to affect women as a sex,
+however free from it a vast number of individual women are, may be said,
+and with truth, to be largely the result of the subjection of women and
+therefore likely to disappear as that subjection disappears. In so far,
+however, as it is &quot;almost physiological,&quot; and based on radical feminine
+characters, such as modesty, affectability, and sympathy, which have an
+organic basis in the feminine constitution and can therefore never
+altogether be changed, feminine dissimulation seems scarcely likely to
+disappear. The utmost that can be expected is that it should be held in
+check by the developed sense of moral responsibility, and, being reduced
+to its simply natural proportions, become recognizably intelligible.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is unnecessary to remark that there can be no question here as
+    to any inherent moral superiority of one sex over the other. The
+    answer to that question was well stated many years ago by one of
+    the most subtle moralists of love. &quot;Taken altogether,&quot; concluded
+    S&eacute;nancour (<i>De l'Amour</i>, vol. ii, p. 85), &quot;we have no reason to
+    assert the moral superiority of either sex. Both sexes, with
+    their errors and their good intentions, very equally fulfil the
+    ends of nature. We may well believe that in either of the two
+    divisions of the human species the sum of evil and that of good
+    are about equal. If, for instance, as regards love, we oppose the
+    visibly licentious conduct of men to the apparent reserve of
+    women, it would be a vain valuation, for the number of faults
+    committed by women with men is necessarily the same as that of
+    men with women. There exist among us fewer scrupulous men than
+    perfectly honest women, but it is easy to see how the balance is
+    restored. If this question of the moral pre&euml;minence of one sex
+    over the other were not insoluble it would still remain very
+    complicated with reference to the whole of the species, or even
+    the whole of a nation, and any dispute here seems idle.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    This conclusion is in accordance with the general compensatory
+    and complementary relationship of women to men (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+    Havelock Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, fourth edition, especially pp.
+    448 <i>et seq.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    In a recent symposium on the question whether women are morally
+    inferior to men, with special reference to aptitude for loyalty
+    (<i>La Revue</i>, Jan. 1, 1909), to which various distinguished French
+    men and women contributed their opinions, some declared that
+    women are usually superior; others regarded it as a question of
+    difference rather than of superiority or inferiority; all were
+    agreed that when they enjoy the same independence as men, women
+    are quite as loyal as men.</p></div><a name='6_Page_416'></a>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly true that&mdash;partly as a result of ancient traditions and
+education, partly of genuine feminine characteristics&mdash;many women are
+diffident as to their right to moral responsibility and unwilling to
+assume it. And an attempt is made to justify their attitude by asserting
+that woman's part in life is naturally that of self-sacrifice, or, to put
+the statement in a somewhat more technical form, that women are naturally
+masochistic; and that there is, as Krafft-Ebing argues, a natural &quot;sexual
+subjection&quot; of woman. It is by no means clear that this statement is
+absolutely true, and if it were true it would not serve to abolish the
+moral responsibility of women.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Bloch (<i>Beitr&auml;ge zur &AElig;tiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis</i>, Part
+    II, p. 178), in agreement with Eulenburg, energetically denies
+    that there is any such natural &quot;sexual subjection&quot; of women,
+    regarding it as artificially produced, the result of the socially
+    inferior position of women, and arguing that such subjection is
+    in much higher degree a physiological characteristic of men than
+    of women. (It has been necessary to discuss this question in
+    dealing with &quot;Love and Pain&quot; in the third volume of these
+    <i>Studies</i>.) It seems certainly clear that the notion that women
+    are especially prone to self-sacrifice has little biological
+    validity. Self-sacrifice by compulsion, whether physical or moral
+    compulsion, is not worthy of the name; when it is deliberate it
+    is simply the sacrifice of a lesser good for the sake of a
+    greater good. Doubtless a man who eats a good dinner may be said
+    to &quot;sacrifice&quot; his hunger. Even within the sphere of traditional
+    morality a woman who sacrifices her &quot;honor&quot; for the sake of her
+    love to a man has, by her &quot;sacrifice,&quot; gained something that she
+    values more. &quot;What a triumph it is to a woman,&quot; a woman has said,
+    &quot;to give pleasure to a man she loves!&quot; And in a morality on a
+    sound biological basis no &quot;sacrifice&quot; is here called for. It may
+    rather be said that the biological laws of courtship
+    fundamentally demand self-sacrifice of the male rather than of
+    the female. Thus the lioness, according to G&eacute;rard the
+    lion-hunter, gives herself to the most vigorous of her lion
+    wooers; she encourages them to fight among themselves for
+    superiority, lying on her belly to gaze at the combat and lashing
+    her tail with delight. Every female is wooed by many males, but
+    she only accepts one; it is not the female who is called upon for
+    erotic self-sacrifice, but the male. That is indeed part of the
+    divine compensation of Nature, for since the heavier part of the
+    burden of sex rests on the female, it is fitting that she should
+    be less called upon for renunciation.</p></div><a name='6_Page_417'></a>
+
+<p>It thus seems probable that the increase of moral responsibility may tend
+to make a woman's conduct more intelligible to others;<a name='6_FNanchor_310'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_310'><sup>[310]</sup></a> it will in any
+case certainly tend to make it less the concern of others. This is
+emphatically the case as regards the relations of sex. In the past men
+have been invited to excel in many forms of virtue; only one virtue has
+been open to women. That is no longer possible. To place upon a woman the
+main responsibility for her own sexual conduct is to deprive that conduct
+of its conspicuously public character as a virtue or a vice. Sexual union,
+for a woman as much as for a man, is a physiological fact; it may also be
+a spiritual fact; but it is not a social act. It is, on the contrary, an
+act which, beyond all other acts, demands retirement and mystery for its
+accomplishment. That indeed is a general human, almost zo&ouml;logical, fact.
+Moreover, this demand of mystery is more especially made by woman in
+virtue of her greater modesty which, we have found reason to believe, has
+a biological basis. It is not until a child is born or conceived that the
+community has any right to interest itself in the sexual acts of its
+members. The sexual act is of no more concern to the community than any
+other private physiological act. It is an impertinence, if not an outrage,
+to seek to inquire into it. But the birth of a child is a social act. Not
+what goes into the womb but what comes out of it concerns society. The
+community is invited to receive a new citizen. It is entitled to demand
+that that citizen shall be worthy of a place in its midst and that he
+shall be properly introduced by a responsible father and a responsible
+mother. The whole of sexual morality, as Ellen Key has said, revolves
+round the child.</p>
+
+<p>At this final point in our discussion of sexual morality we may perhaps be
+able to realize the immensity of the change which has been involved by the
+development in women of moral responsibility. So long as responsibility
+was denied to women, so long as a father or a husband, backed up by the
+community, held himself <a name='6_Page_418'></a>responsible for a woman's sexual behavior, for
+her &quot;virtue,&quot; it was necessary that the whole of sexual morality should
+revolve around the entrance to the vagina. It became absolutely essential
+to the maintenance of morality that all eyes in the community should be
+constantly directed on to that point, and the whole marriage law had to be
+adjusted accordingly. That is no longer possible. When a woman assumes her
+own moral responsibility, in sexual as in other matters, it becomes not
+only intolerable but meaningless for the community to pry into her most
+intimate physiological or spiritual acts. She is herself directly
+responsible to society as soon as she performs a social act, and not
+before.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to the fact of maternity the realization of all that is
+involved in the new moral responsibility of women is especially
+significant. Under a system of morality by which a man is left free to
+accept the responsibility for his sexual acts while a woman is not equally
+free to do the like, a premium is placed on sexual acts which have no end
+in procreation, and a penalty is placed on the acts which lead to
+procreation. The reason is that it is the former class of acts in which
+men find chief gratification; it is the latter class in which women find
+chief gratification. For the tragic part of the old sexual morality in its
+bearing on women was that while it made men alone morally responsible for
+sexual acts in which both a man and a woman took part, women were rendered
+both socially and legally incapable of availing themselves of the fact of
+masculine responsibility unless they had fulfilled conditions which men
+had laid down for them, and yet refrained from imposing upon themselves.
+The act of sexual intercourse, being the sexual act in which men found
+chief pleasure, was under all circumstances an act of little social
+gravity; the act of bringing a child into the world, which is for women
+the most massively gratifying of all sexual acts, was counted a crime
+unless the mother had before fulfilled the conditions demanded by man.
+That was perhaps the most unfortunate and certainly the most unnatural of
+the results of the patriarchal regulation of society. It has never existed
+in any great State where women have possessed some degree of regulative
+power.</p><a name='6_Page_419'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It has, of course, been said by abstract theorists that women
+    have the matter in their own hands. They must never love a man
+    until they have safely locked him up in the legal bonds of
+    matrimony. Such an argument is absolutely futile, for it ignores
+    the fact that, while love and even monogamy are natural, legal
+    marriage is merely an external form, with a very feeble power of
+    subjugating natural impulses, except when those impulses are
+    weak, and no power at all of subjugating them permanently.
+    Civilization involves the growth of foresight, and of
+    self-control in both sexes; but it is foolish to attempt to place
+    on these fine and ultimate outgrowths of civilization a strain
+    which they could never bear. How foolish it is has been shown,
+    once and for all, by Lea in his admirable <i>History of Sacerdotal
+    Celibacy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>    Moreover, when we compare the respective aptitudes of men and
+    women in this particular region, it must be remembered that men
+    possess a greater power of forethought and self-control than
+    women, notwithstanding the modesty and reserve of women. The
+    sexual sphere is immensely larger in women, so that when its
+    activity is once aroused it is much more difficult to master or
+    control. (The reasons were set out in detail in the discussion of
+    &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women&quot; in volume iii of these <i>Studies</i>.)
+    It is, therefore, unfair to women, and unduly favors men, when
+    too heavy a premium is placed on forethought and self-restraint
+    in sexual matters. Since women play the predominant part in the
+    sexual field their natural demands, rather than those of men,
+    must furnish the standard.</p></div>
+
+<p>With the realization of the moral responsibility of women the natural
+relations of life spring back to their due biological adjustment.
+Motherhood is restored to its natural sacredness. It becomes the concern
+of the woman herself, and not of society nor of any individual, to
+determine the conditions under which the child shall be conceived. Society
+is entitled to require that the father shall in every case acknowledge the
+fact of his paternity, but it must leave the chief responsibility for all
+the circumstances of child-production to the mother. That is the point of
+view which is now gaining ground in all civilized lands both in theory and
+in practice.<a name='6_FNanchor_311'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_311'><sup>[311]</sup></a></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_257'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_257'>[257]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>E.g.</i>, E. Belfort Bax, <i>Outspoken Essays</i>, p. 6.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_258'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_258'>[258]</a><div class='note'><p> Such reasons are connected with communal welfare. &quot;All
+immoral acts result in communal unhappiness, all moral acts in communal
+happiness,&quot; as Prof. A. Mathews remarks, &quot;Science and Morality,&quot; <i>Popular
+Science Monthly</i>, March, 1909.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_259'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_259'>[259]</a><div class='note'><p> See Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of the Moral
+Ideas</i>, vol. i, pp. 386-390, 522.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_260'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_260'>[260]</a><div class='note'><p> Westermarck, <i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>,
+pp. 9, 159; also the whole of Ch. VII. Actions that are in accordance with
+custom call forth public approval, actions that are opposed to custom call
+forth public resentment, and Westermarck powerfully argues that such
+approval and such resentment are the foundation of moral judgments.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_261'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_261'>[261]</a><div class='note'><p> This is well recognized by legal writers (<i>e.g.</i>, E. A.
+Schroeder, <i>Das Recht in der Geschlechtlichen Ordnung</i>, p. 5).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_262'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_262'>[262]</a><div class='note'><p> W. G. Sumner (<i>Folkways</i>, p. 418) even considers it
+desirable to change the form of the word in order to emphasize the real
+and fundamental meaning of morals, and proposes the word <i>mores</i> to
+indicate &quot;popular usages and traditions conducive to societal reform.&quot;
+&quot;'Immoral,'&quot; he points out, &quot;never means anything but contrary to the
+<i>mores</i> of the time and place.&quot; There is, however, no need whatever to
+abolish or to supplement the good old ancient word &quot;morality,&quot; so long as
+we clearly realize that, on the practical side, it means essentially
+custom.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_263'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_263'>[263]</a><div class='note'><p> Westermarck, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 19.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_264'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_264'>[264]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, &quot;Exogamy and the Mating of Cousins,&quot; in
+<i>Essays Presented to E. B. Tylor</i>, 1907, p. 53. &quot;In many departments of
+primitive life we find a na&iuml;ve desire to, as it were, assist Nature, to
+affirm what is normal, and later to confirm it by the categorical
+imperative of custom and law. This tendency still flourishes in our
+civilized communities, and, as the worship of the normal, is often a
+deadly foe to the abnormal and eccentric, and too often paralyzes
+originality.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_265'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_265'>[265]</a><div class='note'><p> The spirit of Christianity, as illustrated by Paulinus, in
+his <i>Epistle XXV</i>, was from the Roman point of view, as Dill remarks
+(<i>Roman Society</i>, p. 11), &quot;a renunciation, not only of citizenship, but of
+all the hard-won fruits of civilization and social life.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_266'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_266'>[266]</a><div class='note'><p> It thus happens that, as Lecky said in his <i>History of
+European Morals</i>, &quot;of all the departments of ethics the questions
+concerning the relations of the sexes and the proper position of woman are
+those upon the future of which there rests the greatest uncertainty.&quot; Some
+progress has perhaps been made since these words were written, but they
+still hold true for the majority of people.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_267'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_267'>[267]</a><div class='note'><p> Concerning economic marriage as a vestigial survival, see,
+<i>e.g.</i>, Bloch, <i>The Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, p. 212.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_268'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_268'>[268]</a><div class='note'><p> S&eacute;nancour, <i>De l'Amour</i>, vol. ii, p. 233. The author of
+<i>The Question of English Divorce</i> attributes the absence of any widespread
+feeling against sexual license to the absurd rigidity of the law.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_269'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_269'>[269]</a><div class='note'><p> Bruno Meyer, &quot;Etwas von Positiver Sexualreform,&quot;
+<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Nov., 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_270'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_270'>[270]</a><div class='note'><p> Elsie Clews Parsons, <i>The Family</i>, p. 351. Dr. Parsons
+rightly thinks such unions a social evil when they check the development
+of personality.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_271'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_271'>[271]</a><div class='note'><p> For evidence regarding the general absence of celibacy
+among both savage and barbarous peoples, see, <i>e.g.</i>, Westermarck,
+<i>History of Human Marriage</i>, Ch. VII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_272'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_272'>[272]</a><div class='note'><p> There are, for instance, two millions of unmarried women in
+France, while in Belgium 30 per cent, of the women, and in Germany
+sometimes even 50 per cent, are unmarried.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_273'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_273'>[273]</a><div class='note'><p> Such a position would not be biologically unreasonable, in
+view of the greatly preponderant part played by the female in the sexual
+process which insures the conservation of the race. &quot;If the sexual
+instinct is regarded solely from the physical side,&quot; says D. W. H. Busch
+(<i>Das Geschlechtsleben des Weibes</i>, 1839, vol. i, p. 201), &quot;the woman
+cannot be regarded as the property of the man, but with equal and greater
+reason the man may be regarded as the property of the woman.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_274'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_274'>[274]</a><div class='note'><p> Herodotus, Bk. i, Ch. CLXXIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_275'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_275'>[275]</a><div class='note'><p> That power and relationship are entirely distinct was
+pointed out many years ago by L. von Dargun, <i>Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht</i>,
+1892. Westermarck (<i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. i, p.
+655), who is inclined to think that Steinmetz has not proved conclusively
+that mother-descent involves less authority of husband over wife, makes
+the important qualification that the husband's authority is impaired when
+he lives among his wife's kinsfolk.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_276'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_276'>[276]</a><div class='note'><p> Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i>;
+J. G. Frazer has pointed out (<i>Academy</i>, March 27, 1886) that the partially
+Semitic peoples on the North frontier of Abyssinia, not subjected to the
+revolutionary processes of Islam, preserve a system closely resembling
+<i>beena</i> marriage, as well as some traces of the opposite system, by
+Robertson Smith called <i>ba'al</i> marriage, in which the wife is acquired by
+purchase and becomes a piece of property.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_277'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_277'>[277]</a><div class='note'><p> Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i>,
+p. 358.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_278'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_278'>[278]</a><div class='note'><p> Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, <i>The Welsh People</i>, pp. 55-6; <i>cf.</i>
+Rhys, <i>Celtic Heathendom</i>, p. 93.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_279'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_279'>[279]</a><div class='note'><p> Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 214.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_280'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_280'>[280]</a><div class='note'><p> Crawley (<i>The Mystic Rose</i>, p. 41 <i>et seq.</i>) gives numerous
+instances.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_281'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_281'>[281]</a><div class='note'><p> Revillout, &quot;La Femme dans l'Antiquit&eacute;,&quot; <i>Journal
+Asiatique</i>, 1906, vol. vii, p. 57. See, also, Victor Marx, <i>Beitr&auml;ge zur
+Assyriologie</i>, 1899, Bd. iv, Heft 1.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_282'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_282'>[282]</a><div class='note'><p> Donaldson, <i>Woman</i>, pp. 196, 241 <i>et seq.</i> Nietzold, (<i>Die
+Ehe in</i> &quot;<i>Agypten</i>,&quot; p. 17), thinks the statement of Diodorus that no
+children were illegitimate, needs qualification, but that certainly the
+illegitimate child in Egypt was at no social disadvantage.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_283'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_283'>[283]</a><div class='note'><p> Am&eacute;lineau, <i>La Morale Egyptienne</i>, p. 194; Hobhouse,
+<i>Morals in Evolution</i>, vol. i, p. 187; Flinders Petrie, <i>Religion and
+Conscience in Ancient Egypt</i>, pp. 131 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_284'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_284'>[284]</a><div class='note'><p> Maine, <i>Ancient Law</i>, Ch. V.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_285'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_285'>[285]</a><div class='note'><p> Donaldson, <i>Woman</i>, pp. 109, 120.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_286'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_286'>[286]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Mercator</i>, iv, 5.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_287'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_287'>[287]</a><div class='note'><p> Digest XLVIII, 13, 5.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_288'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_288'>[288]</a><div class='note'><p> Hobhouse, <i>Morals in Evolution</i>, vol. i, p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_289'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_289'>[289]</a><div class='note'><p> For an account of the work of some of the less known of
+these pioneers, see a series of articles by Harriet McIlquham in the
+<i>Westminster Review</i>, especially Nov., 1898, and Nov., 1903.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_290'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_290'>[290]</a><div class='note'><p> The influence of Christianity on the position of women has
+been well discussed by Lecky, <i>History of European Morals</i>, vol. ii, pp.
+316 <i>et seq.</i>, and more recently by Donaldson, <i>Woman</i>, Bk. iii.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_291'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_291'>[291]</a><div class='note'><p> Migne, <i>Patrologia</i>, vol. clviii, p. 680.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_292'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_292'>[292]</a><div class='note'><p> Rosa Mayreder, &quot;Einiges &uuml;ber die Starke Faust,&quot; <i>Zur Kritik
+der Weiblichkeit</i>, 1905.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_293'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_293'>[293]</a><div class='note'><p> Rasmussen (<i>People of the Polar North</i>, p. 56), describes a
+ferocious quarrel between husband and wife, who each in turn knocked the
+other down. &quot;Somewhat later, when I peeped in, they were lying
+affectionately asleep, with their arms around each other.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_294'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_294'>[294]</a><div class='note'><p> Hobhouse, <i>Morals in Evolution</i>, vol. ii, p. 367. Dr.
+St&ouml;cker, in <i>Die Liebe und die Frauen</i>, also insists on the significance
+of this factor of personal responsibility.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_295'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_295'>[295]</a><div class='note'><p> Olive Schreiner has especially emphasized the evils of
+parasitism for women. &quot;The increased wealth of the male,&quot; she remarks
+(&quot;The Woman's Movement of Our Day,&quot; <i>Harper's Bazaar</i>, Jan., 1902), &quot;no
+more of necessity benefits and raises the female upon whom he expends it,
+than the increased wealth of his mistress necessarily benefits, mentally
+or physically, a poodle, because she can then give him a down cushion in
+place of one of feathers, and chicken in place of beef.&quot; Olive Schreiner
+believes that feminine parasitism is a danger which really threatens
+society at the present time, and that if not averted &quot;the whole body of
+females in civilized societies must sink into a state of more or less
+absolute dependence.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_296'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_296'>[296]</a><div class='note'><p> In Rome and in Japan, Hobhouse notes (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i,
+pp. 169, 176), the patriarchal system reached its fullest extension, yet
+the laws of both these countries placed the husband in a position of
+practical subjugation to a rich wife.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_297'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_297'>[297]</a><div class='note'><p> Herodotus, Bk. ii, Ch. XXXV. Herodotus noted that it was
+the woman and not the man on whom the responsibility for supporting aged
+parents rested. That alone involved a very high economic position of
+women. It is not surprising that to some observers, as to Diodorus
+Siculus, it seemed that the Egyptian woman was mistress over her husband.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_298'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_298'>[298]</a><div class='note'><p> Hobhouse (<i>loc. cit.</i>), Hale, and also Grosse, believe that
+good economic position of a people involves high position of women.
+Westermarck (<i>Moral Ideas</i>, vol. i, p. 661), here in agreement with Olive
+Schreiner, thinks this statement cannot be accepted without modification,
+though agreeing that agricultural life has a good effect on woman's
+position, because they themselves become actively engaged in it. A good
+economic position has no real effect in raising woman's position, unless
+women themselves take a real and not merely parasitic part in it.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_299'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_299'>[299]</a><div class='note'><p> Westermarck (<i>Moral Ideas</i>, vol. i, Ch. XXVI, vol. ii, p.
+29) gives numerous references with regard to the considerable proprietary
+and other privileges of women among savages which tend to be lost at a
+somewhat higher stage of culture.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_300'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_300'>[300]</a><div class='note'><p> The steady rise in the proportion of women among English
+workers in machine industries began in 1851. There are now, it is
+estimated, three and a half million women employed in industrial
+occupations, beside a million and a half domestic servants. (See for
+details, James Haslam, in a series of papers in the <i>Englishwoman</i> 1909.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_301'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_301'>[301]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, J. A. Hobson, <i>The Evolution of Modern
+Capitalism</i>, second edition, 1907, Ch. XII, &quot;Women in Modern Industry.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_302'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_302'>[302]</a><div class='note'><p> Hobhouse, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 228.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_303'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_303'>[303]</a><div class='note'><p> Fielding, <i>Tom Jones</i>, Bk. iii, Ch. VII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_304'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_304'>[304]</a><div class='note'><p> Even the Church to some extent adopted this allotment of
+the responsibility, and &quot;solicitation,&quot; <i>i.e.</i>, the sin of a confessor in
+seducing his female penitent, is constantly treated as exclusively the
+confessor's sin.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_305'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_305'>[305]</a><div class='note'><p> Adolf Gerson, <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Sept., 1908, p. 547.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_306'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_306'>[306]</a><div class='note'><p> It has already been necessary to refer to the unfortunate
+results which may follow the ignorance of husbands (see, <i>e.g.</i>, &quot;The
+Sexual Impulse in Women,&quot; vol. iii of these <i>Studies</i>), and will be
+necessary again in Ch. XI of the present volume.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_307'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_307'>[307]</a><div class='note'><p> Pepys, <i>Diary</i>, ed. Wheatley, vol. vii, p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_308'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_308'>[308]</a><div class='note'><p> Lombroso and Ferrero, <i>La Donna Delinquente</i>; <i>cf.</i>
+Havelock Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, fourth edition, p. 196.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_309'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_309'>[309]</a><div class='note'><p> Gury, <i>Th&eacute;ologie Morale</i>, art. 381.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_310'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_310'>[310]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Men will not learn what women are,&quot; remarks Rosa Mayreder
+(<i>Zur Kritik der Weiblichkeit</i>, p. 199), &quot;until they have left off
+prescribing what they ought to be.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_311'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_311'>[311]</a><div class='note'><p> It has been set out, for instance, by Professor Wahrmund in
+<i>Ehe und Eherecht</i>, 1908. I need scarcely refer again to the writings of
+Ellen Key, which may be said to be almost epoch-making in their
+significance, especially (in German translation) <i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>
+(also French translation), and (in English translation, Putnam, 1909), the
+valuable, though less important work, <i>The Century of the Child</i>. See also
+Edward Carpenter, <i>Love's Coming of Age</i>; Forel, <i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>
+(English translation, abridged, <i>The Sexual Question</i>, Rebman, 1908);
+Bloch, <i>Sexualleben unsere Zeit</i> (English translation, <i>The Sexual Life of
+Our Time</i>, Rebman, 1908); Helene St&ouml;cker, <i>Die Liebe und die Frauen</i>,
+1906; and Paul Lapie, <i>La Femme dans la Famille</i>, 1908.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_X'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_420'></a>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>MARRIAGE.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Definition of Marriage&mdash;Marriage Among Animals&mdash;The Predominance of
+Monogamy&mdash;The Question of Group Marriage&mdash;Monogamy a Natural Fact, Not
+Based on Human Law&mdash;The Tendency to Place the Form of Marriage Above the
+Fact of Marriage&mdash;The History of Marriage&mdash;Marriage in Ancient
+Rome&mdash;Germanic Influence on Marriage&mdash;Bride-Sale&mdash;The Ring&mdash;The Influence
+of Christianity on Marriage&mdash;The Great Extent of This Influence&mdash;The
+Sacrament of Matrimony&mdash;Origin and Growth of the Sacramental
+Conception&mdash;The Church Made Marriage a Public Act&mdash;Canon Law&mdash;Its Sound
+Core&mdash;Its Development&mdash;Its Confusions and Absurdities&mdash;Peculiarities of
+English Marriage Law&mdash;Influence of the Reformation on Marriage&mdash;The
+Protestant Conception of Marriage as a Secular Contract&mdash;The Puritan
+Reform of Marriage&mdash;Milton as the Pioneer of Marriage Reform&mdash;His Views on
+Divorce&mdash;The Backward Position of England in Marriage Reform&mdash;Criticism
+of the English Divorce Law&mdash;Traditions of the Canon Law Still
+Persistent&mdash;The Question of Damages for Adultery&mdash;Collusion as a Bar to
+Divorce&mdash;Divorce in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, etc.&mdash;The United
+States&mdash;Impossibility of Deciding by Statute the Causes for
+Divorce&mdash;Divorce by Mutual Consent&mdash;Its Origin and Development&mdash;Impeded by
+the Traditions of Canon Law&mdash;Wilhelm von Humboldt&mdash;Modern Pioneer
+Advocates of Divorce by Mutual Consent&mdash;The Arguments Against Facility of
+Divorce&mdash;The Interests of the Children&mdash;The Protection of Women&mdash;The
+Present Tendency of the Divorce Movement&mdash;Marriage Not a Contract&mdash;The
+Proposal of Marriage for a Term of Years&mdash;Legal Disabilities and
+Disadvantages in the Position of the Husband and the Wife&mdash;Marriage Not a
+Contract But a Fact&mdash;Only the Non-Essentials of Marriage, Not the
+Essentials, a Proper Matter for Contract&mdash;The Legal Recognition of
+Marriage as a Fact Without Any Ceremony&mdash;Contracts of the Person Opposed
+to Modern Tendencies&mdash;The Factor of Moral Responsibility&mdash;Marriage as an
+Ethical Sacrament&mdash;Personal Responsibility Involves Freedom&mdash;Freedom the
+Best Guarantee of Stability&mdash;False Ideas of Individualism&mdash;Modern Tendency
+of Marriage&mdash;With the Birth of a Child Marriage Ceases to be a Private
+Concern&mdash;Every Child Must Have a Legal Father and Mother&mdash;How This Can be
+Effected&mdash;The Firm Basis of Monogamy&mdash;The Question of Marriage
+Variations&mdash;Such Variations<a name='6_Page_421'></a> Not Inimical to Monogamy&mdash;The Most Common
+Variations&mdash;The Flexibility of Marriage Holds Variations in
+Check&mdash;Marriage Variations <i>versus</i> Prostitution&mdash;Marriage on a Reasonable
+and Humane Basis&mdash;Summary and Conclusion.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The discussion in the previous chapter of the nature of sexual morality,
+with the brief sketch it involved of the direction in which that morality
+is moving, has necessarily left many points vague. It may still be asked
+what definite and precise forms sexual unions are tending to take among
+us, and what relation these unions bear to the religious, social, and
+legal traditions we have inherited. These are matters about which a very
+considerable amount of uncertainty seems to prevail, for it is not unusual
+to hear revolutionary or eccentric opinions concerning them.</p>
+
+<p>Sexual union, involving the cohabitation, temporary or permanent, of two
+or more persons, and having for one of its chief ends the production and
+care of offspring, is commonly termed marriage. The group so constituted
+forms a family. This is the sense in which the words &quot;marriage&quot; and the
+&quot;family&quot; are most properly used, whether we speak of animals or of Man.
+There is thus seen to be room for variation as regards both the time
+during which the union lasts, and the number of individuals who form it,
+the chief factor in the determination of these points being the interests
+of the offspring. In actual practice, however, sexual unions, not only in
+Man but among the higher animals, tend to last beyond the needs of the
+offspring of a single season, while the fact that in most species the
+numbers of males and females are approximately equal makes it inevitable
+that both among animals and in Man the family is produced by a single
+sexual couple, that is to say that monogamy is, with however many
+exceptions, necessarily the fundamental rule.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that marriage centres in the child, and has at the
+outset no reason for existence apart from the welfare of the offspring.
+Among those animals of lowly organization which are able to provide for
+themselves from the beginning of existence there is no family and no need
+for marriage. Among human races, when sexual unions are not followed by
+offspring, <a name='6_Page_422'></a>there may be other reasons for the continuance of the union
+but they are not reasons in which either Nature or society is in the
+slightest degree directly concerned. The marriage which grew up among
+animals by heredity on the basis of natural selection, and which has been
+continued by the lower human races through custom and tradition, by the
+more civilized races through the superimposed regulative influence of
+legal institutions, has been marriage for the sake of the offspring.<a name='6_FNanchor_312'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_312'><sup>[312]</sup></a>
+Even in civilized races among whom the proportion of sterile marriages is
+large, marriage tends to be so constituted as always to assume the
+procreation of children and to involve the permanence required by such
+procreation.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Among birds, which from the point of view of erotic development
+    stand at the head of the animal world, monogamy frequently
+    prevails (according to some estimates among 90 per cent.), and
+    unions tend to be permanent; there is an approximation to the
+    same condition among some of the higher mammals, especially the
+    anthropoid apes; thus among gorillas and oran-utans permanent
+    monogamic marriages take place, the young sometimes remaining
+    with the parents to the age of six, while any approach to loose
+    behavior on the part of the wife is severely punished by the
+    husband. The variations that occur are often simply matters of
+    adaptation to circumstances; thus, according to J. G. Millais
+    (<i>Natural History of British Ducks</i>, pp. 8, 63), the Shoveler
+    duck, though normally monogamic, will become polyandric when
+    males are in excess, the two males being in constant and amicable
+    attendance on the female without signs of jealousy; among the
+    monogamic mallards, similarly, polygyny and polyandry may also
+    occur. See also R. W. Shufeldt, &quot;Mating Among Birds,&quot; <i>American
+    Naturalist</i>, March, 1907; for mammal marriages, a valuable paper
+    by Robert M&uuml;ller, &quot;S&auml;ugethierehen,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Jan.,
+    1909, and as regards the general prevalence of monogamy, Woods
+    Hutchinson, &quot;Animal Marriage,&quot; <i>Contemporary Review</i>, Oct., 1904,
+    and Sept., 1905.</p>
+
+<p>    There has long been a dispute among the historians of marriage as
+    to the first form of human marriage. Some assume a primitive
+    promiscuity gradually modified in the direction of monogamy;
+    others argue that man began where the anthropoid apes left off,
+    and that monogamy has prevailed, on the whole, throughout. Both
+    these opposed views, in <a name='6_Page_423'></a>an extreme form, seem untenable, and the
+    truth appears to lie midway. It has been shown by various
+    writers, and notably Westermarck (<i>History of Human Marriage</i>,
+    Chs. IV-VI), that there is no sound evidence in favor of
+    primitive promiscuity, and that at the present day there are few,
+    if any, savage peoples living in genuine unrestricted sexual
+    promiscuity. This theory of a primitive promiscuity seems to have
+    been suggested, as J. A. Godfrey has pointed out (<i>Science of
+    Sex</i>, p. 112), by the existence in civilized societies of
+    promiscuous prostitution, though this kind of promiscuity was
+    really the result, rather than the origin, of marriage. On the
+    other hand, it can scarcely be said that there is any convincing
+    evidence of primitive strict monogamy beyond the assumption that
+    early man continued the sexual habits of the anthropoid apes. It
+    would seem probable, however, that the great forward step
+    involved in passing from ape to man was associated with a change
+    in sexual habits involving the temporary adoption of a more
+    complex system than monogamy. It is difficult to see in what
+    other social field than that of sex primitive man could find
+    exercise for the developing intellectual and moral aptitudes, the
+    subtle distinctions and moral restraints, which the strict
+    monogamy practiced by animals could afford no scope for. It is
+    also equally difficult to see on what basis other than that of a
+    more closely associated sexual system the combined and harmonious
+    efforts needed for social progress could have developed. It is
+    probable that at least one of the motives for exogamy, or
+    marriage outside the group, is (as was probably first pointed out
+    by St. Augustine in his <i>De Civitate Dei</i>) the need of creating a
+    larger social circle, and so facilitating social activities and
+    progress. Exactly the same end is effected by a complex marriage
+    system binding a large number of people together by common
+    interests. The strictly small and confined monogamic family,
+    however excellently it subserved the interests of the offspring,
+    contained no promise of a wider social progress. We see this
+    among both ants and bees, who of all animals, have attained the
+    highest social organization; their progress was only possible
+    through a profound modification of the systems of sexual
+    relationship. As Espinas said many years ago (in his suggestive
+    work, <i>Des Soci&eacute;t&eacute;s Animales</i>): &quot;The cohesion of the family and
+    the probabilities for the birth of societies are inverse.&quot; Or, as
+    Schurtz more recently pointed out, although individual marriage
+    has prevailed more or less from the first, early social
+    institutions, early ideas and early religion involved sexual
+    customs which modified a strict monogamy.</p>
+
+<p>    The most primitive form of complex human marriage which has yet
+    been demonstrated as still in existence is what is called
+    group-marriage, in which all the women of one class are regarded
+    as the actual, or at all events potential, wives of all the men
+    in another class. This has been observed among some central
+    Australian tribes, a people as primitive and <a name='6_Page_424'></a>as secluded from
+    external influence as could well be found, and there is evidence
+    to show that it was formerly more widespread among them. &quot;In the
+    Urabunna tribe, for example,&quot; say Spencer and Gillen, &quot;a group of
+    men actually do have, continually and as a normal condition,
+    marital relations with a group of women. This state of affairs
+    has nothing whatever to do with polygamy any more than it has
+    with polyandry. It is simply a question of a group of men and a
+    group of women who may lawfully have what we call marital
+    relations. There is nothing whatever abnormal about it, and, in
+    all probability, this system of what has been called group
+    marriage, serving as it does to bind more or less closely
+    together groups of individuals who are mutually interested in one
+    another's welfare, has been one of the most powerful agents in
+    the early stages of the upward development of the human race&quot;
+    (Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i>, p.
+    74; <i>cf.</i> A. W. Howitt, <i>The Native Tribes of South-East
+    Australia</i>). Group-marriage, with female descent, as found in
+    Australia, tends to become transformed by various stages of
+    progress into individual marriage with descent in the male line,
+    a survival of group-marriage perhaps persisting in the
+    much-discussed <i>jus prim&aelig; noctis</i>. (It should be added that Mr.
+    N. W. Thomas, in his book on <i>Kinship and Marriage in Australia</i>,
+    1908, concludes that group-marriage in Australia has not been
+    demonstrated, and that Professor Westermarck, in his <i>Origin and
+    Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, as in his previous <i>History of
+    Human Marriage</i>, maintains a skeptical opinion in regard to
+    group-marriage generally; he thinks the Urabunna custom may have
+    developed out of ordinary individual marriage, and regards the
+    group-marriage theory as &quot;the residuary legatee of the old theory
+    of promiscuity.&quot; Durkheim also believes that the Australian
+    marriage system is not primitive, &quot;Organisation Matrimoniale
+    Australienne,&quot; <i>L'Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>, eighth year, 1905). With
+    the attainment of a certain level of social progress it is easy
+    to see that a wide and complicated system of sexual relationships
+    ceases to have its value, and a more or less qualified monogamy
+    tends to prevail as more in harmony with the claims of social
+    stability and executive masculine energy.</p>
+
+<p>    The best historical discussion of marriage is still probably
+    Westermarck's <i>History of Human Marriage</i>, though at some points
+    it now needs to be corrected or supplemented; among more recent
+    books dealing with primitive sexual conceptions may be specially
+    mentioned Crawley's <i>Mystic Rose</i>, while the facts concerning the
+    transformation of marriage among the higher human races are set
+    forth in G. E. Howard's <i>History of Matrimonial Institutions</i> (3
+    vols.), which contains copious bibliographical references. There
+    is an admirably compact, but clear and comprehensive, sketch of
+    the development of modern marriage in Pollock and Maitland,
+    <i>History of English Law</i>, vol. ii.</p></div><a name='6_Page_425'></a>
+
+<p>It is necessary to make allowance for variations, thereby shunning the
+extreme theorists who insist on moulding all facts to their theories, but
+we may conclude that&mdash;as the approximately equal number of the sexes
+indicates&mdash;in the human species, as among many of the higher animals, a
+more or less permanent monogamy has on the whole tended to prevail. That
+is a fact of great significance in its implications. For we have to
+realize that we are here in the presence of a natural fact. Sexual
+relationships, in human as in animal societies, follow a natural law,
+oscillating on each side of the norm, and there is no place for the theory
+that that law was imposed artificially. If all artificial &quot;laws&quot; could be
+abolished the natural order of the sexual relationships would continue to
+subsist substantially as at present. Virtue, said Cicero, is but Nature
+carried out to the utmost. Or, as Holbach put it, arguing that our
+institutions tend whither Nature tends, &quot;art is only Nature acting by the
+help of the instruments she has herself made.&quot; Shakespeare had already
+seen much the same truth when he said that the art which adds to Nature
+&quot;is an art that Nature makes.&quot; Law and religion have buttressed monogamy;
+it is not based on them but on the needs and customs of mankind, and these
+constitute its completely adequate sanctions.<a name='6_FNanchor_313'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_313'><sup>[313]</sup></a> Or, as Cope put it,
+marriage is not the creation of law but the law is its creation.<a name='6_FNanchor_314'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_314'><sup>[314]</sup></a>
+Crawley, again, throughout his study of primitive sex relationships,
+emphasizes the fact that our formal marriage system is not, as so many
+religious and moral writers once supposed, a forcible repression of
+natural impulses, but merely the rigid crystallization of those natural
+impulses, which in a more fluid form have been in human nature from the
+first. Our conventional forms, we must believe, have not introduced any
+elements of value, while in some respects they have been mischievous.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is necessary to bear in mind that the conclusion that
+    monogamic marriage is natural, and represents an order which is
+    in harmony with the instincts of the majority of people, by no
+    means involves agreement with the details of any particular legal
+    system of monogamy. Monogamic <a name='6_Page_426'></a>marriage is a natural biological
+    fact, alike in many animals and in man. But no system of legal
+    regulation is a natural biological fact. When a highly esteemed
+    alienist, Dr. Clouston, writes (<i>The Hygiene of Mind</i>, p. 245)
+    &quot;there is only one natural mode of gratifying sexual <i>nisus</i> and
+    reproductive instinct, that of marriage,&quot; the statement requires
+    considerable exegesis before it can be accepted, or even receive
+    an intelligible meaning, and if we are to understand by
+    &quot;marriage&quot; the particular form and implications of the English
+    marriage law, or even of the somewhat more enlightened Scotch
+    law, the statement is absolutely false. There is a world of
+    difference, as J. A. Godfrey remarks (<i>The Science of Sex</i>, 1901,
+    p. 278), between natural monogamous marriage and our legal
+    system; &quot;the former is the outward expression of the best that
+    lies in the sexuality of man; the latter is a creation in which
+    religious and moral superstitions have played a most important
+    part, not always to the benefit of individual and social health.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    We must, therefore, guard against the tendency to think that
+    there is anything rigid or formal in the natural order of
+    monogamy. Some sociologists would even limit the naturalness of
+    monogamy still further. Thus Tarde (&quot;La Morale Sexuelle,&quot;
+    <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, Jan., 1907), while
+    accepting as natural under present conditions the tendency for
+    monogamy, mitigated by more or less clandestine concubinage, to
+    prevail over all other forms of marriage, considers that this is
+    not due to any irresistible influence, but merely to the fact
+    that this kind of marriage is practiced by the majority of
+    people, including the most civilized.</p>
+
+<p>    With the acceptance of the tendency to monogamy we are not at the
+    end of sexual morality, but only at the beginning. It is not
+    monogamy that is the main thing, but the kind of lives that
+    people lead in monogamy. The mere acceptance of a monogamic rule
+    carries us but a little way. That is a fact which cannot fail to
+    impress itself on those who approach the questions of sex from
+    the psychological side.</p></div>
+
+<p>If monogamy is thus firmly based it is unreasonable to fear, or to hope
+for, any radical modification in the institution of marriage, regarded,
+not under its temporary religious and legal aspects but as an order which
+appeared on the earth even earlier than man. Monogamy is the most natural
+expression of an impulse which cannot, as a rule, be so adequately
+realized in full fruition under conditions involving a less prolonged
+period of mutual communion and intimacy. Variations, regarded as
+inevitable oscillations around the norm, are also natural, but union in
+couples must always be the rule because the numbers of <a name='6_Page_427'></a>the sexes are
+always approximately equal, while the needs of the emotional life, even
+apart from the needs of offspring, demand that such unions based on mutual
+attraction should be so far as possible permanent.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It must here again be repeated that it is the reality, and not
+    the form or the permanence of the marriage union, which is its
+    essential and valuable part. It is not the legal or religious
+    formality which sanctifies marriage, it is the reality of the
+    marriage which sanctifies the form. Fielding has satirized in
+    Nightingale, Tom Jones's friend, the shallow-brained view of
+    connubial society which degrades the reality of marriage to exalt
+    the form. Nightingale has the greatest difficulty in marrying a
+    girl with whom he has already had sexual relations, although he
+    is the only man who has had relations with her. To Jones's
+    arguments he replies: &quot;Common-sense warrants all you say, but yet
+    you well know that the opinion of the world is so contrary to it,
+    that were I to marry a whore, though my own, I should be ashamed
+    of ever showing my face again.&quot; It cannot be said that Fielding's
+    satire is even yet out of date. Thus in Prussia, according to
+    Adele Schreiber (&quot;Heirathsbeschr&auml;nkungen,&quot; <i>Die Neue Generation</i>,
+    Feb., 1909), it seems to be still practically impossible for a
+    military officer to marry the mother of his own illegitimate
+    child.</p>
+
+<p>    The glorification of the form at the expense of the reality of
+    marriage has even been attempted in poetry by Tennyson in the
+    least inspired of his works, <i>The Idylls of the King</i>. In
+    &quot;Lancelot and Elaine&quot; and &quot;Guinevere&quot; (as Julia Magruder points
+    out, <i>North American Review</i>, April, 1905) Guinevere is married
+    to King Arthur, whom she has never seen, when already in love
+    with Lancelot, so that the &quot;marriage&quot; was merely a ceremony, and
+    not a real marriage (<i>cf.</i>, May Child, &quot;The Weird of Sir
+    Lancelot,&quot; <i>North American Review</i>, Dec., 1908).</p></div>
+
+<p>It may seem to some that so conservative an estimate of the tendencies of
+civilization in matters of sexual love is due to a timid adherence to mere
+tradition. That is not the case. We have to recognize that marriage is
+firmly held in position by the pressure of two opposing forces. There are
+two currents in the stream of our civilization: one that moves towards an
+ever greater social order and cohesion, the other that moves towards an
+ever greater individual freedom. There is real harmony underlying the
+apparent opposition of these two tendencies, and each is indeed the
+indispensable complement of the other. There <a name='6_Page_428'></a>can be no real freedom for
+the individual in the things that concern that individual alone unless
+there is a coherent order in the things that concern him as a social unit.
+Marriage in one of its aspects only concerns the two individuals involved;
+in another of its aspects it chiefly concerns society. The two forces
+cannot combine to act destructively on marriage, for the one counteracts
+the other. They combine to support monogamy, in all essentials, on its
+immemorial basis.</p>
+
+<p>It must be added that in the circumstances of monogamy that are not
+essential there always has been, and always must be, perpetual
+transformation. All traditional institutions, however firmly founded on
+natural impulses, are always growing dead and rigid at some points and
+putting forth vitally new growths at other points. It is the effort to
+maintain their vitality, and to preserve their elastic adjustment to the
+environment, which involves this process of transformation in
+non-essentials.</p>
+
+<p>The only way in which we can fruitfully approach the question of the value
+of the transformations now taking place in our marriage-system is by
+considering the history of that system in the past. In that way we learn
+the real significance of the marriage-system, and we understand what
+transformations are, or are not, associated with a fine civilization. When
+we are acquainted with the changes of the past we are enabled to face more
+confidently the changes of the present.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the marriage-system of modern civilized peoples begins in
+the later days of the Roman Empire at the time when the foundations were
+being laid of that Roman law which has exerted so large an influence in
+Christendom. Reference has already been made<a name='6_FNanchor_315'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_315'><sup>[315]</sup></a> to the significant fact
+that in late Rome women had acquired a position of nearly complete
+independence in relation to their husbands, while the patriarchal
+authority still exerted over them by their fathers had become, for the
+most part, almost nominal. This high status of women was associated, as it
+naturally tends to be, with a high degree of freedom in the marriage
+system. Roman law had no power of <a name='6_Page_429'></a>intervening in the formation of
+marriages and there were no legal forms of marriage. The Romans recognized
+that marriage is a fact and not a mere legal form; in marriage by <i>usus</i>
+there was no ceremony at all; it was constituted by the mere fact of
+living together for a whole year; yet such marriage was regarded as just
+as legal and complete as if it had been inaugurated by the sacred rite of
+<i>confarreatio</i>. Marriage was a matter of simple private agreement in which
+the man and the woman approached each other on a footing of equality. The
+wife retained full control of her own property; the barbarity of admitting
+an action for restitution of conjugal rights was impossible, divorce was a
+private transaction to which the wife was as fully entitled as the
+husband, and it required no inquisitorial intervention of magistrate or
+court; Augustus ordained, indeed, that a public declaration was necessary,
+but the divorce itself was a private legal act of the two persons
+concerned.<a name='6_FNanchor_316'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_316'><sup>[316]</sup></a> It is interesting to note this enlightened conception of
+marriage prevailing in the greatest and most masterful Empire which has
+ever dominated the world, at the period not indeed of its greatest
+force,&mdash;for the maximum of force and the maximum of expansion, the bud and
+the full flower, are necessarily incompatible,&mdash;but at the period of its
+fullest development. In the chaos that followed the dissolution of the
+Empire Roman law remained as a precious legacy to the new developing
+nations, but its influence was inextricably mingled with that of
+Christianity, which, though not at the first anxious to set up marriage
+laws of its own, gradually revealed a growing ascetic feeling hostile
+alike to the dignity of the married woman and the freedom of marriage and
+divorce.<a name='6_FNanchor_317'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_317'><sup>[317]</sup></a> With that influence was combined the influence, introduced
+through the<a name='6_Page_430'></a> Bible, of the barbaric Jewish marriage-system conferring on
+the husband rights in marriage and divorce which were totally denied to
+the wife; this was an influence which gained still greater force at the
+Reformation when the authority once accorded to the Church was largely
+transformed to the Bible. Finally, there was in a great part of Europe,
+including the most energetic and expansive parts, the influence of the
+Germans, an influence still more primitive than that of the Jews,
+involving the conception of the wife as almost her husband's chattel, and
+marriage as a purchase. All these influences clashed and often appeared
+side by side, though they could not be harmonized. The result was that the
+fifteen hundred years that followed the complete conquest of Christianity
+represent on the whole the most degraded condition to which the marriage
+system has ever been known to fall for so long a period during the whole
+course of human history.</p>
+
+<p>At first indeed the beneficent influence of Rome continued in some degree
+to prevail and even exhibited new developments. In the time of the
+Christian Emperors freedom of divorce by mutual consent was alternately
+maintained, and abolished.<a name='6_FNanchor_318'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_318'><sup>[318]</sup></a> We even find the wise and far-seeing
+provision of the law enacting that a contract of the two parties never to
+separate could have no legal validity. Justinian's prohibition of divorce
+by consent led to much domestic unhappiness, and even crime, which appears
+to be the reason why it was immediately abrogated by his successor,
+Theodosius, still maintaining the late Roman tradition of the moral
+equality of the sexes, allowed the wife equally with the husband to obtain
+a divorce for adultery; that is a point we have not yet attained in
+England to-day.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_431'></a>
+<p>It seems to be admitted on all sides that it was largely the fatal
+influence of the irruption of the barbarous Germans which degraded, when
+it failed to sweep away, the noble conception of the equality of women
+with men, and the dignity and freedom of marriage, slowly moulded by the
+organizing genius of the Roman into a great tradition which still retains
+a supreme value. The influence of Christianity had at the first no
+degrading influence of this kind; for the ascetic ideal was not yet
+predominant, priests married as a matter of course, and there was no
+difficulty in accepting the marriage order established in the secular
+world; it was even possible to add to it a new vitality and freedom. But
+the Germans, with all the primitively acquisitive and combative instincts
+of untamed savages, went far beyond even the early Romans in the
+subjection of their wives; they allowed indeed to their unmarried girls a
+large measure of indulgence and even sexual freedom,&mdash;just as the
+Christians also reverenced their virgins,<a name='6_FNanchor_319'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_319'><sup>[319]</sup></a>&mdash;but the German marriage
+system placed the wife, as compared to the wife of the Roman Empire, in a
+condition little better than that of a domestic slave. In one form or
+another, under one disguise or another, the system of wife-purchase
+prevailed among the Germans, and, whenever that system is influential,
+even when the wife is honored her privileges are diminished.<a name='6_FNanchor_320'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_320'><sup>[320]</sup></a> Among
+the Teutonic peoples generally, as among the early English, marriage was
+indeed a private transaction but it took the form of a sale of the bride
+by the father, or other legal guardian, to the bridegroom. The <i>beweddung</i>
+was a <a name='6_Page_432'></a>real contract of sale.<a name='6_FNanchor_321'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_321'><sup>[321]</sup></a> &quot;Sale-marriage&quot; was the most usual form
+of marriage. The ring, indeed, probably was not in origin, as some have
+supposed, a mark of servitude, but rather a form of bride-price, or
+<i>arrha</i>, that is to say, earnest money on the contract of marriage and so
+the symbol of it.<a name='6_FNanchor_322'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_322'><sup>[322]</sup></a> At first a sign of the bride's purchase, it was not
+till later that the ring acquired the significance of subjection to the
+bridegroom, and that significance, later in the Middle Ages, was further
+emphasized by other ceremonies. Thus in England the York and Sarum manuals
+in some of their forms direct the bride, after the delivery of the ring,
+to fall at her husband's feet, and sometimes to kiss his right foot. In
+Russia, also, the bride kissed her husband's feet. At a later period, in
+France, this custom was attenuated, and it became customary for the bride
+to let the ring fall in front of the altar and then stoop at her husband's
+feet to pick it up.<a name='6_FNanchor_323'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_323'><sup>[323]</sup></a> Feudalism carried on, and by its military
+character exaggerated, these Teutonic influences. A fief was land held on
+condition of military service, and the nature of its influence on marriage
+is implied in that fact. The woman was given with the fief and her own
+will counted for nothing.<a name='6_FNanchor_324'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_324'><sup>[324]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The Christian Church in the beginning accepted the forms <a name='6_Page_433'></a>of marriage
+already existing in those countries in which it found itself, the Roman
+forms in the lands of Latin tradition and the German forms in Teutonic
+lands. It merely demanded (as it also demanded for other civil contracts,
+such as an ordinary sale) that they should be hallowed by priestly
+benediction. But the marriage was recognized by the Church even in the
+absence of such benediction. There was no special religious marriage
+service, either in the East or the West, earlier than the sixth century.
+It was simply the custom for the married couple, after the secular
+ceremonies were completed, to attend the church, listen to the ordinary
+service and take the sacrament. A special marriage service was developed
+slowly, and it was no part of the real marriage. During the tenth century
+(at all events in Italy and France) it was beginning to become customary
+to celebrate the first part of the real nuptials, still a purely temporal
+act, outside the church door. Soon this was followed by the regular
+bride-mass, directly applicable to the occasion, inside the church. By the
+twelfth century the priest directed the ceremony, now involving an
+imposing ritual, which began outside the church and ended with the bridal
+mass inside. By the thirteenth century, the priest, superseding the
+guardians of the young couple, himself officiated through the whole
+ceremony. Up to that time marriage had been a purely private business
+transaction. Thus, after more than a millennium of Christianity, not by
+law but by the slow growth of custom, ecclesiastical marriage was
+established.<a name='6_FNanchor_325'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_325'><sup>[325]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It was undoubtedly an event of very great importance not merely for the
+Church but for the whole history of European marriage even down to to-day.
+The whole of our public method of celebrating marriage to-day is based on
+that of the Catholic Church as established in the twelfth century and
+formulated in the Canon law. Even the publication of banns has its origin
+here, and the fact that in our modern civil marriage the public ceremony
+takes place in an office and not in a Church may disguise <a name='6_Page_434'></a>but cannot
+alter the fact that it is the direct and unquestionable descendant of the
+public ecclesiastical ceremony which embodied the slow and subtle
+triumph&mdash;so slow and subtle that its history is difficult to trace&mdash;of
+Christian priests over the private affairs of men and women. Before they
+set themselves to this task marriage everywhere was the private business
+of the persons concerned; when they had completed their task,&mdash;and it was
+not absolutely complete until the Council of Trent,&mdash;a private marriage
+had become a sin and almost a crime.<a name='6_FNanchor_326'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_326'><sup>[326]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It may seem a matter for surprise that the Church which, as we know, had
+shown an ever greater tendency to reverence virginity and to cast
+contumely on the sexual relationship, should yet, parallel with that
+movement and with the growing influence of asceticism, have shown so great
+an anxiety to capture marriage and to confer on it a public, dignified,
+and religious character. There was, however, no contradiction. The factors
+that were constituting European marriage, taken as a whole, were indeed of
+very diverse characters and often involved unreconciled contradictions.
+But so far as the central efforts of the ecclesiastical legislators were
+concerned, there was a definite and intelligible point of view. The very
+depreciation of the sexual instinct involved the necessity, since the
+instinct could not be uprooted, of constituting for it a legitimate
+channel, so that ecclesiastical matrimony was, it has been said,
+&quot;analogous to a license to sell intoxicating liquors.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_327'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_327'><sup>[327]</sup></a> Moreover,
+matrimony exhibited the power of the Church to confer on the license a
+dignity and distinction which would clearly separate it from the general
+stream of lust. Sexual enjoyment is impure, the faithful cannot partake of
+it until it has been purified by the ministrations of the Church. The
+solemnization of marriage was the necessary result of the sanctification
+of virginity. It became necessary <a name='6_Page_435'></a>to sanctify marriage also, and hence
+was developed the indissoluble sacrament of matrimony. The conception of
+marriage as a religious sacrament, a conception of far-reaching influence,
+is the great contribution of the Catholic Church to the history of
+marriage.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is important to remember that, while Christianity brought the
+    idea of marriage as a sacrament into the main stream of the
+    institutional history of Europe, that idea was merely developed,
+    not invented, by the Church. It is an ancient and even primitive
+    idea. The Jews believed that marriage is a magico-religious bond,
+    having in it something mystical resembling a sacrament, and that
+    idea, says Durkheim (<i>L'Ann&eacute;e Sociologique</i>, eighth year, 1905,
+    p. 419), is perhaps very archaic, and hangs on to the generally
+    magic character of sex relations. &quot;The mere act of union,&quot; Crawley
+    remarks (<i>The Mystic Rose</i>, p. 318) concerning savages, &quot;is
+    potentially a marriage ceremony of the sacramental kind.... One
+    may even credit the earliest animistic men with some such vague
+    conception before any ceremony became crystallized.&quot; The essence
+    of a marriage ceremony, the same writer continues, &quot;is the
+    'joining together' of a man and a woman; in the words of our
+    English service, 'for this cause shall a man leave his father and
+    mother and shall be joined unto his wife; and they two shall be
+    one flesh.' At the other side of the world, amongst the Orang
+    Benuas, these words are pronounced by an elder, when a marriage
+    is solemnized: 'Listen all ye that are present; those that were
+    distant are now brought together; those that were separated are
+    now united.' Marriage ceremonies in all stages of culture may be
+    called religious with as much propriety as any ceremony whatever.
+    Those who were separated are now joined together, those who were
+    mutually taboo now break the taboo.&quot; Thus marriage ceremonies
+    prevent sin and neutralize danger.</p>
+
+<p>    The Catholic conception of marriage was, it is clear, in
+    essentials precisely the primitive conception. Christianity drew
+    the sacramental idea from the archaic traditions in popular
+    consciousness, and its own ecclesiastical contribution lay in
+    slowly giving that idea a formal and rigid shape, and in
+    declaring it indissoluble. As among savages, it was in the act of
+    consent that the essence of the sacrament lay; the intervention
+    of the priest was not, in principle, necessary to give marriage
+    its religiously binding character. The essence of the sacrament
+    was mutual acceptance of each other by the man and the woman, as
+    husband and wife, and technically the priest who presided at the
+    ceremony was simply a witness of the sacrament. The essential
+    fact being thus the mental act of consent, the sacrament of
+    matrimony had the peculiar character of being without any outward
+    and visible sign. Perhaps it <a name='6_Page_436'></a>was this fact, instinctively felt
+    as a weakness, which led to the immense emphasis on the
+    indissolubility of the sacrament of matrimony, already
+    established by St. Augustine. The Canonists brought forward
+    various arguments to account for that indissolubility, and a
+    frequent argument has always been the Scriptural application of
+    the term &quot;one flesh&quot; to married couples; but the favorite
+    argument of the Canonists was that matrimony represents the union
+    of Christ with the Church; that is indissoluble, and therefore
+    its image must be indissoluble (Esmein, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p.
+    64). In part, also, one may well believe, the idea of the
+    indissolubility of marriage suggested itself to the
+    ecclesiastical mind by a natural association of ideas: the vow of
+    virginity in monasticism was indissoluble; ought not the vow of
+    sexual relationship in matrimony to be similarly indissoluble? It
+    appears that it was not until 1164, in Peter Lombard's
+    <i>Sentences</i>, that clear and formal recognition is found of
+    matrimony as one of the seven sacraments (Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>,
+    vol. i, p. 333).</p></div>
+
+<p>The Church, however, had not only made marriage a religious act; it had
+also made it a public act. The officiating priest, who had now become the
+arbiter of marriage, was bound by all the injunctions and prohibitions of
+the Church, and he could not allow himself to bend to the inclinations and
+interests of individual couples or their guardians. It was inevitable that
+in this matter, as in other similar matters, a code of ecclesiastical
+regulations should be gradually developed for his guidance. This need of
+the Church, due to its growing control of the world's affairs, was the
+origin of Canon law. With the development of Canon law the whole field of
+the regulation of the sexual relationships, and the control of its
+aberrations, became an exclusively ecclesiastical matter. The secular law
+could take no more direct cognizance of adultery than of fornication or
+masturbation; bigamy, incest, and sodomy were not temporal crimes; the
+Church was supreme in the whole sphere of sex.</p>
+
+<p>It was during the twelfth century that Canon law developed, and Gratian
+was the master mind who first moulded it. He belonged to the Bolognese
+school of jurisprudence which had inherited the sane traditions of Roman
+law. The Canons which Gratian compiled were, however, no more the mere
+result of legal traditions than they were the outcome of cloistered
+theological speculation. They were the result of a response to the
+<a name='6_Page_437'></a>practical needs of the day before those needs had had time to form a
+foundation for fine-spun subtleties. At a somewhat later period, before
+the close of the century, the Italian jurists were vanquished by the
+Gallic theologians of Paris as represented by Peter Lombard. The result
+was the introduction of mischievous complexities which went far to rob
+Canon law alike of its certainty and its adaptation to human necessities.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding, however, all the parasitic accretions which swiftly began
+to form around the Canon law and to entangle its practical activity, that
+legislation embodied&mdash;predominantly at the outset and more obscurely
+throughout its whole period of vital activity&mdash;a sound core of real value.
+The Canon law recognized at the outset that the essential fact of marriage
+is the actual sexual union, accomplished with the intention of
+inaugurating a permanent relationship. The <i>copula carnalis</i>, the making
+of two &quot;one flesh,&quot; according to the Scriptural phrase, a mystic symbol of
+the union of the Church to Christ, was the essence of marriage, and the
+mutual consent of the couple alone sufficed to constitute marriage, even
+without any religious benediction, or without any ceremony at all. The
+formless and unblessed union was still a real and binding marriage if the
+two parties had willed it so to be.<a name='6_FNanchor_328'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_328'><sup>[328]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Whatever hard things may be said about the Canon law, it must
+    never be forgotten that it carried through the Middle Ages until
+    the middle of the sixteenth century the great truth that the
+    essence of marriage lies not in rites and forms, but in the
+    mutual consent of the two persons who marry each other. When the
+    Catholic Church, in its growing rigidity, lost that conception,
+    it was taken up by the Protestants and Puritans in their first
+    stage of ardent vital activity, though it was more or less
+    dropped as they fell back into a state of subservience to forms.
+    It continued to be maintained by moralists and poets. Thus George
+    Chapman, the dramatist, who was both moralist and poet, in <i>The
+    Gentleman Usher</i> (1606), represents the riteless marriage of his
+    hero and heroine, which the latter thus introduces:&mdash;</p></div><a name='6_Page_438'></a>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i12'>&quot;May not we now<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Our contract make and marry before Heaven?<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Are not the laws of God and Nature more<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Than formal laws of men? Are outward rites<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>More virtuous than the very substance is<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Of holy nuptials solemnized within?<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>.... The eternal acts of our pure souls<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Knit us with God, the soul of all the world,<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>He shall be priest to us; and with such rites<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>As we can here devise we will express<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>And strongly ratify our hearts' true vows,<br /></span>
+<span class='i4'>Which no external violence shall dissolve.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>And to-day, Ellen Key, the distinguished prophet of marriage
+    reform, declares at the end of her <i>Liebe und Ehe</i> that the true
+    marriage law contains only the paragraph: &quot;They who love each
+    other are husband and wife.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>The establishment of marriage on this sound and naturalistic basis had the
+further excellent result that it placed the man and the woman, who could
+thus constitute marriage by their consent in entire disregard of the
+wishes of their parents or families, on the same moral level. Here the
+Church was following alike the later Romans and the early Christians like
+Lactantius and Jerome who had declared that what was licit for a man was
+licit for a woman. The Penitentials also attempted to set up this same
+moral law for both sexes. The Canonists finally allowed a certain
+supremacy to the husband, though, on the other hand, they sometimes seemed
+to assign even the chief part in marriage to the wife, and the attempt was
+made to derive the word <i>matrimonium</i> from <i>matris munium</i>, thereby
+declaring the maternal function to be the essential fact of marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_329'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_329'><sup>[329]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The sound elements in the Canon law conception of marriage were, however,
+from a very early period largely if not altogether neutralized by the
+verbal subtleties by which they were overlaid, and even by its own
+fundamental original defects. Even in the thirteenth century it began to
+be possible to attach a superior force to marriage verbally formed <i>per
+verba de pr&aelig;senti</i> than to <a name='6_Page_439'></a>one constituted by sexual union, while so many
+impediments to marriage were set up that it became difficult to know what
+marriages were valid, an important point since a marriage even innocently
+contracted within the prohibited degrees was only a putative marriage. The
+most serious and the most profoundly unnatural feature of this
+ecclesiastical conception of marriage was the flagrant contradiction
+between the extreme facility with which the gate of marriage was flung
+open to the young couple, even if they were little more than children, and
+the extreme rigor with which it was locked and bolted when they were
+inside. That is still the defect of the marriage system we have inherited
+from the Church, but in the hands of the Canonists it was emphasized both
+on the side of its facility for entrance and of its difficulty for
+exit.<a name='6_FNanchor_330'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_330'><sup>[330]</sup></a> Alike from the standpoint of reason and of humanity the gate
+that is easy of ingress must be easy of egress; or if the exit is
+necessarily difficult then extreme care must be taken in admission. But
+neither of these necessary precautions was possible to the Canonists.
+Matrimony was a sacrament and all must be welcome to a sacrament, the more
+so since otherwise they may be thrust into the mortal sin of fornication.
+On the other side, since matrimony was a sacrament, when once truly
+formed, beyond the permissible power of verbal quibbles to invalidate, it
+could never be abrogated. The very institution that, in the view of the
+Church, had been set up as a bulwark against license became itself an
+instrument for artificially creating license. So that the net result of
+the Canon law in the long run was the production of a state of things
+which&mdash;in the <a name='6_Page_440'></a>eyes of a large part of Christendom&mdash;more than neutralized
+the soundness of its original conception.<a name='6_FNanchor_331'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_331'><sup>[331]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In England, where from the ninth century, marriage was generally
+    accepted by the ecclesiastical and temporal powers as
+    indissoluble, Canon law was, in the main, established as in the
+    rest of Christendom. There were, however, certain points in which
+    Canon law was not accepted by the law of England. By English law
+    a ceremony before a priest was necessary to the validity of a
+    marriage, though in Scotland the Canon law doctrine was accepted
+    that simple consent of the parties, even exchanged secretly,
+    sufficed to constitute marriage. Again, the issue of a void
+    marriage contracted in innocence, and the issue of persons who
+    subsequently marry each other, are legitimate by Canon law, but
+    not by the common law of England (Geary, <i>Marriage and Family
+    Relations</i>, p. 3; Pollock and Maitland, <i>loc. cit.</i>). The
+    Canonists regarded the disabilities attaching to bastardy as a
+    punishment inflicted on the offending parents, and considered,
+    therefore, that no burden should fall on the children when there
+    had been a ceremony in good faith on the part of one at least of
+    the parents. In this respect the English law is less reasonable
+    and humane. It was at the Council of Merton, in 1236, that the
+    barons of England rejected the proposal to make the laws of
+    England harmonize with the Canon law, that is, with the
+    ecclesiastical law of Christendom generally, in allowing children
+    born before wedlock to be legitimated by subsequent marriage.
+    Grosseteste poured forth his eloquence and his arguments in favor
+    of the change, but in vain, and the law of England has ever since
+    stood alone in this respect (Freeman, &quot;Merton Priory,&quot; <i>English
+    Towns and Districts</i>). The proposal was rejected in the famous
+    formula, &quot;Nolumus leges Angli&aelig; mutare,&quot; a formula which merely
+    stood for an unreasonable and inhumane obstinacy.</p>
+
+<p>    In the United States, while by common law subsequent marriage
+    fails to legitimate children born before marriage, in many of the
+    States the subsequent marriage of the parents effects by statute
+    the legitimacy of the child, sometimes (as in Maine)
+    automatically, more usually (as in Massachusetts) through special
+    acknowledgment by the father.</p></div>
+
+<p>The appearance of Luther and the Reformation involved the decay of the
+Canon law system so far as Europe as a whole was concerned. It was for
+many reasons impossible for the<a name='6_Page_441'></a> Protestant reformers to retain formally
+either the Catholic conception of matrimony or the precariously elaborate
+legal structure which the Church had built up on that conception. It can
+scarcely be said, indeed, that the Protestant attitude towards the
+Catholic idea of matrimony was altogether a clear, logical, or consistent
+attitude. It was a revolt, an emotional impulse, rather than a matter of
+reasoned principle. In its inevitable necessity, under the circumstances
+of the rise of Protestantism, lies its justification, and, on the whole,
+its wholesome soundness. It took the form, which may seem strange in a
+religious movement, of proclaiming that marriage is not a religious but a
+secular matter. Marriage is, said Luther, &quot;a worldly thing,&quot; and Calvin
+put it on the same level as house-building, farming, or shoe-making. But
+while this secularization of marriage represents the general and final
+drift of Protestantism, the leaders of Protestantism were themselves not
+altogether confident and clear-sighted in the matter. Even Luther was a
+little confused on this point; sometimes he seems to call marriage &quot;a
+sacrament,&quot; sometimes &quot;a temporal business,&quot; to be left to the state.<a name='6_FNanchor_332'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_332'><sup>[332]</sup></a>
+It was the latter view which tended to prevail. But at first there was a
+period of confusion, if not of chaos, in the minds of the Reformers; not
+only were they not always convinced in their own minds; they were at
+variance with each other, especially on the very practical question of
+divorce. Luther on the whole belonged to the more rigid party, including
+Calvin and Beza, which would grant divorce only for adultery and malicious
+desertion; some, including many of the early English Protestants, were in
+favor of allowing the husband to divorce for adultery but not the wife.
+Another party, including Zwingli, were influenced by Erasmus in a more
+liberal direction, and&mdash;moving towards the standpoint of Roman Imperial
+legislation&mdash;admitted various causes of divorce. Some, like Bucer,
+anticipating Milton, would even allow divorce when the husband was unable
+to love his wife.<a name='6_Page_442'></a> At the beginning some of the Reformers adopted the
+principle of self-divorce, as it prevailed among the Jews and was accepted
+by some early Church Councils. In this way Luther held that the cause for
+the divorce itself effected the divorce without any judicial decree,
+though a magisterial permission was needed for remarriage. This question
+of remarriage, and the treatment of the adulterer, were also matters of
+dispute. The remarriage of the innocent party was generally accepted; in
+England it began in the middle of the sixteenth century, was pronounced
+valid by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and confirmed by Parliament. Many
+Reformers were opposed, however, to the remarriage of the adulterous
+party. Beust, Beza, and Melancthon would have him hanged and so settle the
+question of remarriage; Luther and Calvin would like to kill him, but
+since the civil rulers were slack in adopting that measure they allowed
+him to remarry, if possible in some other part of the country.<a name='6_FNanchor_333'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_333'><sup>[333]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The final outcome was that Protestantism framed a conception of marriage
+mainly on the legal and economic factor&mdash;a factor not ignored but strictly
+subordinated by the Canonists&mdash;and regarded it as essentially a contract.
+In so doing they were on the negative side effecting a real progress, for
+they broke the power of an antiquated and artificial system, but on the
+positive side they were merely returning to a conception which prevails in
+barbarous societies, and is most pronounced when marriage is most
+assimilable to purchase. The steps taken by Protestantism involved a
+considerable change in the nature of marriage, but not necessarily any
+great changes in its form. Marriage was no longer a sacrament, but it was
+still a public and not a private function and was still, however
+inconsistently, solemnized in Church. And as Protestantism had no rival
+code to set up, both in Germany and England it fell back on the general
+principles of Canon law, modifying them to suit its own special attitude
+and needs.<a name='6_FNanchor_334'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_334'><sup>[334]</sup></a> It was the later Puritanic movement, first in the<a name='6_Page_443'></a>
+Netherlands (1580), then in England (1653), and afterwards in New England,
+which introduced a serious and coherent conception of Protestant marriage,
+and began to establish it on a civil base.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The English Reformers under Edward VI and his enlightened
+    advisers, including Archbishop Cranmer, took liberal views of
+    marriage, and were prepared to carry through many admirable
+    reforms. The early death of that King exerted a profound
+    influence on the legal history of English marriage. The Catholic
+    reaction under Queen Mary killed off the more radical Reformers,
+    while the subsequent accession of Queen Elizabeth, whose attitude
+    towards marriage was grudging, illiberal, and old-fashioned,
+    approximating to that of her father, Henry VIII (as witnessed,
+    for instance, in her decided opposition to the marriage of the
+    clergy), permanently affected English marriage law. It became
+    less liberal than that of other Protestant countries, and closer
+    to that of Catholic countries.</p>
+
+<p>    The reform of marriage attempted by the Puritans began in England
+    in 1644, when an Act was passed asserting &quot;marriage to be no
+    sacrament, nor peculiar to the Church of God, but common to
+    mankind and of public interest to every Commonwealth.&quot; The Act
+    added, notwithstanding, that it was expedient marriage should be
+    solemnized by &quot;a lawful minister of the Word.&quot; The more radical
+    Act of 1653 swept away this provision, and made marriage purely
+    secular. The banns were to be published (by registrars specially
+    appointed) in the Church, or (if the parties desired) the
+    market-place. The marriage was to be performed by a Justice of
+    the Peace; the age of consent to marriage for a man was made
+    sixteen, for a woman fourteen (Scobell's <i>Acts and Ordinances</i>,
+    pp. 86, 236). The Restoration abolished this sensible Act, and
+    reintroduced Canon-law traditions, but the Puritan conception of
+    marriage was carried over to America, where it took root and
+    flourished.</p></div>
+
+<p>It was out of Puritanism, moreover, as represented by Milton, that the
+first genuinely modern though as yet still imperfect conception of the
+marriage relationship was destined to emerge. The early Reformers in this
+matter acted mainly from an obscure instinct of natural revolt in an
+environment of plebeian materialism. The Puritans were moved by their
+feeling for simplicity and civil order as the conditions for religious
+freedom. Milton, in his <i>Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce</i>, published in
+1643, when he was thirty-five years of age, proclaimed the supremacy of
+the substance of marriage over the form of it, <a name='6_Page_444'></a>and the spiritual autonomy
+of the individual in the regulation of that form. He had grasped the
+meaning of that conception of personal responsibility which is the
+foundation of sexual relationships as they are beginning to appear to men
+to-day. If Milton had left behind him only his writings on marriage and
+divorce they would have sufficed to stamp him with the seal of genius.
+Christendom had to wait a century and a half before another man of genius
+of the first rank, Wilhelm von Humboldt, spoke out with equal authority
+and clearness in favor of free marriage and free divorce.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is to the honor of Milton, and one of his chief claims on our
+    gratitude, that he is the first great protagonist in Christendom
+    of the doctrine that marriage is a private matter, and that,
+    therefore, it should be freely dissoluble by mutual consent, or
+    even at the desire of one of the parties. We owe to him, says
+    Howard, &quot;the boldest defence of the liberty of divorce which had
+    yet appeared. If taken in the abstract, and applied to both sexes
+    alike, it is perhaps the strongest defence which can be made
+    through an appeal to mere authority;&quot; though his arguments, being
+    based on reason and experience, are often ill sustained by his
+    authority; he is really speaking the language of the modern
+    social reformer, and Milton's writings on this subject are now
+    sometimes ranked in importance above all his other work (Masson,
+    <i>Life of Milton</i>, vol. iii; Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 86,
+    vol. iii, p. 251; C. B. Wheeler, &quot;Milton's Doctrine and Discipline
+    of Divorce,&quot; <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, Jan., 1907).</p>
+
+<p>    Marriage, said Milton, &quot;is not a mere carnal coition, but a human
+    society; where that cannot be had there can be no true marriage&quot;
+    (<i>Doctrine of Divorce</i>, Bk. i, Ch. XIII); it is &quot;a covenant, the
+    very being whereof consists not in a forced cohabitation, and
+    counterfeit performance of duties, but in unfeigned love and
+    peace&quot; (<i>Ib.</i>, Ch. VI). Any marriage that is less than this is
+    &quot;an idol, nothing in the world.&quot; The weak point in Milton's
+    presentation of the matter is that he never explicitly accords to
+    the wife the same power of initiative in marriage and divorce as
+    to the husband. There is, however, nothing in his argument to
+    prevent its equal application to the wife, an application which,
+    while never asserting he never denies; and it has been pointed
+    out that he assumes that women are the equals of men and demands
+    from them intellectual and spiritual companionship; however ready
+    Milton may have been to grant complete equality of divorce to the
+    wife, it would have been impossible for a seventeenth century
+    Puritan to have obtained any hearing for such a doctrine; his
+    arguments would have been received with, if that were possible,
+    even more neglect than they actually met.<a name='6_Page_445'></a> (Milton's scornful
+    sonnet concerning the reception of his book is well known.)</p>
+
+<p>    Milton insists that in the conventional Christian marriage
+    exclusive importance is attached to carnal connection. So long as
+    that connection is possible, no matter what antipathy may exist
+    between the couple, no matter how mistaken they may have been
+    &quot;through any error, concealment, or misadventure,&quot; no matter if
+    it is impossible for them to &quot;live in any union or contentment
+    all their days,&quot; yet the marriage still holds good, the two must
+    &quot;fadge together&quot; (<i>op. cit.</i>, Bk. i). It is the Canon law, he
+    says, which is at fault, &quot;doubtless by the policy of the devil,&quot;
+    for the Canon law leads to licentiousness (<i>op. cit.</i>). It is, he
+    argues, the absence of reasonable liberty which causes license,
+    and it is the men who desire to retain the privileges of license
+    who oppose the introduction of reasonable liberty.</p>
+
+<p>    The just ground for divorce is &quot;indisposition, unfitness, or
+    contrariety of mind, arising from a cause in nature unchangeable,
+    hindering, and ever likely to hinder, the main benefits of
+    conjugal society, which are solace and peace.&quot; Without the &quot;deep
+    and serious verity&quot; of mutual love, wedlock is &quot;nothing but the
+    empty husks of a mere outside matrimony,&quot; a mere hypocrisy, and
+    must be dissolved (<i>op. cit.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>    Milton goes beyond the usual Puritan standpoint, and not only
+    rejects courts and magistrates, but approves of self-divorce; for
+    divorce cannot rightly belong to any civil or earthly power,
+    since &quot;ofttimes the causes of seeking divorce reside so deeply in
+    the radical and innocent affections of nature, as is not within
+    the diocese of law to tamper with.&quot; He adds that, for the
+    prevention of injustice, special points may be referred to the
+    magistrate, who should not, however, in any case, be able to
+    forbid divorce (<i>op. cit.</i>, Bk. ii, Ch. XXI). Speaking from a
+    standpoint which we have not even yet attained, he protests
+    against the absurdity of &quot;authorizing a judicial court to toss
+    about and divulge the unaccountable and secret reason of
+    disaffection between man and wife.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In modern times Hinton was accustomed to compare the marriage law
+    to the law of the Sabbath as broken by Jesus. We find exactly the
+    same comparison in Milton. The Sabbath, he believes, was made for
+    God. &quot;Yet when the good of man comes into the scales, we have
+    that voice of infinite goodness and benignity, that 'Sabbath was
+    made for man and not man for Sabbath.' What thing ever was made
+    more for man alone, and less for God, than marriage?&quot; (<i>op.
+    cit.</i>, Bk. i, Ch. XI). &quot;If man be lord of the Sabbath, can he be
+    less than lord of marriage?&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Milton, in this matter as in others, stood outside the currents of his
+age. His conception of marriage made no more impression on contemporary
+life than his <i>Paradise Lost</i>. Even his <a name='6_Page_446'></a>own Puritan party who had passed
+the Act of 1653 had strangely failed to transfer divorce and nullity cases
+to the temporal courts, which would at least have been a step on the right
+road. The Puritan influence was transferred to America and constituted the
+leaven which still works in producing the liberal though too minutely
+detailed divorce laws of many States. The American secular marriage
+procedure followed that set up by the English Commonwealth, and the dictum
+of the great Quaker, George Fox, &quot;We marry none, but are witnesses of
+it,&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_335'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_335'><sup>[335]</sup></a> (which was really the sound kernel in the Canon law) is regarded
+as the spirit of the marriage law of the conservative but liberal State of
+Pennsylvania, where, as recently as 1885, a statute was passed expressly
+authorizing a man and woman to solemnize their own marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_336'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_336'><sup>[336]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In England itself the reforms in marriage law effected by the Puritans
+were at the Restoration largely submerged. For two and a half centuries
+longer the English spiritual courts administered what was substantially
+the old Canon law. Divorce had, indeed, become more difficult than before
+the Reformation, and the married woman's lot was in consequence harder.
+From the sixteenth century to the second half of the nineteenth, English
+marriage law was peculiarly harsh and rigid, much less liberal than that
+of any other Protestant country. Divorce was unknown to the ordinary
+English law, and a special act of Parliament, at enormous expense, was
+necessary to procure it in individual cases.<a name='6_FNanchor_337'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_337'><sup>[337]</sup></a> There was even an
+attitude of self-righteousness in the maintenance of this system. It was
+regarded as moral. There was complete failure to realize that nothing is
+more immoral than the existence of unreal sexual unions, not <a name='6_Page_447'></a>only from
+the point of view of theoretical but also of practical morality, for no
+community could tolerate a majority of such unions.<a name='6_FNanchor_338'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_338'><sup>[338]</sup></a> In 1857 an act
+for reforming the system was at last passed with great difficulty. It was
+a somewhat incoherent and make-shift measure, and was avowedly put forward
+only as a step towards further reform; but it still substantially governs
+English procedure, and in the eyes of many has set a permanent standard of
+morality. The spirit of blind conservatism,&mdash;<i>Nolumus leges Angli&aelig;
+mutare</i>,&mdash;which in this sphere had reasserted itself after the vital
+movement of Reform and Puritanism, still persists. In questions of
+marriage and divorce English legislation and English public feeling are
+behind alike both the Latin land of France and the Puritanically moulded
+land of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The author of an able and temperate essay on <i>The Question of
+    English Divorce</i>, summing up the characteristics of the English
+    divorce law, concludes that it is: (1) unequal, (2) immoral, (3)
+    contradictory, (4) illogical, (5) uncertain, and (6) unsuited to
+    present requirements. It was only grudgingly introduced in a
+    bill, presented to Parliament in 1857, which was stubbornly
+    resisted during a whole session, not only on religious grounds by
+    the opponents of divorce, but also by the friends of divorce, who
+    desired a more liberal measure. It dealt with the sexes
+    unequally, granting the husband but not the wife divorce for
+    adultery alone. In introducing the bill the Attorney-General
+    apologized for this defect, stating that the measure was not
+    intended to be final, but merely as a step towards further
+    legislation. That was more than half a century ago, but the
+    further step has not yet been taken. Incomplete and
+    unsatisfactory as the measure was, it seems to have been regarded
+    by many as revolutionary and dangerous in the highest degree. The
+    author of an article on &quot;Modern Divorce&quot; in the <i>Universal
+    Review</i> for July, 1859, while approving in principle of the
+    establishment of a special Divorce Court, yet declared that the
+    new court was &quot;tending to destroy marriage as a social
+    institution and to sap female chastity,&quot; and that &quot;everyone now
+    is a husband and wife at will.&quot; &quot;No one,&quot; he adds, &quot;can now
+    justly quibble at a deficiency of matrimonial vomitories.&quot;</p><a name='6_Page_448'></a>
+
+<p>    Yet, according to this law, it is not even possible for a wife to
+    obtain a divorce for her husband's adultery, unless he is also
+    cruel or deserts her. At first &quot;cruelty&quot; meant physical cruelty
+    and of a serious kind. But in course of time the meaning of the
+    word was extended to pain inflicted on the mind, and now coldness
+    and neglect may almost of themselves constitute cruelty, though
+    the English court has sometimes had the greatest hesitation in
+    accepting the most atrocious forms of refined cruelty, because it
+    involved no &quot;physical&quot; element. &quot;The time may very reasonably be
+    looked forward to, however,&quot; a legal writer has stated
+    (Montmorency, &quot;The Changing Status of a Married Woman,&quot; <i>Law
+    Quarterly Review</i>, April, 1897), &quot;when almost any act of
+    misconduct will, in itself, be considered to convey such mental
+    agony to the innocent party as to constitute the cruelty
+    requisite under the Act of 1857.&quot; (The question of cruelty is
+    fully discussed in J. R. Bishop's <i>Commentaries on Marriage,
+    Divorce and Separation</i>, 1891, vol. i, Ch. XLIX; <i>cf.</i> Howard,
+    <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 111).</p>
+
+<p>    There can be little doubt, however, that cruelty alone is a
+    reasonable cause for divorce. In many American States, where the
+    facilities for divorce are much greater than in England, cruelty
+    is recognized as itself sufficient cause, whether the wife or the
+    husband is the complainant. The acts of cruelty alleged have
+    sometimes been seemingly very trivial. Thus divorces have been
+    pronounced in America on the ground of the &quot;cruel and inhuman
+    conduct&quot; of a wife who failed to sew her husband's buttons on, or
+    because a wife &quot;struck plaintiff a violent blow with her bustle,&quot;
+    or because a husband does not cut his toe-nails, or because
+    &quot;during our whole married life my husband has never offered to
+    take me out riding. This has been a source of great mental
+    suffering and injury.&quot; In many other cases, it must be added, the
+    cruelty inflicted by the husband, even by the wife&mdash;for though
+    usually, it is not always, the husband who is the brute&mdash;is of an
+    atrocious and heart-rending character (<i>Report on Marriage and
+    Divorce in the United States</i>, issued by Hon. Carroll D. Wright,
+    Commissioner of Labor, 1889). But even in many of the apparently
+    trivial cases&mdash;as of a husband who will not wash, and a wife who
+    is constantly evincing a hasty temper&mdash;it must be admitted that
+    circumstances which, in the more ordinary relationships of life
+    may be tolerated, become intolerable in the intimate relationship
+    of sexual union. As a matter of fact, it has been found by
+    careful investigation that the American courts weigh well the
+    cases that come before them, and are not careless in the granting
+    of decrees of divorce.</p>
+
+<p>    In 1859 an exaggerated importance was attached to the gross
+    reasons for divorce, to the neglect of subtle but equally fatal
+    impediments to the continuance of marriage. This was pointed out
+    by Gladstone, who was opposed to making adultery a cause of
+    divorce at all. &quot;We have many causes,&quot; he said, &quot;more fatal to
+    the great obligation of marriage, <a name='6_Page_449'></a>as disease, idiocy, crime
+    involving punishment for life.&quot; Nowadays we are beginning to
+    recognize not only such causes as these, but others of a far more
+    intimate character which, as Milton long ago realized, cannot be
+    embodied in statutes, or pleaded in law courts. The matrimonial
+    bond is not merely a physical union, and we have to learn that,
+    as the author of <i>The Question of English Divorce</i> (p. 49)
+    remarks, &quot;other than physical divergencies are, in fact, by far
+    the most important of the originating causes of matrimonial
+    disaster.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In England and Wales more husbands than wives petition for
+    divorce, the wives who petition being about 40 per cent, of the
+    whole. Divorces are increasing, though the number is not large,
+    in 1907 about 1,300, of whom less than half remarried. The
+    inadequacy of the divorce law is shown by the fact that during
+    the same year about 7,000 orders for judicial separation were
+    issued by magistrates. These separation orders not only do not
+    give the right to remarry, but they make it impossible to obtain
+    divorce. They are, in effect, an official permission to form
+    relationships outside State marriage.</p>
+
+<p>    In the United States during the years 1887-1906 nearly 40 per
+    cent, of the divorces granted were for &quot;desertion,&quot; which is
+    variously interpreted in different States, and must often mean a
+    separation by mutual consent. Of the remainder, 19 per cent, were
+    for unfaithfulness, and the same proportion for cruelty; but
+    while the divorces granted to husbands for the infidelity of
+    their wives are nearly three times as great proportionately as
+    those granted to wives for their husband's adultery, with regard
+    to cruelty it is the reverse, wives obtaining 27 per cent, of
+    their divorces on that ground and husbands only 10 per cent.</p>
+
+<p>    In Prussia divorce is increasing. In 1907 there were eight
+    thousand divorces, the cause in half the cases being adultery,
+    and in about a thousand cases malicious desertion. In cases of
+    desertion the husbands were the guilty parties nearly twice as
+    often as the wives, in cases of adultery only a fifth to an
+    eighth part.</p></div>
+
+<p>There cannot be the slightest doubt that the difficulty, the confusion,
+the inconsistency, and the flagrant indecency which surround divorce and
+the methods of securing it are due solely and entirely to the subtle
+persistence of traditions based, on the one hand, on the Canon law
+doctrines of the indissolubility of marriage and the sin of sexual
+intercourse outside marriage, and, on the other hand, on the primitive
+idea of marriage as a contract which economically subordinates the wife to
+the husband and renders her person, or at all events her guardianship, his
+property. It is only when we realize how deeply these traditions have
+<a name='6_Page_450'></a>become embedded in the religious, legal, social and sentimental life of
+Europe that we can understand how it is that barbaric notions of marriage
+and divorce can to-day subsist in a stage of civilization which has, in
+many respects, advanced beyond such notions.</p>
+
+<p>The Canon law conception of the abstract religious sanctity of matrimony,
+when transferred to the moral sphere, makes a breach of the marriage
+relationship seem a public wrong; the conception of the contractive
+subordination of the wife makes such a breach on her part, and even, by
+transference of ideas, on his part, seem a private wrong. These two ideas
+of wrong incoherently flourish side by side in the vulgar mind, even
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The economic subordination of the wife as a species of property
+significantly comes into view when we find that a husband can claim, and
+often secure, large sums of money from the man who sexually approaches his
+property, by such trespass damaging it in its master's eyes.<a name='6_FNanchor_339'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_339'><sup>[339]</sup></a> To a
+psychologist it would be obvious that a husband who has lacked the skill
+so to gain and to hold his wife's love and respect that it is not
+perfectly easy and natural to her to reject the advances of any other man
+owes at least as much damages to her as she or her partner owes to him;
+while if the failure is really on her side, if she is so incapable of
+responding to love and trust and so easy a prey to an outsider, then
+surely the husband, far from wishing for any money compensation, should
+consider himself more than fully compensated by being delivered from the
+necessity of supporting such a woman. In the absence of any false
+traditions that would be obvious. It might not, indeed, be unreasonable
+that a husband should pay heavily in order to free himself from a wife
+whom, evidently, he has made a serious mistake in choosing. But to ordain
+that a man should actually be indemnified because he has <a name='6_Page_451'></a>shown himself
+incapable of winning a woman's love is an idea that could not occur in a
+civilized society that was not twisted by inherited prejudice.<a name='6_FNanchor_340'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_340'><sup>[340]</sup></a> Yet as
+matters are to-day there are civilized countries in which it is legally
+possible for a husband to enter a prayer for damages against his wife's
+paramour in combination with either a petition for judicial separation or
+for dissolution of wedlock. In this way adultery is not a crime but a
+private injury.<a name='6_FNanchor_341'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_341'><sup>[341]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>At the same time, however, the influence of Canon law comes inconsistently
+to the surface and asserts that a breach of matrimony is a public wrong, a
+sin transformed by the State into something almost or quite like a crime.
+This is clearly indicated by the fact that in some countries the adulterer
+is liable to imprisonment, a liability scarcely nowadays carried into
+practice. But exactly the same idea is beautifully illustrated by the
+doctrine of &quot;collusion,&quot; which, in theory, is still strictly observed in
+many countries. According to the doctrine of &quot;collusion&quot; the conditions
+necessary to make the divorce possible must on no account be secured by
+mutual agreement. In practice it is impossible to prevent more or less
+collusion, but if proved in court it constitutes an absolute impediment to
+the granting of a divorce, however just and imperative the demand for
+divorce may be.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The English Divorce Act of 1857 refused divorce when there was
+    collusion, as well as when there was any countercharge against
+    the petitioner, and the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1860 provided
+    the machinery for guaranteeing these bars to divorce. This
+    question of collusion is <a name='6_Page_452'></a>discussed by G. P. Bishop (<i>op. cit.</i>,
+    vol. ii, Ch. IX). &quot;However just a cause may be,&quot; Bishop remarks,
+    &quot;if parties collude in its management, so that in real fact both
+    parties are plaintiffs, while by the record the one appears as
+    plaintiff and the other as defendant, it cannot go forward. All
+    conduct of this sort, disturbing to the course of justice, falls
+    within the general idea of fraud on the court. Such is the
+    doctrine in principle everywhere.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>It is quite evident that from the social or the moral point of view, it is
+best that when a husband and wife can no longer live together, they should
+part amicably, and in harmonious agreement effect all the arrangements
+rendered necessary by their separation. The law ridiculously forbids them
+to do so, and declares that they must not part at all unless they are
+willing to part as enemies. In order to reach a still lower depth of
+absurdity and immorality the law goes on to say that if as a matter of
+fact they have succeeded in becoming enemies to each other to such an
+extent that each has wrongs to plead against the other party they cannot
+be divorced at all!<a name='6_FNanchor_342'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_342'><sup>[342]</sup></a> That is to say that when a married couple have
+reached a degree of separation which makes it imperatively necessary, not
+merely in their own interests but in the moral interests of society, that
+they should be separated and their relations to other parties concerned
+regularized, then they must on no account be separated.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear how these provisions of the law are totally opposed to the
+demands of reason and morality. Yet at the same time it is equally clear
+how no efforts of the lawyers, however skilful or humane those efforts may
+be, can bring the present law into harmony with the demands of modern
+civilization. It is not <a name='6_Page_453'></a>the lawyers who are at fault; they have done
+their best, and, in England, it is entirely owing to the skilful and
+cautious way in which the judges have so far as possible pressed the law
+into harmony with modern needs, that our antiquated divorce laws have
+survived at all. It is the system which is wrong. That system is the
+illegitimate outgrowth of the Canon law which grew up around conceptions
+long since dead. It involves the placing of the person who imperils the
+theoretical indissolubility of the matrimonial bond in the position of a
+criminal, now that he can no longer be publicly condemned as a sinner. To
+aid and abet that criminal is itself an offence, and the aider and abettor
+of the criminal must, therefore, be inconsequently punished by the curious
+method of refraining from punishing the criminal. We do not openly assert
+that the defendant in a divorce case is a criminal; that would be to
+render the absurdity of it too obvious, and, moreover, would be hardly
+consistent with the permission to claim damages which is based on a
+different idea. We hover uncertainly between two conceptions of divorce,
+both of them bad, each inconsistent with the other, and neither of them
+capable of being pushed to its logical conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>The result is that if a perfectly virtuous married couple comes forward to
+claim divorce, they are told that it is out of the question, for in such a
+case there must be a &quot;defendant.&quot; They are to be punished for their
+virtue. If each commits adultery and they again come forward to claim
+divorce, they are told that it is still out of the question, for there
+must be a &quot;plaintiff.&quot; Before they were punished for their virtue; now
+they are to be punished in exactly the same way for their lack of it. The
+couple must humor the law by adopting a course of action which may be
+utterly repugnant to both. If only the wife alone will commit adultery, if
+only the husband will commit adultery and also inflict some act of cruelty
+upon his wife, if the innocent party will descend to the degradation of
+employing detectives and hunting up witnesses, the law is at their feet
+and hastens to accord to both parties the permission to remarry. Provided,
+of course, that the parties have arranged this without &quot;collusion.&quot; That
+is to say that our law, with its ecclesiastical <a name='6_Page_454'></a>traditions behind it,
+says to the wife: Be a sinner, or to the husband: Be a sinner and a
+criminal&mdash;then we will do all you wish. The law puts a premium on sin and
+on crime. In order to pile absurdity on absurdity it claims that this is
+done in the cause of &quot;public morality.&quot; To those who accept this point of
+view it seems that the sweeping away of divorce laws would undermine the
+bases of morality. Yet there can be little doubt that the sooner such
+&quot;morality&quot; is undermined, and indeed utterly destroyed, the better it will
+be for true morality.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There is an influential movement in England for the reform of
+    divorce, on the grounds that the present law is unjust,
+    illogical, and immoral, represented by the Divorce Law Reform
+    Union. Even the former president of the Divorce Court, Lord
+    Gorell, declared from the bench in 1906 that the English law
+    produces deplorable results, and is &quot;full of inconsistencies,
+    anomalies and inequalities, amounting almost to absurdities.&quot; The
+    points in the law which have aroused most protest, as being most
+    behind the law of other nations, are the great expense of
+    divorce, the inequality of the sexes, the failure to grant
+    divorces for desertion and in cases of hopeless insanity, and the
+    failure of separation orders to enable the separated parties to
+    marry again. Separation orders are granted by magistrates for
+    cruelty, adultery, and desertion. This &quot;separation&quot; is really the
+    direct descendant of the Canon law divorce <i>a mensa et thoro</i>,
+    and the inability to marry which it involves is merely a survival
+    of the Canon law tradition. At the present time
+    magistrates&mdash;exercising their discretion, it is admitted, in a
+    careful and prudent manner&mdash;issue some 7,000 separation orders
+    annually, so that every year the population is increased by
+    14,000 individuals mostly in the age of sexual vigor, and some
+    little more than children, who are forbidden by law to form legal
+    marriages. They contribute powerfully to the great forward
+    movement which, as was shown in the previous chapter, marks the
+    morality of our age. But it is highly undesirable that free
+    marriages should be formed, helplessly, by couples who have no
+    choice in the matter, for it is unlikely that under such
+    circumstances any high level of personal responsibility can be
+    reached. The matter could be easily remedied by dropping
+    altogether a Canon law tradition which no longer has any vitality
+    or meaning, and giving to the magistrate's separation order the
+    force of a decree of divorce.</p>
+
+<p>    New Zealand and the Australian colonies, led by Victoria in 1889,
+    have passed divorce laws which, while more or less framed on the
+    English model, represent a distinct advance. Thus in New Zealand
+    the grounds for divorce are adultery on either side, wilful
+    desertion, habitual drunkenness, and conviction to imprisonment
+    for a term of years.</p></div><a name='6_Page_455'></a>
+
+<p>It is natural that an Englishman should feel acutely sensitive to this
+blot in the law of England and desire the speedy disappearance of a system
+so open to scathing sarcasm. It is natural that every humane person should
+grow impatient of the spectacle of so many blighted lives, of so much
+misery inflicted on innocent persons&mdash;and on persons who even when
+technically guilty are often the victims of unnatural circumstances&mdash;by
+the persistence of a medi&aelig;val system of ecclesiastical tyranny and
+inquisitorial insolence into an age when sexual relationships are becoming
+regarded as the sacred secret of the persons intimately concerned, and
+when more and more we rely on the responsibility of the individual in
+making and maintaining such relationships.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, we refrain from concentrating our attention on particular
+countries and embrace the general movement of civilization in the matter
+of divorce during recent times, there cannot be the slightest doubt as to
+the direction of that movement. England was a pioneer in the movement half
+a century ago, and to-day every civilized country is moving in the same
+direction. France broke with the old ecclesiastical tradition of the
+indissolubility of matrimony in 1885 by a divorce law in some respects
+very reasonable. The wife may obtain a divorce on an equality with the
+husband (though she is liable to imprisonment for adultery), the
+co-respondent occupies a very subordinate position in adultery charges,
+and facility is offered for divorce on the ground of simple <i>injures
+graves</i> (excluding as far as possible mere incompatibility of temper),
+while the judge has the power, which he often successfully exerts, to
+effect a reconciliation in private or to grant a decree without public
+trial. The influence of France has doubtless been influential in moulding
+the divorce laws of the other Latin countries.</p>
+
+<p>In Prussia an enlightened divorce law formerly prevailed by which it was
+possible for a couple to separate without scandal when it was clearly
+shown that they could not live together in agreement. But the German Code
+of 1900 introduced provisions as regards divorce which&mdash;while in some
+respects more liberal than those of the English law, especially by
+permitting <a name='6_Page_456'></a>divorce for desertion and insanity&mdash;are, on the whole,
+retrograde as compared with the earlier Prussian law and place the matter
+on a cruder and more brutal basis. For two years after the Code came into
+operations the number of divorces sank; after that the public and the
+courts adapted themselves to the new provisions (more especially one which
+allowed divorce for serious neglect of conjugal duties) and the number of
+divorces began to increase with great rapidity. &quot;But,&quot; remarks Hirschfeld,
+&quot;how painful it has now become to read divorce cases! One side abuses the
+other, makes accusations of the grossest character, employs detectives to
+obtain the necessary proofs of 'dishonorable and immoral conduct,'
+whereas, before, both parties realized that they had been deceived in each
+other, that they failed to suit each other, and that they could no longer
+live together. Thus we see that the narrowing of individual responsibility
+in sexual matters has not only had no practical effect, but leads to
+injurious results of a serious kind.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_343'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_343'><sup>[343]</sup></a> In England a similar state of
+things has prevailed ever since divorce was established, but it seems to
+have become too familiar to excite either pain or disgust. Yet, as Adner
+has pointed out,<a name='6_FNanchor_344'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_344'><sup>[344]</sup></a> it has moved in a direction contrary to the general
+tendency of civilization, not only by increasing the inquisitorial
+authority of public courts but by emphasizing merely external causes of
+divorce and abolishing the more subtle internal causes which constantly
+grow in importance with the refinement of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In Austria until recent years, Canon law ruled absolutely, and matrimony
+was indissoluble, as it still remains for the Catholic population. The
+results as regards matrimonial happiness were in the highest degree
+deplorable. Half a century ago Gross-Hoffinger investigated the marital
+happiness of 100 Viennese couples of all social classes, without choice of
+cases, and presented the results in detail. He found that 48 couples were
+positively unhappy, only 16 were undoubtedly happy, and even among these
+there was only one case in which happiness resulted <a name='6_Page_457'></a>from mutual
+faithfulness, happiness in the other cases being only attained by setting
+aside the question of fidelity.<a name='6_FNanchor_345'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_345'><sup>[345]</sup></a> This picture, it is to be hoped, no
+longer remains true. There is an influential Austrian Marriage Reform
+Association, publishing a journal called <i>Die Fessel</i>, or The Fetter. &quot;One
+was chained to another,&quot; we are told. &quot;In certain circumstances this must
+have been the worst and most torturing penalty of all. The most bizarre
+and repulsive couplings took place. There were, it is true, many
+affectionate companionships of the chain. But there were many more which
+inflicted an eternity of suffering upon one of the pair.&quot; This quotation,
+it must be added, has nothing to do with what the Canonists, borrowing the
+technical term for a prisoner's shackles, suggestively termed the
+<i>vinculum matrimonii</i>; it was written many years ago concerning the
+galleys of the old French convict system. It is, however, recalled to
+one's mind by the title which the Austrian Marriage Reform Association has
+given to its official organ.</p>
+
+<p>Russia, where the marriage laws are arranged by the Holy Synod aided by
+jurists, stands almost alone among the great countries in the reasonable
+simplicity of its divorce provisions. Before 1907 divorce was very
+difficult to obtain in Russia, but in that year it became possible for a
+married couple to separate by mutual consent and after living apart for a
+year to become thereby entitled to a divorce enabling them to remarry.
+This provision is in accordance with the humane conception of the sexual
+relationship which has always tended to prevail in Russia, whither, it
+must be remembered, the stern and unnatural ideals of compulsory celibacy
+cherished by the Western Church never completely penetrated; the clergy of
+the Eastern Church are married, though the marriage must take place before
+they enter the priesthood, and they could not sympathize with the
+anti-sexual tone of the marriage regulations laid down by the celibate
+clergy of the west.</p>
+
+<p>Switzerland, again, which has been regarded as the political <a name='6_Page_458'></a>laboratory
+of Europe, also stands apart in the liberality of its divorce legislation.
+A renewable divorce for two years may be obtained in Switzerland when
+there are &quot;circumstances which seriously affect the maintenance of the
+conjugal tie.&quot; To the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, finally, belongs the
+honor of having firmly maintained throughout the great principle of
+divorce by mutual consent under legal conditions, as established by
+Napoleon in his Code of 1803. The smaller countries generally are in
+advance of the large in matters of divorce law. The Norwegian law is
+liberal. The new Roumanian Code permits divorce by mutual consent,
+provided both parents grant equal shares of their property to the
+children. The little principality of Monaco has recently introduced the
+reasonable provision of granting divorce for, among other causes,
+alcoholism, syphilis, and epilepsy, so protecting the future race.</p>
+
+<p>Outside Europe the most instructive example of the tendency of divorce is
+undoubtedly furnished by the United States of America. The divorce laws of
+the States are mainly on a Puritanic basis, and they retain not only the
+Puritanic love of individual freedom but the Puritanic precisianism.<a name='6_FNanchor_346'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_346'><sup>[346]</sup></a>
+In some States, notably Iowa, the statute-makers have been constantly
+engaged in adopting, changing, abrogating and re-enacting the provisions
+of their divorce laws, and Howard has shown how much confusion and
+awkwardness arise by such perpetual legislative fiddling over small
+details.</p>
+
+<p>This restless precisianism has somewhat disguised the generally broad and
+liberal tendency of marriage law in America, and has encouraged foreign
+criticism of American social institutions. As a matter of fact the
+prevalence of divorce in America is enormously exaggerated. The proportion
+of divorced persons in the population appears to be less than one per
+cent., and, contrary to a frequent assertion, it is by no means the rule
+for divorced persons to remarry immediately. Taking into account the
+special conditions of life in the United States the prevalence of divorce
+is small and its character by no means reveals a low <a name='6_Page_459'></a>grade morality. An
+impartial and competent critic of the American people, Professor
+M&uuml;nsterberg, remarks that the real ground which mainly leads to divorce in
+the United States&mdash;not the mere legal pretexts made compulsory by the
+precisianism of the law&mdash;is the highly ethical objection to continuing
+externally in a marriage which has ceased to be spiritually congenial. &quot;It
+is the women especially,&quot; he says, &quot;and generally the very best women, who
+prefer to take the step, with all the hardships which it involves, to
+prolonging a marriage which is spiritually hypocritical and immoral.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_347'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_347'><sup>[347]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The people of the United States, above all others, cherish ideals of
+individualism; they are also the people among whom, above all others,
+there is the greatest amount of what Reibmayr calls &quot;blood-chaos.&quot; Under
+such circumstances the difficulties of conjugal life are necessarily at a
+maximum, and marriage union is liable to subtle impediments which must
+forever elude the statute-book.<a name='6_FNanchor_348'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_348'><sup>[348]</sup></a> There can be little doubt that the
+practical sagacity of the American people will enable them sooner or later
+to recognize this fact, and that finally fulfilling the Puritanic drift of
+their divorce legislation&mdash;as foreshadowed in its outcome by Milton&mdash;they
+will agree to trust their own citizens with the responsibility of deciding
+so private a matter as their conjugal <a name='6_Page_460'></a>relationships, with, of course,
+authority in the courts to see that no injustice is committed. It is,
+indeed, surprising that the American people, usually intolerant of State
+interference, should in this matter so long have tolerated such
+interference in so private a matter.</p>
+
+<p>The movement of divorce is not confined to Christendom; it is a mark of
+modern civilization. In Japan the proportion of divorces is higher than in
+any other country, not excluding the United States.<a name='6_FNanchor_349'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_349'><sup>[349]</sup></a> The most vigorous
+and progressive countries are those that insist most firmly on the purity
+of sexual unions. In the United States it was pointed out many years ago
+that divorce is most prevalent where the standard of education and
+morality is highest. It was the New England States, with strong Puritanic
+traditions of moral freedom, which took the lead in granting facility to
+divorce. The divorce movement is not, as some have foolishly supposed, a
+movement making for immorality.<a name='6_FNanchor_350'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_350'><sup>[350]</sup></a> Immorality is the inevitable
+accompaniment of indissoluble marriage; the emphasis on the sanctity of a
+merely formal union discourages the growth of moral responsibility as
+regards the hypothetically unholy unions which grow up beneath its shadow.
+To insist, on the other hand, by establishing facility of divorce, that
+sexual unions shall be real, is to work in the cause of morality. The
+lands in which divorce by mutual consent has prevailed longest are
+probably among the most, and not the least, moral of lands.</p>
+
+<p>Surprise has been expressed that although divorce by mutual consent
+commended itself as an obviously just and reasonable measure two thousand
+years ago to the legally-minded Romans that solution has even yet been so
+rarely attained by modern states.<a name='6_FNanchor_351'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_351'><sup>[351]</sup></a> Wherever society is established on
+a solidly organized basis and the claims of reason and humanity receive
+due consideration&mdash;even when the general level of civilization is not <a name='6_Page_461'></a>in
+every respect high&mdash;there we find a tendency to divorce by mutual consent.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In Japan, according to the new Civil Code, much as in ancient
+    Rome, marriage is effected by giving notice of the fact to the
+    registrar in the presence of two witnesses, and with the consent
+    (in the case of young couples) of the heads of their families.
+    There may be a ceremony, but it is not demanded by the law.
+    Divorce is effected in exactly the same way, by simply having the
+    registration cancelled, provided both husband and wife are over
+    twenty-five years of age. For younger couples unhappily married,
+    and for cases in which mutual consent cannot be obtained,
+    judicial divorce exists. This is granted for various specific
+    causes, of which the most important is &quot;grave insult, such as to
+    render living together unbearable&quot; (Ernest W. Clement, &quot;The New
+    Woman in Japan,&quot; <i>American Journal Sociology</i>, March, 1903). Such
+    a system, like so much else achieved by Japanese organization,
+    seems reasonable, guarded, and effective.</p>
+
+<p>    In the very different and far more ancient marriage system of
+    China, divorce by mutual consent is equally well-established.
+    Such divorce by mutual consent takes place for incompatibility of
+    temperament, or when both husband and wife desire it. There are,
+    however, various antiquated and peculiar provisions in the
+    Chinese marriage laws, and divorce is compulsory for the wife's
+    adultery or serious physical injuries inflicted by either party
+    on the other. (The marriage laws of China are fully set forth by
+    Paul d'Enjoy, <i>La Revue</i>, Sept. 1, 1905.)</p>
+
+<p>    Among the Eskimo (who, as readers of Nansen's fascinating books
+    on their morals will know, are in some respects a highly
+    socialized people) the sexes are absolutely equal, marriages are
+    perfectly free, and separation is equally free. The result is
+    that there are no uncongenial unions, and that no unpleasant word
+    is heard between man and wife (Stef&aacute;nsson, <i>Harper's Magazine</i>,
+    Nov., 1908).</p>
+
+<p>    Among the ancient Welsh, women, both before and after marriage,
+    enjoyed great freedom, far more than was afforded either by
+    Christianity or the English Common law. &quot;Practically either
+    husband or wife could separate when either one or both chose&quot;
+    (Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, <i>The Welsh People</i>, p. 214). It was so
+    also in ancient Ireland. Women held a very high position, and the
+    marriage tie was very free, so as to be practically, it would
+    appear, dissoluble by mutual consent. So far as the Brehon laws
+    show, says Ginnell (<i>The Brehon Laws</i>, p. 212), &quot;the marriage
+    relation was extremely loose, and divorce was as easy, and could
+    be obtained on as slight ground, as is now the case in some of
+    the States of the American Union. It appears to have been
+    obtained more easily by the wife than by the husband. When
+    obtained on her petition, she took away with her all the property
+    she had brought her husband, all <a name='6_Page_462'></a>her husband had settled upon
+    her on their marriage, and in addition so much of her husband's
+    property as her industry appeared to have entitled her to.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Even in early French history we find that divorce by mutual
+    consent was very common. It was sufficient to prepare in
+    duplicate a formal document to this effect: &quot;Since between N. and
+    his wife there is discord instead of charity according to God,
+    and that in consequence it is impossible for them to live
+    together, it has pleased both to separate, and they have
+    accordingly done so.&quot; Each of the parties was thus free either to
+    retire into a cloister or to contract another union (E. de la
+    Bedolli&egrave;re, <i>Histoire des M&oelig;urs des Fran&ccedil;ais</i>, vol. i,
+    p. 317). Such a practice, however it might accord with the
+    germinal principle of consent embodied in the Canon law, was far
+    too opposed to the ecclesiastical doctrine of the sacramental
+    indissolubility of matrimony to be permanently allowed, and it
+    was completely crushed out.</p></div>
+
+<p>The fact that we so rarely find divorce by mutual consent in Christendom
+until the beginning of the nineteenth century, that then it required a man
+of stupendous and revolutionary genius like Napoleon to reintroduce it,
+and that even he was unable to do so effectually, is clearly due to the
+immense victory which the ascetic spirit of Christianity, as firmly
+embodied in the Canon law, had gained over the souls and bodies of men. So
+subjugated were European traditions and institutions by this spirit that
+even the volcanic emotional uprising of the Reformation, as we have seen,
+could not shake it off. When Protestant States naturally resumed the
+control of secular affairs which had been absorbed by the Church, and
+rescued from ecclesiastical hands those things which belonged to the
+sphere of the individual conscience, it might have seemed that marriage
+and divorce would have been among the first concerns to be thus
+transferred. Yet, as we know, England was about as much enslaved to the
+spirit and even the letter of Canon law in the nineteenth as in the
+fourteenth century, and even to-day English law, though no longer
+supported by the feeling of the masses, clings to the same traditions.</p>
+
+<p>There seems to be little doubt, however, that the modern movement for
+divorce must inevitably tend to reach the goal of separation by the will
+of both parties, or, under proper conditions <a name='6_Page_463'></a>and restrictions, by the
+will of one party. It now requires the will of two persons to form a
+marriage; law insists on that condition.<a name='6_FNanchor_352'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_352'><sup>[352]</sup></a> It is logical as well as
+just that law should take the next step involved by the historical
+evolution of marriage, and equally insist that it requires the will of two
+persons to maintain a marriage. This solution is, without doubt, the only
+way of deliverance from the crudities, the indecencies, the inextricable
+complexities which are introduced into law by the vain attempt to foresee
+in detail all the possibilities of conjugal disharmony which may arise
+under the conditions of modern civilization. It is, moreover, we may rest
+assured, the only solution which the growing modern sense of personal
+responsibility in sexual matters traced in the previous chapter&mdash;the
+responsibility of women as well as of men&mdash;will be content to accept.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The subtle and complex character of the sexual relationships in a
+    high civilization and the unhappy results of their State
+    regulation were well expressed by Wilhelm von Humboldt in his
+    <i>Ideen zu einen Versuch die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates
+    zu bestimmen</i>, so long ago as 1792. &quot;A union so closely allied
+    with the very nature of the respective individuals must be
+    attended with the most hurtful consequences when the State
+    attempts to regulate it by law, or, through the force of its
+    institutions, to make it repose on anything save simple
+    inclination. When we remember, moreover, that the State can only
+    contemplate the final results of such regulations on the race, we
+    shall be still more ready to admit the justice of this
+    conclusion. It may reasonably be argued that a solicitude for the
+    race only conducts to the same results as the highest solicitude
+    for the most beautiful development of the inner man. For, after
+    careful observation, it has been found that the uninterrupted
+    union of one man with one woman is most beneficial to the race,
+    and it is likewise undeniable that no other union springs from
+    true, natural, harmonious love. And further, it may be observed,
+    that such love leads to the same results as those very relations
+    which law and custom tend to establish. The radical error seems
+    to be that the law commands; whereas such a relation cannot mould
+    itself according to external arrangements, but depends wholly on
+    inclination; and wherever coercion <a name='6_Page_464'></a>or guidance comes into
+    collision with inclination, they divert it still farther from the
+    proper path. Wherefore it appears to me that the State should not
+    only loosen the bonds in this instance and leave ampler freedom
+    to the citizen, but that it should entirely withdraw its active
+    solicitude from the institution of marriage, and, both generally
+    and in its particular modifications, should rather leave it
+    wholly to the free choice of the individuals, and the various
+    contracts they may enter into with respect to it. I should not be
+    deterred from the adoption of this principle by the fear that all
+    family relations might be disturbed, for, although such a fear
+    might be justified by considerations of particular circumstances
+    and localities, it could not fairly be entertained in an inquiry
+    into the nature of men and States in general. For experience
+    frequently convinces us that just where law has imposed no
+    fetters, morality most surely binds; the idea of external
+    coercion is one entirely foreign to an institution which, like
+    marriage, reposes only on inclination and an inward sense of
+    duty; and the results of such coercive institutions do not at all
+    correspond to the intentions in which they originate.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    A long succession of distinguished thinkers&mdash;moralists,
+    sociologists, political reformers&mdash;have maintained the social
+    advantages of divorce by mutual consent, or, under guarded
+    circumstances, at the wish of one party. Mutual consent was the
+    corner-stone of Milton's conception of marriage. Montesquieu said
+    that true divorce must be the result of mutual consent and based
+    on the impossibility of living together. S&eacute;nancour seems to agree
+    with Montesquieu. Lord Morley (<i>Diderot</i>, vol. ii, Ch. I),
+    echoing and approving the conclusions of Diderot's <i>Suppl&eacute;ment au
+    Voyage de Bougainville</i> (1772), adds that the separation of
+    husband and wife is &quot;a transaction in itself perfectly natural
+    and blameless, and often not only laudable, but a duty.&quot; Bloch
+    (<i>Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, p. 240), with many other writers,
+    emphasizes the truth of Shelley's saying, that the freedom of
+    marriage is the guarantee of its durability. (That the facts of
+    life point in the same direction has been shown in the previous
+    chapter.) The learned Caspari (<i>Die Soziale Frage &uuml;ber die
+    Freiheit der Ehe</i>), while disclaiming any prevision of the
+    future, declares that if sexual relationships are to remain or to
+    become moral, there must be an easier dissolution of marriage.
+    Howard, at the conclusion of his exhaustive history of
+    matrimonial institutions (vol. iii p. 220), though he himself
+    believes that marriage is peculiarly in need of regulation by
+    law, is yet constrained to admit that it is perfectly clear to
+    the student of history that the modern divorce movement is &quot;but a
+    part of the mighty movement for social liberation which has been
+    gaining in volume and strength since the Reformation.&quot; Similarly
+    the cautious and judicial Westermarck concludes the chapter on
+    marriage of his <i>Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i> (vol.
+    ii, p. 398) with the <a name='6_Page_465'></a>statement that &quot;when both husband and wife
+    desire to separate, it seems to many enlightened minds that the
+    State has no right to prevent them from dissolving the marriage
+    contract, provided the children are properly cared for; and that,
+    for the children, also, it is better to have the supervision of
+    one parent only than of two who cannot agree.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In France the leaders of the movement of social reform seem to be
+    almost, or quite, unanimous in believing that the next step in
+    regard to divorce is the establishment of divorce by mutual
+    consent. This was, for instance, the result reached in a
+    symposium to which thirty-one distinguished men and women
+    contributed. All were in favor of divorce by mutual consent; the
+    only exception was Madame Adam, who said she had reached a state
+    of skepticism with regard to political and social forms, but
+    admitted that for nearly half a century she had been a strong
+    advocate of divorce. A large number of the contributors were in
+    favor of divorce at the desire of one party only (<i>La Revue</i>,
+    March 1, 1901). In other countries, also, there is a growing
+    recognition that this solution of the question, with due
+    precautions to avoid any abuses to which it might otherwise be
+    liable, is the proper and inevitable solution.</p>
+
+<p>    As to the exact method by which divorce by mutual consent should
+    be effected, opinions differ, and the matter is likely to be
+    differently arranged in different countries. The Japanese plan
+    seems simple and judicious (see <i>ante</i>, p. 461). Paul and Victor
+    Margueritte (<i>Quelques Id&eacute;es</i>, pp. 3 <i>et seq.</i>), while realizing
+    that the conflict of feeling in the matter of personal
+    associations involves decisions which are entirely outside the
+    competence of legal tribunals, recognize that such tribunals are
+    necessary in order to deal with the property of divorced persons,
+    and also, in the last resort, with the question of the care of
+    the children. They should not act in public. These writers
+    propose that each party should choose a representative, and that
+    these two should choose a third; and that this tribunal should
+    privately investigate, and if they agreed should register the
+    divorce, which should take place six or twelve months later, or
+    three years later, if only desired by one of the parties. Dr.
+    Shufeldt (&quot;Psychopathia Sexualis and Divorce&quot;) proposes that a
+    divorce-court judge should conduct, alone, the hearing of any
+    cases of marital discord, the husband and wife appearing directly
+    before him, without counsel, though with their witnesses, if
+    necessary; should medical experts be required the judge alone
+    would be empowered to call them.</p></div>
+
+<p>When we realize that the long delay in the acceptance of so just and
+natural a basis of divorce is due to an artificial tension created by the
+pressure of the dead hand of Canon law&mdash;a tension confined exclusively to
+Christendom&mdash;we may also realize that with the final disappearance of that
+tension the just and natural <a name='6_Page_466'></a>order in this relationship will spring back
+the more swiftly because that relief has been so long delayed. &quot;Nature
+abhors a vacuum nowhere more than in a marriage,&quot; Ellen Key remarks in the
+language of antiquated physical metaphor; the vacuum will somehow be
+filled, and if it cannot be filled in a natural and orderly manner it will
+be filled in an unnatural and disorderly manner. It is the business of
+society to see that no laws stand in the way of the establishment of
+natural order.</p>
+
+<p>Reform upon a reasonable basis has been made difficult by the unfortunate
+retention of the idea of delinquency. With the traditions of the Canonists
+at the back of our heads we have somehow persuaded ourselves that there
+cannot be a divorce unless there is a delinquent, a real serious
+delinquent who, if he had his deserts, would be imprisoned and consigned
+to infamy. But in the marriage relationship, as in all other
+relationships, it is only in a very small number of cases that one party
+stands towards the other as a criminal, even a defendant. This is often
+obvious in the early stages of conjugal alienation. But it remains true in
+the end. The wife commits adultery and the husband as a matter of course
+assumes the position of plaintiff. But we do not inquire how it is that he
+has not so won her love that her adultery is out of the question; such
+inquiry might lead to the conclusion that the real defendant is the
+husband. And similarly when the husband is accused of brutal cruelty the
+law takes no heed to inquire whether in the infliction of less brutal but
+not less poignant wounds, the wife also should not be made defendant.
+There are a few cases, but only a few, in which the relationship of
+plaintiff and defendant is not a totally false and artificial
+relationship, an immoral legal fiction. In most cases, if the truth were
+fully known, husband and wife should come side by side to the divorce
+court and declare: &quot;We are both in the wrong: we have not been able to
+fulfil our engagements to each other; we have erred in choosing each
+other.&quot; The long reports of the case in open court, the mutual
+recriminations, the detectives, the servant girls and other witnesses, the
+infamous inquisition into intimate secrets&mdash;all these things, which no
+necessity could ever justify, are altogether unnecessary.</p><a name='6_Page_467'></a>
+
+<p>It is said by some that if there were no impediments to divorce a man
+might be married in succession to half a dozen women. These simple-minded
+or ignorant persons do not seem to be aware that even when marriage is
+absolutely indissoluble a man can, and frequently does, carry on sexual
+relationships not merely successively, but, if he chooses, even
+simultaneously, with half a dozen women. There is, however, this important
+difference that, in the one case, the man is encouraged by the law to
+believe that he need only treat at most one of the six women with anything
+approaching to justice and humanity; in the other case the law insists
+that he shall fairly and openly fulfil his obligations towards all the six
+women. It is a very important difference, and there ought to be no
+question as to which state of things is moral and which immoral. It is no
+concern of the State to inquire into the number of persons with whom a man
+or a woman chooses to have sexual relationships; it is a private matter
+which may indeed affect their own finer spiritual development but which it
+is impertinent for the State to pry into. It is, however, the concern of
+the State, in its own collective interest and that of its members, to see
+that no injustice is done.</p>
+
+<p>But what about the children? That is necessarily a very important
+question. The question of the arrangements made for the children in cases
+of divorce is always one to which the State must give its regulative
+attention, for it is only when there are children that the State has any
+real concern in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>At one time it was even supposed by some that the existence of children
+was a serious argument against facility of divorce. A more reasonable view
+is now generally taken. It is, in the first place, recognized that a very
+large proportion of couples seeking divorce have no children. In England
+the proportion is about forty per cent.; in some other countries it is
+doubtless larger still. But even when there are children no one who
+realizes what the conditions are in families where the parents ought to be
+but are not divorced can have any doubt that usually those conditions are
+extremely bad for the children. The tension between the parents absorbs
+energy which should be devoted to the children. The spectacle of the
+grievances or quarrels <a name='6_Page_468'></a>of their parents is demoralizing for the children,
+and usually fatal to any respect towards them. At the best it is
+injuriously distressing to the children. One effective parent, there
+cannot be the slightest doubt, is far better for a child than two
+ineffective parents. There is a further point, often overlooked, for
+consideration here. Two people when living together at variance&mdash;one of
+them perhaps, it is not rarely the case, nervously abnormal or
+diseased&mdash;are not fitted to become parents, nor in the best condition for
+procreation. It is, therefore, not merely an act of justice to the
+individual, but a measure called for in the interests of the State, that
+new citizens should not be brought into the community through such
+defective channels.<a name='6_FNanchor_353'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_353'><sup>[353]</sup></a> From this point of view all the interests of the
+State are on the side of facility of divorce.</p>
+
+<p>There is a final argument which is often brought forward against facility
+of divorce. Marriage, it is said, is for the protection of women;
+facilitate divorce and women are robbed of that protection. It is obvious
+that this argument has little application as against divorce by mutual
+consent. Certainly it is necessary that divorce should only be arranged
+under conditions which in each individual case have received the approval
+of the law as just. But it must always be remembered that the essential
+fact of marriage is not naturally, and should never artificially be made,
+an economic question. It is possible&mdash;that is a question which society
+will have to consider&mdash;that a woman should be paid for being a mother on
+the ground that she is rearing new citizens for the State. But neither the
+State nor her husband nor anyone else ought to pay her for exercising
+conjugal rights. The fact that such an argument can be brought forward
+shows how far we are from the sound biological attitude towards sexual
+relationships. Equally unsound is the notion that the virgin bride brings
+her husband at marriage an important capital which is consumed in the
+first act of intercourse and can never be <a name='6_Page_469'></a>recovered. That is a notion
+which has survived into civilization, but it belongs to barbarism and not
+to civilization. So far as it has any validity it lies within a sphere of
+erotic perversity which cannot be taken into consideration in an
+estimation of moral values. For most men, however, in any case, whether
+they realize it or not, the woman who has been initiated into the
+mysteries of love has a higher erotic value than the virgin, and there
+need be no anxiety on this ground concerning the wife who has lost her
+virginity. It is probably a significant fact that this anxiety for the
+protection of women by the limitation of divorce is chiefly brought
+forward by men and not by women themselves. A woman at marriage is
+deprived by society and the law of her own name. She has been deprived
+until recently of the right to her own earnings. She is deprived of the
+most intimate rights in her own person. She is deprived under some
+circumstances of her own child, against whom she may have committed no
+offence whatever. It is perhaps scarcely surprising that she is not
+greatly appreciative of the protection afforded her by the withholding of
+the right to divorce her husband. &quot;Ah, no, no protection!&quot; a brilliant
+French woman has written. &quot;We have been protected long enough. The only
+protection to grant women is to cease protecting them.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_354'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_354'><sup>[354]</sup></a> As a matter
+of fact the divorce movement appears to develop, on the whole, with that
+development of woman's moral responsibility traced in the previous
+chapter, and where divorce is freest women occupy the highest position.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot fail to realize as we grasp the nature and direction of the
+modern movement of divorce that the final tendency of that movement is to
+efface itself. Necessary as the Divorce<a name='6_Page_470'></a> Court has been as the inevitable
+corollary of an impossible ecclesiastical conception of marriage, no
+institution is now more hideous, more alien to the instinctive feelings
+generated by a fine civilization, and more opposed to the dignity of
+womanhood.<a name='6_FNanchor_355'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_355'><sup>[355]</sup></a> Its disappearance and its substitution by private
+arrangements, effected on their contractive sides, especially if there are
+children to provide for, under legal and if necessary judicial
+supervision, is, and always has been, the natural result of the attainment
+of a reasonably high stage of civilization. The Divorce Court has merely
+been a phase in the history of modern marriage, and a phase that has
+really been repugnant to all concerned in it. There is no need to view the
+project of its ultimate disappearance with anything but satisfaction. It
+was merely the outcome of an artificial conception of marriage. It is time
+to return to the consideration of that conception.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that when the Catholic development of the archaic conception
+of marriage as a sacrament, slowly elaborated and fossilized by the
+ingenuity of the Canonists, was at last nominally dethroned, though not
+destroyed, by the movement associated with the Reformation, it was
+replaced by the conception of marriage as a contract. This conception of
+marriage as a contract still enjoys a considerable amount of credit
+amongst us.</p>
+
+<p>There must always be contractive elements, implicit or explicit, in a
+marriage; that was well recognized even by the Canonists. But when we
+treat marriage as all contract, and nothing but contract, we have to
+realize that we have set up a very peculiar form of contract, not
+voidable, like other contracts, by the agreement of the parties to it, but
+dissoluble as a sort of punishment of delinquency rather than by the
+voluntary annulment of a bond.<a name='6_FNanchor_356'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_356'><sup>[356]</sup></a> When the Protestant Reformers seized
+on the <a name='6_Page_471'></a>idea of marriage as a contract they were not influenced by any
+reasoned analysis of the special characteristics of a contract; they were
+merely anxious to secure a plausible ground, already admitted even by the
+Canonists to cover certain aspects of the matrimonial union, on which they
+could declare that marriage is a secular and not an ecclesiastical matter,
+a civil bond and not a sacramental process.<a name='6_FNanchor_357'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_357'><sup>[357]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Like so much else in the Protestant revolt, the strength of this attitude
+lay in the fact that it was a protest, based on its negative side on
+reasonable and natural grounds. But while Protestantism was right in its
+attempt&mdash;for it was only an attempt&mdash;to deny the authority of Canon law,
+that attempt was altogether unsatisfactory on the positive side. As a
+matter of fact marriage is not a true contract and no attempt has ever
+been made to convert it into a true contract.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Various writers have treated marriage as an actual contract or
+    argued that it ought to be converted into a true contract. Mrs.
+    Mona Caird, for instance (&quot;The Morality of Marriage,&quot;
+    <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, 1890), believes that when marriage becomes
+    really a contract &quot;a couple would draw up their agreement, or
+    depute the task to their friends, as is now generally done as
+    regards marriage settlements. They agree to live together on such
+    and such terms, making certain stipulations within the limits of
+    the code.&quot; The State, she holds, should, however, demand an
+    interval of time between notice of divorce and the divorce
+    itself, if still desired when that interval has passed.
+    Similarly, in the United States Dr. Shufeldt (&quot;Needed Revision of
+    the Laws of Marriage and Divorce,&quot; <i>Medico-Legal Journal</i>, Dec.,
+    1897) insists that marriage must be entirely put into the hands
+    of the legal profession and &quot;made a civil contract, explicit in
+    detail, and defining terms of divorce, in the event that a
+    dissolution of the contract is subsequently desired.&quot; He adds
+    that medical certificates of freedom from hereditary and acquired
+    disease should be required, and properly regulated probationary
+    marriages also be instituted.</p><a name='6_Page_472'></a>
+
+<p>    In France, a deputy of the Chamber was, in 1891, so convinced
+    that marriage is a contract, like any other contract, that he
+    declared that &quot;to perform music at the celebration of a marriage
+    is as ridiculous as it would be to send for a tenor to a notary's
+    to celebrate a sale of timber.&quot; He was of quite different mind
+    from Pepys, who, a couple of centuries earlier, had been equally
+    indignant at the absence of music from a wedding, which, he said,
+    made it like a coupling of dog and bitch.</p>
+
+<p>    A frequent demand of those who insist that marriage must be
+    regarded as a contract is marriage contracted for a term of
+    years. Marriages could be contracted for a term of five years or
+    less in old Japan, and it is said that they were rarely or never
+    dissolved at the end of the term. Goethe, in his
+    <i>Wahlverwandtschaften</i> (Part I, Ch. X) incidentally introduced a
+    proposal for marriages for a term of five years and attached much
+    moral significance to the prolongation of the marriage beyond
+    that term without external compulsion. (Bloch considers that
+    Goethe had probably heard of the Japanese custom, <i>Sexual Life of
+    Our Time</i>, p. 241.) Professor E. D. Cope (&quot;The Marriage Problem,&quot;
+    <i>Open Court</i>, Nov. 15 and 22, 1888), likewise, in order to remove
+    matrimony from the domain of caprice and to permit full and fair
+    trial, advocated &quot;a system of civil marriage contracts which
+    shall run for a definite time. These contracts should be of the
+    same value and effect as the existing marriage contract. The time
+    limits should be increased rapidly, so as to prevent women of
+    mature years being deprived of support. The first contract ought
+    not to run for less than five years, so as to give ample
+    opportunity for acquaintance, and for the recovery from temporary
+    disagreements.&quot; This first contract, Cope held, should be
+    terminable at the wish of either party; the second contract, for
+    ten or fifteen years, should only be terminable at the wish of
+    both parties, and the third should be permanent and indissoluble.
+    George Meredith, the distinguished novelist, also, more recently,
+    threw out the suggestion that marriages should be contracted for
+    a term of years.</p>
+
+<p>    It can scarcely be said that marriages for a term of years
+    constitute a very satisfactory solution of the difficulties at
+    present encountered. They would not commend themselves to young
+    lovers, who believe that their love is eternal, nor, so long as
+    the union proves satisfactory, is there any need to introduce the
+    disturbing idea of a legal termination of the contract. On the
+    other hand, if the union proves unhappy, it is not reasonable to
+    insist on the continuation for ten or even five years of an empty
+    form which corresponds to no real marriage union. Even if
+    marriage is placed on the most prosaic contractive basis it is a
+    mistake, and indeed an impossibility, to pre-ordain the length of
+    its duration. The system of fixing the duration of marriage
+    beforehand for a term of years involves exactly the same
+    principle as the system of fixing it beforehand for life. It is
+    open to the same objection that it is incompatible <a name='6_Page_473'></a>with any
+    vital relationship. As the demand for vital reality and
+    effectiveness in social relationships grows, this fact is
+    increasingly felt. We see exactly the same change among us in
+    regard to the system of inflicting fixed sentences of
+    imprisonment on criminals. To send a man to prison for five years
+    or for life, without any regard to the unknown problem of the
+    vital reaction of imprisonment on the man&mdash;a reaction which will
+    be different in every individual case&mdash;is slowly coming to be
+    regarded as an absurdity.</p></div>
+
+<p>If marriage were really placed on the basis of a contract, not only would
+that contract be voidable at the will of the two parties concerned,
+without any question of delinquency coming into the question, but those
+parties would at the outset themselves determine the conditions regulating
+the contract. But nothing could be more unlike our actual marriage. The
+two parties are bidden to accept each other as husband and wife; they are
+not invited to make a contract; they are not even told that, little as
+they may know it, they have in fact made a very complicated and elaborate
+contract that was framed on lines laid down, for a large part, thousands
+of years before they were born. Unless they have studied law they are
+totally ignorant, also, that this contract contains clauses which under
+some circumstances may be fatal to either of them. All that happens is
+that a young couple, perhaps little more than children, momentarily dazed
+by emotion, are hurried before the clergyman or the civil registrar of
+marriages, to bind themselves together for life, knowing nothing of the
+world and scarcely more of each other, knowing nothing also of the
+marriage laws, not even perhaps so much as that there are any marriage
+laws, never realizing that&mdash;as has been truly said&mdash;from the place they
+are entering beneath a garland of flowers there is, on this side of death,
+no exit except through the trapdoor of a sewer.<a name='6_FNanchor_358'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_358'><sup>[358]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>When a woman marries she gives up the right to her own person.
+    Thus, according to the law of England, a man &quot;cannot be guilty of
+    a rape upon his lawful wife.&quot; Stephen, who, in the first edition
+    of his<a name='6_Page_474'></a> <i>Digest of Criminal Law</i>, thought that under some
+    circumstances a man might be indicted for rape upon his wife, in
+    the last edition withdrew that opinion. A man may rape a
+    prostitute, but he cannot rape his wife. Having once given her
+    consent to sexual intercourse by the act of marrying a man, she
+    has given it forever, whatever new circumstances may arise, and
+    he has no need to ask her consent to sexual intercourse, not even
+    if he is knowingly suffering at the time from a venereal disease
+    (see, <i>e.g.</i>, an article on &quot;Sex Bias,&quot; <i>Westminster Review</i>,
+    March, 1888).</p>
+
+<p>    The duty of the wife to allow &quot;conjugal rights&quot; to her husband is
+    another aspect of her legal subjection to him. Even in the
+    nineteenth century a Suffolk lady of good family was imprisoned
+    in Ipswich Goal for many years and fed on bread and water, though
+    suffering from various diseases, till she died, simply because
+    she continued to disregard the decree requiring her to render
+    conjugal rights to her husband. This state of things was partly
+    reformed by the Matrimonial Causes Bill of 1884, and that bill
+    was passed, not to protect women, but men, against punishment for
+    refusal to restore conjugal rights. Undoubtedly, the modern
+    tendency, although it has progressed very slowly, is against
+    applying compulsion to either husband or wife to yield &quot;conjugal
+    rights;&quot; and since the Jackson case it is not possible in England
+    for a husband to use force in attempting to compel his wife to
+    live with him. This tendency is still more marked in the United
+    States; thus the Iowa Supreme Court, a few years ago, decided
+    that excessive demands for coitus constituted cruelty of a degree
+    justifying divorce (J. G. Kiernan, <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>,
+    Nov. 1906, p. 466).</p>
+
+<p>    The slender tenure of the wife over her person is not confined to
+    the sexual sphere, but even extends to her right to life. In
+    England, if a wife kills her husband, it was formerly the very
+    serious offence of &quot;petit treason,&quot; and it is still murder. But,
+    if a husband kills his wife and is able to plead her adultery and
+    his jealousy, it is only manslaughter. (In France, where jealousy
+    is regarded with extreme indulgence, even a wife who kills her
+    husband is often acquitted.)</p>
+
+<p>    It must not, however, be supposed that all the legal inequalities
+    involved by marriage are in favor of the husband. A large number
+    of injustices are also inflicted on the husband. The husband, for
+    instance, is legally responsible for the libels uttered by his
+    wife, and he is equally responsible civilly for the frauds she
+    commits, even if she is living apart from him. (This was, for
+    instance, held by an English judge in 1908; &quot;he could only say he
+    regretted it, for it seems a hard case. But it was the law.&quot;)
+    Belfort Bax has, in recent years, especially insisted on the
+    hardships inflicted by English law in such ways as these. There
+    can be no doubt that marriage, as at present constituted,
+    inflicts serious wrongs on the husband as well as on the wife.</p></div><a name='6_Page_475'></a>
+
+<p>Marriage is, therefore, not only not a contract in the true sense,<a name='6_FNanchor_359'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_359'><sup>[359]</sup></a>
+but in the only sense in which it is a contract it is a contract of an
+exceedingly bad kind. When the Canonists superseded the old conception of
+marriage as a contract of purchase by their sacramental marriage, they
+were in many respects effecting a real progress, and the return to the
+idea of a contract, as soon as its temporary value as a protest has
+ceased, proves altogether out of harmony with any advanced stage of
+civilization. It was revived in days before the revolt against slavery had
+been inaugurated. Personal contracts are out of harmony with our modern
+civilization and our ideas of individual liberty. A man can no longer
+contract himself as a slave nor sell his wife. Yet marriage, regarded as a
+contract, is of precisely the same class as those transactions.<a name='6_FNanchor_360'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_360'><sup>[360]</sup></a> In
+every high stage of civilization this fact is clearly recognized, and
+young couples are not even allowed to contract themselves out in marriage
+unconditionally. We see this, for instance, in the wise legislation of the
+Romans. Even under the Christian Emperors that sound principle was
+maintained and the lawyer Paulus wrote:<a name='6_FNanchor_361'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_361'><sup>[361]</sup></a> &quot;Marriage was so free,
+according to ancient opinion, that even agreements between the parties not
+to separate from one another could have no validity.&quot; In so far as the
+essence and not any accidental circumstance of the marital relationships
+is made a contract, it is a contract of a nature which the two parties
+concerned are not competent to make. Biologically and psychologically it
+cannot be valid, and with the growth of a humane civilization it is
+explicitly declared to be legally invalid.</p>
+
+<p>For, there can be no doubt about it, the intimate and essential fact of
+marriage&mdash;the relationship of sexual intercourse&mdash;is <a name='6_Page_476'></a>not and cannot be a
+contract. It is not a contract but a fact; it cannot be effected by any
+mere act of will on the part of the parties concerned; it cannot be
+maintained by any mere act of will. To will such a contract is merely to
+perform a worse than indecorous farce. Certainly many of the circumstances
+of marriage are properly the subject of contract, to be voluntarily and
+deliberately made by the parties to the contract. But the essential fact
+of marriage&mdash;a love strong enough to render the most intimate of
+relationships possible and desirable through an indefinite number of
+years&mdash;cannot be made a matter for contract. Alike from the physical point
+of view, and the psychical point of view, no binding contract&mdash;and a
+contract is worthless if it is not binding&mdash;can possibly be made. And the
+making of such pseudo-contracts concerning the future of a marriage,
+before it has even been ascertained that the marriage can ever become a
+fact at all, is not only impossible but absurd.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course true that this impossibility, this absurdity, are never
+visible to the contracting parties. They have applied to the question all
+the very restricted tests that are conventionally permitted to them, and
+the satisfactory results of these tests, together with the consciousness
+of possessing an immense and apparently inexhaustible fund of loving
+emotion, seem to them adequate to the fulfilment of the contract
+throughout life, if not indeed eternity.</p>
+
+<p>As a child of seven I chanced to be in a semi-tropical island of the
+Pacific supplied with fruit, especially grapes, from the mainland, and a
+dusky market woman always presented a large bunch of grapes to the little
+English stranger. But a day came when the proffered bunch was firmly
+refused; the superabundance of grapes had produced a reaction of disgust.
+A space of nearly forty years was needed to overcome the repugnance to
+grapes thus acquired. Yet there can be no doubt that if at the age of six
+that little boy had been asked to sign a contract binding him to accept
+grapes every day, to keep them always near him, to eat them and to enjoy
+them every day, he would have signed that contract as joyously as any
+radiant bridegroom or demure bride signs the register in the vestry. But
+is a complex <a name='6_Page_477'></a>man or woman, with unknown capacities for changing or
+deteriorating, and with incalculable aptitudes for inflicting torture and
+arousing loathing, is such a creature more easy to be bound to than an
+exquisite fruit? All the countries of the world in which the subtle
+influence of the Canon law of Christendom still makes itself felt, have
+not yet grasped a general truth which is well within the practical
+experience of a child of seven.<a name='6_FNanchor_362'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_362'><sup>[362]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The notion that such a relationship as that of marriage can rest
+    on so fragile a basis as a pre-ordained contract has naturally
+    never prevailed widely in its extreme form, and has been unknown
+    altogether in many parts of the world. The Romans, as we know,
+    explicitly rejected it, and even at a comparatively early period
+    recognized the legality of marriage by <i>usus</i>, thus declaring in
+    effect that marriage must be a fact, and not a mere undertaking.
+    There has been a widespread legal tendency, especially where the
+    traditions of Roman law have retained any influence, to regard
+    the cohabitation of marriage as the essential fact of the
+    relationship. It was an old rule even under the Catholic Church
+    that marriage may be presumed from cohabitation (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+    Zacchia, <i>Questionum Medico-legalium Opus</i>, edition of 1688, vol.
+    iii, p. 234). Even in England cohabitation is already one of the
+    presumptions in favor of the existence of marriage (though not
+    necessarily by itself regarded as sufficient), provided the woman
+    is of unblemished character, and does not appear to be a common
+    prostitute (Nevill Geary, <i>The Law of Marriage</i>, Ch. III). If,
+    however, according to Lord Watson's judicial statement in the
+    Dysart Peerage case, a man takes his mistress to a hotel or goes
+    with her to a baby-linen shop and speaks of her as his wife, it
+    is to be presumed that he is acting for the sake of decency, and
+    this furnishes no evidence of marriage. In Scotland the
+    presumption of marriage arises on much slighter grounds than in
+    England. This may be connected with the ancient and deep-rooted
+    custom in Scotland of marriage by exchange of consent (Geary,
+    <i>op. cit.</i> Ch. XVIII; <i>cf.</i>, Howard, <i>Matrimonial Institutions</i>,
+    vol. i, p. 316).</p>
+
+<p>    In the Bredalbane case (Campbell <i>v.</i> Campbell, 1867), which was
+    of great importance because it involved the succession to the
+    vast estates of the Marquis of Bredalbane, the House of Lords
+    decided than even an adulterous connection may, on ceasing to be
+    adulterous, become matrimonial <a name='6_Page_478'></a>by the simple consent of the
+    parties, as evidenced by habit and repute, without any need for
+    the matrimonial character of the connection to be indicated by
+    any public act, nor any necessity to prove the specific period
+    when the consent was interchanged. This decision has been
+    confirmed in the Dysart case (Geary, <i>loc. cit.</i>; <i>cf.</i> C. G.
+    Garrison, &quot;Limits of Divorce,&quot; <i>Contemporary Review</i>, Feb.,
+    1894). Similarly, as decided by Justice Kekewich in the Wagstaff
+    case in 1907, if a man leaves money to his &quot;widow,&quot; on condition
+    that she never marries again, although he has never been married
+    to her, and though she has been legally married to another man,
+    the testator's intentions must be upheld. Garrison, in his
+    valuable discussion of this aspect of legal marriage (<i>loc.
+    cit.</i>), forcibly insists that by English law marriage is a fact
+    and not a contract, and that where &quot;conduct characterized by
+    connubial purpose and constancy&quot; exists, there marriage legally
+    exists, marriage being simply &quot;a name for an existing fact.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In the United States, marriage &quot;by habit and repute&quot; similarly
+    exists, and in some States has even been confirmed and extended
+    by statute (J. P. Bishop, <i>Commentaries</i>, vol. i, Ch. XV).
+    &quot;Whatever the form of the ceremony, and even if all ceremony was
+    dispensed with,&quot; said Judge Cooley, of Michigan, in 1875 (in an
+    opinion accepted as authoritative by the Federal courts), &quot;if the
+    parties agreed presently to take each other for husband and wife,
+    and from that time lived together professedly in that relation,
+    proof of these facts would be sufficient.... This has been the
+    settled doctrine of the American courts.&quot; (Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>,
+    vol. iii, pp. 177 <i>et seq.</i> Twenty-three States sanction
+    common-law marriage, while eighteen repudiate, or are inclined to
+    repudiate, any informal agreement.)</p>
+
+<p>    This legal recognition by the highest judicial authorities, alike
+    in Great Britain and the United States, that marriage is
+    essentially a fact, and that no evidence of any form or ceremony
+    of marriage is required for the most complete legal recognition
+    of marriage, undoubtedly carries with it highly important
+    implications. It became clear that the reform of marriage is
+    possible even without change in the law, and that honorable
+    sexual relationships, even when entered into without any legal
+    forms, are already entitled to full legal recognition and
+    protection. There are, however, it need scarcely be added here,
+    other considerations which render reform along these lines
+    incomplete.</p></div>
+
+<p>It thus tends to come about that with the growth of civilization the
+conception of marriage as a contract falls more and more into discredit.
+It is realized, on the one hand, that personal contracts are out of
+harmony with our general and social attitude, for if we reject the idea of
+a human being contracting himself <a name='6_Page_479'></a>as a slave, how much more we should
+reject the idea of entering by contract into the still more intimate
+relationship of a husband or a wife; on the other hand it is felt that the
+idea of pre-ordained contracts on a matter over which the individual
+himself has no control is quite unreal and when any strict rules of equity
+prevail, necessarily invalid. It is true that we still constantly find
+writers sententiously asserting their notions of the duties or the
+privileges involved by the &quot;contract&quot; of marriage, with no more attempt to
+analyze the meaning of the term &quot;contract&quot; in this connection than the
+Protestant Reformers made, but it can scarcely be said that these writers
+have yet reached the alphabet of the subject they dogmatize about.</p>
+
+<p>The transference of marriage from the Church to the State which, in the
+lands where it first occurred, we owe to Protestantism and, in the
+English-speaking lands, especially to Puritanism, while a necessary stage,
+had the unfortunate result of secularizing the sexual relationships. That
+is to say, it ignored the transcendent element in love which is really the
+essential part of such relationships, and it concentrated attention on
+those formal and accidental parts of marriage which can alone be dealt
+with in a rigid and precise manner, and can alone properly form the
+subject of contracts. The Canon law, fantastic and impossible as it became
+in many of its developments, at least insisted on the natural and actual
+fact of marriage as, above all, a bodily union, while, at the same time,
+it regarded that union as no mere secular business contract but a sacred
+and exalted function, a divine fact, and the symbol of the most divine
+fact in the world. We are returning to-day to the Canonist's conception of
+marriage on a higher and freer plane, bringing back the exalted conception
+of the Canon law, yet retaining the individualism which the Puritan
+wrongly thought he could secure on the basis of mere secularization,
+while, further, we recognize that the whole process belongs to the private
+sphere of moral responsibility. As Hobhouse has well said, in tracing the
+evolutionary history of the modern conception of marriage, the sacramental
+idea of marriage has again emerged but on a higher plane; &quot;from being a
+sacrament in the magical, it has become one in the ethical, sense.&quot; We are
+thus <a name='6_Page_480'></a>tending towards, though we have not yet legally achieved, marriage
+made and maintained by consent, &quot;a union between two free and responsible
+persons in which the equal rights of both are maintained.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_363'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_363'><sup>[363]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is supposed by some that to look upon sexual union as a
+    sacrament is necessarily to accept the ancient Catholic view,
+    embodied in the Canon law, that matrimony is indissoluble. That
+    is, however, a mistake. Even the Canonists themselves were never
+    able to put forward any coherent and consistent ground for the
+    indissolubility of matrimony which could commend itself
+    rationally, while Luther and Milton and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who
+    maintained the religious and sacred nature of sexual
+    union&mdash;though they were cautious about using the term sacrament
+    on account of its ecclesiastical implications&mdash;so far from
+    believing that its sanctity involved indissolubility, argued in
+    the reverse sense. This point of view may be defended even from a
+    strictly Protestant standpoint. &quot;I take it,&quot; Mr. G. C. Maberly
+    says, &quot;that the Prayer Book definition of a sacrament, 'the
+    outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace,' is
+    generally accepted. In marriage the legal and physical unions are
+    the outward and visible signs, while the inward and spiritual
+    grace is the God-given love that makes the union of heart and
+    soul: and it is precisely because I take this view of marriage
+    that I consider the legal and physical union should be dissolved
+    whenever the spiritual union of unselfish, divine love and
+    affection has ceased. It seems to me that the sacramental view of
+    marriage compels us to say that those who continue the legal or
+    physical union when the spiritual union has ceased, are&mdash;to quote
+    again from the Prayer Book words applied to those who take the
+    outward sign of another sacrament when the inward and spiritual
+    grace is not present&mdash;'eating and drinking their own damnation.'&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>If from the point we have now reached we look back at the question of
+divorce we see that, as the modern aspects of the marriage relationship
+becomes more clearly realized by the community, that question will be
+immensely simplified. Since marriage is not a mere contract but a fact of
+conduct, and even a sacred fact, the free participation of both parties is
+needed to maintain it. To introduce the idea of delinquency and punishment
+into divorce, to foster mutual recrimination, to publish to <a name='6_Page_481'></a>the world the
+secrets of the heart or the senses, is not only immoral, it is altogether
+out of place. In the question as to when a marriage has ceased to be a
+marriage the two parties concerned can alone be the supreme judges; the
+State, if the State is called in, can but register the sentence they
+pronounce, merely seeing to it that no injustice is involved in the
+carrying out of that sentence.<a name='6_FNanchor_364'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_364'><sup>[364]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>In discussing in the previous chapter the direction in which sexual
+morality tends to develop with the development of civilization we came to
+the conclusion that in its main lines it involved, above all, personal
+responsibility. A relationship fixed among savage peoples by social custom
+which none dare break, and in a higher stage of culture by formal laws
+which must be observed in the letter even if broken in the spirit, becomes
+gradually transferred to the sphere of individual moral responsibility.
+Such a transference is necessarily meaningless, and indeed impossible,
+unless the increasing stringency of the moral bond is accompanied by the
+decreasing stringency of the formal bond. It is only by the process of
+loosening the artificial restraints that the natural restraints can exert
+their full control. That process takes place in two ways, in part on the
+basis of the indifference to formal marriage which has marked the masses
+of the population everywhere and doubtless stretches back to the tenth
+century before the domination of ecclesiastical matrimony began, and
+partly by the progressive modification of marriage laws which were made
+necessary by the needs of the propertied classes anxious to secure the
+State recognition of their unions. The whole process is necessarily a
+gradual and indeed imperceptible process. It is impossible to fix
+definitely the dates of the stages by which the Church effected the
+immense revolution by which it grasped, and eventually transferred to the
+State, the complete control of marriage, for that revolution was effected
+without the intervention of any law. It will be equally difficult to
+perceive the transference <a name='6_Page_482'></a>of the control of marriage from the State to
+the individuals concerned, and the more difficult because, as we shall
+see, although the essential and intimately personal fact of marriage is
+not a proper matter for State control, there are certain aspects of
+marriage which touch the interests of the community so closely that the
+State is bound to insist on their registration and to take an interest in
+their settlement.</p>
+
+<p>The result of dissolving the formal stringency of the marriage
+relationship, it is sometimes said, would be a tendency to an immoral
+laxity. Those who make this statement overlook the fact that laxity tends
+to reach a maximum as a result of stringency, and that where the merely
+external authority of a rigid marriage law prevails, there the extreme
+excesses of license most flourish. It is also undoubtedly true, and for
+the same reason, that any sudden removal of restraints necessarily
+involves a reaction to the opposite extreme of license; a slave is not
+changed at a stroke into an autonomous freeman. Yet we have to remember
+that the marriage order existed for millenniums before any attempt was
+made to mould it into arbitrary shapes by human legislation. Such
+legislation, we have seen, was indeed the effort of the human spirit to
+affirm more emphatically the demands of its own instincts.<a name='6_FNanchor_365'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_365'><sup>[365]</sup></a> But its
+final result is to choke and impede rather than to further the instincts
+which inspired it. Its gradual disappearance allows the natural order free
+and proper scope.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The great truth that compulsion is not really a force on the side
+    of virtue, but on the side of vice, had been clearly realized by
+    the genius of Rabelais, when he said of his ideal social state,
+    the Abbey of Thelema, that there was but one clause in its rule:
+    Fay ce que vouldras. &quot;Because,&quot; said Rabelais (Bk. i, Ch. VII),
+    &quot;men that are free, well-born, well-bred, and conversant in
+    honest companies, have naturally an instinct and spur that
+    prompts them unto virtuous actions and withdraws them from vice.
+    These same men, when by base subjection and constraint they are
+    brought under and kept down, turn aside from that noble
+    disposition by which they freely were inclined to virtue, to
+    shake off and break that bond of servitude.&quot; So that when a man
+    and a woman who had lived under the rule of Thelema married each
+    other,<a name='6_Page_483'></a> Rabelais tells us, their mutual love lasted undiminished
+    to the day of their death.</p>
+
+<p>    When the loss of autonomous freedom fails to lead to licentious
+    rebellion it incurs the opposite risk and tends to become a
+    flabby reliance on an external support. The artificial support of
+    marriage by State regulation then resembles the artificial
+    support of the body furnished by corset-wearing. The reasons for
+    and against adopting artificial support are the same in one case
+    as the other. Corsets really give a feeling of support; they
+    really furnish without trouble a fairly satisfactory appearance
+    of decorum; they are a real protection against various accidents.
+    But the price at which they furnish these advantages is serious,
+    and the advantages themselves only exist under unnatural
+    conditions. The corset cramps the form and the healthy
+    development of the organs; it enfeebles the voluntary muscular
+    system; it is incompatible with perfect grace and beauty; it
+    diminishes the sum of active energy. It exerts, in short, the
+    same kind of influence on physical responsibility as formal
+    marriage on moral responsibility.</p>
+
+<p>    It is too often forgotten, and must therefore be repeated, that
+    married people do not remain together because of any religious or
+    legal tie; that tie is merely the historical outcome of their
+    natural tendency to remain together, a tendency which is itself
+    far older than history. &quot;Love would exist in the world to-day,
+    just as pure and just as enduring,&quot; says Shufeldt (<i>Medico-Legal
+    Journal</i>, Dec., 1897), &quot;had man never invented 'marriage.' Truly
+    affined mates would have remained faithful to each other as long
+    as life lasted. It is only when men attempt to improve upon
+    nature that crime, disease, and unhappiness step in.&quot; &quot;The
+    abolition of marriage in the form now practiced,&quot; wrote Godwin
+    more than a century ago (<i>Political Justice</i>, second edition,
+    1796, vol. i, p. 248), &quot;will be attended with no evils. We are
+    apt to represent it to ourselves as the harbinger of brutal lust
+    and depravity. But it really happens in this, as in other cases,
+    that the positive laws which are made to restrain our vices
+    irritate and multiply them.&quot; And Professor Lester Ward, in
+    insisting on the strength of the monogamic sentiment in modern
+    society, truly remarks (<i>International Journal of Ethics</i>, Oct.,
+    1896) that the rebellion against rigid marriage bonds &quot;is, in
+    reality, due to the very strengthening of the true bonds of
+    conjugal affection, coupled with a rational and altogether proper
+    determination on the part of individuals to accept, in so
+    important a matter, nothing less than the genuine article.&quot; &quot;If
+    by a single stroke,&quot; says Professor Woods Hutchinson
+    (<i>Contemporary Review</i>, Sept., 1905), &quot;all marriage ties now in
+    existence were struck off or declared illegal, eight-tenths of
+    all couples would be remarried within forty eight hours, and
+    seven-tenths could not be kept asunder with bayonets.&quot; An
+    experiment of this kind on a small scale was witnessed in 1909 in
+    an English village <a name='6_Page_484'></a>in Buckinghamshire. It was found that the
+    parish church had never been licensed for marriages, and that in
+    consequence all the people who had gone through the ceremony of
+    marriage in that church during the previous half century had
+    never been legally married. Yet, so far as could be ascertained,
+    not a single couple thus released from the legal compulsion of
+    marriage took advantage of the freedom bestowed. In the face of
+    such a fact it is obviously impossible to attach any moral value
+    to the form of marriage.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is certainly inevitable that during a period of transition the natural
+order is to some extent disturbed by the persistence, even though in a
+weakened form, of external bonds which are beginning to be consciously
+realized as inimical to the authoritative control of individual moral
+responsibility. We can clearly trace this at the present time. A sensitive
+anxiety to escape from external constraint induces an under-valuation of
+the significance of personal constraint in the relationship of marriage.
+Everyone is probably familiar with cases in which a couple will live
+together through long years without entering the legal bond of marriage,
+notwithstanding difficulties in their mutual relationship which would have
+long since caused a separation or a divorce had they been legally married.
+When the inherent difficulties of the marital relationship are complicated
+by the difficulties due to external constraint, the development of
+individual moral responsibility cuts two ways, and leads to results that
+are not entirely satisfactory. This has been seen in the United States of
+America and attention has often been called to it by thoughtful American
+observers. It is, naturally, noted especially in women because it is in
+women that the new growth of personal freedom and moral responsibility has
+chiefly made itself felt. The first stirring of these new impulses,
+especially when associated, as it often is, with inexperience and
+ignorance, leads to impatience with the natural order, to a demand for
+impossible conditions of existence, and to an inaptitude not only for the
+arbitrary bondage of law but even for the wholesome and necessary bonds of
+human social life. It is always a hard lesson for the young and idealistic
+that in order to command Nature we must obey her; it can only be learnt
+through contact with life and by the attainment of full human growth.</p><a name='6_Page_485'></a>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Dr. Felix Adler (in an address before the Society of Ethical
+    Culture of New York, Nov. 17, 1889) called attention to what he
+    regarded as the most deep-rooted cause of an undue prevalence of
+    divorce in America. &quot;The false idea of individual liberty is
+    largely held in America,&quot; and when applied to family life it
+    often leads to an impatience with these duties which the
+    individual is either born into or has voluntarily accepted. &quot;I am
+    constrained to think that the prevalence of divorce is to be
+    ascribed in no small degree to the influence of democratic
+    ideas&mdash;that is, of false democratic ideas&mdash;and our hope lies in
+    advancing towards a higher and truer democracy.&quot; A more recent
+    American writer, this time a woman, Anna A. Rogers (&quot;Why American
+    Marriages Fail,&quot; <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, Sept., 1907) speaks in the
+    same sense, though perhaps in too unqualified a manner. She
+    states that the frequency of divorce in America is due to three
+    causes: (1) woman's failure to realize that marriage is her work
+    in the world; (2) her growing individualism; (3) her lost art of
+    giving, replaced by a highly developed receptive faculty. The
+    American woman, this writer states, in discovering her own
+    individuality has not yet learnt how to manage it; it is still
+    &quot;largely a useless, uneasy factor, vouchsafing her very little
+    more peace than it does those in her immediate surcharged
+    vicinity.&quot; Her circumstances tend to make of her &quot;a curious
+    anomalous hybrid; a cross between a magnificent, rather
+    unmannerly boy, and a spoiled, exacting <i>demi-mondaine</i>, who
+    sincerely loves in this world herself alone.&quot; She has not yet
+    learnt that woman's supreme work in the world can only be
+    attained through the voluntary acceptance of the restraints of
+    marriage. The same writer points out that the fault is not alone
+    with American women, but also with American men. Their idolatry
+    of their women is largely responsible for that intolerance and
+    selfishness which causes so many divorces; &quot;American women are,
+    as a whole, pampered and worshipped out of all reason.&quot; But the
+    men, who lend themselves to this, do not feel that they can treat
+    their wives with the same comradeship as the French treat their
+    wives, nor seek their advice with the same reliance; the American
+    woman is placed on an unreal pedestal. Yet another American
+    writer, Rafford Pyke (&quot;Husbands and Wives,&quot; <i>Cosmopolitan</i>,
+    1902), points out that only a small proportion of American
+    marriages are really unhappy, these being chiefly among the more
+    cultured classes, in which the movement of expansion in women's
+    interests and lives is taking place; it is more often the wife
+    than the husband who is disappointed in marriage, and this is
+    largely due to her inability to merge, not necessarily
+    subordinate, her individuality in an equal union with his.
+    &quot;Marriage to-day is becoming more and more dependent for its
+    success upon the adjustment of conditions that are psychical.
+    Whereas in former generations it was sufficient that the union
+    should involve physical reciprocity, in this age of ours <a name='6_Page_486'></a>the
+    union must involve a psychic reciprocity as well. And whereas,
+    heretofore, the community of interest was attained with ease, it
+    is now becoming far more difficult because of the tendency to
+    discourage a woman who marries from merging her separate
+    individuality in her husband's. Yet, unless she does this, how
+    can she have a complete and perfect interest in the life
+    together, and, for that matter, how can he have such an interest
+    either?&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Professor M&uuml;nsterberg, the distinguished psychologist, in his
+    frank but appreciative study of American institutions, <i>The
+    Americans</i>, taking a broader outlook, points out that the
+    influence of women on morals in America has not been in every
+    respect satisfactory, in so far as it has tended to encourage
+    shallowness and superficiality. &quot;The American woman who has
+    scarcely a shred of education,&quot; he remarks (p. 587), &quot;looks in
+    vain for any subject on which she has not firm convictions
+    already at hand.... The arrogance of this feminine lack of
+    knowledge is the symptom of a profound trait in the feminine
+    soul, and points to dangers springing from the domination of
+    women in the intellectual life.... And in no other civilized land
+    are ethical conceptions so worm-eaten by superstitions.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>We have seen that the modern tendency as regards marriage is towards its
+recognition as a voluntary union entered into by two free, equal, and
+morally responsible persons, and that that union is rather of the nature
+of an ethical sacrament than of a contract, so that in its essence as a
+physical and spiritual bond it is outside the sphere of the State's
+action. It has been necessary to labor that point before we approach what
+may seem to many not only a different but even a totally opposed aspect of
+marriage. If the marriage union itself cannot be a matter for contract, it
+naturally leads to a fact which must necessarily be a matter for implicit
+or explicit contract, a matter, moreover, in which the community at large
+has a real and proper interest: that is the fact of procreation.<a name='6_FNanchor_366'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_366'><sup>[366]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The ancient Egyptians&mdash;among whom matrimonial institutions were so elastic
+and the position of woman so high&mdash;recognized a provisional and slight
+marriage bond for the purpose of <a name='6_Page_487'></a>testing fecundity.<a name='6_FNanchor_367'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_367'><sup>[367]</sup></a> Among ourselves
+the law makes no such paternal provision, leaving to young couples
+themselves the responsibility of making any tests, a permission, we know,
+they largely avail themselves of, usually entering the legal bonds of
+marriage, however, before the birth of their child. That legal bond is a
+recognition that the introduction of a new individual into the community
+is not, like sexual union, a mere personal fact, but a social fact, a fact
+in which the State cannot fail to be concerned. And the more we
+investigate the tendency of the modern marriage movement the more we shall
+realize that its attitude of freedom, of individual moral responsibility,
+in the formation of sexual relationships, is compensated by an attitude of
+stringency, of strict social oversight, in the matter of procreation. Two
+people who form an erotic relationship are bound, when they reach the
+conviction that their relationship is a real marriage, having its natural
+end in procreation, to subscribe to a contract which, though it may leave
+themselves personally free, must yet bind them both to their duties
+towards their children.<a name='6_FNanchor_368'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_368'><sup>[368]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The necessity for such an undertaking is double, even apart from the fact
+that it is in the highest interests of the parents themselves. It is
+required in the interests of the child. It is required in the interests of
+the State. A child can be bred, and well-bred, by one effective parent.
+But to equip a child adequately for its entrance into life both parents
+are usually needed. The State on its side&mdash;that is to say, the community
+of which parents and child alike form part&mdash;is bound to know who these
+persons are who have become sponsors for a new individual <a name='6_Page_488'></a>now introduced
+into its midst. The most Individualistic State, the most Socialistic
+State, are alike bound, if faithful to the interests, both biological and
+economic, of their constituent members generally, to insist on the full
+legal and recognized parentage of the father and mother of every child.
+That is clearly demanded in the interests of the child; it is clearly
+demanded also in the interests of the State.</p>
+
+<p>The barrier which in Christendom has opposed itself to the natural
+recognition of this fact, so injuring alike the child and the State, has
+clearly been the rigidity of the marriage system, more especially as
+moulded by the Canon law. The Canonists attributed a truly immense
+importance to the <i>copula carnalis</i>, as they technically termed it. They
+centred marriage strictly in the vagina; they were not greatly concerned
+about either the presence or the absence of the child. The vagina, as we
+know, has not always proved a very firm centre for the support of
+marriage, and that centre is now being gradually transferred to the child.
+If we turn from the Canonists to the writings of a modern like Ellen Key,
+who so accurately represents much that is most characteristic and
+essential in the late tendencies of marriage development, we seem to have
+entered a new world, even a newly illuminated world. For &quot;in the new
+sexual morality, as in Corregio's <i>Notte</i>, the light emanates from the
+child.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_369'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_369'><sup>[369]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>No doubt this change is largely a matter of sentiment, of, as we sometimes
+say, mere sentiment, although there is nothing so powerful in human
+affairs as sentiment, and the revolution effected by Jesus, the later
+revolution effected by Rousseau, were mainly revolutions in sentiment. But
+the change is also a matter of the growing recognition of interests and
+rights, and as such it manifests itself in law. We can scarcely doubt that
+we are approaching a time when it will be generally understood that the
+entrance into the world of every child, without exception, should be
+preceded by the formation of a marriage contract which, while in no way
+binding the father and mother to any duties, or any privileges, towards
+each other, binds them both towards <a name='6_Page_489'></a>their child and at the same time
+ensures their responsibility towards the State. It is impossible for the
+State to obtain more than this, but it should be impossible for it to
+demand less. A contract of such a kind &quot;marries&quot; the father and mother so
+far as the parentage of the individual child is concerned, and in no other
+respect; it is a contract which leaves entirely unaffected their past,
+present, or future relations towards other persons, otherwise it would be
+impossible to enforce it. In all parts of the world this elementary demand
+of social morality is slowly beginning to be recognized, and as it affects
+hundreds of thousands of infants<a name='6_FNanchor_370'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_370'><sup>[370]</sup></a> who are yearly branded as
+&quot;illegitimate&quot; through no act of their own, no one can say that the
+recognition has come too soon. As yet, indeed, it seems nowhere to be
+complete.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Most attempts or proposals for the avoidance of illegitimate
+    births are concerned with the legalizing of unions of a less
+    binding degree than the present legal marriage. Such unions would
+    serve to counteract other evils. Thus an English writer, who has
+    devoted much study to sex questions, writes in a private letter:
+    &quot;The best remedy for the licentiousness of celibate men and the
+    mental and physical troubles of continence in woman would be
+    found in a recognized honorable system of free unions and
+    trial-marriages, in which preventive intercourse is practiced
+    until the lovers were old enough to become parents, and possessed
+    of sufficient means to support a family. The prospect of a
+    loveless existence for young men and women of ardent natures is
+    intolerable and as terrible as the prospect of painful illness
+    and death. But I think the old order must change ere long.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    In Teutonic countries there is a strongly marked current of
+    feeling in the direction of establishing legal unions of a lower
+    degree than marriage. They exist in Sweden, as also in Norway
+    where by a recent law the illegitimate child is entitled to the
+    same rights in relation to both parents as the legitimate child,
+    bearing the father's name and inheriting his property (<i>Die Neue
+    Generation</i>, July, 1909, p. 303). In France the well-known judge,
+    Magnard, so honorably distinguished for his attitude towards
+    cases of infanticide by young mothers, has said: &quot;I heartily wish
+    that alongside the institution of marriage as it now exists <a name='6_Page_490'></a>we
+    had a free union constituted by simple declaration before a
+    magistrate and conferring almost the same family rights as
+    ordinary marriage.&quot; This wish has been widely echoed.</p>
+
+<p>    In China, although polygamy in the strict sense cannot properly
+    be said to exist, the interests of the child, the woman, and the
+    State are alike safeguarded by enabling a man to enter into a
+    kind of secondary marriage with the mother of his child. &quot;Thanks
+    to this system,&quot; Paul d'Enjoy states (<i>La Revue</i>, Sept., 1905),
+    &quot;which allows the husband to marry the woman he desires, without
+    being prevented by previous and undissolved unions, it is only
+    right to remark that there are no seduced and abandoned girls,
+    except such as no law could save from what is really innate
+    depravity; and that there are no illegitimate children except
+    those whose mothers are unhappily nearer to animals by their
+    senses than to human beings by their reason and dignity.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The new civil code of Japan, which is in many respects so
+    advanced, allows an illegitimate child to be &quot;recognized&quot; by
+    giving notice to the registrar; when a married man so recognizes
+    a child, it appears, the child may be adopted by the wife as her
+    own, though not actually rendered legitimate. This state of
+    things represents a transition stage; it can scarcely be said to
+    recognize the rights of the &quot;recognized&quot; child's mother. Japan,
+    it may be added, has adopted the principle of the automatic
+    legitimation by marriage of the children born to the couple
+    before marriage.</p>
+
+<p>    In Australia, where women possess a larger share than elsewhere
+    in making and administering the laws, some attention is beginning
+    to be given to the rights of illegitimate children. Thus in South
+    Australia, paternity may be proved before birth, and the father
+    (by magistrate's order) provides lodging for one month before and
+    after birth, as well as nurse, doctor, and clothing, furnishing
+    security that he will do so; after birth, at the magistrate's
+    decision, he pays a weekly sum for the child's maintenance. An
+    &quot;illegitimate&quot; mother may also be kept in a public institution at
+    the public expense for six months to enable her to become
+    attached to her child.</p>
+
+<p>    Such provisions are developed from the widely recognized right of
+    the unmarried woman to claim support for her child from its
+    father. In France, indeed, and in the legal codes which follow
+    the French example, it is not legally permitted to inquire into
+    the paternity of an illegitimate child. Such a law is, needless
+    to say, alike unjust to the mother, to the child, and to the
+    State. In Austria, the law goes to the opposite, though certainly
+    more reasonable, extreme, and permits even the mother who has had
+    several lovers to select for herself which she chooses to make
+    responsible for her child. The German code adopts an intermediate
+    course, and comes only to the aid of the unmarried mother who has
+    one lover. In all such cases, however, the aid given is
+    <a name='6_Page_491'></a>pecuniary only; it insures the mother no recognition or respect,
+    and (as Wahrmund has truly said in his <i>Ehe und Eherecht</i>) it is
+    still necessary to insist on &quot;the unconditional sanctity of
+    motherhood, which is entitled, under whatever circumstances it
+    arises, to the respect and protection of society.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It must be added that, from the social point of view, it is not
+    the sexual union which requires legal recognition, but the child
+    which is the product of that union. It would, moreover, be
+    hopeless to attempt to legalize all sexual connection, but it is
+    comparatively easy to legalize all children.</p></div>
+
+<p>There has been much discussion in the past concerning the particular form
+which marriage ought to take. Many theorists have exercised their
+ingenuity in inventing and preaching new and unusual marriage-arrangements
+as panaceas for social ills; while others have exerted even greater energy
+in denouncing all such proposals as subversive of the foundations of human
+society. We may regard all such discussions, on the one side or the other,
+as idle.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place marriage customs are far too fundamental, far too
+intimately blended with the primary substance of human and indeed animal
+society, to be in the slightest degree shaken by the theories or the
+practices of mere individuals, or even groups of individuals.
+Monogamy&mdash;the more or less prolonged cohabitation of two individuals of
+opposite sex&mdash;has been the prevailing type of sexual relationship among
+the higher vertebrates and through the greater part of human history. This
+is admitted even by those who believe (without any sound evidence) that
+man has passed through a stage of sexual promiscuity. There have been
+tendencies to variation in one direction or another, but at the lowest
+stages and the highest stages, so far as can be seen, monogamy represents
+the prevailing rule.</p>
+
+<p>It must be said also, in the second place, that the natural prevalence of
+monogamy as the normal type of sexual relationship by no means excludes
+variations. Indeed it assumes them. &quot;There is nothing precise in Nature,&quot;
+according to Diderot's saying. The line of Nature is a curve that
+oscillates from side to side of the norm. Such oscillations inevitably
+occur in harmony with changes in environmental conditions, and, no <a name='6_Page_492'></a>doubt,
+with peculiarities of personal disposition. So long as no arbitrary and
+merely external attempt is made to force Nature, the vital order is
+harmoniously maintained. Among certain species of ducks when males are in
+excess polyandric families are constituted, the two males attending their
+female partner without jealousy, but when the sexes again become equal in
+number the monogamic order is restored. The natural human deviations from
+the monogamic order seem to be generally of this character, and largely
+conditioned by the social and economic environment. The most common
+variation, and that which most clearly possesses a biological foundation,
+is the tendency to polygyny, which is found at all stages of culture,
+even, in an unrecognized and more or less promiscuous shape, in the
+highest civilization.<a name='6_FNanchor_371'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_371'><sup>[371]</sup></a> It must be remembered, however, that recognized
+polygyny is not the rule even where it prevails; it is merely permissive;
+there is never a sufficient excess of women to allow more than a few of
+the richer and more influential persons to have more than one wife.<a name='6_FNanchor_372'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_372'><sup>[372]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It has further to be borne in mind that a certain elasticity of the formal
+side of marriage while, on the one side, it permits variations from the
+general monogamic order, where such are healthful or needed to restore a
+balance in natural conditions, on the other hand restrains such variations
+in so far as they are due to the disturbing influence of artificial
+constraint. Much of the polygyny, and polyandry also, which prevails among
+us to-day is an altogether artificial and unnatural form of polygamy.
+Marriages which on a more natural basis would be dissolved cannot legally
+be dissolved, and consequently the parties to them, <a name='6_Page_493'></a>instead of changing
+their partners and so preserving the natural monogamic order, take on
+other additional partners and so introduce an unnatural polygamy. There
+will always be variations from the monogamic order and civilization is
+certainly not hostile to sexual variation. Whether we reckon these
+variations as legitimate or illegitimate, they will still take place; of
+that we may be certain. The path of social wisdom seems to lie on the one
+hand in making the marriage relationship flexible enough to reduce to a
+minimum these deviations&mdash;not because such deviations are intrinsically
+bad but because they ought not to be forced into existence&mdash;and on the
+other hand in according to these deviations when they occur such a measure
+of recognition as will deprive them of injurious influence and enable
+justice to be done to all the parties concerned. We too often forget that
+our failure to recognize such variations merely means that we accord in
+such cases an illegitimate permission to perpetrate injustice. In those
+parts of the world in which polygyny is recognized as a permissible
+variation a man is legally held to his natural obligations towards all his
+sexual mates and towards the children he has by those mates. In no part of
+the world is polygyny so prevalent as in Christendom; in no part of the
+world is it so easy for a man to escape the obligations incurred by
+polygyny. We imagine that if we refuse to recognize the fact of polygyny,
+we may refuse to recognize any obligations incurred by polygyny. By
+enabling a man to escape so easily from the obligations of his polygamous
+relationships we encourage him, if he is unscrupulous, to enter into them;
+we place a premium on the immorality we loftily condemn.<a name='6_FNanchor_373'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_373'><sup>[373]</sup></a> Our polygyny
+has no legal existence, and therefore its obligations can have no legal
+existence.<a name='6_Page_494'></a> The ostrich, it was once imagined, hides its head in the sand
+and attempts to annihilate facts by refusing to look at them; but there is
+only one known animal which adopts this course of action, and it is called
+Man.</p>
+
+<p>Monogamy, in the fundamental biological sense, represents the natural
+order into which the majority of sexual facts will always naturally fall
+because it is the relationship which most adequately corresponds to all
+the physical and spiritual facts involved. But if we realize that sexual
+relationships primarily concern only the persons who enter into those
+relationships, and if we further realize that the interest of society in
+such relationships is confined to the children which they produce, we
+shall also realize that to fix by law the number of women with whom a man
+shall have sexual relationships, and the number of men with whom a woman
+shall unite herself, is more unreasonable than it would be to fix by law
+the number of children they shall produce. The State has a right to
+declare whether it needs few citizens or many; but in attempting to
+regulate the sexual relationships of its members the State attempts an
+impossible task and is at the same time guilty of an impertinence.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There is always a tendency, at certain stages of civilization, to
+    insist on a merely formal and external uniformity, and a
+    corresponding failure to see not only that such uniformity is
+    unreal, but also that it has an injurious effect, in so far as it
+    checks beneficial variations. The tendency is by no means
+    confined to the sexual sphere. In England there is, for instance,
+    a tendency to make building laws which enjoin, in regard to
+    places of human habitation, all sorts of provisions that on the
+    whole are fairly beneficial, but which in practice act
+    injuriously, because they render many simple and excellent human
+    habitations absolutely illegal, merely because such habitations
+    fail to conform to regulations which, under some circumstances,
+    are not only unnecessary, but mischievous.</p>
+
+<p>    Variation is a fact that will exist whether we will or no; it can
+    only become healthful if we recognize and allow for it. We may
+    even have to recognize that it is a more marked tendency in
+    civilization than in more primitive social stages. Thus Gerson
+    argues (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Sept., 1908, p. 538) that just as the
+    civilized man cannot be content with the coarse and monotonous
+    food which satisfies the peasant, so it is in sexual matters; the
+    peasant youth and girl in their sexual relationships <a name='6_Page_495'></a>are nearly
+    always monogamous, but civilized people, with their more
+    versatile and sensitive tastes, are apt to crave for variety.
+    S&eacute;nancour (<i>De l'Amour</i>, vol. ii, &quot;Du Partage,&quot; p. 127) seems to
+    admit the possibility of marriage variations, as of sharing a
+    wife, provided nothing is done to cause rivalry, or to impair the
+    soul's candor. Lecky, near the end of his <i>History of European
+    Morals</i>, declared his belief that, while the permanent union of
+    two persons is the normal and prevailing type of marriage, it by
+    no means follows that, in the interests of society, it should be
+    the only form. Remy de Gourmont similarly (<i>Physique de l'Amour</i>,
+    p. 186), while stating that the couple is the natural form of
+    marriage and its prolonged continuance a condition of human
+    superiority, adds that the permanence of the union can only be
+    achieved with difficulty. So, also, Professor W. Thomas (<i>Sex and
+    Society</i>, 1907, p. 193), while regarding monogamy as subserving
+    social needs, adds: &quot;Speaking from the biological standpoint
+    monogamy does not, as a rule, answer to the conditions of highest
+    stimulation, since here the problematical and elusive elements
+    disappear to some extent, and the object of attention has grown
+    so familiar in consciousness that the emotional reactions are
+    qualified. This is the fundamental explanation of the fact that
+    married men and women frequently become interested in others than
+    their partners in matrimony.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Pepys, whose unconscious self-dissection admirably illustrates so
+    many psychological tendencies, clearly shows how&mdash;by a logic of
+    feeling deeper than any intellectual logic&mdash;the devotion to
+    monogamy subsists side by side with an irresistible passion for
+    sexual variety. With his constantly recurring wayward attraction
+    to a long series of women he retains throughout a deep and
+    unchanging affection for his charming young wife. In the privacy
+    of his <i>Diary</i> he frequently refers to her in terms of endearment
+    which cannot be feigned; he enjoys her society; he is very
+    particular about her dress; he delights in her progress in music,
+    and spends much money on her training; he is absurdly jealous
+    when he finds her in the society of a man. His subsidiary
+    relationships with other women recur irresistibly, but he has no
+    wish either to make them very permanent or to allow them to
+    engross him unduly. Pepys represents a common type of civilized
+    &quot;monogamist&quot; who is perfectly sincere and extremely convinced in
+    his advocacy of monogamy, as he understands it, but at the same
+    time believes and acts on the belief that monogamy by no means
+    excludes the need for sexual variation. Lord Morley's statement
+    (<i>Diderot</i>, vol. ii, p. 20) that &quot;man is instinctively
+    polygamous,&quot; can by no means be accepted, but if we interpret it
+    as meaning that man is an instinctively monogamous animal with a
+    concomitant desire for sexual variation, there is much evidence
+    in its favor.</p>
+
+<p>    Women must be as free as men to mould their own amatory life.
+    Many consider, however, that such freedom on the part of women
+    will <a name='6_Page_496'></a>be, and ought to be, exercised within narrower limits (see,
+    <i>e.g.</i>, Bloch, <i>Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, Ch. X). In part this
+    limitation is considered due to the greater absorption of a woman
+    in the task of breeding and rearing her child, and in part to a
+    less range of psychic activities. A man, as G. Hirth puts it,
+    expressing this view of the matter (<i>Wege zur Liebe</i>, p. 342),
+    &quot;has not only room in his intellectual horizon for very various
+    interests, but his power of erotic expansion is much greater and
+    more differentiated than that of women, although he may lack the
+    intimacy and depth of a woman's devotion.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It may be argued that, since variations in the sexual order will
+    inevitably take place, whether or not they are recognized or
+    authorized, no harm is likely to be done by using the weight of
+    social and legal authority on the side of that form which is
+    generally regarded as the best, and, so far as possible, covering
+    the other forms with infamy. There are many obvious defects in
+    such an attitude, apart from the supremely important fact that to
+    cast infamy on sexual relationships is to exert a despicable
+    cruelty on women, who are inevitably the chief sufferers. Not the
+    least is the injustice and the hampering of vital energy which it
+    inflicts on the better and more scrupulous people to the
+    advantage of the worse and less scrupulous. This always happens
+    when authority exerts its power in favor of a form. When, in the
+    thirteenth century, Alexander III&mdash;one of the greatest and most
+    effective potentates who ever ruled Christendom&mdash;was consulted by
+    the Bishop of Exeter concerning subdeacons who persisted in
+    marrying, the Pope directed him to inquire into the lives and
+    characters of the offenders; if they were of regular habits and
+    staid morality, they were to be forcibly separated and the wives
+    driven out; if they were men of notoriously disorderly character,
+    they were to be permitted to retain their wives, if they so
+    desired (Lea, <i>History of Sacerdotal Celibacy</i>, third edition,
+    vol. i, p. 396). It was an astute policy, and was carried out by
+    the same Pope elsewhere, but it is easy to see that it was
+    altogether opposed to morality in every sense of the term. It
+    destroyed the happiness and the efficiency of the best men; it
+    left the worst men absolutely free. To-day we are quite willing
+    to recognize the evil result of this policy; it was dictated by a
+    Pope and carried out seven hundred years ago. Yet in England we
+    carry out exactly the same policy to-day by means of our
+    separation orders, which are scattered broadcast among the
+    population. None of the couples thus separated&mdash;and never
+    disciplined to celibacy as are the Catholic clergy of to-day&mdash;may
+    marry again; we, in effect, bid the more scrupulous among them to
+    become celibates, and to the less scrupulous we grant permission
+    to do as they like. This process is carried on by virtue of the
+    collective inertia of the community, and when it is supported by
+    arguments, if that ever happens, they are of an antiquarian
+    character which can only call forth a pitying smile.</p><a name='6_Page_497'></a>
+
+<p>    It may be added that there is a further reason why the custom of
+    branding sexual variations from the norm as &quot;immoral&quot; is not so
+    harmless as some affect to believe: such variations appear to be
+    not uncommon among men and women of superlative ability whose
+    powers are needed unimpeded in the service of mankind. To attempt
+    to fit such persons into the narrow moulds which suit the
+    majority is not only an injustice to them as individuals, but it
+    is an offence against society, which may fairly claim that its
+    best members shall not be hampered in its service. The notion
+    that the person whose sexual needs differ from those of the
+    average is necessarily a socially bad person, is a notion
+    unsupported by facts. Every case must be judged on its own
+    merits.</p></div>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the most common variation from normal monogamy has in all
+stages of human culture been polygyny or the sexual union of one man with
+more than one woman. It has sometimes been socially and legally
+recognized, and sometimes unrecognized, but in either case it has not
+failed to occur. Polyandry, or the union of a woman with more than one
+man, has been comparatively rare and for intelligible reasons: men have
+most usually been in a better position, economically and legally, to
+organize a household with themselves as the centre; a woman is, unlike a
+man, by nature and often by custom unfitted for intercourse for
+considerable periods at a time; a woman, moreover, has her thoughts and
+affections more concentrated on her children. Apart from this the
+biological masculine traditions point to polygyny much more than the
+feminine traditions point to polyandry. Although it is true that a woman
+can undergo a much greater amount of sexual intercourse than a man, it
+also remains true that the phenomena of courtship in nature have made it
+the duty of the male to be alert in offering his sexual attention to the
+female, whose part it has been to suspend her choice coyly until she is
+sure of her preference. Polygynic conditions have also proved
+advantageous, as they have permitted the most vigorous and successful
+members of a community to have the largest number of mates and so to
+transmit their own superior qualities.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Polygamy,&quot; writes Woods Hutchinson (<i>Contemporary Review</i>, Oct.,
+    1904), though he recognizes the advantages of monogamy, &quot;as a
+    racial institution, among animals as among men, has many solid
+    and <a name='6_Page_498'></a>weighty considerations in its favor, and has resulted in
+    both human and pre-human times, in the production of a very high
+    type of both individual and social development.&quot; He points out
+    that it promotes intelligence, co&ouml;peration, and division of
+    labor, while the keen competition for women weeds out the weaker
+    and less attractive males.</p>
+
+<p>    Among our European ancestors, alike among Germans and Celts,
+    polygyny and other sexual forms existed as occasional variations.
+    Tacitus noted polygyny in Germany, and C&aelig;sar found in Britain
+    that brothers would hold their wives in common, the children
+    being reckoned to the man to whom the woman had been first given
+    in marriage (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Traill's <i>Social England</i>, vol. i, p.
+    103, for a discussion of this point). The husband's assistant,
+    also, who might be called in to impregnate the wife when the
+    husband was impotent, existed in Germany, and was indeed a
+    general Indo-Germanic institution (Schrader, <i>Reallexicon</i>, art.
+    &quot;Zeugungshelfer&quot;). The corresponding institution of the concubine
+    has been still more deeply rooted and widespread. Up to
+    comparatively modern times, indeed, in accordance with the
+    traditions of Roman law, the concubine held a recognized and
+    honorable position, below that of a wife but with definite legal
+    rights, though it was not always, or indeed usually, legal for a
+    married man to have a concubine. In ancient Wales, as well as in
+    Rome, the concubine was accepted and never despised (R. B. Holt,
+    &quot;Marriage Laws of the Cymri,&quot; <i>Journal Anthropological
+    Institute</i>, Aug. and Nov., 1898, p. 155). The fact that when a
+    concubine entered the house of a married man her dignity and
+    legal position were less than those of the wife preserved
+    domestic peace and safeguarded the wife's interests. (A Korean
+    husband cannot take a concubine under his roof without his wife's
+    permission, but she rarely objects, and seems to enjoy the
+    companionship, says Louise Jordan Miln, <i>Quaint Korea</i>, 1895, p.
+    92.) In old Europe, we must remember, as Dufour points out in
+    speaking of the time of Charlemagne (<i>Histoire de la
+    Prostitution</i>, vol. iii, p. 226), &quot;concubine&quot; was an honorable
+    term; the concubine was by no means a mistress, and she could be
+    accused of adultery just the same as a wife. In England, late in
+    the thirteenth century, Bracton speaks of the <i>concubina
+    legitima</i> as entitled to certain rights and considerations, and
+    it was the same in other parts of Europe, sometimes for several
+    centuries later (see Lea, <i>History of Sacerdotal Celibacy</i>, vol.
+    i, p. 230). The early Christian Church was frequently inclined to
+    recognize the concubine, at all events if attached to an
+    unmarried man, for we may trace in the Church &quot;the wish to look
+    upon every permanent union of man or woman as possessing the
+    character of a marriage in the eyes of God, and, therefore, in
+    the judgment of the Church&quot; (art. &quot;Concubinage,&quot; Smith and
+    Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>). This was the
+    feeling of St. Augustine (who had himself, before his conversion,
+    had a concubine who was apparently a Christian), and <a name='6_Page_499'></a>the Council
+    of Toledo admitted an unmarried man who was faithful to a
+    concubine. As the law of the Catholic Church grew more and more
+    rigid, it necessarily lost touch with human needs. It was not so
+    in the early Church during the great ages of its vital growth. In
+    those ages even the strenuous general rule of monogamy was
+    relaxed when such relaxation seemed reasonable. This was so, for
+    instance, in the case of sexual impotency. Thus early in the
+    eighth century Gregory II, writing to Boniface, the apostle of
+    Germany, in answer to a question by the latter, replies that when
+    a wife is incapable from physical infirmity from fulfilling her
+    marital duties it is permissible for the husband to take a second
+    wife, though he must not withdraw maintenance from the first. A
+    little later Archbishop Egbert of York, in his <i>Dialogus de
+    Institutione Ecclesiastica</i>, though more cautiously, admits that
+    when one of two married persons is infirm the other, with the
+    permission of the infirm one, may marry again, but the infirm one
+    is not allowed to marry again during the other's life. Impotency
+    at the time of marriage, of course, made the marriage void
+    without the intervention of any ecclesiastical law. But Aquinas,
+    and later theologians, allow that an excessive disgust for a wife
+    justifies a man in regarding himself as impotent in relation to
+    her. These rules are, of course, quite distinct from the
+    permissions to break the marriage laws granted to kings and
+    princes; such permissions do not count as evidence of the
+    Church's rules, for, as the Council of Constantinople prudently
+    decided in 809, &quot;Divine law can do nothing against Kings&quot; (art.
+    &quot;Bigamy,&quot; <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>). The law of
+    monogamy was also relaxed in cases of enforced or voluntary
+    desertion. Thus the Council of Vermerie (752) enacted that if a
+    wife will not accompany her husband when he is compelled to
+    follow his lord into another land, he may marry again, provided
+    he sees no hope of returning. Theodore of Canterbury (688),
+    again, pronounces that if a wife is carried away by the enemy and
+    her husband cannot redeem her, he may marry again after an
+    interval of a year, or, if there is a chance of redeeming her,
+    after an interval of five years; the wife may do the same. Such
+    rules, though not general, show, as Meyrick points out (art.
+    &quot;Marriage,&quot; <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>), a willingness
+    &quot;to meet particular cases as they arise.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    As the Canon law grew rigid and the Catholic Church lost its
+    vital adaptibility, sexual variations ceased to be recognized
+    within its sphere. We have to wait for the Reformation for any
+    further movement. Many of the early Protestant Reformers,
+    especially in Germany, were prepared to admit a considerable
+    degree of vital flexibility in sexual relationships. Thus Luther
+    advised married women with impotent husbands, in cases where
+    there was no wish or opportunity for divorce, to have sexual
+    relations with another man, by preference the husband's brother;
+    the children were to be reckoned to the husband (&quot;Die Sexuelle
+    Frage bei Luther,&quot; <i>Mutterschutz</i>, Sept., 1908).</p><a name='6_Page_500'></a>
+
+<p>    In England the Puritan spirit, which so largely occupied itself
+    with the reform of marriage, could not fail to be concerned with
+    the question of sexual variations, and from time to time we find
+    the proposal to legalize polygyny. Thus, in 1658, &quot;A Person of
+    Quality&quot; published in London a small pamphlet dedicated to the
+    Lord Protector, entitled <i>A Remedy for Uncleanness</i>. It was in
+    the form of a number of queries, asking why we should not admit
+    polygamy for the avoidance of adultery and infanticide. The
+    writer inquires whether it may not &quot;stand with a gracious spirit,
+    and be every way consistent with the principles of a man fearing
+    God and loving holiness, to have more women than one to his
+    proper use.... He that takes another man's ox or ass is doubtless
+    a transgressor; but he that puts himself out of the occasion of
+    that temptation by keeping of his own seems to be a right honest
+    and well-meaning man.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    More than a century later (1780), an able, learned, and
+    distinguished London clergyman of high character (who had been a
+    lawyer before entering the Church), the Rev. Martin Madan, also
+    advocated polygamy in a book called <i>Thelyphthora; or, a Treatise
+    on Female Ruin</i>. Madan had been brought into close contact with
+    prostitution through a chaplaincy at the Lock Hospital, and, like
+    the Puritan advocate of polygamy, he came to the conclusion that
+    only by the reform of marriage is it possible to work against
+    prostitution and the evils of sexual intercourse outside
+    marriage. His remarkable book aroused much controversy and strong
+    feeling against the author, so that he found it desirable to
+    leave London and settle in the country. Projects of marriage
+    reform have never since come from the Church, but from
+    philosophers and moralists, though not rarely from writers of
+    definitely religious character. S&eacute;nancour, who was so delicate
+    and sensitive a moralist in the sexual sphere, introduced a
+    temperate discussion of polygamy into his <i>De l'Amour</i> (vol. ii,
+    pp. 117-126). It seemed to him to be neither positively contrary
+    nor positively conformed to the general tendency of our present
+    conventions, and he concluded that &quot;the method of conciliation,
+    in part, would be no longer to require that the union of a man
+    and a woman should only cease with the death of one of them.&quot;
+    Cope, the biologist, expressed a somewhat more decided opinion.
+    Under some circumstances, if all three parties agreed, he saw no
+    objection to polygyny or polyandry. &quot;There are some cases of
+    hardship,&quot; he said, &quot;which such permission would remedy. Such,
+    for instance, would be the case where the man or woman had become
+    the victim of a chronic disease; or, when either party should be
+    childless, and in other contingencies that could be imagined.&quot;
+    There would be no compulsion in any direction, and full
+    responsibility as at present. Such cases could only arise
+    exceptionally, and would not call for social antagonism. For the
+    most part, Cope remarks, &quot;the best way to deal with polygamy is
+    to let it alone&quot; (E. D.<a name='6_Page_501'></a> Cope, &quot;The Marriage Problem,&quot; <i>Open
+    Court</i>, Nov. 15 and 22, 1888). In England, Dr. John Chapman, the
+    editor of the <i>Westminster Review</i>, and a close associate of the
+    leaders of the Radical movement in the Victorian period, was
+    opposed to State dictation as regards the form of marriage, and
+    believed that a certain amount of sexual variation would be
+    socially beneficial. Thus he wrote in 1884 (in a private letter):
+    &quot;I think that as human beings become less selfish polygamy
+    [<i>i.e.</i>, polygyny], and even polyandry, in an ennobled form, will
+    become increasingly frequent.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    James Hinton, who, a few years earlier, had devoted much thought
+    and attention to the sexual question, and regarded it as indeed
+    the greatest of moral problems, was strongly in favor of a more
+    vital flexibility of marriage regulations, an adaptation to human
+    needs such as the early Christian Church admitted. Marriage, he
+    declared, must be &quot;subordinated to service,&quot; since marriage, like
+    the Sabbath, is made for man and not man for marriage. Thus in
+    case of one partner becoming insane he would permit the other
+    partner to marry again, the claim of the insane partner, in case
+    of recovery, still remaining valid. That would be a form of
+    polygamy, but Hinton was careful to point out that by &quot;polygamy&quot;
+    he meant &quot;less a particular marriage-order than such an order as
+    best serves good, and which therefore must be essentially
+    variable. Monogamy may be good, even the only good order, if of
+    free choice; but a <i>law</i> for it is another thing. The sexual
+    relationship must be a <i>natural</i> thing. The true social life will
+    not be any fixed and definite relationship, as of monogamy,
+    polygamy, or anything else, but a perfect subordination of every
+    sexual relationship whatever to reason and human good.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Ellen Key, who is an enthusiastic advocate of monogamy, and who
+    believes that the civilized development of personal love removes
+    all danger of the growth of polygamy, still admits the existence
+    of variations. She has in mind such solutions of difficult
+    problems as Goethe had before him when he proposed at first in
+    his <i>Stella</i> to represent the force of affection and tender
+    memories as too strong to admit of the rupture of an old bond in
+    the presence of a new bond. The problem of sexual variation, she
+    remarks, however (<i>Liebe und Ethik</i>, p. 12), has changed its form
+    under modern conditions; it is no longer a struggle between the
+    demand of society for a rigid marriage-order and the demand of
+    the individual for sexual satisfaction, but it has become the
+    problem of harmonizing the ennoblement of the race with
+    heightened requirements of erotic happiness. She also points out
+    that the existence of a partner who requires the other partner's
+    care as a nurse or as an intellectual companion by no means
+    deprives that other partner of the right to fatherhood or
+    motherhood, and that such rights must be safeguarded (Ellen Key,
+    <i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, pp. 166-168).</p>
+
+<p>    A prominent and extreme advocate of polygyny, not as a simple
+    <a name='6_Page_502'></a>rare variation, but as a marriage order superior to monogamy, is
+    to be found at the present day in Professor Christian von
+    Ehrenfels of Prague (see, <i>e.g.</i>, his <i>Sexualethik</i>, 1908; &quot;Die
+    Postulate des Lebens,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Oct., 1908; and letter
+    to Ellen Key in her <i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 466). Ehrenfels
+    believes that the number of men inapt for satisfactory
+    reproduction is much larger than that of women, and that
+    therefore when these are left out of account, a polygynic
+    marriage order becomes necessary. He calls this
+    &quot;reproduction-marriage&quot; (Zeugungsehe), and considers that it will
+    entirely replace the present marriage order, to which it is
+    morally superior. It would be based on private contracts.
+    Ehrenfels holds that women would offer no objection, as a woman,
+    he believes, attaches less importance to a man as a wooer than as
+    the father of her child. Ehrenfels's doctrine has been seriously
+    attacked from many sides, and his proposals are not in the line
+    of our progress. Any radical modification of the existing
+    monogamic order is not to be expected, even if it were generally
+    recognized, which cannot be said to be the case, that it is
+    desirable. The question of sexual variations, it must be
+    remembered, is not a question of introducing an entirely new form
+    of marriage, but only of recognizing the rights of individuals,
+    in exceptional cases, to adopt such aberrant forms, and of
+    recognizing the corresponding duties of such individuals to
+    accept the responsibilities of any aberrant marriage forms they
+    may find it best to adopt. So far as the question of sexual
+    variations is more than this, it is, as Hinton argued, a
+    dynamical method of working towards the abolition of the perilous
+    and dangerous promiscuity of prostitution. A rigid marriage order
+    involves prostitution; a flexible marriage order largely&mdash;though
+    not, it may be, entirely&mdash;renders prostitution unnecessary. The
+    democratic morality of the present day, so far as the indications
+    at present go, is opposed to the encouragement of a <i>quasi</i>-slave
+    class, with diminished social rights, such as prostitutes always
+    constitute in a more or less marked degree. It is fairly evident,
+    also, that the rapidly growing influence of medical hygiene is on
+    the same side. We may, therefore, reasonably expect in the future
+    a slow though steady increase in the recognition, and even the
+    extension, of those variations of the monogamic order which have,
+    in reality, never ceased to exist.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is lamentable that at this period of the world's history, nearly two
+thousand years after the wise legislators of Rome had completed their
+work, it should still be necessary to conclude that we are to-day only
+beginning to place marriage on a reasonable and humane basis. I have
+repeatedly pointed out how largely the Canon law has been responsible for
+this arrest of development. One may say, indeed, that the whole attitude
+of the Church, after <a name='6_Page_503'></a>it had once acquired complete worldly dominance,
+must be held responsible. In the earlier centuries the attitude of
+Christianity was, on the whole, admirable. It held aloft great ideals but
+it refrained from enforcing those ideals at all costs; thus its ideals
+remained genuine and could not degenerate into mere hypocritical empty
+forms; much flexibility was allowed when it seemed to be for human good
+and made for the avoidance of evil and injustice. But when the Church
+attained temporal power, and when that power was concentrated in the hands
+of Popes who subordinated moral and religious interests to political
+interests, all the claims of reason and humanity were flung to the winds.
+The ideal was no more a fact than it was before, but it was now treated as
+a fact. Human relationships remained what they were before, as complicated
+and as various, but henceforth one rigid pattern, admirable as an ideal
+but worse than empty as a form, was arbitrarily set up, and all deviations
+from it treated either as non-existent or damnable. The vitality was
+crushed out of the most central human institutions, and they are only
+to-day beginning to lift their heads afresh.</p>
+
+<p>If&mdash;to sum up&mdash;we consider the course which the regulation of marriage has
+run during the Christian era, the only period which immediately concerns
+us, it is not difficult to trace the main outlines. Marriage began as a
+private arrangement, which the Church, without being able to control, was
+willing to bless, as it also blessed many other secular affairs of men,
+making no undue attempt to limit its natural flexibility to human needs.
+Gradually and imperceptibly, however, without the medium of any law,
+Christianity gained the complete control of marriage, co&ouml;rdinated it with
+its already evolved conceptions of the evil of lust, of the virtue of
+chastity, of the mortal sin of fornication, and, having through the
+influence of these dominating conceptions limited the flexibility of
+marriage in every possible direction, it placed it on a lofty but narrow
+pedestal as the sacrament of matrimony. For reasons which by no means lay
+in the nature of the sexual relationships, but which probably seemed
+cogent to sacerdotal legislators who assimilated it to ordination,
+matrimony was declared indissoluble. Nothing was so easy to enter as the
+<a name='6_Page_504'></a>gate of matrimony, but, after the manner of a mouse-trap, it opened
+inwards and not outwards; once in there was no way out alive. The Church's
+regulation of marriage while, like the celibacy of the clergy, it was a
+success from the point of view of ecclesiastical politics, and even at
+first from the point of view of civilization, for it at least introduced
+order into a chaotic society, was in the long run a failure from the point
+of view of society and morals. On the one hand it drifted into absurd
+subtleties and quibbles; on the other, not being based on either reason or
+humanity, it had none of that vital adaptability to the needs of life,
+which early Christianity, while holding aloft austere ideals, still
+largely retained. On the side of tradition this code of marriage law
+became awkward and impracticable; on the biological side it was hopelessly
+false. The way was thus prepared for the Protestant reintroduction of the
+conception of marriage as a contract, that conception being, however,
+brought forward less on its merits than as a protest against the
+difficulties and absurdities of the Catholic Canon law. The contractive
+view, which still largely persists even to-day, speedily took over much of
+the Canon law doctrines of marriage, becoming in practice a kind of
+reformed and secularized Canon law. It was somewhat more adapted to modern
+needs, but it retained much of the rigidity of the Catholic marriage
+without its sacramental character, and it never made any attempt to become
+more than nominally contractive. It has been of the nature of an
+incongruous compromise and has represented a transitional phase towards
+free private marriage. We can recognize that phase in the tendency, well
+marked in all civilized lands, to an ever increasing flexibility of
+marriage. The idea, and even the fact, of marriage by consent and divorce
+by failure of that consent, which we are now approaching, has never indeed
+been quite extinct. In the Latin countries it has survived with the
+tradition of Roman law; in the English-speaking countries it is bound up
+with the spirit of Puritanism which insists that in the things that
+concern the individual alone the individual himself shall be the supreme
+judge. That doctrine as applied to marriage was in England magnificently
+asserted by the genius of Milton, and in America <a name='6_Page_505'></a>it has been a leaven
+which is still working in marriage legislation towards an inevitable goal
+which is scarcely yet in sight. The marriage system of the future, as it
+moves along its present course, will resemble the old Christian system in
+that it will recognize the sacred and sacramental character of the sexual
+relationship, and it will resemble the civil conception in that it will
+insist that marriage, so far as it involves procreation, shall be publicly
+registered by the State. But in opposition to the Church it will recognize
+that marriage, in so far as it is purely a sexual relationship, is a
+private matter the conditions of which must be left to the persons who
+alone are concerned in it; and in opposition to the civil theory it will
+recognize that marriage is in its essence a fact and not a contract,
+though it may give rise to contracts, so long as such contracts do not
+touch that essential fact. And in one respect it will go beyond either the
+ecclesiastical conception or the civil conception. Man has in recent times
+gained control of his own procreative powers, and that control involves a
+shifting of the centre of gravity of marriage, in so far as marriage is an
+affair of the State, from the vagina to the child which is the fruit of
+the womb. Marriage as a state institution will centre, not around the
+sexual relationship, but around the child which is the outcome of that
+relationship. In so far as marriage is an inviolable public contract it
+will be of such a nature that it will be capable of automatically covering
+with its protection every child that is born into the world, so that every
+child may possess a legal mother and a legal father. On the one side,
+therefore, marriage is tending to become less stringent; on the other side
+it is tending to become more stringent. On the personal side it is a
+sacred and intimate relationship with which the State has no concern; on
+the social side it is the assumption of the responsible public sponsorship
+of a new member of the State. Some among us are working to further one of
+these aspects of marriage, some to further the other aspect. Both are
+indispensable to establish a perfect harmony. It is necessary to hold the
+two aspects of marriage apart, in order to do equal justice to the
+individual and to society, but in so far as marriage approaches its ideal
+state those two aspects become one.</p><a name='6_Page_506'></a>
+
+<p>We have now completed the discussion of marriage as it presents itself to
+the modern man born in what in medi&aelig;val days was called Christendom. It is
+not an easy subject to discuss. It is indeed a very difficult subject, and
+only after many years is it possible to detect the main drift of its
+apparently opposing and confused currents when one is oneself in the midst
+of them. To an Englishman it is, perhaps, peculiarly difficult, for the
+Englishman is nothing if not insular; in that fact lie whatever virtues he
+possesses, as well as their reverse sides.<a name='6_FNanchor_374'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_374'><sup>[374]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Yet it is worth while to attempt to climb to a height from which we can
+view the stream of social tendency in its true proportions and estimate
+its direction. It is necessary to do so if we value our mental peace in an
+age when men's minds are agitated by many petty movements which have
+nothing to do with their great temporal interests, to say nothing of their
+eternal interests. When we have attained a wide vision of the solid
+biological facts of life, when we have grasped the great historical
+streams of tradition,&mdash;which together make up the map of human
+affairs,&mdash;we can face serenely the little social transitions which take
+place in our own age, as they have taken place in every age.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_312'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_312'>[312]</a><div class='note'><p> Rosenthal, of Breslau, from the legal side, goes so far as
+to argue (&quot;Grundfragen des Eheproblems,&quot; <i>Die Neue Generation</i>, Dec.,
+1908), that the intention of procreation is essential to the conception of
+legal marriage.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_313'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_313'>[313]</a><div class='note'><p> J. A. Godfrey, <i>Science of Sex</i>, p. 119.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_314'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_314'>[314]</a><div class='note'><p> E. D. Cope, &quot;The Marriage Problem,&quot; <i>Open Court</i>, Nov.,
+1888.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_315'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_315'>[315]</a><div class='note'><p> See <i>ante</i>, p. 395.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_316'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_316'>[316]</a><div class='note'><p> W&auml;chter, <i>Eheschiedungen</i>, pp. 95 <i>et seq.</i>; Esmein,
+<i>Marriage en Droit Canonique</i>, vol. i, p. 6; Howard, <i>History of
+Matrimonial Institutions</i>, vol. ii, p. 15. Howard (in agreement with
+Lecky) considers that the freedom of divorce was only abused by a small
+section of the Roman population, and that such abuse, so far as it
+existed, was not the cause of any decline of Roman morals.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_317'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_317'>[317]</a><div class='note'><p> The opinions of the Christian Fathers were very varied, and
+they were sometimes doubtful about them; see, <i>e.g.</i>, the opinions
+collected by Cranmer and enumerated by Burnet, <i>History of Reformation</i>
+(ed. Nares), vol. ii, p. 91.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_318'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_318'>[318]</a><div class='note'><p> Constantine, the first Christian Emperor, enacted a strict
+and peculiar divorce law (allowing a wife to divorce her husband only when
+he was a homicide, a poisoner, or a violator of sepulchres), which could
+not be maintained. In 497, therefore, Anastasius decreed divorce by mutual
+consent. This was abolished by Justinian, who only allowed divorce for
+various specified causes, among them, however, including the husband's
+adultery. These restrictions proved unworkable, and Justinian's successor
+and nephew, Justin, restored divorce by mutual consent. Finally, in 870,
+Leo the Philosopher returned to Justinian's enactment (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Smith
+and Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>, arts. &quot;Adultery&quot; and
+&quot;Marriage&quot;).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_319'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_319'>[319]</a><div class='note'><p> The element of reverence in the early German attitude
+towards women and the privileges which even the married woman enjoyed, so
+far as Tacitus can be considered a reliable guide, seem to have been the
+surviving vestiges of an earlier social state on a more matriarchal basis.
+They are most distinct at the dawn of German history. From the first,
+however, though divorce by mutual consent seems to have been possible,
+German custom was pitiless to the married woman who was unfaithful,
+sterile, or otherwise offended, though for some time after the
+introduction of Christianity it was no offence for the German husband to
+commit adultery (Westermarck, <i>Origin of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. ii, p.
+453).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_320'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_320'>[320]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;This form of marriage,&quot; says Hobhouse (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i,
+p. 156), &quot;is intimately associated with the extension of marital power.&quot;
+<i>Cf.</i> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 231. The very subordinate position of
+the medi&aelig;val German woman is set forth by Hagelstange, <i>S&uuml;ddeutsches
+Bauernleben in Mittelalter</i>, 1898, pp. 70 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_321'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_321'>[321]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 259; Smith and Cheetham,
+<i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>, art. <i>Arrh&aelig;</i>. It would appear,
+however, that the &quot;bride-sale,&quot; of which Tacitus speaks, was not strictly
+the sale of a chattel nor of a slave-girl, but the sale of the <i>mund</i> or
+protectorship over the girl. It is true the distinction may not always
+have been clear to those who took part in the transaction. Similarly the
+Anglo-Saxon betrothal was not so much a payment of the bride's price to
+her kinsmen, although as a matter of fact, they might make a profit out of
+the transaction, as a covenant stipulating for the bride's honorable
+treatment as wife and widow. Reminiscences of this, remark Pollock and
+Maitland (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 364), may be found in &quot;that curious
+cabinet of antiquities, the marriage ritual of the English Church.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_322'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_322'>[322]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, pp. 278-281, 386. The <i>Arrha</i>
+crept into Roman and Byzantine law during the sixth century.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_323'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_323'>[323]</a><div class='note'><p> J. Wickham Legg, <i>Ecclesiological Essays</i>, p. 189. It may
+be added that the idea of the subordination of the wife to the husband
+appeared in the Christian Church at a somewhat early period, and no doubt
+independently of Germanic influences; St. Augustine said (Sermo XXXVII,
+cap. vi) that a good <i>materfamilias</i> must not be ashamed to call herself
+her husband's servant (<i>ancilla</i>).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_324'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_324'>[324]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, L. Gautier, <i>La Chevalerie</i>, Ch. IX.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_325'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_325'>[325]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, pp. 293 <i>et seq.</i>; Esmein, <i>op.
+cit.</i>, vol. i, pp. 25 <i>et seq.</i>; Smith and Cheetham, <i>Dictionary of
+Christian Antiquities</i> art. &quot;Contract of Marriage.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_326'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_326'>[326]</a><div class='note'><p> Any later changes in Catholic Canon law have merely been in
+the direction of making matrimony still narrower and still more remote
+from the practice of the world. By a papal decree of 1907, civil marriages
+and marriages in non-Catholic places of worship are declared to be not
+only sinful and unlawful (which they were before), but actually null and
+void.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_327'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_327'>[327]</a><div class='note'><p> E. S. P. Haynes, <i>Our Divorce Law</i>, p. 3.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_328'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_328'>[328]</a><div class='note'><p> It was the Council of Trent, in the sixteenth century,
+which made ecclesiastical rites essential to binding marriage; but even
+then fifty-six prelates voted against that decision.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_329'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_329'>[329]</a><div class='note'><p> Esmein, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 91.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_330'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_330'>[330]</a><div class='note'><p> It is sometimes said that the Catholic Church is able to
+diminish the evils of its doctrine of the indissolubility of marriage by
+the number of impediments to marriage it admits, thus affording free scope
+for dispensations from marriage. This scarcely seems to be the case. Dr.
+P. J. Hayes, who speaks with authority as Chancellor of the Catholic
+Archdiocese of New York, states (&quot;Impediments to Marriage in the Catholic
+Church,&quot; <i>North American Review</i>, May, 1905) that even in so modern and so
+mixed a community as this there are few applications for dispensations on
+account of impediments; there are 15,000 Catholic marriages per annum in
+New York City, but scarcely five per annum are questioned as to validity,
+and these chiefly on the ground of bigamy.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_331'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_331'>[331]</a><div class='note'><p> The Canonists, say Pollock and Maitland (<i>loc. cit.</i>),
+&quot;made a capricious mess of the marriage law.&quot; &quot;Seldom,&quot; says Howard (<i>op.
+cit.</i>, vol i, p. 340), &quot;have mere theory and subtle quibbling had more
+disastrous consequences in practical life than in the case of the
+distinction between <i>sponsalia de pr&aelig;senti</i> and <i>de futuro</i>.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_332'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_332'>[332]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, pp. 386 <i>et seq.</i> On the whole,
+however, Luther's opinion was that marriage, though a sacred and
+mysterious thing, is not a sacrament; his various statements on the matter
+are brought together by Strampff, <i>Luther &uuml;ber die Ehe</i>, pp. 204-214.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_333'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_333'>[333]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, pp. 61 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_334'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_334'>[334]</a><div class='note'><p> Probably as a result of the somewhat confused and
+incoherent attitude of the Reformers, the Canon law of marriage, in a
+modified form, really persisted in Protestant countries to a greater
+extent than in Catholic countries; in France, especially, it has been much
+more profoundly modified (Esmein, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. i, p. 33).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_335'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_335'>[335]</a><div class='note'><p> The Quaker conception of marriage is still vitally
+influential. &quot;Why,&quot; says Mrs. Besant (<i>Marriage</i>, p. 19), &quot;should not we
+take a leaf out of the Quaker's book, and substitute for the present legal
+forms of marriage a simple declaration publicly made?&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_336'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_336'>[336]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 456. The actual practice in
+Pennsylvania appears, however, to differ little from that usual in the
+other States.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_337'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_337'>[337]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 109. &quot;It is, indeed,
+wonderful,&quot; Howard remarks, &quot;that a great nation, priding herself on a
+love of equity and social liberty, should thus for five generations
+tolerate an invidious indulgence, rather than frankly and courageously to
+free herself from the shackles of an ecclesiastical tradition.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_338'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_338'>[338]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;The enforced continuance of an unsuccessful union is
+perhaps the most immoral thing which a civilized society ever
+countenanced, far less encouraged,&quot; says Godfrey (<i>Science of Sex</i>, p.
+123). &quot;The morality of a union is dependent upon mutual desire, and a
+union dictated by any other cause is outside the moral pale, however
+custom may sanction it, or religion and law condone it.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_339'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_339'>[339]</a><div class='note'><p> Adultery in most savage and barbarous societies is
+regarded, in the words of Westermarck, as &quot;an illegitimate appropriation
+of the exclusive claims which the husband has acquired by the purchase of
+his wife, as an offence against property;&quot; the seducer is, therefore,
+punished as a thief, by fine, mutilation, even death (<i>Origin of the Moral
+Ideas</i>, vol. ii, pp. 447 <i>et seq.</i>; <i>id.</i>, <i>History of Human Marriage</i>, p.
+121). Among some peoples it is the seducer who alone suffers, and not the
+wife.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_340'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_340'>[340]</a><div class='note'><p> It is sometimes said in defence of the claim for damages
+for seducing a wife that women are often weak and unable to resist
+masculine advances, so that the law ought to press heavily on the man who
+takes advantage of that weakness. This argument seems a little antiquated.
+The law is beginning to accept the responsibility even of married women in
+other respects, and can scarcely refuse to accept it for the control of
+her own person. Moreover, if it is so natural for the woman to yield, it
+is scarcely legitimate to punish the man with whom she has performed that
+natural act. It must further be said that if a wife's adultery is only an
+irresponsible feminine weakness, a most undue brutality is inflicted on
+her by publicly demanding her pecuniary price from her lover. If, indeed,
+we accept this argument, we ought to reintroduce the medi&aelig;val girdle of
+chastity.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_341'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_341'>[341]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 114.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_342'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_342'>[342]</a><div class='note'><p> This rule is, in England, by no means a dead letter. Thus,
+in 1907, a wife who had left her home, leaving a letter stating that her
+husband was not the father of her child, subsequently brought an action
+for divorce, which, as the husband made no defence, she obtained. But, the
+King's Proctor having learnt the facts, the decree was rescinded. Then the
+husband brought an action for divorce, but could not obtain it, having
+already admitted his own adultery by leaving the previous case undefended.
+He took the matter up to the Court of Appeal, but his petition was
+dismissed, the Court being of opinion that &quot;to grant relief in such a case
+was not in the interest of public morality.&quot; The safest way in England to
+render what is legally termed marriage absolutely indissoluble is for both
+parties to commit adultery.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_343'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_343'>[343]</a><div class='note'><p> Magnus Hirschfeld, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>,
+Oct., 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_344'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_344'>[344]</a><div class='note'><p> H. Adner, &quot;Die Richterliche Beurteilung der 'Zerr&uuml;tteten'
+Ehe,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. ii, Teil 8.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_345'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_345'>[345]</a><div class='note'><p> Gross-Hoffinger, <i>Die Schichsale der Frauen und die
+Prostitution</i>, 1847; Bloch presents a full summary of the results of this
+inquiry in an <i>Appendix</i> to Ch. X of his <i>Sexual Life of Our Times</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_346'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_346'>[346]</a><div class='note'><p> Divorce in the United States is fully discussed by Howard,
+<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. iii.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_347'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_347'>[347]</a><div class='note'><p> H. M&uuml;nsterberg, <i>The Americans</i>, p. 575. Similarly, Dr.
+Felix Adler, in a study of &quot;The Ethics of Divorce&quot; (<i>The Ethical Record</i>,
+1890, p. 200), although not himself an admirer of divorce, believes that
+the first cause of the frequency of divorce in the United States is the
+high position of women.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_348'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_348'>[348]</a><div class='note'><p> In an important article, with illustrative cases, on &quot;The
+Neuro-psychical Element in Conjugal Aversion&quot; (<i>Journal of Nervous and
+Mental Diseases</i>, Sept., 1892) Smith Baker refers to the cases in which &quot;a
+man may find himself progressively becoming antipathetic, through
+recognition of the comparatively less developed personality of the one to
+whom he happens to be married. Marrying, perhaps, before he has learned to
+accurately judge of character and its tendencies, he awakens to the fact
+that he is honorably bound to live all his physiological life with, not a
+real companion, but a mere counterfeit.&quot; The cases are still more
+numerous, the same writer observes, in which the sexual appetite of the
+wife fails to reveal itself except as the result of education and
+practice. &quot;This sort of natural-unnatural condition is the source of much
+disappointment, and of intense suffering on the part of the woman as well
+as of family dissatisfaction.&quot; Yet such causes for divorce are far too
+complex to be stated in statute-books, and far too intimate to be pleaded
+in courts of justice.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_349'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_349'>[349]</a><div class='note'><p> Ten years ago, if not still, the United States came fourth
+in order of frequency of divorce, after Japan, Denmark, and Switzerland.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_350'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_350'>[350]</a><div class='note'><p> Lecky, the historian of European morals, has pointed out
+(<i>Democracy and Liberty</i>, vol. ii, p. 172) the close connection generally
+between facility of divorce and a high standard of sexual morality.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_351'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_351'>[351]</a><div class='note'><p> So, <i>e.g.</i>, Hobhouse, <i>Morals in Evolution</i>, vol. i, p.
+237.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_352'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_352'>[352]</a><div class='note'><p> In England this step was taken in the reign of Henry VII,
+when the forcible marriage of women against their will was forbidden by
+statute (3 Henry VII, c. 2). Even in the middle of the seventeenth
+century, however, the question of forcible marriage had again to be dealt
+with (<i>Inderwick</i>, Interregnum, pp. 40 <i>et seq.</i>).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_353'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_353'>[353]</a><div class='note'><p> Woods Hutchinson (<i>Contemporary Review</i>, Sept., 1905)
+argues that when there is epilepsy, insanity, moral perversion, habitual
+drunkenness, or criminal conduct of any kind, divorce, for the sake of the
+next generation, should be not permissive but compulsory. Mere divorce,
+however, would not suffice to attain the ends desired.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_354'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_354'>[354]</a><div class='note'><p> Similarly in Germany, Wanda von Sacher-Masoch, who had
+suffered much from marriage, whatever her own defects of character may
+have been, writes at the end of <i>Meine Lebensbeichte</i> that &quot;as long as
+women have not the courage to regulate, without State-interference or
+Church-interference, relationships which concern themselves alone, they
+will not be free.&quot; In place of this old decayed system of marriage so
+opposed to our modern thoughts and feelings, she would have private
+contracts made by a lawyer. In England, at a much earlier period, Charles
+Kingsley, who was an ardent friend to women's movements, and whose feeling
+for womanhood amounted almost to worship, wrote to J. S. Mill: &quot;There will
+never be a good world for women until the last remnant of the Canon law is
+civilized off the earth.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_355'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_355'>[355]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;No fouler institution was ever invented,&quot; declared Auberon
+Herbert many years ago, expressing, before its time, a feeling which has
+since become more common; &quot;and its existence drags on, to our deep shame,
+because we have not the courage frankly to say that the sexual relations
+of husband and wife, or those who live together, concern their own selves,
+and do not concern the prying, gloating, self-righteous, and intensely
+untruthful world outside.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_356'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_356'>[356]</a><div class='note'><p> Hobhouse, <i>op. cit.</i> vol. i, p. 237.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_357'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_357'>[357]</a><div class='note'><p> The same conception of marriage as a contract still
+persists to some extent also in the United States, whither it was carried
+by the early Protestants and Puritans. No definition of marriage is indeed
+usually laid down by the States, but, Howard says (<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p.
+395), &quot;in effect matrimony is treated as a relation partaking of the
+nature of both status and contract.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_358'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_358'>[358]</a><div class='note'><p> This point of view has been vigorously set forth by Paul
+and Victor Margueritte, <i>Quelques Id&eacute;es</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_359'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_359'>[359]</a><div class='note'><p> I may remark that this was pointed out, and its
+consequences vigorously argued, many years ago by C. G. Garrison, &quot;Limits
+of Divorce,&quot; <i>Contemporary Review</i>, Feb., 1894. &quot;It may safely be
+asserted,&quot; he concludes, &quot;that marriage presents not one attribute or
+incident of anything remotely resembling a contract, either in form,
+remedy, procedure, or result; but that in all these aspects, on the
+contrary, it is fatally hostile to the principles and practices of that
+division of the rights of persons.&quot; Marriage is not contract, but
+conduct.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_360'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_360'>[360]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, P. and V. Margueritte, <i>op. cit.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_361'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_361'>[361]</a><div class='note'><p> As quoted by Howard, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. ii, p. 29.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_362'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_362'>[362]</a><div class='note'><p> Ellen Key similarly (<i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 343) remarks
+that to talk of &quot;the duty of life-long fidelity&quot; is much the same as to
+talk of &quot;the duty of life-long health.&quot; A man may promise, she adds, to do
+his best to preserve his life, or his love; he cannot unconditionally
+undertake to preserve them.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_363'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_363'>[363]</a><div class='note'><p> Hobhouse, <i>op. cit.</i>, vol. 1, pp. 159, 237-9; <i>cf.</i> P. and
+V. Margueritte, <i>Quelques Id&eacute;es</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_364'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_364'>[364]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Divorce,&quot; as Garrison puts it (&quot;Limits of Divorce,&quot;
+<i>Contemporary Review</i>, Feb., 1894), &quot;is the judicial announcement that
+conduct once connubial in character and purpose, has lost these
+qualities.... Divorce is a question of fact, and not a license to break a
+promise.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_365'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_365'>[365]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>ante</i>, p. 425.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_366'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_366'>[366]</a><div class='note'><p> It has been necessary to discuss reproduction in the first
+chapter of the present volume, and it will again be necessary in the
+concluding chapter. Here we are only concerned with procreation as an
+element of marriage.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_367'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_367'>[367]</a><div class='note'><p> Nietzold, <i>Die Ehe in &AElig;gypten zur Ptolem&auml;isch-r&ouml;mischen
+Zeit</i>, 1903, p. 3. This bond also accorded rights to any children that
+might be born during its existence.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_368'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_368'>[368]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Ellen Key, <i>Mutter und Kind</i>, p. 21. The
+necessity for the combination of greater freedom of sexual relationships
+with greater stringency of parental relationships was clearly realized at
+an earlier period by another able woman writer, Miss J. H. Clapperton, in
+her notable book, <i>Scientific Meliorism</i>, published in 1885. &quot;Legal
+changes,&quot; she wrote (p. 320), &quot;are required in two directions, viz.,
+towards greater freedom as to marriage and greater strictness as to
+parentage. The marriage union is essentially a private matter with which
+society has no call and no right to interfere. Childbirth, on the
+contrary, is a public event. It touches the interests of the whole
+nation.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_369'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_369'>[369]</a><div class='note'><p> Ellen Key, <i>Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 168; <i>cf.</i> the same author's
+<i>Century of the Child</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_370'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_370'>[370]</a><div class='note'><p> In Germany alone 180,000 &quot;illegitimate&quot; children are born
+every year, and the number is rapidly increasing; in England it is only
+40,000 per annum, the strong feeling which often exists against such
+births in England (as also in France) leading to the wide adoption of
+methods for preventing conception.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_371'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_371'>[371]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Where are real monogamists to be found?&quot; asked
+Schopenhauer in his essay, &quot;Ueber die Weibe.&quot; And James Hinton was wont to
+ask: &quot;What is the meaning of maintaining monogamy? Is there any chance of
+getting it, I should like to know? Do you call English life monogamous?&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_372'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_372'>[372]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Almost everywhere,&quot; says Westermarck of polygyny (which he
+discusses fully in Chs. XX-XXII of his <i>History of Human Marriage</i>) &quot;it is
+confined to the smaller part of the people, the vast majority being
+monogamous.&quot; Maurice Gregory (<i>Contemporary Review</i>, Sept., 1906) gives
+statistics showing that nearly everywhere the tendency is towards equality
+in number of the sexes.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_373'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_373'>[373]</a><div class='note'><p> In a polygamous land a man is of course as much bound by
+his obligations to his second wife as to his first. Among ourselves the
+man's &quot;second wife&quot; is degraded with the name of &quot;mistress,&quot; and the worse
+he treats her and her children the more his &quot;morality&quot; is approved, just
+as the Catholic Church, when struggling to establish sacerdotal celibacy,
+approved more highly the priest who had illegitimate relations with women
+than the priest who decently and openly married. If his neglect induces a
+married man's mistress to make known her relationship to him the man is
+justified in prosecuting her, and his counsel, assured of general
+sympathy, will state in court that &quot;this woman has even been so wicked as
+to write to the prosecutor's wife!&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_374'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_374'>[374]</a><div class='note'><p> Howard, in his judicial <i>History of Matrimonial
+Institutions</i> (vol. ii. pp. 96 <i>et seq.</i>), cannot refrain from drawing
+attention to the almost insanely wild character of the language used in
+England not so many years ago by those who opposed marriage with a
+deceased wife's sister, and he contrasts it with the much more reasonable
+attitude of the Catholic Church. &quot;Pictures have been drawn,&quot; he remarks,
+&quot;of the moral anarchy such marriages must produce, which are read by
+American, Colonial, and Continental observers with a bewilderment that is
+not unmixed with disgust, and are, indeed, a curious illustration of the
+extreme insularity of the English mind.&quot; So recently as A.D. 1908 a bill
+was brought into the British House of Lords proposing that desertion
+without cause for two years shall be a ground for divorce, a reasonable
+and humane measure which is law in most parts of the civilized world. The
+Lord Chancellor (Lord Loreburn), a Liberal, and in the sphere of politics
+an enlightened and sagacious leader, declared that such a proposal was
+&quot;absolutely impossible.&quot; The House rejected the proposal by 61 votes to 2.
+Even the marriage decrees of the Council of Trent were not affirmed by
+such an overwhelming majority. In matters of marriage legislation England
+has scarcely yet emerged from the Middle Ages.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_XI'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_507'></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE ART OF LOVE.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Marriage Not Only for Procreation&mdash;Theologians on the <i>Sacramentum
+Solationis</i>&mdash;Importance of the <i>Art of Love</i>&mdash;The Basis of Stability in
+Marriage and the Condition for Right Procreation&mdash;The Art of Love the
+Bulwark Against Divorce&mdash;The Unity of Love and Marriage a Principle of
+Modern Morality&mdash;Christianity and the Art of Love&mdash;Ovid&mdash;The Art of Love
+Among Primitive Peoples&mdash;Sexual Initiation in Africa and Elsewhere&mdash;The
+Tendency to Spontaneous Development of the Art of Love in Early
+Life&mdash;Flirtation&mdash;Sexual Ignorance in Women&mdash;The Husband's Place in Sexual
+Initiation&mdash;Sexual Ignorance in Men&mdash;The Husband's Education for
+Marriage&mdash;The Injury Done by the Ignorance of Husbands&mdash;The Physical and
+Mental Results of Unskilful Coitus&mdash;Women Understand the Art of Love
+Better Than Men&mdash;Ancient and Modern Opinions Concerning Frequency of
+Coitus&mdash;Variation in Sexual Capacity&mdash;The Sexual Appetite&mdash;The Art of Love
+Based on the Biological Facts of Courtship&mdash;The Art of Pleasing Women&mdash;The
+Lover Compared to the Musician&mdash;The Proposal as a Part of
+Courtship&mdash;Divination in the Art of Love&mdash;The Importance of the
+Preliminaries in Courtship&mdash;The Unskilful Husband Frequently the Cause of
+the Frigid Wife&mdash;The Difficulty of Courtship&mdash;Simultaneous Orgasm&mdash;The
+Evils of Incomplete Gratification in Women&mdash;Coitus Interruptus&mdash;Coitus
+Reservatus&mdash;The Human Method of Coitus&mdash;Variations in Coitus&mdash;Posture in
+Coitus&mdash;The Best Time for Coitus&mdash;The Influence of Coitus in Marriage&mdash;The
+Advantages of Absence in Marriage&mdash;The Risks of Absence&mdash;Jealousy&mdash;The
+Primitive Function of Jealousy&mdash;Its Predominance Among Animals, Savages,
+etc., and in Pathological States&mdash;An Anti-Social Emotion&mdash;Jealousy
+Incompatible with the Progress of Civilization&mdash;The Possibility of Loving
+More Than One Person at a Time&mdash;Platonic Friendship&mdash;The Conditions Which
+Make It Possible&mdash;The Maternal Element in Woman's Love&mdash;The Final
+Development of Conjugal Love&mdash;The Problem of Love One of the Greatest of
+Social Questions.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>It will be clear from the preceding discussion that there are two elements
+in every marriage so far as that marriage is complete. On the one hand
+marriage is a union prompted by mutual love and only sustainable as a
+reality, apart from its mere formal side, by the cultivation of such love.
+On the other <a name='6_Page_508'></a>hand marriage is a method for propagating the race and
+having its end in offspring. In the first aspect its aim is erotic, in the
+second parental. Both these ends have long been generally recognized. We
+find them set forth, for instance, in the marriage service of the Church
+of England, where it is stated that marriage exists both for &quot;the mutual
+society, help and comfort that the one ought to have of the other,&quot; and
+also for &quot;the procreation of children.&quot; Without the factor of mutual love
+the proper conditions for procreation cannot exist; without the factor of
+procreation the sexual union, however beautiful and sacred a relationship
+it may in itself be, remains, in essence, a private relationship,
+incomplete as a marriage and without public significance. It becomes
+necessary, therefore, to supplement the preceding discussion of marriage
+in its general outlines by a final and more intimate consideration of
+marriage in its essence, as embracing the art of love and the science of
+procreation.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There has already been occasion from time to time to refer to
+    those who, starting from various points of view, have sought to
+    limit the scope of marriage and to suppress one or other of its
+    elements. (See <i>e.g.</i>, <i>ante</i>, p. 135.)</p>
+
+<p>    In modern times the tendency has been to exclude the factor of
+    procreation, and to regard the relationship of marriage as
+    exclusively lying in the relationship of the two parties to each
+    other. Apart from the fact, which it is unnecessary again to call
+    attention to, that, from the public and social point of view, a
+    marriage without children, however important to the two persons
+    concerned, is a relationship without any public significance, it
+    must further be said that, in the absence of children, even the
+    personal erotic life itself is apt to suffer, for in the normal
+    erotic life, especially in women, sexual love tends to grow into
+    parental love. Moreover, the full development of mutual love and
+    dependence is with difficulty attained, and there is absence of
+    that closest of bonds, the mutual co&ouml;peration of two persons in
+    producing a new person. The perfect and complete marriage in its
+    full development is a trinity.</p>
+
+<p>    Those who seek to eliminate the erotic factor from marriage as
+    unessential, or at all events as only permissible when strictly
+    subordinated to the end of procreation, have made themselves
+    heard from time to time at various periods. Even the ancients,
+    Greeks and Romans alike, in their more severe moments advocated
+    the elimination of the <a name='6_Page_509'></a>erotic element from marriage, and its
+    confinement to extra-marital relationships, that is so far as men
+    were concerned; for the erotic needs of married women they had no
+    provision to make. Montaigne, soaked in classic traditions, has
+    admirably set forth the reasons for eliminating the erotic
+    interest from marriage: &quot;One does not marry for oneself, whatever
+    may be said; a man marries as much, or more, for his posterity,
+    for his family; the usage and interest of marriage touch our race
+    beyond ourselves.... Thus it is a kind of incest to employ, in
+    this venerable and sacred parentage, the efforts and the
+    extravagances of amorous license&quot; (<i>Essais</i>, Bk. i, Ch. XXIX; Bk.
+    iii, Ch. V). This point of view easily commended itself to the
+    early Christians, who, however, deliberately overlooked its
+    reverse side, the establishment of erotic interests outside
+    marriage. &quot;To have intercourse except for procreation,&quot; said
+    Clement of Alexandria (<i>P&aelig;dagogus</i>, Bk. ii, Ch. X), &quot;is to do
+    injury to Nature.&quot; While, however, that statement is quite true
+    of the lower animals, it is not true of man, and especially not
+    true of civilized man, whose erotic needs are far more developed,
+    and far more intimately associated with the finest and highest
+    part of the organism, than is the case among animals generally.
+    For the animal, sexual desire, except when called forth by the
+    conditions involved by procreative necessities, has no existence.
+    It is far otherwise in man, for whom, even when the question of
+    procreation is altogether excluded, sexual love is still an
+    insistent need, and even a condition of the finest spiritual
+    development. The Catholic Church, therefore, while regarding with
+    admiration a continence in marriage which excluded sexual
+    relations except for the end of procreation, has followed St.
+    Augustine in treating intercourse apart from procreation with
+    considerable indulgence, as only a venial sin. Here, however, the
+    Church was inclined to draw the line, and it appears that in 1679
+    Innocent XI condemned the proposition that &quot;the conjugal act,
+    practiced for pleasure alone, is exempt even from venial sin.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Protestant theologians have been inclined to go further, and
+    therein they found some authority even in Catholic writers. John
+    &agrave; Lasco, the Catholic Bishop who became a Protestant and settled
+    in England during Edward VI's reign, was following many medi&aelig;val
+    theologians when he recognized the <i>sacramentum solationis</i>, in
+    addition to <i>proles</i>, as an element of marriage. Cranmer, in his
+    marriage service of 1549, stated that &quot;mutual help and comfort,&quot;
+    as well as procreation, enter into the object of marriage
+    (Wickham Legg, <i>Ecclesiological Essays</i>, p. 204; Howard,
+    <i>Matrimonial Institutions</i>, vol. i, p. 398). Modern theologians
+    speak still more distinctly. &quot;The sexual act,&quot; says Northcote
+    (<i>Christianity and Sex Problems</i>, p. 55), &quot;is a love act. Duly
+    regulated, it conduces to the ethical welfare of the individual
+    and promotes his efficiency as a social unit. The act itself and
+    its surrounding emotions stimulate within the organism the
+    powerful movements of a vast psychic <a name='6_Page_510'></a>life.&quot; At an earlier period
+    also, Schleiermacher, in his <i>Letters on Lucinde</i>, had pointed
+    out the great significance of love for the spiritual development
+    of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>    Edward Carpenter truly remarks, in <i>Love's Coming of Age</i>, that
+    sexual love is not only needed for physical creation, but also
+    for spiritual creation. Bloch, again, in discussing this question
+    (<i>The Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, Ch. VI) concludes that &quot;love and
+    the sexual embrace have not only an end in procreation, they
+    constitute an end in themselves, and are necessary for the life,
+    development, and inner growth of the individual himself.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>It is argued by some, who admit mutual love as a constituent part of
+marriage, that such love, once recognized at the outset, may be taken for
+granted, and requires no further discussion; there is, they believe, no
+art of love to be either learnt or taught; it comes by nature. Nothing
+could be further from the truth, most of all as regards civilized man.
+Even the elementary fact of coitus needs to be taught. No one could take a
+more austerely Puritanic view of sexual affairs than Sir James Paget, and
+yet Paget (in his lecture on &quot;Sexual Hypochondriasis&quot;) declared that
+&quot;Ignorance about sexual affairs seems to be a notable characteristic of
+the more civilized part of the human race. Among ourselves it is certain
+that the method of copulating needs to be taught, and that they to whom it
+is not taught remain quite ignorant about it.&quot; Gallard, again, remarks
+similarly (in his <i>Clinique des Maladies des Femmes</i>) that young people,
+like Daphnis in Longus's pastoral, need a beautiful Lycenion to give them
+a solid education, practical as well as theoretical, in these matters, and
+he considers that mothers should instruct their daughters at marriage, and
+fathers their sons. Philosophers have from time to time recognized the
+gravity of these questions and have discoursed concerning them; thus
+Epicurus, as Plutarch tells us,<a name='6_FNanchor_375'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_375'><sup>[375]</sup></a> would discuss with his disciples
+various sexual matters, such as the proper time for coitus; but then, as
+now, there were obscurantists who would leave even the central facts of
+life to the hazards of chance or ignorance, and these presumed to blame
+the philosopher.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_511'></a>
+<p>There is, however, much more to be learnt in these matters than the mere
+elementary facts of sexual intercourse. The art of love certainly includes
+such primary facts of sexual hygiene, but it involves also the whole
+erotic discipline of marriage, and that is why its significance is so
+great, for the welfare and happiness of the individual, for the stability
+of sexual unions, and indirectly for the race, since the art of love is
+ultimately the art of attaining the right conditions for procreation.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;It seems extremely probable,&quot; wrote Professor E. D. Cope,<a name='6_FNanchor_376'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_376'><sup>[376]</sup></a> &quot;that if
+this subject could be properly understood, and become, in the details of
+its practical conduct, a part of a written social science, the monogamic
+marriage might attain a far more general success than is often found in
+actual life.&quot; There can be no doubt whatever that this is the case. In the
+great majority of marriages success depends exclusively upon the knowledge
+of the art of love possessed by the two persons who enter into it. A
+life-long monogamic union may, indeed, persist in the absence of the
+slightest inborn or acquired art of love, out of religious resignation or
+sheer stupidity. But that attitude is now becoming less common. As we have
+seen in the previous chapter, divorces are becoming more frequent and more
+easily obtainable in every civilized country. This is a tendency of
+civilization; it is the result of a demand that marriage should be a real
+relationship, and that when it ceases to be real as a relationship it
+should also cease as a form. That is an inevitable tendency, involved in
+our growing democratization, for the democracy seems to care more for
+realities than for forms, however venerable. We cannot fight against it;
+and we should be wrong to fight against it even if we could.</p>
+
+<p>Yet while we are bound to aid the tendency to divorce, and to insist that
+a valid marriage needs the wills of two persons to maintain it, it is
+difficult for anyone to argue that divorce is in itself desirable. It is
+always a confession of failure. Two persons, who, if they have been moved
+in the slightest degree by the normal and regular impulse of sexual
+selection, at the outset <a name='6_Page_512'></a>regarded each other as lovable, have, on one
+side or the other or on both, proved not lovable. There has been a failure
+in the fundamental art of love. If we are to counterbalance facility of
+divorce our only sound course is to increase the stability of marriage,
+and that is only possible by cultivating the art of love, the primal
+foundation of marriage.</p>
+
+<p>It is by no means unnecessary to emphasize this point. There are still
+many persons who have failed to realize it. There are even people who seem
+to imagine that it is unimportant whether or not pleasure is present in
+the sexual act. &quot;I do not believe mutual pleasure in the sexual act has
+any particular bearing on the happiness of life,&quot; once remarked Dr. Howard
+A. Kelly.<a name='6_FNanchor_377'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_377'><sup>[377]</sup></a> Such a statement means&mdash;if indeed it means anything&mdash;that
+the marriage tie has no &quot;particular bearing&quot; on human happiness; it means
+that the way must be freely opened to adultery and divorce. Even the most
+perverse ascetic of the Middle Ages scarcely ventured to make a statement
+so flagrantly opposed to the experiences of humanity, and the fact that a
+distinguished gynecologist of the twentieth century can make it, with
+almost the air of stating a truism, is ample justification for the
+emphasis which it has nowadays become necessary to place on the art of
+love. &quot;Uxor enim dignitatis nomen est, non voluptatis,&quot; was indeed an
+ancient Pagan dictum. But it is not in harmony with modern ideas. It was
+not even altogether in harmony with Christianity. For our modern morality,
+as Ellen Key well says, the unity of love and marriage is a fundamental
+principle.<a name='6_FNanchor_378'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_378'><sup>[378]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The neglect of the art of love has not been a universal phenomenon; it is
+more especially characteristic of Christendom. The spirit of ancient Rome
+undoubtedly predisposed Europe to such a neglect, for with their rough
+cultivation of the military virtues and their inaptitude for the finer
+aspects of civilization the Romans were willing to regard love as a
+permissible indulgence, but they were not, as a people, prepared to
+cultivate it as an art. Their poets do not, in this matter, represent the
+<a name='6_Page_513'></a>moral feeling of their best people. It is indeed a highly significant
+fact that Ovid, the most distinguished Latin poet who concerned himself
+much with the art of love, associated that art not so much with morality
+as with immorality. As he viewed it, the art of love was less the art of
+retaining a woman in her home than the art of winning her away from it; it
+was the adulterer's art rather than the husband's art. Such a conception
+would be impossible out of Europe, but it proved very favorable to the
+growth of the Christian attitude towards the art of love.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Love as an art, as well as a passion, seems to have received
+    considerable study in antiquity, though the results of that study
+    have perished. Cadmus Milesius, says Suidas, wrote fourteen great
+    volumes on the passion of love, but they are not now to be found.
+    Rohde (<i>Das Griechische Roman</i>, p. 55) has a brief section on the
+    Greek philosophic writers on love. Bloch (<i>Beitr&auml;ge zur
+    Psychopathia Sexualis</i>, Teil I, p. 191) enumerates the ancient
+    women writers who dealt with the art of love. Montaigne
+    (<i>Essais</i>, liv. ii, Ch. V) gives a list of ancient classical lost
+    books on love. Burton (<i>Anatomy of Melancholy</i>, Bell's edition,
+    vol. iii, p. 2) also gives a list of lost books on love. Burton
+    himself dealt at length with the manifold signs of love and its
+    grievous symptoms. Boissier de Sauvages, early in the eighteenth
+    century, published a Latin thesis, <i>De Amore</i>, discussing love
+    somewhat in the same spirit as Burton, as a psychic disease to be
+    treated and cured.</p>
+
+<p>    The breath of Christian asceticism had passed over love; it was
+    no longer, as in classic days, an art to be cultivated, but only
+    a malady to be cured. The true inheritor of the classic spirit in
+    this, as in many other matters, was not the Christian world, but
+    the world of Islam. <i>The Perfumed Garden</i> of the Sheik Nefzaoui
+    was probably written in the city of Tunis early in the sixteenth
+    century by an author who belonged to the south of Tunis. Its
+    opening invocation clearly indicates that it departs widely from
+    the conception of love as a disease: &quot;Praise be to God who has
+    placed man's greatest pleasures in the natural parts of woman,
+    and has destined the natural parts of man to afford the greatest
+    enjoyments to woman.&quot; The Arabic book, <i>El Ktab</i>, or &quot;The Secret
+    Laws of Love,&quot; is a modern work, by Omer Haleby Abu Othm&acirc;n, who
+    was born in Algiers of a Moorish mother and a Turkish father.</p></div>
+
+<p>For Christianity the permission to yield to the sexual impulse at all was
+merely a concession to human weakness, an indulgence only possible when it
+was carefully hedged and guarded on every side. Almost from the first the
+Christians began to cultivate the art of virginity, and they could not so
+<a name='6_Page_514'></a>dislocate their point of view as to approve of the art of love. All their
+passionate adoration in the sphere of sex went out towards chastity.
+Possessed by such ideals, they could only tolerate human love at all by
+giving to one special form of it a religious sacramental character, and
+even that sacramental halo imparted to love a quasi-ascetic character
+which precluded the idea of regarding love as an art.<a name='6_FNanchor_379'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_379'><sup>[379]</sup></a> Love gained a
+religious element but it lost a moral element, since, outside
+Christianity, the art of love is part of the foundation of sexual
+morality, wherever such morality in any degree exists. In Christendom love
+in marriage was left to shift for itself as best it might; the art of love
+was a dubious art which was held to indicate a certain commerce with
+immorality and even indeed to be itself immoral. That feeling was
+doubtless strengthened by the fact that Ovid was the most conspicuous
+master in literature of the art of love. His literary reputation&mdash;far
+greater than it now seems to us<a name='6_FNanchor_380'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_380'><sup>[380]</sup></a>&mdash;gave distinction to his position as
+the author of the chief extant text-book of the art of love. With Humanism
+and the Renaissance and the consequent realization that Christianity had
+overlooked one side of life, Ovid's <i>Ars Amatoria</i> was placed on a
+pedestal it had not occupied before or since. It represented a step
+forward in civilization; it revealed love not as a mere animal instinct or
+a mere pledged duty, but as a complex, humane, and refined relationship
+which demanded cultivation; &quot;<i>arte regendus amor</i>.&quot; Boccaccio made a <a name='6_Page_515'></a>wise
+teacher put Ovid's <i>Ars Amatoria</i> into the hands of the young. In an age
+still oppressed by the medi&aelig;val spirit, it was a much needed text-book,
+but it possessed the fatal defect, as a text-book, of presenting the erotic
+claims of the individual as divorced from the claims of good social order.
+It never succeeded in establishing itself as a generally accepted manual
+of love, and in the eyes of many it served to stamp the subject it dealt
+with as one that lies outside the limits of good morals.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, we take a wider survey, and inquire into the discipline for
+life that is imparted to the young in many parts of the world, we shall
+frequently find that the art of love, understood in varying ways, is an
+essential part of that discipline. Summary, though generally adequate, as
+are the educational methods of primitive peoples, they not seldom include
+a training in those arts which render a woman agreeable to a man and a man
+agreeable to a woman in the relationship of marriage, and it is often more
+or less dimly realized that courtship is not a mere preliminary to
+marriage, but a biologically essential part of the marriage relationship
+throughout.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Sexual initiation is carried out very thoroughly in Azimba land,
+    Central Africa. H. Crawford Angus, the first European to visit
+    the Azimba people, lived among them for a year, and has described
+    the Chensamwali, or initiation ceremony, of girls. &quot;At the first
+    sign of menstruation in a young girl, she is taught the mysteries
+    of womanhood, and is shown the different positions for sexual
+    intercourse. The vagina is handled freely, and if not previously
+    enlarged (which may have taken place at the harvest festival when
+    a boy and girl are allowed to 'keep house' during the day-time by
+    themselves, and when quasi-intercourse takes place) it is now
+    enlarged by means of a horn or corn-cob, which is inserted and
+    secured in place by bands of bark cloth. When all signs [of
+    menstruation] have passed, a public announcement of a dance is
+    given to the women in the village. At this dance no men are
+    allowed to be present, and it was only with a great deal of
+    trouble that I managed to witness it. The girl to be 'danced' is
+    led back from the bush to her mother's hut where she is kept in
+    solitude to the morning of the dance. On that morning she is
+    placed on the ground in a sitting position, while the dancers
+    form a ring around her. Several songs are then sung with
+    reference to the genital organs. The girl is then stripped and
+    made to go through the mimic performance of sexual intercourse,
+    and if the movements are not enacted properly, as is often the
+    case when the girl is <a name='6_Page_516'></a>timid and bashful, one of the older women
+    will take her place and show her how she is to perform. Many
+    songs about the relation between men and women are sung, and the
+    girl is instructed as to all her duties when she becomes a wife.
+    She is also instructed that during the time of her menstruation
+    she is unclean, and that during her monthly period she must close
+    her vulva with a pad of fibre used for the purpose. The object of
+    the dance is to inculcate to the girl the knowledge of married
+    life. The girl is taught to be faithful to her husband and to try
+    to bear children, and she is also taught the various arts and
+    methods of making herself seductive and pleasing to her husband,
+    and of thus retaining him in her power.&quot; (H. Crawford Angus, &quot;The
+    Chensamwali,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1898, Heft 6, p.
+    479).</p>
+
+<p>    In Abyssinia, as well as on the Zanzibar coast, according to
+    Stecker (quoted by Ploss-Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>, Section 119) young
+    girls are educated in buttock movements which increase their
+    charm in coitus. These movements, of a rotatory character, are
+    called Duk-Duk. To be ignorant of Duk-Duk is a great disgrace to
+    a girl. Among the Swahili women of Zanzibar, indeed, a complete
+    artistic system of hip-movements is cultivated, to be displayed
+    in coitus. It prevails more especially on the coast, and a
+    Swahili woman is not counted a &quot;lady&quot; (bibi) unless she is
+    acquainted with this art. From sixty to eighty young women
+    practice this buttock dance together for some eight hours a day,
+    laying aside all clothing, and singing the while. The public are
+    not admitted. The dance, which is a kind of imitation of coitus,
+    has been described by Zache (&quot;Sitten und Gebr&auml;uche der Suaheli,&quot;
+    <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1899, Heft 2-3, p. 72). The more
+    accomplished dancers excite general admiration. During the latter
+    part of this initiation various feats are imposed, to test the
+    girl's skill and self-control. For instance, she must dance up to
+    a fire and remove from the midst of the fire a vessel full of
+    water to the brim, without spilling it. At the end of three
+    months the training is over, and the girl goes home in festival
+    attire. She is now eligible for marriage. Similar customs are
+    said to prevail in the Dutch East Indies and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>    The Hebrews had erotic dances, which were doubtless related to
+    the art of love in marriage, and among the Greeks, and their
+    disciples the Romans, the conception of love as an art which
+    needs training, skill, and cultivation, was still extant. That
+    conception was crushed by Christianity which, although it
+    sanctified the institution of matrimony, degraded that sexual
+    love which is normally the content of marriage.</p>
+
+<p>    In 1176 the question was brought before a Court of Love by a
+    baron and lady of Champagne, whether love is compatible with
+    marriage. &quot;No,&quot; said the baron, &quot;I admire and respect the sweet
+    intimacy of married couples, but I cannot call it love. Love
+    desires obstacles, mystery, stolen favors. Now husbands and wives
+    boldly avow their relationship; <a name='6_Page_517'></a>they possess each other without
+    contradiction and without reserve. It cannot then be love that
+    they experience.&quot; And after mature deliberation the ladies of the
+    Court of Love adopted the baron's conclusions (E. de la
+    Bedolli&egrave;re, <i>Histoire des M&oelig;urs des Fran&ccedil;ais</i>, vol. iii,
+    p. 334). There was undoubtedly an element of truth in the baron's
+    arguments. Yet it may well be doubted whether in any
+    non-Christian country it would ever have been possible to obtain
+    acceptance for the doctrine that love and marriage are
+    incompatible. This doctrine was, however, as Ribot points out in
+    his <i>Logique des Sentiments</i>, inevitable, when, as among the
+    medieval nobility, marriage was merely a political or domestic
+    treaty and could not, therefore, be a method of moral elevation.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Why is it,&quot; asked R&eacute;tif de la Bretonne, towards the end of the
+    eighteenth century, &quot;that girls who have no morals are more
+    seductive and more loveable than honest women? It is because,
+    like the Greek courtesans to whom grace and voluptuousness were
+    taught, they have studied the art of pleasing. Among the foolish
+    detractors of my <i>Contemporaines</i>, not one guessed the
+    philosophic aim of nearly everyone of these tales, which is to
+    suggest to honest women the ways of making themselves loved. I
+    should like to see the institution of initiations, such as those
+    of the ancients.... To-day the happiness of the human species is
+    abandoned to chance; all the experience of women is individual,
+    like that of animals; it is lost with those women who, being
+    naturally amiable, might have taught others to become so.
+    Prostitutes alone make a superficial study of it, and the lessons
+    they receive are, for the most part, as harmful as those of
+    respectable Greek and Roman matrons were holy and honorable, only
+    tending to wantonness, to the exhaustion alike of the purse and
+    of the physical faculties, while the aim of the ancient matrons
+    was the union of husband and wife and their mutual attachment
+    through pleasure. The Christian religion annihilated the
+    Mysteries as infamous, but we may regard that annihilation as one
+    of the wrongs done by Christianity to humanity, as the work of
+    men with little enlightenment and bitter zeal, dangerous puritans
+    who were the natural enemies of marriage&quot; (R&eacute;tif de la Bretonne,
+    <i>Monsieur Nicolas</i>, reprint of 1883, vol. x, pp. 160-3). It may
+    be added that D&uuml;hren (Dr. Iwan Bloch) regards R&eacute;tif as &quot;a master
+    in the <i>Ars Amandi</i>,&quot; and discusses him from this point of view
+    in his <i>R&eacute;tif de la Bretonne</i> (pp. 362-371).</p></div>
+
+<p>Whether or not Christianity is to be held responsible, it cannot be
+doubted that throughout Christendom there has been a lamentable failure to
+recognize the supreme importance, not only erotically but morally, of the
+art of love. Even in the great revival of sexual enlightenment now taking
+place around us there <a name='6_Page_518'></a>is rarely even the faintest recognition that in
+sexual enlightenment the one thing essentially necessary is a knowledge of
+the art of love. For the most part, sexual instruction as at present
+understood, is purely negative, a mere string of thou-shalt-nots. If that
+failure were due to the conscious and deliberate recognition that while
+the art of love must be based on physiological and psychological
+knowledge, it is far too subtle, too complex, too personal, to be
+formulated in lectures and manuals, it would be reasonable and sound. But
+it seems to rest entirely on ignorance, indifference, or worse.</p>
+
+<p>Love-making is indeed, like other arts, an art that is partly natural&mdash;&quot;an
+art that nature makes&quot;&mdash;and therefore it is a natural subject for learning
+and exercising in play. Children left to themselves tend, both playfully
+and seriously, to practice love, alike on the physical and the psychic
+sides.<a name='6_FNanchor_381'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_381'><sup>[381]</sup></a> But this play is on its physical side sternly repressed by
+their elders, when discovered, and on its psychic side laughed at. Among
+the well-bred classes it is usually starved out at an early age.</p>
+
+<p>After puberty, if not before, there is another form in which the art of
+love is largely experimented and practised, especially in England and
+America, the form of flirtation. In its elementary manifestations flirting
+is entirely natural and normal; we may trace it even in animals; it is
+simply the beginning of courtship, at the early stage when courtship may
+yet, if desired, be broken off. Under modern civilized conditions,
+however, flirtation is often more than this. These conditions make
+marriage difficult; they make love and its engagements too serious a
+matter to be entered on lightly; they make actual sexual intercourse
+dangerous as well as disreputable. Flirtation adapts itself to these
+conditions. Instead of being merely the preliminary stage of normal
+courtship, it is developed into a form of sexual gratification as complete
+as due observation of the conditions already mentioned will allow. In
+Germany, and especially in France where it is held in great abhorrence,
+this is the only form of flirtation known; it is regarded as an
+exportation from <a name='6_Page_519'></a>the United States and is denominated &quot;flirtage.&quot; Its
+practical outcome is held to be the &quot;demi-vierge,&quot; who knows and has
+experienced the joys of sex while yet retaining her hymen intact.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>This degenerate form of flirtation, cultivated not as a part of
+    courtship, but for its own sake, has been well described by Forel
+    (<i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, pp. 97-101). He defines it as including
+    &quot;all those expressions of the sexual instinct of one individual
+    towards another individual which excite the other's sexual
+    instinct, coitus being always excepted.&quot; In the beginning it may
+    be merely a provocative look or a simple apparently unintentional
+    touch or contact; and by slight gradations it may pass on to
+    caresses, kisses, embraces, and even extend to pressure or
+    friction of the sexual parts, sometimes leading to orgasm. Thus,
+    Forel mentions, a sensuous woman by the pressure of her garments
+    in dancing can produce ejaculation in her partner. Most usually
+    the process is that voluptuous contact and revery which, in
+    English slang, is called &quot;spooning.&quot; From first to last there
+    need not be any explicit explanations, proposals, or declarations
+    on either side, and neither party is committed to any
+    relationship with the other beyond the period devoted to
+    flirtage. In one form, however, flirtage consists entirely in the
+    excitement of a conversation devoted to erotic and indecorous
+    topics. Either the man or the woman may take the active part in
+    flirtage, but in a woman more refinement and skill is required to
+    play the active part without repelling the man or injuring her
+    reputation. Indeed, much the same is true of men also, for women,
+    while they often like flirting, usually prefer its more refined
+    forms. There are infinite forms of flirtage, and while as a
+    preliminary part of courtship, it has its normal place and
+    justification, Forel concludes that &quot;as an end in itself, and
+    never passing beyond itself, it is a phenomenon of degeneration.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    From the French point of view, flirtage and flirtation generally
+    have been discussed by Madame Bentzon (&quot;Family Life in America,&quot;
+    <i>Forum</i>, March, 1896) who, however, fails to realize the natural
+    basis of flirtation in courtship. She regards it as a sin against
+    the law &quot;Thou shalt not play with love,&quot; for it ought to have the
+    excuse of an irresistible passion, but she thinks it is
+    comparatively inoffensive in America (though still a
+    deteriorating influence on the women) on account of the
+    temperament, education, and habits of the people. It must,
+    however, be remembered that play has a proper relationship to all
+    vital activities, and that a reasonable criticism of flirtation
+    is concerned rather with its normal limitations than with its
+    right to exist (see the observations on the natural basis of
+    coquetry and the ends it subserves in &quot;The Evolution of Modesty&quot;
+    in volume i of these <i>Studies</i>).</p></div><a name='6_Page_520'></a>
+
+<p>While flirtation in its natural form&mdash;though not in the perverted form of
+&quot;flirtage&quot;&mdash;has sound justification, alike as a method of testing a lover
+and of acquiring some small part of the art of love, it remains an
+altogether inadequate preparation for love. This is sufficiently shown by
+the frequent inaptitude for the art of love, and even for the mere
+physical act of love, so frequently manifested both by men and women in
+the very countries where flirtation most flourishes.</p>
+
+<p>This ignorance, not merely of the art of love but even of the physical
+facts of sexual love, is marked not only in women, especially women of the
+middle class, but also in men, for the civilized man, as Fritsch long ago
+remarked, often knows less of the facts of the sexual life than a
+milkmaid. It shows itself differently, however, in the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p>Among women sexual ignorance ranges from complete innocence of the fact
+that it involves any intimate bodily relationship at all to
+misapprehensions of the most various kind; some think that the
+relationship consists in lying side by side, many that intercourse takes
+place at the navel, not a few that the act occupies the whole night. It
+has been necessary in a previous chapter to discuss the general evils of
+sexual ignorance; it is here necessary to refer to its more special evils
+as regards the relationship of marriage. Girls are educated with the vague
+idea that they will marry,&mdash;quite correctly, for the majority of them do
+marry,&mdash;but the idea that they must be educated for the career that will
+naturally fall to their lot is an idea which as yet has never seemed to
+occur to the teachers of girls. Their heads are crammed to stupidity with
+the knowledge of facts which it is no one's concern to know, but the
+supremely important training for life they are totally unable to teach.
+Women are trained for nearly every avocation under the sun; for the
+supreme avocation of wifehood and motherhood they are never trained at
+all!</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, and with truth, that the present incompetent training of
+girls is likely to continue so long as the mothers of girls are content to
+demand nothing better. It may also be said, with even greater truth, that
+there is much that concerns the <a name='6_Page_521'></a>knowledge of sexual relationships which
+the mother herself may most properly impart to her daughter. It may
+further be asserted, most unanswerably, that the art of love, with which
+we are here more especially concerned, can only be learnt by actual
+experience, an experience which our social traditions make it difficult
+for a virtuous girl to acquire with credit. Without here attempting to
+apportion the share of blame which falls to each cause, it remains
+unfortunate that a woman should so often enter marriage with the worst
+possible equipment of prejudices and misapprehensions, even when she
+believes, as often happens, that she knows all about it. Even with the
+best equipment, a woman, under present conditions, enters marriage at a
+disadvantage. She awakes to the full realization of love more slowly than
+a man, and, on the average, at a later age, so that her experiences of the
+life of sex before marriage have usually been of a much more restricted
+kind than her husband's.<a name='6_FNanchor_382'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_382'><sup>[382]</sup></a> So that even with the best preparation, it
+often happens that it is not until several years after marriage that a
+woman clearly realizes her own sexual needs and adequately estimates her
+husband's ability to satisfy those needs. We cannot over-estimate the
+personal and social importance of a complete preparation for marriage, and
+the greater the difficulties placed in the way of divorce the more weight
+necessarily attaches to that preparation.<a name='6_FNanchor_383'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_383'><sup>[383]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Everyone is probably acquainted with many cases of the extreme
+    ignorance of women on entering marriage. The following case
+    concerning a woman of twenty-seven, who had been asked in
+    marriage, is somewhat extreme, but not very exceptional. &quot;She did
+    not feel sure of her affection and she asked a woman cousin
+    concerning the meaning of love. This cousin lent her Ellis
+    Ethelmer's pamphlet, <i>The Human Flower</i>. She learnt from this
+    that men desired the body of a woman, and this <a name='6_Page_522'></a>so appalled her
+    that she was quite ill for several days. The next time her lover
+    attempted a caress she told him that it was 'lust.' Since then
+    she has read George Moore's <i>Sister Teresa</i>, and the knowledge
+    that 'women can be as bad as men' has made her sad.&quot; The
+    &quot;Histories&quot; contained in the Appendices to previous volumes of
+    these <i>Studies</i> reveal numerous instances of the deplorable
+    ignorance of young girls concerning the most central facts of the
+    sexual life. It is not surprising, under such circumstances, that
+    marriage leads to disillusionment or repulsion.</p>
+
+<p>    It is commonly said that the duty of initiating the wife into the
+    privileges and obligations of marriage properly belongs to the
+    husband. Apart, however, altogether from the fact that it is
+    unjust to a woman to compel her to bind herself in marriage
+    before she has fully realized what marriage means, it must also
+    be said that there are many things necessary for women to know
+    that it is unreasonable to expect a husband to explain. This is,
+    for instance, notably the case as regards the more fatiguing and
+    exhausting effects of coitus on a man as compared with a woman.
+    The inexperienced bride cannot know beforehand that the
+    frequently repeated orgasms which render her vigorous and radiant
+    exert a depressing effect on her husband, and his masculine pride
+    induces him to attempt to conceal that fact. The bride, in her
+    innocence, is unconscious that her pleasure is bought at her
+    husband's expense, and that what is not excess to her, may be a
+    serious excess to him. The woman who knows (notably, for
+    instance, a widow who remarries) is careful to guard her
+    husband's health in this respect, by restraining her own ardor,
+    for she realizes that a man is not willing to admit that he is
+    incapable of satisfying his wife's desires. (G. Hirth has also
+    pointed out how important it is that women should know before
+    marriage the natural limits of masculine potency, <i>Wege zur
+    Liebe</i>, p. 571.)</p></div>
+
+<p>The ignorance of women of all that concerns the art of love, and their
+total lack of preparation for the natural facts of the sexual life, would
+perhaps be of less evil augury for marriage if it were always compensated
+by the knowledge, skill, and considerateness of the husband. But that is
+by no means always the case. Within the ordinary range we find, at all
+events in England, the large group of men whose knowledge of women before
+marriage has been mainly confined to prostitutes, and the important and
+not inconsiderable group of men who have had no intimate intercourse with
+women, their sexual experiences having been confined to masturbation or
+other auto-erotic manifestations, and to flirtation. Certainly the man of
+sensitive and intelligent temperament, whatever his training or lack of
+training, <a name='6_Page_523'></a>may succeed with patience and consideration in overcoming all
+the difficulties placed in the way of love by the mixture of ignorances
+and prejudices which so often in woman takes the place of an education for
+the erotic part of her life. But it cannot be said that either of these
+two groups of men has been well equipped for the task. The training and
+experience which a man receives from a prostitute, even under fairly
+favorable conditions, scarcely form the right preparation for approaching
+a woman of his own class who has no intimate erotic experiences.<a name='6_FNanchor_384'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_384'><sup>[384]</sup></a> The
+frequent result is that he is liable to waver between two opposite courses
+of action, both of them mistaken. On the one hand, he may treat his bride
+as a prostitute, or as a novice to be speedily moulded into the sexual
+shape he is most accustomed to, thus running the risk either of perverting
+or of disgusting her. On the other hand, realizing that the purity and
+dignity of his bride place her in an altogether different class from the
+women he has previously known, he may go to the opposite extreme of
+treating her with an exaggerated respect, and so fail either to arouse or
+to gratify her erotic needs. It is difficult to say which of these two
+courses of action is the more unfortunate; the result of both, however, is
+frequently found to be that a nominal marriage never becomes a real
+marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_385'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_385'><sup>[385]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_524'></a>
+<p>Yet there can be no doubt whatever that the other group of men, the men
+who enter marriage without any erotic experiences, run even greater risks.
+These are often the best of men, both as regards personal character and
+mental power. It is indeed astonishing to find how ignorant, both
+practically and theoretically, very able and highly educated men may be
+concerning sexual matters.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Complete abstinence during youth,&quot; says Freud
+    (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, March, 1908), &quot;is not the best preparation
+    for marriage in a young man. Women divine this and prefer those
+    of their wooers who have already proved themselves to be men with
+    other women.&quot; Ellen Key, referring to the demand sometimes made
+    by women for purity in men (<i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 96), asks
+    whether women realize the effect of their admiration of the
+    experienced and confident man who knows women, on the shy and
+    hesitating youth, &quot;who perhaps has been struggling hard for his
+    erotic purity, in the hope that a woman's happy smile will be the
+    reward of his conquest, and who is condemned to see how that
+    woman looks down on him with lofty compassion and gazes with
+    admiration at the leopard's spots.&quot; When the lover, in Laura
+    Marholm's <i>Was war es</i>? says to the heroine, &quot;I have never yet
+    touched a woman,&quot; the girl &quot;turns from him with horror, and it
+    seemed to her that a cold shudder went through her, a chilling
+    deception.&quot; The same feeling is manifested in an exaggerated form
+    in the passion often experienced by vigorous girls of eighteen to
+    twenty-four for old rou&eacute;s. (This has been discussed by Forel,
+    <i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, pp. 217 <i>et seq.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>    Other factors may enter in a woman's preference for the man who
+    has conquered other women. Even the most religious and moral
+    young woman, Valera remarks (<i>Do&ntilde;a Luz</i>, p. 205), likes to marry
+    a man who has loved many women; it gives a greater value to his
+    choice of her; it also offers her an opportunity of converting
+    him to higher ideals. No doubt when the inexperienced man meets
+    in marriage the equally inexperienced woman they often succeed in
+    adapting themselves to each other and a permanent <i>modus vivendi</i>
+    is constituted. But it is by no means so always. If the wife is
+    taught by instinct or experience she is apt to resent the
+    awkwardness and helplessness of her husband in the art of love.
+    Even if she is ignorant she may be permanently alienated and
+    become chronically frigid, through the brutal inconsiderateness
+    of her ignorant husband in carrying out what he conceives to be
+    his marital duties. (It has already been necessary to touch on
+    this point in discussing &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women&quot; in vol.
+    iii of these <i>Studies</i>.) Sometimes, indeed, serious physical
+    injury has been inflicted on the bride owing to this ignorance of
+    the husband.</p><a name='6_Page_525'></a>
+
+<p>    &quot;I take it that most men have had pre-matrimonial
+    sex-relationships,&quot; a correspondent writes. &quot;But I have known one
+    man at least who, up till the age of twenty, had not even a
+    rudimentary idea of sex matters. At twenty-nine, a few months
+    before marriage, he came to ask me how coitus was performed, and
+    displayed an ignorance that I could not believe to exist in the
+    mind of an otherwise intelligent man. He had evidently no
+    instinct to guide him, as the brutes have, and his reason was
+    unable to supply the necessary knowledge. It is very curious that
+    man should lose this instinctive knowledge. I have known another
+    man almost equally ignorant. He also came to me for advice in
+    marital duties. Both of these men masturbated, and they were
+    normally passionate.&quot; Such cases are not so very rare. Usually,
+    however, a certain amount of information has been acquired from
+    some for the most part unsatisfactory source, and the ignorance
+    is only partial, though not on that account less dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>    Balzac has compared the average husband to an orang-utan trying
+    to play the violin. &quot;Love, as we instinctively feel, is the most
+    melodious of harmonies. Woman is a delicious instrument of
+    pleasure, but it is necessary to know its quivering strings,
+    study the pose of it, its timid keyboard, the changing and
+    capricious fingering. How many orangs&mdash;men, I mean, marry without
+    knowing what a woman is!... Nearly all men marry in the most
+    profound ignorance of women and of love&quot; (Balzac, <i>Physiologie du
+    Mariage</i>, Meditation VII).</p>
+
+<p>    Neugebauer (<i>Monatsschrift f&uuml;r Geburtsh&uuml;lfe</i>, 1889, Bk. ix, pp.
+    221 <i>et seq.</i>) has collected over one hundred and fifty cases of
+    injury to women in coitus inflicted by the penis. The causes were
+    brutality, drunkenness of one or both parties, unusual position
+    in coitus, disproportion of the organs, pathological conditions
+    of the woman's organs (<i>Cf.</i> R. W. Taylor, <i>Practical Treatise on
+    Sexual Disorders</i>, Ch. XXXV). Blumreich also discusses the
+    injuries produced by violent coitus (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health
+    and Disease in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. ii, pp. 770-779). C. M.
+    Green (<i>Boston Medical and Surgical Journal</i>, 13 Ap., 1893)
+    records two cases of rupture of vagina by sexual intercourse in
+    newly-married ladies, without evidence of any great violence.
+    Mylott (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Sept. 16, 1899) records a
+    similar case occurring on the wedding night. The amount of force
+    sometimes exerted in coitus is evidenced by the cases, occurring
+    from time to time, in which intercourse takes place by the
+    urethra.</p>
+
+<p>    Eulenburg finds (<i>Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, p. 69) that vaginismus, a
+    condition of spasmodic contraction of the vulva and exaggerated
+    sensibility on the attempt to effect coitus, is due to forcible
+    and unskilful attempts at the first coitus. Adler (<i>Die
+    Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes</i>, p. 160) also
+    believes that the scarred remains of the hymen, together with
+    painful memories of a violent first coitus, are the most frequent
+    cause of vaginismus.</p><a name='6_Page_526'></a>
+
+<p>    The occasional cases, however, of physical injury or of
+    pathological condition produced by violent coitus at the
+    beginning of marriage constitute but a very small portion of the
+    evidence which witnesses to the evil results of the prevalent
+    ignorance regarding the art of love. As regards Germany,
+    F&uuml;rbringer writes (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 215): &quot;I am perfectly satisfied
+    that the number of young married women who have a lasting painful
+    recollection of their first sexual intercourse exceeds by far the
+    number of those who venture to consult a doctor.&quot; As regards
+    England, the following experience is instructive: A lady asked
+    six married women in succession, privately, on the same day
+    concerning their bridal experiences. To all, sexual intercourse
+    had come as a shock; two had been absolutely ignorant about
+    sexual matters; the others had thought they knew what coitus was,
+    but were none the less shocked. These women were of the middle
+    class, perhaps above the average in intelligence; one was a
+    doctor.</p>
+
+<p>    Breuer and Freud, in their <i>Studien &uuml;ber Hysterie</i> (p. 216),
+    pointed out that the bridal night is practically often a rape,
+    and that it sometimes leads to hysteria, which is not cured until
+    satisfying sexual relationships are established. Even when there
+    is no violence, Kisch (<i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>, Part II) regards
+    awkward and inexperienced coitus, leading to incomplete
+    excitement of the wife, as the chief cause of dyspareunia, or
+    absence of sexual gratification, although gross disproportion in
+    the size of the male and female organs, or disease in either
+    party, may lead to the same result. Dyspareunia, Kisch adds, is
+    astonishingly frequent, though sometimes women complain of it
+    without justification in order to arouse sympathy for themselves
+    as sacrifices on the altar of marriage; the constant sign is
+    absence of ejaculation on the woman's part. Kisch also observes
+    that wedding night deflorations are often really rapes. One young
+    bride, known to him, was so ignorant of the physical side of
+    love, and so overwhelmed by her husband's first attempt at
+    intercourse, that she fled from the house in the night, and
+    nothing would ever persuade her to return to her husband. (It is
+    worth noting that by Canon law, under such circumstances, the
+    Church might hold the marriage invalid. See Thomas Slater's
+    <i>Moral Theology</i>, vol. ii, p. 318, and a case in point, both
+    quoted by Rev. C. J. Shebbeare, &quot;Marriage Law in the Church of
+    England,&quot; <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, Aug., 1909, p. 263.) Kisch
+    considers, also, that wedding tours are a mistake; since the
+    fatigue, the excitement, the long journeys, sight-seeing, false
+    modesty, bad hotel arrangements, often combine to affect the
+    bride unfavorably and produce the germs of serious illness. This
+    is undoubtedly the case.</p>
+
+<p>    The extreme psychic importance of the manner in which the act of
+    defloration is accomplished is strongly emphasized by Adler. He
+    regards it as a frequent cause of permanent sexual an&aelig;sthesia.
+    &quot;This first <a name='6_Page_527'></a>moment in which the man's individuality attains its
+    full rights often decides the whole of life. The unskilled,
+    over-excited husband can then implant the seed of feminine
+    insensibility, and by continued awkwardness and coarseness
+    develop it into permanent an&aelig;sthesia. The man who takes
+    possession of his rights with reckless brutal masculine force
+    merely causes his wife anxiety and pain, and with every
+    repetition of the act increases her repulsion.... A large
+    proportion of cold-natured women represent a sacrifice by men,
+    due either to unconscious awkwardness, or, occasionally, to
+    conscious brutality towards the tender plant which should have
+    been cherished with peculiar art and love, but has been robbed of
+    the splendor of its development. All her life long, a wistful and
+    trembling woman will preserve the recollection of a brutal
+    wedding night, and, often enough, it remains a perpetual source
+    of inhibition every time that the husband seeks anew to gratify
+    his desires without adapting himself to his wife's desires for
+    love&quot; (O. Adler, <i>Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des
+    Weibes</i>, pp. 159 <i>et seq.</i>, 181 <i>et seq.</i>). &quot;I have seen an
+    honest woman shudder with horror at her husband's approach,&quot;
+    wrote Diderot long ago in his essay &quot;Sur les Femmes&quot;; &quot;I have
+    seen her plunge in the bath and feel herself never sufficiently
+    washed from the stain of duty.&quot; The same may still be said of a
+    vast army of women, victims of a pernicious system of morality
+    which has taught them false ideas of &quot;conjugal duty&quot; and has
+    failed to teach their husbands the art of love.</p></div>
+
+<p>Women, when their fine natural instincts have not been hopelessly
+perverted by the pruderies and prejudices which are so diligently
+instilled into them, understand the art of love more readily than men.
+Even when little more than children they can often completely take the cue
+that is given to them. Much more than is the case with men, at all events
+under civilized conditions, the art of love is with them an art that
+Nature makes. They always know more of love, as Montaigne long since said,
+than men can teach them, for it is a discipline that is born in their
+blood.<a name='6_FNanchor_386'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_386'><sup>[386]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_528'></a>
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The extensive inquiries of Sanford Bell (<i>loc. cit.</i>) show that
+    the emotions of sex-love may appear as early as the third year.
+    It must also be remembered that, both physically and psychically,
+    girls are more precocious, more mature, than boys (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+    Havelock Ellis, <i>Man and Woman</i>, fourth edition, pp. 34 <i>et
+    seq.</i>, 200, etc.). Thus, by the time she has reached the age of
+    puberty a girl has had time to become an accomplished mistress of
+    the minor arts of love. That the age of puberty is for girls the
+    age of love seems to be widely recognized by the popular mind.
+    Thus in a popular song of Bresse a girl sings:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i5'>&quot;J'ai calcul&eacute; mon &acirc;ge,<br /></span>
+<span class='i5'>J'ai quatorze &agrave; quinze ans.<br /></span>
+<span class='i5'>Ne suis-je pas dans l'&acirc;ge<br /></span>
+<span class='i5'>D'y avoir un amant?&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>This matter of the sexual precocity of girls has an important
+    bearing on the question of the &quot;age of consent,&quot; or the age at
+    which it should be legal for a girl to consent to sexual
+    intercourse. Until within the last twenty-five years there has
+    been a tendency to set a very low age (even as low as ten) as the
+    age above which a man commits no offence in having sexual
+    intercourse with a girl. In recent years there has been a
+    tendency to run to the opposite and equally unfortunate extreme
+    of raising it to a very late age. In England, by the Criminal Law
+    Amendment Act of 1885, the age of consent was raised to sixteen
+    (this clause of the bill being carried in the House of Commons by
+    a majority of 108). This seems to be the reasonable age at which
+    the limit should be set and its extreme high limit in temperate
+    climates. It is the age recognized by the Italian Criminal Code,
+    and in many other parts of the civilized world. Gladstone,
+    however, was in favor of raising it to eighteen, and Howard, in
+    discussing this question as regards the United States
+    (<i>Matrimonial Institutions</i>, vol. iii, pp. 195-203), thinks it
+    ought everywhere to be raised to twenty-one, so coinciding with
+    the age of legal majority at which a woman can enter into
+    business or political relations. There has been, during recent
+    years, a wide limit of variation in the legislation of the
+    different American States on this point, the differences of the
+    two limits being as much as eight years, and in some important
+    States the act of intercourse with a girl under eighteen is
+    declared to be &quot;rape,&quot; and punishable with imprisonment for life.</p>
+
+<p>    Such enactments as these, however, it must be recognized, are
+    arbitrary, artificial, and unnatural. They do not rest on a sound
+    biological basis, and cannot be enforced by the common sense of
+    the community. There is no proper analogy between the age of
+    legal majority which is fixed, approximately, with reference to
+    the ability to comprehend abstract matters of intelligence, and
+    the age of sexual maturity which occurs much earlier, both
+    physically and psychically, and is determined in <a name='6_Page_529'></a>women by a very
+    precise biological event: the completion of puberty in the onset
+    of menstruation. Among peoples living under natural conditions in
+    all parts of the world it is recognized that a girl becomes
+    sexually a woman at puberty; at that epoch she receives her
+    initiation into adult life and becomes a wife and a mother. To
+    declare that the act of intercourse with a woman who, by the
+    natural instinct of mankind generally, is regarded as old enough
+    for all the duties of womanhood, is a criminal act of rape,
+    punishable by imprisonment for life, can only be considered an
+    abuse of language, and, what is worse, an abuse of law, even if
+    we leave all psychological and moral considerations out of the
+    question, for it deprives the conception of rape of all that
+    renders it naturally and properly revolting.</p>
+
+<p>    The sound view in this question is clearly the view that it is
+    the girl's puberty which constitutes the criterion of the man's
+    criminality in sexually approaching her. In the temperate regions
+    of Europe and North America the average age of the appearance of
+    menstruation, the critical moment in the establishment of
+    complete puberty, is fifteen (see, <i>e.g.</i>, Havelock Ellis, <i>Man
+    and Woman</i>, Ch. XI; the facts are set forth at length in Kisch's
+    <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>, 1909). Therefore it is reasonable that
+    the act of an adult man in having sexual connection with a girl
+    under sixteen, with or without her consent, should properly be a
+    criminal act, severely punishable. In those lands where the
+    average age of puberty is higher or lower, the age of consent
+    should be raised or lowered accordingly. (Bruno Meyer, arguing
+    against any attempt to raise the age of consent above sixteen,
+    considers that the proper age of consent is generally fourteen,
+    for, as he rightly insists, the line of division is between the
+    ripe and the unripe personality, and while the latter should be
+    strictly preserved from the sphere of sexuality, only voluntary,
+    not compulsory, influence should be brought to bear on the
+    former. <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Ap., 1909.)</p>
+
+<p>    If we take into our view the wider considerations of psychology,
+    morality, and law, we shall find ample justification for this
+    point of view. We have to remember that a girl, during all the
+    years of ordinary school life, is always more advanced, both
+    physically and psychically, than a boy of the same age, and we
+    have to recognize that this precocity covers her sexual
+    development; for even though it is true, on the average, that
+    active sexual desire is not usually aroused in women until a
+    somewhat later age, there is also truth in the observation of Mr.
+    Thomas Hardy (<i>New Review</i>, June, 1894): &quot;It has never struck me
+    that the spider is invariably male and the fly invariably
+    female.&quot; Even, therefore, when sexual intercourse takes place
+    between a girl and a youth somewhat older than herself, she is
+    likely to be the more mature, the more self-possessed, and the
+    more responsible of the two, and often the one who has taken the
+    more active part in initiating the act. (This point has <a name='6_Page_530'></a>been
+    discussed in &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women&quot; in vol. iii of these
+    <i>Studies</i>.) It must also be remembered that when a girl has once
+    reached the age of puberty, and put on all the manner and habits
+    as well as the physical development of a woman, it is no longer
+    possible for a man always to estimate her age. It is easy to see
+    that a girl has not yet reached the age of puberty; it is
+    impossible to tell whether a mature woman is under or over
+    eighteen; it is therefore, to say the least, unjust to make her
+    male partner's fate for life depend on the recognition of a
+    distinction which has no basis in nature. Such considerations
+    are, indeed, so obvious that there is no chance of carrying out
+    thoroughly in practice the doctrine that a man should be
+    imprisoned for life for having intercourse with a girl who is
+    over the age of sixteen. It is better, from the legal point of
+    view, to cast the net less widely and to be quite sure that it is
+    adapted to catch the real and conscious offender, who may be
+    punished without offending the common sense of the community.
+    (<i>Cf.</i> Bloch, <i>The Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, Ch. XXIV; he
+    considers that the &quot;age of consent&quot; should begin with the
+    completion of the sixteenth year.)</p>
+
+<p>    It may be necessary to add that the establishment of the &quot;age of
+    consent&quot; on this basis by no means implies that intercourse with
+    girls but little over sixteen should be encouraged, or even
+    socially and morally tolerated. Here, however, we are not in the
+    sphere of law. It is the natural tendency of the well-born and
+    well-nurtured girl under civilized conditions to hold herself in
+    reserve, and the pressure whereby that tendency is maintained and
+    furthered must be supplied by the whole of her environment,
+    primarily by the intelligent reflection of the girl herself when
+    she has reached the age of adolescence. To foster in a young
+    woman who has long passed the epoch of puberty the notion that
+    she has no responsibility in the guardianship of her own body and
+    soul is out of harmony with modern feeling, as well as
+    unfavorable to the training of women for the world. The States
+    which have been induced to adopt the high limit of the age of
+    consent have, indeed, thereby made an abject confession of their
+    inability to maintain a decent moral level by more legitimate
+    means; they may profitably serve as a warning rather than as an
+    example.</p></div>
+
+<p>The knowledge of women cannot, however, replace, the ignorance of men,
+but, on the contrary, merely serves to reveal it. For in the art of love
+the man must necessarily take the initiative. It is he who must first
+unseal the mystery of the intimacies and audacities which the woman's
+heart may hold. The risk of meeting with even the shadow of contempt or
+disgust is too serious to allow a woman, even a wife, to reveal the
+secrets of love to a <a name='6_Page_531'></a>man who has not shown himself to be an
+initiate.<a name='6_FNanchor_387'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_387'><sup>[387]</sup></a> Numberless are the jovial and contented husbands who have
+never suspected, and will never know, that their wives carry about with
+them, sometimes with silent resentment, the ache of mysterious <i>tabus</i>.
+The feeling that there are delicious privacies and privileges which she
+has never been asked to take, or forced to accept, often erotically
+divorces a wife from a husband who never realizes what he has missed.<a name='6_FNanchor_388'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_388'><sup>[388]</sup></a>
+The case of such husbands is all the harder because, for the most part,
+all that they have done is the result of the morality that has been
+preached to them. They have been taught from boyhood to be strenuous and
+manly and clean-minded, to seek by all means to put out of their minds the
+thought of women or the longing for sensuous indulgence. They have been
+told on all sides that only in marriage is it right or even safe to
+approach women. They have acquired the notion that sexual indulgence and
+all that appertains to it is something low and degrading, at the worst a
+mere natural necessity, at the best a duty to be accomplished in a direct,
+honorable and straight-forward manner. No one seems to have told them that
+love is an art, and that to gain real possession of a woman's soul and
+body is a task that requires the whole of a man's best skill and insight.
+It may well be that when a man learns his lesson too late he is inclined
+to turn ferociously on the society that by its conspiracy of
+pseudo-morality has done its best to ruin his life, and that of his wife.
+In some of these cases husband or wife or both are <a name='6_Page_532'></a>finally attracted to a
+third person, and a divorce enables them to start afresh with better
+experience under happier auspices. But as things are at present that is a
+sad and serious process, for many impossible. They are happier, as Milton
+pointed out, whose trials of love before marriage &quot;have been so many
+divorces to teach them experience.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>The general ignorance concerning the art of love may be gauged by the fact
+that perhaps the question in this matter most frequently asked is the
+crude question how often sexual intercourse should take place. That is a
+question, indeed, which has occupied the founders of religion, the
+law-givers, and the philosophers of mankind, from the earliest times.<a name='6_FNanchor_389'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_389'><sup>[389]</sup></a>
+Zoroaster said it should be once in every nine days. The laws of Manes
+allowed intercourse during fourteen days of the month, but a famous
+ancient Hindu physician, Susruta, prescribed it six times a month, except
+during the heat of summer when it should be once a month, while other
+Hindu authorities say three or four times a month. Solon's requirement of
+the citizen that intercourse should take place three times a month fairly
+agrees with Zoroaster's. Mohammed, in the Koran, decrees intercourse once
+a week. The Jewish Talmud is more discriminating, and distinguishes
+between different classes of people; on the vigorous and healthy young
+man, not compelled to work hard, once a day is imposed, on the ordinary
+working man twice a week, on learned men once a week. Luther considered
+twice a week the proper frequency of intercourse.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that, as we might expect, these estimates tend to
+allow a greater interval in the earlier ages when erotic stimulation was
+probably less and erotic erethism probably rare, and to involve an
+increased frequency as we approach modern civilization. It will also be
+observed that variation occurs within fairly narrow limits. This is
+probably due to the fact that these law-givers were in all cases men.
+Women law-givers would <a name='6_Page_533'></a>certainly have shown a much greater tendency to
+variation, since the variations of the sexual impulse are greater in
+women.<a name='6_FNanchor_390'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_390'><sup>[390]</sup></a> Thus Zenobia required the approach of her husband once a
+month, provided that impregnation had not taken place the previous month,
+while another queen went very far to the other extreme, for we are told
+that the Queen of Aragon, after mature deliberation, ordained six times a
+day as the proper rule in a legitimate marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_391'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_391'><sup>[391]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It may be remarked, in passing, that the estimates of the proper
+    frequency of sexual intercourse may always be taken to assume
+    that there is a cessation during the menstrual period. This is
+    especially the case as regards early periods of culture when
+    intercourse at this time is usually regarded as either dangerous
+    or sinful, or both. (This point has been discussed in the
+    &quot;Phenomena of Periodicity&quot; in volume i of these <i>Studies</i>.) Under
+    civilized conditions the inhibition is due to &aelig;sthetic reasons,
+    the wife, even if she desires intercourse, feeling a repugnance
+    to be approached at a time when she regards herself as
+    &quot;disgusting,&quot; and the husband easily sharing this attitude. It
+    may, however, be pointed out that the &aelig;sthetic objection is very
+    largely the result of the superstitious horror of water which is
+    still widely felt at this time, and would, to some extent,
+    disappear if a more scrupulous cleanliness were observed. It
+    remains a good general rule to abstain from sexual intercourse
+    during the menstrual period, but in some cases there may be
+    adequate reason for breaking it. This is so when desire is
+    specially strong at this time, or when intercourse is physically
+    difficult at other times but easier during the relaxation of the
+    parts caused by menstruation. It must be remembered also that the
+    time when the menstrual flow is beginning to cease is probably,
+    more than any other period of the month, the biologically proper
+    time for sexual intercourse, since not only is intercourse
+    easiest then, and also most gratifying to the female, but it
+    affords the most favorable opportunity for securing
+    fertilization.</p>
+
+<p>    Schurig long since brought together evidence (<i>Parthenologia</i>,
+    pp. 302 <i>et seq.</i>) showing that coitus is most easy during
+    menstruation. Some of the Catholic theologians (like Sanchez, and
+    later, Liguori), going against the popular opinion, have
+    distinctly permitted intercourse during menstruation, though many
+    earlier theologians regarded it as a mortal <a name='6_Page_534'></a>sin. From the
+    medical side, Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 249) advocates coitus not
+    only at the end of menstruation, but even during the latter part
+    of the period, as being the time when women most usually need it,
+    the marked disagreeableness of temper often shown by women at
+    this time, he says, being connected with the suppression,
+    demanded by custom, of a natural desire. &quot;It is almost always
+    during menstruation that the first clouds appear on the
+    matrimonial horizon.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>In modern times the physiologists and physicians who have expressed any
+opinion on this subject have usually come very near to Luther's dictum.
+Haller said that intercourse should not be much more frequent than twice a
+week.<a name='6_FNanchor_392'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_392'><sup>[392]</sup></a> Acton said once a week, and so also Hammond, even for healthy
+men between the ages of twenty-five and forty.<a name='6_FNanchor_393'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_393'><sup>[393]</sup></a> F&uuml;rbringer only
+slightly exceeds this estimate by advocating from fifty to one hundred
+single acts in the year.<a name='6_FNanchor_394'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_394'><sup>[394]</sup></a> Forel advises two or three times a week for
+a man in the prime of manhood, but he adds that for some healthy and
+vigorous men once a month appears to be excess.<a name='6_FNanchor_395'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_395'><sup>[395]</sup></a> Mantegazza, in his
+<i>Hygiene of Love</i>, also states that, for a man between twenty and thirty,
+two or three times a week represents the proper amount of intercourse, and
+between the ages of thirty and forty-five, twice a week. Guyot recommends
+every three days.<a name='6_FNanchor_396'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_396'><sup>[396]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It seems, however, quite unnecessary to lay down any general rules
+regarding the frequency of coitus. Individual desire and individual
+aptitude, even within the limits of health, vary enormously. Moreover, if
+we recognize that the restraint of desire is sometimes desirable, and
+often necessary for prolonged periods, it is as well to refrain from any
+appearance of asserting the necessity of sexual intercourse at frequent
+and regular intervals. The question is chiefly of importance in order to
+guard against excess, or even against the attempt to live habitually close
+to the threshold of excess. Many authorities are, therefore, careful to
+point out that it is inadvisable to be too definite.<a name='6_Page_535'></a> Thus Erb, while
+remarking that, for some, Luther's dictum represents the extreme maximum,
+adds that others can go far beyond that amount with impunity, and he
+considers that such variations are congenital.<a name='6_FNanchor_397'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_397'><sup>[397]</sup></a> Ribbing, again, while
+expressing general agreement with Luther's rule, protests against any
+attempt to lay down laws for everyone, and is inclined to say that as
+often as one likes is a safe rule, so long as there are no bad
+after-effects.<a name='6_FNanchor_398'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_398'><sup>[398]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It seems to be generally agreed that bad effects from excess in
+    coitus, when they do occur, are rare in women (see, <i>e.g.</i>,
+    Hammond, <i>Sexual Impotence</i>, p. 127). Occasionally, however, evil
+    effects occur in women. (The case, possibly to be mentioned in
+    this connection, has been recorded of a man whose three wives all
+    became insane after marriage, <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, Jan.,
+    1879, p. 611.) In cases of sexual excess great physical
+    exhaustion, with suspicion and delusions, is often observed.
+    Hutchinson has recorded three cases of temporary blindness, all
+    in men, the result of sexual excess after marriage (<i>Archives of
+    Surgery</i>, Jan., 1893). The old medical authors attributed many
+    evil results to excess in coitus. Thus Schurig (<i>Spermatologia</i>,
+    1720, pp. 260 <i>et seq.</i>) brings together cases of insanity,
+    apoplexy, syncope, epilepsy, loss of memory, blindness, baldness,
+    unilateral perspiration, gout, and death attributed to this
+    cause; of death many cases are given, some in women, but one may
+    easily perceive that <i>post</i> was often mistaken for <i>propter</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is, however, another consideration which can scarcely escape the
+reader of the present work. Nearly all the estimates of the desirable
+frequence of coitus are framed to suit the supposed physiological needs of
+the husband,<a name='6_FNanchor_399'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_399'><sup>[399]</sup></a> and they appear <a name='6_Page_536'></a>usually to be framed in the same spirit
+of exclusive attention to those needs as though the physiological needs of
+the evacuation of the bowels or the bladder were in question. But sexual
+needs are the needs of two persons, of the husband and of the wife. It is
+not enough to ascertain the needs of the husband; it is also necessary to
+ascertain the needs of the wife. The resultant must be a harmonious
+adjustment of these two groups of needs. That consideration alone, in
+conjunction with the wide variations of individual needs, suffices to
+render any definite rules of very trifling value.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is important to remember the wide limits of variation in
+    sexual capacity, as well as the fact that such variations in
+    either direction may be healthy and normal, though undoubtedly
+    when they become extreme variations may have a pathological
+    significance. In one case, for instance, a man has intercourse
+    once a month and finds this sufficient; he has no nocturnal
+    emissions nor any strong desires in the interval; yet he leads an
+    idle and luxurious life and is not restrained by any moral or
+    religious scruples; if he much exceeds the frequency which suits
+    him he suffers from ill-health, though otherwise quite healthy
+    except for a weak digestion. At the other extreme, a happily
+    married couple, between forty-five and fifty, much attached to
+    each other, had engaged in sexual intercourse every night for
+    twenty years, except during the menstrual period and advanced
+    pregnancy, which had only occurred once; they are hearty,
+    full-blooded, intellectual people, fond of good living, and they
+    attribute their affection and constancy to this frequent
+    indulgence in coitus; the only child, a girl, is not strong,
+    though fairly healthy.</p>
+
+<p>    The cases are numerous in which, on special occasions, it is
+    possible for people who are passionately attached to each other
+    to repeat the act of coitus, or at all events the orgasm, an
+    inordinate number of times within a few hours. This usually
+    occurs at the beginning of an intimacy or after a long
+    separation. Thus in one case a newly-married woman experienced
+    the orgasm fourteen times in one night, her husband in the same
+    period experiencing it seven times. In another case a woman who
+    had lived a chaste life, when sexual relationships finally began,
+    once experienced orgasm fourteen or fifteen times to her
+    partner's three times. In a case which, I have been assured may
+    be accepted as authentic, a young wife of highly erotic, very
+    erethic, slightly abnormal temperament, after a month's absence
+    from her husband, was excited twenty-six times within an hour and
+    a quarter; her husband, a much older man, having two orgasms
+    during this period; the wife admitted that she felt a &quot;complete
+    wreck&quot; after this, but it is evident that if this case may <a name='6_Page_537'></a>be
+    regarded as authentic the orgasms were of extremely slight
+    intensity. A young woman, newly married to a physically robust
+    man, once had intercourse with him eight times in two hours,
+    orgasm occurring each time in both parties. Guttceit (<i>Dreissig
+    Jahre Praxis</i>, vol. ii. p. 311), in Russia, knew many cases in
+    which young men of twenty-two to twenty-eight had intercourse
+    more than ten times in one night, though after the fourth time
+    there is seldom any semen. He had known some men who had
+    masturbated in early boyhood, and began to consort with women at
+    fifteen, yet remained sexually vigorous in old age, while he knew
+    others who began intercourse late and were losing force at forty.
+    Mantegazza, who knew a man who had intercourse fourteen times in
+    one day, remarks that the stories of the old Italian novelists
+    show that twelve times was regarded as a rare exception.
+    Burchard, Alexander VI's secretary, states that the Florentine
+    Ambassador's son, in Rome in 1489, &quot;knew a girl seven times in
+    one hour&quot; (J. Burchard, <i>Diarium</i>, ed. Thuasne, vol. i, p. 329).
+    Olivier, Charlemagne's knight, boasted, according to legend, that
+    he could show his virile power one hundred times in one night, if
+    allowed to sleep with the Emperor of Constantinople's daughter;
+    he was allowed to try, it is said, and succeeded thirty times
+    (Schultz, <i>Das H&ouml;fische Leben</i>, vol. i, p. 581).</p>
+
+<p>    It will be seen that whenever the sexual act is repeated
+    frequently within a short time it is very rarely indeed that the
+    husband can keep pace with the wife. It is true that the woman's
+    sexual energy is aroused more slowly and with more difficulty
+    than the man's, but as it becomes aroused its momentum increases.
+    The man, whose energy is easily aroused, is easily exhausted; the
+    woman has often scarcely attained her energy until after the
+    first orgasm is over. It is sometimes a surprise to a young
+    husband, happily married, to find that the act of sexual
+    intercourse which completely satisfies him has only served to
+    arouse his wife's ardor. Very many women feel that the repetition
+    of the act several times in succession is needed to, as they may
+    express it, &quot;clear the system,&quot; and, far from producing
+    sleepiness and fatigue, it renders them bright and lively.</p>
+
+<p>    The young and vigorous woman, who has lived a chaste life,
+    sometimes feels when she commences sexual relationships as though
+    she really required several husbands, and needed intercourse at
+    least once a day, though later when she becomes adjusted to
+    married life she reaches the conclusion that her desires are not
+    abnormally excessive. The husband has to adjust himself to his
+    wife's needs, through his sexual force when he possesses it, and,
+    if not, through his skill and consideration. The rare men who
+    possess a genital potency which they can exert to the
+    gratification of women without injury to themselves have been, by
+    Professor Benedikt, termed &quot;sexual athletes,&quot; and he remarks that
+    such men easily dominate women. He rightly regards Casanova as
+    the type of the <a name='6_Page_538'></a>sexual athlete (<i>Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle</i>, Jan., 1896). N&auml;cke reports the case of a man whom he
+    regards as a sexual athlete, who throughout his life had
+    intercourse once or twice daily with his wife, or if she was
+    unwilling, with another woman, until he became insane at the age
+    of seventy-five (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Aug.,
+    1908, p. 507). This should probably, however, be regarded rather
+    as a case of morbid hyper&aelig;sthesia than of sexual athleticism.</p></div>
+
+<p>At this stage we reach the fundamental elements of the art of love. We
+have seen that many moral practices and moral theories which have been
+widely current in Christendom have developed traditions, still by no means
+extinct among us, which were profoundly antagonistic to the art of love.
+The idea grew up of &quot;marital duties,&quot; of &quot;conjugal rights.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_400'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_400'><sup>[400]</sup></a> The
+husband had the right and the duty to perform sexual intercourse with his
+wife, whatever her wishes in the matter might be, while the wife had the
+duty and the right (the duty in her case being usually put first) to
+submit to such intercourse, which she was frequently taught to regard as
+something low and merely physical, an unpleasant and almost degrading
+necessity which she would do well to put out of her thoughts as speedily
+as possible. It is not surprising that such an attitude towards marriage
+has been highly favorable to conjugal unhappiness, more especially that of
+the wife,<a name='6_FNanchor_401'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_401'><sup>[401]</sup></a> and it has tended to promote adultery and divorce. We might
+have been more surprised had it been otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>The art of love is based on the fundamental natural fact of courtship; and
+courtship is the effort of the male to make himself acceptable to the
+female.<a name='6_FNanchor_402'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_402'><sup>[402]</sup></a> &quot;The art of love,&quot; said Vatsyayana, one of the greatest of
+authorities, &quot;is the art of pleasing <a name='6_Page_539'></a>women.&quot; &quot;A man must never permit
+himself a pleasure with his wife,&quot; said Balzac in his <i>Physiologie du
+Mariage</i>, &quot;which he has not the skill first to make her desire.&quot; The whole
+art of love is there. Women, naturally and instinctively, seek to make
+themselves desirable to men, even to men whom they are supremely
+indifferent to, and the woman who is in love with a man, by an equally
+natural instinct, seeks to shape herself to the measure which individually
+pleases him. This tendency is not really modified by the fundamental fact
+that in these matters it is only the arts that Nature makes which are
+truly effective. It is finally by what he is that a man arouses a woman's
+deepest emotions of sympathy or of antipathy, and he is often pleasing her
+more by displaying his fitness to play a great part in the world outside
+than by any acquired accomplishments in the arts of courtship. When,
+however, the serious and intimate play of physical love begins, the
+woman's part is, even biologically, on the surface the more passive
+part.<a name='6_FNanchor_403'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_403'><sup>[403]</sup></a> She is, on the physical side, inevitably the instrument in
+love; it must be his hand and his bow which evoke the music.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the art of love, however, it is impossible to disentangle
+completely the spiritual from the physical. The very attempt to do so is,
+indeed, a fatal mistake. The man who can only perceive the physical side
+of the sexual relationship is, as Hinton was accustomed to say, on a level
+with the man who, in listening to a sonata of Beethoven on the violin, is
+only conscious of the physical fact that a horse's tail is being scraped
+against a sheep's entrails.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The image of the musical instrument constantly recurs to those
+    who write of the art of love. Balzac's comparison of the
+    unskilful husband to the orang-utan attempting to play the violin
+    has already been quoted. Dr. Jules Guyot, in his serious and
+    admirable little book, <i>Br&eacute;viaire de l'Amour Exp&eacute;rimental</i>, falls
+    on to the same comparison: &quot;There are an <a name='6_Page_540'></a>immense number of
+    ignorant, selfish, and brutal men who give themselves no trouble
+    to study the instrument which God has confided to them, and do
+    not so much as suspect that it is necessary to study it in order
+    to draw out its slightest chords.... Every direct contact, even
+    with the clitoris, every attempt at coitus [when the feminine
+    organism is not aroused], exercises a painful sensation, an
+    instinctive repulsion, a feeling of disgust and aversion. Any
+    man, any husband, who is ignorant of this fact, is ridiculous and
+    contemptible. Any man, any husband, who, knowing it, dares to
+    disregard it, has committed an outrage.... In the final
+    combination of man and woman, the positive element, the husband,
+    has the initiative and the responsibility for the conjugal life.
+    He is the minstrel who will produce harmony or cacophony by his
+    hand and his bow. The wife, from this point of view, is really
+    the many-stringed instrument who will give out harmonious or
+    discordant sounds, according as she is well or ill handled&quot;
+    (Guyot, <i>Br&eacute;viaire</i>, pp. 99, 115, 138).</p>
+
+<p>    That such love corresponds to the woman's need there cannot be
+    any doubt. All developed women desire to be loved, says Ellen
+    Key, not &quot;en m&acirc;le&quot; but &quot;en artiste&quot; (<i>Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 92).
+    &quot;Only a man of whom she feels that he has also the artist's joy
+    in her, and who shows this joy through his timid and delicate
+    touch on her soul as on her body, can keep the woman of to-day.
+    She will only belong to a man who continues to long for her even
+    when he holds her locked in his arms. And when such a woman
+    breaks out: 'You want me, but you cannot caress me, you cannot
+    tell what I want,' then that man is judged.&quot; Love is indeed, as
+    Remy de Gourmont remarks, a delicate art, for which, as for
+    painting or music, only some are apt.</p></div>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that the demand on the lover and husband to
+approach a woman in the same spirit, with the same consideration and
+skilful touch, as a musician takes up his instrument is merely a demand
+made by modern women who are probably neurotic or hysterical. No reader of
+these <i>Studies</i> who has followed the discussions of courtship and of
+sexual selection in previous volumes can fail to realize that&mdash;although we
+have sought to befool ourselves by giving an illegitimate connotation to
+the word &quot;brutal&quot;&mdash;consideration and respect for the female is all but
+universal in the sexual relationships of the animals below man; it is only
+at the furthest remove from the &quot;brutes,&quot; among civilized men, that sexual
+&quot;brutality&quot; is at all common, and even there it is chiefly the result of
+ignorance. If we go <a name='6_Page_541'></a>as low as the insects, who have been disciplined by
+no family life, and are generally counted as careless and wanton, we may
+sometimes find this attitude towards the female fully developed, and the
+extreme consideration of the male for the female whom yet he holds firmly
+beneath him, the tender preliminaries, the extremely gradual approach to
+the supreme sexual act, may well furnish an admirable lesson.</p>
+
+<p>This greater difficulty and delay on the part of women in responding to
+the erotic excitation of courtship is really very fundamental and&mdash;as has
+so often been necessary to point out in previous volumes of these
+<i>Studies</i>&mdash;it covers the whole of woman's erotic life, from the earliest
+age when coyness and modesty develop. A woman's love develops much more
+slowly than a man's for a much longer period. There is real psychological
+significance in the fact that a man's desire for a woman tends to arise
+spontaneously, while a woman's desire for a man tends only to be aroused
+gradually, in the measure of her complexly developing relationship to him.
+Hence her sexual emotion is often less abstract, more intimately
+associated with the individual lover in whom it is centred. &quot;The way to my
+senses is through my heart,&quot; wrote Mary Wollstonecraft to her lover Imlay,
+&quot;but, forgive me! I think there is sometimes a shorter cut to yours.&quot; She
+spoke for the best, if not for the largest part, of her sex. A man often
+reaches the full limit of his physical capacity for love at a single step,
+and it would appear that his psychic limits are often not more difficult
+to reach. This is the solid fact underlying the more hazardous statement,
+so often made, that woman is monogamic and man polygamic.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>On the more physical side, Guttceit states that a month after
+    marriage not more than two women out of ten have experienced the
+    full pleasure of sexual intercourse, and it may not be for six
+    months, a year, or even till after the birth of several children,
+    that a woman experiences the full enjoyment of the physical
+    relationship, and even then only with a man she completely loves,
+    so that the conditions of sexual gratification are much more
+    complex in women than in men. Similarly, on the psychic side,
+    Ellen Key remarks (<i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 111): &quot;It is
+    certainly true that a woman desires sexual gratification from a
+    man. But while in her this desire not seldom only appears after
+    she has begun <a name='6_Page_542'></a>to love a man enough to give her life for him, a
+    man often desires to possess a woman physically before he loves
+    her enough to give even his little finger for her. The fact that
+    love in a woman mostly goes from the soul to the senses and often
+    fails to reach them, and that in a man it mostly goes from the
+    senses to the soul and frequently never reaches that goal&mdash;this
+    is of all the existing differences between men and women that
+    which causes most torture to both.&quot; It will, of course, be
+    apparent to the reader of the fourth volume of these <i>Studies</i> on
+    &quot;Sexual Selection in Man&quot; that the method of stating the
+    difference which has commended itself to Mary Wollstonecraft,
+    Ellen Key, and others, is not strictly correct, and the chastest
+    woman, after, for example, taking too hot a bath, may find that
+    her heart is not the only path through which her senses may be
+    affected. The senses are the only channels to the external world
+    which we possess, and love must come through these channels or
+    not at all. The difference, however, seems to be a real one, if
+    we translate it to mean that, as we have seen reason to believe
+    in previous volumes of these <i>Studies</i>, there are in women (1)
+    preferential sensory paths of sexual stimuli, such as,
+    apparently, a predominence of tactile and auditory paths as
+    compared with men; (2) a more massive, complex, and delicately
+    poised sexual mechanism; and, as a result of this, (3) eventually
+    a greater amount of nervous and cerebral sexual irradiation.</p>
+
+<p>    It must be remembered, at the same time, that while this
+    distinction represents a real tendency in sexual differentiation,
+    with an organic and not merely traditional basis, it has about it
+    nothing whatever that is absolute. There are a vast number of
+    women whose sexual facility, again by natural tendency and not
+    merely by acquired habits, is as marked as that of any man, if
+    not more so. In the sexual field, as we have seen in a previous
+    volume (<i>Analysis of the Sexual Impulse</i>), the range of
+    variability is greater in women than in men.</p></div>
+
+<p>The fact that love is an art, a method of drawing music from an
+instrument, and not the mere commission of an act by mutual consent, makes
+any verbal agreement to love of little moment. If love were a matter of
+contract, of simple intellectual consent, of question and answer, it would
+never have come into the world at all. Love appeared as art from the
+first, and the subsequent developments of the summary methods of reason
+and speech cannot abolish that fundamental fact. This is scarcely realized
+by those ill-advised lovers who consider that the first step in
+courtship&mdash;and perhaps even the whole of courtship&mdash;is for a man to ask a
+woman to be his wife. That is so far from being the case that it
+constantly happens that the premature exhibition of so <a name='6_Page_543'></a>large a demand at
+once and for ever damns all the wooer's chances. It is lamentable, no
+doubt, that so grave and fateful a matter as that of marriage should so
+often be decided without calm deliberation and reasonable forethought. But
+sexual relationships can never, and should never, be merely a matter of
+cold calculation. When a woman is suddenly confronted by the demand that
+she should yield herself up as a wife to a man who has not yet succeeded
+in gaining her affections she will not fail to find&mdash;provided she is
+lifted above the cold-hearted motives of self-interest&mdash;that there are
+many sound reasons why she should not do so. And having thus squarely
+faced the question in cool blood and decided it, she will henceforth,
+probably, meet that wooer with a tunic of steel enclosing her breast.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Love must be <i>revealed</i> by acts and not <i>betrayed</i> by words. I
+    regard as abnormal the extraordinary method of a hasty avowal
+    beforehand; for that represents not the direct but the reflex
+    path of transmission. However sweet and normal the avowal may be
+    when once reciprocity has been realized, as a method of conquest
+    I consider it dangerous and likely to produce the reverse of the
+    result desired.&quot; I take these wise words from a thoughtful &quot;Essai
+    sur l'Amour&quot; (<i>Archives de Psychologie</i>, 1904) by a
+    non-psychological Swiss writer who is recording his own
+    experiences, and who insists much on the predominance of the
+    spiritual and mental element in love.</p>
+
+<p>    It is worthy of note that this recognition that direct speech is
+    out of place in courtship must not be regarded as a refinement of
+    civilization. Among primitive peoples everywhere it is perfectly
+    well recognized that the offer of love, and its acceptance or its
+    refusal, must be made by actions symbolically, and not by the
+    crude method of question and answer. Among the Indians of
+    Paraguay, who allow much sexual freedom to their women, but never
+    buy or sell love, Mantegazza states (<i>Rio de la Plata e
+    Tenerife</i>, 1867, p. 225) that a girl of the people will come to
+    your door or window and timidly, with a confused air, ask you, in
+    the Guarani tongue, for a drink of water. But she will smile if
+    you innocently offer her water. Among the Tarahumari Indians of
+    Mexico, with whom the initiative in courting belongs to the
+    women, the girl takes the first step through her parents, then
+    she throws small pebbles at the young man; if he throws them back
+    the matter is concluded (Carl Lumholtz, <i>Scribner's Magazine</i>,
+    Sept., 1894, p. 299). In many parts of the world it is the woman
+    who chooses her husband (see, <i>e.g.</i>, M. A. Potter, <i>Sohrab and
+    Rustem</i>, pp. 169 <i>et seq.</i>), and she very <a name='6_Page_544'></a>frequently adopts a
+    symbolical method of proposal. Except when the commercial element
+    predominates in marriage, a similar method is frequently adopted
+    by men also in making proposals of marriage.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is not only at the beginning of courtship that the act of love has
+little room for formal declarations, for the demands and the avowals that
+can be clearly defined in speech. The same rule holds even in the most
+intimate relationships of old lovers, throughout the married life. The
+permanent element in modesty, which survives every sexual initiation to
+become intertwined with all the exquisite impudicities of love, combines
+with a true erotic instinct to rebel against formal demands, against
+verbal affirmations or denials. Love's requests cannot be made in words,
+nor truthfully answered in words: a fine divination is still needed as
+long as love lasts.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The fact that the needs of love cannot be expressed but must be
+    divined has long been recognized by those who have written of the
+    art of love, alike by writers within and without the European
+    Christian traditions. Thus Zacchia, in his great medico-legal
+    treatise, points out that a husband must be attentive to the
+    signs of sexual desire in his wife. &quot;Women,&quot; he says, &quot;when
+    sexual desire arises within them are accustomed to ask their
+    husbands questions on matters of love; they flatter and caress
+    them; they allow some part of their body to be uncovered as if by
+    accident; their breasts appear to swell; they show unusual
+    alacrity; they blush; their eyes are bright; and if they
+    experience unusual ardor they stammer, talk beside the mark, and
+    are scarcely mistress of themselves. At the same time their
+    private parts become hot and swell. All these signs should
+    convince a husband, however inattentive he may be, that his wife
+    craves for satisfaction&quot; (<i>Zacchi&aelig; Qu&aelig;stionum Medico-legalium
+    Opus</i>, lib. vii, tit. iii, qu&aelig;st. I; vol. ii, p. 624 in ed. of
+    1688).</p>
+
+<p>    The old Hindu erotic writers attributed great importance alike to
+    the man's attentiveness to the woman's erotic needs, and to his
+    skill and consideration in all the preliminaries of the sexual
+    act. He must do all that he can to procure her pleasure, says
+    Vatsyayana. When she is on her bed and perhaps absorbed in
+    conversation, he gently unfastens the knot of her lower garment.
+    If she protests he closes her mouth with kisses. Some authors,
+    Vatsyayana remarks, hold that the lover should begin by sucking
+    the nipples of her breasts. When erection occurs he touches her
+    with his hands, softly caressing the various parts of her body.
+    He should always press those parts of her body towards which she
+    turns her eyes. If she is shy, and it is the first time, he will
+    place his <a name='6_Page_545'></a>hands between her thighs which she will instinctively
+    press together. If she is young he will put his hands on her
+    breasts, and she will no doubt cover them with her own. If she is
+    mature he will do all that may seem fitting and agreeable to both
+    parties. Then he will take her hair and her chin between his
+    fingers and kiss them. If she is very young she will blush and
+    close her eyes. By the way in which she receives his caresses he
+    will divine what pleases her most in union. The signs of her
+    enjoyment are that her body becomes limp, her eyes close, she
+    loses all timidity, and takes part in the movements which bring
+    her most closely to him. If, on the other hand, she feels no
+    pleasure, she strikes the bed with her hands, will not allow the
+    man to continue, is sullen, even bites or kicks, and continues
+    the movements of coitus when the man has finished. In such cases,
+    Vatsyayana adds, it is his duty to rub the vulva with his hand
+    before union until it is moist, and he should perform the same
+    movements afterwards if his own orgasm has occurred first.</p>
+
+<p>    With regard to Indian erotic art generally, and more especially
+    Vatsyayana, who appears to have lived some sixteen hundred years
+    ago, information will be found in Valentino, &quot;L'Hygi&egrave;ne conjugale
+    chez les Hindous,&quot; <i>Archives G&eacute;n&eacute;rales de M&eacute;decine</i>, Ap. 25,
+    1905; Iwan Bloch, &quot;Indische Medizin,&quot; Puschmann's <i>Handbuch der
+    Geschichte der Medizin</i>, vol. i; Heimann and Stephan, &quot;Beitr&auml;ge
+    zur Ehehygiene nach der Lehren des Kamasutram,&quot; <i>Zeitschaft f&uuml;r
+    Sexualwissenschaft</i>, Sept., 1908; also a review of Richard
+    Schmidt's German translation of the <i>Kamashastra</i> of Vatsyayana
+    in <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1902, Heft 2. There has long
+    existed an English translation of this work. In the lengthy
+    preface to the French translation Lamairesse points out the
+    superiority of Indian erotic art to that of the Latin poets by
+    its loftier spirit, and greater purity and idealism. It is
+    throughout marked by respect for women, and its spirit is
+    expressed in the well-known proverb: &quot;Thou shalt not strike a
+    woman even with a flower.&quot; See also Margaret Noble's <i>Web of
+    Indian Life</i>, especially Ch. III, &quot;On the Hindu Woman as Wife,&quot;
+    and Ch. IV, &quot;Love Strong as Death.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The advice given to husbands by Guyot (<i>Br&eacute;viaire de l'Amour
+    Exp&eacute;rimental</i>, p. 422) closely conforms to that given, under very
+    different social conditions, by Zacchia and Vatsyayana. &quot;In a
+    state of sexual need and desire the woman's lips are firm and
+    vibrant, the breasts are swollen, and the nipples erect. The
+    intelligent husband cannot be deceived by these signs. If they do
+    not exist, it is his part to provoke them by his kisses and
+    caresses, and if, in spite of his tender and delicate
+    excitations, the lips show no heat and the breasts no swelling,
+    and especially if the nipples are disagreeably irritated by
+    slight suction, he must arrest his transports and abstain from
+    all contact with the organs of generation, for he would certainly
+    find them in a state of exhaustion and disposed to repulsion. If,
+    on the contrary, the accessory organs are animated, or <a name='6_Page_546'></a>become
+    animated beneath his caresses, he must extend them to the
+    generative organs, and especially to the clitoris, which beneath
+    his touch will become full of appetite and ardor.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The importance of the preliminary titillation of the sexual
+    organs has been emphasized by a long succession alike of erotic
+    writers and physicians, from Ovid (<i>Ars Amatoria</i> end of Bk. II)
+    onwards. Eulenburg (<i>Die Sexuale Neuropathie</i>, p. 79) considers
+    that titillation is sometimes necessary, and Adler, likewise
+    insisting on the preliminaries of psychic and physical courtship
+    (<i>Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes</i>, p. 188),
+    observes that the man who is gifted with insight and skill in
+    these matters possesses a charm which will draw sparks of
+    sensibility from the coldest feminine heart. The advice of the
+    physician is at one in this matter with the maxims of the erotic
+    artist and with the needs of the loving woman. In making love
+    there must be no haste, wrote Ovid:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i5'>&quot;Crede mihi, non est Veneris properanda voluptas,<br /></span>
+<span class='i5'>Sed sensim tarda prolicienda mora.&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;Husbands, like spoiled children,&quot; a woman has written, &quot;too
+    often miss the pleasure which might otherwise be theirs, by
+    clamoring for it at the wrong time. The man who thinks this
+    prolonged courtship previous to the act of sex union wearisome,
+    has never given it a trial. It is the approach to the marital
+    embrace, as well as the embrace itself, which constitutes the
+    charm of the relation between the sexes.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    It not seldom happens, remarks Adler (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 186), that
+    the insensibility of the wife must be treated&mdash;in the husband.
+    And Guyot, bringing forward the same point, writes (<i>op. cit.</i>,
+    p. 130): &quot;If by a delay of tender study the husband has
+    understood his young bride, if he is able to realize for her the
+    ineffable happiness and dreams of youth, he will be beloved
+    forever; he will be her master and sovereign lord. If he has
+    failed to understand her he will fatigue and exhaust himself in
+    vain efforts, and finally class her among the indifferent and
+    cold women. She will be his wife by duty, the mother of his
+    children. He will take his pleasure elsewhere, for man is ever in
+    pursuit of the woman who experiences the genesic spasm. Thus the
+    vague and unintelligent search for a half who can unite in that
+    delirious finale is the chief cause of all conjugal dissolutions.
+    In such a case a man resembles a bad musician who changes his
+    violin in the hope that a new instrument will bring the melody he
+    is unable to play.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>The fact that there is thus an art in love, and that sexual intercourse is
+not a mere physical act to be executed by force of muscles, may help to
+explain why it is that in so many parts of the <a name='6_Page_547'></a>world defloration is not
+immediately effected on marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_404'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_404'><sup>[404]</sup></a> No doubt religious or magic reasons
+may also intervene here, but, as so often happens, they harmonize with the
+biological process. This is the case even among uncivilized peoples who
+marry early. The need for delay and considerate skill is far greater when,
+as among ourselves, a woman's marriage is delayed long past the
+establishment of puberty to a period when it is more difficult to break
+down the psychic and perhaps even physical barriers of personality.</p>
+
+<p>It has to be added that the art of love in the act of courtship is not
+confined to the preliminaries to the single act of coitus. In a sense the
+life of love is a continuous courtship with a constant progression. The
+establishment of physical intercourse is but the beginning of it. This is
+especially true of women. &quot;The consummation of love,&quot; says S&eacute;nancour,<a name='6_FNanchor_405'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_405'><sup>[405]</sup></a>
+&quot;which is often the end of love with man is only the beginning of love
+with woman, a test of trust, a gage of future pleasure, a sort of
+engagement for an intimacy to come.&quot; &quot;A woman's soul and body,&quot; says
+another writer,<a name='6_FNanchor_406'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_406'><sup>[406]</sup></a> &quot;are not given at one stroke at a given moment; but
+only slowly, little by little, through many stages, are both delivered to
+the beloved. Instead of abandoning the young woman to the bridegroom on
+the wedding night, as an entrapped mouse is flung to the cat to be
+devoured, it would be better to let the young bridal couple live side by
+side, like two friends and comrades, until they gradually learn how to
+develop and use their sexual consciousness.&quot; The conventional wedding is
+out of place as a preliminary to the consummation of marriage, if only on
+the ground that it is impossible to say at what stage in the endless
+process of courtship it ought to take place.</p>
+
+<p>A woman, unlike a man, is prepared by Nature, to play a skilful part in
+the art of love. The man's part in courtship, which is that of the male
+throughout the zo&ouml;logical series, may be <a name='6_Page_548'></a>difficult and hazardous, but it
+is in a straight line, fairly simple and direct. The woman's part, having
+to follow at the same moment two quite different impulses, is necessarily
+always in a zigzag or a curve. That is to say that at every erotic moment
+her action is the resultant of the combined force of her desire (conscious
+or unconscious) and her modesty. She must sail through a tortuous channel
+with Scylla on the one side and Charybdis on the other, and to avoid
+either danger too anxiously may mean risking shipwreck on the other side.
+She must be impenetrable to all the world, but it must be an
+impenetrability not too obscure for the divination of the right man. Her
+speech must be honest, but yet on no account tell everything; her actions
+must be the outcome of her impulses, and on that very account be capable
+of two interpretations. It is only in the last resort of complete intimacy
+that she can become the perfect woman,</p>
+
+<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>&quot;Whose speech Truth knows not from her thought,</span><br />
+<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Nor Love her body from her soul.&quot;</span><br />
+
+<p>For many a woman the conditions for that final erotic avatar&mdash;&quot;that
+splendid shamelessness which,&quot; as Rafford Pyke says, &quot;is the finest thing
+in perfect love&quot;&mdash;never present themselves at all. She is compelled to be
+to the end of her erotic life, what she must always be at the beginning, a
+complex and duplex personality, naturally artful. Therewith she is better
+prepared than man to play her part in the art of love.</p>
+
+<p>The man's part in the art of love is, however, by no means easy. That is
+not always realized by the women who complain of his lack of skill in
+playing it. Although a man has not to cultivate the same natural duplicity
+as a woman, it is necessary that he should possess a considerable power of
+divination. He is not well prepared for that, because the traditional
+masculine virtue is force rather than insight. The male's work in the
+world, we are told, is domination, and it is by such domination that the
+female is attracted. There is an element of truth in that doctrine, an
+element of truth which may well lead astray the man who too exclusively
+relies upon it in the art of love. Violence is bad in every art, and in
+the erotic art the female desires to be <a name='6_Page_549'></a>won to love and not to be ordered
+to love. That is fundamental. We sometimes see the matter so stated as if
+the objection to force and domination in love constituted some quite new
+and revolutionary demand of the &quot;modern woman.&quot; That is, it need scarcely
+be said, the result of ignorance. The art of love, being an art that
+Nature makes, is the same now as in essentials it has always been,<a name='6_FNanchor_407'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_407'><sup>[407]</sup></a>
+and it was well established before woman came into existence. That it has
+not always been very skilfully played is another matter. And, so far as
+the man is concerned, it is this very tradition of masculine predominance
+which has contributed to the difficulty of playing it skilfully. The woman
+admires the male's force; she even wishes herself to be forced to the
+things that she altogether desires; and yet she revolts from any exertion
+of force outside that narrow circle, either before the boundary of it is
+reached or after the boundary is passed. Thus the man's position is really
+more difficult than the women who complain of his awkwardness in love are
+always ready to admit. He must cultivate force, not only in the world but
+even for display in the erotic field; he must be able to divine the
+moments when, in love, force is no longer force because his own will is
+his partner's will; he must, at the same time, hold himself in complete
+restraint lest he should fall into the fatal error of yielding to his own
+impulse of domination; and all this at the very moment when his emotions
+are least under control. We need scarcely be surprised that of the myriads
+who embark on the sea of love, so few women, so very few men, come safely
+into port.</p>
+
+<p>It may still seem to some that in dwelling on the laws that guide the
+erotic life, if that life is to be healthy and complete, we have wandered
+away from the consideration of the sexual instinct in its relationship to
+society. It may therefore be desirable to return to first principles and
+to point out that we are still clinging to the fundamental facts of the
+personal and social life. Marriage, as we have seen reason to believe, is
+a great social institution; procreation, which is, on the public side, its
+supreme function, is a great social end. But marriage and procreation <a name='6_Page_550'></a>are
+both based on the erotic life. If the erotic life is not sound, then
+marriage is broken up, practically if not always formally, and the process
+of procreation is carried out under unfavorable conditions or not at all.</p>
+
+<p>This social and personal importance of the erotic life, though, under the
+influence of a false morality and an equally false modesty, it has
+sometimes been allowed to fall into the background in stages of artificial
+civilization, has always been clearly realized by those peoples who have
+vitally grasped the relationships of life. Among most uncivilized races
+there appear to be few or no &quot;sexually frigid&quot; women. It is little to the
+credit of our own &quot;civilization&quot; that it should be possible for physicians
+to-day to assert, even with the faintest plausibility, that there are some
+25 per cent. of women who may thus be described.</p>
+
+<p>The whole sexual structure of the world is built up on the general fact
+that the intimate contact of the male and female who have chosen each
+other is mutually pleasurable. Below this general fact is the more
+specific fact that in the normal accomplishment of the act of sexual
+consummation the two partners experience the acute gratification of
+simultaneous orgasm. Herein, it has been said, lies the secret of love. It
+is the very basis of love, the condition of the healthy exercise of the
+sexual functions, and, in many cases, it seems probable, the condition
+also of fertilization.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Even savages in a very low degree of culture are sometimes
+    patient and considerate in evoking and waiting for the signs of
+    sexual desire in their females. (I may refer to the significant
+    case of the Caroline Islanders, as described by Kubary in his
+    ethnographic study of that people and quoted in volume iv of
+    these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;Sexual Selection in Man,&quot; Sect. III.) In
+    Catholic days theological influence worked wholesomely in the
+    same direction, although the theologians were so keen to detect
+    the mortal sin of lust. It is true that the Catholic insistence
+    on the desirability of simultaneous orgasm was largely due to the
+    mistaken notion that to secure conception it was necessary that
+    there should be &quot;insemination&quot; on the part of the wife as well as
+    of the husband, but that was not the sole source of the
+    theological view. Thus Zacchia discusses whether a man ought to
+    continue with his wife until she has the orgasm and feels
+    satisfied, and he decides that that is the husband's duty;
+    otherwise <a name='6_Page_551'></a>the wife falls into danger either of experiencing the
+    orgasm during sleep, or, more probably, by self-excitation, &quot;for
+    many women, when their desires have not been satisfied by coitus,
+    place one thigh on the other, pressing and rubbing them together
+    until the orgasm occurs, in the belief that if they abstain from
+    using the hands they have committed no sin.&quot; Some theologians, he
+    adds, favor that belief, notably Hurtado de Mendoza and Sanchez,
+    and he further quotes the opinion of the latter that women who
+    have not been satisfied in coitus are liable to become hysterical
+    or melancholic (<i>Zacchi&aelig; Qu&aelig;stionum Medico-legalium Opus</i>, lib.
+    vii, tit. iii, qu&aelig;st. VI). In the same spirit some theologians
+    seem to have permitted <i>irrumatio</i> (without ejaculation), so long
+    as it is only the preliminary to the normal sexual act.</p>
+
+<p>    Nowadays physicians have fully confirmed the belief of Sanchez.
+    It is well recognized that women in whom, from whatever cause,
+    acute sexual excitement occurs with frequency without being
+    followed by the due natural relief of orgasm are liable to
+    various nervous and congestive symptoms which diminish their
+    vital effectiveness, and very possibly lead to a breakdown in
+    health. Kisch has described, as a cardiac neurosis of sexual
+    origin, a pathological tachycardia which is an exaggeration of
+    the physiological quick heart of sexual excitement. J. Inglis
+    Parsons (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Oct. 22, 1904, p. 1062)
+    refers to the ovarian pain produced by strong unsatisfied sexual
+    excitement, often in vigorous unmarried women, and sometimes a
+    cause of great distress. An experienced Austrian gyn&aelig;cologist
+    told Hirth (<i>Wege zur Heimat</i>, p. 613) that of every hundred
+    women who come to him with uterine troubles seventy suffered from
+    congestion of the womb, which he regarded as due to incomplete
+    coitus.</p>
+
+<p>    It is frequently stated that the evil of incomplete gratification
+    and absence of orgasm in women is chiefly due to male withdrawal,
+    that is to say <i>coitus interruptus</i>, in which the penis is
+    hastily withdrawn as soon as involuntary ejaculation is
+    impending; and it is sometimes said that the same widely
+    prevalent practice is also productive of slight or serious
+    results in the male (see, <i>e.g.</i>, L. B. Bangs, <i>Transactions New
+    York Academy of Medicine</i>, vol. ix, 1893; D. S. Booth, &quot;Coitus
+    Interruptus and Coitus Reservatus as Causes of Profound Neurosis
+    and Psychosis,&quot; <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, Nov., 1906; also,
+    <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, Oct., 1897, p. 588).</p>
+
+<p>    It is undoubtedly true that coitus interruptus, since it involves
+    sudden withdrawal on the part of the man without reference to the
+    stage of sexual excitation which his partner may have reached,
+    cannot fail to produce frequently an injurious nervous effect on
+    the woman, though the injurious effect on the man, who obtains
+    ejaculation, is little or none. But the practice is so widespread
+    that it cannot be regarded as necessarily involving this evil
+    result. There can, I am assured, be no doubt <a name='6_Page_552'></a>whatever that
+    Blumreich is justified in his statement (Senator and Kaminer,
+    <i>Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. ii, p. 783)
+    that &quot;interrupted coitus is injurious to the genital system of
+    those women only who are disturbed in their sensation of delight
+    by this form of cohabitation, in whom the orgasm is not produced,
+    and who continue for hours subsequently to be tormented by
+    feelings of an unsatisfied desire.&quot; Equally injurious effects
+    follow in normal coitus when the man's orgasm occurs too soon.
+    &quot;These phenomena, therefore,&quot; he concludes, &quot;are not
+    characteristic of interrupted coitus, but consequences of an
+    imperfectly concluded sexual cohabitation as such.&quot; Kisch,
+    likewise, in his elaborate and authoritative work on <i>The Sexual
+    Life of Woman</i>, also states that the question of the evil results
+    of <i>coitus interruptus</i> in women is simply a question of whether
+    or not they receive sexual satisfaction. (<i>Cf.</i> also F&uuml;rbringer,
+    <i>Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, pp. 232 <i>et
+    seq.</i>) This is clearly the most reasonable view to take
+    concerning what is the simplest, the most widespread, and
+    certainly the most ancient of the methods of preventing
+    conception. In the Book of Genesis we find it practiced by Onan,
+    and to come down to modern times, in the sixteenth century it
+    seems to have been familiar to French ladies, who, according to
+    Brant&ocirc;me, enjoined it on their lovers.</p>
+
+<p>    Coitus reservatus,&mdash;in which intercourse is maintained even for
+    very long periods, during which the woman may have orgasm several
+    times while the man succeeds in holding back orgasm,&mdash;so far from
+    being injurious to the woman, is probably the form of coitus
+    which gives her the maximum of gratification and relief. For most
+    men, however, it seems probable that this self-control over the
+    processes leading to the involuntary act of detumescence is
+    difficult to acquire, while in weak, nervous, and erethic persons
+    it is impossible. It is, however, a desirable condition for
+    completely adequate coitus, and in the East this is fully
+    recognized, and the aptitude carefully cultivated. Thus W. D.
+    Sutherland states (&quot;Einiges &uuml;ber das Alltagsleben und die
+    Volksmedizin unter den Bauern Britischostindiens,&quot; <i>M&uuml;nchener
+    Medizinische Wochenschrift</i>, No. 12, 1906) that the Hindu smokes
+    and talks during intercourse in order to delay orgasm, and
+    sometimes applies an opium paste to the glans of the penis for
+    the same purpose. (See also vol. iii of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;The
+    Sexual Impulse in Women.&quot;) Some authorities have, indeed, stated
+    that the prolongation of the act of coitus is injurious in its
+    effect on the male. Thus R. W. Taylor (<i>Practical Treatise on
+    Sexual Disorders</i>, third ed., p. 121) states that it tends to
+    cause atonic impotence, and L&ouml;wenfeld (<i>Sexualleben und
+    Nervenleiden</i>, p. 74) thinks that the swift and unimpeded
+    culmination of the sexual act is necessary in order to preserve
+    the vigor of the reflex reactions. This is probably true of
+    extreme and often repeated cases of indefinite prolongation of
+    pronounced erection without detumescence, but it is not true
+    within fairly <a name='6_Page_553'></a>wide limits in the case of healthy persons.
+    Prolonged <i>coitus reservatus</i> was a practice of the complex
+    marriage system of the Oneida community, and I was assured by the
+    late Noyes Miller, who had spent the greater part of his life in
+    the community, that the practice had no sort of evil result.
+    <i>Coitus reservatus</i> was erected into a principle in the Oneida
+    community. Every man in the community was theoretically the
+    husband of every woman, but every man was not free to have
+    children with every woman. Sexual initiation took place soon
+    after puberty in the case of boys, some years later in the case
+    of girls, by a much older person of the opposite sex. In
+    intercourse the male inserted his penis into the vagina and
+    retained it there for even an hour without emission, though
+    orgasm took place in the woman. There was usually no emission in
+    the case of the man, even after withdrawal, and he felt no need
+    of emission. The social feeling of the community was a force on
+    the side of this practice, the careless, unskilful men being
+    avoided by women, while the general romantic sentiment of
+    affection for all the women in the community was also a force.
+    Masturbation was unknown, and no irregular relations took place
+    with persons outside the community. The practice was maintained
+    for thirty years, and was finally abandoned, not on its demerits,
+    but in deference to the opinions of the outside world. Mr. Miller
+    admitted that the practice became more difficult in ordinary
+    marriage, which favors a more mechanical habit of intercourse.
+    The information received from Mr. Miller is supplemented in a
+    pamphlet entitled <i>Male Continence</i> (the name given to <i>coitus
+    reservatus</i> in the community), written in 1872 by the founder,
+    John Humphrey Noyes. The practice is based, he says, on the fact
+    that sexual intercourse consists of two acts, a social and a
+    propagative, and that if propagation is to be scientific there
+    must be no confusion of these two acts, and procreation must
+    never be involuntary. It was in 1844, he states, that this idea
+    occurred to him as a result of a resolve to abstain from sexual
+    intercourse in consequence of his wife's delicate health and
+    inability to bear healthy children, and in his own case he found
+    the practice &quot;a great deliverance. It made a happy household.&quot; He
+    points out that the chief members of the Oneida community
+    &quot;belonged to the most respectable families in Vermont, had been
+    educated in the best schools of New England morality and
+    refinement, and were, by the ordinary standards, irreproachable
+    in their conduct so far as sexual matters are concerned, till
+    they deliberately commenced, in 1846, the experiment of a new
+    state of society, on principles which they had been long maturing
+    and were prepared to defend before the World.&quot; In relation to
+    male continence, therefore, Noyes thought the community might
+    fairly be considered &quot;the Committee of Providence to test its
+    value in actual life.&quot; He states that a careful medical
+    comparison of the statistics of the community had shown that the
+    rate of nervous disease in the community was considerably below
+    the <a name='6_Page_554'></a>average outside, and that only two cases of nervous disorder
+    had occurred which could be traced with any probability to a
+    misuse of male continence. This has been confirmed by Van de
+    Warker, who studied forty-two women of the community without
+    finding any undue prevalence of reproductive diseases, nor could
+    he find any diseased condition attributable to the sexual habits
+    of the community (<i>cf.</i> C. Reed, <i>Text-Book of Gynecology</i>, 1901,
+    p. 9).</p>
+
+<p>    Noyes believed that &quot;male continence&quot; had never previously been a
+    definitely recognized practice based on theory, though there
+    might have been occasional approximation to it. This is probably
+    true if the coitus is <i>reservatus</i> in the full sense, with
+    complete absence of emission. Prolonged coitus, however,
+    permitting the woman to have orgasm more than once, while the man
+    has none, has long been recognized. Thus in the seventeenth
+    century Zacchia discussed whether such a practice is legitimate
+    (<i>Zacchi&aelig; Qu&aelig;stionum Opus</i>, ed. of 1688, lib. vii, tit. iii,
+    qu&aelig;st. VI). In modern times it is occasionally practiced, without
+    any theory, and is always appreciated by the woman, while it
+    appears to have no bad effect on the man. In such a case it will
+    happen that the act of coitus may last for an hour and a quarter
+    or even longer, the maximum of the woman's pleasure not being
+    reached until three-quarters of an hour have passed; during this
+    period the woman will experience orgasm some four or five times,
+    the man only at the end. It may occasionally happen that a little
+    later the woman again experiences desire, and intercourse begins
+    afresh in the same way. But after that she is satisfied, and
+    there is no recurrence of desire.</p>
+
+<p>    It may be desirable at this point to refer briefly to the chief
+    variations in the method of effecting coitus in their
+    relationship to the art of love and the attainment of adequate
+    and satisfying detumescence.</p>
+
+<p>    The primary and essential characteristic of the specifically
+    human method of coitus is the fact that it takes place face to
+    face. The fact that in what is usually considered the typically
+    normal method of coitus the woman lies supine and the man above
+    her is secondary. Psychically, this front-to-front attitude
+    represents a great advance over the quadrupedal method. The two
+    partners reveal to each other the most important, the most
+    beautiful, the most expressive sides of themselves, and thus
+    multiply the mutual pleasure and harmony of the intimate act of
+    union. Moreover, this face-to-face attitude possesses a great
+    significance, in the fact that it is the outward sign that the
+    human couple has outgrown the animal sexual attitude of the
+    hunter seizing his prey in the act of flight, and content to
+    enjoy it in that attitude, from behind. The human male may be
+    said to retain the same attitude, but the female has turned
+    round; she has faced her partner and approached him, and so
+    symbolizes her deliberate consent to the act of union.</p>
+
+<p>    The human variations in the exercise of coitus, both individual
+    and <a name='6_Page_555'></a>national, are, however, extremely numerous. &quot;To be quite
+    frank,&quot; says F&uuml;rbringer (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 213), &quot;I can hardly think of
+    any combination which does not figure among my case-notes as
+    having been practiced by my patients.&quot; We must not too hastily
+    conclude that such variations are due to vicious training. That
+    is far from being the case. They often occur naturally and
+    spontaneously. Freud has properly pointed out (in the second
+    series of his <i>Beitr&auml;ge zur Neurosenlehre</i>, &quot;Bruchst&uuml;ck&quot; etc.)
+    that we must not be too shocked even when the idea of <i>fellatio</i>
+    spontaneously presents itself to a woman, for that idea has a
+    harmless origin in the resemblance between the penis and the
+    nipple. Similarly, it may be added, the desire for
+    <i>cunnilinctus</i>, which seems to be much more often latently
+    present in women than is the desire for its performance in men,
+    has a natural analogy in the pleasure of suckling, a pleasure
+    which is itself indeed often erotically tinged (see vol. iv of
+    these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;Sexual Selection in Man,&quot; Touch, Sect. III).</p>
+
+<p>    Every variation in this matter, remarks Remy de Gourmont
+    (<i>Physique de l'Amour</i>, p. 264) partakes of the sin of luxury,
+    and some of the theologians have indeed considered any position
+    in coitus but that which is usually called normal in Europe as a
+    mortal sin. Other theologians, however, regarded such variations
+    as only venial sins, provided ejaculation took place in the
+    vagina, just as some theologians would permit <i>irrumatio</i> as a
+    preliminary to coitus, provided there was no ejaculation. Aquinas
+    took a serious view of the deviations from normal intercourse;
+    Sanchez was more indulgent, especially in view of his doctrine,
+    derived from the Greek and Arabic natural philosophers, that the
+    womb can attract the sperm, so that the natural end may be
+    attained even in unusual positions.</p>
+
+<p>    Whatever difference of opinion there may have been among ancient
+    theologians, it is well recognized by modern physicians that
+    variations from the ordinary method of coitus are desirable in
+    special cases. Thus Kisch points out (<i>Sterilit&auml;t des Weibes</i>, p.
+    107) that in some cases it is only possible for the woman to
+    experience sexual excitement when coitus takes place in the
+    lateral position, or in the <i>a posteriori</i> position, or when the
+    usual position is reversed; and in his <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>,
+    also, Kisch recommends several variations of position for coitus.
+    Adler points out (<i>op. cit.</i>, pp. 151, 186) the value of the same
+    positions in some cases, and remarks that such variations often
+    call forth latent sexual feelings as by a charm. Such cases are
+    indeed, by no means infrequent, the advantage of the unusual
+    position being due either to physical or psychic causes, and the
+    discovery of the right variation is sometimes found in a merely
+    playful attempt. It has occasionally happened, also, that when
+    intercourse has habitually taken place in an abnormal position,
+    no satisfaction is experienced by the woman until the normal
+    position is <a name='6_Page_556'></a>adopted. The only fairly common variation of coitus
+    which meets with unqualified disapproval is that in the erect
+    posture. (See <i>e.g.</i>, Hammond, <i>op. cit.</i> pp. 257 <i>et seq.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>    Lucretius specially recommended the quadrupedal variation of
+    coitus (Bk. iv, 1258), and Ovid describes (end of Bk. iii of the
+    <i>Ars Amatoria</i>) what he regards as agreeable variations, giving
+    the preference, as the easiest and simplest method, to that in
+    which the woman lies half supine on her side. Perhaps, however,
+    the variation which is nearest to the normal attitude and which
+    has most often and most completely commended itself is that
+    apparently known to Arabic erotic writers as <i>dok el arz</i>, in
+    which the man is seated and his partner is astride his thighs,
+    embracing his body with her legs and his neck with her arms,
+    while he embraces her waist; this is stated in the Arabic
+    <i>Perfumed Garden</i> to be the method preferred by most women.</p>
+
+<p>    The other most usual variation is the inverse normal position in
+    which the man is supine, and the woman adapts herself to this
+    position, which permits of several modifications obviously
+    advantageous, especially when the man is much larger than his
+    partner. The Christian as well as the Mahommedan theologians
+    appear, indeed, to have been generally opposed to this superior
+    position of the female, apparently, it would seem, because they
+    regarded the literal subjection of the male which it involves as
+    symbolic of a moral subjection. The testimony of many people
+    to-day, however, is decidedly in favor of this position, more
+    especially as regards the woman, since it enables her to obtain a
+    better adjustment and greater control of the process, and so
+    frequently to secure sexual satisfaction which she may find
+    difficult or impossible in the normal position.</p>
+
+<p>    The theologians seem to have been less unfavorably disposed to
+    the position normal among quadrupeds, <i>a posteriori</i>, though the
+    old Penitentials were inclined to treat it severely, the
+    Penitential of Angers prescribing forty days penance, and
+    Egbert's three years, if practiced habitually. (It is discussed
+    by J. Petermann, &quot;Venus Aversa,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Feb., 1909).
+    There are good reasons why in many cases this position should be
+    desirable, more especially from the point of view of women, who
+    indeed not infrequently prefer it. It must be always remembered,
+    as has already been pointed out, that in the progress from
+    anthropoid to man it is the female, not the male, whose method of
+    coitus has been revolutionized. While, however, the obverse human
+    position represents a psychic advance, there has never been a
+    complete physical readjustment of the female organs to the
+    obverse method. More especially, in Adler's opinion (<i>op. cit.</i>,
+    pp. 117-119), the position of the clitoris is such that, as a
+    rule, it is more easily excited by coitus from behind than from
+    in front. A more recent writer, Klotz, in his book, <i>Der Mensch
+    ein Vierf&uuml;ssler</i> (1908), even takes the too extreme position that
+    the quadrupedal <a name='6_Page_557'></a>method of coitus, being the only method that
+    insures due contact with the clitoris, is the natural human
+    method. It must, however, be admitted that the posterior mode of
+    coitus is not only a widespread, but a very important variation,
+    in either of its two most important forms: the Pompeiian method,
+    in which the woman bends forwards and the man approaches behind,
+    or the method described by Boccaccio, in which the man is supine
+    and the woman astride.</p>
+
+<p>    <i>Fellatio</i> and <i>cunnilinctus</i>, while they are not strictly
+    methods of coitus, in so far as they do not involve the
+    penetration of the penis into the vagina, are very widespread as
+    preliminaries, or as vicarious forms of coitus, alike among
+    civilized and uncivilized peoples. Thus, in India, I am told that
+    <i>fellatio</i> is almost universal in households, and regarded as a
+    natural duty towards the paterfamilias. As regards <i>cunnilinctus</i>
+    Max Dessoir has stated (<i>Allgemeine Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Psychiatrie</i>,
+    1894, Heft 5) that the superior Berlin prostitutes say that about
+    a quarter of their clients desire to exercise this, and that in
+    France and Italy the proportion is higher; the number of women
+    who find <i>cunnilinctus</i> agreeable is without doubt much greater.
+    Intercourse <i>per anum</i> must also be regarded as a vicarious form
+    of coitus. It appears to be not uncommon, especially among the
+    lower social classes, and while most often due to the wish to
+    avoid conception, it is also sometimes practiced as a sexual
+    aberration, at the wish either of the man or the woman, the anus
+    being to some extent an erogenous zone.</p>
+
+<p>    The ethnic variations in method of coitus were briefly discussed
+    in volume v of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;The Mechanism of Detumescence,&quot;
+    Section II. In all civilized countries, from the earliest times,
+    writers on the erotic art have formally and systematically set
+    forth the different positions for coitus. The earliest writing of
+    this kind now extant seems to be an Egyptian papyrus preserved at
+    Turin of the date B.C. 1300; in this, fourteen different
+    positions are represented. The Indians, according to Iwan Bloch,
+    recognize altogether forty-eight different positions; the <i>Ananga
+    Ranga</i> describes thirty-two main forms. The Mohammedan <i>Perfumed
+    Garden</i> describes forty forms, as well as six different kinds of
+    movement during coitus. The Eastern books of this kind are, on
+    the whole, superior to those that have been produced by the
+    Western world, not only by their greater thoroughness, but by the
+    higher spirit by which they have often been inspired.</p>
+
+<p>    The ancient Greek erotic writings, now all lost, in which the
+    modes of coitus were described, were nearly all attributed to
+    women. According to a legend recorded by Suidas, the earliest
+    writer of this kind was Astyanassa, the maid of Helen of Troy.
+    Elephantis, the poetess, is supposed to have enumerated nine
+    different postures. Numerous women of later date wrote on these
+    subjects, and one book is attributed to Polycrates, the sophist.</p><a name='6_Page_558'></a>
+
+<p>    Aretino&mdash;who wrote after the influence of Christianity had
+    degraded erotic matters perilously near to that region of
+    pornography from which they are only to-day beginning to be
+    rescued&mdash;in his <i>Sonnetti Lussuriosi</i> described twenty-six
+    different methods of coitus, each one accompanied by an
+    illustrative design by Giulio Romano, the chief among Raphael's
+    pupils. Veniero, in his <i>Puttana Errante</i>, described thirty-two
+    positions. More recently Forberg, the chief modern authority, has
+    enumerated ninety positions, but, it is said, only forty-eight
+    can, even on the most liberal estimate, be regarded as coming
+    within the range of normal variation.</p>
+
+<p>    The disgrace which has overtaken the sexual act, and rendered it
+    a deed of darkness, is doubtless largely responsible for the fact
+    that the chief time for its consummation among modern civilized
+    peoples is the darkness of the early night in stuffy bedrooms
+    when the fatigue of the day's labors is struggling with the
+    artificial stimulation produced by heavy meals and alcoholic
+    drinks. This habit is partly responsible for the indifference or
+    even disgust with which women sometimes view coitus.</p>
+
+<p>    Many more primitive peoples are wiser. The New Guinea Papuans of
+    Astrolabe Bay, according to Vahness (<i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r
+    Ethnologie</i>, 1900, Heft 5, p. 414), though it must be remembered
+    that the association of the sexual act with darkness is much
+    older than Christianity, and connected with early religious
+    notions (<i>cf.</i> Hesiod, <i>Works and Days</i>, Bk. II), always have
+    sexual intercourse in the open air. The hard-working women of the
+    Gebvuka and Buru Islands, again, are too tired for coitus at
+    night; it is carried out in the day time under the trees, and the
+    Serang Islanders also have coitus in the woods (Ploss and
+    Bartels, Das <i>Weib</i>, Bk. i, Ch. XVII).</p>
+
+<p>    It is obviously impracticable to follow these examples in modern
+    cities, even if avocation and climate permitted. It is also
+    agreed that sexual intercourse should be followed by repose.
+    There seems to be little doubt, however, that the early morning
+    and the daylight are a more favorable time than the early night.
+    Conception should take place in the light, said Michelet
+    (<i>L'Amour</i>, p. 153); sexual intercourse in the darkness of night
+    is an act committed with a mere female animal; in the day-time it
+    is union with a loving and beloved individual person.</p>
+
+<p>    This has been widely recognized. The Greeks, as we gather from
+    Aristophanes in the <i>Archarnians</i>, regarded sunrise as the
+    appropriate time for coitus. The South Slavs also say that dawn
+    is the time for coitus. Many modern authorities have urged the
+    advantages of early morning coitus. Morning, said Roubaud
+    (<i>Trait&eacute; de l'Impuissance</i>, pp. 151-3) is the time for coitus,
+    and even if desire is greater in the evening, pleasure is greater
+    in the morning. Osiander also advised early morning coitus, and
+    Venette, in an earlier century, discussing &quot;at what hour <a name='6_Page_559'></a>a man
+    should amorously embrace his wife&quot; (<i>La G&eacute;n&eacute;ration de l'Homme</i>,
+    Part II, Ch. V), while thinking it is best to follow inclination,
+    remarks that &quot;a beautiful woman looks better by sunlight than by
+    candlelight.&quot; A few authorities, like Burdach, have been content
+    to accept the custom of night coitus, and Busch (<i>Das
+    Geschlechtsleben des Weibes</i>, vol. i, p. 214) was inclined to
+    think the darkness of night the most &quot;natural&quot; time, while
+    F&uuml;rbringer (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in Relation
+    to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 217) thinks that early morning is
+    &quot;occasionally&quot; the best time.</p>
+
+<p>    To some, on the other hand, the exercise of sexual intercourse in
+    the sunlight and the open air seems so important that they are
+    inclined to elevate it to the rank of a religious exercise. I
+    quote from a communication on this point received from Australia:
+    &quot;This shameful thing that must not be spoken of or done (except
+    in the dark) will some day, I believe, become the one religious
+    ceremony of the human race, in the spring. (Oh, what springs!)
+    People will have become very sane, well-bred, aristocratic (all
+    of them aristocrats), and on the whole opposed to rites and
+    superstitions, for they will have a perfect knowledge of the
+    past. The coition of lovers in the springtime will be the one
+    religious ceremony they will allow themselves. I have a vision
+    sometimes of the holy scene, but I am afraid it is too beautiful
+    to describe. 'The intercourse of the sexes, I have dreamed, is
+    ineffably beautiful, too fair to be remembered,' wrote the chaste
+    Thoreau. Verily human beauty, joy, and love will reach their
+    divinest height during those inaugural days of springtide
+    coupling. When the world is one Paradise, the consummation of the
+    lovers, the youngest and most beautiful, will take place in
+    certain sacred valleys in sight of thousands assembled to witness
+    it. For days it will take place in these valleys where the sun
+    will rise on a dream of passionate voices, of clinging human
+    forms, of flowers and waters, and the purple and gold of the
+    sunrise are reflected on hills illumined with pansies. [I know
+    not if the writer recalled George Chapman's &quot;Enamelled pansies
+    used at nuptials still&quot;], and repeated on golden human flesh and
+    human hair. In these sacred valleys the subtle perfume of the
+    pansies will mingle with the divine fragrance of healthy naked
+    young women and men in the spring coupling. You and I shall not
+    see that, but we may help to make it possible.&quot; This rhapsody (an
+    unconscious repetition of Saint-Lambert's at Mlle. Quinault's
+    table in the eighteenth century) serves to illustrate the revolt
+    which tends to take place against the unnatural and artificial
+    degradation of the sexual act.</p>
+
+<p>    In some parts of the world it has seemed perfectly natural and
+    reasonable that so great and significant an act as that of coitus
+    should be consecrated to the divinity, and hence arose the custom
+    of prayer before sexual intercourse. Thus Zoroaster ordained that
+    a married <a name='6_Page_560'></a>couple should pray before coitus, and after the act
+    they should say together: &quot;O, Sapondomad, I trust this seed to
+    thee, preserve it for me, for it is a man.&quot; In the Gorong
+    Archipelago it is customary also for husband and wife to pray
+    together before the sexual act (Ploss and Bartels, <i>Das Weib</i>,
+    Bd. i, Ch. XVII). The civilized man, however, has come to regard
+    his stomach as the most important of his organs, and he utters
+    his conventional grace, not before love, but only before food.
+    Even the degraded ritual vestiges of the religious recognition of
+    coitus are difficult to find in Europe. We may perhaps detect it
+    among the Spaniards, with their tenacious instinct for ritual, in
+    the solemn etiquette with which, in the seventeenth century, it
+    was customary, according to Madame d'Aulnoy, for the King to
+    enter the bedchamber of the Queen: &quot;He has on his slippers, his
+    black mantle over his shoulder, his shield on one arm, a bottle
+    hanging by a cord over the other arm (this bottle is not to drink
+    from, but for a quite opposite purpose, which you will guess).
+    With all this the King must also have his great sword in one hand
+    and a dark lantern in the other. In this way he must enter,
+    alone, the Queen's chamber&quot; (Madame d'Aulnoy, <i>Relation du Voyage
+    d'Espagne</i>, 1692, vol. iii, p. 221).</p></div>
+
+<p>In discussing the art of love it is necessary to give a primary place to
+the central fact of coitus, on account of the ignorance that widely
+prevails concerning it, and the unfortunate prejudices which in their
+fungous broods flourish in the noisome obscurity around it. The traditions
+of the Christian Church, which overspread the whole of Europe, and set up
+for worship a Divine Virgin and her Divine Son, both of whom it
+elaborately disengaged from personal contact with sexuality effectually
+crushed any attempt to find a sacred and avowable ideal in married love.
+Even the Church's own efforts to elevate matrimony were negatived by its
+own ideals. That influence depresses our civilization even to-day. When
+Walt Whitman wrote his &quot;Children of Adam&quot; he was giving imperfect
+expression to conceptions of the religious nature of sexual love which
+have existed wholesomely and naturally in all parts of the world, but had
+not yet penetrated the darkness of Christendom where they still seemed
+strange and new, if not terrible. And the refusal to recognize the
+solemnity of sex had involved the placing of a pall of blackness and
+disrepute on the supreme sexual act itself. It was shut out from the
+sunshine and excluded from the sphere of worship.</p><a name='6_Page_561'></a>
+
+<p>The sexual act is important from the point of view of erotic art, not only
+from the ignorance and prejudices which surround it, but also because it
+has a real value even in regard to the psychic side of married life.
+&quot;These organs,&quot; according to the oft-quoted saying of the old French
+physician, Ambrose Par&eacute;, &quot;make peace in the household.&quot; How this comes
+about we see illustrated from time to time in Pepys's Diary. At the same
+time, it is scarcely necessary to say, after all that has gone before,
+that this ancient source of domestic peace tends to be indefinitely
+complicated by the infinite variety in erotic needs, which become ever
+more pronounced with the growth of civilization.<a name='6_FNanchor_408'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_408'><sup>[408]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The art of love is, indeed, only beginning with the establishment of
+sexual intercourse. In the adjustment of that relationship all the forces
+of nature are so strongly engaged that under completely favorable
+conditions&mdash;which indeed very rarely occur in our civilization&mdash;the
+knowledge of the art and a possible skill in its exercise come almost of
+themselves. The real test of the artist in love is in the skill to carry
+it beyond the period when the interests of nature, having been really or
+seemingly secured, begin to slacken. The whole art of love, it has been
+well said, lies in forever finding something new in the same person. The
+art of love is even more the art of retaining love than of arousing it.
+Otherwise it tends to degenerate towards the Shakespearian lust,</p>
+
+<span style='margin-left: 2em;'>&quot;Past reason hunted, and no sooner had,</span><br />
+<span style='margin-left: 4em;'>Past reason hated,&quot;</span><br />
+
+<p>though it must be remembered that even from the most strictly natural
+point of view the transitions of passion are not normally towards
+repulsion but towards affection.<a name='6_FNanchor_409'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_409'><sup>[409]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The young man and woman who are brought into the complete unrestraint of
+marriage after a prolonged and unnatural separation, during which desire
+and the satisfactions of desire <a name='6_Page_562'></a>have been artificially disconnected, are
+certainly not under the best conditions for learning the art of love. They
+are tempted by reckless and promiscuous indulgence in the intimacies of
+marriage to fling carelessly aside all the reasons that make that art
+worth learning. &quot;There are married people,&quot; as Ellen Key remarks, &quot;who
+might have loved each other all their lives if they had not been
+compelled, every day and all the year, to direct their habits, wills, and
+inclinations towards each other.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>All the tendencies of our civilized life are, in personal matters, towards
+individualism; they involve the specialization, and they ensure the
+sacredness, of personal habits and even peculiarities. This individualism
+cannot be broken down suddenly at the arbitrary dictation of a tradition,
+or even by the force of passion from which the restraints have been
+removed. Out of deference to the conventions and prejudices of their
+friends, or out of the reckless abandonment of young love, or merely out
+of a fear of hurting each other's feelings, young couples have often
+plunged prematurely into an unbroken intimacy which is even more
+disastrous to the permanency of marriage than the failure ever to reach a
+complete intimacy at all. That is one of the chief reasons why most
+writers on the moral hygiene of marriage nowadays recommend separate beds
+for the married couple, if possible separate bedrooms, and even sometimes,
+with Ellen Key, see no objection to their living in separate houses.
+Certainly the happiest marriages have often involved the closest and most
+unbroken intimacy, in persons peculiarly fitted for such intimacy. It is
+far from true that, as Bloch has affirmed, familiarity is fatal to love.
+It is deadly to a love that has no roots, but it is the nourishment of the
+deeply-rooted love. Yet it remains true that absence is needed to maintain
+the keen freshness and fine idealism of love. &quot;Absence,&quot; as Landor said,
+&quot;is the invisible and incorporeal mother of ideal beauty.&quot; The married
+lovers who are only able to meet for comparatively brief periods between
+long absences have often experienced in these meetings a life-long
+succession of honeymoons.<a name='6_FNanchor_410'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_410'><sup>[410]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_563'></a>
+<p>There can be no question that as presence has its risks for love, so also
+has absence. Absence like presence, in the end, if too prolonged, effaces
+the memory of love, and absence, further, by the multiplied points of
+contact with the world which it frequently involves, introduces the
+problem of jealousy, although, it must be added, it is difficult indeed to
+secure a degree of association which excludes jealousy or even the
+opportunities for motives of jealousy. The problem of jealousy is so
+fundamental in the art of love that it is necessary at this point to
+devote to it a brief discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Jealousy is based on fundamental instincts which are visible at the
+beginning of animal life. Descartes defined jealousy as &quot;a kind of fear
+related to a desire to preserve a possession.&quot; Every impulse of
+acquisition in the animal world is stimulated into greater activity by the
+presence of a rival who may snatch beforehand the coveted object. This
+seems to be a fundamental fact in the animal world; it has been a
+life-conserving tendency, for, it has been said, an animal that stood
+aside while its fellows were gorging themselves with food, and experienced
+nothing but pure satisfaction in the spectacle, would speedily perish. But
+in this fact we have the natural basis of jealousy.<a name='6_FNanchor_411'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_411'><sup>[411]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It is in reference to food that this impulse appears first and most
+conspicuously among animals. It is a well-known fact that <a name='6_Page_564'></a>association
+with other animals induces an animal to eat much more than when kept by
+himself. He ceases to eat from hunger but eats, as it has been put, in
+order to preserve his food from rivals in the only strong box he knows.
+The same feeling is transferred among animals to the field of sex. And
+further in the relations of dogs and other domesticated animals to their
+masters the emotion of jealousy is often very keenly marked.<a name='6_FNanchor_412'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_412'><sup>[412]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Jealousy is an emotion which is at its maximum among animals, among
+savages,<a name='6_FNanchor_413'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_413'><sup>[413]</sup></a> among children,<a name='6_FNanchor_414'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_414'><sup>[414]</sup></a> in the senile, in the degenerate, and
+very specially in chronic alcoholics.<a name='6_FNanchor_415'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_415'><sup>[415]</sup></a> It is worthy of note that the
+supreme artists and masters of the human heart who have most consummately
+represented the tragedy of jealousy clearly recognized that it is either
+atavistic or pathological; Shakespeare made his Othello a barbarian, and
+Tolstoy made the Pozdnischeff of his <i>Kreutzer Sonata</i> a lunatic. It is an
+anti-social emotion, though it has been maintained by some that it has
+been the cause of chastity and fidelity. Gesell, for instance, while
+admitting its anti-social character and accumulating quotations in
+evidence of the torture and disaster it occasions, seems to think that it
+still ought to be encouraged in order to foster sexual virtues. Very
+decided opinions have been expressed in the opposite sense. Jealousy, like
+other shadows, says Ellen Key, belongs only to the dawn and the setting of
+love, <a name='6_Page_565'></a>and a man should feel that it is a miracle, and not his right, if
+the sun stands still at the zenith.<a name='6_FNanchor_416'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_416'><sup>[416]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Even therefore if jealousy has been a beneficial influence at the
+beginning of civilization, as well as among animals,&mdash;as may probably be
+admitted, though on the whole it seems rather to be the by-product of a
+beneficial influence than such an influence itself,&mdash;it is still by no
+means clear that it therefore becomes a desirable emotion in more advanced
+stages of civilization. There are many primitive emotions, like anger and
+fear, which we do not think it desirable to encourage in complex civilized
+societies but rather seek to restrain and control, and even if we are
+inclined to attribute an original value to jealousy, it seems to be among
+these emotions that it ought to be placed.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Miss Clapperton, in discussing this problem (<i>Scientific
+    Meliorism</i>, pp. 129-137), follows Darwin (<i>Descent of Man</i>, Part
+    I, Ch. IV) in thinking that jealousy led to &quot;the inculcation of
+    female virtue,&quot; but she adds that it has also been a cause of
+    woman's subjection, and now needs to be eliminated. &quot;To rid
+    ourselves as rapidly as may be of jealousy is essential;
+    otherwise the great movement in favor of equality of sex will
+    necessarily meet with checks and grave obstruction.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Ribot (<i>La Logique des Sentiments</i>, pp. 75 <i>et seq.</i>; <i>Essai sur
+    les Passions</i>, pp. 91, 175), while stating that subjectively the
+    estimate of jealousy must differ in accordance with the ideal of
+    life held, considers that objectively we must incline to an
+    unfavorable estimate &quot;Even a brief passion is a rupture in the
+    normal life; it is an abnormal, if not a pathological state, an
+    excrescence, a parasitism.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Forel (<i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, Ch. V) speaks very strongly in the
+    same sense, and considers that it is necessary to eliminate
+    jealousy by non-procreation of the jealous. Jealousy is, he
+    declares, &quot;the worst and unfortunately the most deeply-rooted of
+    the 'irradiations,' or, better, the 'contrast-reactions,' of
+    sexual love inherited from our animal ancestors. An old German
+    saying, 'Eifersucht ist eine Leidenschaft die mit Eifer sucht was
+    Leider schafft,' says by no means too much.... Jealousy is a
+    heritage of animality and barbarism; I would recall this to those
+    who, under the name of 'injured honor,' attempt to justify it and
+    place it on a high pedestal. An unfaithful husband is ten times
+    more to be wished for a woman than a jealous husband.... We often
+    hear of 'justifiable jealousy.' I believe, however, that there is
+    no justifiable jealousy; it is always atavistic or else
+    pathological; at the <a name='6_Page_566'></a>best it is nothing more than a brutal
+    animal stupidity. A man who, by nature, that is by his hereditary
+    constitution, is jealous is certain to poison his own life and
+    that of his wife. Such men ought on no account to marry. Both
+    education and selection should work together to eliminate
+    jealousy as far as possible from the human brain.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Eric Gillard in an article on &quot;Jealousy&quot; (<i>Free Review</i>, Sept.,
+    1896), in opposition to those who believe that jealousy &quot;makes
+    the home,&quot; declares that, on the contrary, it is the chief force
+    that unmakes the home. &quot;So long as egotism waters it with the
+    tears of sentiment and shields it from the cold blasts of
+    scientific inquiry, so long will it thrive. But the time will
+    come when it will be burned in the Garden of Love as a noxious
+    weed. Its mephitic influence in society is too palpable to be
+    overlooked. It turns homes that might be sanctuaries of love into
+    hells of discord and hate; it causes suicides, and it drives
+    thousands to drink, reckless excesses, and madness. Makes the
+    home! One of your married men friends sees a probable seducer in
+    every man who smiles at his wife; another is jealous of his
+    wife's women acquaintances; a third is wounded because his wife
+    shows so much attention to the children. Some of the women you
+    know display jealousy of every other woman, of their husband's
+    acquaintances, and some, of his very dog. You must be completely
+    monopolized or you do not thoroughly love. You must admire no one
+    but the person with whom you have immured yourself for life. Old
+    friendships must be dissolved, new friendships must not be
+    formed, for fear of invoking the beautiful emotion that 'makes
+    the home.'&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Even if jealousy in matters of sex could be admitted to be an emotion
+working on the side of civilized progress, it must still be pointed out
+that it merely acts externally; it can have little or no real influence;
+the jealous person seldom makes himself more lovable by his jealousy and
+frequently much less lovable. The main effect of his jealousy is to
+increase, and not seldom to excite, the causes for jealousy, and at the
+same time to encourage hypocrisy.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>All the circumstances, accompaniments, and results of domestic
+    jealousy in their completely typical form, are well illustrated
+    by a very serious episode in the history of the Pepys household,
+    and have been fully and faithfully set down by the great diarist.
+    The offence&mdash;an embrace of his wife's lady-help, as she might now
+    be termed&mdash;was a slight one, but, as Pepys himself admits, quite
+    inexcusable. He is writing, being in his thirty-sixth year, on
+    the 25th of Oct., 1668 (Lord's Day). &quot;After supper, to have my
+    hair combed by Deb, which occasioned <a name='6_Page_567'></a>the greatest sorrow to me
+    that ever I knew in this world, for my wife, coming up suddenly,
+    did find me embracing the girl.... I was at a wonderful loss upon
+    it, and the girl also, and I endeavored to put it off, but my
+    wife was struck mute and grew angry.... Heartily afflicted for
+    this folly of mine.... So ends this month,&quot; he writes a few days
+    later, &quot;with some quiet to my mind, though not perfect, after the
+    greatest falling out with my poor wife, and through my folly with
+    the girl, that ever I had, and I have reason to be sorry and
+    ashamed of it, and more to be troubled for the poor girl's sake.
+    Sixth November. Up, and presently my wife up with me, which she
+    professedly now do every day to dress me, that I may not see
+    Willet [Deb], and do eye me, whether I cast my eye upon her, or
+    no, and do keep me from going into the room where she is. Ninth
+    November. Up, and I did, by a little note which I flung to Deb,
+    advise her that I did continue to deny that ever I kissed her,
+    and so she might govern herself. The truth is that I did
+    adventure upon God's pardoning me this lie, knowing how heavy a
+    thing it would be for me, to the ruin of the poor girl, and next
+    knowing that if my wife should know all it would be impossible
+    for her ever to be at peace with me again, and so our whole lives
+    would be uncomfortable. The girl read, and as I bid her returned
+    me the note, flinging it to me in passing by.&quot; Next day, however,
+    he is &quot;mightily troubled,&quot; for his wife has obtained a confession
+    from the girl of the kissing. For some nights Mr. and Mrs. Pepys
+    are both sleepless, with much weeping on either side. Deb gets
+    another place, leaving on the 14th of November, and Pepys is
+    never able to see her before she leaves the house, his wife
+    keeping him always under her eye. It is evident that Pepys now
+    feels strongly attracted to Deb, though there is no evidence of
+    this before she became the subject of the quarrel. On the 13th of
+    November, hearing she was to leave next day, he writes: &quot;The
+    truth is I have a good mind to have the maidenhead of this girl.&quot;
+    He was, however, the &quot;more troubled to see how my wife is by this
+    means likely forever to have her hand over me, and that I shall
+    forever be a slave to her&mdash;that is to say, only in matters of
+    pleasure.&quot; At the same time his love for his wife was by no means
+    diminished, nor hers for him. &quot;I must here remark,&quot; he says,
+    &quot;that I have lain with my moher [<i>i.e.</i>, <i>muger</i>, wife] as a
+    husband more times since this falling out than in, I believe,
+    twelve months before. And with more pleasure to her than in all
+    the time of our marriage before.&quot; The next day was Sunday. On
+    Monday Pepys at once begins to make inquiries which will put him
+    on the track of Deb. On the 18th he finds her. She gets up into
+    the coach with him, and he kisses her and takes liberties with
+    her, at the same time advising her &quot;to have a care of her honor
+    and to fear God,&quot; allowing no one else to do what he has done; he
+    also tells her how she can find him if she desires. Pepys now
+    feels that everything <a name='6_Page_568'></a>is settled satisfactorily, and his heart
+    is full of joy. But his joy is short-lived, for Mrs. Pepys
+    discovers this interview with Deb on the following day. Pepys
+    denies it at first, then confesses, and there is a more furious
+    scene than ever. Pepys is now really alarmed, for his wife
+    threatens to leave him; he definitely abandons Deb, and with
+    prayers to God resolves never to do the like again. Mrs. Pepys is
+    not satisfied, however, till she makes her husband write a letter
+    to Deb, telling her that she is little better than a whore, and
+    that he hates her, though Deb is spared this, not by any
+    stratagem of Pepys, but by the considerateness of the friend to
+    whom the letter was entrusted for delivery. Moreover, Mrs. Pepys
+    arranges with her husband that, in future, whenever he goes
+    abroad he shall be accompanied everywhere by his clerk. We see
+    that Mrs. Pepys plays with what appears to be triumphant skill
+    and success the part of the jealous and avenging wife, and digs
+    her little French heels remorselessly into her prostrate husband
+    and her rival. Unfortunately, we do not know what the final
+    outcome was, for a little later, owing to trouble with his
+    eyesight, Pepys was compelled to bring his Diary to an end. It is
+    evident, however, when we survey the whole of this perhaps
+    typical episode, that neither husband nor wife were in the
+    slightest degree prepared for the commonplace position into which
+    they were thrown; that each of them appears in a painful,
+    undignified, and humiliating light; that as a result of it the
+    husband acquires almost a genuine and strong affection for the
+    girl who is the cause of the quarrel; and finally that, even
+    though he is compelled, for the time at all events, to yield to
+    his wife, he remains at the end exactly what he was at the
+    beginning. Nor had husband or wife the very slightest wish to
+    leave each other; the bond of marriage remained firm, but it had
+    been degraded by insincerity on one side and the jealous endeavor
+    on the other to secure fidelity by compulsion.</p></div>
+
+<p>Apart altogether, however, from the question of its effectiveness, or even
+of the misery that it causes to all concerned, it is evident that jealousy
+is incompatible with all the tendencies of civilization. We have seen that
+a certain degree of variation is involved in the sexual relationship, as
+in all other relationships, and unless we are to continue to perpetuate
+many evils and injustices, that fact has to be faced and recognized. We
+have also seen that the line of our advance involves a constant increase
+in moral responsibility and self-government, and that, in its turn,
+implies not only a high degree of sincerity but also the recognition that
+no person has any right, or indeed any power, to control the emotions and
+actions of another person. If our sun of <a name='6_Page_569'></a>love stands still at midday,
+according to Ellen Key's phrase, that is a miracle to be greeted with awe
+and gratitude, and by no means a right to be demanded. The claim of
+jealousy falls with the claim of conjugal rights.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is quite possible, Bloch remarks (<i>The Sexual Life of Our
+    Time</i>, Ch. X), to love more than one person at the same time,
+    with nearly equal tenderness, and to be honestly able to assure
+    each of the passion felt for her or him. Bloch adds that the vast
+    psychic differentiation involved by modern civilization increases
+    the possibility of this double love, for it is difficult for
+    anyone to find his complement in a single person, and that this
+    applies to women as well as to men.</p>
+
+<p>    Georg Hirth likewise points out (<i>Wege zur Heimat</i>, pp. 543-552)
+    that it is important to remember that women, as well as men, can
+    love two persons at the same time. Men flatter themselves, he
+    remarks, with the prejudice that the female heart, or rather
+    brain, can only hold one man at a time, and that if there is a
+    second man it is by a kind of prostitution. Nearly all erotic
+    writers, poets, and novelists, even physicians and psychologists,
+    belong to this class, he says; they look on a woman as property,
+    and of course two men cannot &quot;possess&quot; a woman. (Regarding
+    novelists, however, the remark may be interpolated that there are
+    many exceptions, and Thomas Hardy, for instance, frequently
+    represents a woman as more or less in love with two men at the
+    same time.) As against this desire to depreciate women's psychic
+    capacity, Hirth maintains that a woman is not necessarily obliged
+    to be untrue to one man because she has conceived a passion for
+    another man. &quot;Today,&quot; Hirth truly declares, &quot;only love and
+    justice can count as honorable motives in marriage. The modern
+    man accords to the beloved wife and life-companion the same
+    freedom which he himself took before marriage, and perhaps still
+    takes in marriage. If she makes no use of it, as is to be
+    hoped&mdash;so much the better! But let there be no lies, no
+    deception; the indispensable foundation of modern marriage is
+    boundless sincerity and friendship, the deepest trust,
+    affectionate devotion, and consideration. This is the best
+    safeguard against adultery.... Let him, however, who is,
+    nevertheless, overtaken by the outbreak of it console himself
+    with the undoubted fact that of two real lovers the most
+    noble-minded and deep-seeing <i>friend</i> will always have the
+    preference.&quot; These wise words cannot be too deeply meditated. The
+    policy of jealousy is only successful&mdash;when it is successful&mdash;in
+    the hands of the man who counts the external husk of love more
+    precious than the kernel.</p></div>
+
+<p>It seems to some that the recognition of variations in sexual
+relationships, of the tendency of the monogamic to overpass its
+<a name='6_Page_570'></a>self-imposed bounds, is at best a sad necessity, and a lamentable fall
+from a high ideal. That, however, is the reverse of the truth. The great
+evil of monogamy, and its most seriously weak point, is its tendency to
+self-concentration at the expense of the outer world. The devil always
+comes to a man in the shape of his wife and children, said Hinton. The
+family is a great social influence in so far as it is the best instrument
+for creating children who will make the future citizens; but in a certain
+sense the family is an anti-social influence, for it tends to absorb
+unduly the energy that is needed for the invigoration of society. It is
+possible, indeed, that that fact led to the modification of the monogamic
+system in early developing periods of human history, when social expansion
+and cohesion were the primary necessities. The family too often tends to
+resemble, as someone has said, the secluded collection of grubs sometimes
+revealed in their narrow home when we casually raise a flat stone in our
+gardens. Great as are the problems of love, and great as should be our
+attention to them, it must always be remembered that love is not a little
+circle that is complete in itself. It is the nature of love to irradiate.
+Just as family life exists mainly for the social end of breeding the
+future race, so family love has its social ends in the extension of
+sympathy and affection to those outside it, and even in ends that go
+beyond love altogether.<a name='6_FNanchor_417'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_417'><sup>[417]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The question is debated from time to time as to how far it is possible for
+men and women to have intimate friendships with each other outside the
+erotic sphere.<a name='6_FNanchor_418'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_418'><sup>[418]</sup></a> There can be no doubt whatever that it is perfectly
+possible for a man and a woman to experience for each other a friendship
+which never intrudes into the sexual sphere. As a rule, however, this only
+happens under special conditions, and those are generally conditions which
+<a name='6_Page_571'></a>exclude the closest and most intimate friendship. If, as we have seen,
+love may be defined as a synthesis of lust and friendship, friendship
+inevitably enters into the erotic sphere. Just as sexual emotion tends to
+merge into friendship, so friendship between persons of opposite sex, if
+young, healthy, and attractive, tends to involve sexual emotion. The two
+feelings are too closely allied for an artificial barrier to be
+permanently placed between them without protest. Men who offer a woman
+friendship usually find that it is not received with much satisfaction
+except as the first installment of a warmer emotion, and women who offer
+friendship to a man usually find that he responds with an offer of love;
+very often the &quot;friendship&quot; is from the first simply love or flirtation
+masquerading under another name.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;In the long run,&quot; a woman writes (in a letter published in
+    <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. i, Heft 7), &quot;the senses become
+    discontented at their complete exclusion. And I believe that a
+    man can only come into the closest mutual association with a
+    woman by whom, consciously or unconsciously, he is physically
+    attracted. He cannot enter into the closest psychic intercourse
+    with a woman with whom he could not imagine himself in physical
+    intercourse. His prevailing wish is for the possession of a
+    woman, of the whole woman, her soul as well as her body. And a
+    woman also cannot imagine an intimate relation to a man in which
+    the heart and the body, as well as the mind, are not involved.
+    (Naturally I am thinking of people with sound nerves and healthy
+    blood.) Can a woman carry on a Platonic relation with a man from
+    year to year without the thought sometimes coming to her: 'Why
+    does he never kiss me? Have I no charm for him?' And in the most
+    concealed corner of her heart will it not happen that she uses
+    that word 'kiss' in the more comprehensive sense in which the
+    French sometimes employ it?&quot; There is undoubtedly an element of
+    truth in this statement. The frontier between erotic love and
+    friendship is vague, and an intimate psychic intercourse that is
+    sternly debarred from ever manifesting itself in a caress, or
+    other physical manifestation of tender intimacy, tends to be
+    constrained, and arouses unspoken and unspeakable thoughts and
+    desires which are fatal to any complete friendship.</p></div>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the only perfect &quot;Platonic friendships&quot; are those which have
+been reached through the portal of a preliminary erotic intimacy. In such
+a case bad lovers, when they have resolutely traversed the erotic stage,
+may become exceedingly <a name='6_Page_572'></a>good friends. A satisfactory friendship is
+possible between brother and sister because they have been physically
+intimate in childhood, and all erotic curiosities are absent. The most
+admirable &quot;Platonic friendship&quot; may often be attained by husband and wife
+in whom sympathy and affection and common interests have outlived passion.
+In nearly all the most famous friendships of distinguished men and
+women&mdash;as we know in some cases and divine in others&mdash;an hour's passion,
+in Sainte-Beuve's words, has served as the golden key to unlock the most
+precious and intimate secrets of friendship.<a name='6_FNanchor_419'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_419'><sup>[419]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The friendships that have been entered through the erotic portal possess
+an intimacy and retain a spiritually erotic character which could not be
+attained on the basis of a normal friendship between persons of the same
+sex. This is true in a far higher degree of the ultimate relationship,
+under fortunate circumstances, of husband and wife in the years after
+passion has become impossible. They have ceased to be passionate lovers
+but they have not become mere friends and comrades. More especially their
+relationship takes on elements borrowed from the attitude of child to
+parent, of parent to child. Everyone from his first years retains
+something of the child which cannot be revealed to all the world; everyone
+acquires something of the guardian paternal or maternal spirit. Husband
+and wife are each child to the other, and are indeed parent and child by
+turn. And here still the woman retains a certain erotic supremacy, for she
+is to the last more of a child than it is ever easy for the man to be, and
+much more essentially a mother than he is a father.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Groos (<i>Der &AElig;sthetische Genuss</i>, p. 249) has pointed out that
+    &quot;love&quot; is really made up of both sexual instinct and parental
+    instinct.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;So-called happy marriages,&quot; says Professor W. Thomas (<i>Sex and
+    Society</i>, p. 246), &quot;represent an equilibrium reached through an
+    extension of the maternal interest of the woman to the man,
+    whereby she looks after his personal needs as she does after
+    those of the children&mdash;cherishing <a name='6_Page_573'></a>him, in fact, as a child&mdash;or
+    in an extension to woman on the part of man of the nurture and
+    affection which is in his nature to give to pets and all helpless
+    (and preferably dumb) creatures.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;When the devotion in the tie between mother and son,&quot; a woman
+    writes, &quot;is added to the relation of husband and wife, the union
+    of marriage is raised to the high and beautiful dignity it
+    deserves, and can attain in this world. It comprehends sympathy,
+    love, and perfect understanding, even of the faults and
+    weaknesses of both sides.&quot; &quot;The foundation of every true woman's
+    love,&quot; another woman writes, &quot;is a mother's tenderness. He whom
+    she loves is a child of larger growth, although she may at the
+    same time have a deep respect for him.&quot; (See also, for similar
+    opinion of another woman of distinguished intellectual ability,
+    footnote at beginning of &quot;The Psychic State in Pregnancy&quot; in
+    volume v of these <i>Studies</i>.)</p>
+
+<p>    It is on the basis of these elemental human facts that the
+    permanently seductive and inspiring relationships of sex are
+    developed, and not by the emergence of personalities who combine
+    impossibly exalted characteristics. &quot;The task is extremely
+    difficult,&quot; says Kisch in his <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>, &quot;but a
+    clever and virtuous modern wife must endeavor to combine in her
+    single personality the sensuous attractiveness of an Aspasia, the
+    chastity of a Lucrece, and the intellectual greatness of a
+    Cornelia.&quot; And in an earlier century we are told in the novel of
+    <i>La Tia Fingida</i>, which has sometimes been attributed to
+    Cervantes, that &quot;a woman should be an angel in the street, a
+    saint in church, beautiful at the window, honest in the house,
+    and a demon in bed.&quot; The demands made of men by women, on the
+    other hand, have been almost too lofty to bear definite
+    formulation at all. &quot;Ninety-nine out of a hundred loving women,&quot;
+    says Helene St&ouml;cker, &quot;certainly believe that if a thousand other
+    men have behaved ignobly, and forsaken, ill-used, and deceived
+    the woman they love, the man they love is an exception, marked
+    out from all other men; that is the reason they love him.&quot; It may
+    be doubted, however, if the great lovers have ever stood very far
+    above the ordinary level of humanity by their possession of
+    perfection. They have been human, and their art of love has not
+    always excluded the possession of human frailties; perfection,
+    indeed, even if it could be found, would furnish a bad soil for
+    love to strike deep roots in.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is only when we realize the highly complex nature of the elements which
+make up erotic love that we can understand how it is that that love can
+constitute so tremendous a revelation and exert so profound an influence
+even in men of the greatest genius and intellect and in the sphere of
+their most spiritual activity. It is not merely passion, nor any conscious
+skill in the erotic art,&mdash;important <a name='6_Page_574'></a>as these may be,&mdash;that would serve to
+account for Goethe's relationship to Frau von Stein, or Wagner's to
+Mathilde Wesendonck, or that of Robert and Elizabeth Browning to each
+other.<a name='6_FNanchor_420'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_420'><sup>[420]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It may now be clear to the reader why it has been necessary in a
+discussion of the sexual impulse in its relationship to society to deal
+with the art of love. It is true that there is nothing so intimately
+private and personal as the erotic affairs of the individual. Yet it is
+equally true that these affairs lie at the basis of the social life, and
+furnish the conditions&mdash;good or bad as the case may be&mdash;of that
+procreative act which is a supreme concern of the State. It is because the
+question of love is of such purely private interest that it tends to be
+submerged in the question of breed. We have to realize, not only that the
+question of love subserves the question of breed, but also that love has a
+proper, a necessary, even a socially wholesome claim, to stand by itself
+and to be regarded for its own worth.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In the profoundly suggestive study of love which the
+    distinguished sociologist Tarde left behind at his death
+    (<i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>), there are
+    some interesting remarks on this point: &quot;Society,&quot; he says, &quot;has
+    been far more, and more intelligently, preoccupied with the
+    problem of answering the 'question of breed' than the 'question
+    of love.' The first problem fills all our civil and commercial
+    codes. The second problem has never been clearly stated, or
+    looked in the face, not even in antiquity, still less since the
+    coming of Christianity, for merely to offer the solutions of
+    marriage and prostitution is manifestly inadequate. Statesmen
+    have only seen the side on which it <a name='6_Page_575'></a>touches population. Hence
+    the marriage laws. Sterile love they profess to disdain. Yet it
+    is evident that, though born as the serf of generation, love
+    tends by civilization to be freed from it. In place of a simple
+    method of procreation it has become an end, it has created itself
+    a title, a royal title. Our gardens cultivate flowers that are
+    all the more charming because they are sterile; why is the double
+    corolla of love held more infamous than the sterilized flowers of
+    our gardens?&quot; Tarde replies that the reason is that our
+    politicians are merely ambitious persons thirsting for power and
+    wealth, and even when they are lovers they are Don Juans rather
+    than Virgils. &quot;The future,&quot; he continues, &quot;is to the Virgilians,
+    because if the ambition of power, the regal wealth of American or
+    European millionarism, once seemed nobler, love now more and more
+    attracts to itself the best and highest parts of the soul, where
+    lies the hidden ferment of all that is greatest in science and
+    art, and more and more those studious and artist souls multiply
+    who, intent on their peaceful activities, hold in horror the
+    business men and the politicians, and will one day succeed in
+    driving them back. That assuredly will be the great and capital
+    revolution of humanity, an active psychological revolution: the
+    recognized preponderance of the meditative and contemplative, the
+    lover's side of the human soul, over the feverish, expansive,
+    rapacious, and ambitious side. And then it will be understood
+    that one of the greatest of social problems, perhaps the most
+    arduous of all, has been the problem of love.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_375'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_375'>[375]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Qu&aelig;stionum Convivalium</i>, lib. iii, qu&aelig;stio 6.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_376'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_376'>[376]</a><div class='note'><p> E. D. Cope, &quot;The Marriage Problem,&quot; <i>Open Court</i>, Nov.
+1888.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_377'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_377'>[377]</a><div class='note'><p> Columbus meeting of the American Medical Association,
+1900.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_378'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_378'>[378]</a><div class='note'><p> Ellen Key, <i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 24.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_379'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_379'>[379]</a><div class='note'><p> In an admirable article on Friedrich Schlegel's <i>Lucinde</i>
+(<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1906, Heft 5), Heinrich Meyer-Benfey, in pointing out
+that the Catholic sacramental conception of marriage licensed love, but
+failed to elevate it, regards <i>Lucinde</i>, with all its defects, as the
+first expression of the unity of the senses and the soul, and, as such,
+the basis of the new ethics of love. It must, however, be said that four
+hundred years earlier Pontano had expressed this same erotic unity far
+more robustly and wholesomely than Schlegel, though the Latin verse in
+which he wrote, fresh and vital as it is, remained without influence.
+Pontano's <i>Carmina</i>, including the &quot;De Amore Conjugali,&quot; have at length
+been reprinted in a scholarly edition by Soldati.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_380'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_380'>[380]</a><div class='note'><p> From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries Ovid was,
+in reality, the most popular and influential classic poet. His works
+played a large part in moulding Renaissance literature, not least in
+England, where Marlowe translated his <i>Amores</i>, and Shakespeare, during
+the early years of his literary activity, was greatly indebted to him
+(see, <i>e.g.</i>, Sidney Lee, &quot;Ovid and Shakespeare's Sonnets,&quot; <i>Quarterly
+Review</i>, Ap., 1909).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_381'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_381'>[381]</a><div class='note'><p> This has already been discussed in Chapter II.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_382'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_382'>[382]</a><div class='note'><p> By the age of twenty-five, as G. Hirth remarks (<i>Wege zur
+Heimat</i>, p. 541), an energetic and sexually disposed man in a large city
+has, for the most part, already had relations with some twenty-five women,
+perhaps even as many as fifty, while a well-bred and cultivated woman at
+that age is still only beginning to realize the slowly summating
+excitations of sex.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_383'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_383'>[383]</a><div class='note'><p> In his study of &quot;Conjugal Aversion&quot; (<i>Journal Nervous and
+Mental Disease</i>, Sept., 1892) Smith Baker points out the value of adequate
+sexual knowledge before marriage in lessening the risks of such aversion.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_384'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_384'>[384]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;It may be said to the honor of men,&quot; Adler truly remarks
+(<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 182), &quot;that it is perhaps not often their conscious
+brutality that is at fault in this matter, but merely lack of skill and
+lack of understanding. The husband who is not specially endowed by nature
+and experience for psychic intercourse with women, is not likely, through
+his earlier intercourse with Venus vulgivaga, to bring into marriage any
+useful knowledge, psychic or physical.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_385'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_385'>[385]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;The first night,&quot; writes a correspondent concerning his
+marriage, &quot;she found the act very painful and was frightened and surprised
+at the size of my penis, and at my suddenly getting on her. We had talked
+very openly about sex things before marriage, and it never occurred to me
+that she was ignorant of the details of the act. I imagined it would
+disgust her to talk about these things; but I now see I should have
+explained things to her. Before marrying I had come to the conclusion that
+the respect owed to one's wife was incompatible with any talk that might
+seem indecent, and also I had made a resolve not to subject her to what I
+thought then were dirty tricks, even to be naked and to have her naked. In
+fact, I was the victim of mock modesty; it was an artificial reaction from
+the life I had been living before marriage. Now it seems to me to be
+natural, if you love a woman, to do whatever occurs to you and to her. If
+I had not felt it wrong to encourage such acts between us, there might
+have been established a sexual sympathy which would have bound me more
+closely to her.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_386'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_386'>[386]</a><div class='note'><p> Montaigne, <i>Essais</i>, Bk. iii, Ch. V. It is a significant
+fact that, even in the matter of information, women, notwithstanding much
+ignorance and inexperience, are often better equipped for marriage than
+men. As F&uuml;rbringer remarks (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 212), although the wife is usually more
+chaste at marriage than the husband, yet &quot;she is generally the better
+informed partner in matters pertaining to the married state, in spite of
+occasional astonishing confessions.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_387'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_387'>[387]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;She never loses her self-respect nor my respect for her,&quot;
+a man writes in a letter, &quot;simply because we are desperately in love with
+one another, and everything we do&mdash;some of which the lowest prostitute
+might refuse to do&mdash;seems but one attempt after another to translate our
+passion into action. I never realized before, not that to the pure all
+things are pure, indeed, but that to the lover nothing is indecent. Yes, I
+have always felt it, to love her is a liberal education.&quot; It is obviously
+only the existence of such an attitude as this that can enable a pure
+woman to be passionate.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_388'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_388'>[388]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;To be really understood,&quot; as Rafford Pyke well says, &quot;to
+say what she likes, to utter her innermost thoughts in her own way, to
+cast aside the traditional conventions that gall her and repress her, to
+have someone near her with whom she can be quite frank, and yet to know
+that not a syllable of what she says will be misinterpreted or mistaken,
+but rather felt just as she feels it all&mdash;how wonderfully sweet is this to
+every woman, and how few men are there who can give it to her!&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_389'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_389'>[389]</a><div class='note'><p> In more recent times it has been discussed in relation to
+the frequency of spontaneous nocturnal emissions. See &quot;The Phenomena of
+Sexual Periodicity,&quot; Sect. II, in volume i of these <i>Studies</i>, and <i>cf.</i>
+Mr. Perry-Coste's remarks on &quot;The Annual Rhythm,&quot; in Appendix B of the
+same volume.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_390'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_390'>[390]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;The Sexual Impulse in Women,&quot; vol. iii of these
+<i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_391'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_391'>[391]</a><div class='note'><p> Zenobia's practice is referred to by Gibbon, <i>Decline and
+Fall</i>, ed. Bury, vol. i, p. 302. The Queen of Aragon's decision is
+recorded by the Montpellier jurist, Nicolas Bohier (Boerius) in his
+<i>Decisiones</i>, etc., ed. of 1579, p. 563; it is referred to by Montaigne,
+<i>Essais</i>, Bk. iii, Ch. V.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_392'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_392'>[392]</a><div class='note'><p> Haller, <i>Elementa Physiologi&aelig;</i>, 1778, vol. vii, p. 57.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_393'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_393'>[393]</a><div class='note'><p> Hammond, <i>Sexual Impotence</i>, p. 129.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_394'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_394'>[394]</a><div class='note'><p> F&uuml;rbringer, Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 221.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_395'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_395'>[395]</a><div class='note'><p> Forel, <i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, p. 80.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_396'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_396'>[396]</a><div class='note'><p> Guyot, <i>Br&eacute;viaire de l'Amour Exp&eacute;rimental</i>, p. 144.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_397'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_397'>[397]</a><div class='note'><p> Erb, Ziemssen's <i>Handbuch</i>, Bd. xi, ii, p. 148. Guttceit
+also considered that the very wide variations found are congenital and
+natural. It may be added that some believe that there are racial
+variations. Thus it has been stated that the genital force of the
+Englishman is low, and that of the Frenchman (especially Proven&ccedil;al,
+Languedocian, and Gascon) high, while L&ouml;wenfeld believes that the Germanic
+race excels the French in aptitude to repeat the sex act frequently. It is
+probable that little weight attaches to these opinions, and that the chief
+differences are individual rather than racial.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_398'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_398'>[398]</a><div class='note'><p> Ribbing, <i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne Sexualle</i>, p. 75. Kisch, in his <i>Sexual
+Life of Woman</i>, expresses the same opinion.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_399'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_399'>[399]</a><div class='note'><p> Mohammed, who often displayed a consideration for women
+very rare in the founders of religions, is an exception. His prescription
+of once a week represented the right of the wife, quite independently of
+the number of wives a man might possess.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_400'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_400'>[400]</a><div class='note'><p> How fragile the claim of &quot;conjugal rights&quot; is, may be
+sufficiently proved by the fact that it is now considered by many that the
+very term &quot;conjugal rights&quot; arose merely by a mistake for &quot;conjugal
+rites.&quot; Before 1733, when legal proceedings were in Latin, the term used
+was <i>obsequies</i>, and &quot;rights,&quot; instead of &quot;rites,&quot; seems to have been
+merely a typesetter's error (see <i>Notes and Queries</i>, May 16, 1891; May 6,
+1899). This explanation, it should be added, only applies to the
+consecrated term, for there can be no doubt that the underlying idea has
+an existence quite independent of the term.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_401'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_401'>[401]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;In most marriages that are not happy,&quot; it is said in
+Rafford Pyke's thoughtful paper on &quot;Husbands and Wives&quot; (<i>Cosmopolitan</i>,
+1902), &quot;it is the wife rather than the husband who is oftenest
+disappointed.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_402'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_402'>[402]</a><div class='note'><p> See &quot;Analysis of the Sexual Impulse,&quot; in vol. iii of these
+<i>Studies</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_403'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_403'>[403]</a><div class='note'><p> It is well recognized by erotic writers, however, that
+women may sometimes take a comparatively active part. Thus Vatsyayana says
+that sometimes the woman may take the man's position, and with flowers in
+her hair and smiles mixed with sighs and bent head, caressing him and
+pressing her breasts against him, say: &quot;You have been my conqueror; it is
+my turn to make you cry for mercy.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_404'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_404'>[404]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus among the Swahili it is on the third day after
+marriage that the bridegroom is allowed, by custom, to complete
+defloration, according to Zache, <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Ethnologie</i>, 1899,
+II-III, p. 84.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_405'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_405'>[405]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>De l'Amour</i>, vol. ii, p. 57.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_406'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_406'>[406]</a><div class='note'><p> Robert Michels, &quot;Brautstandsmoral,&quot; <i>Geschlecht und
+Gesellschaft</i>, Jahrgang I, Heft 12.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_407'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_407'>[407]</a><div class='note'><p> I may refer once more to the facts brought together in
+volume iii of these <i>Studies</i>, &quot;The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_408'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_408'>[408]</a><div class='note'><p> This has been pointed out, for instance, by Rutgers,
+&quot;Sexuelle Differenzierung,&quot; <i>Die Neue Generation</i>, Dec., 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_409'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_409'>[409]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, among the Eskimo, who practice temporary
+wife-exchange, Rasmussen states that &quot;a man generally discovers that his
+own wife is, in spite of all, the best.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_410'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_410'>[410]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;I have always held with the late Professor Laycock,&quot;
+remarks Clouston (<i>Hygiene of Mind</i>, p. 214), &quot;who was a very subtle
+student of human nature, that a married couple need not be always together
+to be happy, and that in fact reasonable absences and partings tend
+towards ultimate and closer union.&quot; That the prolongation of passion is
+only compatible with absence scarcely needs pointing out; as Mary
+Wollstonecraft long since said (<i>Rights of Woman</i>, original ed., p. 61),
+it is only in absence or in misfortune that passion is durable. It may be
+added, however, that in her love-letters to Imlay she wrote: &quot;I have ever
+declared that two people who mean to live together ought not to be long
+separated.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_411'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_411'>[411]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;Viewed broadly,&quot; says Arnold L. Gesell, in his interesting
+study of &quot;Jealousy&quot; (<i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, Oct., 1906),
+&quot;jealousy seems such a necessary psychological accompaniment to biological
+behavior, amidst competitive struggle, that one is tempted to consider it
+genetically among the oldest of the emotions, synonymous almost with the
+will to live, and to make it scarcely less fundamental than fear or anger.
+In fact, jealousy readily passes into anger, and is itself a brand of
+fear.... In sociability and mutual aid we see the other side of the
+shield; but jealousy, however anti-social it may be, retains a function in
+zo&ouml;logical economy: viz., to conserve the individual as against the group.
+It is Nature's great corrective for the purely social emotions.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_412'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_412'>[412]</a><div class='note'><p> Many illustrations are brought together in Gesell's study
+of &quot;Jealousy.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_413'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_413'>[413]</a><div class='note'><p> Jealousy among lower races may be disguised or modified by
+tribal customs. Thus Rasmussen (<i>People of the Polar North</i>, p. 65) says
+in reference to the Eskimo custom of wife-exchange: &quot;A man once told me
+that he only beat his wife when she would not receive other men. She would
+have nothing to do with anyone but him&mdash;and that was her only failing!&quot;
+Rasmussen elsewhere shows that the Eskimo are capable of extreme
+jealousy.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_414'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_414'>[414]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, Moll, <i>Sexualleben des Kindes</i>, p. 158; <i>cf.</i>,
+Gesell's &quot;Study of Jealousy.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_415'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_415'>[415]</a><div class='note'><p> Jealousy is notoriously common among drunkards. As K.
+Birnbaum points out (&quot;Das Sexualleben der Alkokolisten,&quot;
+<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Jan., 1909), this jealousy is, in most cases, more or
+less well-founded, for the wife, disgusted with her husband, naturally
+seeks sympathy and companionship elsewhere. Alcoholic jealousy, however,
+goes far beyond its basis of support in fact, and is entangled with
+delusions and hallucinations. (See <i>e.g.</i>, G. Dumas, &quot;La Logique d'un
+D&eacute;ment,&quot; <i>Revue Philosophique</i>, Feb., 1908; also Stefanowski, &quot;Morbid
+Jealousy,&quot; <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, July, 1893.)</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_416'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_416'>[416]</a><div class='note'><p> Ellen Key, <i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 335.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_417'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_417'>[417]</a><div class='note'><p> Schrempf points out (&quot;Von Stella zu Kl&auml;rchen,&quot;
+<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1906, Heft 7, p. 264) that Goethe strove to show in
+<i>Egmont</i> that a woman is repelled by the love of a man who knows nothing
+beyond his love to her, and that it is easy for her to devote herself to
+the man whose aims lie in the larger world beyond herself. There is
+profound truth in this view.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_418'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_418'>[418]</a><div class='note'><p> A discussion on &quot;Platonic friendship&quot; of this kind by
+several writers, mostly women, whose opinions were nearly equally divided,
+may be found, for instance, in the <i>Lady's Realm</i>, March, 1900.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_419'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_419'>[419]</a><div class='note'><p> There are no doubt important exceptions. Thus M&eacute;rim&eacute;e's
+famous friendship with Mlle. Jenny Dacquin, enshrined in the <i>Lettres &agrave;
+une Inconnue</i>, was perhaps Platonic throughout on M&eacute;rim&eacute;e's side, Mlle.
+Dacquin adapting herself to his attitude. <i>Cf.</i> A. Lefebvre, <i>La C&eacute;l&egrave;bre
+Inconnue de M&eacute;rim&eacute;e</i>, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_420'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_420'>[420]</a><div class='note'><p> The love-letters of all these distinguished persons have
+been published. Rosa Mayreder (<i>Zur Kritik der Weiblichkeit</i>, pp. 229 <i>et
+seq.</i>) discusses the question of the humble and absolute manner in which
+even men of the most masculine and impetuous genius abandon themselves to
+the inspiration of the beloved woman. The case of the Brownings, who have
+been termed &quot;the hero and heroine of the most wonderful love-story that
+the world knows of,&quot; is specially notable; (Ellen Key has written of the
+Brownings from this point of view in <i>Menschen</i>, and reference may be made
+to an article on the Brownings' love-letters in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>,
+April, 1899). It is scarcely necessary to add that an erotic relationship
+may mean very much to persons of high intellectual ability, even when its
+issue is not happy; of Mary Wollstonecraft, one of the most intellectually
+distinguished of women, it may be said that the letters which enshrine her
+love to the worthless Imlay are among the most passionate and pathetic
+love-letters in English.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_CHAPTER_XII'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_576'></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SCIENCE OF PROCREATION.</h3>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The Relationship of the Science of Procreation to the Art of Love&mdash;Sexual
+Desire and Sexual Pleasure as the Conditions of Conception&mdash;Reproduction
+Formerly Left to Caprice and Lust&mdash;The Question of Procreation as a
+Religious Question&mdash;The Creed of Eugenics&mdash;Ellen Key and Sir Francis
+Galton&mdash;Our Debt to Posterity&mdash;The Problem of Replacing Natural
+Selection&mdash;The Origin and Development of Eugenics&mdash;The General Acceptance
+of Eugenical Principles To-day&mdash;The Two Channels by Which Eugenical
+Principles are Becoming Embodied in Practice&mdash;The Sense of Sexual
+Responsibility in Women&mdash;The Rejection of Compulsory Motherhood&mdash;The
+Privilege of Voluntary Motherhood&mdash;Causes of the Degradation of
+Motherhood&mdash;The Control of Conception&mdash;Now Practiced by the Majority of
+the Population in Civilized Countries&mdash;The Fallacy of &quot;Racial
+Suicide&quot;&mdash;Are Large Families a Stigma of Degeneration?&mdash;Procreative
+Control the Outcome of Natural and Civilized Progress&mdash;The Growth of
+Neo-Malthusian Beliefs and Practices&mdash;Facultative Sterility as Distinct
+from Neo-Malthusianism&mdash;The Medical and Hygienic Necessity of Control of
+Conception&mdash;Preventive Methods&mdash;Abortion&mdash;The New Doctrine of the Duty to
+Practice Abortion&mdash;How Far is this Justifiable?&mdash;Castration as a Method of
+Controlling Procreation&mdash;Negative Eugenics and Positive Eugenics&mdash;The
+Question of Certificates for Marriage&mdash;The Inadequacy of Eugenics by Act
+of Parliament&mdash;The Quickening of the Social Conscience in Regard to
+Heredity&mdash;Limitations to the Endowment of Motherhood&mdash;The Conditions
+Favorable to Procreation&mdash;Sterility&mdash;The Question of Artificial
+Fecundation&mdash;The Best Age of Procreation&mdash;The Question of Early
+Motherhood&mdash;The Best Time for Procreation&mdash;The Completion of the Divine
+Cycle of Life.</p></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>We have seen that the art of love has an independent and amply justifiable
+right to existence apart, altogether, from procreation. Even if we still
+believed&mdash;as all men must once have believed and some Central Australians
+yet believe<a name='6_FNanchor_421'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_421'><sup>[421]</sup></a>&mdash;that sexual intercourse has no essential connection with
+the propagation of the race it would have full right to existence. In its
+finer manifestations as an art it is required in civilization for the full
+<a name='6_Page_577'></a>development of the individual, and it is equally required for that
+stability of relationships which is nearly everywhere regarded as a demand
+of social morality.</p>
+
+<p>When we now turn to the second great constitutional factor of marriage,
+procreation, the first point we encounter is that the art of love here
+also has its place. In ancient times the sexual congruence of any man with
+any woman was supposed to be so much a matter of course that all questions
+of love and of the art of love could be left out of consideration. The
+propagative act might, it was thought, be performed as impersonally, as
+perfunctorily, as the early Christian Fathers imagined it had been
+performed in Paradise. That view is no longer acceptable. It fails to
+commend itself to men, and still less to women. We know that in
+civilization at all events&mdash;and it is often indeed the same among
+savages&mdash;erethism is not always easy between two persons selected at
+random, nor even when they are more specially selected. And we also know,
+on the authority of very distinguished gyn&aelig;cologists, that it is not in
+very many cases sufficient even to effect coitus, it is also necessary to
+excite orgasm, if conception is to be achieved.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Many primitive peoples, as well as the theologians of the Middle
+    Ages, have believed that sexual excitement on the woman's part is
+    necessary to conception, though they have sometimes mixed up that
+    belief with false science and mere superstition. The belief
+    itself is supported by some of the most cautious and experienced
+    modern gyn&aelig;cologists. Thus, Matthews Duncan (in his lectures on
+    <i>Sterility in Women</i>) argued that the absence of sexual desire in
+    women, and the absence of pleasure in the sexual act, are
+    powerful influences making for sterility. He brought forward a
+    table based on his case-books, showing that of nearly four
+    hundred sterile women, only about one-fourth experienced sexual
+    desire, while less than half experienced pleasure in the sexual
+    act. In the absence, however, of a corresponding table concerning
+    fertile women, nothing is hereby absolutely proved, and, at most,
+    only a probability established.</p>
+
+<p>    Kisch, more recently (in his <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>), has dealt
+    fully with this question, and reaches the conclusion that it is
+    &quot;extremely probable&quot; that the active erotic participation of the
+    woman in coitus is an important link in the chain of conditions
+    producing conception. It acts, he remarks, in either or both of
+    two ways, by causing reflex <a name='6_Page_578'></a>changes in the cervical secretions,
+    and so facilitating the passage of the spermatozoa, and by
+    causing reflex erectile changes in the cervix itself, with slight
+    descent of the uterus, so rendering the entrance of the semen
+    easier. Kisch refers to the analogous fact that the first
+    occurrence of menstruation is favored by sexual excitement.</p>
+
+<p>    Some authorities go so far as to assert that, until voluptuous
+    excitement occurs in women, no impregnation is possible. This
+    statement seems too extreme. It is true that the occurrence of
+    impregnation during sleep, or in an&aelig;sthesia, cannot be opposed to
+    it, for we know that the unconsciousness of these states by no
+    means prevents the occurrence of complete sexual excitement. We
+    cannot fail, however, to connect the fact that impregnation
+    frequently fails to occur for months and even years after
+    marriage, with the fact that sexual pleasure in coitus on the
+    wife's part also frequently fails to occur for a similar period.</p></div>
+
+<p>&quot;Of all human instincts,&quot; Pinard has said,<a name='6_FNanchor_422'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_422'><sup>[422]</sup></a> &quot;that of reproduction is
+the only one which remains in the primitive condition and has received no
+education. We procreate to-day as they procreated in the Stone Age. The
+most important act in the life of man, the sublimest of all acts since it
+is that of his reproduction, man accomplishes to-day with as much
+carelessness as in the age of the cave-man.&quot; And though Pinard himself, as
+the founder of puericulture, has greatly contributed to call attention to
+the vast destinies that hang on the act of procreation, there still
+remains a lamentable amount of truth in this statement. &quot;Future
+generations,&quot; writes Westermarck in his great history of moral ideas,<a name='6_FNanchor_423'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_423'><sup>[423]</sup></a>
+&quot;will probably with a kind of horror look back at a period when the most
+important, and in its consequences the most far-reaching, function which
+has fallen to the lot of man was entirely left to individual caprice and
+lust.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>We are told in his <i>Table Talk</i>, that the great Luther was accustomed to
+say that God's way of making man was very foolish (&quot;sehr n&auml;rrisch&quot;), and
+that if God had deigned to take him into His counsel he would have
+strongly advised Him to make the whole human race, as He made Adam, &quot;out
+of earth.&quot; And certainly if applied to the careless and reckless manner in
+which procreation in Luther's day, as still for the most part in our <a name='6_Page_579'></a>own,
+was usually carried out there was sound common sense in the Reformer's
+remarks. If that is the way procreation is to be carried on, it would be
+better to create and mould every human being afresh out of the earth; in
+that way we could at all events eliminate evil heredity. It was, however,
+unjust to place the responsibility on God. It is men and women who breed
+the people that make the world good or bad. They seek to put the evils of
+society on to something outside themselves. They see how large a
+proportion of human beings are defective, ill-conditioned, anti-social,
+incapable of leading a whole and beautiful human life. In old theological
+language it was often said that such were &quot;children of the Devil,&quot; and
+Luther himself was often ready enough to attribute the evil of the world
+to the direct interposition of the Devil. Yet these ill-conditioned people
+who clog the wheels of society are, after all, in reality the children of
+Man. The only Devil whom we can justly invoke in this matter is Man.</p>
+
+<p>The command &quot;Be fruitful and multiply,&quot; which the ancient Hebrews put into
+the mouth of their tribal God, was, as Crackanthorpe points out,<a name='6_FNanchor_424'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_424'><sup>[424]</sup></a> a
+command supposed to have been uttered when there were only eight persons
+in the world. If the time should ever again occur when the inhabitants of
+the world could be counted on one's fingers, such an injunction, as
+Crackanthorpe truly observes, would again be reasonable. But we have to
+remember that to-day humanity has spawned itself over the world in
+hundreds and even thousands of millions of creatures, a large proportion
+of whom, as is but too obvious, ought never to have been born at all, and
+the voice of Jehovah is now making itself heard through the leaders of
+mankind in a very different sense.</p>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that as this fact tends to become generally
+recognized, the question of the procreation of the race should gain a new
+significance, and even tend to take on the character of a new religious
+movement. Mere morality can never lead us to concern ourselves with the
+future of the race, and in <a name='6_Page_580'></a>the days of old, men used to protest against
+the tendency to subordinate the interests of religion to the claims of
+&quot;mere morality.&quot; There was a sound natural instinct underlying that
+protest, so often and so vigorously made by Christianity, and again
+revived to-day in a more intelligent form. The claim of the race is the
+claim of religion. We have to beware lest we subordinate that claim to our
+moralities. Moralities are, indeed, an inevitable part of our social order
+from which we cannot escape; every community must have its <i>mores</i>. But we
+are not entitled to make a fetich of our morality, sacrificing to it the
+highest interests entrusted to us. The nations which have done so have
+already signed their own death-warrant.<a name='6_FNanchor_425'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_425'><sup>[425]</sup></a> From this point of view, the
+whole of Christianity, rightly considered, with its profound conviction of
+the necessity for forethought and preparation for the life hereafter, has
+been a preparation for eugenics, a schoolmaster to discipline within us a
+higher ideal than itself taught, and we cannot therefore be surprised at
+the solidity of the basis on which eugenical conceptions of life are
+developing.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The most distinguished pioneers of the new movement of devotion
+    to the creation of the race seem independently to have realized
+    its religious character. This attitude is equally marked in Ellen
+    Key and Francis Galton. In her <i>Century of the Child</i> (English
+    translation, 1909), Ellen Key entirely identifies herself with
+    the eugenic movement. &quot;It is only a question of time,&quot; she
+    elsewhere writes (<i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 445), &quot;when the
+    attitude of society towards a sexual union will depend not on the
+    form of the union, but on the value of the children created. Men
+    and women will then devote the same religious earnestness to the
+    psychic and physical perfectioning of this sexual task as
+    Christians have devoted to the salvation of their souls.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Sir Francis Galton, writing a few years later, but without doubt
+    independently, in 1905, on &quot;Restrictions in Marriage,&quot; and
+    &quot;Eugenics as a Factor in Religion&quot; (<i>Sociological Papers</i> of the
+    Sociological Society, vol. ii, pp. 13, 53), remarks: &quot;Religious
+    precepts, founded on the ethics and practice of older days,
+    require to be reinterpreted, to make them conform to the needs of
+    progressive nations. Ours are already so far behind modern
+    requirements that much of our practice and our profession cannot
+    be reconciled without illegitimate casuistry. It seems <a name='6_Page_581'></a>to me
+    that few things are more needed by us in England than a revision
+    of our religion, to adapt it to the intelligence and needs of
+    this present time.... Evolution is a grand phantasmagoria, but it
+    assumes an infinitely more interesting aspect under the knowledge
+    that the intelligent action of the human will is, in some small
+    measure, capable of guiding its course. Man has the power of
+    doing this largely, so far as the evolution of humanity is
+    concerned; he has already affected the quality and distribution
+    of organic life so widely that the changes on the surface of the
+    earth, merely through his disforestings and agriculture, would be
+    recognizable from a distance as great as that of the moon.
+    Eugenics is a virile creed, full of hopefulness, and appealing to
+    many of the noblest feelings of our nature.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    As will always happen in every great movement, a few fanatics
+    have carried into absurdity the belief in the supreme religious
+    importance of procreation. Love, apart from procreation, writes
+    one of these fanatics, Vacher de Lapouge, in the spirit of some
+    of the early Christian Fathers (see <i>ante</i> p. 509), is an
+    aberration comparable to sadism and sodomy. Procreation is the
+    only thing that matters, and it must become &quot;a legally prescribed
+    social duty&quot; only to be exercised by carefully selected persons,
+    and forbidden to others, who must, by necessity, be deprived of
+    the power of procreation, while abortion and infanticide must,
+    under some circumstances, become compulsory. Romantic love will
+    disappear by a process of selection, as also will all religion
+    except a new form of phallic worship (G. Vacher de Lapouge, &quot;Die
+    Crisis der Sexuellen Moral,&quot; <i>Politisch Anthropologische Revue</i>,
+    No. 8, 1908). It is sufficient to point out that love is, and
+    always must be, the natural portal to generation. Such excesses
+    of procreative fanaticism cannot fail to occur, and they render
+    the more necessary the emphasis which has here been placed on the
+    art of love.</p></div>
+
+<p>&quot;What has posterity done for me that I should do anything for posterity?&quot;
+a cynic is said to have asked. The answer is very simple. The human race
+has done everything for him. All that he is, and can be, is its creation;
+all that he can do is the result of its laboriously accumulated
+traditions. It is only by working towards the creation of a still better
+posterity, that he can repay the good gifts which the human race has
+brought him.<a name='6_FNanchor_426'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_426'><sup>[426]</sup></a> Just as, within the limits of this present life, many
+who have received benefits and kindnesses they can never repay to the
+<a name='6_Page_582'></a>actual givers, find a pleasure in vicariously repaying the like to
+others, so the heritage we have received from our ascendents we can never
+repay, save by handing it on in a better form to our descendants.</p>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly true that the growth of eugenical ideals has not been,
+for the most part, due to religious feeling. It has been chiefly the
+outcome of a very gradual, but very comprehensive, movement towards social
+amelioration, which has been going on for more than a century, and which
+has involved a progressive effort towards the betterment of all the
+conditions of life. The ideals of this movement were proclaimed in the
+eighteenth century, they began to find expression early in the nineteenth
+century, in the initiation of the modern system of sanitation, in the
+growth of factory legislation, in all the movements which have been borne
+onwards by socialism hand in hand with individualism. The inevitable
+tendency has been slowly towards the root of the matter; it began to be
+seen that comparatively little can be effected by improving the conditions
+of life of adults; attention began to be concentrated on the child, on the
+infant, on the embryo in its mother's womb, and this resulted in the
+fruitful movement of puericulture inspired by Pinard, and finally the
+problem is brought to its source at the point of procreation, and the
+regulation of sexual selection between stocks and between individuals as
+the prime condition of life. Here we have the science of eugenics which
+Sir Francis Galton has done so much to make a definite, vital, and
+practical study, and which in its wider bearings he defines as &quot;the
+science which deals with those social eugenics that influence, mentally or
+physically, the racial qualities of future generations.&quot; In its largest
+aspect, eugenics is, as Galton has elsewhere said, man's attempt &quot;to
+replace Natural Selection by other processes that are more merciful and
+not less effective.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In the last chapter of his <i>Memories of My Life</i> (1908), on &quot;Race
+    Improvement,&quot; Sir Francis Galton sets forth the origin and
+    development of his conception of the science of eugenics. The
+    term, &quot;eugenics,&quot; he first used in 1884, in his <i>Human Faculty</i>,
+    but the conception dates from 1865, and even earlier. Galton has
+    more recently discussed the <a name='6_Page_583'></a>problems of eugenics in papers read
+    before the Sociological Society (<i>Sociological Papers</i>, vols. i
+    and ii, 1905), in the Herbert Spencer Lecture on &quot;Probability the
+    Foundation of Eugenics,&quot; (1907), and elsewhere. Galton's numerous
+    memoirs on this subject have now been published in a collected
+    form by the Eugenics Education Society, which was established in
+    1907, to further and to popularize the eugenical attitude towards
+    social questions; <i>The Eugenics Review</i> is published by this
+    Society. On the more strictly scientific side, eugenic studies
+    are carried on in the Eugenics Laboratory of the University of
+    London, established by Sir Francis Galton, and now working in
+    connection with Professor Karl Pearson's biometric laboratory, in
+    University College. Much of Professor Pearson's statistical work
+    in this and allied directions, is the elaboration of ideas and
+    suggestions thrown out by Galton. See, <i>e.g.</i>, Karl Pearson's
+    Robert Boyle Lecture, &quot;The Scope and Importance to the State of
+    the Science of National Eugenics&quot; (1907). <i>Biometrika</i>, edited by
+    Karl Pearson in association with other workers, contains numerous
+    statistical memoirs on eugenics. In Germany, the <i>Archiv f&uuml;r
+    Rassen und Gesellschafts-biologie</i>, and the
+    <i>Politisch-Anthropologische Revue</i>, are largely occupied with
+    various aspects of such subjects, and in America, <i>The Popular
+    Science Monthly</i> from time to time, publishes articles which have
+    a bearing on eugenics.</p></div>
+
+<p>At one time there was a tendency to scoff, or to laugh, at the eugenic
+movement. It was regarded as an attempt to breed men as men breed animals,
+and it was thought a sufficiently easy task to sweep away this new
+movement with the remark that love laughs at bolts and bars. It is now
+beginning to be better understood. None but fanatics dream of abolishing
+love in order to effect pairing by rule. It is merely a question of
+limiting the possible number of mates from whom each may select a partner,
+and that, we must remember, has always been done even by savages, for, as
+it has been said, &quot;eugenics is the oldest of the sciences.&quot; The question
+has merely been transformed. Instead of being limited mechanically by
+caste, we begin to see that the choice of sexual mates must be limited
+intelligently by actual fitness. Promiscuous marriages have never been the
+rule; the possibility of choice has always been narrow, and the most
+primitive peoples have exerted the most marked self-restraint. It is not
+so merely among remote races but among our own European ancestors.
+Throughout the whole period of Catholic supremacy <a name='6_Page_584'></a>the Canon law
+multiplied the impediments to matrimony, as by ordaining that
+consanguinity to the fourth degree (third cousins), as well as spiritual
+relationship, is an impediment, and by such arbitrary prohibitions limited
+the range of possible mates at least as much as it would be limited by the
+more reasonable dictates of eugenic considerations.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day it may be said that the principle of the voluntary
+control of procreation, not for the selfish ends of the individual, but in
+order to extinguish disease, to limit human misery, and to raise the
+general level of humanity by substituting the ideal of quality for the
+vulgar ideal of mere quantity, is now generally accepted, alike by medical
+pathologists, embryologists and neurologists, and by sociologists and
+moralists.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It would be easy to multiply quotations from distinguished
+    authorities on this point. Thus, Metchnikoff points out (<i>Essais
+    Optimistes</i>, p. 419) that orthobiosis seems to involve the
+    limitation of offspring in the fight against disease. Ballantyne
+    concludes his great treatise on <i>Antenanal Pathology</i> with the
+    statement that &quot;Eugenics&quot; or well-begetting, is one of the
+    world's most pressing problems. Dr. Louise Robinovitch, the
+    editor of the <i>Journal of Mental Pathology</i>, in a brilliant and
+    thoughtful paper, read before the Rome Congress of Psychology in
+    1905, well spoke in the same sense: &quot;Nations have not yet
+    elevated the energy of genesic function to the dignity of an
+    energy. Other energies known to us, even of the meanest grade,
+    have long since been wisely utilized, and their activities based
+    on the principle of the strictest possible economy. This economic
+    utilization has been brought about, not through any enforcement
+    of legislative restrictions, but through steadily progressive
+    human intelligence. Economic handling of genesic function will,
+    like the economic function of other energies, come about through
+    a steady and progressive intellectual development of nations.&quot;
+    &quot;There are circumstances,&quot; says C. H. Hughes, (&quot;Restricted
+    Procreation,&quot; <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, May, 1908), &quot;under
+    which the propagation of a human life may be as gravely criminal
+    as the taking of a life already begun.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    From the general biological, as well as from the sociological
+    side, the acceptance of the same standpoint is constantly
+    becoming more general, for it is recognized as the inevitable
+    outcome of movements which have long been in progress.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;Already,&quot; wrote Haycraft (<i>Darwinism and Race Progress</i>, p.
+    160), referring to the law for the prevention of cruelty to
+    children, &quot;public <a name='6_Page_585'></a>opinion has expressed itself in the public
+    rule that a man and woman, in begetting a child, must take upon
+    themselves the obligation and responsibility of seeing that that
+    child is not subjected to cruelty and hardship. It is but one
+    step more to say that a man and a woman shall be under obligation
+    not to produce children, when it is certain that, from their want
+    of physique, they will have to undergo suffering, and will keep
+    up but an unequal struggle with their fellows.&quot; Professor J.
+    Arthur Thomson, in his volume on <i>Heredity</i> (1908), vigorously
+    and temperately pleads (p. 528) for rational methods of eugenics,
+    as specially demanded in an age like our own, when the unfit have
+    been given a better chance of reproduction than they have ever
+    been given in any other age. Bateson, again, referring to the
+    growing knowledge of heredity, remarks (<i>Mendel's Principles of
+    Heredity</i>, 1909, p. 305): &quot;Genetic knowledge must certainly lead
+    to new conceptions of justice, and it is by no means impossible
+    that, in the light of such knowledge, public opinion will welcome
+    measures likely to do more for the extinction of the criminal and
+    the degenerate than has been accomplished by ages of penal
+    enactment.&quot; Adolescent youths and girls, said Anton von Menger,
+    in his last book, the pregnant <i>Neue Sittenlehre</i> (1905), must be
+    taught that the production of children, under certain
+    circumstances, is a crime; they must also be taught the voluntary
+    restraint of conception, even in health; such teaching, Menger
+    rightly added, is a necessary preliminary to any legislation in
+    this direction.</p>
+
+<p>    Of recent years, many books and articles have been devoted to the
+    advocacy of eugenic methods. Mention may be made, for instance,
+    of <i>Population and Progress</i> (1907), by Montague Crackanthorpe,
+    President of the Eugenics Education Society. See also, Havelock
+    Ellis, &quot;Eugenics and St. Valentine,&quot; <i>Nineteenth Century and
+    After</i>, May, 1906. It may be mentioned that nearly thirty years
+    ago, Miss J. H. Clapperton, in her <i>Scientific Meliorism</i> (1885,
+    Ch. XVII), pointed out that the voluntary restraint of
+    procreation by Neo-Malthusian methods, apart from merely
+    prudential motives, there clearly recognized, is &quot;a new key to
+    the social position,&quot; and a necessary condition for &quot;national
+    regeneration.&quot; Professor Karl Pearson's <i>Groundwork of Eugenics</i>,
+    (1909) is, perhaps, the best brief introduction to the subject.
+    Mention may also be made of Dr. Saleeby's <i>Parenthood and Race
+    Culture</i> (1909), written in a popular and enthusiastic manner.</p>
+
+<p>    How widely the general principles of eugenics are now accepted as
+    the sound method of raising the level of the human race, was well
+    shown at a meeting of the Sociological Society, in 1905, when,
+    after Sir Francis Galton had read papers on the question, the
+    meeting heard the opinions of numerous sociologists, economists,
+    biologists, and well-known thinkers in various lands, who were
+    present, or who had sent communications. Some twenty-one
+    expressed more or less unqualified <a name='6_Page_586'></a>approval, and only three or
+    four had objections to offer, mostly on matters of detail
+    (<i>Sociological Papers</i>, published by the Sociological Society,
+    vol. ii, 1905).</p></div>
+
+<p>If we ask by what channels this impulse towards the control of procreation
+for the elevation of the race is expressing itself in practical life, we
+shall scarcely fail to find that there are at least two such channels: (1)
+the growing sense of sexual responsibility among women as well as men, and
+(2) the conquest of procreative control which has been achieved in recent
+years, by the general adoption of methods for the prevention of
+conception.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been necessary in a previous chapter to discuss the
+far-reaching significance of woman's personal responsibility as an element
+in the modification of the sexual life of modern communities. Here it need
+only be pointed out that the autonomous authority of a woman over her own
+person, in the sexual sphere, involves on her part a consent to the act of
+procreation which must be deliberate. We are apt to think that this is a
+new and almost revolutionary demand; it is, however, undoubtedly a
+natural, ancient, and recognized privilege of women that they should not
+be mothers without their own consent. Even in the Islamic world of the
+<i>Arabian Nights</i>, we find that high praise is accorded to the &quot;virtue and
+courage&quot; of the woman who, having been ravished in her sleep, exposed, and
+abandoned on the highway, the infant that was the fruit of this
+involuntary union, &quot;not wishing,&quot; she said, &quot;to take the responsibility
+before Allah of a child that had been born without my consent.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_427'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_427'><sup>[427]</sup></a> The
+approval with which this story is narrated clearly shows that to the
+public of Islam it seemed entirely just and humane that a woman should not
+have a child, except by her own deliberate will. We have been accustomed
+to say in later days that the State needs children, and that it is the
+business and the duty of women to supply them. But the State has no more
+right than the individual to ravish a woman against her will. We are
+beginning to realize that if the State wants children it <a name='6_Page_587'></a>must make it
+agreeable to women to produce them, as under natural and equitable
+conditions it cannot fail to be. &quot;The women will solve the question of
+mankind,&quot; said Ibsen in one of his rare and pregnant private utterances,
+&quot;and they will do it as mothers.&quot; But it is unthinkable that any question
+should ever be solved by a helpless, unwilling, and involuntary act which
+has not even attained to the dignity of animal joy.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is sometimes supposed, and even assumed, that the demand of
+    women that motherhood must never be compulsory, means that they
+    are unwilling to be mothers on any terms. In a few cases that may
+    be so, but it is certainly not the case as regards the majority
+    of sane and healthy women in any country. On the contrary, this
+    demand is usually associated with the desire to glorify
+    motherhood, if not, indeed, even with the thought of extending
+    motherhood to many who are to-day shut out from it. &quot;It seems to
+    me,&quot; wrote Lady Henry Somerset, some years ago (&quot;The Welcome
+    Child,&quot; <i>Arena</i>, April, 1895), &quot;that life will be dearer and
+    nobler the more we recognize that there is no indelicacy in the
+    climax and crown of creative power, but, rather, that it is the
+    highest glory of the race. But if voluntary motherhood is the
+    crown of the race, involuntary compulsory motherhood is the very
+    opposite.... Only when both man and woman have learned that the
+    most sacred of all functions given to women must be exercised by
+    the free will alone, can children be born into the world who have
+    in them the joyous desire to live, who claim that sweetest
+    privilege of childhood, the certainty that they can expand in the
+    sunshine of the love which is their due.&quot; Ellen Key, similarly,
+    while pointing out (<i>Ueber Liebe und Ehe</i>, pp. 14, 265) that the
+    tyranny of the old Protestant religious spirit which enjoined on
+    women unlimited submission to joyless motherhood within &quot;the
+    whited sepulchre of marriage&quot; is now being broken, exalts the
+    privileges of voluntary motherhood, while admitting that there
+    may be a few exceptional cases in which women may withdraw
+    themselves from motherhood for the sake of the other demands of
+    their personality, though, &quot;as a general rule, the woman who
+    refuses motherhood in order to serve humanity, is like a soldier
+    who prepares himself on the eve of battle for the forthcoming
+    struggle by opening his veins.&quot; Helene St&ouml;cker, likewise, reckons
+    motherhood as one of the demands, one of the growing demands
+    indeed, which women now make. &quot;If, to-day,&quot; she says (in the
+    Preface to <i>Liebe und die Frauen</i>, 1906), &quot;all the good things of
+    life are claimed even for women&mdash;intellectual training, pecuniary
+    independence, a happy vocation in life, a respected social
+    position&mdash;and at the same time, as equally matter-of-course, <a name='6_Page_588'></a>and
+    equally necessary, marriage and child, that demand no longer
+    sounds, as it sounded a few years ago, the voice of a preacher in
+    the wilderness.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The degradation to which motherhood has, in the eyes of many,
+    fallen, is due partly to the tendency to deprive women of any
+    voice in the question, and partly to what H. G. Wells calls
+    (<i>Socialism and the Family</i>, 1906) &quot;the monstrous absurdity of
+    women discharging their supreme social function, bearing and
+    rearing children, in their spare time, as it were, while they
+    'earn their living' by contributing some half mechanical element
+    to some trivial industrial product.&quot; It would be impracticable,
+    and even undesirable, to insist that married women should not be
+    allowed to work, for a work in the world is good for all. It is
+    estimated that over thirty per cent. of the women workers in
+    England are married or widows (James Haslam, <i>Englishwoman</i>,
+    June, 1909), and in Lancashire factories alone, in 1901, there
+    were 120,000 married women employed. But it would be easily
+    possible for the State to arrange, in its own interests, that a
+    woman's work at a trade should always give way to her work as a
+    mother. It is the more undesirable that married women should be
+    prohibited from working at a profession, since there are some
+    professions for which a married woman, or, rather, a mother, is
+    better equipped than an unmarried woman. This is notably the case
+    as regards teaching, and it would be a good policy to allow
+    married women teachers special privileges in the shape of
+    increased free time and leave of absence. While in many fields of
+    knowledge an unmarried woman may be a most excellent teacher, it
+    is highly undesirable that children, and especially girls, should
+    be brought exclusively under the educational influence of
+    unmarried teachers.</p></div>
+
+<p>The second great channel through which the impulse towards the control of
+procreation for the elevation of the race is entering into practical life
+is by the general adoption, by the educated classes of all countries&mdash;and
+it must be remembered that, in this matter at all events, all classes are
+gradually beginning to become educated&mdash;of methods for the prevention of
+conception except when conception is deliberately desired. It is no longer
+permissible to discuss the validity of this control, for it is an
+accomplished fact and has become a part of our modern morality. &quot;If a
+course of conduct is habitually and deliberately pursued by vast
+multitudes of otherwise well-conducted people, forming probably a majority
+of the whole educated class of the nation,&quot;<a name='6_Page_589'></a> as Sidney Webb rightly puts
+it, &quot;we must assume that it does not conflict with their actual code of
+morality.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_428'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_428'><sup>[428]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There cannot be any doubt that, so far as England is concerned,
+    the prevention of conception is practiced, from prudential or
+    other motives, by the vast majority of the educated classes. This
+    fact is well within the knowledge of all who are intimately
+    acquainted with the facts of English family life. Thus, Dr. A. W.
+    Thomas writes (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Oct. 20, 1906, p.
+    1066): &quot;From my experience as a general practitioner, I have no
+    hesitation in saying that ninety per cent. of young married
+    couples of the comfortably-off classes use preventives.&quot; As a
+    matter of fact, this rough estimate appears to be rather under
+    than over the mark. In the very able paper already quoted, in
+    which Sidney Webb shows that &quot;the decline in the birthrate
+    appears to be much greater in those sections of the population
+    which give proofs of thrift and foresight,&quot; that this decline is
+    &quot;principally, if not entirely, the result of deliberate
+    volition,&quot; and that &quot;a volitional regulation of the marriage
+    state is now ubiquitous throughout England and Wales, among,
+    apparently, a large majority of the population,&quot; the results are
+    brought forward of a detailed inquiry carried out by the Fabian
+    Society. This inquiry covered 316 families, selected at random
+    from all parts of Great Britain, and belonging to all sections of
+    the middle class. The results are carefully analyzed, and it is
+    found that seventy-four families were unlimited, and two hundred
+    and forty-two voluntarily limited. When, however, the decade
+    1890-99 is taken by itself as the typical period, it is found
+    that of 120 marriages, 107 were limited, and only thirteen
+    unlimited, while of these thirteen, five were childless at the
+    date of the return. In this decade, therefore, only seven
+    unlimited fertile marriages are reported, out of a total of 120.</p>
+
+<p>    What is true of Great Britain is true of all other civilized
+    countries, in the highest degree true of the most civilized
+    countries, and it finds expression in the well-known phenomenon
+    of the decline of the birthrate. In modern times, this movement
+    of decline began in France, producing a slow but steady
+    diminution in the annual number of births, and in France the
+    movement seems now to be almost, or quite, arrested. But it has
+    since taken place in all other progressive countries, notably in
+    the United States, in Canada, in Australia, and in New Zealand,
+    as well as in Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy, Spain, Switzerland,
+    Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. In England, it has
+    been continuous since 1877. Of the great countries,<a name='6_Page_590'></a> Russia is
+    the only one in which it has not yet taken place, and among the
+    masses of the Russian population we find less education, more
+    poverty, a higher deathrate, and a greater amount of disease,
+    than in any other great, or even small, civilized country.</p>
+
+<p>    It is sometimes said, indeed, that the decline of the birthrate
+    is not entirely due to the voluntary control of procreation. It
+    is undoubtedly true that certain other elements, common under
+    civilized conditions, such as the postponement of marriage in
+    women to a comparatively late age, tend to diminish the size of
+    the family. But when all such allowances have been made, the
+    decline is still found to be real and large. This has been shown,
+    for instance, by the statistical analyses made by Arthur
+    Newsholme and T. H. C. Stevenson, and by G. Yule, both published in
+    <i>Journal Royal Statistical Society</i>, April, 1906.</p>
+
+<p>    Some have supposed that, since the Catholic Church forbids
+    incomplete sexual intercourse, this movement for the control of
+    procreation will involve a relatively much greater increase among
+    Catholic than among non-Catholic populations. This, however, is
+    only correct under certain conditions. It is quite true that in
+    Ireland there has been no fall in the birthrate, and that the
+    fall is but little marked in those Lancashire towns which possess
+    a large Irish element. But in Belgium, Italy, Spain, and other
+    mainly Catholic countries, the decline in the birthrate is duly
+    taking place. What has happened is that the Church&mdash;always alive
+    to sexual questions&mdash;has realized the importance of the modern
+    movement, and has adapted herself to it, by proclaiming to her
+    more ignorant and uneducated children that incomplete intercourse
+    is a deadly sin, while at the same time refraining from making
+    inquiries into this matter among her more educated members. The
+    question was definitely brought up for Papal judgment, in 1842,
+    by Bishop Bouvier of Le Mans, who stated the matter very clearly,
+    representing to the Pope (Gregory XVI) that the prevention of
+    conception was becoming very common, and that to treat it as a
+    deadly sin merely resulted in driving the penitent away from
+    confession. After mature consideration, the Curia Sacra
+    Poenitentiaria replied by pointing out, as regards the common
+    method of withdrawal before emission, that since it was due to
+    the wrong act of the man, the woman who has been forced by her
+    husband to consent to it, has committed no sin. Further, the
+    Bishop was reminded of the wise dictum of Liguori, &quot;the most
+    learned and experienced man in these matters,&quot; that the confessor
+    is not usually called upon to make inquiry upon so delicate a
+    matter as the <i>debitum conjugale</i>, and, if his opinion is not
+    asked, he should be silent (Bouvier, <i>Dissertatio in sextum
+    Decalogi pr&aelig;ceptum; supplementum ad Tractatum de Matrimonio</i>.
+    1849, pp. 179-182; quoted by Hans Ferdy, <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Aug.,
+    1908, p. 498). We see, therefore, that, among Catholic as well as
+    among non-Catholic populations, the adoption of preventive
+    <a name='6_Page_591'></a>methods of conception follows progress and civilization, and
+    that the general practice of such methods by Catholics (with the
+    tacit consent of the Church) is merely a matter of time.</p></div>
+
+<p>From time to time many energetic persons have noisily demanded that a stop
+should be put to the decline of the birthrate, for, they argue, it means
+&quot;race suicide.&quot; It is now beginning to be realized, however, that this
+outcry was a foolish and mischievous mistake. It is impossible to walk
+through the streets of any great city, full of vast numbers of persons
+who, obviously, ought never to have been born, without recognizing that
+the birthrate is as yet very far above its normal and healthy limit. The
+greatest States have often been the smallest so far as mere number of
+citizens is concerned, for it is quality not quantity that counts. And
+while it is true that the increase of the best types of citizens can only
+enrich a State, it is now becoming intolerable that a nation should
+increase by the mere dumping down of procreative refuse in its midst. It
+is beginning to be realized that this process not only depreciates the
+quality of a people but imposes on a State an inordinate financial burden.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It is now well recognized that large families are associated with
+    degeneracy, and, in the widest sense, with abnormality of every
+    kind. Thus, it is undoubtedly true that men of genius tend to
+    belong to very large families, though it may be pointed out to
+    those who fear an alarming decrease of genius from the tendency
+    to the limitation of the family, that the position in the family
+    most often occupied by the child of genius is the firstborn. (See
+    Havelock Ellis, <i>A Study of British Genius</i>, pp. 115-120). The
+    insane, the idiotic, imbecile, and weak-minded, the criminal, the
+    epileptic, the hysterical, the neurasthenic, the tubercular, all,
+    it would appear, tend to belong to large families (see <i>e.g.</i>,
+    Havelock Ellis, <i>op. cit.</i>, p. 110; Toulouse, <i>Les Causes de la
+    Folie</i>, p. 91; Harriet Alexander, &quot;Malthusianism and Degeneracy,&quot;
+    <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, Jan., 1901). It has, indeed, been
+    shown by Heron, Pearson, and Goring, that not only the
+    eldest-born, but also the second-born, are specially liable to
+    suffer from pathological defect (insanity, criminality,
+    tuberculosis). There is, however, it would seem, a fallacy in the
+    common interpretation of this fact. According to Van den Velden
+    (as quoted in <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, May, 1909, p. 381), this
+    tendency is fully counterbalanced by the rising mortality of
+    children from the firstborn onward. The greater pathological
+    tendency <a name='6_Page_592'></a>of the earlier children is thus simply the result of a
+    less stringent selection by death. So far as they show any really
+    greater pathological tendency, apart from this fallacy, it is
+    perhaps due to premature marriage. There is another fallacy in
+    the frequent statement that the children in small families are
+    more feeble than those in large families. We have to distinguish
+    between a naturally small family, and an artificially small
+    family. A family which is small merely as the result of the
+    feeble procreative energy of the parents, is likely to be a
+    feeble family; a family which is small as the result of the
+    deliberate control of the parents, shows, of course, no such
+    tendency.</p>
+
+<p>    These considerations, it will be seen, do not modify the tendency
+    of the large family to be degenerate. We may connect this
+    phenomenon with the disposition, often shown by nervously unsound
+    and abnormal persons, to believe that they have a special
+    aptitude to procreate fine children. &quot;I believe that everyone has
+    a special vocation,&quot; said a man to Marro (<i>La Pubert&agrave;</i>, p. 459);
+    &quot;I find that it is my vocation to beget superior children.&quot; He
+    begat four,&mdash;an epileptic, a lunatic, a dipsomaniac, and a
+    valetudinarian,&mdash;and himself died insane. Most people have come
+    across somewhat similar, though perhaps less marked, cases of
+    this delusion. In a matter of such fateful gravity to other human
+    beings, no one can safely rely on his own unsupported
+    impressions.</p></div>
+
+<p>The demand of national efficiency thus corresponds with the demand of
+developing humanitarianism, which, having begun by attempting to
+ameliorate the conditions of life, has gradually begun to realize that it
+is necessary to go deeper and to ameliorate life itself. For while it is
+undoubtedly true that much may be done by acting systematically on the
+conditions of life, the more searching analysis of evil environmental
+conditions only serves to show that in large parts they are based in the
+human organism itself and were not only pre-natal, but pre-conceptional,
+being involved in the quality of the parental or ancestral organisms.</p>
+
+<p>Putting aside, however, all humanitarian considerations, the serious error
+of attempting to stem the progress of civilization in the direction of
+procreative control could never have occurred if the general tendencies of
+zo&ouml;logical evolution had been understood, even in their elements. All
+zo&ouml;logical progress is from the more prolific to the less prolific; the
+higher the species the less fruitful are its individual members. The same
+tendency is found within the limits of the human species, though not in an
+<a name='6_Page_593'></a>invariable straight line; the growth of civilization involves a
+diminution in fertility. This is by no means a new phenomenon; ancient
+Rome and later Geneva, &quot;the Protestant Rome,&quot; bear witness to it; no doubt
+it has occurred in every high centre of moral and intellectual culture,
+although the data for measuring the tendency no longer exist. When we take
+a sufficiently wide and intelligent survey, we realize that the tendency
+of a community to slacken its natural rate of increase is an essential
+phenomenon of all advanced civilization. The more intelligent nations have
+manifested the tendency first, and in each nation the more educated
+classes have taken the lead, but it is only a matter of time to bring all
+civilized nations, and all social classes in each nation, into line.<a name='6_FNanchor_429'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_429'><sup>[429]</sup></a>
+This movement, we have to remember&mdash;in opposition to the ignorant outcry
+of certain would-be moralists and politicians&mdash;is a beneficent movement.
+It means a greater regard to the quality than to the quantity of the
+increase; it involves the possibility of combating successfully the evils
+of high mortality, disease, overcrowding, and all the manifold misfortunes
+which inevitably accompany a too exuberant birthrate. For it is only in a
+community which increases slowly that it is possible to secure the
+adequate economic adjustment and environmental modifications necessary for
+a sane and wholesome civic and personal life.<a name='6_FNanchor_430'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_430'><sup>[430]</sup></a> If those persons who
+raise the cry of &quot;race suicide&quot; in face of the decline of the birthrate
+really had the knowledge and intelligence to realize the manifold evils
+which they are invoking they would deserve to be treated as criminals.</p>
+<a name='6_Page_594'></a>
+<p>On the practical side a knowledge of the possibility of preventing
+conception has, doubtless, never been quite extinct in civilization and
+even in lower stages of culture, though it has mostly been utilized for
+ends of personal convenience or practiced in obedience to conventional
+social rules which demanded chastity, and has only of recent times been
+made subservient to the larger interests of society and the elevation of
+the race. The theoretical basis of the control of procreation, on its
+social and economic, as distinct from its eugenic, aspects, may be said to
+date from Malthus's famous <i>Essay on Population</i>, first published in 1798,
+an epoch-marking book,&mdash;though its central thesis is not susceptible of
+actual demonstration,&mdash;since it not only served as the starting-point of
+the modern humanitarian movement for the control of procreation, but also
+furnished to Darwin (and independently to Wallace also) the fruitful idea
+which was finally developed into the great evolutionary theory of natural
+selection.</p>
+
+<p>Malthus, however, was very far from suggesting that the control of
+procreation, which he advocated for the benefit of mankind, should be
+exercised by the introduction of preventive methods into sexual
+intercourse. He believed that civilization involved an increased power of
+self-control, which would make it possible to refrain altogether from
+sexual intercourse, when such self-restraint was demanded in the interests
+of humanity. Later thinkers realized, however, that, while it is
+undoubtedly true that civilization involves greater forethought and
+greater self-control, we cannot anticipate that those qualities should be
+developed to the extent demanded by Malthus, especially when the impulse
+to be controlled is of so powerful and explosive a nature.</p>
+
+<p>James Mill was the pioneer in advocating Neo-Malthusian methods, though he
+spoke cautiously. In 1818, in the article &quot;Colony&quot; in the supplement to
+the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i>, after remarking that the means of checking
+the unrestricted increase of the population constitutes &quot;the most
+important practical problem to which the wisdom of the politician and
+moralist can be applied,&quot; he continued: &quot;If the superstitions of the
+nursery were discarded, and the principle of utility kept steadily <a name='6_Page_595'></a>in
+view, a solution might not be very difficult to be found.&quot; Four years
+later, James Mill's friend, the Radical reformer, Francis Place, more
+distinctly expressed the thought that was evidently in Mill's mind. After
+enumerating the facts concerning the necessity of self-control in
+procreation and the evils of early marriage, which he thinks ought to be
+clearly taught, Place continues: &quot;If a hundredth, perhaps a thousandth
+part of the pains were taken to teach these truths, that are taken to
+teach dogmas, a great change for the better might, in no considerable
+space of time, be expected to take place in the appearance and the habits
+of the people. If, above all, it were once clearly understood that it was
+not disreputable for married persons to avail themselves of such
+precautionary means as would, without being injurious to health, or
+destructive of female delicacy, prevent conception, a sufficient check
+might at once be given to the increase of population beyond the means of
+subsistence; vice and misery, to a prodigious extent, might be removed
+from society, and the object of Mr. Malthus, Mr. Godwin, and of every
+philanthropic person, be promoted, by the increase of comfort, of
+intelligence, and of moral conduct, in the mass of the population. The
+course recommended will, I am fully persuaded, at some period be pursued
+by the people even if left to themselves.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_431'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_431'><sup>[431]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>It was not long before Place's prophetic words began to be realized, and
+in another half century the movement was affecting the birthrate of all
+civilized lands, though it can scarcely yet be said that justice has been
+done to the pioneers who promoted it in the face of much persecution from
+the ignorant and superstitious public whom they sought to benefit. In
+1831, Robert Dale Owen, the son of Robert Owen, published his <i>Moral
+Physiology</i>, setting forth the methods of preventing conception. A little
+later the brothers George and Charles Drysdale (born 1825 and 1829), two
+ardent and unwearying philanthropists, devoted much of their energy to the
+propagation of Neo-Malthusian principles. George Drysdale, in 1854,
+published his<a name='6_Page_596'></a> <i>Elements of Social Science</i>, which during many years had
+an enormous circulation all over Europe in eight different languages. It
+was by no means in every respect a scientific or sound work, but it
+certainly had great influence, and it came into the hands of many who
+never saw any other work on sexual topics. Although the Neo-Malthusian
+propagandists of those days often met with much obloquy, their cause was
+triumphantly vindicated in 1876, when Charles Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant,
+having been prosecuted for disseminating Neo-Malthusian pamphlets, the
+charge was dismissed, the Lord Chief Justice declaring that so ill-advised
+and injudicious a charge had probably never before been made in a court of
+justice. This trial, even by its mere publicity and apart from its issue,
+gave an enormous impetus to the Neo-Malthusian movement. It is well known
+that the steady decline in the English birthrate begun in 1877, the year
+following the trial. There could be no more brilliant illustration of the
+fact, that what used to be called &quot;the instruments of Providence&quot; are
+indeed unconscious instruments in bringing about great ends which they
+themselves were far from either intending or desiring.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>In 1877, Dr. C. R. Drysdale founded the Malthusian League, and
+    edited a periodical, <i>The Malthusian</i>, aided throughout by his
+    wife, Dr. Alice Drysdale Vickery. He died in 1907. (The noble and
+    pioneering work of the Drysdales has not yet been adequately
+    recognized in their own country; an appreciative and
+    well-informed article by Dr. Hermann Rohleder, &quot;Dr. C. R.
+    Drysdale, Der Hauptvortreter der Neumalthusianische Lehre,&quot;
+    appeared in the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sexualwissenschaft</i>, March,
+    1908). There are now societies and periodicals in all civilized
+    countries for the propagation of Neo-Malthusian principles, as
+    they are still commonly called, though it would be desirable to
+    avoid the use of Malthus's name in this connection. In the
+    medical profession, the advocacy of preventive methods of sexual
+    intercourse, not on social, but on medical and hygienic grounds,
+    began same thirty years ago, though in France, at an earlier
+    date, Raciborski advocated the method of avoiding the
+    neighborhood of menstruation. In Germany, Dr. Mensinga, the
+    gyn&aelig;cologist, is the most prominent advocate, on medical and
+    hygienic grounds, of what he terms &quot;facultative sterility,&quot; which
+    he first put forward about 1889. In Russia, about the same time,
+    artificial sterility was first openly advocated by the
+    distinguished gyn&aelig;cologist, Professor<a name='6_Page_597'></a> Ott, at the St. Petersburg
+    Obstetric and Gyn&aelig;cological Society. Such medical
+    recommendations, in particular cases, are now becoming common.</p>
+
+<p>    There are certain cases in which a person ought not to marry at
+    all; this is so, for instance, when there has been an attack of
+    insanity; it can never be said with certainty that a person who
+    has had one attack of insanity will not have another, and persons
+    who have had such attacks ought not, as Blandford says (Lumleian
+    Lectures on Insanity, <i>British Medical Journal</i>, April 20, 1895),
+    &quot;to inflict on their partner for life, the anxiety, and even
+    danger, of another attack.&quot; There are other and numerous cases in
+    which marriage may be permitted, or may have already taken place,
+    under more favorable circumstances, but where it is, or has
+    become, highly desirable that there should be no children. This
+    is the case when a first attack of insanity occurs after
+    marriage, the more urgently if the affected party is the wife,
+    and especially if the disease takes the form of puerperal mania.
+    &quot;What can be more lamentable,&quot; asks Blandford (<i>loc. cit.</i>), &quot;than
+    to see a woman break down in childbed, recover, break down again
+    with the next child, and so on, for six, seven, or eight
+    children, the recovery between each being less and less, until
+    she is almost a chronic maniac?&quot; It has been found, moreover, by
+    Tredgold (<i>Lancet</i>, May 17, 1902), that among children born to
+    insane mothers, the mortality is twice as great as the ordinary
+    infantile mortality, in even the poorest districts. In cases of
+    unions between persons with tuberculous antecedents, also, it is
+    held by many (<i>e.g.</i>, by Massalongo, in discussing tuberculosis
+    and marriage at the Tuberculosis Congress, at Naples, in 1900)
+    that every precaution should be taken to make the marriage
+    childless. In a third class of cases, it is necessary to limit
+    the children to one or two; this happens in some forms of heart
+    disease, in which pregnancy has a progressively deteriorating
+    effect on the heart (Kisch, <i>Therapeutische Monatsheft</i>, Feb.,
+    1898, and <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>; Vinay, <i>Lyon Medical</i>, Jan. 8,
+    1889); in some cases of heart disease, however, it is possible
+    that, though there is no reason for prohibiting marriage, it is
+    desirable for a woman not to have any children (J. F. Blacker,
+    &quot;Heart Disease in Relation to Pregnancy,&quot; <i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, May 25, 1907).</p>
+
+<p>    In all such cases, the recommendation of preventive methods of
+    intercourse is obviously an indispensable aid to the physician in
+    emphasizing the supremacy of hygienic precautions. In the absence
+    of such methods, he can never be sure that his warnings will be
+    heard, and even the observance of his advice would be attended
+    with various undesirable results. It sometimes happens that a
+    married couple agree, even before marriage, to live together
+    without sexual relations, but, for various reasons, it is seldom
+    found possible or convenient to maintain this resolution for a
+    long period.</p></div><a name='6_Page_598'></a>
+
+<p>It is the recognition of these and similar considerations which has
+led&mdash;though only within recent years&mdash;on the one hand, as we have seen, to
+the embodiment of the control of procreation into the practical morality
+of all civilized nations, and, on the other hand, to the assertion, now
+perhaps without exception, by all medical authorities on matters of sex
+that the use of the methods of preventing conception is under certain
+circumstances urgently necessary and quite harmless.<a name='6_FNanchor_432'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_432'><sup>[432]</sup></a> It arouses a
+smile to-day when we find that less than a century ago it was possible for
+an able and esteemed medical author to declare that the use of &quot;various
+abominable means&quot; to prevent conception is &quot;based upon a most presumptuous
+doubt in the conservative power of the Creator.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_433'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_433'><sup>[433]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The adaptation of theory to practice is not yet complete, and we could not
+expect that it should be so, for, as we have seen, there is always an
+antagonism between practical morality and traditional morality. From time
+to time flagrant illustrations of this antagonism occur.<a name='6_FNanchor_434'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_434'><sup>[434]</sup></a> Even in
+England, which played a pioneering part in the control of procreation,
+attempts are still made&mdash;sometimes in quarters where we have a right to
+expect a <a name='6_Page_599'></a>better knowledge&mdash;to cast discredit on a movement which, since
+it has conquered alike scientific approval and popular practice, it is now
+idle to call in question.</p>
+
+<p>It would be out of place to discuss here the various methods which are
+used for the control of procreation, or their respective merits and
+defects. It is sufficient to say that the condom or protective sheath,
+which seems to be the most ancient of all methods of preventing
+conception, after withdrawal, is now regarded by nearly all authorities
+as, when properly used, the safest, the most convenient, and the most
+harmless method.<a name='6_FNanchor_435'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_435'><sup>[435]</sup></a> This is the opinion of Krafft-Ebing, of Moll, of
+Schrenck-Notzing, of L&ouml;wenfeld, of Forel, of Kisch, of F&uuml;rbringer, to
+mention only a few of the most distinguished medical authorities.<a name='6_FNanchor_436'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_436'><sup>[436]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There is some interest in attempting to trace the origin and
+    history of the condom, though it seems impossible to do so with
+    any precision. It is probable that, in a rudimentary form, such
+    an appliance is of great antiquity. In China and Japan, it would
+    appear, rounds of oiled silk paper are used to cover the mouth of
+    the womb, at all events, by prostitutes. This seems the simplest
+    and most obvious mechanical method of preventing conception, and
+    may have suggested the application of a sheath to the penis as a
+    more effectual method. In Europe, it is in the middle of the
+    sixteenth century, in Italy, that we first seem to hear of such
+    appliances, in the shape of linen sheaths, adapted to the shape
+    of the penis; Fallopius recommended the use of such an appliance.
+    Improvements in the manufacture were gradually devised; the c&aelig;cum
+    of the lamb was employed, and afterwards, isinglass. It appears
+    <a name='6_Page_600'></a>that a considerable improvement in the manufacture took place in
+    the seventeenth or eighteenth century, and this improvement was
+    generally associated with England. The appliance thus became
+    known as the English cape or mantle, the &quot;capote anglaise,&quot; or
+    the &quot;redingote anglaise,&quot; and, under the latter name, is referred
+    to by Casanova, in the middle of the eighteenth century
+    (Casanova, <i>M&eacute;moires</i>, ed. Garnier, vol. iv, p. 464); Casanova
+    never seems, however, to have used these redingotes himself, not
+    caring, he said, &quot;to shut myself up in a piece of dead skin in
+    order to prove that I am perfectly alive.&quot; These capotes&mdash;then
+    made of goldbeaters' skin&mdash;were, also, it appears, known at an
+    earlier period to Mme. de S&eacute;vign&eacute;, who did not regard them with
+    favor, for, in one of her letters, she refers to them as
+    &quot;cuirasses contre la volupt&eacute; et toiles d'arraign&eacute;e contre le
+    mal.&quot; The name, &quot;condom,&quot; dates from the eighteenth century,
+    first appearing in France, and is generally considered to be that
+    of an English physician, or surgeon, who invented, or, rather,
+    improved the appliance. Condom is not, however, an English name,
+    but there is an English name, Condon, of which &quot;condom&quot; may well
+    be a corruption. This supposition is strengthened by the fact
+    that the word sometimes actually was written &quot;condon.&quot; Thus, in
+    lines quoted by Bachaumont, in his <i>Diary</i> (Dec. 15, 1773), and
+    supposed to be addressed to a former ballet dancer who had become
+    a prostitute, I find:&mdash;</p></div>
+
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i5'>&quot;Du <i>condon</i> cependant, vous connaissez l'usage,<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+<div class='poem'><div class='stanza'>
+<span class='i5'>&quot;Le <i>condon</i>, c'est la loi, ma fille, et les proph&egrave;tes!&quot;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The difficulty remains, however, of discovering any Englishman of
+    the name of Condon, who can plausibly be associated with the
+    condom; doubtless he took no care to put the matter on record,
+    never suspecting the fame that would accrue to his invention, or
+    the immortality that awaited his name. I find no mention of any
+    Condon in the records of the College of Physicians, and at the
+    College of Surgeons, also, where, indeed, the old lists are very
+    imperfect, Mr. Victor Plarr, the librarian, after kindly making a
+    search, has assured me that there is no record of the name. Other
+    varying explanations of the name have been offered, with more or
+    less assurance, though usually without any proofs. Thus, Hyrtl
+    (<i>Handbuch der Topographischen Anatomic</i>, 7th ed., vol. ii, p.
+    212) states that the condom was originally called gondom, from
+    the name of the English discoverer, a Cavalier of Charles II's
+    Court, who first prepared it from the amnion of the sheep; Gondom
+    is, however, no more an English name than Condom. There happens
+    to be a French town, in Gascony, called Condom, and Bloch
+    suggests, without any evidence, that this furnished the name; if
+    so, however, it is improbable that it would have been unknown in
+    France. Finally, Hans Ferdy <a name='6_Page_601'></a>considers that it is derived from
+    &quot;condus&quot;&mdash;that which preserves&mdash;and, in accordance with his
+    theory, he terms the condom a condus.</p>
+
+<p>    The early history of the condom is briefly discussed by various
+    writers, as by Proksch, <i>Die Vorbauung der Venerischen
+    Krankheiten</i>, p. 48; Bloch, <i>Sexual Life of Our Time</i>, Chs. XV
+    and XXVIII; Caban&egrave;s, <i>Indiscretions de l'Histoire</i>, p. 121, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>The control of procreation by the prevention of conception has, we have
+seen, become a part of the morality of civilized peoples. There is another
+method, not indeed for preventing conception, but for limiting offspring,
+which is of much more ancient appearance in the world, though it has at
+different times been very differently viewed and still arouses widely
+opposing opinions. This is the method of abortion.</p>
+
+<p>While the practice of abortion has by no means, like the practice of
+preventing conception, become accepted in civilization, it scarcely
+appears to excite profound repulsion in a large proportion of the
+population of civilized countries. The majority of women, not excluding
+educated and highly moral women, who become pregnant against their wish
+contemplate the possibility of procuring abortion without the slightest
+twinge of conscience, and often are not even aware of the usual
+professional attitude of the Church, the law, and medicine regarding
+abortion. Probably all doctors have encountered this fact, and even so
+distinguished and correct a medico-legist as Brouardel stated<a name='6_FNanchor_437'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_437'><sup>[437]</sup></a> that he
+had been not infrequently solicited to procure abortion, for themselves or
+their wet-nurses, by ladies who looked on it as a perfectly natural thing,
+and had not the least suspicion that the law regarded the deed as a crime.</p>
+
+<p>It is not, therefore, surprising that abortion is exceedingly common in
+all civilized and progressive countries. It cannot, indeed, unfortunately,
+be said that abortion has been conducted in accordance with eugenic
+considerations, nor has it often been so much as advocated from the
+eugenic standpoint. But in numerous classes of cases of undesired
+pregnancy, occurring in women of character and energy, not accustomed to
+submit tamely to conditions they may not have sought, and in any case
+<a name='6_Page_602'></a>consider undesirable, abortion is frequently resorted to. It is usual to
+regard the United States as a land in which the practice especially
+flourishes, and certainly a land in which the ideal of chastity for
+unmarried women, of freedom for married women, of independence for all, is
+actively followed cannot fail to be favorable to the practice of abortion.
+But the way in which the prevalence of abortion is proclaimed in the
+United States is probably in large part due to the honesty of the
+Americans in setting forth, and endeavoring to correct, what, rightly or
+wrongly, they regard as social defects, and may not indicate any real
+pre-eminence in the practice. Comparative statistics are difficult, and it
+is certainly true that abortion is extremely common in England, in France,
+and in Germany. It is probable that any national differences may be
+accounted for by differences in general social habits and ideals. Thus in
+Germany, where considerable sexual freedom is permitted to unmarried women
+and married women are very domesticated, abortion may be less frequent
+than in France where purity is stringently demanded from the young girl,
+while the married woman demands freedom for work and for pleasure. But
+such national differences, if they exist, are tending to be levelled down,
+and charges of criminal abortion are constantly becoming more common in
+Germany; though this increase, again, may be merely due to greater zeal in
+pursuing the offence.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Brouardel (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 39) quotes the opinion that, in New
+    York, only one in every thousand abortions is discovered. Dr.
+    J. F. Scott (<i>The Sexual Instinct</i>, Ch. VIII), who is himself
+    strongly opposed to the practice, considers that in America, the
+    custom of procuring abortion has to-day reached &quot;such vast
+    proportions as to be almost beyond belief,&quot; while &quot;countless
+    thousands&quot; of cases are never reported. &quot;It has increased so
+    rapidly in our day and generation,&quot; Scott states, &quot;that it has
+    created surprise and alarm in the minds of all conscientious
+    persons who are informed of the extent to which it is carried.&quot;
+    (The assumption that those who approve of abortion are
+    necessarily not &quot;conscientious persons&quot; is, as we shall see,
+    mistaken.) The change has taken place since 1840. The Michigan
+    Special Committee on Criminal Abortion reported in 1881 that,
+    from correspondence with nearly one hundred physicians, it
+    appeared that there came to the knowledge of <a name='6_Page_603'></a>the profession
+    seventeen abortions to every one hundred pregnancies; to these,
+    the committee believe, may be added as many more that never came
+    to the physician's knowledge. The committee further quoted,
+    though without endorsement, the opinion of a physician who
+    believed that a change is now coming over public feeling in
+    regard to the abortionist, who is beginning to be regarded in
+    America as a useful member of society, and even a benefactor.</p>
+
+<p>    In England, also, there appears to have been a marked increase of
+    abortion during recent years, perhaps specially marked among the
+    poor and hard-working classes. A writer in the <i>British Medical
+    Journal</i> (April 9, 1904, p. 865) finds that abortion is
+    &quot;wholesale and systematic,&quot; and gives four cases occurring in his
+    practice during four months, in which women either attempted to
+    produce abortion, or requested him to do so; they were married
+    women, usually with large families, and in delicate health, and
+    were willing to endure any suffering, if they might be saved from
+    further child-bearing. Abortion is frequently effected, or
+    attempted, by taking &quot;Female Pills,&quot; which contain small portions
+    of lead, and are thus liable to produce very serious symptoms,
+    whether or not they induce abortion. Professor Arthur Hall, of
+    Sheffield, who has especially studied this use of lead (&quot;The
+    Increasing Use of Lead as an Abortifacient,&quot; <i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, March 18, 1905), finds that the practice has lately
+    become very common in the English Midlands, and is gradually, it
+    appears, widening its circle. It occurs chiefly among married
+    women with families, belonging to the working class, and it tends
+    to become specially prevalent during periods of trade depression
+    (<i>cf.</i> G. Newman, <i>Infant Mortality</i>, p. 81). Women of better
+    social class resort to professional abortionists, and sometimes
+    go over to Paris.</p>
+
+<p>    In France, also, and especially in Paris, there has been a great
+    increase during recent years in the practice of abortion. (See
+    <i>e.g.</i>, a discussion at the Paris Soci&eacute;t&eacute; de M&eacute;decine L&eacute;gale,
+    <i>Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle</i>, May, 1907.) Dol&eacute;ris has
+    shown (<i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Obst&eacute;trique</i>, Feb., 1905) that
+    in the Paris Maternit&eacute;s the percentage of abortions in
+    pregnancies doubled between 1898 and 1904, and Dol&eacute;ris estimates
+    that about half of these abortions were artificially induced. In
+    France, abortion is mainly carried on by professional
+    abortionists. One of these, Mme. Thomas, who was condemned to
+    penal servitude, in 1891, acknowledged performing 10,000
+    abortions during eight years; her charge for the operation was
+    two francs and upwards. She was a peasant's daughter, brought up
+    in the home of her uncle, a doctor, whose medical and obstetrical
+    books she had devoured (A. Hamon, <i>La France en 1891</i>, pp.
+    629-631). French public opinion is lenient to abortion,
+    especially to women who perform the operation on themselves; not
+    many cases are brought into court, and of these, forty <a name='6_Page_604'></a>per cent.
+    are acquitted (Eug&egrave;ne Bausset, <i>L'Avortement Criminel</i>, Th&egrave;se de
+    Paris, 1907). The professional abortionist is, however, usually
+    sent to prison.</p>
+
+<p>    In Germany, also, abortion appears to have greatly increased
+    during recent years, and the yearly number of cases of criminal
+    abortion brought into the courts was, in 1903, more than double
+    as many as in 1885. (See, also, Elisabeth Zanzinger, <i>Geschlecht
+    und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. II, Heft 5; and <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Jan.,
+    1908, p. 23.)</p></div>
+
+<p>In view of these facts it is not surprising that the induction of abortion
+has been permitted and even encouraged in many civilizations. Its
+unqualified condemnation is only found in Christendom, and is due to
+theoretical notions. In Turkey, under ordinary circumstances, there is no
+punishment for abortion. In the classic civilization of Greece and Rome,
+likewise, abortion was permitted though with certain qualifications and
+conditions. Plato admitted the mother's right to decide on abortion but
+said that the question should be settled as early as possible in
+pregnancy. Aristotle, who approved of abortion, was of the same opinion.
+Zeno and the Stoics regarded the f&oelig;tus as the fruit of the womb,
+the soul being acquired at birth; this was in accordance with Roman law
+which decreed that the f&oelig;tus only became a human being at
+birth.<a name='6_FNanchor_438'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_438'><sup>[438]</sup></a> Among the Romans abortion became very common, but, in
+accordance with the patriarchal basis of early Roman institutions, it was
+the father, not the mother, who had the right to exercise it. Christianity
+introduced a new circle of ideas based on the importance of the soul, on
+its immortality, and the necessity of baptism as a method of salvation
+from the results of inherited sin. We already see this new attitude in St.
+Augustine who, discussing whether embryos that died in the womb will rise
+at the resurrection, says &quot;I make bold neither to affirm nor to deny,
+although I fail to see why, if they are not excluded from the number of
+the dead, they should not attain to the resurrection of the dead.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_439'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_439'><sup>[439]</sup></a>
+The criminality of abortion was, however, speedily established, and the
+early Christian<a name='6_Page_605'></a> Emperors, in agreement with the Church, edicted many
+fantastic and extreme penalties against abortion. This tendency continued
+under ecclesiastical influence, unrestrained, until the humanitarian
+movement of the eighteenth century, when Beccaria, Voltaire, Rousseau and
+other great reformers succeeded in turning the tide of public opinion
+against the barbarity of the laws, and the penalty of death for abortion
+was finally abolished.<a name='6_FNanchor_440'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_440'><sup>[440]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Medical science and practice at the present day&mdash;although it can scarcely
+be said that it speaks with an absolutely unanimous voice&mdash;on the whole
+occupies a position midway between that of the classic lawyers and that of
+the later Christian ecclesiastics. It is, on the whole, in favor of
+sacrificing the f&oelig;tus whenever the interests of the mother demand
+such a sacrifice. General medical opinion is not, however, prepared at
+present to go further, and is distinctly disinclined to aid the parents in
+exerting an unqualified control over the f&oelig;tus in the womb, nor
+is it yet disposed to practice abortion on eugenic grounds. It is obvious,
+indeed, that medicine cannot in this matter take the initiative, for it is
+the primary duty of medicine to save life. Society itself must assume the
+responsibility of protecting the race.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Dr. S. Macvie (&quot;Mother <i>versus</i> Child,&quot; <i>Transactions Edinburgh
+    Obstetrical Society</i>, vol. xxiv, 1899) elaborately discusses the
+    respective values of the f&oelig;tus and the adult on the
+    basis of life-expectancy, and concludes that the f&oelig;tus
+    is merely &quot;a parasite performing no function whatever,&quot; and that
+    &quot;unless the life-expectancy of the child covers the years in
+    which its potentiality is converted into actuality, the relative
+    values of the maternal and f&oelig;tal life will be that of
+    actual as against potential.&quot; This statement seems fairly sound.
+    Ballantyne (<i>Manual of Antenatal Pathology: The F&oelig;tus</i>,
+    p. 459) endeavors to make the statement more precise by saying
+    that &quot;the mother's life has a value, because she is what she is,
+    while the f&oelig;tus only has a possible value, on account of
+    what it may become.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Durlacher, among others, has discussed, in careful and cautious
+    detail, the various conditions in which the physician should, or
+    should not, induce abortion in the interests of the mother (&quot;Der
+    K&uuml;nstliche<a name='6_Page_606'></a> Abort,&quot; <i>Wiener Klinik</i>, Aug. and Sept., 1906); so
+    also, Eugen Wilhelm (&quot;Die Abtreibung und das Recht des Arztes zur
+    Vernichtung der Leibesfrucht,&quot; <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, May and June,
+    1909). Wilhelm further discusses whether it is desirable to alter
+    the laws in order to give the physician greater freedom in
+    deciding on abortion. He concludes that this is not necessary,
+    and might even act injuriously, by unduly hampering medical
+    freedom. Any change in the law should merely be, he considers, in
+    the direction of asserting that the destruction of the f&oelig;tus
+    is not abortion in the legal sense, provided it is
+    indicated by the rules of medical science. With reference to the
+    timidity of some medical men in inducing abortion, Wilhelm
+    remarks that, even in the present state of the law, the physician
+    who conscientiously effects abortion, in accordance with his best
+    knowledge, even if mistakenly, may consider himself safe from all
+    legal penalties, and that he is much more likely to come in
+    conflict with the law if it can be proved that death followed as
+    a result of his neglect to induce abortion.</p>
+
+<p>    Pinard, who has discussed the right to control the f&oelig;tal
+    life (<i>Annales de Gyn&eacute;cologie</i>, vols. lii and liii, 1899 and
+    1900), inspired by his enthusiastic propaganda for the salvation
+    of infant life, is led to the unwarranted conclusion that no one
+    has the rights of life and death over the f&oelig;tus; &quot;the
+    infant's right to his life is an imprescriptible and sacred
+    right, which no power can take from him.&quot; There is a mistake
+    here, unless Pinard deliberately desires to place himself, like
+    Tolstoy, in opposition to current civilized morality. So far from
+    the infant having any &quot;imprescriptible right to life,&quot; even the
+    adult has, in human societies, no such inalienable right, and
+    very much less the f&oelig;tus, which is not strictly a human
+    being at all. We assume the right of terminating the lives of
+    those individuals whose anti-social conduct makes them dangerous,
+    and, in war, we deliberately terminate, amid general applause and
+    enthusiasm, the lives of men who have been specially selected for
+    this purpose on account of their physical and general efficiency.
+    It would be absurdly inconsistent to say that we have no rights
+    over the lives of creatures that have, as yet, no part in human
+    society at all, and are not so much as born. We are here in
+    presence of a vestige of ancient theological dogma, and there can
+    be little doubt that, on the theoretical side at all events, the
+    &quot;imprescriptible right&quot; of the embryo will go the same way as the
+    &quot;imprescriptible right&quot; of the spermatoz&ouml;on. Both rights are
+    indeed &quot;imprescriptible.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Of recent years a new, and, it must be admitted, somewhat unexpected,
+aspect of this question of abortion has been revealed. Hitherto it has
+been a question entirely in the hands of men, first, following the Roman
+traditions, in the hands of Christian <a name='6_Page_607'></a>ecclesiastics, and later, in those
+of the professional castes. Yet the question is in reality very largely,
+and indeed mainly, a woman's question, and now, more especially in
+Germany, it has been actively taken up by women. The Gr&auml;fin Gisela
+Streitberg occupies the pioneering place in this movement with her book
+<i>Das Recht zur Beiseitigung Keimenden Lebens</i>, and was speedily followed,
+from 1897 onwards, by a number of distinguished women who occupy a
+prominent place in the German woman's movement, among others Helene
+St&ouml;cker, Oda Olberg, Elisabeth Zanzinger, Camilla Jellinek. All these
+writers insist that the f&oelig;tus is not yet an independent human
+being, and that every woman, by virtue of the right over her own body, is
+entitled to decide whether it shall become an independent human being. At
+the Woman's Congress held in the autumn of 1905, a resolution was passed
+demanding that abortion should only be punishable when effected by another
+person against the wish of the pregnant women herself.<a name='6_FNanchor_441'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_441'><sup>[441]</sup></a> The acceptance
+of this resolution by a representative assembly is interesting proof of
+the interest now taken by women in the question, and of the strenuous
+attitude they are tending to assume.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>Elisabeth Zanzinger (&quot;Verbrechen gegen die Leibesfrucht,&quot;
+    <i>Geschlecht und Gesellschaft</i>, Bd. II, Heft 5, 1907) ably and
+    energetically condemns the law which makes abortion a crime. &quot;A
+    woman herself is the only legitimate possessor of her own body
+    and her own health.... Just as it is a woman's private right, and
+    most intimate concern, to present her virginity as her best gift
+    to the chosen of her heart, so it is certainly a pregnant woman's
+    own private concern if, for reasons which seem good to her, she
+    decides to destroy the results of her action.&quot; A woman who
+    destroys the embryo which might become a burden to the community,
+    or is likely to be an inferior member of society, this writer
+    urges, is doing a service to the community, which ought to reward
+    her, perhaps by granting her special privileges as regards the
+    upbringing of her other children. Oda Olberg, in a thoughtful
+    paper (&quot;Ueber den Juristischen Schutz des Keimenden Lebens,&quot; <i>Die
+    Neue Generation</i>, June, 1908), endeavors to make clear all that
+    is involved <a name='6_Page_608'></a>in the effort to protect the developing embryo
+    against the organism that carries it, to protect a creature, that
+    is, against itself and its own instincts. She considers that most
+    of the women who terminate their pregnancies artificially would
+    only have produced undesirables, for the normal, healthy, robust
+    woman has no desire to effect abortion. &quot;There are women who are
+    psychically sterile, without being physically so, and who possess
+    nothing of motherhood but the ability to bring forth. These, when
+    they abort, are simply correcting a failure of Nature.&quot; Some of
+    them, she remarks, by going on to term, become guilty of the far
+    worse offence of infanticide. As for the women who desire
+    abortion merely from motives of vanity, or convenience, Oda
+    Olberg points out that the circles in which these motives rule
+    are quite able to limit their children without having to resort
+    to abortion. She concludes that society must protect the young
+    life in every way, by social hygiene, by laws for the protection
+    of the workers, by spreading a new morality on the basis of the
+    laws of heredity. But we need no law to protect the young
+    creature against its own mother, for a thousand natural forces
+    are urging the mother to protect her own child, and we may be
+    sure that she will not disobey these forces without very good
+    reasons. Camilla Jellinek, again (<i>Die Strafrechtsreform</i>, etc.,
+    Heidelberg, 1909), in a powerful and well-informed address before
+    the Associated German Frauenvereine, at Breslau, argues in the
+    same sense.</p>
+
+<p>    The lawyers very speedily came to the assistance of the women in
+    this matter, the more readily, no doubt, since the traditions of
+    the greatest and most influential body of law already pointed, on
+    one side at all events, in the same direction. It may, indeed, be
+    claimed that it was from the side of law&mdash;and in Italy, the
+    classic land of legal reform&mdash;that this new movement first begun.
+    In 1888, Balestrini published, at Turin, his <i>Aborto,
+    Infanticidio ed Esposizione d'Infante</i>, in which he argued that
+    the penalty should be removed from abortion. It was a very able
+    and learned book, inspired by large ideas and a humanitarian
+    spirit, but though its importance is now recognized, it cannot be
+    said that it attracted much attention on publication.</p>
+
+<p>    It is especially in Germany that, during recent years, lawyers
+    have followed women reformers, by advocating, more or less
+    completely, the abolition of the punishment for abortion. So
+    distinguished an authority as Von Liszt, in a private letter to
+    Camilla Jellinek (<i>op. cit.</i>), states that he regards the
+    punishment of abortion as &quot;very doubtful,&quot; though he considers
+    its complete abolition impracticable; he thinks abortion might be
+    permitted during the early months of pregnancy, thus bringing
+    about a return of the old view. Hans Gross states his opinion
+    (<i>Archiv f&uuml;r Kriminal-Anthropologie</i>, Bd. XII, p. 345) that the
+    time is not far distant when abortion will no longer be punished.
+    Radbruch and Von Lilienthal speak in the same sense. Weinberg has
+    advocated a change <a name='6_Page_609'></a>in the law (<i>Mutterschutz</i>, 1905, Heft 8),
+    and Kurt Hiller (<i>Die Neue Generation</i>, April, 1909), also from
+    the legal side, argues that abortion should only be punishable
+    when effected by a married woman, without the knowledge and
+    consent of her husband.</p></div>
+
+<p>The medical profession, which took the first step in modern times in the
+authorization of abortion, has not at present taken any further step. It
+has been content to lay down the principle that when the interests of the
+mother are opposed to those of the f&oelig;tus, it is the latter which
+must be sacrificed. It has hesitated to take the further step of placing
+abortion on the eugenic basis, and of claiming the right to insist on
+abortion whenever the medical and hygienic interests of society demand
+such a step. This attitude is perfectly intelligible. Medicine has in the
+past been chiefly identified with the saving of lives, even of worthless
+and worse than worthless lives; &quot;Keep everything alive! Keep everything
+alive!&quot; nervously cried Sir James Paget. Medicine has confined itself to
+the humble task of attempting to cure evils, and is only to-day beginning
+to undertake the larger and nobler task of preventing them.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>&quot;The step from killing the child in the womb to murdering a
+    person when out of the womb, is a dangerously narrow one,&quot; sagely
+    remarks a recent medical author, probably speaking for many
+    others, who somehow succeed in blinding themselves to the fact
+    that this &quot;dangerously narrow step&quot; has been taken by mankind,
+    only too freely, for thousands of years past, long before
+    abortion was known in the world.</p>
+
+<p>    Here and there, however, medical authors of repute have advocated
+    the further extension of abortion, with precautions, and under
+    proper supervision, as an aid to eugenic progress. Thus,
+    Professor Max Flesch (<i>Die Neue Generation</i>, April, 1909) is in
+    favor of a change in the law permitting abortion (provided it is
+    carried out by the physician) in special cases, as when the
+    mother's pregnancy has been due to force, when she has been
+    abandoned, or when, in the interests of the community, it is
+    desirable to prevent the propagation of insane, criminal,
+    alcoholic, or tuberculous persons.</p>
+
+<p>    In France, a medical man, Dr. Jean Darricarr&egrave;re, has written a
+    remarkable novel, <i>Le Droit d'Avortement</i> (1906), which advocates
+    the thesis that a woman always possesses a complete right to
+    abortion, and is the supreme judge as to whether she will or not
+    undergo the pain and risks of childbirth. The question is, here,
+    however, obviously placed not on medical, but on humanitarian and
+    feminist grounds.</p></div><a name='6_Page_610'></a>
+
+<p>We have seen that, alike on the side of practice and of theory, a great
+change has taken place during recent years in the attitude towards
+abortion. It must, however, clearly be recognized that, unlike the control
+of procreation by methods for preventing conception, facultative abortion
+has not yet been embodied in our current social morality. If it is
+permissible to interpolate a personal opinion, I may say that to me it
+seems that our morality is here fairly reasonable.<a name='6_FNanchor_442'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_442'><sup>[442]</sup></a> I am decidedly of
+opinion that an unrestricted permission for women to practice abortion in
+their own interests, or even for communities to practice it in the
+interests of the race, would be to reach beyond the stage of civilization
+we have at present attained. As Ellen Key very forcibly argues, a
+civilization which permits, without protest, the barbarous slaughter of
+its carefully selected adults in war has not yet won the right to destroy
+deliberately even its most inferior vital products in the womb. A
+civilization guilty of so reckless a waste of life cannot safely be
+entrusted with this judicial function. The blind and aimless anxiety to
+cherish the most hopeless and degraded forms of life, even of unborn life,
+may well be a weakness, and since it often leads to incalculable
+suffering, even a crime. But as yet there is an impenetrable barrier
+against progress in this direction. Before we are entitled to take life
+deliberately for the sake of purifying life, we must learn how to preserve
+it by abolishing such destructive influences&mdash;war, disease, bad industrial
+conditions&mdash;as are easily within our social power as civilized
+nations.<a name='6_FNanchor_443'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_443'><sup>[443]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_611'></a>
+<p>There is, further, another consideration which seems to me to carry
+weight. The progress of civilization is in the direction of greater
+foresight, of greater prevention, of a diminished need for struggling with
+the reckless lack of prevision. The necessity for abortion is precisely
+one of those results of reckless action which civilization tends to
+diminish. While we may admit that in a sounder state of civilization a few
+cases might still occur when the induction of abortion would be desirable,
+it seems probable that the number of such cases will decrease rather than
+increase. In order to do away with the need for abortion, and to
+counteract the propaganda in its favor, our main reliance must be placed,
+on the one hand, on increased foresight in the determination of conception
+and increased knowledge of the means for preventing conception,<a name='6_FNanchor_444'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_444'><sup>[444]</sup></a> and
+on the other hand, on a better provision by the State for the care of
+pregnant women, married and unmarried alike, and a practical recognition
+of the qualified mother's claim on society.<a name='6_FNanchor_445'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_445'><sup>[445]</sup></a> There can be little doubt
+that, in many a charge of criminal abortion, the real offence lies at the
+door of those who have failed to exercise their social and professional
+duty of making known the more natural and harmless methods for preventing
+conception, or else by their social attitude have made the pregnant
+woman's position intolerable. By active social reform in these two
+directions, the new movement in favor of abortion may be kept in check,
+and it may even be found that by stimulating such reform that movement has
+been beneficial.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that the deliberate restraint of conception has become a part
+of our civilized morality, and that the practice and theory of facultative
+abortion has gained a footing among us. There remains a third and yet more
+radical method of controlling <a name='6_Page_612'></a>procreation, the method of preventing the
+possibility of procreation altogether by the performance of castration or
+other slighter operation having a like inhibitory effect on reproduction.
+The other two methods only effect a single act of union or its results,
+but castration affects all subsequent acts of sexual union and usually
+destroys the procreative power permanently.</p>
+
+<p>Castration for various social and other purposes is an ancient and
+widespread practice, carried out on men and on animals. There has,
+however, been on the whole a certain prejudice against it when applied to
+men. Many peoples have attached a very sacred value to the integrity of
+the sexual organs. Among some primitive peoples the removal of these
+organs has been regarded as a peculiarly ferocious insult, only to be
+carried out in moments of great excitement, as after a battle. Medicine
+has been opposed to any interference with the sexual organs. The oath
+taken by the Greek physicians appears to prohibit castration: &quot;I will not
+cut.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_446'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_446'><sup>[446]</sup></a> In modern times a great change has taken place, the castration
+of both men and women is commonly performed in diseased conditions; the
+same operation is sometimes advocated and occasionally performed in the
+hope that it may remove strong and abnormal sexual impulses. And during
+recent years castration has been invoked in the cause of negative
+eugenics, to a greater extent, indeed, on account of its more radical
+character, than either the prevention of conception or abortion.</p>
+
+<p>The movement in favor of castration appears to have begun in the United
+States, where various experiments have been made in embodying it in law.
+It was first advocated merely as a punishment for criminals, and
+especially sexual offenders, by Hammond, Everts, Lydston and others. From
+this point of view, however, it seems to be unsatisfactory and perhaps
+illegitimate. In many cases castration is no punishment at all, and indeed
+a positive benefit. In other cases, when inflicted against the subject's
+will, it may produce very disturbing mental effects, leading in already
+degenerate or unbalanced persons to insanity, criminality, and anti-social
+tendencies generally, much more <a name='6_Page_613'></a>dangerous than the original state.
+Eugenic considerations, which were later brought forward, constitute a
+much sounder argument for castration; in this case the castration is
+carried out, by no means in order to inflict a barbarous and degrading
+punishment, but, with the subject's consent, in order to protect the
+community from the risk of useless or mischievous members.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The fact that castration can no longer be properly considered a
+    punishment, is shown by the possibility of deliberately seeking
+    the operation simply for the sake of convenience, as a preferable
+    and most effective substitute for the adoption of preventive
+    methods in sexual intercourse. I am only at present acquainted
+    with one case in which this course has been adopted. This subject
+    is a medical man (of Puritan New England ancestry) with whose
+    sexual history, which is quite normal, I have been acquainted for
+    a long time past. His present age is thirty-nine. A few years
+    since, having a sufficiently large family, he adopted preventive
+    methods of intercourse. The subsequent events I narrate in his
+    own words: &quot;The trouble, forethought, etc., rendered necessary by
+    preventive measures, grew more and more irksome to me as the
+    years passed by, and finally, I laid the matter before another
+    physician, and on his assurances, and after mature deliberation
+    with my wife, was operated on some time since, and rendered
+    sterile by having the vas deferens on each side exposed through a
+    slit in the scrotum, then tied in two places with silk and
+    severed between the ligatures. This was done under cocaine
+    infiltrative an&aelig;sthesia, and was not so extremely painful, though
+    what pain there was (dragging the cord out through the slit,
+    etc.) seemed very hard to endure. I was not out of my office a
+    single day, nor seriously disturbed in any way. In six days all
+    stitches in the scrotum were removed, and in three weeks I
+    abandoned the suspensory bandage that had been rendered necessary
+    by the extreme sensitiveness of the testicles and cord.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;The operation has proved a most complete success in every way.
+    Sexual functions are <i>absolutely unaffected in any way
+    whatsoever</i>. There is no sense of discomfort or uneasiness in the
+    sexual tract, and what seems strangest of all to me, is the fact
+    that the semen, so far as one can judge by ordinary means of
+    observation, is undiminished in quantity and unchanged in
+    character. (Of course, the microscope would reveal its fatal
+    lack.)</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;My wife is delighted at having fear banished from our love, and,
+    taken all in all, it certainly seems as if life would mean more
+    to us both. Incidentally, the health of both of us seems better
+    than usual, particularly so in my wife's case, and this she
+    attributes to a soothing influence that is attained by allowing
+    the seminal fluid to be deposited <a name='6_Page_614'></a>in a perfectly normal manner,
+    and remain in contact with the vaginal secretions until it
+    naturally passes off.</p>
+
+<p>    &quot;This operation being comparatively new, and, as yet, not often
+    done on others than the insane, criminal, etc., I thought it
+    might be of interest to you. If I shed even the faintest ray of
+    light on this greatest of all human problems ... I shall be glad
+    indeed.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Such a case, with its so far satisfactory issue, certainly
+    deserves to be placed on record, though it may well be that at
+    present it will not be widely imitated.</p></div>
+
+<p>The earliest advocacy of castration, which I have met with as a part of
+negative eugenics, for the specific &quot;purpose of prophylaxis as applied to
+race improvement and the protection of society,&quot; is by Dr. F. E. Daniel, of
+Texas, and dates from 1893.<a name='6_FNanchor_447'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_447'><sup>[447]</sup></a> Daniel mixed up, however, somewhat
+inextricably, castration as a method of purifying the race, a method which
+can be carried out with the concurrence of the individual operated on,
+with castration as a punishment, to be inflicted for rape, sodomy,
+bestiality, pederasty and even habitual masturbation, the method of its
+performance, moreover, to be the extremely barbarous and primitive method
+of total ablation of the sexual organs. In more recent years somewhat more
+equitable, practical, and scientific methods of castration have been
+advocated, not involving the removal of the sexual glands or organs, and
+not as a punishment, but simply for the sake of protecting the community
+and the race from the burden of probably unproductive and possibly
+dangerous members. N&auml;cke has, from 1899 onwards, repeatedly urged the
+social advantages of this measure.<a name='6_FNanchor_448'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_448'><sup>[448]</sup></a> The propagation of the inferior
+elements of society, N&auml;cke insists, brings unhappiness into the family and
+is a source of great expense to the State. He regards castration as the
+only effective method of prevention, and concludes that it is, therefore,
+our duty to adopt it, just as <a name='6_Page_615'></a>we have adopted vaccination, taking care to
+secure the consent of the subject himself or his guardian, of the civil
+authorities, and, if necessary, of a committee of experts. Professor
+Angelo Zuccarelli of Naples has also, from 1899 onwards, emphasized the
+importance of castration in the sterilization of the epileptic, the insane
+of various classes, the alcoholic, the tuberculous, and instinctive
+criminals, the choice of cases for operation to be made by a commission of
+experts who would examine school-children, candidates for public
+employments, or persons about to marry.<a name='6_FNanchor_449'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_449'><sup>[449]</sup></a> This movement rapidly gained
+ground, and in 1905 at the annual meeting of Swiss alienists it was
+unanimously agreed that the sterilization of the insane is desirable, and
+that it is necessary that the question should be legally regulated. It is
+in Switzerland, indeed, that the first steps have been taken in Europe to
+carry out castration as a measure of social prophylaxis. The sixteenth
+yearly report (1907) of the Cantonal asylum at Wil describes four cases of
+castration, two in men and two in women, performed&mdash;with the permission of
+the patients and the civil authorities&mdash;for social reasons; both women had
+previously had illegitimate children who were a burden on the community,
+and all four patients were sexually abnormal; the operation enabled the
+patients to be liberated and to work, and the results were considered in
+every respect satisfactory to all concerned.<a name='6_FNanchor_450'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_450'><sup>[450]</sup></a></p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The introduction of castration as a method of negative eugenics
+    has been facilitated by the use of new methods of performing it
+    without risk, and without actual removal of the testes or
+    ovaries. For men, there is the simple method of vasectomy, as
+    recommended by N&auml;cke and many others. For women, there is the
+    corresponding, and almost equally simple and harmless method of
+    Kehrer, by section and ligation of the Fallopian tubes through
+    the vagina, as recommended by<a name='6_Page_616'></a> Kisch, or Rose's very similar
+    procedure, easily carried out in a few minutes by an experienced
+    hand, as recommended by Zuccarelli.</p>
+
+<p>    It has been found that repeated exposure to the X-rays produces
+    sterility in both sexes, alike in animals and men, and X-ray
+    workers have to adopt various precautions to avoid suffering from
+    this effect. It has been suggested that the application of the
+    X-rays would be a good substitute for castration; it appears that
+    the effects of the application are only likely to last a few
+    years, which, in some doubtful cases, might be an advantage. (See
+    <i>British Medical Journal</i>, Aug. 13, 1904; <i>ib.</i>, March 11, 1905;
+    <i>ib.</i>, July 6, 1907.)</p></div>
+
+<p>It is scarcely possible, it seems to me, to view castration as a method of
+negative eugenics with great enthusiasm. The recklessness, moreover, with
+which it is sometimes proposed to apply it by law&mdash;owing no doubt to the
+fact that it is not so obviously repulsive as the less radical procedure
+of abortion&mdash;ought to render us very cautious. We must, too, dismiss the
+idea of castration as a punishment; as such it is not merely barbarous but
+degrading and is unlikely to have a beneficial effect. As a method of
+negative eugenics it should never be carried out except with the subject's
+consent. The fact that in some cases it might be necessary to enforce
+seclusion in the absence of castration would doubtless be a fact exerting
+influence in favor of such consent; but the consent is essential if the
+subject of the operation is to be safeguarded from degradation. A man who
+has been degraded and embittered by an enforced castration might not be
+dangerous to posterity, but might very easily become a dangerous member of
+the society in which he actually lived. With due precautions and
+safeguards, castration may doubtless play a certain part in the elevation
+and improvement of the race.<a name='6_FNanchor_451'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_451'><sup>[451]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>The methods we have been considering, in so far as they <a name='6_Page_617'></a>limit the
+procreative powers of the less healthy and efficient stocks in a
+community, are methods of eugenics. It must not, however, be supposed that
+they are the whole of eugenics, or indeed that they are in any way
+essential to a eugenic scheme. Eugenics is concerned with the whole of the
+agencies which elevate and improve the human breed; abortion and
+castration are methods which may be used to this end, but they are not
+methods of which everyone approves, nor is it always clear that the ends
+they effect would not better be attained by other methods; in any case
+they are methods of negative eugenics. There remains the field of positive
+eugenics, which is concerned, not with the elimination of the inferior
+stocks but with ascertaining which are the superior stocks and with
+furthering their procreative power.</p>
+
+<p>While the necessity of refraining from procreation is no longer a bar to
+marriage, the question of whether two persons ought to marry each other
+still remains in the majority of cases a serious question from the
+standpoint of positive as well as of negative eugenics, for the normal
+marriage cannot fail to involve children, as, indeed, its chief and most
+desirable end. We have to consider not merely what are the stocks or the
+individuals that are unfit to breed, but also what are these stocks or
+individuals that are most fit to breed, and under what conditions
+procreation may best be effected. The present imperfection of our
+knowledge on these questions emphasizes the need for care and caution in
+approaching their consideration.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It may be fitting, at this point, to refer to the experiment of
+    the Oneida Community in establishing a system of scientific
+    propagation, under the guidance of a man whose ability and
+    distinction as a pioneer are only to-day beginning to be
+    adequately recognized. John Humphrey Noyes was too far ahead of
+    his own day to be recognized at his true worth; at the most, he
+    was regarded as the sagacious and successful founder of a sect,
+    and his attempts to apply eugenics to life only aroused ridicule
+    and persecution, so that he was, unfortunately, compelled by
+    outside pressure to bring a most instructive experiment to a
+    premature end. His aim and principle are set forth in an <i>Essay
+    on Scientific Propagation</i>, printed some forty years ago, which
+    discusses problems that are only now beginning to attract the
+    attention of the practical man, as <a name='6_Page_618'></a>within the range of social
+    politics. When Noyes turned his vigorous and practical mind to
+    the question of eugenics, that question was exclusively in the
+    hands of scientific men, who felt all the natural timidity of the
+    scientific man towards the realization of his proposals, and who
+    were not prepared to depart a hair's breadth from the
+    conventional customs of their time. The experiment of Noyes, at
+    Oneida, marked a new stage in the history of eugenics; whatever
+    might be the value of the experiment&mdash;and a first experiment
+    cannot well be final&mdash;with Noyes the questions of eugenics passed
+    beyond the purely academic stage in which, from the time of
+    Plato, they had peacefully reposed. &quot;It is becoming clear,&quot; Noyes
+    states at the outset, &quot;that the foundations of scientific society
+    are to be laid in the scientific propagation of human beings.&quot; In
+    doing this, we must attend to two things: blood (or heredity) and
+    training; and he puts blood first. In that, he was at one with
+    the most recent biometrical eugenists of to-day (&quot;the nation has
+    for years been putting its money on 'Environment,' when
+    'Heredity' wins in a canter,&quot; as Karl Pearson prefers to put it),
+    and at the same time revealed the breadth of his vision in
+    comparison with the ordinary social reformer, who, in that day,
+    was usually a fanatical believer in the influence of training and
+    surroundings. Noyes sets forth the position of Darwin on the
+    principles of breeding, and the step beyond Darwin, which had
+    been taken by Galton. He then remarks that, when Galton comes to
+    the point where it is necessary to advance from theory to the
+    duties the theory suggests, he &quot;subsides into the meekest
+    conservatism.&quot; (It must be remembered that this was written at an
+    early stage in Galton's work.) This conclusion was entirely
+    opposed to Noyes' practical and religious temperament. &quot;Duty is
+    plain; we say we ought to do it&mdash;we want to do it; but we cannot.
+    The law of God urges us on; but the law of society holds us back.
+    The boldest course is the safest. Let us take an honest and
+    steady look at the law. It is only in the timidity of ignorance
+    that the duty seems impracticable.&quot; Noyes anticipated Galton in
+    regarding eugenics as a matter of religion.</p>
+
+<p>    Noyes proposed to term the work of modern science in propagation
+    &quot;Stirpiculture,&quot; in which he has sometimes been followed by
+    others. He considered that it is the business of the
+    stirpiculturist to keep in view both quantity and quality of
+    stocks, and he held that, without diminishing quantity, it was
+    possible to raise the quality by exercising a very stringent
+    discrimination in selecting males. At this point, Noyes has been
+    supported in recent years by Karl Pearson and others, who have
+    shown that only a relatively small portion of a population is
+    needed to produce the next generation, and that, in fact, twelve
+    per cent. of one generation in man produces fifty per cent. of
+    the next generation. What we need to ensure is that this small
+    reproducing section of the population shall be the best adapted
+    for the purpose. &quot;The <i>quantity</i><a name='6_Page_619'></a> of production will be in direct
+    proportion to the number of fertile females,&quot; as Noyes saw the
+    question, &quot;and the <i>value</i> produced, so far as it depends on
+    selection, will be nearly in inverse proportion to the number of
+    fertilizing males.&quot; In this matter, Noyes anticipated Ehrenfels.
+    The two principles to be held in mind were, &quot;Breed from the
+    best,&quot; and &quot;Breed in-and-in,&quot; with a cautious and occasional
+    introduction of new strains. (It may be noted that Reibmayr, in
+    his recent <i>Entwicklungsgeschichte des Genics und Talentes</i>,
+    argues that the superior races, and superior individuals, in the
+    human species, have been produced by an unconscious adherence to
+    exactly these principles.) &quot;By segregating superior families, and
+    by breeding these in-and-in, superior varieties of human beings
+    might be produced, which would be comparable to the thoroughbreds
+    in all the domestic races.&quot; He illustrates this by the early
+    history of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p>    Noyes finally criticises the present method, or lack of method,
+    in matters of propagation. Our marriage system, he states,
+    &quot;leaves mating to be determined by a general scramble.&quot; By
+    ignoring, also, the great difference between the sexes in
+    reproductive power, it &quot;restricts each man, whatever may be his
+    potency and his value, to the amount of production of which one
+    woman, chosen blindly, may be capable.&quot; Moreover, he continues,
+    &quot;practically it discriminates against the best, and in favor of
+    the worst; for, while the good man will be limited by his
+    conscience to what the law allows, the bad man, free from moral
+    check, will distribute his seed beyond the legal limits, as
+    widely as he dares.&quot; &quot;We are safe every way in saying that there
+    is no possibility of carrying the two precepts of scientific
+    propagation into an institution which pretends to no
+    discrimination, allows no suppression, gives no more liberty to
+    the best than to the worst, and which, in fact, must inevitably
+    discriminate the wrong way, so long as the inferior classes are
+    most prolific and least amenable to the admonitions of science
+    and morality.&quot; In modifying our sexual institutions, Noyes
+    insists there are two essential points to remember: the
+    preservation of liberty, and the preservation of the home. There
+    must be no compulsion about human scientific propagation; it must
+    be autonomous, directed by self-government, &quot;by the free choice
+    of those who love science well enough to 'make themselves eunuchs
+    for the Kingdom of Heaven's sake.'&quot; The home, also, must be
+    preserved, since &quot;marriage is the best thing for man as he is;&quot;
+    but it is necessary to enlarge the home, for, &quot;if all could learn
+    to love other children than their own, there would be nothing to
+    hinder scientific propagation in the midst of homes far better
+    than any that now exist.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    This memorable pamphlet contains no exposition of the precise
+    measures adopted by the Oneida Community to carry out these
+    principles. The two essential points were, as we know, &quot;male
+    continence&quot;<a name='6_Page_620'></a> (see <i>ante</i> p. 553), and the enlarged family, in
+    which all the men were the actual or potential mates of all the
+    women, but no union for propagation took place, except as the
+    result of reason and deliberate resolve. &quot;The community,&quot; says
+    H. J. Seymour, one of the original members (<i>The Oneida
+    Community</i>, 1894, p. 5), &quot;was a <i>family</i>, as distinctly separated
+    from surrounding society as ordinary households. The tie that
+    bound it together was as permanent, and at least as sacred, as
+    that of marriage. Every man's care, and the whole of the common
+    property, was pledged for the maintenance and protection of the
+    women, and the support and education of the children.&quot; It is not
+    probable that the Oneida Community presented in detail the model
+    to which human society generally will conform. But even at the
+    lowest estimate, its success showed, as Lord Morely has pointed
+    out (<i>Diderot</i>, vol. ii, p. 19), &quot;how modifiable are some of
+    these facts of existing human character which are vulgarly deemed
+    to be ultimate and ineradicable,&quot; and that &quot;the discipline of the
+    appetites and affections of sex,&quot; on which the future of
+    civilization largely rests, is very far from an impossibility.</p>
+
+<p>    In many respects, the Oneida Community was ahead of its
+    time,&mdash;and even of ours,&mdash;but it is interesting to note that, in
+    the matter of the control of conception, our marriage system has
+    come into line with the theory and practice of Oneida; it cannot,
+    indeed, be said that we always control conception in accordance
+    with eugenic principles, but the fact that such control has now
+    become a generally accepted habit of civilization, to some extent
+    deprives Noyes' criticism of our marriage system of the force it
+    possessed half a century ago. Another change in our customs&mdash;the
+    advocacy, and even the practice, of abortion and
+    castration&mdash;would not have met with his approval; he was strongly
+    opposed to both, and with the high moral level that ruled his
+    community, neither was necessary to the maintenance of the
+    stirpiculture that prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>    The Oneida Community endured for the space of one generation, and
+    came to an end in 1879, by no means through a recognition of
+    failure, but by a wise deference to external pressure. Its
+    members, many of them highly educated, continued to cherish the
+    memory of the practices and ideals of the Community. Noyes Miller
+    (the author of <i>The Strike of a Sex</i>, and <i>Zugassant's
+    Discovery</i>) to the last, looked with quiet confidence to the time
+    when, as he anticipated, the great discovery of Noyes would be
+    accepted and adopted by the world at large. Another member of the
+    Community (Henry J. Seymour) wrote of the Community long
+    afterwards that &quot;It was an anticipation and imperfect miniature
+    of the Kingdom of Heaven on earth.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<p>Perhaps the commonest type of proposal or attempt to improve the
+biological level of the race is by the exclusion of <a name='6_Page_621'></a>certain classes of
+degenerates from marriage, or by the encouragement of better classes of
+the community to marry. This seems to be, at present, the most popular
+form of eugenics, and in so far as it is not effected by compulsion but is
+the outcome of a voluntary resolve to treat the question of the creation
+of the race with the jealous care and guardianship which so tremendously
+serious, so godlike, a task involves, it has much to be said in its favor
+and nothing against it.</p>
+
+<p>But it is quite another matter when the attempt is made to regulate such
+an institution as marriage by law. In the first place we do not yet know
+enough about the principles of heredity and the transmissibility of
+pathological states to enable us to formulate sound legislative proposals
+on this basis. Even so comparatively simple a matter as the relationship
+of tuberculosis to heredity can scarcely be said to be a matter of common
+agreement, even if it can yet be claimed that we possess adequate material
+on which to attain a common agreement. Supposing, moreover, that our
+knowledge on all these questions were far more advanced than it is, we
+still should not have attained a position in which we could lay down
+general propositions regarding the desirability or the undesirability of
+certain classes of persons procreating. The question is necessarily an
+individual question, and it can only be decided when all the circumstances
+of the individual case have been fairly passed in review.</p>
+
+<p>The objection to any legislative and compulsory regulation of the right to
+marry is, however, much more fundamental than the consideration that our
+knowledge is at present inadequate. It lies in the extraordinary
+confusion, in the minds of those who advocate such legislation, between
+legal marriage and procreation. The persons who fall into such confusion
+have not yet learnt the alphabet of the subject they presume to dictate
+about, and are no more competent to legislate than a child who cannot tell
+A from B is competent to read.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage, in so far as it is the partnership for mutual help and
+consolation of two people who in such partnership are free, if they
+please, to exercise sexual union, is an elementary right of every person
+who is able to reason, who is guilty of no fraud <a name='6_Page_622'></a>or concealment, and who
+is not likely to injure the partner selected, for in that case society is
+entitled to interfere by virtue of its duty to protect its members. But
+the right to marry, thus understood, in no way involves the right to
+procreate. For while marriage <i>per se</i> only affects the two individuals
+concerned, and in no way affects the State, procreation, on the other
+hand, primarily affects the community which is ultimately made up of
+procreated persons, and only secondarily affects the two individuals who
+are the instruments of procreation. So that just as the individual couple
+has the first right in the question of marriage, the State has the first
+right in the question of procreation. The State is just as incompetent to
+lay down the law about marriage as the individual is to lay down the law
+about procreation.</p>
+
+<p>That, however, is only one-half of the folly committed by those who would
+select the candidates for matrimony by statute. Let us suppose&mdash;as is not
+indeed easy to suppose&mdash;that a community will meekly accept the abstract
+prohibitions of the statute book and quietly go home again when the
+registrar of marriages informs them that they are shut out from legal
+matrimony by the new table of prohibited degrees. An explicit prohibition
+to procreate within marriage is an implicit permission to procreate
+outside marriage. Thus the undesirable procreation, instead of being
+carried out under the least dangerous conditions, is carried out under the
+most dangerous conditions, and the net result to the community is not a
+gain but a loss.</p>
+
+<p>What seems usually to happen, in the presence of a formal legislative
+prohibition against the marriage of a particular class, is a combination
+of various evils. In part the law becomes a dead letter, in part it is
+evaded by skill and fraud, in part it is obeyed to give rise to worse
+evils. This happened, for instance, in the Terek district of the Caucasus
+where, on the demand of a medical committee, priests were prohibited from
+marrying persons among whose relatives or ancestry any cases of leprosy
+had occurred. So much and such various mischief was caused by this order
+that it was speedily withdrawn.<a name='6_FNanchor_452'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_452'><sup>[452]</sup></a></p>
+<a name='6_Page_623'></a>
+<p>If we remember that the Catholic Church was occupied for more than a
+thousand years in the attempt to impose the prohibition of marriage on its
+priesthood,&mdash;an educated and trained body of men, who had every spiritual
+and worldly motive to accept the prohibition, and were, moreover, brought
+up to regard asceticism as the best ideal in life,<a name='6_FNanchor_453'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_453'><sup>[453]</sup></a>&mdash;we may realize
+how absurd it is to attempt to gain the same end by mere casual
+prohibitions issued to untrained people with no motives to obey such
+prohibitions, and no ideals of celibacy.</p>
+
+<p>The hopelessness and even absurdity of effecting the eugenic improvement
+of the race by merely placing on the statute book prohibitions to certain
+classes of people to enter the legal bonds of matrimony as at present
+constituted, reveals the weakness of those who undervalue the eugenic
+importance of environment. Those who affirm that heredity is everything
+and environment nothing seem strangely to forget that it is precisely the
+lower classes&mdash;those who are most subjected to the influence of bad
+environment&mdash;who procreate most copiously, most recklessly, and most
+disastrously. The restraint of procreation, and a concomitant regard for
+heredity, increase <i>pari passu</i> with improvement of the environment and
+rise in social well-being. If even already it can be said that probably
+fifty per cent. of sexual intercourse&mdash;perhaps the most procreatively
+productive moiety&mdash;takes place outside legal marriage, it becomes obvious
+that statutory prohibition to the unfit classes to refrain from legal
+marriage merely involves their joining the procreating classes outside
+legal matrimony. It is also clear that if we are to neglect the factor of
+environment, and leave the lower social classes to the ignorance and
+recklessness which are the result of such environment, the only practical
+method of eugenics left open is that by castration and abortion. But this
+method&mdash;if applied on a wholesale scale as it would need to be<a name='6_FNanchor_454'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_454'><sup>[454]</sup></a> and
+without reference to <a name='6_Page_624'></a>the consent of the individual&mdash;is entirely opposed
+to modern democratic feeling. Thus those short-sighted eugenists who
+overlook the importance of environment are overlooking the only practical
+channel through which their aims can be realized. Attention to procreation
+and attention to environment are not, as some have supposed, antagonistic,
+but they play harmoniously into each other's hands. The care for
+environment leads to a restraint on reckless procreation, and the
+restraint of procreation leads to improved environment.</p>
+
+<p>Legislation on marriage, to be effectual, must be enacted in the home, in
+the school, in the doctor's consulting room. Force is helpless here; it is
+education that is needed, not merely instruction, but the education of the
+conscience and will, and the training of the emotions.</p>
+
+<p>Legal action may come in to further this process of education, though it
+cannot replace it. Thus it is very desirable that when there has been a
+concealment of serious disease by a party to a marriage such concealment
+should be a ground for divorce. Epilepsy may be taken as typical of the
+diseases which should be a bar to procreation, and their concealment
+equivalent to an annulment of marriage.<a name='6_FNanchor_455'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_455'><sup>[455]</sup></a> In the United States the
+Supreme Court of Errors of Connecticut laid it down in 1906 that the
+Superior Court has the power to pass a decree of divorce when one of the
+parties has concealed the existence of epilepsy. This weighty deliverence,
+it has been well said,<a name='6_FNanchor_456'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_456'><sup>[456]</sup></a> marks a forward step in human progress. There
+are many other seriously pathological conditions in which divorce should
+be pronounced, or indeed, occur automatically, except when procreation has
+been <a name='6_Page_625'></a>renounced, for in that case the State is no longer concerned in the
+relationship, except to punish any fraud committed by concealment.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>The demand that a medical certificate of health should be
+    compulsory on marriage, has been especially made in France. In
+    1858, Diday, of Lyons, proposed, indeed, that all persons,
+    without exception, should be compelled to possess a certificate
+    of health and disease, a kind of sanitary passport. In 1872,
+    Bertillon (Art. &quot;Demographic,&quot; <i>Dictionnaire Encyclop&eacute;dique des
+    Sciences M&eacute;dicales</i>) advocated the registration, at marriage, of
+    the chief anthropological and pathological traits of the
+    contracting parties (height, weight, color of hair and eyes,
+    muscular force, size of head, condition of vision, hearing, etc.,
+    deformities and defects, etc.), not so much, however, for the end
+    of preventing undesirable marriages, as to facilitate the study
+    and comparison of human groups at particular periods. Subsequent
+    demands, of a more limited and partial character, for legal
+    medical certificates as a condition of marriage, have been made
+    by Fournier (<i>Syphilis et Mariage</i>, 1890), Cazalis (<i>Le Science
+    et le Mariage</i>, 1890), and Jullien (<i>Blenorrhagie et Mariage</i>,
+    1898). In Austria, Haskovec, of Prague (&quot;Contrat Matrimonial et
+    L'Hygi&egrave;ne Publique,&quot; <i>Comptes-rendus Congr&egrave;s International de
+    M&eacute;decine</i>, Lisbon, 1906, Section VII, p. 600), argues that, on
+    marriage, a medical certificate should be presented, showing that
+    the subject is exempt from tuberculosis, alcoholism, syphilis,
+    gonorrh&oelig;a, severe mental, or nervous, or other
+    degenerative state, likely to be injurious to the other partner,
+    or to the offspring. In America, Rosenberg and Aronstam argue
+    that every candidate for marriage, male or female, should undergo
+    a strict examination by a competent board of medical examiners,
+    concerning (1) Family and Past History (syphilis, consumption,
+    alcoholism, nervous, and mental diseases), and (2) Status Presens
+    (thorough examination of all the organs); if satisfactory, a
+    certificate of matrimonial eligibility would then be granted. It
+    is pointed out that a measure of this kind would render
+    unnecessary the acts passed by some States for the punishment by
+    fine, or imprisonment, of the concealment of disease. Ellen Key
+    also considers (<i>Liebe und Ehe</i>, p. 436) that each party at
+    marriage should produce a certificate of health. &quot;It seems to me
+    just as necessary,&quot; she remarks, elsewhere (<i>Century of the
+    Child</i>, Ch. I), &quot;to demand medical testimony concerning capacity
+    for marriage, as concerning capacity for military service. In the
+    one case, it is a matter of giving life; in the other, of taking
+    it, although certainly the latter occasion has hitherto been
+    considered as much the more serious.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The certificate, as usually advocated, would be a private but
+    necessary legitimation of the marriage in the eyes of the civil
+    and <a name='6_Page_626'></a>religious authorities. Such a step, being required for the
+    protection alike of the conjugal partner and of posterity, would
+    involve a new legal organization of the matrimonial contract.
+    That such demands are so frequently made, is a significant sign
+    of the growth of moral consciousness in the community, and it is
+    good that the public should be made acquainted with the urgent
+    need for them. But it is highly undesirable that they should, at
+    present, or, perhaps, ever, be embodied in legal codes. What is
+    needed is the cultivation of the feeling of individual
+    responsibility, and the development of social antagonism towards
+    those individuals who fail to recognize their responsibility. It
+    is the reality of marriage, and not its mere legal forms, that it
+    is necessary to act upon.</p></div>
+
+<p>The voluntary method is the only sound way of approach in this matter.
+Duclaux considered that the candidate for marriage should possess a
+certificate of health in much the same way as the candidate for life
+assurance, the question of professional secrecy, as well as that of
+compulsion, no more coming into one question than into the other. There is
+no reason why such certificates, of an entirely voluntary character,
+should not become customary among those persons who are sufficiently
+enlightened to realize all the grave personal, family, and social issues
+involved in marriage. The system of eugenic certification, as originated
+and developed by Galton, will constitute a valuable instrument for raising
+the moral consciousness in this matter. Galton's eugenic certificates
+would deal mainly with the natural virtues of superior hereditary
+breed&mdash;&quot;the public recognition of a natural nobility&quot;&mdash;but they would
+include the question of personal health and personal aptitude.<a name='6_FNanchor_457'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_457'><sup>[457]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>To demand compulsory certificates of health at marriage is indeed to begin
+at the wrong end. It would not only lead to evasions and antagonisms but
+would probably call forth a reaction. It is first necessary to create an
+enthusiasm for health, a moral conscience in matters of procreation,
+together with, on the scientific side, a general habit of registering the
+anthropological, psychological, and pathological data concerning <a name='6_Page_627'></a>the
+individual, from birth onwards, altogether apart from marriage. The
+earlier demands of Diday and Bertillon were thus not only on a sounder but
+also a more practicable basis. If such records were kept from birth for
+every child, there would be no need for special examination at marriage,
+and many incidental ends would be gained. There is difficulty at present
+in obtaining such records from the moment of birth, and, so far as I am
+aware, no attempts have yet been made to establish their systematic
+registration. But it is quite possible to begin at the beginning of school
+life, and this is now done at many schools and colleges in England,
+America, and elsewhere, more especially as regards anthropological,
+physiological, and psychological data, each child being submitted to a
+thorough and searching anthropometric examination, and thus furnished with
+a systematic statement of his physical condition.<a name='6_FNanchor_458'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_458'><sup>[458]</sup></a> This examination
+needs to be standardized and generalized, and repeated at fixed intervals.
+&quot;Every individual child,&quot; as is truly stated by Dr. Dukes, the Physician
+to Rugby School, &quot;on his entrance to a public school should be as
+carefully and as thoroughly examined as if it were for life insurance.&quot; If
+this procedure were general from an early age, there would be no hardship
+in the production of the record at marriage, and no opportunity for fraud.
+The <i>dossier</i> of each person might well be registered by the State, as
+wills already are, and, as in the case of wills, become freely open to
+students when a century had elapsed. Until this has been done during
+several centuries our knowledge of eugenics will remain rudimentary.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>There can be little doubt that the eugenic attitude towards
+    marriage, and the responsibility of the individual for the future
+    of the race, is becoming more recognized. It is constantly
+    happening that persons, about to marry, approach the physician in
+    a state of serious anxiety on this point. Urquhart, indeed
+    (<i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, April, 1907, p. 277), believes that
+    marriages are seldom broken off on this ground; this seems,
+    however, too pessimistic a view, and even when the marriage is
+    not broken off the resolve is often made to avoid procreation.<a name='6_Page_628'></a>
+    Clouston, who emphasizes (<i>Hygiene of the Mind</i>, p. 74) the
+    importance of &quot;inquiries by each of the parties to the
+    life-contract, by their parents and their doctors, as to
+    heredity, temperament, and health,&quot; is more hopeful of the
+    results than Urquhart. &quot;I have been very much impressed, of late
+    years,&quot; he writes (<i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, Oct., 1907, p.
+    710), &quot;with the way in which this subject is taking possession of
+    intelligent people, by the number of times one is consulted by
+    young men and young women, proposing to marry, or by their
+    fathers or mothers. I used to have the feeling in the back of my
+    mind, when I was consulted, that it did not matter what I said,
+    it would not make any difference. But it is making a difference;
+    and I, and others, could tell of scores of marriages which were
+    put off in consequence of psychiatric medical advice.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    Ellen Key, also, refers to the growing tendency among both men
+    and women, to be influenced by eugenic consideration in forming
+    partnerships for life (<i>Century of the Child</i>, Ch. I). The
+    recognition of the eugenic attitude towards marriage, the
+    quickening of the social and individual conscience in matters of
+    heredity, as also the systematic introduction of certification
+    and registration, will be furthered by the growing tendency to
+    the socialization of medicine, and, indeed, in its absence would
+    be impossible. (See <i>e.g.</i>, Havelock Ellis, <i>The Nationalization
+    of Health</i>.) The growth of the State Medical Organization of
+    Health is steady and continuous, and is constantly covering a
+    larger field. The day of the private practitioner of
+    medicine&mdash;who was treated, as Duclaux (<i>L'Hygi&egrave;ne Sociale</i>, p.
+    263) put it, &quot;like a grocer, whose shop the customer may enter
+    and leave as he pleases, and when he pleases&quot;&mdash;will, doubtless,
+    soon be over. It is now beginning to be felt that health is far
+    too serious a matter, not only from the individual but also from
+    the social point of view, to be left to private caprice. There
+    is, indeed, a tendency, in some quarters, to fear that some day
+    society may rush to the opposite extreme, and bow before medicine
+    with the same unreasoning deference that it once bowed before
+    theology. That danger is still very remote, nor is it likely,
+    indeed, that medicine will ever claim any authority of this kind.
+    The spirit of medicine has, notoriously, been rather towards the
+    assertion of scepticism than of dogma, and the fanatics in this
+    field will always be in a hopelessly small minority.</p></div>
+
+<p>The general introduction of authentic personal records covering all
+essential data&mdash;hereditary, anthropometric and pathological&mdash;cannot fail
+to be a force on the side of positive as well as of negative eugenics, for
+it would tend to promote the procreation of the fit as well as restrict
+that of the unfit, without any legislative compulsion. With the growth of
+education <a name='6_Page_629'></a>a regard for such records as a preliminary to marriage would
+become as much a matter of course as once was the regard to the
+restrictions imposed by Canon law, and as still is a regard to money or to
+caste. A woman can usually refrain from marrying a man with no money and
+no prospects; a man may be passionately in love with a woman of lower
+class than himself but he seldom marries her. It needs but a clear general
+perception of all that is involved in heredity and health to make eugenic
+considerations equally influential.</p>
+
+<p>A discriminating regard to the quality of offspring will act beneficially
+on the side of positive eugenics by substituting the pernicious tendency
+to put a premium on excess of childbirth by the more rational method of
+putting a premium on the quality of the child. It has been one of the most
+unfortunate results of the mania for protesting against that decline of
+the birthrate which is always and everywhere the result of civilization,
+that there has been a tendency to offer special social or pecuniary
+advantages to the parents of large families. Since large families tend to
+be degenerate, and to become a tax on the community, since rapid
+pregnancies in succession are not only a serious drain on the strength of
+the mother but are now known to depreciate seriously the quality of the
+offspring, and since, moreover, it is in large families that disease and
+mortality chiefly prevail, all the interests of the community are against
+the placing of any premium on large families, even in the case of parents
+of good stock. The interests of the State are bound up not with the
+quantity but with the quality of its citizens, and the premium should be
+placed not on the families that reach a certain size but on the individual
+children that reach a certain standard; the attainment of this standard
+could well be based on observations made from birth to the fifth year. A
+premium on this basis would be as beneficial to a State as that on the
+merely numerical basis is pernicious.</p>
+
+<p>This consideration applies with still greater force to the proposals for
+the &quot;systematic endowment of motherhood&quot; of which we hear more and more.
+So moderate and judicious a social reformer as Mr. Sidney Webb writes: &quot;We
+shall have to <a name='6_Page_630'></a>face the problem of the systematic endowment of motherhood,
+and place this most indispensable of all professions upon an honorable
+economic basis. At present it is ignored as an occupation, unremunerated,
+and in no way honored by the State.&quot;<a name='6_FNanchor_459'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_459'><sup>[459]</sup></a> True as this statement is, it
+must always be remembered that an indispensable preliminary to any
+proposal for the endowment of motherhood by the State is a clear
+conception of the kind of motherhood which the State requires. To endow
+the reckless and indiscriminate motherhood which we see around us, to
+encourage, that is, by State aid, the production of citizens a large
+proportion of whom the State, if it dared, would like to destroy as unfit,
+is too ridiculous a proposal to deserve discussion.<a name='6_FNanchor_460'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_460'><sup>[460]</sup></a> The only sound
+reason, indeed, for the endowment of motherhood is that it would enable
+the State, in its own interests, to further the natural selection of the
+fit.</p>
+
+<p>As to the positive qualities which the State is entitled to endow in its
+encouragement of motherhood, it is still too early to speak with complete
+assurance. Negative eugenics tends to be ahead of positive eugenics; it is
+easier to detect bad stocks than to be quite sure of good stocks. Both on
+the scientific side and on the social side, however, we are beginning to
+attain a clearer realization of the end to be attained and a more precise
+knowledge of the methods of attaining it.<a name='6_FNanchor_461'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_461'><sup>[461]</sup></a></p>
+
+<p>Even when we have gained a fairly clear conception of the stocks and the
+individuals which we are justified in encouraging to undertake the task of
+producing fit citizens for the State, the problems of procreation are by
+no means at an end. Before we <a name='6_Page_631'></a>can so much as inquire what are the
+conditions under which selected individuals may best procreate, there is
+still the initial question to be decided whether those individuals are
+both fertile and potent, for this is not guaranteed by the fact that they
+belong to good stocks, nor is even the fact that a man and a woman are
+fertile with other persons any positive proof that they will be fertile
+with each other. Among the large masses of the population who do not seek
+to make their unions legal until those unions have proved fertile, this
+difficulty is settled in a simple and practical manner. The question is,
+however, a serious and hazardous one, in the present state of the marriage
+law in most countries, for those classes which are accustomed to bind
+themselves in legal marriage without any knowledge of their potency and
+fertility with each other. The matter is mostly left to chance, and as
+legal marriage cannot usually be dissolved on the ground that there are no
+offspring, even although procreation is commonly declared to be the chief
+end of marriage, the question assumes much gravity. The ordinary range of
+sterility is from seven to fifteen per cent. of all marriages, and in a
+very large proportion of these it is a source of great concern. This could
+be avoided, in some measure, by examination before marriage, and almost
+altogether by ordaining that, as it is only through offspring that a
+marriage has any concern for the State, a legal marriage could be
+dissolved, after a certain period, at the will of either of the parties,
+in the absence of such offspring.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>It was formerly supposed that when a union proved infertile, it
+    was the wife who was at fault. That belief is long since
+    exploded, but, even yet, a man is generally far more concerned
+    about his potency, that is, his ability to perform the mechanical
+    act of coitus, than about his fertility, that is, his ability to
+    produce living spermatozoa, though the latter condition is a much
+    more common source of sterility. &quot;Any man,&quot; says Arthur Cooper
+    (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, May 11, 1907), &quot;who has any sexual
+    defect or malformation, or who has suffered from any disease or
+    injury of the genito-urinary organs, even though comparatively
+    trivial or one-sided, and although his copulative power may be
+    unimpaired, should be looked upon as possibly sterile, until some
+    sort of evidence to the contrary has been obtained.&quot; In case of a
+    sterile marriage, the possible cause should first be investigated
+    in the husband, <a name='6_Page_632'></a>for it is comparatively easy to examine the
+    semen, and to ascertain if it contains active spermatozoa.
+    Prinzing, in a comprehensive study of sterile marriages (&quot;Die
+    Sterilen Ehen,&quot; <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Sozialwissenschaft</i>, 1904, Heft
+    1 and 2), states that in two-fifths of sterile marriages the man
+    is at fault; one-third of such marriages are the result of
+    venereal diseases in the husband himself, or transmitted to the
+    wife. Gonorrh&oelig;a is not now considered so important a
+    cause of sterility as it was a few years ago; Schenk makes it
+    responsible for only about thirteen per cent. sterile marriages
+    (<i>cf.</i> Kisch, <i>The Sexual Life of Woman</i>). Pinkus (<i>Archiv f&uuml;r
+    Gyn&auml;kologie</i>, 1907) found that of nearly five hundred cases in
+    which he examined both partners, in 24.4 per cent. cases, the
+    sterility was directly due to the husband, and in 15.8 per cent.
+    cases, indirectly due, because caused by gonorrh&oelig;a with
+    which he had infected his wife.</p>
+
+<p>    When sterility is due to a defect in the husband's spermatozoa,
+    and is not discovered, as it usually might be, before marriage,
+    the question of impregnating the wife by other methods has
+    occasionally arisen. Divorce on the ground of sterility is not
+    possible, and, even if it were, the couple, although they wish to
+    have a child, have not usually any wish to separate. Under these
+    circumstances, in order to secure the desired end, without
+    departing from widely accepted rules of morality, the attempt is
+    occasionally made to effect artificial fecundation by injecting
+    the semen from a healthy male. Attempts have been made to effect
+    artificial fecundation by various distinguished men, from John
+    Hunter to Schwalbe, but it is nearly always very difficult to
+    effect, and often impossible. This is easy to account for, if we
+    recall what has already been pointed out (<i>ante</i> p. 577)
+    concerning the influence of erotic excitement in the woman in
+    securing conception; it is obviously a serious task for even the
+    most susceptible woman to evoke erotic enthusiasm <i>&agrave; propos</i> of a
+    medical syringe. Schwalbe, for instance, records a case
+    (<i>Deutsche Medizinisches Wochenschrift</i>, Aug., 1908, p. 510) in
+    which,&mdash;in consequence of the husband's sterility and the wife's
+    anxiety, with her husband's consent, to be impregnated by the
+    semen of another man,&mdash;he made repeated careful attempts to
+    effect artificial fecundation; these attempts were, however,
+    fruitless, and the three parties concerned finally resigned
+    themselves to the natural method of intercourse, which was
+    successful. In another case, recorded by Schwalbe, in which the
+    husband was impotent but not sterile, six attempts were made to
+    effect artificial fecundation, and further efforts abandoned on
+    account of the disgust of all concerned.</p>
+
+<p>    Opinion, on the whole, has been opposed to the practice of
+    artificial fecundation, even apart from the question of the
+    probabilities of success. Thus, in France, where there is a
+    considerable literature on the subject, the Paris Medical
+    Faculty, in 1885, after some hesitation, refused<a name='6_Page_633'></a> G&eacute;rard's thesis
+    on the history of artificial fecundation, afterwards published
+    independently. In 1883, the Bordeaux legal tribunal declared that
+    artificial fecundation was illegitimate, and a social danger. In
+    1897, the Holy See also pronounced that the practice is unlawful
+    (&quot;Artificial Fecundation before the Inquisition,&quot; <i>British
+    Medical Journal</i>, March 5, 1898). Apart, altogether, from this
+    attitude of medicine, law, and Church, it would certainly seem
+    that those who desire offspring would do well, as a rule, to
+    adopt the natural method, which is also the best, or else to
+    abandon to others the task of procreation, for which they are not
+    adequately equipped.</p></div>
+
+<p>When we have ascertained that two individuals both belong to sound and
+healthy stocks, and, further, that they are themselves both apt for
+procreation, it still remains to consider the conditions under which they
+may best effect procreation.<a name='6_FNanchor_462'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_462'><sup>[462]</sup></a> There arises, for instance, the
+question, often asked, What is the best age for procreation?</p>
+
+<p>The considerations which weigh in answering this question are of two
+different orders, physiological, and social or moral. That is to say, that
+it is necessary, on the one hand, that physical maturity should have been
+fully attained, and the sexual cells completely developed; while, on the
+other hand, it is necessary that the man shall have become able to support
+a family, and that both partners shall have received a training in life
+adequate to undertake the responsibilities and anxieties involved in the
+rearing of children. While there have been variations at different times,
+it scarcely appears that, on the whole, the general opinion as to the best
+age for procreation has greatly varied in Europe during many centuries.
+Hesiod indeed said that a woman should marry about fifteen and a man about
+thirty,<a name='6_FNanchor_463'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_463'><sup>[463]</sup></a> but obstetricians have usually concluded that, in the
+interests alike of the parents and their offspring, the procreative life
+should not <a name='6_Page_634'></a>begin in women before twenty and in men before
+twenty-five.<a name='6_FNanchor_464'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_464'><sup>[464]</sup></a> After thirty in women and after thirty-five or forty in
+men it seems probable that the best conditions for procreation begin to
+decline.<a name='6_FNanchor_465'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_465'><sup>[465]</sup></a> At the present time, in England and several other civilized
+countries, the tendency has been for the age of marriage to fall at an
+increasingly late age, on the average some years later than that usually
+fixed as the most favorable age for the commencement of the procreative
+life. But, on the whole, the average seldom departs widely from the
+accepted standard, and there seems no good reason why we should desire to
+modify this general tendency.</p>
+
+<div class='blkquot'><p>At the same time, it by no means follows that wide variations,
+    under special circumstances, may not only be permissible, but
+    desirable. The male is capable of procreating, in some cases,
+    from about the age of thirteen until far beyond eighty, and at
+    this advanced age, the offspring, even if not notable for great
+    physical robustness, may possess high intellectual qualities.
+    (See <i>e.g.</i>, Havelock Ellis, <i>A Study of British Genius</i>, pp. 120
+    <i>et seq.</i>) The range of the procreative age in women begins
+    earlier (sometimes at eight), though it usually ceases by fifty,
+    or earlier, in only rare cases continuing to sixty or beyond.
+    Cases have been reported of pregnancy, or childbirth, at the age
+    of fifty-nine (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Lancet</i>, Aug. 5, 1905, p. 419). Lepage
+    (<i>Comptes-rendus Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d'Obst&eacute;trique de Paris</i>, Oct., 1903)
+    reports a case of a primipara of fifty-seven; the child was
+    stillborn. Kisch (<i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>, Part II)<a name='6_Page_635'></a> refers to
+    cases of pregnancy in elderly women, and various references are
+    given in <i>British Medical Journal</i>, Aug. 8, 1903, p. 325.</p>
+
+<p>    Of more importance is the question of early pregnancy. Several
+    investigators have devoted their attention to this question.
+    Thus, Spitta (in a Marburg Inaugural Dissertation, 1895) reviewed
+    the clinical history of 260 labors in primipar&aelig; of 18 and under,
+    as observed at the Marburg Maternity. He found that the general
+    health during pregnancy was not below the average of pregnant
+    women, while the mortality of the child at birth and during the
+    following weeks was not high, and the mortality of the mother was
+    by no means high. Picard (in a Paris thesis, 1903) has studied
+    childbirth in thirty-eight mothers below the age of sixteen. He
+    found that, although the pelvis is certainly not yet fully
+    developed in very young girls, the joints and bones are much more
+    yielding than in the adult, so that parturition, far from being
+    more difficult, is usually rapid and easy. The process of labor
+    itself, is essentially normal in these cases, and, even when
+    abnormalities occur (low insertion of the placenta is a common
+    anomaly) it is remarkable that the patients do not suffer from
+    them in the way common among older women. The average weight of
+    the child was three kilogrammes, or about 6 pounds, 9 ounces; it
+    sometimes required special care during the first few days after
+    birth, perhaps because labor in these cases is sometimes slow.
+    The recovery of the mother was, in every case, absolutely normal,
+    and the fact that these young mothers become pregnant again more
+    readily than primipar&aelig; of a more mature age, further contributes
+    to show that childbirth below the age of sixteen is in no way
+    injurious to the mother. Gache (<i>Annales de Gyn&eacute;cologie et
+    d'Obst&eacute;trique</i>, Dec., 1904) has attended ninety-one labors of
+    mothers under seventeen, in the Rawson Hospital, Buenos Ayres;
+    they were of so-called Latin race, mostly Spanish or Italian.
+    Gache found that these young mothers were by no means more
+    exposed than others to abortion or to other complications of
+    pregnancy. Except in four cases of slightly contracted pelvis,
+    delivery was normal, though rather longer than in older
+    primipar&aelig;. Damage to the soft parts was, however, rare, and, when
+    it occurred, in every case rapidly healed. The average weight of
+    the child was 3,039 grammes, or nearly 6&frac34; pounds. It may be noted
+    that most observers find that very early pregnancies occur in
+    women who begin to menstruate at an unusually early age, that is,
+    some years before the early pregnancy occurs.</p>
+
+<p>    It is clear, however, that young mothers do remarkably well,
+    while there is no doubt whatever that they bear unusually fine
+    infants. Kleinw&auml;chter, indeed, found that the younger the mother,
+    the bigger the child. It is not only physically that the children
+    of young mothers are superior. Marro has found (<i>Pubert&agrave;</i>, p.
+    257) that the children of mothers under 21 are superior to those
+    of older mothers both in conduct <a name='6_Page_636'></a>and intelligence, provided the
+    fathers are not too old or too young. The detailed records of
+    individual cases confirm these results, both as regards mother
+    and child. Thus, Milner (<i>Lancet</i>, June 7, 1902) records a case
+    of pregnancy in a girl of fourteen; the labor pains were very
+    mild, and delivery was easy. E. B. Wales, of New Jersey, has
+    recorded the history (reproduced in <i>Medical Reprints</i>, Sept. 15,
+    1890) of a colored girl who became pregnant at the age of eleven.
+    She was of medium size, rather tall and slender, but well
+    developed, and began to menstruate at the age of ten. She was in
+    good health and spirits during pregnancy, and able to work.
+    Delivery was easy and natural, not notably prolonged, and
+    apparently not unduly painful, for there were no moans or
+    agitation. The child was a fine, healthy boy, weighing not less
+    than eleven pounds. Mother and child both did well, and there was
+    a great flow of milk. Whiteside Robertson (<i>British Medical
+    Journal</i>, Jan. 18, 1902) has recorded a case of pregnancy at the
+    age of thirteen, in a Colonial girl of British origin in Cape
+    Colony, which is notable from other points of view. During
+    pregnancy, she was an&aelig;mic, and appeared to be of poor development
+    and doubtfully normal pelvic conformation. Yet delivery took
+    place naturally, at full term, without difficulty or injury, and
+    the lying-in period was in every way satisfactory. The baby was
+    well-proportioned, and weighed 7&frac12; pounds. &quot;I have rarely seen a
+    primipara enjoy easier labor,&quot; concluded Robertson, &quot;and I have
+    never seen one look forward to the happy realization of
+    motherhood with greater satisfaction.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>    The facts brought forward by obstetricians concerning the good
+    results of early pregnancy, as regards both mother and child,
+    have not yet received the attention they deserve. They are,
+    however, confirmed by many general tendencies which are now
+    fairly well recognized. The significant fact is known, for
+    instance, that in mothers over thirty, the proportion of
+    abortions and miscarriages is twice as great as in mothers
+    between the ages of fifteen and twenty, who also are superior in
+    this respect to mothers between the ages of twenty and thirty
+    (<i>Statistischer Jahrbuch</i>, Budapest, 1905). It was, again, proved
+    by Matthews Duncan, in his Goulstonian lecture, that the chances
+    of sterility in a woman increase with increase of age. It has,
+    further, been shown (Kisch, <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>, Part II) that
+    the older a woman at marriage, the greater the average interval
+    before the first delivery, a tendency which seems to indicate
+    that it is the very young woman who is in the condition most apt
+    for procreation; Kisch is not, indeed, inclined to think that
+    this applies to women below twenty, but the fact, observed by
+    other obstetricians, that mothers under eighteen tend to become
+    pregnant again at an unusually short interval, goes far to
+    neutralize the exception made by Kisch. It may also be pointed
+    out that, among children of very young mothers, the sexes are
+    more nearly equal in number <a name='6_Page_637'></a>than is the case with older mothers.
+    This would seem to indicate that we are here in presence of a
+    normal equilibrium which will decrease as the age of the mother
+    is progressively disturbed in an abnormal direction.</p>
+
+<p>    The facility of parturition at an early age, it may be noted,
+    corresponds to an equal facility in physical sexual intercourse,
+    a fact that is often overlooked. In Russia, where marriage still
+    takes place early, it was formerly common when the woman was only
+    twelve or thirteen, and Guttceit (<i>Dreissig Jahre Praxis</i>, vol.
+    i, p. 324) says that he was assured by women who married at this
+    age that the first coitus presented no especial difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>    There is undoubtedly, at the present time, a considerable amount
+    of prejudice against early motherhood. In part, this is due to a
+    failure to realize that women are sexually much more precocious
+    than men, physically as well as psychically (see <i>ante</i> p. 35).
+    The difference is about five years. This difference has been
+    virtually recognized for thousands of years, in the ancient
+    belief that the age of election for procreation is about twenty,
+    or less, for women, but about twenty-five for men; and it has
+    more lately been affirmed by the discovery that, while the male
+    is never capable of generation before thirteen, the female may,
+    in occasional instances, become pregnant at eight. (Some of the
+    recorded examples are quoted by Kisch.) In part, also, there is
+    an objection to the assumption of responsibilities so serious as
+    those of motherhood by a young girl, and there is the very
+    reasonable feeling that the obligations of a permanent marriage
+    tie ought not to be undertaken at an early age. On the other
+    hand, apart from the physical advantages, as regards both mother
+    and infant, on the side of early pregnancies, it is an advantage
+    for the child to have a young mother, who can devote herself
+    sympathetically and unreservedly to its interests, instead of
+    presenting the pathetic spectacle we so often witness in the
+    middle-aged woman who turns to motherhood when her youth and
+    mental flexibility are gone, and her habits and tastes have
+    settled into other grooves; it has sometimes been a great
+    blessing even to the very greatest men, like Goethe, to have had
+    a youthful mother. It would also, in many cases, be a great
+    advantage for the woman herself if she could bring her
+    procreative life to an end well before the age of twenty-five, so
+    that she could then, unhampered by child-bearing and mature in
+    experience, be free to enter on such wider activities in the
+    world as she might be fitted for.</p>
+
+<p>    Such an arrangement of the procreative life of women would,
+    obviously, only be a variation, and would probably be unsuited
+    for the majority. Every case must be judged on its own merits.
+    The best age for procreation will probably continue to be
+    regarded as being, for most women, around the age of twenty. But
+    at a time like the present, when <a name='6_Page_638'></a>there is an unfortunate
+    tendency for motherhood to be unduly delayed, it becomes
+    necessary to insist on the advantages, in many cases, of early
+    motherhood.</p></div>
+
+<p>There are other conditions favorable or unfavorable to procreation which
+it is now unnecessary to discuss in detail, since they have already been
+incidentally dealt with in previous volumes of these <i>Studies</i>. There is,
+for instance, the question of the time of year and the time of the
+menstrual cycle which may most properly be selected for procreation.<a name='6_FNanchor_466'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_466'><sup>[466]</sup></a>
+The best period is probably that when sexual desire is strongest, which is
+the period when conception would appear, as a matter of fact, most often
+to occur. This would be in spring or early summer,<a name='6_FNanchor_467'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_467'><sup>[467]</sup></a> and immediately
+after (or shortly before) the menstrual period. The Chinese have observed
+that the last day of menstruation and the two following
+days&mdash;corresponding to the period of &oelig;strus&mdash;constitute the most
+favorable time for fecundation, and Bossi, of Genoa, has found that the
+great majority of successes in both natural and artificial fecundation
+occur at this period.<a name='6_FNanchor_468'></a><a href='#6_Footnote_468'><sup>[468]</sup></a> Soranus, as well as the Talmud, assigned the
+period about menstruation as the best for impregnation, and Susruta, the
+Indian physician, said that at this time pregnancy most readily occurs
+because then the mouth of the womb is open, like the flower of the
+water-lily to the sunshine.</p>
+
+<p>We have now at last reached the point from which we started, the moment of
+conception, and the child again lies in its mother's womb. There remains
+no more to be said. The divine cycle of life is completed.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_421'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_421'>[421]</a><div class='note'><p> Spencer and Gillen, <i>Northern Tribes of Central Australia</i>,
+p. 330.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_422'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_422'>[422]</a><div class='note'><p> Academy of Medicine of Paris, March 31, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_423'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_423'>[423]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas</i>, vol. ii,
+p. 405.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_424'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_424'>[424]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Population and Progress</i>, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_425'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_425'>[425]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Cf.</i> Reibmayr, <i>Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und
+Genics</i>, Bd. II, p. 31.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_426'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_426'>[426]</a><div class='note'><p> &quot;The debt that we owe to those who have gone before us,&quot;
+says Haycraft (<i>Darwinism and Race Progress</i>, p. 160), &quot;we can only repay
+to those who come after us.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_427'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_427'>[427]</a><div class='note'><p> Mardrus, <i>Les Mille Nuits</i>, vol. xvi, p. 158.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_428'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_428'>[428]</a><div class='note'><p> Sidney Webb, <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, 1906, p. 526
+(previously published in the <i>London Times</i>, Oct. 11, 16, 1906). In Ch. IX
+of the present volume it has already been necessary to discuss the meaning
+of the term, &quot;morality.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_429'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_429'>[429]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, in Paris, in 1906, in the rich quarters, the
+birthrate per 1,000 inhabitants was 19.09; in well-to-do quarters, 22.51;
+and in poor quarters, 29.70. Here we see that, while the birthrate falls
+and rises with social class, even among the poor and least restrained
+class the birthrate is still but little above the general average for
+England, where prevention is widespread, and very considerably lower than
+the average (now rapidly falling) in Germany. It is evident that even
+among the poor class there is a process of leveling up to the higher
+classes in this matter.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_430'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_430'>[430]</a><div class='note'><p> I have developed these points more in detail in two
+articles in the <i>Independent Review</i>, November, 1903, and April, 1904. See
+also, Bushee, &quot;The Declining Birthrate and Its Causes,&quot; <i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>, Aug., 1903.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_431'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_431'>[431]</a><div class='note'><p> Francis Place, <i>Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle
+of Population</i>, 1822, p. 165.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_432'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_432'>[432]</a><div class='note'><p> See, <i>e.g.</i>, a weighty chapter in the <i>Sexualleben und
+Nervenleiden</i> of L&ouml;wenfeld, one of the most judicious authorities on
+sexual pathology. Twenty-five years ago, as many will remember, the
+medical student was usually taught that preventive methods of intercourse
+led to all sorts of serious results. At that time, however, reckless and
+undesirable methods of prevention seem to have been more prevalent than
+now.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_433'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_433'>[433]</a><div class='note'><p> Michael Ryan, <i>Philosophy of Marriage</i>, p. 9. To enable
+&quot;the conservative power of the Creator&quot; to exert itself on the myriads of
+germinal human beings secreted during his life-time by even one man, would
+require a world full of women, while the corresponding problem as regards
+a woman is altogether too difficult to cope with. The process by which
+life has been built up, far from being a process of universal
+conservation, has been a process of stringent selection and vast
+destruction; the progress effected by civilization merely lies in making
+this blind process intelligent.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_434'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_434'>[434]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, in Belgium, in 1908 (<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Feb., 1909,
+p. 136), a physician (Dr. Mascaux) who had been prominent in promoting a
+knowledge of preventive methods of conception, was condemned to three
+months imprisonment for &quot;offense against morality!&quot; In such a case, Dr.
+Helene St&ouml;cker comments (<i>Die Neue Generation</i>, Jan., 1909, p. 7),
+&quot;morality&quot; is another name for ignorance, timidity, hypocrisy, prudery,
+coarseness, and lack of conscience. It must be remembered, however, in
+explanation of this iniquitous judgment, that for some years past the
+clerical party has been politically predominant in Belgium.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_435'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_435'>[435]</a><div class='note'><p> It has been objected that the condom cannot be used by the
+very poorest, on account of its cost, but Hans Ferdy, in a detailed paper
+(<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Dec., 1908), shows that the use of the condom can be
+brought within the means of the very poorest, if care is taken to preserve
+it under water when not in use. Nystr&ouml;m (<i>Sexual Probleme</i>, Nov., 1908, p.
+736) has issued a leaflet for the benefit of his patients and others,
+recommending the condom, and explaining its use.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_436'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_436'>[436]</a><div class='note'><p> Thus, Kisch, in his <i>Sexual Life of Woman</i>, after
+discussing fully the various methods of prevention, decides in favor of
+the condom. F&uuml;rbringer similarly (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease
+in Relation to Marriage</i>, vol. i, pp. 232 <i>et seq.</i>) concludes that the
+condom is &quot;relatively the most perfect anti-conceptual remedy.&quot; Forel
+(<i>Die Sexuelle Frage</i>, pp. 457 <i>et seq.</i>) also discusses the question at
+length; any &aelig;sthetic objection to the condom, Forel adds (p. 544), is due
+to the fact that we are not accustomed to it; &quot;eye-glasses are not
+specially &aelig;sthetic, but the poetry of life does not suffer excessively
+from their use, which, in many cases, cannot be dispensed with.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_437'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_437'>[437]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>L'Avortement</i>, p. 43.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_438'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_438'>[438]</a><div class='note'><p> There are some disputed points in Roman law and practice
+concerning abortion; they are discussed in Balestrini's valuable book,
+<i>Aborto</i>, pp. 30 <i>et seq.</i></p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_439'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_439'>[439]</a><div class='note'><p> Augustine, <i>De Civitate Dei</i>, Bk. XXII, Ch. XIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_440'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_440'>[440]</a><div class='note'><p> The development of opinion and law concerning abortion has
+been traced by Eug&egrave;ne Bausset, <i>L'Avortement Criminel</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris,
+1907. For a summary of the practices of different peoples regarding
+abortion, see W. G. Sumner, <i>Folkways</i>, Ch. VIII.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_441'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_441'>[441]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Die Neue Generation</i>, May, 1908, p. 192. It may be added
+that in England the attachment of any penalty at all to abortion,
+practiced in the early months of pregnancy (before &quot;quickening&quot; has taken
+place), is merely a modern innovation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_442'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_442'>[442]</a><div class='note'><p> Even Balestrini, who is opposed to the punishment of
+abortion, is no advocate of it. &quot;Whenever abortion becomes a social
+custom,&quot; he remarks (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 191), &quot;it is the external
+manifestation of a people's decadence, and far too deeply rooted to be
+cured by the mere attempt to suppress the external manifestation.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_443'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_443'>[443]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Cf.</i> Ellen Key, <i>Century of the Child</i>, Ch. I. Hirth
+(<i>Wege zur Heimat</i>, p. 526) is likewise opposed to the encouragement of
+abortion, though he would not actually punish the pregnant woman who
+induces abortion. I would especially call attention to an able and cogent
+article by Anna Pappritz (&quot;Die Vernichtung des Keimenden Lebens,&quot;
+<i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, July, 1909) who argues that the woman is not the sole
+guardian of the embryo she bears, and that it is not in the interests of
+society, nor even in her own interests, that she should be free to destroy
+it at will. Anna Pappritz admits that the present barbarous laws in regard
+to abortion must be modified, but maintains that they should not be
+abolished. She proposes (1) a greatly reduced punishment for abortion; (2)
+this punishment to be extended to the father, whether married or unmarried
+(a provision already carried out in Norway, both for abortion and
+infanticide); (3) permission to the physician to effect abortion when
+there is good reason to suspect hereditary degeneration, as well as when
+the woman has been impregnated by force.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_444'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_444'>[444]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>Cf.</i> Dr. Max Hirsch, <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Jan., 1908, p.
+23.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_445'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_445'>[445]</a><div class='note'><p> Bausset (<i>op. cit.</i>) sets forth various social measures for
+the care of pregnant and child-bearing women, which would tend to lessen
+criminal abortion.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_446'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_446'>[446]</a><div class='note'><p> Gomperz, <i>Greek Thinkers</i>, vol. i, p. 564.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_447'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_447'>[447]</a><div class='note'><p> F. E. Daniel, President of the State Medical Association of
+Texas, &quot;Should Insane Criminals or Sexual Perverts be Allowed to
+Procreate?&quot; <i>Medico-legal Journal</i>, Dec., 1893; <i>id.</i>, &quot;The Cause and
+Prevention of Rape,&quot; <i>Texas Medical Journal</i>, May, 1904.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_448'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_448'>[448]</a><div class='note'><p> P. N&auml;cke, &quot;Die Kastration bei gewissen Klassen von
+Degenerirten als ein Wirksamer Socialer Schutz,&quot; <i>Archiv f&uuml;r
+Kriminal-Anthropologie</i>, Bd. III, 1899, p. 58; <i>id.</i> &quot;Kastration in
+Gewissen F&auml;llen von Geisteskrankheit,&quot; <i>Psychiatrisch-Neurologische
+Wochenschrift</i>, 1905, No. 29.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_449'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_449'>[449]</a><div class='note'><p> Angelo Zuccarelli, &quot;Asessualizzazione o sterilizzazione dei
+Degenerati,&quot; <i>L'Anomalo</i>, 1898-99, No. 6; <i>id.</i>, &quot;Sur la n&eacute;cessit&eacute; et sur
+les Moyens d'emp&ecirc;cher la R&eacute;production des Hommes les plus D&eacute;g&eacute;n&eacute;r&eacute;s,&quot;
+International Congress Criminal Anthropology, Amsterdam, 1901.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_450'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_450'>[450]</a><div class='note'><p> N&auml;cke, <i>Neurologisches Centralblatt</i>, March 1, 1909. The
+original account of these operations is reproduced in the
+<i>Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift</i>, No. 2, 1909, with an
+approving comment by the editor, Dr. Bresler. As regards castration in
+America, see Flood, &quot;Castration of Idiot Children,&quot; <i>American Journal
+Psychology</i>, Jan., 1899; also, <i>Alienist and Neurologist</i>, Aug., 1909, p.
+348.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_451'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_451'>[451]</a><div class='note'><p> It is probable that castration may prove especially
+advantageous in the case of the feeble-minded. &quot;In Somersetshire,&quot; says
+Tredgold (&quot;The Feeble-Mind as a Social Danger,&quot; <i>Eugenics Review</i>, July,
+1909), &quot;I found that out of a total number of 167 feeble-minded women,
+nearly two-fifths (61) had given birth to children, for the most part
+illegitimate. Moreover, it is not uncommon, but, rather the rule, for
+these poor girls to be admitted into the workhouse maternity wards again
+and again, and the average number of offspring to each one of them is
+probably three or four, although even six is not uncommon.&quot; In his work on
+<i>Mental Deficiency</i> (pp. 288-292) the same author shows that propagation
+by the mentally deficient is, in England, &quot;both a terrible and extensive
+evil.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_452'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_452'>[452]</a><div class='note'><p> This example is brought forward by Ledermann, &quot;Skin
+Diseases and Marriage,&quot; in Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_453'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_453'>[453]</a><div class='note'><p> I may here again refer to Lea's instructive <i>History of
+Sacerdotal Celibacy</i>.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_454'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_454'>[454]</a><div class='note'><p> In England, 35,000 applicants for admission to the navy are
+annually rejected, and although the physical requirements for enlistment
+in the army are nowadays extremely moderate, it is estimated by General
+Maurice that at least sixty per cent. of recruits and would-be recruits
+are dismissed as unfit. (See <i>e.g.</i>, William Coates, &quot;The Duty of the
+Medical Profession in the Prevention of National Deterioration,&quot; <i>British
+Medical Journal</i>, May 1, 1909.) It can scarcely be claimed that men who
+are not good enough for the army are good enough for the great task of
+creating the future race.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_455'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_455'>[455]</a><div class='note'><p> The recognition of epilepsy as a bar to procreation is not
+recent. There is said to be a record in the archives of the town of Lu&ccedil;on
+in which epilepsy was adjudged to be a valid reason for the cancellation
+of a betrothal (<i>British Medical Journal</i>, Feb. 14, 1903, p. 383).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_456'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_456'>[456]</a><div class='note'><p> <i>British Medical Journal</i>, April 14, 1906. In California
+and some other States, it appears that deceit regarding health is a ground
+for the annulment of marriage.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_457'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_457'>[457]</a><div class='note'><p> Sir F. Galton, <i>Inquiries Into Human Faculty</i>, Everyman's
+Library edition, pp. 211 <i>et seq.</i>; <i>cf.</i> Galton's collected <i>Essays in
+Eugenics</i>, recently published by the Eugenics Education Society.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_458'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_458'>[458]</a><div class='note'><p> For some account of the methods and results of the work in
+schools, see Bertram C. A. Windle, &quot;Anthropometric Work in Schools,&quot;
+<i>Medical Magazine</i>, Feb., 1894.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_459'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_459'>[459]</a><div class='note'><p> The most notable steps in this direction have been taken in
+Germany. For an account of the experiment at Karlsruhe, see <i>Die Neue
+Generation</i>, Dec., 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_460'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_460'>[460]</a><div class='note'><p> Wiethknudsen (as quoted in <i>Sexual-Probleme</i>, Dec., 1908,
+p. 837) speaks strongly, but not too strongly, concerning the folly of any
+indiscriminate endowment of procreation.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_461'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_461'>[461]</a><div class='note'><p> On the scientific side, in addition to the fruitful methods
+of statistical biometrics, which have already been mentioned, much promise
+attaches to work along the lines initiated by Mendel; see W. Bateson,
+<i>Mendel's Principles of Heredity</i>, 1909; also, W. H. Lock, <i>Recent Progress
+in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution</i>, and R. C. Punnett,
+<i>Mendelism</i>, 1907 (American edition, with interesting preface by Gaylord
+Wilshire, from the Socialistic point of view, 1909).</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_462'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_462'>[462]</a><div class='note'><p> The study of the right conditions for procreation is very
+ancient. In modern times we find that even the very first French medical
+book in the vulgar tongue, the <i>R&eacute;gime du Corps</i>, written by Alebrand of
+Florence (who was physician to the King of France), in 1256, is largely
+devoted to this matter, concerning which it gives much sound advice. See
+J. B. Soalhat, <i>Les Id&eacute;es de Maistre Alebrand de Florence sur la
+Pu&eacute;riculture</i>, Th&egrave;se de Paris, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_463'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_463'>[463]</a><div class='note'><p> Hesiod, <i>Works and Days</i>, II, 690-700.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_464'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_464'>[464]</a><div class='note'><p> This has long been the accepted opinion of medical
+authorities, as may be judged by the statements brought together two
+centuries ago by Schurig, <i>Parthenologia</i>, pp. 22-25.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_465'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_465'>[465]</a><div class='note'><p> The statement that, on the average, the best age for
+procreation in men is before, rather than after, forty, by no means
+assumes the existence of any &quot;critical&quot; age in men analogous to the
+menopause in women. This is sometimes asserted, but there is no agreement
+in regard to it. Restif de la Bretonne (<i>Monsieur Nicolas</i>, vol. x, p.
+176) said that at the age of forty delicacy of sentiment begins to go.
+F&uuml;rbringer believes (Senator and Kaminer, <i>Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage</i>, vol. i, p. 222) that there is a decisive turn in a man's
+life in the sixth decade, or the middle of the fifth, when desire and
+potency diminish. J. F. Sutherland also states (<i>Comptes-rendus Congr&egrave;s
+International de M&eacute;decine</i>, 1900, Section de Psychiatrie, p. 471) that
+there is, in men, about the fifty-fifth year, a change analogous to the
+menopause in women, but only in a certain proportion of men. It would
+appear that in most men the decline of sexual feeling and potency is very
+gradual, and at first manifests itself in increased power of control.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_466'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_466'>[466]</a><div class='note'><p> See, in vol. i, the study of &quot;The Phenomena of Sexual
+Periodicity.&quot;</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_467'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_467'>[467]</a><div class='note'><p> Among animals, also, spring litters are often said to be
+the best.</p></div>
+
+<a name='6_Footnote_468'></a><a href='#6_FNanchor_468'>[468]</a><div class='note'><p> Bossi's results are summarized in <i>Archives d'Anthropologie
+Criminelle</i>, Sept., 1891. Alebrand of Florence, the French King's
+physician in the thirteenth century, also advised intercourse a day after
+the end of menstruation.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_POSTSCRIPT'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_639'></a>POSTSCRIPT.</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>&quot;The work that I was born to do is done,&quot; a great poet wrote when at last
+he had completed his task. And although I am not entitled to sing any
+<i>Nunc dimittis</i>, I am well aware that the task that has occupied the best
+part of my life can have left few years and little strength for any work
+that comes after. It is more than thirty years ago since the first resolve
+to write the work now here concluded began to shape itself, still dimly
+though insistently; the period of study and preparation occupied over
+fifteen years, ending with the publication of <i>Man and Woman</i>, put forward
+as a prolegomenon to the main work which, in the writing and publication,
+has occupied the fifteen subsequent years.</p>
+
+<p>It was perhaps fortunate for my peace that I failed at the outset to
+foresee all the perils that beset my path. I knew indeed that those who
+investigate severely and intimately any subject which men are accustomed
+to pass by on the other side lay themselves open to misunderstanding and
+even obloquy. But I supposed that a secluded student who approached vital
+social problems with precaution, making no direct appeal to the general
+public, but only to the public's teachers, and who wrapped up the results
+of his inquiries in technically written volumes open to few, I supposed
+that such a student was at all events secure from any gross form of attack
+on the part of the police or the government under whose protection he
+imagined that he lived. That proved to be a mistake. When only one volume
+of these <i>Studies</i> had been written and published in England, a
+prosecution, <a name='6_Page_640'></a>instigated by the government, put an end to the sale of that
+volume in England, and led me to resolve that the subsequent volumes
+should not be published in my own country. I do not complain. I am
+grateful for the early and generous sympathy with which my work was
+received in Germany and the United States, and I recognize that it has had
+a wider circulation, both in English and the other chief languages of the
+world, than would have been possible by the modest method of issue which
+the government of my own country induced me to abandon. Nor has the effort
+to crush my work resulted in any change in that work by so much as a
+single word. With help, or without it, I have followed my own path to the
+end.</p>
+
+<p>For it so happens that I come on both sides of my house from stocks of
+Englishmen who, nearly three hundred years ago, had encountered just these
+same difficulties and dangers before. In the seventeenth century, indeed,
+the battle was around the problem of religion, as to-day it is around the
+problem of sex. Since I have of late years realized this analogy I have
+often thought of certain admirable and obscure men who were driven out,
+robbed, and persecuted, some by the Church because the spirit of
+Puritanism moved within them, some by the Puritans because they clung to
+the ideals of the Church, yet both alike quiet and unflinching, both alike
+fighting for causes of freedom or of order in a field which has now for
+ever been won. That victory has often seemed of good augury to the perhaps
+degenerate child of these men who has to-day sought to maintain the causes
+of freedom and of order in another field.</p>
+
+<p>It sometimes seems, indeed, a hopeless task to move the pressure of inert
+prejudices which are at no point so <a name='6_Page_641'></a>obstinate as this of sex. It may help
+to restore the serenity of our optimism if we would more clearly realize
+that in a very few generations all these prejudices will have perished and
+be forgotten. He who follows in the steps of Nature after a law that was
+not made by man, and is above and beyond man, has time as well as eternity
+on his side, and can afford to be both patient and fearless. Men die, but
+the ideas they seek to kill live. Our books may be thrown to the flames,
+but in the next generation those flames become human souls. The
+transformation is effected by the doctor in his consulting room, by the
+teacher in the school, the preacher in the pulpit, the journalist in the
+press. It is a transformation that is going on, slowly but surely, around
+us.</p>
+
+<p>I am well aware that many will not feel able to accept the estimate of the
+sexual situation as here set forth, more especially in the final volume.
+Some will consider that estimate too conservative, others too
+revolutionary. For there are always some who passionately seek to hold
+fast to the past; there are always others who passionately seek to snatch
+at what they imagine to be the future. But the wise man, standing midway
+between both parties and sympathizing with each, knows that we are ever in
+the stage of transition. The present is in every age merely the shifting
+point at which past and future meet, and we can have no quarrel with
+either. There can be no world without traditions; neither can there be any
+life without movement. As Heracleitus knew at the outset of modern
+philosophy, we cannot bathe twice in the same stream, though, as we know
+to-day, the stream still flows in an unending circle. There is never a
+moment when the new dawn is not breaking over the earth, and never a
+moment when the sunset ceases to die.<a name='6_Page_642'></a> It is well to greet serenely even
+the first glimmer of the dawn when we see it, not hastening towards it
+with undue speed, nor leaving the sunset without gratitude for the dying
+light that once was dawn.</p>
+
+<p>In the moral world we are ourselves the light-bearers, and the cosmic
+process is in us made flesh. For a brief space it is granted to us, if we
+will, to enlighten the darkness that surrounds our path. As in the ancient
+torch-race, which seemed to Lucretius to be the symbol of all life, we
+press forward torch in hand along the course. Soon from behind comes the
+runner who will outpace us. All our skill lies in giving into his hand the
+living torch, bright and unflickering, as we ourselves disappear in the
+darkness.</p>
+
+<p>HAVELOCK ELLIS.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_INDEX_OF_AUTHORS'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_643'></a>INDEX OF AUTHORS.</h2>
+
+
+<ul><li>Abdias, <a href='#6_Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+<li>Achery, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#6_Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+<li>Acton, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#6_Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+<li>Adam, Mme., <a href='#6_Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#6_Page_411'>411</a>, <a href='#6_Page_465'>465</a>.</li>
+<li>Adler, Felix, <a href='#6_Page_485'>485</a>.</li>
+<li>Adler, O., <a href='#6_Page_523'>523</a>, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>, <a href='#6_Page_527'>527</a>, <a href='#6_Page_546'>546</a>.</li>
+<li>Adner, <a href='#6_Page_456'>456</a>.</li>
+<li>Aguilaniedo, <a href='#6_Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#6_Page_305'>305</a>.</li>
+<li>Alebrand, <a href='#6_Page_633'>633</a>, <a href='#6_Page_638'>638</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexander, Dr. H., <a href='#6_Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li>
+<li>Alexandre, Alcide, <a href='#6_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>All&eacute;e, A., <a href='#6_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Allen, L. M., <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>Allen, Mary W., <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+<li>Ambrose, St., <a href='#6_Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+<li>Am&eacute;lineau, <a href='#6_Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+<li>Ammon, <a href='#6_Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+<li>Amram, D. W., <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>.</li>
+<li>Angela de Fulginio, <a href='#6_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Angus, H. C., <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#6_Page_515'>515</a>.</li>
+<li>Anstie, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#6_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#6_Page_189'>189</a>.</li>
+<li>Aquinas, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#6_Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#6_Page_283'>283</a>.</li>
+<li>Ardu, <a href='#6_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Arendt, Henrietta, <a href='#6_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Aretino, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>.</li>
+<li>Aristotle, <a href='#6_Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#6_Page_604'>604</a>.</li>
+<li>Aronstam, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Ascarilla, <a href='#6_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Aschaffenburg, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+<li>Astengo, <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>.</li>
+<li>Astor, Mary, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Astruc, <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+<li>Athanasius, <a href='#6_Page_128'>128</a>.</li>
+<li>Athen&aelig;us, <a href='#6_Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>.</li>
+<li>Audry, <a href='#6_Page_327'>327</a>.</li>
+<li>Augagneur, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>.</li>
+<li>Augustine, St., <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#6_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#6_Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#6_Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#6_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#6_Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#6_Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#6_Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#6_Page_282'>282</a>, <a href='#6_Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#6_Page_604'>604</a>.</li>
+<li>Aurientis, <a href='#6_Page_347'>347</a>.</li>
+<li>Ayala, <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Bacchimont, <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>.</li>
+<li>Bachaumont, <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li>
+<li>Badley, J. H., <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+<li>Baelz, <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>Baer, K. M., <a href='#6_Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+<li>Baker, Smith, <a href='#6_Page_459'>459</a>, <a href='#6_Page_521'>521</a>.</li>
+<li>Balestrini, <a href='#6_Page_604'>604</a>, <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>, <a href='#6_Page_610'>610</a>.</li>
+<li>Ballantyne, Dr., <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#6_Page_584'>584</a>, <a href='#6_Page_605'>605</a>.</li>
+<li>Ballantyne, Miss H., <a href='#6_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Balls-Headley, <a href='#6_Page_188'>188</a>.</li>
+<li>Balzac, <a href='#6_Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>, <a href='#6_Page_539'>539</a>.</li>
+<li>Bangs, L. B., <a href='#6_Page_551'>551</a>.</li>
+<li>Bartels, Max, <a href='#6_Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#6_Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+<li>Basedow, <a href='#6_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Basil, St., <a href='#6_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>Bateson, <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>, <a href='#6_Page_630'>630</a>.</li>
+<li>Baumgarten, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_274'>274</a>.</li>
+<li>Bausset, <a href='#6_Page_605'>605</a>, <a href='#6_Page_611'>611</a>.</li>
+<li>Bax, Belfort, <a href='#6_Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#6_Page_474'>474</a>.</li>
+<li>Bazan, Emilia Pardo, <a href='#6_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Beadnell, C. M., <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>Beddoes, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#6_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Bedolli&egrave;re, <a href='#6_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#6_Page_462'>462</a>, <a href='#6_Page_517'>517</a>.</li>
+<li>Bell, Sanford, <a href='#6_Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#6_Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>.</li>
+<li>Benecke, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+<li>Benedikt, <a href='#6_Page_537'>537</a>.</li>
+<li>Bentzon, Mme., <a href='#6_Page_519'>519</a>.</li>
+<li>B&eacute;rault, G., <a href='#6_Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#6_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>Berg, Leo, <a href='#6_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>Bernard, St., <a href='#6_Page_119'>119</a>.</li>
+<li>Berry, F., <a href='#6_Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+<li>Bertherand, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Bertillon, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Besant, Mrs., <a href='#6_Page_446'>446</a>.</li>
+<li>Beza, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#6_Page_442'>442</a>.</li>
+<li>Bierhoff, <a href='#6_Page_333'>333</a>.</li>
+<li>Birnbaum, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>.</li>
+<li>Bishop, G. P., <a href='#6_Page_448'>448</a>, <a href='#6_Page_452'>452</a>, <a href='#6_Page_478'>478</a>.</li>
+<li>Bishop, Mrs., <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>Blacker, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>, <a href='#6_Page_597'>597</a>.</li>
+<li>Blake, William, <a href='#6_Page_86'>86</a>, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#6_Page_144'>144</a>.</li>
+<li>Blandford, <a href='#6_Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#6_Page_597'>597</a>.</li>
+<li>Blaschko, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#6_Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Bloch, Iwan,
+<ul><li> <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#6_Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#6_Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#6_Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#6_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#6_Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#6_Page_291'>291</a>, <a href='#6_Page_301'>301</a>, </li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#6_Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#6_Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#6_Page_323'>323</a>, <a href='#6_Page_332'>332</a>, <a href='#6_Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#6_Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#6_Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#6_Page_416'>416</a>, <a href='#6_Page_457'>457</a>, <a href='#6_Page_464'>464</a>, <a href='#6_Page_496'>496</a>, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>, </li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>, <a href='#6_Page_517'>517</a>, <a href='#6_Page_530'>530</a>, <a href='#6_Page_545'>545</a>, <a href='#6_Page_557'>557</a>, <a href='#6_Page_562'>562</a>, <a href='#6_Page_569'>569</a>, <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bluhm, Agnes, <a href='#6_Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+<li>Blumreich, <a href='#6_Page_552'>552</a>.</li>
+<li>Boccaccio, <a href='#6_Page_514'>514</a>.</li>
+<li>Bohier, <a href='#6_Page_533'>533</a>.</li>
+<li>Bois, Jules, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>Boissier, de Sauvages, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>.</li>
+<li>Bollinger, <a href='#6_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>B&ouml;lsche, <a href='#6_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonger, <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#6_Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#6_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>Bongi, S., <a href='#6_Page_245'>245</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonhoeffer, <a href='#6_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>Boniface, St., <a href='#6_Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonnifield, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+<li>Bonstetten, <a href='#6_Page_136'>136</a>.</li>
+<li>Booth, C., <a href='#6_Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#6_Page_303'>303</a>, <a href='#6_Page_388'>388</a>.</li>
+<li>Booth, D. S., <a href='#6_Page_551'>551</a>.</li>
+<li>Bossi, <a href='#6_Page_638'>638</a>.</li>
+<li>Bouchacourt, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#6_Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#6_Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+<li>Bougainville, <a href='#6_Page_149'>149</a>.</li>
+<li>Bourget, <a href='#6_Page_79'>79</a>.</li>
+<li>Bouvier, <a href='#6_Page_590'>590</a>.</li>
+<li>Boyle, F., <a href='#6_Page_105'>105</a>.</li>
+<li>Brachet, <a href='#6_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Braun, Lily, <a href='#6_Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#6_Page_400'>400</a>.</li>
+<li>Br&eacute;nier de Montmorand, <a href='#6_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Br&eacute;not, H., <a href='#6_Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+<li>Breuer, <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>.</li>
+<li>Brieux, <a href='#6_Page_357'>357</a>.</li>
+<li>Brinton, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>Brouardel, <a href='#6_Page_601'>601</a>, <a href='#6_Page_602'>602</a>.</li>
+<li>Brougham Lord, <a href='#6_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Brown, Dr. Charlotte, <a href='#6_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>Bruns, Ivo, <a href='#6_Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+<li>Brynmor-Jones, <a href='#6_Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>Bucer, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>.</li>
+<li>Budge, A. W., <a href='#6_Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+<li>Buffon, <a href='#6_Page_143'>143</a>.<a name='6_Page_644'></a></li>
+<li>Bulkley, D., <a href='#6_Page_339'>339</a>.</li>
+<li>B&uuml;ller, <a href='#6_Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+<li>Bumm, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>.</li>
+<li>Bunge, <a href='#6_Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+<li>Burchard, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#6_Page_537'>537</a>.</li>
+<li>Burdach, <a href='#6_Page_559'>559</a>.</li>
+<li>Buret, <a href='#6_Page_321'>321</a>.</li>
+<li>Burnet, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a>.</li>
+<li>Burton, Sir R., <a href='#6_Page_381'>381</a>.</li>
+<li>Burton, Robert, <a href='#6_Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#6_Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#6_Page_284'>284</a>, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>.</li>
+<li>Busch, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#6_Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#6_Page_559'>559</a>.</li>
+<li>Bushee, <a href='#6_Page_593'>593</a>.</li>
+<li>Butler, G., <a href='#6_Page_43'>43</a>.</li>
+<li>Butterfield, <a href='#6_Page_208'>208</a>.</li>
+<li>Byers, <a href='#6_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Cabanis, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>.</li>
+<li>Caird, Mona, <a href='#6_Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#6_Page_471'>471</a>.</li>
+<li>Callari, <a href='#6_Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+<li>Calvin, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#6_Page_442'>442</a>.</li>
+<li>Calza, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>.</li>
+<li>Canudo, <a href='#6_Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+<li>Capitaine, <a href='#6_Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#6_Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+<li>Caron, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a>.</li>
+<li>Carpenter, Edward, <a href='#6_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#6_Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#6_Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#6_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#6_Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>.</li>
+<li>Casanova, <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li>
+<li>Caspari, <a href='#6_Page_464'>464</a>.</li>
+<li>Cataneus, <a href='#6_Page_321'>321</a>.</li>
+<li>Cattell, J. McKeen, <a href='#6_Page_210'>210</a>.</li>
+<li>Caufeynon, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+<li>Cazalis, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Chaignon, <a href='#6_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Chambers, E. K., <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>Chambers, W. G., <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Chapman, G., <a href='#6_Page_437'>437</a>.</li>
+<li>Chapman, J., <a href='#6_Page_501'>501</a>.</li>
+<li>Cheetham, <a href='#6_Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+<li>Cheng, Mme., <a href='#6_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>Cheyne, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>Child, May, <a href='#6_Page_427'>427</a>.</li>
+<li>Chotzen, M., <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Chrysostom, <a href='#6_Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#6_Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#6_Page_154'>154</a>.</li>
+<li>Cicero, <a href='#6_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>Ciuffo, <a href='#6_Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+<li>Clapperton, Miss, <a href='#6_Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#6_Page_487'>487</a>, <a href='#6_Page_565'>565</a>, <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>.</li>
+<li>Clappier, <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#6_Page_12'>12</a>.</li>
+<li>Clarke, <a href='#6_Page_67'>67</a>.</li>
+<li>Clement of Alexandria, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#6_Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#6_Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#6_Page_509'>509</a>.</li>
+<li>Clement E., <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>Cleveland, C., <a href='#6_Page_356'>356</a>.</li>
+<li>Clouston, <a href='#6_Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#6_Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#6_Page_562'>562</a>, <a href='#6_Page_628'>628</a>.</li>
+<li>Coates, W., <a href='#6_Page_624'>624</a>.</li>
+<li>Codrington, R. W., <a href='#6_Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+<li>Coghlan, <a href='#6_Page_385'>385</a>.</li>
+<li>Colombey, <a href='#6_Page_247'>247</a>.</li>
+<li>Coltman, <a href='#6_Page_236'>236</a>, <a href='#6_Page_237'>237</a>.</li>
+<li>Commenge, <a href='#6_Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#6_Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+<li>Cook, G. W., <a href='#6_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Cook, Capt. J., <a href='#6_Page_149'>149</a>, <a href='#6_Page_226'>226</a>.</li>
+<li>Cooper, A., <a href='#6_Page_631'>631</a>.</li>
+<li>Cope, E. D., <a href='#6_Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#6_Page_472'>472</a>, <a href='#6_Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#6_Page_511'>511</a>.</li>
+<li>Correa, Roman, <a href='#6_Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+<li>Coryat, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>.</li>
+<li>Crackanthorpe, <a href='#6_Page_579'>579</a>, <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>.</li>
+<li>Cranmer, <a href='#6_Page_443'>443</a>.</li>
+<li>Crawley, A. E., <a href='#6_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#6_Page_371'>371</a>, <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#6_Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#6_Page_435'>435</a>.</li>
+<li>Crocker, <a href='#6_Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+<li>Curr, <a href='#6_Page_390'>390</a>.</li>
+<li>Gushing, W., <a href='#6_Page_331'>331</a>.</li>
+<li>Cyples, <a href='#6_Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Daniel, F. E., <a href='#6_Page_614'>614</a>.</li>
+<li>Dareste, <a href='#6_Page_18'>18</a>.</li>
+<li>Dargun, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>.</li>
+<li>Darmesteter, J., <a href='#6_Page_236'>236</a>.</li>
+<li>Darricarr&egrave;re, <a href='#6_Page_609'>609</a>.</li>
+<li>Darwin, <a href='#6_Page_565'>565</a>.</li>
+<li>Daudet, A., <a href='#6_Page_45'>45</a>.</li>
+<li>D'Aulnoy, Mme., <a href='#6_Page_560'>560</a>.</li>
+<li>Daya, W., <a href='#6_Page_385'>385</a>.</li>
+<li>Debreyne, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>D'Enjoy, Paul, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>, <a href='#6_Page_490'>490</a>.</li>
+<li>Dens, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>Deodhar, Mrs. Kashibai, <a href='#6_Page_306'>306</a>.</li>
+<li>Descartes, <a href='#6_Page_563'>563</a>.</li>
+<li>Despine, <a href='#6_Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+<li>Despr&eacute;s, <a href='#6_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#6_Page_264'>264</a>, <a href='#6_Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#6_Page_381'>381</a>.</li>
+<li>Dessoir, Max, <a href='#6_Page_557'>557</a>.</li>
+<li>Diaz de Isla, <a href='#6_Page_323'>323</a>.</li>
+<li>Diday, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Diderot, <a href='#6_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#6_Page_491'>491</a>, <a href='#6_Page_527'>527</a>.</li>
+<li>Digby, Sir K., <a href='#6_Page_164'>164</a>.</li>
+<li>Dill, <a href='#6_Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#6_Page_373'>373</a>, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Dluska, Mme., <a href='#6_Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+<li>Dodd, Catherine, <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Dol&eacute;ris, <a href='#6_Page_603'>603</a>.</li>
+<li>Donaldson, Principal, <a href='#6_Page_308'>308</a>, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>, <a href='#6_Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#6_Page_399'>399</a>.</li>
+<li>Donnay, <a href='#6_Page_136'>136</a>.</li>
+<li>Drysdale, C. R., <a href='#6_Page_345'>345</a>, <a href='#6_Page_595'>595</a>, <a href='#6_Page_596'>596</a>.</li>
+<li>Drysdale, G., <a href='#6_Page_595'>595</a>.</li>
+<li>Duclaux, <a href='#6_Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#6_Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#6_Page_340'>340</a>, <a href='#6_Page_341'>341</a>, <a href='#6_Page_346'>346</a>, <a href='#6_Page_628'>628</a>.</li>
+<li>D&uuml;hren, <i>see</i> Bloch, Iwan.</li>
+<li>Dufour, P., <a href='#6_Page_239'>239</a>, <a href='#6_Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#6_Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+<li>Dukes, <a href='#6_Page_627'>627</a>.</li>
+<li>Dulaure, <a href='#6_Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#6_Page_232'>232</a>.</li>
+<li>Dulberg, <a href='#6_Page_331'>331</a>.</li>
+<li>Dumas, G., <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>.</li>
+<li>Duncan, Matthews, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>, <a href='#6_Page_577'>577</a>, <a href='#6_Page_636'>636</a>.</li>
+<li>Dunnett, <a href='#6_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+<li>Dunning, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>.</li>
+<li>Dupouey, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+<li>Durkheim, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_435'>435</a>.</li>
+<li>Durlacher, <a href='#6_Page_605'>605</a>.</li>
+<li>Dyer, I., <a href='#6_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#6_Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#6_Page_353'>353</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Edgar, J. Clifton, <a href='#6_Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+<li>Egbert, S., <a href='#6_Page_353'>353</a>.</li>
+<li>Ehrenfels, C. von, <a href='#6_Page_502'>502</a>, <a href='#6_Page_619'>619</a>.</li>
+<li>Elliot, G. F. S., <a href='#6_Page_97'>97</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellis, Sir A. B., <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#6_Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+<li>Ellis, Havelock,
+<ul><li>    <a href='#6_Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#6_Page_73'>73</a>, <a href='#6_Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#6_Page_85'>85</a>, <a href='#6_Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#6_Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#6_Page_214'>214</a>, <a href='#6_Page_415'>415</a>, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>, <a href='#6_Page_529'>529</a>,</li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>, <a href='#6_Page_593'>593</a>, <a href='#6_Page_628'>628</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ellis, William, <a href='#6_Page_149'>149</a>.</li>
+<li>Elmy, Ben., <i>see</i> Ethelmer, Ellis.</li>
+<li>Enderlin, Max, <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#6_Page_91'>91</a>, <a href='#6_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#6_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Engelmann, <a href='#6_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#6_Page_76'>76</a>.</li>
+<li>Ennius, <a href='#6_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>Enzensberger, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>.</li>
+<li>Erb, <a href='#6_Page_193'>193</a>, <a href='#6_Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#6_Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>.</li>
+<li>Erhard, F., <a href='#6_Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#6_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>Escherich, <a href='#6_Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+<li>Esmein, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#6_Page_433'>433</a>, <a href='#6_Page_438'>438</a>, <a href='#6_Page_442'>442</a>.</li>
+<li>Espy de Metz, <a href='#6_Page_358'>358</a>.</li>
+<li>Ethelmer, Ellis, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#6_Page_521'>521</a>.</li>
+<li>Eulenburg, <a href='#6_Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>, <a href='#6_Page_546'>546</a>.</li>
+<li>Evans, Mrs. Grainger, <a href='#6_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Farnell, <a href='#6_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#6_Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+<li>Farrer, R. T., <a href='#6_Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+<li>Federow, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferdy, H., <a href='#6_Page_590'>590</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>, <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li>
+<li>F&eacute;r&eacute;, <a href='#6_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_208'>208</a>, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>.<a name='6_Page_645'></a></li>
+<li>Ferrand, <a href='#6_Page_164'>164</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferrero, G., <a href='#6_Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#6_Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#6_Page_414'>414</a>.</li>
+<li>Ferriani, <a href='#6_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#6_Page_290'>290</a>.</li>
+<li>Fiaschi, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Fiaux, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Fielding, <a href='#6_Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#6_Page_427'>427</a>.</li>
+<li>Finger, <a href='#6_Page_334'>334</a>.</li>
+<li>Fischer, W., <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+<li>Fitchett, <a href='#6_Page_407'>407</a>.</li>
+<li>Flesch, Max, <a href='#6_Page_205'>205</a>, <a href='#6_Page_352'>352</a>, <a href='#6_Page_609'>609</a>.</li>
+<li>Flogel, <a href='#6_Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+<li>Flood, <a href='#6_Page_615'>615</a>.</li>
+<li>Forberg, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>.</li>
+<li>Forel, <a href='#6_Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#6_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#6_Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#6_Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#6_Page_519'>519</a>, <a href='#6_Page_524'>524</a>, <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#6_Page_565'>565</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li>
+<li>Fornasari, <a href='#6_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>Fothergill, J. M., <a href='#6_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Fouquet, <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+<li>Fournier, <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>, <a href='#6_Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#6_Page_339'>339</a>, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Fox, G., <a href='#6_Page_446'>446</a>.</li>
+<li>Fracastorus, <a href='#6_Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#6_Page_335'>335</a>.</li>
+<li>Fraser, Mrs., <a href='#6_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>Frazer, J. G., <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#6_Page_231'>231</a>, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>.</li>
+<li>Freeman, <a href='#6_Page_440'>440</a>.</li>
+<li>French, H. C., <a href='#6_Page_327'>327</a>.</li>
+<li>Freud, <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#6_Page_42'>42</a>, <a href='#6_Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#6_Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#6_Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#6_Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#6_Page_524'>524</a>, <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>, <a href='#6_Page_555'>555</a>.</li>
+<li>Friedjung, <a href='#6_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Friedl&auml;nder, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Fuchs, N., <a href='#6_Page_404'>404</a>.</li>
+<li>Funk, W., <a href='#6_Page_356'>356</a>.</li>
+<li>F&uuml;rbringer, <a href='#6_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>, <a href='#6_Page_527'>527</a>, <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#6_Page_552'>552</a>, <a href='#6_Page_555'>555</a>, <a href='#6_Page_559'>559</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>F&uuml;rth, Henriette, <a href='#6_Page_52'>52</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Gache, <a href='#6_Page_635'>635</a>.</li>
+<li>Gaedeken, <a href='#6_Page_382'>382</a>.</li>
+<li>Gallard, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>.</li>
+<li>Galton, Sir F., <a href='#6_Page_580'>580</a>, <a href='#6_Page_582'>582</a>, <a href='#6_Page_583'>583</a>, <a href='#6_Page_618'>618</a>, <a href='#6_Page_626'>626</a>.</li>
+<li>Gardiner, J. S., <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>Garrison, C. G., <a href='#6_Page_475'>475</a>, <a href='#6_Page_478'>478</a>, <a href='#6_Page_481'>481</a>.</li>
+<li>Gaultier, J. de, <a href='#6_Page_171'>171</a>, <a href='#6_Page_371'>371</a>.</li>
+<li>Gautier, L., <a href='#6_Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>.</li>
+<li>Geary, N., <a href='#6_Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#6_Page_348'>348</a>, <a href='#6_Page_440'>440</a>, <a href='#6_Page_477'>477</a>.</li>
+<li>Gennep, A. Van, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>G&eacute;rard, <a href='#6_Page_633'>633</a>.</li>
+<li>Gerhard, Adele, <a href='#6_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Gerhard, W., <a href='#6_Page_106'>106</a>.</li>
+<li>Gerson, A., <a href='#6_Page_216'>216</a>, <a href='#6_Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#6_Page_413'>413</a>, <a href='#6_Page_494'>494</a>.</li>
+<li>Gesell, <a href='#6_Page_563'>563</a>.</li>
+<li>Gibb, W. T., <a href='#6_Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#6_Page_337'>337</a>.</li>
+<li>Gibbon, <a href='#6_Page_150'>150</a>.</li>
+<li>Giles, A. E., <a href='#6_Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+<li>Giles, H. A., <a href='#6_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>Gillard, E., <a href='#6_Page_566'>566</a>.</li>
+<li>Gillen, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_533'>533</a>, <a href='#6_Page_576'>576</a>.</li>
+<li>Gilles de la Tourette, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>.</li>
+<li>Ginnell, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>Giuffrida-Ruggeri, <a href='#6_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Gl&uuml;ck, L., <a href='#6_Page_321'>321</a>.</li>
+<li>Godard, <a href='#6_Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+<li>Godfrey, J. A., <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#6_Page_211'>211</a>, <a href='#6_Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#6_Page_423'>423</a>, <a href='#6_Page_425'>425</a>, <a href='#6_Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#6_Page_447'>447</a>.</li>
+<li>Godwin, W., <a href='#6_Page_483'>483</a>.</li>
+<li>Goethe, <a href='#6_Page_472'>472</a>.</li>
+<li>Gomperz, <a href='#6_Page_612'>612</a>.</li>
+<li>Goncourt, <a href='#6_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#6_Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#6_Page_309'>309</a>, <a href='#6_Page_356'>356</a>.</li>
+<li>Goodchild, F. M., <a href='#6_Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#6_Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Goring, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li>
+<li>Gottheil, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+<li>Gottschling, <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>Gourmont, Remy de, <a href='#6_Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#6_Page_540'>540</a>, <a href='#6_Page_555'>555</a>.</li>
+<li>Graef, R. de, <a href='#6_Page_120'>120</a>.</li>
+<li>Graf, A., <a href='#6_Page_244'>244</a>.</li>
+<li>Grandin, <a href='#6_Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#6_Page_353'>353</a>.</li>
+<li>Green, C. M., <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>.</li>
+<li>Gregory the Great, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+<li>Gregory of Nazianzen, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>Gregory of Nyssa, <a href='#6_Page_126'>126</a>.</li>
+<li>Gregory of Tours, <a href='#6_Page_159'>159</a>, <a href='#6_Page_399'>399</a>.</li>
+<li>Gregory M., <a href='#6_Page_492'>492</a>.</li>
+<li>Griesinger, <a href='#6_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Gross, <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#6_Page_572'>572</a>.</li>
+<li>Gross, H., <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>.</li>
+<li>Grosse, <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a>.</li>
+<li>Gulick, L. H., <a href='#6_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>Gurlitt, L., <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#6_Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+<li>Gury, <a href='#6_Page_414'>414</a>.</li>
+<li>Guttceit, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>, <a href='#6_Page_537'>537</a>, <a href='#6_Page_541'>541</a>, <a href='#6_Page_637'>637</a>.</li>
+<li>Guyau, <a href='#6_Page_85'>85</a>.</li>
+<li>Guyot, <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#6_Page_539'>539</a>, <a href='#6_Page_545'>545</a>.</li>
+<li>Gyurkovechky, <a href='#6_Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#6_Page_202'>202</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Haddon, A. C., <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Hagelstange, <a href='#6_Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a>.</li>
+<li>Hale, <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a>.</li>
+<li>Hall, A., <a href='#6_Page_603'>603</a>.</li>
+<li>Hall, Stanley, <a href='#6_Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#6_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#6_Page_67'>67</a>, <a href='#6_Page_82'>82</a>, <a href='#6_Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+<li>Hall, W., <a href='#6_Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#6_Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+<li>Haller, <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>.</li>
+<li>Hamilton, A., <a href='#6_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>Hammer, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#6_Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#6_Page_272'>272</a>, <a href='#6_Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+<li>Hammond, W. A., <a href='#6_Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>, <a href='#6_Page_612'>612</a>.</li>
+<li>Hamon, A., <a href='#6_Page_603'>603</a>.</li>
+<li>Hard, Hedwig, <a href='#6_Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#6_Page_296'>296</a>.</li>
+<li>Hardy, Thomas, <a href='#6_Page_529'>529</a>.</li>
+<li>Harris, A., <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+<li>Harrison, F., <a href='#6_Page_94'>94</a>.</li>
+<li>Hartland, E. S., <a href='#6_Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+<li>Harwood, W. L., <a href='#6_Page_331'>331</a>.</li>
+<li>Haskovec, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Haslam, J., <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#6_Page_588'>588</a>.</li>
+<li>Hausmeister, P., <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+<li>Havelburg, <a href='#6_Page_320'>320</a>.</li>
+<li>Hawkesworth, <a href='#6_Page_227'>227</a>.</li>
+<li>Haycraft, <a href='#6_Page_581'>581</a>, <a href='#6_Page_584'>584</a>.</li>
+<li>Hayes, P. J., <a href='#6_Page_439'>439</a>.</li>
+<li>Haynes, E. S. P., <a href='#6_Page_434'>434</a>.</li>
+<li>Hegar, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>.</li>
+<li>Heidenhain, A., <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Heidingsfeld, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>.</li>
+<li>Heimann, <a href='#6_Page_545'>545</a>.</li>
+<li>Hellmann, <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#6_Page_122'>122</a>, <a href='#6_Page_300'>300</a>.</li>
+<li>Hellpach, <a href='#6_Page_168'>168</a>, <a href='#6_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#6_Page_306'>306</a>.</li>
+<li>Helme, T. A., <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>Helv&eacute;tius, <a href='#6_Page_139'>139</a>.</li>
+<li>Herbert, Auberon, <a href='#6_Page_470'>470</a>.</li>
+<li>Herman, G., <a href='#6_Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+<li>Hermant, A., <a href='#6_Page_300'>300</a>.</li>
+<li>Herodotus, <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#6_Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#6_Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a>.</li>
+<li>Heron, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li>
+<li>Hesiod, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>, <a href='#6_Page_633'>633</a>.</li>
+<li>Hiller, <a href='#6_Page_609'>609</a>.</li>
+<li>Hinton, <a href='#6_Page_111'>111</a>, <a href='#6_Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#6_Page_116'>116</a>, <a href='#6_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#6_Page_144'>144</a>, <a href='#6_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#6_Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#6_Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#6_Page_315'>315</a>, <a href='#6_Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#6_Page_445'>445</a>, <a href='#6_Page_492'>492</a>, <a href='#6_Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#6_Page_539'>539</a>, <a href='#6_Page_570'>570</a>.</li>
+<li>Hirsch, Max, <a href='#6_Page_611'>611</a>.</li>
+<li>Hirschfeld, Magnus, <a href='#6_Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#6_Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#6_Page_273'>273</a>, <a href='#6_Page_456'>456</a>.</li>
+<li>Hirth, G., <a href='#6_Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#6_Page_496'>496</a>, <a href='#6_Page_521'>521</a>, <a href='#6_Page_522'>522</a>, <a href='#6_Page_551'>551</a>, <a href='#6_Page_569'>569</a>.</li>
+<li>Hobhouse, L. T., <a href='#6_Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#6_Page_396'>396</a>, <a href='#6_Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#6_Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#6_Page_408'>408</a>, <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#6_Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a>, <a href='#6_Page_460'>460</a>, <a href='#6_Page_470'>470</a>, <a href='#6_Page_480'>480</a>.</li>
+<li>Hobson, J. A., <a href='#6_Page_410'>410</a>.</li>
+<li>Hoffmann, E., <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+<li>Holbach, <a href='#6_Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#6_Page_425'>425</a>.</li>
+<li>Holder, A. B., <a href='#6_Page_323'>323</a>.<a name='6_Page_646'></a></li>
+<li>Holmes, T., <a href='#6_Page_378'>378</a>.</li>
+<li>Holt, R. B., <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>, <a href='#6_Page_498'>498</a>.</li>
+<li>Hopkins, Ellice, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>.</li>
+<li>Hort, <a href='#6_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Houzel, <a href='#6_Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+<li>Howard, G. B., <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a>, <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#6_Page_436'>436</a>, <a href='#6_Page_440'>440</a>, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#6_Page_446'>446</a>, <a href='#6_Page_448'>448</a>, <a href='#6_Page_451'>451</a>, <a href='#6_Page_464'>464</a>, <a href='#6_Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#6_Page_477'>477</a>, <a href='#6_Page_506'>506</a>, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>.</li>
+<li>Howitt, A. W., <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>.</li>
+<li>Hudrey-Menos, J., <a href='#6_Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+<li>Hughes, C. H., <a href='#6_Page_584'>584</a>.</li>
+<li>Humboldt, W. Von, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#6_Page_444'>444</a>, <a href='#6_Page_463'>463</a>.</li>
+<li>Hutchinson, Sir J., <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>.</li>
+<li>Hutchinson, Woods, <a href='#6_Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#6_Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#6_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#6_Page_276'>276</a>, <a href='#6_Page_286'>286</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#6_Page_299'>299</a>, <a href='#6_Page_410'>410</a>, <a href='#6_Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#6_Page_468'>468</a>.</li>
+<li>Hyde, J. N., <a href='#6_Page_104'>104</a>.</li>
+<li>Hyrtl, <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Inderwick, <a href='#6_Page_463'>463</a>.</li>
+<li>Ivens, F., <a href='#6_Page_331'>331</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Jacobi, Mary P., <a href='#6_Page_66'>66</a>.</li>
+<li>Jacobsohn, L., <a href='#6_Page_192'>192</a>.</li>
+<li>Janet, <a href='#6_Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#6_Page_198'>198</a>.</li>
+<li>Janke, <a href='#6_Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+<li>Jastrow, M., <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+<li>Jeannel, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#6_Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+<li>Jellinek, C., <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>.</li>
+<li>Jentsch, K., <a href='#6_Page_196'>196</a>.</li>
+<li>Jerome, H., <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#6_Page_151'>151</a>, <a href='#6_Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#6_Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#6_Page_207'>207</a>.</li>
+<li>John of Salisbury, <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>Jones, Sir W., <a href='#6_Page_129'>129</a>.</li>
+<li>Jullien, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Kaan, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+<li>Kalbeck, <a href='#6_Page_110'>110</a>.</li>
+<li>Karin, Karina, <a href='#6_Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+<li>Keller, G., <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+<li>Kelly, H. A., <a href='#6_Page_512'>512</a>.</li>
+<li>Kennedy, Helen, <a href='#6_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#6_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+<li>Key, Ellen,
+<ul><li>    <a href='#6_Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#6_Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#6_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#6_Page_115'>115</a>, <a href='#6_Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#6_Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#6_Page_316'>316</a>, <a href='#6_Page_364'>364</a>, <a href='#6_Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#6_Page_379'>379</a>, <a href='#6_Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#6_Page_417'>417</a>, </li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#6_Page_438'>438</a>, <a href='#6_Page_466'>466</a>, <a href='#6_Page_477'>477</a>, <a href='#6_Page_487'>487</a>, <a href='#6_Page_488'>488</a>, <a href='#6_Page_501'>501</a>, <a href='#6_Page_512'>512</a>, <a href='#6_Page_524'>524</a>, <a href='#6_Page_540'>540</a>, <a href='#6_Page_541'>541</a>,</li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_562'>562</a>, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>, <a href='#6_Page_574'>574</a>, <a href='#6_Page_580'>580</a>, <a href='#6_Page_587'>587</a>, <a href='#6_Page_610'>610</a>, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>, <a href='#6_Page_628'>628</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Keyes, E. L., <a href='#6_Page_55'>55</a>, <a href='#6_Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+<li>Kiernan, <a href='#6_Page_278'>278</a>, <a href='#6_Page_474'>474</a>.</li>
+<li>Kind, A., <a href='#6_Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>.</li>
+<li>Kingsley, C., <a href='#6_Page_469'>469</a>.</li>
+<li>Kirk, E. B., <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>.</li>
+<li>Kisch,
+<ul><li>   <a href='#6_Page_188'>188</a>, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>, <a href='#6_Page_529'>529</a>, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>, <a href='#6_Page_551'>551</a>, <a href='#6_Page_552'>552</a>, <a href='#6_Page_555'>555</a>, <a href='#6_Page_573'>573</a>, </li>
+<li>   <a href='#6_Page_577'>577</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>, <a href='#6_Page_616'>616</a>, <a href='#6_Page_632'>632</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>, <a href='#6_Page_636'>636</a>, <a href='#6_Page_637'>637</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Klotz, <a href='#6_Page_556'>556</a>.</li>
+<li>Knott, J., <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+<li>Kossmann, <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>.</li>
+<li>Kowalewsky, Sophie, <a href='#6_Page_141'>141</a>.</li>
+<li>Krafft-Ebing, <a href='#6_Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#6_Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#6_Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#6_Page_416'>416</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li>
+<li>Krauss, F. S., <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#6_Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#6_Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+<li>Krukenberg, Frau, <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>.</li>
+<li>Kubary, <a href='#6_Page_550'>550</a>.</li>
+<li>Kullberg, <a href='#6_Page_261'>261</a>.</li>
+<li>Kurella, <a href='#6_Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Lacroix, P., <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+<li>Lafargue, Paul, <a href='#6_Page_165'>165</a>.</li>
+<li>La Jeunesse, E., <a href='#6_Page_299'>299</a>.</li>
+<li>Lallemand, <a href='#6_Page_182'>182</a>.</li>
+<li>Lambkin, <a href='#6_Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#6_Page_327'>327</a>, <a href='#6_Page_406'>406</a>.</li>
+<li>Lancaster, <a href='#6_Page_60'>60</a>.</li>
+<li>Landor, <a href='#6_Page_173'>173</a>.</li>
+<li>Landret, <a href='#6_Page_335'>335</a>.</li>
+<li>Langsdorf, <a href='#6_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>Lapie, <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>.</li>
+<li>Laplace, <a href='#6_Page_141'>141</a>.</li>
+<li>Lasco, John &agrave;, <a href='#6_Page_509'>509</a>.</li>
+<li>Lauvergne, <a href='#6_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Laycock, <a href='#6_Page_562'>562</a>.</li>
+<li>Lea, <a href='#6_Page_153'>153</a>, <a href='#6_Page_162'>162</a>, <a href='#6_Page_180'>180</a>, <a href='#6_Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#6_Page_496'>496</a>, <a href='#6_Page_623'>623</a>.</li>
+<li>Lecky, <a href='#6_Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#6_Page_307'>307</a>, <a href='#6_Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#6_Page_374'>374</a>, <a href='#6_Page_398'>398</a>, <a href='#6_Page_460'>460</a>, <a href='#6_Page_495'>495</a>.</li>
+<li>Lederer, <a href='#6_Page_186'>186</a>, <a href='#6_Page_202'>202</a>.</li>
+<li>Ledermann, <a href='#6_Page_622'>622</a>.</li>
+<li>Lee, Sidney, <a href='#6_Page_514'>514</a>.</li>
+<li>Lefebvre, A., <a href='#6_Page_572'>572</a>.</li>
+<li>Legg, J. W., <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>, <a href='#6_Page_509'>509</a>.</li>
+<li>Lemonnier, C., <a href='#6_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>Lenkei, <a href='#6_Page_104'>104</a>.</li>
+<li>Lepage, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>Letourneux, <a href='#6_Page_8'>8</a>.</li>
+<li>L&eacute;vy-Bruhl, <a href='#6_Page_371'>371</a>.</li>
+<li>Lewis, Denslow, <a href='#6_Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#6_Page_353'>353</a>.</li>
+<li>Lewitt, <a href='#6_Page_204'>204</a>.</li>
+<li>Leyboff, <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+<li>Lilienthal, <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>.</li>
+<li>Lindsey, B. B., <a href='#6_Page_63'>63</a>.</li>
+<li>Lippert, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>Lischnewska, Maria, <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#6_Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#6_Page_106'>106</a>.</li>
+<li>Liszt, <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>.</li>
+<li>Livingstone, W. P., <a href='#6_Page_389'>389</a>.</li>
+<li>Lock, W. H., <a href='#6_Page_630'>630</a>.</li>
+<li>Logan, <a href='#6_Page_257'>257</a>.</li>
+<li>Lombroso, <a href='#6_Page_267'>267</a>, <a href='#6_Page_275'>275</a>, <a href='#6_Page_280'>280</a>, <a href='#6_Page_414'>414</a>.</li>
+<li>L&ouml;wenfeld, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#6_Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>, <a href='#6_Page_598'>598</a>.</li>
+<li>Lowndes, <a href='#6_Page_320'>320</a>.</li>
+<li>Lucas, Clement, <a href='#6_Page_337'>337</a>.</li>
+<li>Lucretius, <a href='#6_Page_556'>556</a>.</li>
+<li>Lumholtz, <a href='#6_Page_543'>543</a>.</li>
+<li>Luther, <a href='#6_Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>, <a href='#6_Page_499'>499</a>, <a href='#6_Page_532'>532</a>, <a href='#6_Page_578'>578</a>.</li>
+<li>Lydston, <a href='#6_Page_612'>612</a>.</li>
+<li>Lyttelton, E., <a href='#6_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#6_Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#6_Page_311'>311</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Maberly, G. C., <a href='#6_Page_480'>480</a>.</li>
+<li>MacMurchy, Dr. Helen, <a href='#6_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+<li>Macvie, <a href='#6_Page_605'>605</a>.</li>
+<li>Madam, M., <a href='#6_Page_500'>500</a>.</li>
+<li>Maeterlinck, <a href='#6_Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+<li>Magruder, J., <a href='#6_Page_427'>427</a>.</li>
+<li>Maillard-Brune, <a href='#6_Page_13'>13</a>.</li>
+<li>Maine, <a href='#6_Page_395'>395</a>.</li>
+<li>Maitland, <a href='#6_Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_440'>440</a>.</li>
+<li>Malthus, <a href='#6_Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#6_Page_594'>594</a>.</li>
+<li>Mandeville, B., <a href='#6_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#6_Page_285'>285</a>, <a href='#6_Page_364'>364</a>.</li>
+<li>Mannhardt, <a href='#6_Page_231'>231</a>.</li>
+<li>Mantegazza, A., <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_293'>293</a>.</li>
+<li>Mantegazza, P., <a href='#6_Page_534'>534</a>, <a href='#6_Page_543'>543</a>.</li>
+<li>Mar&ccedil;ais, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>.</li>
+<li>Marchesini, <a href='#6_Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+<li>Marcuse, J., <a href='#6_Page_107'>107</a>.</li>
+<li>Marcuse, M., <a href='#6_Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#6_Page_271'>271</a>.</li>
+<li>Margueritte, P., <a href='#6_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#6_Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#6_Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#6_Page_473'>473</a>.</li>
+<li>Margueritte, V., <a href='#6_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#6_Page_334'>334</a>, <a href='#6_Page_357'>357</a>, <a href='#6_Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#6_Page_473'>473</a>.</li>
+<li>Marholm, L., <a href='#6_Page_594'>594</a>.</li>
+<li>Marro, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#6_Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#6_Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#6_Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#6_Page_363'>363</a>, <a href='#6_Page_592'>592</a>, <a href='#6_Page_635'>635</a>.</li>
+<li>Martindale, Miss, <a href='#6_Page_22'>22</a>.</li>
+<li>Martineau, <a href='#6_Page_292'>292</a>.</li>
+<li>Marx, V., <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>.</li>
+<li>Massalongo, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li>
+<li>Masson, <a href='#6_Page_444'>444</a>.</li>
+<li>Mathews, A., <a href='#6_Page_368'>368</a>.</li>
+<li>Mathews, R. H., <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a>.</li>
+<li>Matignon, <a href='#6_Page_237'>237</a>, <a href='#6_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>Maudsley, <a href='#6_Page_140'>140</a>.</li>
+<li>Maurice, General, <a href='#6_Page_623'>623</a>.</li>
+<li>Mayor, <a href='#6_Page_155'>155</a>.</li>
+<li>Mayreder, Rosa, <a href='#6_Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#6_Page_404'>404</a>, <a href='#6_Page_417'>417</a>, <a href='#6_Page_574'>574</a>.</li>
+<li>McBride, G. H., <a href='#6_Page_72'>72</a>.</li>
+<li>McCleary, G. F., <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a>.<a name='6_Page_647'></a></li>
+<li>McIlquham, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Melancthon, <a href='#6_Page_442'>442</a>.</li>
+<li>Menger, A. von, <a href='#6_Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#6_Page_350'>350</a>, <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>.</li>
+<li>Menjago, <a href='#6_Page_171'>171</a>.</li>
+<li>Mensinga, <a href='#6_Page_596'>596</a>.</li>
+<li>Meredith, G., <a href='#6_Page_472'>472</a>.</li>
+<li>M&eacute;rim&eacute;e, <a href='#6_Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#6_Page_572'>572</a>.</li>
+<li>Merrick, <a href='#6_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#6_Page_288'>288</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#6_Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+<li>Metchnikoff, <a href='#6_Page_46'>46</a>, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#6_Page_360'>360</a>, <a href='#6_Page_584'>584</a>.</li>
+<li>Meyer-Benfey, H., <a href='#6_Page_514'>514</a>.</li>
+<li>Meyer, Bruno, <a href='#6_Page_377'>377</a>, <a href='#6_Page_529'>529</a>.</li>
+<li>Meyer, E. H., <a href='#6_Page_382'>382</a>.</li>
+<li>Meyrick, <a href='#6_Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#6_Page_499'>499</a>.</li>
+<li>Michelet, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>.</li>
+<li>Michels, R., <a href='#6_Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#6_Page_547'>547</a>.</li>
+<li>Migne, <a href='#6_Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+<li>Mill, J., <a href='#6_Page_594'>594</a>.</li>
+<li>Mill, J. S., <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Millais, J. G., <a href='#6_Page_422'>422</a>.</li>
+<li>Miller, Noyes, <a href='#6_Page_553'>553</a>, <a href='#6_Page_629'>629</a>.</li>
+<li>Miln, L. J., <a href='#6_Page_498'>498</a>.</li>
+<li>Milner, <a href='#6_Page_636'>636</a>.</li>
+<li>Milton, <a href='#6_Page_443'>443</a>.</li>
+<li>M&ouml;bius, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Molinari, G. de, <a href='#6_Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#6_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Moll,
+<ul><li>    <a href='#6_Page_34'>34</a>, <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#6_Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#6_Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#6_Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#6_Page_48'>48</a>, <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#6_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#6_Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#6_Page_84'>84</a>, </li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#6_Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#6_Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#6_Page_204'>204</a>, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>M&ouml;nkem&ouml;ller, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+<li>Montaigne, <a href='#6_Page_509'>509</a>, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>, <a href='#6_Page_527'>527</a>.</li>
+<li>Montesquieu, <a href='#6_Page_464'>464</a>.</li>
+<li>Montmorency, <a href='#6_Page_448'>448</a>.</li>
+<li>Mookerji, <a href='#6_Page_330'>330</a>.</li>
+<li>Moore, Samson, <a href='#6_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Morasso, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>, <a href='#6_Page_274'>274</a>.</li>
+<li>More, Sir T., <a href='#6_Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#6_Page_354'>354</a>.</li>
+<li>Moreau, Christophe, <a href='#6_Page_252'>252</a>.</li>
+<li>Morley, Lord, <a href='#6_Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#6_Page_464'>464</a>, <a href='#6_Page_620'>620</a>.</li>
+<li>Morley, Margaret, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+<li>Morris, William, <a href='#6_Page_144'>144</a>.</li>
+<li>Morrow, <a href='#6_Page_345'>345</a>.</li>
+<li>Mortimer, G., <a href='#6_Page_387'>387</a>.</li>
+<li>Moryson, Fynes, <a href='#6_Page_105'>105</a>.</li>
+<li>Mott, F. W., <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#6_Page_325'>325</a>, <a href='#6_Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+<li>Multatuli, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>.</li>
+<li>M&uuml;nsterberg, <a href='#6_Page_459'>459</a>, <a href='#6_Page_486'>486</a>.</li>
+<li>Murray, Gilbert, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+<li>Mylott, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>N&auml;cke, <a href='#6_Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#6_Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#6_Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#6_Page_326'>326</a>, <a href='#6_Page_538'>538</a>, <a href='#6_Page_614'>614</a>, <a href='#6_Page_615'>615</a>.</li>
+<li>Naumann, F., <a href='#6_Page_4'>4</a>.</li>
+<li>Nefzaoui, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>.</li>
+<li>Neisser, <a href='#6_Page_287'>287</a>, <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>, <a href='#6_Page_352'>352</a>.</li>
+<li>Neugebauer, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>.</li>
+<li>Newman, G., <a href='#6_Page_6'>6</a>, <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#6_Page_15'>15</a>, <a href='#6_Page_603'>603</a>.</li>
+<li>Newsholme, A., <a href='#6_Page_590'>590</a>.</li>
+<li>Niessen, Max von, <a href='#6_Page_361'>361</a>.</li>
+<li>Nietzold, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>, <a href='#6_Page_487'>487</a>.</li>
+<li>Nietzsche, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#6_Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#6_Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#6_Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#6_Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#6_Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#6_Page_317'>317</a>, <a href='#6_Page_368'>368</a>.</li>
+<li>Niven, <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>.</li>
+<li>Noble, M., <a href='#6_Page_545'>545</a>.</li>
+<li>Noggerath, <a href='#6_Page_330'>330</a>.</li>
+<li>Northcote, Rev. H., <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_49'>49</a>, <a href='#6_Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#6_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#6_Page_181'>181</a>, <a href='#6_Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#6_Page_385'>385</a>, <a href='#6_Page_509'>509</a>.</li>
+<li>Notthaft, <a href='#6_Page_321'>321</a>.</li>
+<li>Noyes, J. H., <a href='#6_Page_553'>553</a>, <a href='#6_Page_617'>617</a>.</li>
+<li>Nystr&ouml;m, <a href='#6_Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>, <a href='#6_Page_202'>202</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Obersteiner, <a href='#6_Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+<li>Obici, <a href='#6_Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+<li>Odo of Cluny, <a href='#6_Page_119'>119</a>.</li>
+<li>Oefele, <a href='#6_Page_328'>328</a>.</li>
+<li>Okamura, <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+<li>Olberg, Oda, <a href='#6_Page_607'>607</a>.</li>
+<li>Omer, Haleby, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>.</li>
+<li>Ostwald, H., <a href='#6_Page_271'>271</a>.</li>
+<li>Ott, <a href='#6_Page_597'>597</a>.</li>
+<li>Ovid, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>, <a href='#6_Page_546'>546</a>, <a href='#6_Page_556'>556</a>.</li>
+<li>Owen, R. D., <a href='#6_Page_595'>595</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Paget, Sir J., <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>, <a href='#6_Page_609'>609</a>.</li>
+<li>Palladius, <a href='#6_Page_152'>152</a>.</li>
+<li>Pappritz, Anna, <a href='#6_Page_610'>610</a>.</li>
+<li>Parent-Duch&acirc;telet, <a href='#6_Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#6_Page_261'>261</a>, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_294'>294</a>, <a href='#6_Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+<li>Par&eacute;, <a href='#6_Page_561'>561</a>.</li>
+<li>Parsons, E. C., <a href='#6_Page_378'>378</a>.</li>
+<li>Parsons, J., <a href='#6_Page_551'>551</a>.</li>
+<li>Patmore, C., <a href='#6_Page_45'>45</a>.</li>
+<li>Paton, Noel, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>Paul, Dr. H., <a href='#6_Page_166'>166</a>.</li>
+<li>Paulucci de Calboli, <a href='#6_Page_303'>303</a>.</li>
+<li>Paulus, <a href='#6_Page_475'>475</a>.</li>
+<li>Pearson, K., <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#6_Page_583'>583</a>, <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>, <a href='#6_Page_618'>618</a>.</li>
+<li>P&eacute;chin, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a>.</li>
+<li>Pepys, <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#6_Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#6_Page_297'>297</a>, <a href='#6_Page_414'>414</a>, <a href='#6_Page_495'>495</a>, <a href='#6_Page_566'>566</a>.</li>
+<li>Pernet, <a href='#6_Page_320'>320</a>.</li>
+<li>Perruc, <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>.</li>
+<li>Perry-Coste, <a href='#6_Page_532'>532</a>.</li>
+<li>Petermann, J., <a href='#6_Page_556'>556</a>.</li>
+<li>Petrie, Flinders, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>.</li>
+<li>Picard, <a href='#6_Page_635'>635</a>.</li>
+<li>Pike, <a href='#6_Page_403'>403</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinard, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#6_Page_8'>8</a>, <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#6_Page_19'>19</a>, <a href='#6_Page_578'>578</a>, <a href='#6_Page_582'>582</a>, <a href='#6_Page_606'>606</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinkus, <a href='#6_Page_632'>632</a>.</li>
+<li>Pinloche, <a href='#6_Page_56'>56</a>.</li>
+<li>Place, Francis, <a href='#6_Page_595'>595</a>.</li>
+<li>Plato, <a href='#6_Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#6_Page_604'>604</a>.</li>
+<li>Plarr, V., <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li>
+<li>Plautus, <a href='#6_Page_396'>396</a>.</li>
+<li>Playfair, Sir W. S., <a href='#6_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>Ploss, <a href='#6_Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#6_Page_516'>516</a>, <a href='#6_Page_560'>560</a>.</li>
+<li>Plutarch, <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>.</li>
+<li>Pole, M. T., <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>.</li>
+<li>Pollack, Flora, <a href='#6_Page_337'>337</a>.</li>
+<li>Pollock, Sir F., <a href='#6_Page_401'>401</a>, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_440'>440</a>.</li>
+<li>Potter, M. A., <a href='#6_Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#6_Page_381'>381</a>, <a href='#6_Page_543'>543</a>.</li>
+<li>Potton, <a href='#6_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Power, D'Arcy, <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+<li>Powys, <a href='#6_Page_386'>386</a>.</li>
+<li>Prat, <a href='#6_Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+<li>Price, J., <a href='#6_Page_341'>341</a>.</li>
+<li>Prevost, M., <a href='#6_Page_79'>79</a>.</li>
+<li>Prinzing, <a href='#6_Page_632'>632</a>.</li>
+<li>Probst-Biraben, <a href='#6_Page_146'>146</a>.</li>
+<li>Proksch, <a href='#6_Page_601'>601</a>.</li>
+<li>Pudor, <a href='#6_Page_99'>99</a>, <a href='#6_Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#6_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>Punnett, <a href='#6_Page_630'>630</a>.</li>
+<li>Pyke, Rafford, <a href='#6_Page_485'>485</a>, <a href='#6_Page_531'>531</a>, <a href='#6_Page_538'>538</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Querlon, Meusnier de, <a href='#6_Page_285'>285</a>.</li>
+<li>Quir&oacute;s, C. Bernaldo de, <a href='#6_Page_260'>260</a>, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#6_Page_305'>305</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Rabelais, <a href='#6_Page_482'>482</a>.</li>
+<li>Rabutaux, <a href='#6_Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#6_Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#6_Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#6_Page_284'>284</a>.</li>
+<li>Raciborski, <a href='#6_Page_269'>269</a>, <a href='#6_Page_596'>596</a>.</li>
+<li>Radbruch, <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramdohr, <a href='#6_Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+<li>Ramsay, Sir W. M., <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#6_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+<li>Rasmussen, <a href='#6_Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#6_Page_561'>561</a>, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>.</li>
+<li>Ratramnus, <a href='#6_Page_124'>124</a>.</li>
+<li>Redlich, <a href='#6_Page_195'>195</a>.</li>
+<li>Reed, C., <a href='#6_Page_554'>554</a>.</li>
+<li>R&eacute;gnier, H. de, <a href='#6_Page_301'>301</a>.<a name='6_Page_648'></a></li>
+<li>Reibmayr, <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#6_Page_174'>174</a>, <a href='#6_Page_293'>293</a>, <a href='#6_Page_580'>580</a>, <a href='#6_Page_619'>619</a>.</li>
+<li>Reinhard, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>.</li>
+<li>Remo, P., <a href='#6_Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Remondino, <a href='#6_Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+<li>Renan, <a href='#6_Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a>, <a href='#6_Page_160'>160</a>.</li>
+<li>Renooz, C&eacute;line, <a href='#6_Page_110'>110</a>.</li>
+<li>Renouf, C., <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Renouvier, <a href='#6_Page_138'>138</a>.</li>
+<li>Restif de la Bretonne, <a href='#6_Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#6_Page_517'>517</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>Reuss, <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#6_Page_263'>263</a>, <a href='#6_Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#6_Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+<li>Reuther, F., <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Revillout, <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>.</li>
+<li>Rhys, Sir J., <a href='#6_Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>Ribbing, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>.</li>
+<li>Ribot, <a href='#6_Page_565'>565</a>.</li>
+<li>Rich, H., <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Richard, C., <a href='#6_Page_286'>286</a>.</li>
+<li>Richard, E., <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#6_Page_253'>253</a>.</li>
+<li>Richmond, Mrs. Ennis, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#6_Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+<li>Ritter, Dr. Mary, <a href='#6_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+<li>Robert, U., <a href='#6_Page_242'>242</a>.</li>
+<li>Robertson, W., <a href='#6_Page_636'>636</a>.</li>
+<li>Robinovitch, L., <a href='#6_Page_584'>584</a>.</li>
+<li>Rogers, Anna, <a href='#6_Page_485'>485</a>.</li>
+<li>Rohde, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>.</li>
+<li>Rohleder, <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#6_Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#6_Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+<li>Rolfincius, <a href='#6_Page_122'>122</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosenberg, <a href='#6_Page_625'>625</a>.</li>
+<li>Rosenthal, <a href='#6_Page_422'>422</a>.</li>
+<li>Rousseau, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Routh, <a href='#6_Page_186'>186</a>.</li>
+<li>Rudeck, <a href='#6_Page_242'>242</a>, <a href='#6_Page_384'>384</a>.</li>
+<li>Rufinus Tyrannius, <a href='#6_Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+<li>Ruggles, W., <a href='#6_Page_330'>330</a>.</li>
+<li>R&uuml;ling, Anna, <a href='#6_Page_273'>273</a>.</li>
+<li>Ruskin, <a href='#6_Page_92'>92</a>.</li>
+<li>Russell, Mrs. Bertrand, <a href='#6_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+<li>Rust, H., <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>Rutgers, <a href='#6_Page_561'>561</a>.</li>
+<li>Ryan, M., <a href='#6_Page_378'>378</a>, <a href='#6_Page_598'>598</a>.</li>
+<li>Ryck&egrave;re, E. de, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Sabine, J. K., <a href='#6_Page_69'>69</a>.</li>
+<li>Sacher-Masoch, Wanda von, <a href='#6_Page_469'>469</a>.</li>
+<li>Sainte-Beuve, <a href='#6_Page_247'>247</a>.</li>
+<li>Saleeby, <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>.</li>
+<li>Salimbene, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+<li>Salvat, <a href='#6_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanborn, Lura, <a href='#6_Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#6_Page_73'>73</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanchez, T., <a href='#6_Page_180'>180</a>.</li>
+<li>Sandoz, F., <a href='#6_Page_104'>104</a>.</li>
+<li>Sanger, <a href='#6_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#6_Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+<li>Sarraute-Louri&eacute;, Mme., <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+<li>Sch&auml;fenacker, <a href='#6_Page_91'>91</a>.</li>
+<li>Schaudinn, <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+<li>Schlegel, F., <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#6_Page_514'>514</a>.</li>
+<li>Schmid, Marie von, <a href='#6_Page_32'>32</a>.</li>
+<li>Schmidt, R., <a href='#6_Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#6_Page_545'>545</a>.</li>
+<li>Schneider, C. K., <a href='#6_Page_262'>262</a>.</li>
+<li>Schopenhauer, <a href='#6_Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#6_Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#6_Page_320'>320</a>, <a href='#6_Page_492'>492</a>.</li>
+<li>Schrader, O., <a href='#6_Page_383'>383</a>, <a href='#6_Page_403'>403</a>.</li>
+<li>Schrank, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#6_Page_295'>295</a>.</li>
+<li>Schreiber, Adele, <a href='#6_Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#6_Page_427'>427</a>.</li>
+<li>Schreiner, Olive, <a href='#6_Page_408'>408</a>.</li>
+<li>Schrempf, <a href='#6_Page_570'>570</a>.</li>
+<li>Schrenck-Notzing, <a href='#6_Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li>
+<li>Schroeder, E. A., <a href='#6_Page_27'>27</a>, <a href='#6_Page_370'>370</a>.</li>
+<li>Schroeder, T., <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#6_Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#6_Page_498'>498</a>.</li>
+<li>Schultz, Alwyn, <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#6_Page_537'>537</a>.</li>
+<li>Schultze-Malkowsky, E., <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+<li>Schurig, <a href='#6_Page_182'>182</a>, <a href='#6_Page_533'>533</a>, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>Schurtz, H., <a href='#6_Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#6_Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#6_Page_309'>309</a>.</li>
+<li>Schwalbe, <a href='#6_Page_632'>632</a>.</li>
+<li>Scott, Colin, <a href='#6_Page_170'>170</a>.</li>
+<li>Scott, J. F., <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a>, <a href='#6_Page_602'>602</a>.</li>
+<li>S&eacute;gur, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Seligmann, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+<li>Sellman, W. A. B., <a href='#6_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>S&eacute;nancour, <a href='#6_Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>, <a href='#6_Page_102'>102</a>, <a href='#6_Page_164'>164</a>, <a href='#6_Page_167'>167</a>, <a href='#6_Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#6_Page_415'>415</a>, <a href='#6_Page_495'>495</a>, <a href='#6_Page_500'>500</a>, <a href='#6_Page_547'>547</a>.</li>
+<li>Seneca, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>S&eacute;ropian, <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>, <a href='#6_Page_19'>19</a>.</li>
+<li>S&eacute;vign&eacute;, Mme. de, <a href='#6_Page_600'>600</a>.</li>
+<li>Seymour, H. J., <a href='#6_Page_620'>620</a>.</li>
+<li>Shakespeare, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>.</li>
+<li>Shaw, G. B., <a href='#6_Page_358'>358</a>.</li>
+<li>Shebbeare, Rev. C. J., <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>.</li>
+<li>Shelley, <a href='#6_Page_144'>144</a>.</li>
+<li>Sherwell, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a>, <a href='#6_Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+<li>Shufeldt, <a href='#6_Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#6_Page_97'>97</a>, <a href='#6_Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#6_Page_422'>422</a>, <a href='#6_Page_465'>465</a>, <a href='#6_Page_471'>471</a>, <a href='#6_Page_483'>483</a>.</li>
+<li>Sidgwick, H., <a href='#6_Page_170'>170</a>, <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#6_Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#6_Page_367'>367</a>.</li>
+<li>Sidis, Boris, <a href='#6_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>Sieroshevski, <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+<li>Simmel, <a href='#6_Page_299'>299</a>.</li>
+<li>Simon, Helene, <a href='#6_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Sinclair, Sir W., <a href='#6_Page_11'>11</a>.</li>
+<li>Smith, Robertson, <a href='#6_Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>.</li>
+<li>Soalhat, <a href='#6_Page_633'>633</a>.</li>
+<li>Somerset, Lady Henry, <a href='#6_Page_587'>587</a>.</li>
+<li>Sommer, R., <a href='#6_Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>Soranus, <a href='#6_Page_18'>18</a>, <a href='#6_Page_638'>638</a>.</li>
+<li>Spencer, Baldwin, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>, <a href='#6_Page_576'>576</a>.</li>
+<li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href='#6_Page_135'>135</a>, <a href='#6_Page_317'>317</a>.</li>
+<li>Spitta, <a href='#6_Page_635'>635</a>.</li>
+<li>Stanmore, Lord, <a href='#6_Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#6_Page_406'>406</a>.</li>
+<li>Stefanowski, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>.</li>
+<li>Stef&aacute;nsson, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>Stevenson, R. L., <a href='#6_Page_406'>406</a>.</li>
+<li>Stevenson, T. H. C., <a href='#6_Page_590'>590</a>.</li>
+<li>St&ouml;cker, Helene, <a href='#6_Page_200'>200</a>, <a href='#6_Page_375'>375</a>, <a href='#6_Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#6_Page_573'>573</a>, <a href='#6_Page_587'>587</a>, <a href='#6_Page_598'>598</a>.</li>
+<li>Strampff, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>.</li>
+<li>Stratz, C. H., <a href='#6_Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#6_Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#6_Page_109'>109</a>.</li>
+<li>Streitberg, Gr&auml;fin, <a href='#6_Page_607'>607</a>.</li>
+<li>Str&ouml;hmberg, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a>, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a>.</li>
+<li>Sturge, Miss, <a href='#6_Page_70'>70</a>.</li>
+<li>Suidas, <a href='#6_Page_557'>557</a>.</li>
+<li>Sullivan, W. C., <a href='#6_Page_15'>15</a>.</li>
+<li>Sumner, W. G., <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#6_Page_370'>370</a>, <a href='#6_Page_400'>400</a>, <a href='#6_Page_605'>605</a>.</li>
+<li>Susruta, <a href='#6_Page_532'>532</a>, <a href='#6_Page_638'>638</a>.</li>
+<li>Sutherland, J. F., <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>Sutherland, W. D., <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#6_Page_552'>552</a>.</li>
+<li>Sykes, J. F. J., <a href='#6_Page_5'>5</a>, <a href='#6_Page_30'>30</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Tait, W., <a href='#6_Page_270'>270</a>, <a href='#6_Page_292'>292</a>, <a href='#6_Page_294'>294</a>.</li>
+<li>Talbot, E. S., <a href='#6_Page_278'>278</a>.</li>
+<li>Tammeo, <a href='#6_Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+<li>Tarde, <a href='#6_Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#6_Page_131'>131</a>, <a href='#6_Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#6_Page_310'>310</a>, <a href='#6_Page_376'>376</a>, <a href='#6_Page_426'>426</a>, <a href='#6_Page_574'>574</a>.</li>
+<li>Tarnowsky, Pauline, <a href='#6_Page_277'>277</a>.</li>
+<li>Taylor, R. W., <a href='#6_Page_312'>312</a>, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>, <a href='#6_Page_552'>552</a>.</li>
+<li>Tenney, <a href='#6_Page_330'>330</a>.</li>
+<li>Tennyson, <a href='#6_Page_427'>427</a>.</li>
+<li>Terman, L. M., <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Tertullian, <a href='#6_Page_96'>96</a>, <a href='#6_Page_127'>127</a>.</li>
+<li>Theresa, W., <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomas, A. W., <a href='#6_Page_589'>589</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomas, N. W., <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomas, Prof. W., <a href='#6_Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#6_Page_495'>495</a>, <a href='#6_Page_572'>572</a>.</li>
+<li>Thomson, J. A., <a href='#6_Page_585'>585</a>.</li>
+<li>Thoreau, <a href='#6_Page_103'>103</a>, <a href='#6_Page_143'>143</a>.</li>
+<li>Thuasne, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>Tilt, <a href='#6_Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+<li>Tobler, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>.</li>
+<li>Todhunter, <a href='#6_Page_144'>144</a>.</li>
+<li>Tolstoy, <a href='#6_Page_564'>564</a>.</li>
+<li>Tout, C. Hill, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>.<a name='6_Page_649'></a></li>
+<li>Traill, <a href='#6_Page_498'>498</a>.</li>
+<li>Tredgold, <a href='#6_Page_597'>597</a>, <a href='#6_Page_616'>616</a>.</li>
+<li>Trewby, <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>.</li>
+<li>Troll-Borosty&aacute;ni I. von, <a href='#6_Page_260'>260</a>.</li>
+<li>Trollope, A., <a href='#6_Page_299'>299</a>.</li>
+<li>Turnbull, <a href='#6_Page_150'>150</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Ulpian, <a href='#6_Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#6_Page_396'>396</a>.</li>
+<li>Ungewitter, <a href='#6_Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#6_Page_107'>107</a>, <a href='#6_Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#6_Page_114'>114</a>, <a href='#6_Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+<li>Unna, <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a>.</li>
+<li>Urquhart, <a href='#6_Page_627'>627</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Vacher de Lapouge, <a href='#6_Page_581'>581</a>.</li>
+<li>Valentino, <a href='#6_Page_545'>545</a>.</li>
+<li>Valera, <a href='#6_Page_524'>524</a>.</li>
+<li>Vanderkiste, <a href='#6_Page_291'>291</a>.</li>
+<li>Varendonck, <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>.</li>
+<li>Vatsyayana, <a href='#6_Page_539'>539</a>, <a href='#6_Page_544'>544</a>.</li>
+<li>Vaux, Rev. J. E., <a href='#6_Page_403'>403</a>.</li>
+<li>Velden, Van den, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li>
+<li>Velten, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>Venette, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>.</li>
+<li>Veniero, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>.</li>
+<li>Vickery, A. Drysdale, <a href='#6_Page_596'>596</a>.</li>
+<li>Vinay, <a href='#6_Page_597'>597</a>.</li>
+<li>Vinci, L. de, <a href='#6_Page_118'>118</a>.</li>
+<li>Vines, Miss, <a href='#6_Page_23'>23</a>.</li>
+<li>Virchow, <a href='#6_Page_322'>322</a>.</li>
+<li>Vitrey, <a href='#6_Page_27'>27</a>.</li>
+<li>Voltaire, <a href='#6_Page_247'>247</a>.</li>
+<li>Vries, de, <a href='#6_Page_1'>1</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>W&auml;chter, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a>.</li>
+<li>Wagner, C., <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+<li>Wahrmund, <a href='#6_Page_419'>419</a>, <a href='#6_Page_491'>491</a>.</li>
+<li>Wales, E. B., <a href='#6_Page_636'>636</a>.</li>
+<li>Walter, J. von, <a href='#6_Page_161'>161</a>.</li>
+<li>Ward, Lester, <a href='#6_Page_483'>483</a>.</li>
+<li>Wardlaw, R., <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+<li>Warker, Van de, <a href='#6_Page_554'>554</a>.</li>
+<li>Warren, M. A., <a href='#6_Page_54'>54</a>.</li>
+<li>Wasserschleben, <a href='#6_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Watkins, <a href='#6_Page_75'>75</a>.</li>
+<li>Webb, Sidney, <a href='#6_Page_589'>589</a>, <a href='#6_Page_629'>629</a>.</li>
+<li>Weinberg, <a href='#6_Page_608'>608</a>.</li>
+<li>Weininger, <a href='#6_Page_309'>309</a>.</li>
+<li>Welander, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li>
+<li>Welch, F. H., <a href='#6_Page_252'>252</a>.</li>
+<li>Wells, H. G., <a href='#6_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#6_Page_588'>588</a>.</li>
+<li>Werthauer, <a href='#6_Page_45'>45</a>, <a href='#6_Page_110'>110</a>.</li>
+<li>Wessmann, <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>Westermarck,
+<ul><li>    <a href='#6_Page_123'>123</a>, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>, <a href='#6_Page_146'>146</a>, <a href='#6_Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#6_Page_179'>179</a>, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#6_Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#6_Page_232'>232</a>, <a href='#6_Page_369'>369</a>, <a href='#6_Page_370'>370</a>, </li>
+<li>    <a href='#6_Page_390'>390</a>, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>, <a href='#6_Page_399'>399</a>, <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a>, <a href='#6_Page_423'>423</a>, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a>, <a href='#6_Page_450'>450</a>, <a href='#6_Page_464'>464</a>, <a href='#6_Page_492'>492</a>, <a href='#6_Page_575'>575</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Wharton, <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>.</li>
+<li>Wheeler, C. B., <a href='#6_Page_444'>444</a>.</li>
+<li>Wheeler, Mrs., <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>Whitaker, Nellie C., <a href='#6_Page_71'>71</a>.</li>
+<li>Whitman, Walt, <a href='#6_Page_560'>560</a>.</li>
+<li>Wiedow, <a href='#6_Page_25'>25</a>.</li>
+<li>Wilcox, Ella W., <a href='#6_Page_190'>190</a>.</li>
+<li>Wilhelm, <a href='#6_Page_606'>606</a>.</li>
+<li>William of Malmsbury, <a href='#6_Page_153'>153</a>.</li>
+<li>Williams, Dawson, <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a>.</li>
+<li>Williams, Hugh, <a href='#6_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Williams, W. Roger, <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>.</li>
+<li>Windle, C. A., <a href='#6_Page_627'>627</a>.</li>
+<li>Wollstonecraft, M., <a href='#6_Page_541'>541</a>, <a href='#6_Page_563'>563</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Yule, G. Adney, <a href='#6_Page_590'>590</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Zacchia, <a href='#6_Page_477'>477</a>, <a href='#6_Page_544'>544</a>, <a href='#6_Page_550'>550</a>, <a href='#6_Page_554'>554</a>.</li>
+<li>Zache, <a href='#6_Page_516'>516</a>, <a href='#6_Page_547'>547</a>.</li>
+<li>Zanzinger, E., <a href='#6_Page_604'>604</a>, <a href='#6_Page_607'>607</a>.</li>
+<li>Zeno, <a href='#6_Page_604'>604</a>.</li>
+<li>Zoroaster, <a href='#6_Page_532'>532</a>, <a href='#6_Page_559'>559</a>.</li>
+<li>Zuccarelli, <a href='#6_Page_615'>615</a>, 616.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<a name='6_INDEX_OF_SUBJECTS'></a><h2><a name='6_Page_650'></a>INDEX OF SUBJECTS.</h2>
+
+
+<ul><li>Abortion,
+<ul><li>  arguments against, <a href='#6_Page_611'>611</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  modern advocates of, <a href='#6_Page_606'>606</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  the practice of, <a href='#6_Page_601'>601</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Abstinence,
+<ul><li>  alleged evil results of, <a href='#6_Page_182'>182</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  alleged good results of, <a href='#6_Page_191'>191</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  as a preparation for marriage, <a href='#6_Page_524'>524</a>.</li>
+<li>  criticism of conception of, <a href='#6_Page_196'>196</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  intermediate views of, <a href='#6_Page_194'>194</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  moral results of, <a href='#6_Page_212'>212</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual, in relation to chastity, <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#6_Page_177'>177</a>.</li>
+<li>  the problems of, <a href='#6_Page_178'>178</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Abyssinia,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual initiation in, <a href='#6_Page_516'>516</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Achilleus and Nereus,
+<ul><li>  legend of, <a href='#6_Page_158'>158</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Adultery, <a href='#6_Page_450'>450</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Africa,
+<ul><li>  chastity on West Coast of, <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Alcohol,
+<ul><li>  as a sexual stimulant, <a href='#6_Page_207'>207</a>.</li>
+<li>  in pregnancy, <a href='#6_Page_14'>14</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to the orgy, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Alexander VI and courtesans, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a>.</li>
+<li>Ambil anak Marriage, <a href='#6_Page_301'>301</a>.</li>
+<li>America,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_458'>458</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_624'>624</a>.</li>
+<li>  marriage in, <a href='#6_Page_446'>446</a>, <a href='#6_Page_478'>478</a>, <a href='#6_Page_485'>485</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#6_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>American Indians,
+<ul><li>  appreciate asceticism, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual initiation among, <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li>
+<li>  their Sabbath orgies, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+<li>  words for love among, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Aphrodite Pandemos, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>.</li>
+<li>Art in relation to sexual impulse, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#6_Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+<li>Asceticism,
+<ul><li> among early Christians, <a href='#6_Page_151'>151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  appreciated by savages, <a href='#6_Page_145'>145</a>.</li>
+<li>  definition of, <a href='#6_Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+<li>  in religion, <a href='#6_Page_146'>146</a>.</li>
+<li>  later degeneracy of, <a href='#6_Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+<li>  value of, <a href='#6_Page_143'>143</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Ascetics,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards sex of medi&aelig;val, <a href='#6_Page_119'>119</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Aspasia, <a href='#6_Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+<li>Athletics for women, <a href='#6_Page_75'>75</a>.</li>
+<li>Aucassin et Nicolette, <a href='#6_Page_161'>161</a>.</li>
+<li>Australia,
+<ul><li>  marriage system in, <a href='#6_Page_424'>424</a>.</li>
+<li>  saturnalian festivals in, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual initiation in, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Auvergne,
+<ul><li>  story of the Two Lovers of, <a href='#6_Page_159'>159</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Azimba Land,
+<ul><li>  sexual initiation in, <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#6_Page_515'>515</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Babies,
+<ul><li>  children's theories on the origin of, <a href='#6_Page_40'>40</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Babylonia,
+<ul><li>  high status of women in, <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>.</li>
+<li>  religious prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bawenda,
+<ul><li>  sexual initiation among, <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Beena marriage, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>.</li>
+<li>Beethoven, <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Behn, Aphra, <a href='#6_Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+<li>Belgium,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_257'>257</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bestial,
+<ul><li>  human sexual impulse not, <a href='#6_Page_130'>130</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bible in relation to sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Biometrics, <a href='#6_Page_583'>583</a>, <a href='#6_Page_630'>630</a>.</li>
+<li>Birth,
+<ul><li>  civilized tendency to premature, <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Birthrate,
+<ul><li>  decline of, <a href='#6_Page_589'>589</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Blindness in relation to gonorrh&oelig;a, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>.</li>
+<li>Botany in sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_58'>58</a>.</li>
+<li>Bredalbane case, <a href='#6_Page_477'>477</a>.</li>
+<li>Breed <i>versus</i> nurture, <a href='#6_Page_34'>34</a>.</li>
+<li>Bride-price, <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>.</li>
+<li>Brothel,
+<ul><li>  decay of, <a href='#6_Page_302'>302</a>, <a href='#6_Page_332'>332</a>.</li>
+<li>  in ancient Rome, <a href='#6_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>  in the East, <a href='#6_Page_236'>236</a>.</li>
+<li>  medi&aelig;val, <a href='#6_Page_242'>242</a>.</li>
+<li>  modern defence of, <a href='#6_Page_287'>287</a>.</li>
+<li>  modern regulation of, <a href='#6_Page_249'>249</a>.</li>
+<li>  origin of, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Bundling, <a href='#6_Page_380'>380</a>.</li>
+<li>Burmah,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Canon law,
+<ul><li>  defects of, <a href='#6_Page_438'>438</a>.</li>
+<li>  its importance, <a href='#6_Page_433'>433</a>.</li>
+<li>  origin of, <a href='#6_Page_436'>436</a>.</li>
+<li>  persistence of its traditions, <a href='#6_Page_449'>449</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  sound kernel of, <a href='#6_Page_479'>479</a>.<a name='6_Page_651'></a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Carlyle, <a href='#6_Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+<li>Carnival,
+<ul><li>  origin of, <a href='#6_Page_218'>218</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Castration,
+<ul><li>  modern developments of, <a href='#6_Page_614'>614</a>.</li>
+<li>  the practice of, <a href='#6_Page_612'>612</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Chastity,
+<ul><li> among early Christians, <a href='#6_Page_151'>151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  definition of, <a href='#6_Page_175'>175</a>.</li>
+<li>  girdle of, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+<li>  in modern Fiji, <a href='#6_Page_406'>406</a>.</li>
+<li>  in what sense a virtue, <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a>.</li>
+<li>  modern attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_167'>167</a>.</li>
+<li>  Protestant attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_164'>164</a>.</li>
+<li>  romantic literature of, <a href='#6_Page_158'>158</a>.</li>
+<li>  the function of, <a href='#6_Page_143'>143</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Child,
+<ul><li>  as foundation of marriage, <a href='#6_Page_488'>488</a>, <a href='#6_Page_505'>505</a>.</li>
+<li>  characteristics of eldest born, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li>
+<li>  its need of two parents, <a href='#6_Page_487'>487</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Childhood,
+<ul><li>  sexual activity in, <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual teaching in, <a href='#6_Page_48'>48</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>China,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_236'>236</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Chivalry on position of women,
+<ul><li>  influence of, <a href='#6_Page_401'>401</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Christianity,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards chastity, <a href='#6_Page_151'>151</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  attitude towards lust, <a href='#6_Page_179'>179</a>.</li>
+<li>  attitude towards nakedness, <a href='#6_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>  failed to recognize importance of art of love, <a href='#6_Page_517'>517</a>.</li>
+<li>  its influence on position of women, <a href='#6_Page_398'>398</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  on marriage, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  mixed attitude towards sexual impulse, <a href='#6_Page_124'>124</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_513'>513</a>.</li>
+<li>  towards prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_282'>282</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  towards seduction, <a href='#6_Page_180'>180</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Civilization and prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  and the sexual impulse, <a href='#6_Page_199'>199</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Coitus,
+<ul><li>  <i>a posteriori</i>, <a href='#6_Page_556'>556</a>.</li>
+<li>  best time for, <a href='#6_Page_558'>558</a>.</li>
+<li>  during pregnancy, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  ethnic variations in, <a href='#6_Page_557'>557</a>.</li>
+<li>  excess in, <a href='#6_Page_535'>535</a>.</li>
+<li>  injuries due to unskilful, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>.</li>
+<li>  <i>interruptus</i>, <a href='#6_Page_551'>551</a>.</li>
+<li>  morbid horror of, <a href='#6_Page_81'>81</a>.</li>
+<li>  needs to be taught, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>.</li>
+<li>  prayer before, <a href='#6_Page_559'>559</a>.</li>
+<li>  proper frequency of, <a href='#6_Page_533'>533</a>.</li>
+<li>  religious significance of, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>, <a href='#6_Page_559'>559</a>.</li>
+<li>  <i>reservatus</i>, <a href='#6_Page_552'>552</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Collusion,
+<ul><li>  doctrine of, <a href='#6_Page_451'>451</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Conception,
+<ul><li>  conditions of, <a href='#6_Page_577'>577</a>.</li>
+<li>  prevention of, <a href='#6_Page_588'>588</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Concubine, <a href='#6_Page_498'>498</a>.</li>
+<li>Condom, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a>.</li>
+<li>Conjugal rights or rites, <a href='#6_Page_538'>538</a>.</li>
+<li>Consent,
+<ul><li>  age of, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Consultation de Nourrisson, <a href='#6_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Contract,
+<ul><li>  marriage as a, <a href='#6_Page_470'>470</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Corinth,
+<ul><li>  prostitution at, <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>, <a href='#6_Page_232'>232</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Country life and sexuality, <a href='#6_Page_38'>38</a>.</li>
+<li>Courtesan,
+<ul><li>  origin of term, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Courtship,
+<ul><li>  the art of, <a href='#6_Page_538'>538</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Criminality in relation to prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_267'>267</a>.</li>
+<li>Cyprus,
+<ul><li>  prostitution at, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Dancing,
+<ul><li>  hygienic value of, <a href='#6_Page_74'>74</a>.</li>
+<li>  as an orgy, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>D'Aragona, Tullia, <a href='#6_Page_244'>244</a>.</li>
+<li>Divorce,
+<ul><li>  by mutual consent, <a href='#6_Page_463'>463</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  causes for, <a href='#6_Page_448'>448</a>.</li>
+<li>  in ancient Rome, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a>.</li>
+<li>  in ancient Wales, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>  in China, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>  in England, <a href='#6_Page_447'>447</a>.</li>
+<li>  in France, <a href='#6_Page_455'>455</a>, <a href='#6_Page_465'>465</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Germany, <a href='#6_Page_455'>455</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Japan, <a href='#6_Page_460'>460</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Russia, <a href='#6_Page_457'>457</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Switzerland, <a href='#6_Page_457'>457</a>.</li>
+<li>  in United States, <a href='#6_Page_458'>458</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_624'>624</a>.</li>
+<li>  Milton's views on, <a href='#6_Page_444'>444</a>.</li>
+<li>  modern tendency of, <a href='#6_Page_462'>462</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  Protestant attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_441'>441</a>.</li>
+<li>  question of damages for, <a href='#6_Page_450'>450</a>.</li>
+<li>  reform of, <a href='#6_Page_454'>454</a>.</li>
+<li>  tendency of legislation regarding, <a href='#6_Page_624'>624</a>.</li>
+<li>  transmission of venereal disease as a cause for, <a href='#6_Page_349'>349</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Drama,
+<ul><li>  modern function of the, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Dysmenorrh&oelig;a, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Economic factor,
+<ul><li>  of marriage, <a href='#6_Page_375'>375</a>.</li>
+<li>  of prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Education in matters of sex, <a href='#6_Page_33'>33</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  for women, <a href='#6_Page_75'>75</a>.<a name='6_Page_652'></a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Egypt,
+<ul><li>  high status of women in, <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#6_Page_408'>408</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Eldest born child,
+<ul><li>  characteristics of, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>England,
+<ul><li>  marriage in, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a>, <a href='#6_Page_444'>444</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_252'>252</a>, <a href='#6_Page_257'>257</a>, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_307'>307</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Erotic element in marriage, <a href='#6_Page_508'>508</a>.</li>
+<li>Eskimo,
+<ul><li>  divorce among, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual initiation among, <a href='#6_Page_89'>89</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Eugenics, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a>.
+<ul><li>  false ideas of, <a href='#6_Page_583'>583</a>.</li>
+<li>  foundation by Galton, <a href='#6_Page_582'>582</a>.</li>
+<li>  importance of environment in relation to, <a href='#6_Page_623'>623</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to castration, <a href='#6_Page_614'>614</a>.</li>
+<li>  Noyes a pioneer in, <a href='#6_Page_618'>618</a>.</li>
+<li>  positive, <a href='#6_Page_621'>621</a>.</li>
+<li>  wide acceptance of principle of, <a href='#6_Page_584'>584</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Excretory centers as affecting estimate of sexual impulse, <a href='#6_Page_120'>120</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Exogamy,
+<ul><li>  origin of, <a href='#6_Page_423'>423</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Families and degeneracy,
+<ul><li>  large, <a href='#6_Page_591'>591</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Father in relation to family, <a href='#6_Page_2'>2</a>.</li>
+<li>Fecundation,
+<ul><li>  artificial, <a href='#6_Page_632'>632</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Festivals,
+<ul><li>  seasonal, <a href='#6_Page_219'>219</a>, <a href='#6_Page_230'>230</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Fidus, <a href='#6_Page_115'>115</a>.</li>
+<li>Fiji,
+<ul><li>  chastity in, <a href='#6_Page_406'>406</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Flirtation, <a href='#6_Page_518'>518</a>.</li>
+<li>Fools, Feast of, <a href='#6_Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+<li>Fornication,
+<ul><li>  theological doctrine of, <a href='#6_Page_283'>283</a>, <a href='#6_Page_375'>375</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>France,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_455'>455</a>, <a href='#6_Page_465'>465</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_240'>240</a>, <a href='#6_Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#6_Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#6_Page_256'>256</a>, <a href='#6_Page_265'>265</a>, <a href='#6_Page_306'>306</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Franco, Veronica, <a href='#6_Page_245'>245</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Gallantry,
+<ul><li>  the ancient conception of, <a href='#6_Page_412'>412</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Geisha, the, <a href='#6_Page_307'>307</a>.</li>
+<li>General paralysis and syphilis, <a href='#6_Page_325'>325</a>.</li>
+<li>Genius,
+<ul><li>  in relation to chastity, <a href='#6_Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to love, <a href='#6_Page_574'>574</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Germany,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_455'>455</a>.</li>
+<li>  marriage in, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#6_Page_253'>253</a>, <a href='#6_Page_333'>333</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Gestation,
+<ul><li>  length of, <a href='#6_Page_9'>9</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Girdle of chastity, <a href='#6_Page_163'>163</a>.</li>
+<li>Girls,
+<ul><li>  interest in sex matters, <a href='#6_Page_62'>62</a>.</li>
+<li>  masculine ideals of, <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Girls,
+<ul><li>  sex education of, <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>  their need of sexual knowledge, <a href='#6_Page_46'>46</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Gnostic elements in early Christian literature, <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a>.</li>
+<li>Goddesses in forefront of primitive pantheons, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>.</li>
+<li>Gonorrh&oelig;a,
+<ul><li>  nature and results of, <a href='#6_Page_328'>328</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  <i>And see</i> Venereal Diseases.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Goutte de Lait, <a href='#6_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Greeks,
+<ul><li>  origin of their drama, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+<li>  prudery among, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>  rarity of ideal sexual love among, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>  their attitude towards nakedness, <a href='#6_Page_95'>95</a>.</li>
+<li>  their conception of the orgy, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>  their erotic writings, <a href='#6_Page_557'>557</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Group-marriage, <a href='#6_Page_423'>423</a>.</li>
+<li>Gyn&aelig;cocracy,
+<ul><li>  alleged primitive, <a href='#6_Page_390'>390</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Hetair&aelig;, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>, <a href='#6_Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+<li>Hindu attitude towards sex, <a href='#6_Page_129'>129</a>, <a href='#6_Page_544'>544</a>.</li>
+<li>Holland,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_250'>250</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Homosexuality among prostitutes, <a href='#6_Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+<li>Huddersfield scheme, <a href='#6_Page_28'>28</a>.</li>
+<li>Hysteria, <a href='#6_Page_183'>183</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Ideals, of girls,
+<ul><li>  masculine, <a href='#6_Page_77'>77</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Illegitimacy, <a href='#6_Page_292'>292</a>.
+<ul><li>  in Germany, <a href='#6_Page_382'>382</a>, <a href='#6_Page_489'>489</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Imperia, <a href='#6_Page_244'>244</a>.</li>
+<li>Impotency in popular estimation, <a href='#6_Page_174'>174</a>.</li>
+<li>Impurity,
+<ul><li>  disastrous results of teaching feminine, <a href='#6_Page_78'>78</a>.</li>
+<li>  early Christian views of, <a href='#6_Page_128'>128</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>India,
+<ul><li>  story of The Betrothed of, <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a>.</li>
+<li>  sacred prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Individualism and Socialism, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+<li>Infantile mortality, <a href='#6_Page_5'>5</a>.
+<ul><li>  in relation to suckling by mother, <a href='#6_Page_26'>26</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to syphilis, <a href='#6_Page_537'>537</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Infantile sexuality, <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a>.</li>
+<li>Insanity and prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_275'>275</a>.</li>
+<li>Intellectual work in relation to sexual activity in men, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a>.
+<ul><li>  in women, <a href='#6_Page_190'>190</a>.<a name='6_Page_653'></a></li></ul></li>
+<li>Ireland,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>  high status of women in ancient, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Italy,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#6_Page_258'>258</a>, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Jamaica,
+<ul><li>  results of free sexual unions in, <a href='#6_Page_388'>388</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Japan,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards love in, <a href='#6_Page_135'>135</a>.</li>
+<li>  automatic legitimation of children in, <a href='#6_Page_490'>490</a>.</li>
+<li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_460'>460</a>, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#6_Page_237'>237</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Jealousy, <a href='#6_Page_563'>563</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Jesus, <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Jews,
+<ul><li>  as parents, <a href='#6_Page_6'>6</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution among ancient, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>  status of women among, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Judas Thomas's Acts, <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Kadishtu, <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>.</li>
+<li>Kant, <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>Korea,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_238'>238</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Lactation, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+<li>Lectures on sexual hygiene, <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Lenclos, Ninon de, <a href='#6_Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#6_Page_308'>308</a>.</li>
+<li>Love,
+<ul><li>  an essential part of marriage, <a href='#6_Page_508'>508</a>.</li>
+<li>  art of, <a href='#6_Page_507'>507</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  definition of, <a href='#6_Page_132'>132</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  difficulties of art of, <a href='#6_Page_530'>530</a>, <a href='#6_Page_547'>547</a>.</li>
+<li>  for more than one person, <a href='#6_Page_371'>371</a>.</li>
+<li>  future development of, <a href='#6_Page_574'>574</a>.</li>
+<li>  how far an illusion, <a href='#6_Page_137'>137</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in childhood, <a href='#6_Page_36'>36</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to chastity, <a href='#6_Page_172'>172</a>, <a href='#6_Page_176'>176</a>.</li>
+<li>  inevitable mystery of, <a href='#6_Page_136'>136</a>.</li>
+<li>  its value for life, <a href='#6_Page_115'>115</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  testimonies to immense importance of, <a href='#6_Page_139'>139</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Lust,
+<ul><li>  in relation to love, <a href='#6_Page_132'>132</a>.</li>
+<li>  theological conception of, <a href='#6_Page_179'>179</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Lydian prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Mahommedanism
+<ul><li>     and prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>  and sanctity of sex, <a href='#6_Page_129'>129</a>.</li>
+<li>  its regard for chastity, <a href='#6_Page_164'>164</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Male continence, <a href='#6_Page_554'>554</a>.</li>
+<li>Malthus, <a href='#6_Page_594'>594</a>.</li>
+<li>Mammary activity in infancy, <a href='#6_Page_34'>34</a>.</li>
+<li>Manuals of sexual hygiene, <a href='#6_Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#6_Page_81'>81</a>.</li>
+<li>Maoris,
+<ul><li>  results of loss of old faith among, <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Marriage,
+<ul><li>  advantages of early, <a href='#6_Page_379'>379</a>.</li>
+<li>  ambil anak, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>.</li>
+<li>  and prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_225'>225</a>, <a href='#6_Page_296'>296</a>, <a href='#6_Page_363'>363</a>.</li>
+<li>  as a contract, <a href='#6_Page_470'>470</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  as a fact, <a href='#6_Page_477'>477</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  as a sacrament, <a href='#6_Page_435'>435</a>, <a href='#6_Page_479'>479</a>.</li>
+<li>  as an ethical sacrament, <a href='#6_Page_479'>479</a>.</li>
+<li>  beena, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>.</li>
+<li>  by capture, <a href='#6_Page_148'>148</a>.</li>
+<li>  certificates for, <a href='#6_Page_622'>622</a>.</li>
+<li>  criticism of, <a href='#6_Page_364'>364</a>.</li>
+<li>  evolution of, <a href='#6_Page_421'>421</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  for a term of years, <a href='#6_Page_472'>472</a>.</li>
+<li>  from legal point of view, <a href='#6_Page_375'>375</a>.</li>
+<li>  in early Christian times, <a href='#6_Page_429'>429</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in old English law, <a href='#6_Page_402'>402</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to eugenics, <a href='#6_Page_621'>621</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to morals, <a href='#6_Page_373'>373</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Rome, <a href='#6_Page_428'>428</a>.</li>
+<li>  independent of forms, <a href='#6_Page_480'>480</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  inferior forms of, <a href='#6_Page_489'>489</a>.</li>
+<li>  love as a factor of, <a href='#6_Page_508'>508</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  modern tendencies in regard to, <a href='#6_Page_377'>377</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  objections to early, <a href='#6_Page_37'>37</a>.</li>
+<li>  objects of, <a href='#6_Page_507'>507</a>.</li>
+<li>  procreation as a factor of, <a href='#6_Page_576'>576</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  Protestant attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_440'>440</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  trial, <a href='#6_Page_379'>379</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  variations in order of, <a href='#6_Page_491'>491</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Masturbation,
+<ul><li> among prostitutes, <a href='#6_Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+<li>  anxiety of boys about, <a href='#6_Page_61'>61</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to sexual abstinence, <a href='#6_Page_196'>196</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Matriarchy,
+<ul><li>  alleged primitive, <a href='#6_Page_390'>390</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Matrilineal descent, <a href='#6_Page_391'>391</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendelism, <a href='#6_Page_630'>630</a>.</li>
+<li>Mendes,
+<ul><li>  the rite at, <a href='#6_Page_232'>232</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Menstruation,
+<ul><li>  brought on by sexual excitement, <a href='#6_Page_578'>578</a>.</li>
+<li>  coitus during, <a href='#6_Page_533'>533</a>.</li>
+<li>  hygiene of, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  instruction regarding, <a href='#6_Page_64'>64</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Missionaries' attempt to impose European customs, <a href='#6_Page_99'>99</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Modesty consistent with nakedness, <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>Monogamy, <a href='#6_Page_421'>421</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_491'>491</a>.</li>
+<li>Montanist element in early Christian literature, <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a>.<a name='6_Page_654'></a></li>
+<li>Morality,
+<ul><li>  meaning of the term, <a href='#6_Page_367'>367</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Motherhood,
+<ul><li>  early age of, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>  endowment of, <a href='#6_Page_630'>630</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mothers,
+<ul><li>  duty to instruct daughters, <a href='#6_Page_64'>64</a>.</li>
+<li>  duty to suckle infant, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+<li>  responsibility for their own procreative acts, <a href='#6_Page_586'>586</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  schools for, <a href='#6_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>  the sexual teachers of children, <a href='#6_Page_48'>48</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Mylitta,
+<ul><li>  prostitution at temple of, <a href='#6_Page_229'>229</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Mystery in matters of sex, evil of, <a href='#6_Page_50'>50</a>, <a href='#6_Page_110'>110</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Nakedness,
+<ul><li>  an alleged sexual stimulant, <a href='#6_Page_97'>97</a>.</li>
+<li>  as a prime tonic of life, <a href='#6_Page_112'>112</a>.</li>
+<li>  consistent with modesty, <a href='#6_Page_108'>108</a>.</li>
+<li>  educational value of, <a href='#6_Page_106'>106</a>.</li>
+<li>  hygienic value of, <a href='#6_Page_104'>104</a>, <a href='#6_Page_111'>111</a>.</li>
+<li>  in literature and art, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in medi&aelig;val Europe, <a href='#6_Page_98'>98</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_95'>95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  its moral value, <a href='#6_Page_114'>114</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  its spiritual value, <a href='#6_Page_102'>102</a>.</li>
+<li>  modern attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Neo-Malthusianism, <a href='#6_Page_588'>588</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Neurasthenia,
+<ul><li>  sexual, <a href='#6_Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#6_Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#6_Page_203'>203</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Newton, <a href='#6_Page_184'>184</a>.</li>
+<li>New Zealand,
+<ul><li>  result of decay of <i>tapu</i> in, <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual freedom in ancient, <a href='#6_Page_226'>226</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Night-courtship customs, <a href='#6_Page_380'>380</a>.</li>
+<li>Notification of Births Act, <a href='#6_Page_29'>29</a>.
+<ul><li>  venereal diseases, <a href='#6_Page_343'>343</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Nurture <i>versus</i> breed, <a href='#6_Page_34'>34</a>.</li>
+<li>Nutrition compared to reproduction, <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#6_Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#6_Page_201'>201</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Obscenity,
+<ul><li>  early Christian views of, <a href='#6_Page_126'>126</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Orgy,
+<ul><li>  among savages, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+<li>  in classic times, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>  in medi&aelig;val Christianity, <a href='#6_Page_219'>219</a>.</li>
+<li>  its religious origin, <a href='#6_Page_218'>218</a>.</li>
+<li>  modern need of, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Oneida Community, <a href='#6_Page_553'>553</a>, <a href='#6_Page_617'>617</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Ouled-Nail prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>.</li>
+<li>Ovarian irritation, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+<li>Ovid, <a href='#6_Page_514'>514</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Penitentials, the, <a href='#6_Page_162'>162</a>.</li>
+<li>Physician,
+<ul><li>  alleged duty to prescribe sexual intercourse, <a href='#6_Page_201'>201</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  as a social reformer, <a href='#6_Page_205'>205</a>.</li>
+<li>  his place in sexual hygiene, <a href='#6_Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#6_Page_354'>354</a>, <a href='#6_Page_359'>359</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Platonic friendship, <a href='#6_Page_571'>571</a>.</li>
+<li>Poetry in relation to sexual impulse, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Polygamy, <a href='#6_Page_366'>366</a>, <a href='#6_Page_412'>412</a>, <a href='#6_Page_490'>490</a>, <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Precocity,
+<ul><li>  sexual, <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#6_Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Pregnancy,
+<ul><li>  among primitive peoples, <a href='#6_Page_13'>13</a>.</li>
+<li>  coitus during, <a href='#6_Page_16'>16</a>.</li>
+<li>  early, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>  hygiene of, <a href='#6_Page_6'>6</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Premature birth, <a href='#6_Page_10'>10</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Procreation,
+<ul><li>  best age for, <a href='#6_Page_633'>633</a>.</li>
+<li>  best season for, <a href='#6_Page_638'>638</a>.</li>
+<li>  control of, <a href='#6_Page_578'>578</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  its place in marriage, <a href='#6_Page_365'>365</a>, <a href='#6_Page_508'>508</a>.</li>
+<li>  methods of control of, <a href='#6_Page_599'>599</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  the science of, <a href='#6_Page_576'>576</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Promiscuity,
+<ul><li>  theory of primitive, <a href='#6_Page_284'>284</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Prostitutes,
+<ul><li>  as artists, <a href='#6_Page_299'>299</a>.</li>
+<li>  as guardians of the home, <a href='#6_Page_281'>281</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  at the Renaissance, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  attitudes towards bully, <a href='#6_Page_270'>270</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Austria, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>.</li>
+<li>  in classic times, <a href='#6_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>  in France, <a href='#6_Page_240'>240</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Italy, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>.</li>
+<li>  injustice of social attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_310'>310</a>.</li>
+<li>  number of servants who become, <a href='#6_Page_264'>264</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_290'>290</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  psychic and physical characteristics, <a href='#6_Page_274'>274</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  tendency to homosexuality, <a href='#6_Page_272'>272</a>.</li>
+<li>  their motives for adopting avocation, <a href='#6_Page_256'>256</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_288'>288</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  their sexual temperament, <a href='#6_Page_268'>268</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  under Christianity, <a href='#6_Page_240'>240</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Prostitution,
+<ul><li>  among savages, <a href='#6_Page_226'>226</a>, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+<li>  as affected by Christianity, <a href='#6_Page_239'>239</a>.</li>
+<li>  as an equivalent of criminality, <a href='#6_Page_267'>267</a>.</li>
+<li>  causes of, <a href='#6_Page_254'>254</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  civilizational value of, <a href='#6_Page_289'>289</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  decay of State regulation of, <a href='#6_Page_250'>250</a>.<a name='6_Page_655'></a></li>
+<li>  definition of, <a href='#6_Page_224'>224</a>.</li>
+<li>  economic factor of, <a href='#6_Page_259'>259</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  essentially unsatisfactory nature of, <a href='#6_Page_313'>313</a>.</li>
+<li>  in modern times, <a href='#6_Page_248'>248</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to marriage, <a href='#6_Page_363'>363</a>.</li>
+<li>  in the East, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  moral justification of, <a href='#6_Page_280'>280</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  need for humanizing, <a href='#6_Page_306'>306</a>.</li>
+<li>  on the stage, <a href='#6_Page_356'>356</a>.</li>
+<li>  origin and development of, <a href='#6_Page_224'>224</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  present social attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_302'>302</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  regulation of, <a href='#6_Page_249'>249</a>, <a href='#6_Page_331'>331</a>, <a href='#6_Page_339'>339</a>.</li>
+<li>  religious, <a href='#6_Page_228'>228</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>  rise of secular, <a href='#6_Page_234'>234</a>.</li>
+<li>  to acquire marriage portion, <a href='#6_Page_233'>233</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Protestantism,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_284'>284</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Prudery in ancient times, <a href='#6_Page_101'>101</a>.</li>
+<li>Puberty,
+<ul><li>  initiation at, among savages, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  sexual education at, <a href='#6_Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#6_Page_85'>85</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual hygiene at, <a href='#6_Page_209'>209</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Puericulture, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Puritans,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards unchastity, <a href='#6_Page_376'>376</a>.</li>
+<li>  towards marriage, <a href='#6_Page_437'>437</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Quaker conception of marriage, <a href='#6_Page_446'>446</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Rape,
+<ul><li>  cannot be committed by husband on wife, <a href='#6_Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#6_Page_473'>473</a>.</li>
+<li>  wedding night often a, <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Religious prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_228'>228</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>Renaissance,
+<ul><li>  prostitutes at the, <a href='#6_Page_243'>243</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Reproduction compared to nutrition, <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a>, <a href='#6_Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#6_Page_201'>201</a>.</li>
+<li>Responsibility in matters of sex,
+<ul><li>  personal, <a href='#6_Page_349'>349</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_405'>405</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_417'>417</a>, <a href='#6_Page_444'>444</a>, <a href='#6_Page_463'>463</a>, <a href='#6_Page_481'>481</a>, <a href='#6_Page_586'>586</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Rest,
+<ul><li>  during pregnancy, importance of, <a href='#6_Page_7'>7</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  during menstruation, <a href='#6_Page_67'>67</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Ring,
+<ul><li>  origin of wedding, <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Robert of Arbrissel, <a href='#6_Page_160'>160</a>.</li>
+<li>Romantic literature of chastity, <a href='#6_Page_158'>158</a>.
+<ul><li>  love, late origin of, <a href='#6_Page_135'>135</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Rome,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards nakedness in ancient, <a href='#6_Page_96'>96</a>.</li>
+<li>  conception of the orgy in, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li>
+<li>  marriage in, <a href='#6_Page_428'>428</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_238'>238</a>.</li>
+<li>  status of women in, <a href='#6_Page_395'>395</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Russia,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_457'>457</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual freedom in, <a href='#6_Page_384'>384</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Sabbath orgy, <a href='#6_Page_221'>221</a>.</li>
+<li>Sacrament,
+<ul><li>  marriage as a, <a href='#6_Page_435'>435</a>, <a href='#6_Page_479'>479</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sacred prostitution, <a href='#6_Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#6_Page_235'>235</a>.</li>
+<li>Sale-marriage, <a href='#6_Page_432'>432</a>.</li>
+<li>Savages,
+<ul><li>  prostitution among, <a href='#6_Page_226'>226</a>.</li>
+<li>  rarity of love among, <a href='#6_Page_134'>134</a>.</li>
+<li>  sexual education among, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_515'>515</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Scandinavian method of dealing with venereal diseases, <a href='#6_Page_344'>344</a>.</li>
+<li>School,
+<ul><li>  its place in sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_56'>56</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Schools for mothers, <a href='#6_Page_29'>29</a>.</li>
+<li>Seduction,
+<ul><li>  early Church's attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_180'>180</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Servants frequently become prostitutes, <a href='#6_Page_264'>264</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_290'>290</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sexual abstinence, <a href='#6_Page_169'>169</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sexual an&aelig;sthesia,
+<ul><li>  a cause of, <a href='#6_Page_526'>526</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_33'>33</a> <i>et seq.</i>
+<ul><li>  among savages, <a href='#6_Page_87'>87</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_515'>515</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  and coitus, <a href='#6_Page_510'>510</a>.</li>
+<li>  and nakedness, <a href='#6_Page_95'>95</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Sexual hygiene and art, <a href='#6_Page_92'>92</a>, <a href='#6_Page_223'>223</a>.
+<ul><li>  and literature, <a href='#6_Page_89'>89</a>.</li>
+<li>  and religion, <a href='#6_Page_85'>85</a>.</li>
+<li>  at puberty, <a href='#6_Page_209'>209</a>.</li>
+<li>  at school, <a href='#6_Page_56'>56</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in childhood, <a href='#6_Page_40'>40</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in relation to sexual abstinence, <a href='#6_Page_206'>206</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Sexual innocence,
+<ul><li>  value of, <a href='#6_Page_44'>44</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sexual morality, <a href='#6_Page_362'>362</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Sexual neurasthenia, <a href='#6_Page_183'>183</a>, <a href='#6_Page_189'>189</a>, <a href='#6_Page_203'>203</a>.</li>
+<li>Sexual physiology in education, <a href='#6_Page_57'>57</a>.</li>
+<li>Sexual precocity, <a href='#6_Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#6_Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#6_Page_528'>528</a>, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>Shakespeare in relation to sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_90'>90</a>.</li>
+<li>Slavs,
+<ul><li>  sexual freedom among, <a href='#6_Page_227'>227</a>, <a href='#6_Page_384'>384</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Socialism and individualism, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+<li>Spain,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_266'>266</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Stage,
+<ul><li>  prostitution on the, <a href='#6_Page_356'>356</a>.<a name='6_Page_656'></a></li></ul></li>
+<li>State,
+<ul><li>  its interest in children, <a href='#6_Page_22'>22</a>, <a href='#6_Page_488'>488</a>, <a href='#6_Page_505'>505</a>.</li>
+<li>  nurseries, <a href='#6_Page_31'>31</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Sterility in relation to gonorrh&oelig;a, <a href='#6_Page_329'>329</a>.</li>
+<li>Stirpiculture, <a href='#6_Page_618'>618</a>.
+<ul><li>  causes of, <a href='#6_Page_631'>631</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Stork legend of origin of babies, <a href='#6_Page_41'>41</a>.</li>
+<li>Suckling in relation to puericulture, <a href='#6_Page_24'>24</a>.</li>
+<li>Swahili,
+<ul><li>  sexual education among, <a href='#6_Page_516'>516</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Switzerland,
+<ul><li>  divorce in, <a href='#6_Page_457'>457</a>.</li>
+<li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_251'>251</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Syphilis,
+<ul><li>  its prevalence, <a href='#6_Page_326'>326</a>.</li>
+<li>  nature and results of, <a href='#6_Page_324'>324</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  of the innocent, <a href='#6_Page_336'>336</a>.</li>
+<li>  questions of the origin of, <a href='#6_Page_321'>321</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  <i>And see</i> Venereal Diseases.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Tahiti,
+<ul><li>  chastity and unchastity in old, <a href='#6_Page_148'>148</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Teachers and sexual hygiene, <a href='#6_Page_83'>83</a>.</li>
+<li>Teutonic custom,
+<ul><li>  influence on position of women, <a href='#6_Page_401'>401</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  influence on marriage, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Theatre,
+<ul><li>  as a beneficial form of the orgy, <a href='#6_Page_222'>222</a>.</li>
+<li>  early Christian attitude towards, <a href='#6_Page_220'>220</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Thekla,
+<ul><li>  legend of, <a href='#6_Page_156'>156</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Town life and sexuality, <a href='#6_Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#6_Page_293'>293</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Trappists,
+<ul><li>  r&eacute;gime of, <a href='#6_Page_208'>208</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Trent, Council of, <a href='#6_Page_434'>434</a>, <a href='#6_Page_437'>437</a>.</li>
+<li>Trial-marriage, <a href='#6_Page_379'>379</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Urban life and sexuality, <a href='#6_Page_38'>38</a>, <a href='#6_Page_293'>293</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Uterine fibroids, <a href='#6_Page_187'>187</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Vaginismus, <a href='#6_Page_525'>525</a>.</li>
+<li>Vasectomy, <a href='#6_Page_615'>615</a>.</li>
+<li>Venereal diseases,
+<ul><li>  conquest of the, <a href='#6_Page_316'>316</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  free treatment of, <a href='#6_Page_345'>345</a>.</li>
+<li>  need of enlightenment concerning, <a href='#6_Page_350'>350</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  notification of, <a href='#6_Page_343'>343</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  personal responsibility for, <a href='#6_Page_349'>349</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  punishment for transmission of, <a href='#6_Page_345'>345</a> <i>et seq.</i></li></ul></li>
+<li>Venice,
+<ul><li>  prostitution in, <a href='#6_Page_241'>241</a>, <a href='#6_Page_245'>245</a>, <a href='#6_Page_246'>246</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Virgin,
+<ul><li>  intercourse with as a cure for syphilis, <a href='#6_Page_337'>337</a>.</li>
+<li>  original meaning of the term, <a href='#6_Page_165'>165</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Virginity,
+<ul><li>  why valued, <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#6_Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#6_Page_175'>175</a>, <a href='#6_Page_403'>403</a>, <a href='#6_Page_469'>469</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Wagner's music dramas, <a href='#6_Page_223'>223</a>.</li>
+<li>Wales,
+<ul><li>  divorce in ancient, <a href='#6_Page_461'>461</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>White slavery, <a href='#6_Page_302'>302</a>.</li>
+<li>Wife-purchase among ancient Germans, <a href='#6_Page_431'>431</a>.
+<ul><li>  in modern times, <a href='#6_Page_403'>403</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Woman movement, <a href='#6_Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#6_Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#6_Page_409'>409</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>Women,
+<ul><li>  alleged tendency to dissimulation, <a href='#6_Page_412'>412</a>.</li>
+<li>  among the Jews, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>.</li>
+<li>  and sexual abstinence, <a href='#6_Page_185'>185</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  erotic characteristics of, <a href='#6_Page_541'>541</a>.</li>
+<li>  ignorance of art of love, <a href='#6_Page_520'>520</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Arabia, <a href='#6_Page_394'>394</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Babylonia, <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>.</li>
+<li>  in Egypt, <a href='#6_Page_393'>393</a>, <a href='#6_Page_408'>408</a>.</li>
+<li>  in modern Europe, <a href='#6_Page_397'>397</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to divorce, <a href='#6_Page_468'>468</a>.</li>
+<li>  in relation to free sexual unions, <a href='#6_Page_386'>386</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  in Rome, <a href='#6_Page_395'>395</a>, <a href='#6_Page_428'>428</a>.</li>
+<li>  inequality before the law, <a href='#6_Page_473'>473</a>.</li>
+<li>  moral equality with men, <a href='#6_Page_438'>438</a>, <a href='#6_Page_495'>495</a>.</li>
+<li>  must not be compulsory mothers, <a href='#6_Page_586'>586</a>.</li>
+<li>  not attracted to innocent men, <a href='#6_Page_524'>524</a>.</li>
+<li>  position as affected by Teutonic custom, <a href='#6_Page_401'>401</a> <i>et seq.</i></li>
+<li>  procreative age of, <a href='#6_Page_634'>634</a>.</li>
+<li>  their high status in ancient Ireland, <a href='#6_Page_392'>392</a>.</li>
+<li>  their need of economic independence, <a href='#6_Page_407'>407</a>.</li>
+<li>  their need of personal responsibility, <a href='#6_Page_405'>405</a>, <a href='#6_Page_469'>469</a>.</li>
+<li>  their need of sexual knowledge, <a href='#6_Page_44'>44</a> <i>et seq.</i>, <a href='#6_Page_351'>351</a>.</li>
+<li>  understand love better than men, <a href='#6_Page_527'>527</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Yakuts,
+<ul><li>  attitude towards virginity, <a href='#6_Page_147'>147</a>.</li></ul></li>
+<li>Yuman Indians,
+<ul><li>  sexual initiation among, <a href='#6_Page_88'>88</a>.</li></ul></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<ul><li>Zo&ouml;logy and sexual education, <a href='#6_Page_59'>59</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+<br>
+<br>
+<hr class="pg" noshade>
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME 6 (OF 6)***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 13615-h.txt or 13615-h.zip *******</p>
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+
+
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+<pre class="pg">
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diff --git a/old/13615.txt b/old/13615.txt
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+++ b/old/13615.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 6
+(of 6), by Havelock Ellis
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Volume 6 (of 6)
+
+Author: Havelock Ellis
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2004  [eBook #13615]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
+VOLUME 6 (OF 6)***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX, VOLUME VI
+
+   Sex in Relation to Society
+
+by
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS
+
+1927
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+In the previous five volumes of these _Studies_, I have dealt mainly with
+the sexual impulse in relation to its object, leaving out of account the
+external persons and the environmental influences which yet may powerfully
+affect that impulse and its gratification. We cannot afford, however, to
+pass unnoticed this relationship of the sexual impulse to third persons
+and to the community at large with all its anciently established
+traditions. We have to consider sex in relation to society.
+
+In so doing, it will be possible to discuss more summarily than in
+preceding volumes the manifold and important problems that are presented
+to us. In considering the more special questions of sexual psychology we
+entered a neglected field and it was necessary to expend an analytic care
+and precision which at many points had never been expended before on these
+questions. But when we reach the relationships of sex to society we have
+for the most part no such neglect to encounter. The subject of every
+chapter in the present volume could easily form, and often has formed, the
+topic of a volume, and the literature of many of these subjects is already
+extremely voluminous. It must therefore be our main object here not to
+accumulate details but to place each subject by turn, as clearly and
+succinctly as may be, in relation to those fundamental principles of
+sexual psychology which--so far as the data at present admit--have been
+set forth in the preceding volumes.
+
+It may seem to some, indeed, that in this exposition I should have
+confined myself to the present, and not included so wide a sweep of the
+course of human history and the traditions of the race. It may especially
+seem that I have laid too great a stress on the influence of Christianity
+in moulding sexual ideals and establishing sexual institutions. That, I am
+convinced, is an error. It is because it is so frequently made that the
+movements of progress among us--movements that can never at any period of
+social history cease--are by many so seriously misunderstood. We cannot
+escape from our traditions. There never has been, and never can be, any
+"age of reason." The most ardent co-called "free-thinker," who casts aside
+as he imagines the authority of the Christian past, is still held by that
+past. If its traditions are not absolutely in his blood, they are
+ingrained in the texture of all the social institutions into which he was
+born and they affect even his modes of thinking. The latest modifications
+of our institutions are inevitably influenced by the past form of those
+institutions. We cannot realize where we are, nor whither we are moving,
+unless we know whence we came. We cannot understand the significance of
+the changes around us, nor face them with cheerful confidence, unless we
+are acquainted with the drift of the great movements that stir all
+civilization in never-ending cycles.
+
+In discussing sexual questions which are very largely matters of social
+hygiene we shall thus still be preserving the psychological point of view.
+Such a point of view in relation to these matters is not only legitimate
+but necessary. Discussions of social hygiene that are purely medical or
+purely juridical or purely moral or purely theological not only lead to
+conclusions that are often entirely opposed to each other but they
+obviously fail to possess complete applicability to the complex human
+personality. The main task before us must be to ascertain what best
+expresses, and what best satisfies, the totality of the impulses and ideas
+of civilized men and women. So that while we must constantly bear in mind
+medical, legal, and moral demands--which all correspond in some respects
+to some individual or social need--the main thing is to satisfy the
+demands of the whole human person.
+
+It is necessary to emphasize this point of view because it would seem
+that no error is more common among writers on the hygienic and moral
+problems of sex than the neglect of the psychological standpoint. They may
+take, for instance, the side of sexual restraint, or the side of sexual
+unrestraint, but they fail to realize that so narrow a basis is inadequate
+for the needs of complex human beings. From the wider psychological
+standpoint we recognize that we have to conciliate opposing impulses that
+are both alike founded on the human psychic organism.
+
+In the preceding volumes of these _Studies_ I have sought to refrain from
+the expression of any personal opinion and to maintain, so far as
+possible, a strictly objective attitude. In this endeavor, I trust, I have
+been successful if I may judge from the fact that I have received the
+sympathy and approval of all kinds of people, not less of the
+rationalistic free-thinker than of the orthodox believer, of those who
+accept, as well as of those who reject, our most current standards of
+morality. This is as it should be, for whatever our criteria of the worth
+of feelings and of conduct, it must always be of use to us to know what
+exactly are the feelings of people and how those feelings tend to affect
+their conduct. In the present volume, however, where social traditions
+necessarily come in for consideration and where we have to discuss the
+growth of those traditions in the past and their probable evolution in the
+future, I am not sanguine that the objectivity of my attitude will be
+equally clear to the reader. I have here to set down not only what people
+actually feel and do but what I think they are tending to feel and do.
+That is a matter of estimation only, however widely and however cautiously
+it is approached; it cannot be a matter of absolute demonstration. I trust
+that those who have followed me in the past will bear with me still, even
+if it is impossible for them always to accept the conclusions I have
+myself reached.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+Carbis Bay, Cornwall, England.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MOTHER AND HER CHILD.
+
+The Child's Right to Choose Its Ancestry--How This is Effected--The Mother
+the Child's Supreme Parent--Motherhood and the Woman Movement--The Immense
+Importance of Motherhood--Infant Mortality and Its Causes--The Chief Cause
+in the Mother--The Need of Rest During Pregnancy--Frequency of Premature
+Birth--The Function of the State--Recent Advance in Puericulture--The
+Question of Coitus During Pregnancy--The Need of Rest During
+Lactation--The Mother's Duty to Suckle Her Child--The Economic
+Question--The Duty of the State--Recent Progress in the Protection of the
+Mother--The Fallacy of State Nurseries.
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION.
+
+Nurture Necessary as Well as Breed--Precocious Manifestations of the
+Sexual Impulse--Are they to be Regarded as Normal?--The Sexual Play of
+Children--The Emotion of Love in Childhood--Are Town Children More
+Precocious Sexually Than Country Children?--Children's Ideas Concerning
+the Origin of Babies--Need for Beginning the Sexual Education of Children
+in Early Years--The Importance of Early Training in Responsibility--Evil
+of the Old Doctrine of Silence in Matters of Sex--The Evil Magnified When
+Applied to Girls--The Mother the Natural and Best Teacher--The Morbid
+Influence of Artificial Mystery in Sex Matters--Books on Sexual
+Enlightenment of the Young--Nature of the Mother's Task--Sexual Education
+in the School--The Value of Botany--Zooelogy--Sexual Education After
+Puberty--The Necessity of Counteracting Quack Literature--Danger of
+Neglecting to Prepare for the First Onset of Menstruation--The Right
+Attitude Towards Woman's Sexual Life--The Vital Necessity of the Hygiene
+of Menstruation During Adolescence--Such Hygiene Compatible with the
+Educational and Social Equality of the Sexes--The Invalidism of Women
+Mainly Due to Hygienic Neglect--Good Influence of Physical Training on
+Women and Bad Influence of Athletics--The Evils of Emotional
+Suppression--Need of Teaching the Dignity of Sex--Influence of These
+Factors on a Woman's Fate in Marriage--Lectures and Addresses on Sexual
+Hygiene--The Doctor's Part in Sexual Education--Pubertal Initiation Into
+the Ideal World--The Place of the Religious and Ethical Teacher--The
+Initiation Rites of Savages Into Manhood and Womanhood--The Sexual
+Influence of Literature--The Sexual Influence of Art.
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION AND NAKEDNESS.
+
+The Greek Attitude Towards Nakedness--How the Romans Modified That
+Attitude--The Influence of Christianity--Nakedness in Mediaeval
+Times--Evolution of the Horror of Nakedness--Concomitant Change in the
+Conception of Nakedness--Prudery--The Romantic Movement--Rise of a New
+Feeling in Regard to Nakedness--The Hygienic Aspect of Nakedness--How
+Children May Be Accustomed to Nakedness--Nakedness Not Inimical to
+Modesty--The Instinct of Physical Pride--The Value of Nakedness in
+Education--The AEsthetic Value of Nakedness--The Human Body as One of the
+Prime Tonics of Life--How Nakedness May Be Cultivated--The Moral Value of
+Nakedness.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE VALUATION OF SEXUAL LOVE.
+
+The Conception of Sexual Love--The Attitude of Mediaeval Asceticism--St.
+Bernard and St. Odo of Cluny--The Ascetic Insistence on the Proximity of
+the Sexual and Excretory Centres--Love as a Sacrament of Nature--The Idea
+of the Impurity of Sex in Primitive Religions Generally--Theories of the
+Origin of This Idea--The Anti-Ascetic Element in the Bible and Early
+Christianity--Clement of Alexandria--St. Augustine's Attitude--The
+Recognition of the Sacredness of the Body by Tertullian, Rufinus and
+Athanasius--The Reformation--The Sexual Instinct Regarded as Beastly--The
+Human Sexual Instinct Not Animal-like--Lust and Love--The Definition of
+Love--Love and Names for Love Unknown in Some Parts of the World--Romantic
+Love of Late Development in the White Race--The Mystery of Sexual
+Desire--Whether Love is a Delusion--The Spiritual as Well as the Physical
+Structure of the World in Part Built up on Sexual Love The Testimony of
+Men of Intellect to the Supremacy of Love.
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FUNCTION OF CHASTITY.
+
+Chastity Essential to the Dignity of Love--The Eighteenth Century Revolt
+Against the Ideal of Chastity--Unnatural Forms of Chastity--The
+Psychological Basis of Asceticism--Asceticism and Chastity as Savage
+Virtues--The Significance of Tahiti--Chastity Among Barbarous
+Peoples--Chastity Among the Early Christians--Struggles of the Saints with
+the Flesh--The Romance of Christian Chastity--Its Decay in Mediaeval
+Times--_Aucassin et Nicolette_ and the New Romance of Chaste Love--The
+Unchastity of the Northern Barbarians--The Penitentials--Influence of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation--The Revolt Against Virginity as a
+Virtue--The Modern Conception of Chastity as a Virtue--The Influences That
+Favor the Virtue of Chastity--Chastity as a Discipline--The Value of
+Chastity for the Artist--Potency and Impotence in Popular Estimation--The
+Correct Definitions of Asceticism and Chastity.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE.
+
+The Influence of Tradition--The Theological Conception of Lust--Tendency
+of These Influences to Degrade Sexual Morality--Their Result in Creating
+the Problem of Sexual Abstinence--The Protests Against Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence and Genius--Sexual Abstinence in Women--The
+Advocates of Sexual Abstinence--Intermediate Attitude--Unsatisfactory
+Nature of the Whole Discussion--Criticism of the Conception of Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence as Compared to Abstinence from Food--No
+Complete Analogy--The Morality of Sexual Abstinence Entirely Negative--Is
+It the Physician's Duty to Advise Extra-Conjugal Sexual
+Intercourse?--Opinions of Those Who Affirm or Deny This Duty--The
+Conclusion Against Such Advice--The Physician Bound by the Social and
+Moral Ideas of His Age--The Physician as Reformer--Sexual Abstinence and
+Sexual Hygiene--Alcohol--The Influence of Physical and Mental
+Exercise--The Inadequacy of Sexual Hygiene in This Field--The Unreal
+Nature of the Conception of Sexual Abstinence--The Necessity of Replacing
+It by a More Positive Ideal.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PROSTITUTION.
+
+I. _The Orgy:_--The Religious Origin of the Orgy--The Feast of
+Fools--Recognition of the Orgy by the Greeks and Romans--The Orgy Among
+Savages--The Drama--The Object Subserved by the Orgy.
+
+II. _The Origin and Development of Prostitution:_--The Definition of
+Prostitution--Prostitution Among Savages--The Conditions Under Which
+Professional Prostitution Arises--Sacred Prostitution--The Rite of
+Mylitta--The Practice of Prostitution to Obtain a Marriage Portion--The
+Rise of Secular Prostitution in Greece--Prostitution in the East--India,
+China, Japan, etc.--Prostitution in Rome--The Influence of Christianity on
+Prostitution--The Effort to Combat Prostitution--The Mediaeval Brothel--The
+Appearance of the Courtesan--Tullia D'Aragona--Veronica Franco--Ninon de
+Lenclos--Later Attempts to Eradicate Prostitution--The Regulation of
+Prostitution--Its Futility Becoming Recognized.
+
+III. _The Causes of Prostitution:_--Prostitution as a Part of the Marriage
+System--The Complex Causation of Prostitution--The Motives Assigned by
+Prostitutes--(1) Economic Factor of Prostitution--Poverty Seldom the Chief
+Motive for Prostitution--But Economic Pressure Exerts a Real
+Influence--The Large Proportion of Prostitutes Recruited from Domestic
+Service--Significance of This Fact--(2) The Biological Factor of
+Prostitution--The So-called Born-Prostitute--Alleged Identity with the
+Born-Criminal--The Sexual Instinct in Prostitutes--The Physical and
+Psychic Characters of Prostitutes--(3) Moral Necessity as a Factor in the
+Existence of Prostitution--The Moral Advocates of Prostitution--The Moral
+Attitude of Christianity Towards Prostitution--The Attitude of
+Protestantism--Recent Advocates of the Moral Necessity of
+Prostitution--(4) Civilizational Value as a Factor of Prostitution--The
+Influence of Urban Life--The Craving for Excitement--Why Servant-girls so
+Often Turn to Prostitution--The Small Part Played by Seduction--Prostitutes
+Come Largely from the Country--The Appeal of Civilization Attracts Women
+to Prostitution--The Corresponding Attraction Felt by Men--The Prostitute
+as Artist and Leader of Fashion--The Charm of Vulgarity.
+
+IV. _The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution:_--The Decay of the
+Brothel--The Tendency to the Humanization of Prostitution--The Monetary
+Aspects of Prostitution--The Geisha--The Hetaira--The Moral Revolt Against
+Prostitution--Squalid Vice Based on Luxurious Virtue--The Ordinary
+Attitude Towards Prostitutes--Its Cruelty Absurd--The Need of Reforming
+Prostitution--The Need of Reforming Marriage--These Two Needs Closely
+Correlated--The Dynamic Relationships Involved.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE CONQUEST OF THE VENEREAL DISEASES.
+
+The Significance of the Venereal Diseases--The History of Syphilis--The
+Problem of Its Origin--The Social Gravity of Syphilis--The Social Dangers
+of Gonorrhoea--The Modern Change in the Methods of Combating Venereal
+Diseases--Causes of the Decay of the System of Police Regulation--Necessity
+of Facing the Facts--The Innocent Victims of Venereal Diseases--Diseases
+Not Crimes--The Principle of Notification--The Scandinavian
+System--Gratuitous Treatment--Punishment For Transmitting
+Venereal Diseases--Sexual Education in Relation to Venereal
+Diseases--Lectures, Etc.--Discussion in Novels and on the Stage--The
+"Disgusting" Not the "Immoral".
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SEXUAL MORALITY.
+
+Prostitution in Relation to Our Marriage System--Marriage and
+Morality--The Definition of the Term "Morality"--Theoretical Morality--Its
+Division Into Traditional Morality and Ideal Morality--Practical
+Morality--Practical Morality Based on Custom--The Only Subject of
+Scientific Ethics--The Reaction Between Theoretical and Practical
+Morality--Sexual Morality in the Past an Application of Economic
+Morality--The Combined Rigidity and Laxity of This Morality--The
+Growth of a Specific Sexual Morality and the Evolution of Moral
+Ideals--Manifestations of Sexual Morality--Disregard of the Forms of
+Marriage--Trial Marriage--Marriage After Conception of Child--Phenomena in
+Germany, Anglo-Saxon Countries, Russia, etc.--The Status of Woman--The
+Historical Tendency Favoring Moral Equality of Women with Men--The Theory
+of the Matriarchate--Mother-Descent--Women in Babylonia--Egypt--Rome--The
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries--The Historical Tendency
+Favoring Moral Inequality of Woman--The Ambiguous Influence of
+Christianity--Influence of Teutonic Custom and Feudalism--Chivalry--Woman
+in England--The Sale of Wives--The Vanishing Subjection of
+Woman--Inaptitude of the Modern Man to Domineer--The Growth of Moral
+Responsibility in Women--The Concomitant Development of Economic
+Independence--The Increase of Women Who Work--Invasion of the Modern
+Industrial Field by Women--In How Far This Is Socially Justifiable--The
+Sexual Responsibility of Women and Its Consequences--The Alleged Moral
+Inferiority of Women--The "Self-Sacrifice" of Women--Society Not
+Concerned with Sexual Relationships--Procreation the Sole Sexual Concern
+of the State--The Supreme Importance of Maternity.
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+MARRIAGE.
+
+The Definition of Marriage--Marriage Among Animals--The Predominance of
+Monogamy--The Question of Group Marriage--Monogamy a Natural Fact, Not
+Based on Human Law--The Tendency to Place the Form of Marriage Above the
+Fact of Marriage--The History of Marriage--Marriage in Ancient
+Rome--Germanic Influence on Marriage--Bride-Sale--The Ring--The Influence
+of Christianity on Marriage--The Great Extent of this Influence--The
+Sacrament of Matrimony--Origin and Growth of the Sacramental
+Conception--The Church Made Marriage a Public Act--Canon Law--Its Sound
+Core--Its Development--Its Confusions and Absurdities--Peculiarities of
+English Marriage Law--Influence of the Reformation on Marriage--The
+Protestant Conception of Marriage as a Secular Contract--The Puritan
+Reform of Marriage--Milton as the Pioneer of Marriage Reform--His Views on
+Divorce--The Backward Position of England in Marriage Reform--Criticism of
+the English Divorce Law--Traditions of the Canon Law Still Persistent--The
+Question of Damages for Adultery--Collusion as a Bar to
+Divorce--Divorce in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, etc.--The United
+States--Impossibility of Deciding by Statute the Causes for
+Divorce--Divorce by Mutual Consent--Its Origin and Development--Impeded by
+the Traditions of Canon Law--Wilhelm von Humboldt--Modern Pioneer
+Advocates of Divorce by Mutual Consent--The Arguments Against Facility of
+Divorce--The Interests of the Children--The Protection of Women--The
+Present Tendency of the Divorce Movement--Marriage Not a Contract--The
+Proposal of Marriage for a Term of Years--Legal Disabilities and
+Disadvantages in the Position of the Husband and the Wife--Marriage Not a
+Contract But a Fact--Only the Non-Essentials of Marriage, Not the
+Essentials, a Proper Matter for Contract--The Legal Recognition of
+Marriage as a Fact Without Any Ceremony--Contracts of the Person Opposed
+to Modern Tendencies--The Factor of Moral Responsibility--Marriage as an
+Ethical Sacrament--Personal Responsibility Involves Freedom--Freedom the
+Best Guarantee of Stability--False Ideas of Individualism--Modern Tendency
+of Marriage--With the Birth of a Child Marriage Ceases to be a Private
+Concern--Every Child Must Have a Legal Father and Mother--How This Can be
+Effected--The Firm Basis of Monogamy--The Question of Marriage
+Variations--Such Variations Not Inimical to Monogamy--The Most Common
+Variations--The Flexibility of Marriage Holds Variations in
+Check--Marriage Variations _versus_ Prostitution--Marriage on a Reasonable
+and Humane Basis--Summary and Conclusion.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE ART OF LOVE.
+
+Marriage Not Only for Procreation--Theologians on the _Sacramentum
+Solationis_--Importance of the _Art of Love_--The Basis of Stability in
+Marriage and the Condition for Right Procreation--The Art of Love the
+Bulwark Against Divorce--The Unity of Love and Marriage a Principle of
+Modern Morality--Christianity and the Art of Love--Ovid--The Art of Love
+Among Primitive Peoples--Sexual Initiation in Africa and Elsewhere--The
+Tendency to Spontaneous Development of the Art of Love in Early
+Life--Flirtation--Sexual Ignorance in Women--The Husband's Place in Sexual
+Initiation--Sexual Ignorance in Men--The Husband's Education for
+Marriage--The Injury Done by the Ignorance of Husbands--The Physical and
+Mental Results of Unskilful Coitus--Women Understand the Art of Love
+Better Than Men--Ancient and Modern Opinions Concerning Frequency of
+Coitus--Variation in Sexual Capacity--The Sexual Appetite--The Art of Love
+Based on the Biological Facts of Courtship--The Art of Pleasing Women--The
+Lover Compared to the Musician--The Proposal as a Part of
+Courtship--Divination in the Art of Love--The Importance of the
+Preliminaries in Courtship--The Unskilful Husband Frequently the Cause of
+the Frigid Wife--The Difficulty of Courtship--Simultaneous Orgasm--The
+Evils of Incomplete Gratification in Women--Coitus Interruptus--Coitus
+Reservatus--The Human Method of Coitus--Variations in Coitus--Posture in
+Coitus--The Best Time for Coitus--The Influence of Coitus in Marriage--The
+Advantages of Absence in Marriage--The Risks of Absence--Jealousy--The
+Primitive Function of Jealousy--Its Predominance Among Animals, Savages,
+etc, and in Pathological States--An Anti-Social Emotion--Jealousy
+Incompatible With the Progress of Civilization--The Possibility of Loving
+More Than One Person at a Time--Platonic Friendship--The Conditions Which
+Make It Possible--The Maternal Element in Woman's Love--The Final
+Development of Conjugal Love--The Problem of Love One of the Greatest Of
+Social Questions.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SCIENCE OF PROCREATION.
+
+The Relationship of the Science of Procreation to the Art of Love--Sexual
+Desire and Sexual Pleasure as the Conditions of Conception--Reproduction
+Formerly Left to Caprice and Lust--The Question of Procreation as a
+Religious Question--The Creed of Eugenics--Ellen Key and Sir Francis
+Galton--Our Debt to Posterity--The Problem of Replacing Natural
+Selection--The Origin and Development of Eugenics--The General Acceptance
+of Eugenical Principles To-day--The Two Channels by Which Eugenical
+Principles are Becoming Embodied in Practice--The Sense of Sexual
+Responsibility in Women--The Rejection of Compulsory Motherhood--The
+Privilege of Voluntary Motherhood--Causes of the Degradation of
+Motherhood--The Control of Conception--Now Practiced by the Majority of
+the Population in Civilized Countries--The Fallacy of "Racial
+Suicide"--Are Large Families a Stigma of Degeneration?--Procreative
+Control the Outcome of Natural and Civilized Progress--The Growth of
+Neo-Malthusian Beliefs and Practices--Facultative Sterility as Distinct
+from Neo-Malthusianism--The Medical and Hygienic Necessity of Control of
+Conception--Preventive Methods--Abortion--The New Doctrine of the Duty to
+Practice Abortion--How Far is this Justifiable?--Castration as a Method of
+Controlling Procreation--Negative Eugenics and Positive Eugenics--The
+Question of Certificates for Marriage--The Inadequacy of Eugenics by Act
+of Parliament--The Quickening of the Social Conscience in Regard to
+Heredity--Limitations to the Endowment of Motherhood--The Conditions
+Favorable to Procreation--Sterility--The Question of Artificial
+Fecundation--The Best Age of Procreation--The Question of Early
+Motherhood--The Best Time for Procreation--The Completion of the Divine
+Cycle of Life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE MOTHER AND HER CHILD.
+
+The Child's Right to Choose Its Ancestry--How This is Effected--The Mother
+the Child's Supreme Parent--Motherhood and the Woman Movement--The Immense
+Importance of Motherhood--Infant Mortality and Its Causes--The Chief Cause
+in the Mother--The Need of Rest During Pregnancy--Frequency of Premature
+Birth--The Function of the State--Recent Advance in Puericulture--The
+Question of Coitus During Pregnancy--The Need of Rest During
+Lactation--The Mother's Duty to Suckle Her Child--The Economic
+Question--The Duty of the State--Recent Progress in the Protection of the
+Mother--The Fallacy of State Nurseries.
+
+
+A man's sexual nature, like all else that is most essential in him, is
+rooted in a soil that was formed very long before his birth. In this, as
+in every other respect, he draws the elements of his life from his
+ancestors, however new the recombination may be and however greatly it may
+be modified by subsequent conditions. A man's destiny stands not in the
+future but in the past. That, rightly considered, is the most vital of all
+vital facts. Every child thus has a right to choose his own ancestors.
+Naturally he can only do this vicariously, through his parents. It is the
+most serious and sacred duty of the future father to choose one half of
+the ancestral and hereditary character of his future child; it is the most
+serious and sacred duty of the future mother to make a similar choice.[1]
+In choosing each other they have between them chosen the whole ancestry of
+their child. They have determined the stars that will rule his fate.
+
+In the past that fateful determination has usually been made helplessly,
+ignorantly, almost unconsciously. It has either been guided by an
+instinct which, on the whole, has worked out fairly well, or controlled by
+economic interests of the results of which so much cannot be said, or left
+to the risks of lower than bestial chances which can produce nothing but
+evil. In the future we cannot but have faith--for all the hope of humanity
+must rest on that faith--that a new guiding impulse, reinforcing natural
+instinct and becoming in time an inseparable accompaniment of it, will
+lead civilized man on his racial course. Just as in the past the race has,
+on the whole, been moulded by a natural, and in part sexual, selection,
+that was unconscious of itself and ignorant of the ends it made towards,
+so in the future the race will be moulded by deliberate selection, the
+creative energy of Nature becoming self-conscious in the civilized brain
+of man. This is not a faith which has its source in a vague hope. The
+problems of the individual life are linked on to the fate of the racial
+life, and again and again we shall find as we ponder the individual
+questions we are here concerned with, that at all points they ultimately
+converge towards this same racial end.
+
+Since we have here, therefore, to follow out the sexual relationships of
+the individual as they bear on society, it will be convenient at this
+point to put aside the questions of ancestry and to accept the individual
+as, with hereditary constitution already determined, he lies in his
+mother's womb.
+
+It is the mother who is the child's supreme parent. At various points in
+zooelogical evolution it has seemed possible that the functions that we now
+know as those of maternity would be largely and even equally shared by the
+male parent. Nature has tried various experiments in this direction, among
+the fishes, for instance, and even among birds. But reasonable and
+excellent as these experiments were, and though they were sufficiently
+sound to secure their perpetuation unto this day, it remains true that it
+was not along these lines that Man was destined to emerge. Among all the
+mammal predecessors of Man, the male is an imposing and important figure
+in the early days of courtship, but after conception has once been secured
+the mother plays the chief part in the racial life. The male must be
+content to forage abroad and stand on guard when at home in the
+ante-chamber of the family. When she has once been impregnated the female
+animal angrily rejects the caresses she had welcomed so coquettishly
+before, and even in Man the place of the father at the birth of his child
+is not a notably dignified or comfortable one. Nature accords the male but
+a secondary and comparatively humble place in the home, the breeding-place
+of the race; he may compensate himself if he will, by seeking adventure
+and renown in the world outside. The mother is the child's supreme parent,
+and during the period from conception to birth the hygiene of the future
+man can only be affected by influences which work through her.
+
+Fundamental and elementary as is the fact of the predominant position of
+the mother in relation to the life of the race, incontestable as it must
+seem to all those who have traversed the volumes of these _Studies_ up to
+the present point, it must be admitted that it has sometimes been
+forgotten or ignored. In the great ages of humanity it has indeed been
+accepted as a central and sacred fact. In classic Rome at one period the
+house of the pregnant woman was adorned with garlands, and in Athens it
+was an inviolable sanctuary where even the criminal might find shelter.
+Even amid the mixed influences of the exuberantly vital times which
+preceded the outburst of the Renaissance, the ideally beautiful woman, as
+pictures still show, was the pregnant woman. But it has not always been
+so. At the present time, for instance, there can be no doubt that we are
+but beginning to emerge from a period during which this fact was often
+disputed and denied, both in theory and in practice, even by women
+themselves. This was notably the case both in England and America, and it
+is probably owing in large part to the unfortunate infatuation which led
+women in these lands to follow after masculine ideals that at the present
+moment the inspirations of progress in women's movements come mainly
+to-day from the women of other lands. Motherhood and the future of the
+race were systematically belittled. Paternity is but a mere incident, it
+was argued, in man's life: why should maternity be more than a mere
+incident in woman's life? In England, by a curiously perverted form of
+sexual attraction, women were so fascinated by the glamour that surrounded
+men that they desired to suppress or forget all the facts of organic
+constitution which made them unlike men, counting their glory as their
+shame, and sought the same education as men, the same occupations as men,
+even the same sports. As we know, there was at the origin an element of
+rightness in this impulse.[2] It was absolutely right in so far as it was
+a claim for freedom from artificial restriction, and a demand for economic
+independence. But it became mischievous and absurd when it developed into
+a passion for doing, in all respects, the same things as men do; how
+mischievous and how absurd we may realize if we imagine men developing a
+passion to imitate the ways and avocations of women. Freedom is only good
+when it is a freedom to follow the laws of one's own nature; it ceases to
+be freedom when it becomes a slavish attempt to imitate others, and would
+be disastrous if it could be successful.[3]
+
+At the present day this movement on the theoretical side has ceased to
+possess any representatives who exert serious influence. Yet its practical
+results are still prominently exhibited in England and the other countries
+in which it has been felt. Infantile mortality is enormous, and in England
+at all events is only beginning to show a tendency to diminish; motherhood
+is without dignity, and the vitality of mothers is speedily crushed, so
+that often they cannot so much as suckle their infants; ignorant
+girl-mothers give their infants potatoes and gin; on every hand we are
+told of the evidence of degeneracy in the race, or if not in the race, at
+all events, in the young individuals of to-day.
+
+    It would be out of place, and would lead us too far, to discuss
+    here these various practical outcomes of the foolish attempt to
+    belittle the immense racial importance of motherhood. It is
+    enough here to touch on the one point of the excess of infantile
+    mortality.
+
+    In England--which is not from the social point of view in a very
+    much worse condition than most countries, for in Austria and
+    Russia the infant mortality is higher still, though in Australia
+    and New Zealand much lower, but still excessive--more than
+    one-fourth of the total number of deaths every year is of infants
+    under one year of age. In the opinion of medical officers of
+    health who are in the best position to form an opinion, about
+    one-half of this mortality, roughly speaking, is absolutely
+    preventable. Moreover, it is doubtful whether there is any real
+    movement of decrease in this mortality; during the past half
+    century it has sometimes slightly risen and sometimes slightly
+    fallen, and though during the past few years the general movement
+    of mortality for children under five in England and Wales has
+    shown a tendency to decrease, in London (according to J.F.J.
+    Sykes, although Sir Shirley Murphy has attempted to minimize the
+    significance of these figures) the infantile mortality rate for
+    the first three months of life actually rose from 69 per 1,000 in
+    the period 1888-1892 to 75 per 1,000 in the period 1898-1901.
+    (This refers, it must be remembered, to the period before the
+    introduction of the Notification of Births Act.) In any case,
+    although the general mortality shows a marked tendency to
+    improvement there is certainly no adequately corresponding
+    improvement in the infantile mortality. This is scarcely
+    surprising, when we realize that there has been no change for the
+    better, but rather for the worse, in the conditions under which
+    our infants are born and reared. Thus William Hall, who has had
+    an intimate knowledge extending over fifty-six years of the slums
+    of Leeds, and has weighed and measured many thousands of slum
+    children, besides examining over 120,000 boys and girls as to
+    their fitness for factory labor, states (_British Medical
+    Journal_, October 14, 1905) that "fifty years ago the slum mother
+    was much more sober, cleanly, domestic, and motherly than she is
+    to-day; she was herself better nourished and she almost always
+    suckled her children, and after weaning they received more
+    nutritious bone-making food, and she was able to prepare more
+    wholesome food at home." The system of compulsory education has
+    had an unfortunate influence in exerting a strain on the parents
+    and worsening the conditions of the home. For, excellent as
+    education is in itself, it is not the primary need of life, and
+    has been made compulsory before the more essential things of life
+    have been made equally compulsory. How absolutely unnecessary
+    this great mortality is may be shown, without evoking the good
+    example of Australia and New Zealand, by merely comparing small
+    English towns; thus while in Guildford the infantile death rate
+    is 65 per thousand, in Burslem it is 205 per thousand.
+
+    It is sometimes said that infantile mortality is an economic
+    question, and that with improvement in wages it would cease. This
+    is only true to a limited extent and under certain conditions. In
+    Australia there is no grinding poverty, but the deaths of infants
+    under one year of age are still between 80 and 90 per thousand,
+    and one-third of this mortality, according to Hooper (_British
+    Medical Journal_, 1908, vol. ii, p. 289), being due to the
+    ignorance of mothers and the dislike to suckling, is easily
+    preventable. The employment of married women greatly diminishes
+    the poverty of a family, but nothing can be worse for the welfare
+    of the woman as mother, or for the welfare of her child. Reid,
+    the medical officer of health for Staffordshire, where there are
+    two large centres of artisan population with identical health
+    conditions, has shown that in the northern centre, where a very
+    large number of women are engaged in factories, still-births are
+    three times as frequent as in the southern centre, where there
+    are practically no trade employments for women; the frequency of
+    abnormalities is also in the same ratio. The superiority of
+    Jewish over Christian children, again, and their lower infantile
+    mortality, seem to be entirely due to the fact that Jewesses are
+    better mothers. "The Jewish children in the slums," says William
+    Hall (_British Medical Journal_, October 14, 1905), speaking from
+    wide and accurate knowledge, "were superior in weight, in teeth,
+    and in general bodily development, and they seemed less
+    susceptible to infectious disease. Yet these Jews were
+    overcrowded, they took little exercise, and their unsanitary
+    environment was obvious. The fact was, their children were much
+    better nourished. The pregnant Jewess was more cared for, and no
+    doubt supplied better nutriment to the foetus. After the children
+    were born 90 per cent. received breast-milk, and during later
+    childhood they were abundantly fed on bone-making material; eggs
+    and oil, fish, fresh vegetables, and fruit entered largely into
+    their diet." G. Newman, in his important and comprehensive book
+    on _Infant Mortality_, emphasizes the conclusion that "first of
+    all we need a higher standard of physical motherhood." The
+    problem of infantile mortality, he declares (page 259), is not
+    one of sanitation alone, or housing, or indeed of poverty as
+    such, "_but is mainly a question of motherhood_."
+
+The fundamental need of the pregnant woman is _rest_. Without a large
+degree of maternal rest there can be no puericulture.[4] The task of
+creating a man needs the whole of a woman's best energies, more especially
+during the three months before birth. It cannot be subordinated to the tax
+on strength involved by manual or mental labor, or even strenuous social
+duties and amusements. The numerous experiments and observations which
+have been made during recent years in Maternity Hospitals, more especially
+in France, have shown conclusively that not only the present and future
+well-being of the mother and the ease of her confinement, but the fate of
+the child, are immensely influenced by rest during the last month of
+pregnancy. "Every working woman is entitled to rest during the last three
+months of her pregnancy." This formula was adopted by the International
+Congress of Hygiene in 1900, but it cannot be practically carried out
+except by the cooeperation of the whole community. For it is not enough to
+say that a woman ought to rest during pregnancy; it is the business of the
+community to ensure that that rest is duly secured. The woman herself, and
+her employer, we may be certain, will do their best to cheat the
+community, but it is the community which suffers, both economically and
+morally, when a woman casts her inferior children into the world, and in
+its own interests the community is forced to control both employer and
+employed. We can no longer allow it to be said, in Bouchacourt's words,
+that "to-day the dregs of the human species--the blind, the deaf-mute, the
+degenerate, the nervous, the vicious, the idiotic, the imbecile, the
+cretins and epileptics--are better protected than pregnant women."[5]
+
+    Pinard, who must always be honored as one of the founders of
+    eugenics, has, together with his pupils, done much to prepare the
+    way for the acceptance of this simple but important principle by
+    making clear the grounds on which it is based. From prolonged
+    observations on the pregnant women of all classes Pinard has
+    shown conclusively that women who rest during pregnancy have
+    finer children than women who do not rest. Apart from the more
+    general evils of work during pregnancy, Pinard found that during
+    the later months it had a tendency to press the uterus down into
+    the pelvis, and so cause the premature birth of undeveloped
+    children, while labor was rendered more difficult and dangerous
+    (see, e.g., Pinard, _Gazette des Hopitaux_, Nov. 28, 1895, Id.,
+    _Annales de Gynecologie_, Aug., 1898).
+
+    Letourneux has studied the question whether repose during
+    pregnancy is necessary for women whose professional work is only
+    slightly fatiguing. He investigated 732 successive confinements
+    at the Clinique Baudelocque in Paris. He found that 137 women
+    engaged in fatiguing occupations (servants, cooks, etc.) and not
+    resting during pregnancy, produced children with an average
+    weight of 3,081 grammes; 115 women engaged in only slightly
+    fatiguing occupations (dressmakers, milliners, etc.) and also not
+    resting during pregnancy, had children with an average weight of
+    3,130 grammes, a slight but significant difference, in view of
+    the fact that the women of the first group were large and robust,
+    while those of the second group were of slight and elegant build.
+    Again, comparing groups of women who rested during pregnancy, it
+    was found that the women accustomed to fatiguing work had
+    children with an average weight of 3,319 grammes, while those
+    accustomed to less fatiguing work had children with an average
+    weight of 3,318 grammes. The difference between repose and
+    non-repose is thus considerable, while it also enables robust
+    women exercising a fatiguing occupation to catch up, though not
+    to surpass, the frailer women exercising a less fatiguing
+    occupation. We see, too, that even in the comparatively
+    unfatiguing occupations of milliners, etc., rest during pregnancy
+    still remains important, and cannot safely be dispensed with.
+    "Society," Letourneux concludes, "must guarantee rest to women
+    not well off during a part of pregnancy. It will be repaid the
+    cost of doing so by the increased vigor of the children thus
+    produced" (Letourneux, _De l'Influence de la Profession de la
+    Mere sur le Poids de l'Enfant_, These de Paris, 1897).
+
+    Dr. Dweira-Bernson (_Revue Pratique d'Obstetrique et de
+    Pediatrie_, 1903, p. 370), compared four groups of pregnant women
+    (servants with light work, servants with heavy work, farm girls,
+    dressmakers) who rested for three months before confinement with
+    four groups similarly composed who took no rest before
+    confinement. In every group he found that the difference in the
+    average weight of the child was markedly in favor of the women
+    who rested, and it was notable that the greatest difference was
+    found in the case of the farm girls who were probably the most
+    robust and also the hardest worked.
+
+    The usual time of gestation ranges between 274 and 280 days (or
+    280 to 290 days from the last menstrual period), and occasionally
+    a few days longer, though there is dispute as to the length of
+    the extreme limit, which some authorities would extend to 300
+    days, or even to 320 days (Pinard, in Richet's _Dictionnaire de
+    Physiologie_, vol. vii, pp. 150-162; Taylor, _Medical
+    Jurisprudence_, fifth edition, pp. 44, 98 et seq.; L.M. Allen,
+    "Prolonged Gestation," _American Journal Obstetrics_, April,
+    1907). It is possible, as Mueller suggested in 1898 in a These de
+    Nancy, that civilization tends to shorten the period of
+    gestation, and that in earlier ages it was longer than it is now.
+    Such a tendency to premature birth under the exciting nervous
+    influences of civilization would thus correspond, as Bouchacourt
+    has pointed out (_La Grossesse_, p. 113), to the similar effect
+    of domestication in animals. The robust countrywoman becomes
+    transformed into the more graceful, but also more fragile, town
+    woman who needs a degree of care and hygiene which the
+    countrywoman with her more resistant nervous system can to some
+    extent dispense with, although even she, as we see, suffers in
+    the person of her child, and probably in her own person, from the
+    effects of work during pregnancy. The serious nature of this
+    civilized tendency to premature birth--of which lack of rest in
+    pregnancy is, however, only one of several important causes--is
+    shown by the fact that Seropian (_Frequence Comparee des Causes
+    de l'Accouchement Premature_, These de Paris, 1907) found that
+    about one-third of French births (32.28 per cent.) are to a
+    greater or less extent premature. Pregnancy is not a morbid
+    condition; on the contrary, a pregnant woman is at the climax of
+    her most normal physiological life, but owing to the tension thus
+    involved she is specially liable to suffer from any slight shock
+    or strain.
+
+    It must be remarked that the increased tendency to premature
+    birth, while in part it may be due to general tendencies of
+    civilization, is also in part due to very definite and
+    preventable causes. Syphilis, alcoholism, and attempts to produce
+    abortion are among the not uncommon causes of premature birth
+    (see, e.g., G.F. McCleary, "The Influence of Antenatal Conditions
+    on Infantile Mortality," _British Medical Journal_, Aug. 13,
+    1904).
+
+    Premature birth ought to be avoided, because the child born too
+    early is insufficiently equipped for the task before him.
+    Astengo, dealing with nearly 19,000 cases at the Lariboisiere
+    Hospital in Paris and the Maternite, found, that reckoning from
+    the date of the last menstruation, there is a direct relation
+    between the weight of the infant at birth and the length of the
+    pregnancy. The longer the pregnancy, the finer the child
+    (Astengo, _Rapport du Poids des Enfants a la Duree de la
+    Grossesse_, These de Paris, 1905).
+
+    The frequency of premature birth is probably as great in England
+    as in France. Ballantyne states (_Manual of Antenatal Pathology;
+    The Foetus_, p. 456) that for practical purposes the frequency
+    of premature labors in maternity hospitals may be put at 20 per
+    cent., but that if all infants weighing less than 3,000 grammes
+    are to be regarded as premature, it rises to 41.5 per cent. That
+    premature birth is increasing in England seems to be indicated by
+    the fact that during the past twenty-five years there has been a
+    steady rise in the mortality rate from premature birth. McCleary,
+    who discusses this point and considers the increase real,
+    concludes that "it would appear that there has been a diminution
+    in the quality as well as in the quantity of our output of
+    babies" (see also a discussion, introduced by Dawson Williams, on
+    "Physical Deterioration," _British Medical Journal_, Oct. 14,
+    1905).
+
+    It need scarcely be pointed out that not only is immaturity a
+    cause of deterioration in the infants that survive, but that it
+    alone serves enormously to decrease the number of infants that
+    are able to survive. Thus G. Newman states (loc. cit.) that in
+    most large English urban districts immaturity is the chief cause
+    of infant mortality, furnishing about 30 per cent. of the infant
+    deaths; even in London (Islington) Alfred Harris (_British
+    Medical Journal_, Dec. 14, 1907) finds that it is responsible for
+    nearly 17 per cent. of the infantile deaths. It is estimated by
+    Newman that about half of the mothers of infants dying of
+    immaturity suffer from marked ill-health and poor physique; they
+    are not, therefore, fitted to be mothers.
+
+    Rest during pregnancy is a very powerful agent in preventing
+    premature birth. Thus Dr. Sarraute-Lourie has compared 1,550
+    pregnant women at the Asile Michelet who rested before
+    confinement with 1,550 women confined at the Hopital Lariboisiere
+    who had enjoyed no such period of rest. She found that the
+    average duration of pregnancy was at least twenty days shorter in
+    the latter group (Mme. Sarraute-Lourie, _De l'Influence du Repos
+    sur la Duree de la Gestation_, These de Paris, 1899).
+
+    Leyboff has insisted on the absolute necessity of rest during
+    pregnancy, as well for the sake of the woman herself as the
+    burden she carries, and shows the evil results which follow when
+    rest is neglected. Railway traveling, horse-riding, bicycling,
+    and sea-voyages are also, Leyboff believes, liable to be
+    injurious to the course of pregnancy. Leyboff recognizes the
+    difficulties which procreating women are placed under by present
+    industrial conditions, and concludes that "it is urgently
+    necessary to prevent women, by law, from working during the last
+    three months of pregnancy; that in every district there should be
+    a maternity fund; that during this enforced rest a woman should
+    receive the same salary as during work." He adds that the
+    children of unmarried mothers should be cared for by the State,
+    that there should be an eight-hours' day for all workers, and
+    that no children under sixteen should be allowed to work (E.
+    Leyboff, _L'Hygiene de la Grossesse_, These de Paris, 1905).
+
+    Perruc states that at least two months' rest before confinement
+    should be made compulsory, and that during this period the woman
+    should receive an indemnity regulated by the State. He is of
+    opinion that it should take the form of compulsory assurance, to
+    which the worker, the employer, and the State alike contributed
+    (Perruc, _Assistance aux Femmes Enceintes_, These de Paris,
+    1905).
+
+    It is probable that during the earlier months of pregnancy, work,
+    if not excessively heavy and exhausting, has little or no bad
+    effect; thus Bacchimont (_Documents pour servir a l'Histoire de
+    la Puericulture Intra-uterine_, These de Paris, 1898) found that,
+    while there was a great gain in the weight of children of mothers
+    who had rested for three months, there was no corresponding gain
+    in the children of those mothers who had rested for longer
+    periods. It is during the last three months that freedom, repose,
+    the cessation of the obligatory routine of employment become
+    necessary. This is the opinion of Pinard, the chief authority on
+    this matter. Many, however, fearing that economic and industrial
+    conditions render so long a period of rest too difficult of
+    practical attainment, are, with Clappier and G. Newman, content
+    to demand two months as a minimum; Salvat only asks for one
+    month's rest before confinement, the woman, whether married or
+    not, receiving a pecuniary indemnity during this period, with
+    medical care and drugs free. Ballantyne (_Manual of Antenatal
+    Pathology: The Foetus_, p. 475), as well as Niven, also asks only
+    for one month's compulsory rest during pregnancy, with indemnity.
+    Arthur Helme, however, taking a more comprehensive view of all
+    the factors involved, concludes in a valuable paper on "The
+    Unborn Child: Its Care and Its Rights" (_British Medical
+    Journal_, Aug. 24, 1907), "The important thing would be to
+    prohibit pregnant women from going to work at all, and it is as
+    important from the standpoint of the child that this prohibition
+    should include the early as the late months of pregnancy."
+
+    In England little progress has yet been made as regards this
+    question of rest during pregnancy, even as regards the education
+    of public opinion. Sir William Sinclair, Professor of Obstetrics
+    at the Victoria University of Manchester, has published (1907) _A
+    Plea for Establishing Municipal Maternity Homes_. Ballantyne, a
+    great British authority on the embryology of the child, has
+    published a "Plea for a Pre-Maternity Hospital" (_British Medical
+    Journal_, April 6, 1901), has since given an important lecture on
+    the subject (_British Medical Journal_, Jan. 11, 1908), and has
+    further discussed the matter in his _Manual of Ante-Natal
+    Pathology: The Foetus_ (Ch. XXVII); he is, however, more
+    interested in the establishment of hospitals for the diseases of
+    pregnancy than in the wider and more fundamental question of rest
+    for all pregnant women. In England there are, indeed, a few
+    institutions which receive unmarried women, with a record of good
+    conduct, who are pregnant for the first time, for, as
+    Bouchacourt remarks, ancient British prejudices are opposed to
+    any mercy being shown to women who are recidivists in committing
+    the crime of conception.
+
+    At present, indeed, it is only in France that the urgent need of
+    rest during the latter months of pregnancy has been clearly
+    realized, and any serious and official attempts made to provide
+    for it. In an interesting Paris thesis (_De la Puericulture avant
+    le Naissance_, 1907) Clappier has brought together much
+    information bearing on the efforts now being made to deal
+    practically with this question. There are many _Asiles_ in Paris
+    for pregnant women. One of the best is the Asile Michelet,
+    founded in 1893 by the Assistance Publique de Paris. This is a
+    sanatorium for pregnant women who have reached a period of seven
+    and a half months. It is nominally restricted to the admission of
+    French women who have been domiciled for a year in Paris, but, in
+    practice, it appears that women from all parts of France are
+    received. They are employed in light and occasional work for the
+    institution, being paid for this work, and are also occupied in
+    making clothes for the expected baby. Married and unmarried women
+    are admitted alike, all women being equal from the point of view
+    of motherhood, and indeed the majority of the women who come to
+    the Asile Michelet are unmarried, some being girls who have even
+    trudged on foot from Brittany and other remote parts of France,
+    to seek concealment from their friends in the hospitable
+    seclusion of these refuges in the great city. It is not the least
+    advantage of these institutions that they shield unmarried
+    mothers and their offspring from the manifold evils to which they
+    are exposed, and thus tend to decrease crime and suffering. In
+    addition to the maternity refuges, there are institutions in
+    France for assisting with help and advice those pregnant women
+    who prefer to remain at home, but are thus enabled to avoid the
+    necessity for undue domestic labor.
+
+    There ought to be no manner of doubt that when, as is the case
+    to-day in our own and some other supposedly civilized countries,
+    motherhood outside marriage is accounted as almost a crime, there
+    is the very greatest need for adequate provision for unmarried
+    women who are about to become mothers, enabling them to receive
+    shelter and care in secrecy, and to preserve their self-respect
+    and social position. This is necessary not only in the interests
+    of humanity and public economy, but also, as is too often
+    forgotten, in the interests of morality, for it is certain that
+    by the neglect to furnish adequate provision of this nature women
+    are driven to infanticide and prostitution. In earlier, more
+    humane days, the general provision for the secret reception and
+    care of illegitimate infants was undoubtedly most beneficial. The
+    suppression of the mediaeval method, which in France took place
+    gradually between 1833 and 1862, led to a great increase in
+    infanticide and abortion, and was a direct encouragement to crime
+    and immorality. In 1887 the Conseil General of the Seine sought
+    to replace the prevailing neglect of this matter by the adoption
+    of more enlightened ideas and founded a _bureau secret
+    d'admission_ for pregnant women. Since then both the abandonment
+    of infants and infanticide have greatly diminished, though they
+    are increasing in those parts of France which possess no
+    facilities of this kind. It is widely held that the State should
+    unify the arrangements for assuring secret maternity, and should,
+    in its own interests, undertake the expense. In 1904 French law
+    ensured the protection of unmarried mothers by guaranteeing their
+    secret, but it failed to organize the general establishment of
+    secret maternities, and has left to doctors the pioneering part
+    in this great and humane public work (A. Maillard-Brune,
+    _Refuges, Maternites, Bureaux d'Admission Secrets, comme Moyens
+    Preservatives des Infanticide_, These de Paris, 1908). It is not
+    among the least benefits of the falling birth rate that it has
+    helped to stimulate this beneficent movement.
+
+The development of an industrial system which subordinates the human body
+and the human soul to the thirst for gold, has, for a time, dismissed from
+social consideration the interests of the race and even of the individual,
+but it must be remembered that this has not been always and everywhere so.
+Although in some parts of the world the women of savage peoples work up to
+the time of confinement, it must be remarked that the conditions of work
+in savage life do not resemble the strenuous and continuous labor of
+modern factories. In many parts of the world, however, women are not
+allowed to work hard during pregnancy and every consideration is shown to
+them. This is so, for instance, among the Pueblo Indians, and among the
+Indians of Mexico. Similar care is taken in the Carolines and the Gilbert
+Islands and in many other regions all over the world. In some places,
+women are secluded during pregnancy, and in others are compelled to
+observe many more or less excellent rules. It is true that the assigned
+cause for these rules is frequently the fear of evil spirits, but they
+nevertheless often preserve a hygienic value. In many parts of the world
+the discovery of pregnancy is the sign for a festival of more or less
+ritual character, and much good advice is given to the expectant mother.
+The modern Musselmans are careful to guard the health of their women when
+pregnant, and so are the Chinese.[6] Even in Europe, in the thirteenth
+century, as Clappier notes, industrial corporations sometimes had regard
+to this matter, and would not allow women to work during pregnancy. In
+Iceland, where much of the primitive life of Scandinavian Europe is still
+preserved, great precautions are taken with pregnant women. They must lead
+a quiet life, avoid tight garments, be moderate in eating and drinking,
+take no alcohol, be safeguarded from all shocks, while their husbands and
+all others who surround them must treat them with consideration, save them
+from worry and always bear with them patiently.[7]
+
+It is necessary to emphasize this point because we have to realize that
+the modern movement for surrounding the pregnant woman with tenderness and
+care, so far from being the mere outcome of civilized softness and
+degeneracy, is, in all probability, the return on a higher plane to the
+sane practice of those races which laid the foundations of human
+greatness.
+
+While rest is the cardinal virtue imposed on a woman during the later
+months of pregnancy, there are other points in her regimen that are far
+from unimportant in their bearing on the fate of the child. One of these
+is the question of the mother's use of alcohol. Undoubtedly alcohol has
+been a cause of much fanaticism. But the declamatory extravagance of
+anti-alcoholists must not blind us to the fact that the evils of alcohol
+are real. On the reproductive process especially, on the mammary glands,
+and on the child, alcohol has an arresting and degenerative influence
+without any compensatory advantages. It has been proved by experiments on
+animals and observations on the human subject that alcohol taken by the
+pregnant woman passes freely from the maternal circulation to the foetal
+circulation. Fere has further shown that, by injecting alcohol and
+aldehydes into hen's eggs during incubation, it is possible to cause
+arrest of development and malformation in the chick.[8] The woman who is
+bearing her child in her womb or suckling it at her breast would do well
+to remember that the alcohol which may be harmless to herself is little
+better than poison to the immature being who derives nourishment from her
+blood. She should confine herself to the very lightest of alcoholic
+beverages in very moderate amounts and would do better still to abandon
+these entirely and drink milk instead. She is now the sole source of the
+child's life and she cannot be too scrupulous in creating around it an
+atmosphere of purity and health. No after-influence can ever compensate
+for mistakes made at this time.[9]
+
+What is true of alcohol is equally true of other potent drugs and poisons,
+which should all be avoided so far as possible during pregnancy because of
+the harmful influence they may directly exert on the embryo. Hygiene is
+better than drugs, and care should be exercised in diet, which should by
+no means be excessive. It is a mistake to suppose that the pregnant woman
+needs considerably more food than usual, and there is much reason to
+believe not only that a rich meat diet tends to cause sterility but that
+it is also unfavorable to the development of the child in the womb.[10]
+
+How far, if at all, it is often asked, should sexual intercourse be
+continued after fecundation has been clearly ascertained? This has not
+always been found an easy question to answer, for in the human couple many
+considerations combine to complicate the answer. Even the Catholic
+theologians have not been entirely in agreement on this point. Clement of
+Alexandria said that when the seed had been sown the field must be left
+till harvest. But it may be concluded that, as a rule, the Church was
+inclined to regard intercourse during pregnancy as at most a venial sin,
+provided there was no danger of abortion. Augustine, Gregory the Great,
+Aquinas, Dens, for instance, seem to be of this mind; for a few, indeed,
+it is no sin at all.[11] Among animals the rule is simple and uniform; as
+soon as the female is impregnated at the period of oestrus she absolutely
+rejects all advance of the male until, after birth and lactation are over,
+another period of oestrus occurs. Among savages the tendency is less
+uniform, and sexual abstinence, when it occurs during pregnancy, tends to
+become less a natural instinct than a ritual observance, or a custom now
+chiefly supported by superstitions. Among many primitive peoples
+abstinence during the whole of pregnancy is enjoined because it is
+believed that the semen would kill the foetus.[12]
+
+    The Talmud is unfavorable to coitus during pregnancy, and the
+    Koran prohibits it during the whole of the period, as well as
+    during suckling. Among the Hindus, on the other hand, intercourse
+    is continued up to the last fortnight of pregnancy, and it is
+    even believed that the injected semen helps to nourish the embryo
+    (W.D. Sutherland, "Ueber das Alltagsleben und die Volksmedizin
+    unter den Bauern Britischostindiens," _Muenchener Medizinische
+    Wochenschrift_, Nos. 12 and 13, 1906). The great Indian physician
+    Susruta, however, was opposed to coitus during pregnancy, and the
+    Chinese are emphatically on the same side.
+
+As men have emerged from barbarism in the direction of civilization, the
+animal instinct of refusal after impregnation has been completely lost in
+women, while at the same time both sexes tend to become indifferent to
+those ritual restraints which at an earlier period were almost as binding
+as instinct. Sexual intercourse thus came to be practiced after
+impregnation, much the same as before, as part of ordinary "marital
+rights," though sometimes there has remained a faint suspicion, reflected
+in the hesitating attitude of the Catholic Church already alluded to, that
+such intercourse may be a sinful indulgence. Morality is, however, called
+in to fortify this indulgence. If the husband is shut out from marital
+intercourse at this time, it is argued, he will seek extra-marital
+intercourse, as indeed in some parts of the world it is recognized that he
+legitimately may; therefore the interests of the wife, anxious to retain
+her husband's fidelity, and the interests of Christian morality, anxious
+to uphold the institution of monogamy, combine to permit the continuation
+of coitus during pregnancy. The custom has been furthered by the fact
+that, in civilized women at all events, coitus during pregnancy is usually
+not less agreeable than at other times and by some women is felt indeed to
+be even more agreeable.[13] There is also the further consideration, for
+those couples who have sought to prevent conception, that now intercourse
+may be enjoyed with impunity. From a higher point of view such intercourse
+may also be justified, for if, as all the finer moralists of the sexual
+impulse now believe, love has its value not only in so far as it induces
+procreation but also in so far as it aids individual development and the
+mutual good and harmony of the united couple, it becomes morally right
+during pregnancy.
+
+From an early period, however, great authorities have declared themselves
+in opposition to the custom of practicing coitus during pregnancy. At the
+end of the first century, Soranus, the first of great gynaecologists,
+stated, in his treatise on the diseases of women, that sexual intercourse
+is injurious throughout pregnancy, because of the movement imparted to the
+uterus, and especially injurious during the latter months. For more than
+sixteen hundred years the question, having fallen into the hands of the
+theologians, seems to have been neglected on the medical side until in
+1721 a distinguished French obstetrician, Mauriceau, stated that no
+pregnant woman should have intercourse during the last two months and that
+no woman subject to miscarriage should have intercourse at all during
+pregnancy. For more than a century, however, Mauriceau remained a pioneer
+with few or no followers. It would be inconvenient, the opinion went, even
+if it were necessary, to forbid intercourse during pregnancy.[14]
+
+During recent years, nevertheless, there has been an increasingly strong
+tendency among obstetricians to speak decisively concerning intercourse
+during pregnancy, either by condemning it altogether or by enjoining great
+prudence. It is highly probable that, in accordance with the classical
+experiments of Dareste on chicken embryos, shocks and disturbances to the
+human embryo may also produce injurious effects on growth. The disturbance
+due to coitus in the early stages of pregnancy may thus tend to produce
+malformation. When such conditions are found in the children of perfectly
+healthy, vigorous, and generally temperate parents who have indulged
+recklessly in coitus during the early stages of pregnancy it is possible
+that such coitus has acted on the embryo in the same way as shocks and
+intoxications are known to act on the embryo of lower organisms. However
+this may be, it is quite certain that in predisposed women, coitus during
+pregnancy causes premature birth; it sometimes happens that labor pains
+begin a few minutes after the act.[15] The natural instinct of animals
+refuses to allow intercourse during pregnancy; the ritual observance of
+primitive peoples very frequently points in the same direction; the voice
+of medical science, so far as it speaks at all, is beginning to utter the
+same warning, and before long will probably be in a position to do so on
+the basis of more solid and coherent evidence.
+
+    Pinard, the greatest of authorities on puericulture, asserts that
+    there must be complete cessation of sexual intercourse during the
+    whole of pregnancy, and in his consulting room at the Clinique
+    Baudelocque he has placed a large placard with an "Important
+    Notice" to this effect. Fere was strongly of opinion that sexual
+    relations during pregnancy, especially when recklessly carried
+    out, play an important part in the causation of nervous troubles
+    in children who are of sound heredity and otherwise free from all
+    morbid infection during gestation and development; he recorded in
+    detail a case which he considered conclusive ("L'Influence de
+    l'Incontinence Sexuelle pendant la Gestation sur la Descendance,"
+    _Archives de Neurologie_, April, 1905). Bouchacourt discusses the
+    subject fully (_La Grossesse_, pp. 177-214), and thinks that
+    sexual intercourse during pregnancy should be avoided as much as
+    possible. Fuerbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 226) recommends abstinence from
+    the sixth or seventh month, and throughout the whole of pregnancy
+    where there is any tendency to miscarriage, while in all cases
+    much care and gentleness should be exercised.
+
+    The whole subject has been investigated in a Paris Thesis by H.
+    Brenot (_De L'Influence de la Copulation pendant la Grossesse_,
+    1903); he concludes that sexual relations are dangerous
+    throughout pregnancy, frequently provoking premature confinement
+    or abortion, and that they are more dangerous in primiparae than
+    in multiparae.
+
+Nearly everything that has been said of the hygiene of pregnancy, and the
+need for rest, applies also to the period immediately following the birth
+of the child. Rest and hygiene on the mother's part continue to be
+necessary alike in her own interests and in the child's. This need has
+indeed been more generally and more practically recognized than the need
+for rest during pregnancy. The laws of several countries make compulsory a
+period of rest from employment after confinement, and in some countries
+they seek to provide for the remuneration of the mother during this
+enforced rest. In no country, indeed, is the principle carried out so
+thoroughly and for so long a period as is desirable. But it is the right
+principle, and embodies the germ which, in the future, will be developed.
+There can be little doubt that whatever are the matters, and they are
+certainly many, which may be safely left to the discretion of the
+individual, the care of the mother and her child is not among them. That
+is a matter which, more than any other, concerns the community as a whole,
+and the community cannot afford to be slack in asserting its authority
+over it. The State needs healthy men and women, and by any negligence in
+attending to this need it inflicts serious charges of all sorts upon
+itself, and at the same time dangerously impairs its efficiency in the
+world. Nations have begun to recognize the desirability of education, but
+they have scarcely yet begun to realize that the nationalization of health
+is even more important than the nationalization of education. If it were
+necessary to choose between the task of getting children educated and the
+task of getting them well-born and healthy it would be better to abandon
+education. There have been many great peoples who never dreamed of
+national systems of education; there has been no great people without the
+art of producing healthy and vigorous children.
+
+This matter becomes of peculiar importance in great industrial states like
+England, the United States, and Germany, because in such states a tacit
+conspiracy tends to grow up to subordinate national ends to individual
+ends, and practically to work for the deterioration of the race. In
+England, for instance, this tendency has become peculiarly well marked
+with disastrous results. The interest of the employed woman tends to
+become one with that of her employer; between them they combine to crush
+the interests of the child who represents the race, and to defeat the laws
+made in the interests of the race which are those of the community as a
+whole. The employed woman wishes to earn as much wages as she can and with
+as little interruption as she can; in gratifying that wish she is, at the
+same time, acting in the interests of the employer, who carefully avoids
+thwarting her.
+
+This impulse on the employed woman's part is by no means always and
+entirely the result of poverty, and would not, therefore, be removed by
+raising her wages. Long before marriage, when little more than a child,
+she has usually gone out to work, and work has become a second nature. She
+has mastered her work, she enjoys a certain position and what to her are
+high wages; she is among her friends and companions; the noise and bustle
+and excitement of the work-room or the factory have become an agreeable
+stimulant which she can no longer do without. On the other hand, her home
+means nothing to her; she only returns there to sleep, leaving it next
+morning at day-break or earlier; she is ignorant even of the simplest
+domestic arts; she moves about in her own home like a strange and awkward
+child. The mere act of marriage cannot change this state of things;
+however willing she may be at marriage to become a domesticated wife, she
+is destitute alike of the inclination or the skill for domesticity. Even
+in spite of herself she is driven back to the work-shop, to the one place
+where she feels really at home.
+
+    In Germany women are not allowed to work for four weeks after
+    confinement, nor during the following two weeks except by medical
+    certificate. The obligatory insurance against disease which
+    covers women at confinement assures them an indemnity at this
+    time equivalent to a large part of their wages. Married and
+    unmarried mothers benefit alike. The Austrian law is founded on
+    the same model. This measure has led to a very great decrease in
+    infantile mortality, and, therefore, a great increase in health
+    among those who survive. It is, however, regarded as very
+    inadequate, and there is a movement in Germany for extending the
+    time, for applying the system to a larger number of women, and
+    for making it still more definitely compulsory.
+
+    In Switzerland it has been illegal since 1877 for any woman to be
+    received into a factory after confinement, unless she has rested
+    in all for eight weeks, six weeks at least of this period being
+    after confinement. Since 1898 Swiss working women have been
+    protected by law from exercising hard work during pregnancy, and
+    from various other influences likely to be injurious. But this
+    law is evaded in practice, because it provides no compensatory
+    indemnity for the woman. An attempt, in 1899, to amend the law by
+    providing for such indemnity was rejected by the people.
+
+    In Belgium and Holland there are laws against women working
+    immediately after confinement, but no indemnity is provided, so
+    that employers and employed combine to evade the law. In France
+    there is no such law, although its necessity has often been
+    emphatically asserted (see, e.g., Salvat, _La Depopulation de la
+    France_, These de Lyon, 1903).
+
+    In England it is illegal to employ a woman "knowingly" in a
+    work-shop within four weeks of the birth of her child, but no
+    provision is made by the law for the compensation of the woman
+    who is thus required to sacrifice herself to the interests of the
+    State. The woman evades the law in tacit collusion with her
+    employers, who can always avoid "knowing" that a birth has taken
+    place, and so escape all responsibility for the mother's
+    employment. Thus the factory inspectors are unable to take
+    action, and the law becomes a dead letter; in 1906 only one
+    prosecution for this offense could be brought into court. By the
+    insertion of this "knowingly" a premium is placed on ignorance.
+    The unwisdom of thus beforehand placing a premium on ignorance
+    has always been more or less clearly recognized by the framers of
+    legal codes even as far back as the days of the Ten Commandments
+    and the laws of Hamurabi. It is the business of the Court, of
+    those who administer the law, to make allowance for ignorance
+    where such allowance is fairly called for; it is not for the
+    law-maker to make smooth the path of the law-breaker. There are
+    evidently law-makers nowadays so scrupulous, or so simple-minded,
+    that they would be prepared to exact that no pickpocket should be
+    prosecuted if he was able to declare on oath that he had no
+    "knowledge" that the purse he had taken belonged to the person he
+    extracted it from.
+
+    The annual reports of the English factory inspectors serve to
+    bring ridicule on this law, which looks so wisely humane and yet
+    means nothing, but have so far been powerless to effect any
+    change. These reports show, moreover, that the difficulty is
+    increasing in magnitude. Thus Miss Martindale, a factory
+    inspector, states that in all the towns she visits, from a quiet
+    cathedral city to a large manufacturing town, the employment of
+    married women is rapidly increasing; they have worked in mills or
+    factories all their lives and are quite unaccustomed to cooking,
+    housework and the rearing of children, so that after marriage,
+    even when not compelled by poverty, they prefer to go on working
+    as before. Miss Vines, another factory inspector, repeats the
+    remark of a woman worker in a factory. "I do not need to work,
+    but I do not like staying at home," while another woman said, "I
+    would rather be at work a hundred times than at home. I get lost
+    at home" (_Annual Report Chief Inspector of Factories and
+    Workshops for 1906_, pp. 325, etc.).
+
+    It may be added that not only is the English law enjoining four
+    weeks' rest on the mother after childbirth practically
+    inoperative, but the period itself is absurdly inadequate. As a
+    rest for the mother it is indeed sufficient, but the State is
+    still more interested in the child than in its mother, and the
+    child needs the mother's chief care for a much longer period than
+    four weeks. Helme advocates the State prohibition of women's work
+    for at least six months after confinement. Where nurseries are
+    attached to factories, enabling the mother to suckle her infant
+    in intervals of work, the period may doubtless be shortened.
+
+    It is important to remember that it is by no means only the women
+    in factories who are induced to work as usual during the whole
+    period of pregnancy, and to return to work immediately after the
+    brief rest of confinement. The Research Committee of the
+    Christian Social Union (London Branch) undertook, in 1905, an
+    inquiry into the employment of women after childbirth. Women in
+    factories and workshops were excluded from the inquiry which only
+    had reference to women engaged in household duties, in home
+    industries, and in casual work. It was found that the majority
+    carry on their employment right up to the time of confinement and
+    resume it from ten to fourteen days later. The infantile death
+    rate for the children of women engaged only in household duties
+    was greatly lower than that for the children of the other women,
+    while, as ever, the hand-fed infants had a vastly higher death
+    rate than the breast-fed infants (_British Medical Journal_, Oct.
+    24, 1908, p. 1297).
+
+    In the great French gun and armour-plate works at Creuzot (Saone
+    et Loire) the salaries of expectant mothers among the employees
+    are raised; arrangements are made for giving them proper advice
+    and medical attendance; they are not allowed to work after the
+    middle of pregnancy or to return to work after confinement
+    without a medical certificate of fitness. The results are said to
+    be excellent, not only on the health of the mothers, but in the
+    diminution of premature births, the decrease of infantile deaths,
+    and the general prevalence of breast-feeding. It would probably
+    be hopeless to expect many employers in Anglo-Saxon lands to
+    adopt this policy. They are too "practical," they know how small
+    is the money-value of human lives. With us it is necessary for
+    the State to intervene.
+
+    There can be no doubt that, on the whole, modern civilized
+    communities are beginning to realize that under the social and
+    economic conditions now tending more and more to prevail, they
+    must in their own interests insure that the mother's best energy
+    and vitality are devoted to the child, both before and after its
+    birth. They are also realizing that they cannot carry out their
+    duty in this respect unless they make adequate provision for the
+    mothers who are thus compelled to renounce their employment in
+    order to devote themselves to their children. We here reach a
+    point at which Individualism is at one with Socialism. The
+    individualist cannot fail to see that it is at all cost necessary
+    to remove social conditions which crush out all individuality;
+    the Socialist cannot fail to see that a society which neglects to
+    introduce order at this central and vital point, the production
+    of the individual, must speedily perish.
+
+It is involved in the proper fulfilment of a mother's relationship to her
+infant child that, provided she is healthy, she should suckle it. Of
+recent years this question has become a matter of serious gravity. In the
+middle of the eighteenth century, when the upper-class women of France had
+grown disinclined to suckle their own children, Rousseau raised so loud
+and eloquent a protest that it became once more the fashion for a woman to
+fulfil her natural duties. At the present time, when the same evil is
+found once more, and in a far more serious form, for now it is not the
+small upper-class but the great lower-class that is concerned, the
+eloquence of a Rousseau would be powerless, for it is not fashion so much
+as convenience, and especially an intractable economic factor, that is
+chiefly concerned. Not the least urgent reason for putting women, and
+especially mothers, upon a sounder economic basis, is the necessity of
+enabling them to suckle their children.
+
+    No woman is sound, healthy, and complete unless she possesses
+    breasts that are beautiful enough to hold the promise of being
+    functional when the time for their exercise arrives, and nipples
+    that can give suck. The gravity of this question to-day is shown
+    by the frequency with which women are lacking in this essential
+    element of womanhood, and the young man of to-day, it has been
+    said, often in taking a wife, "actually marries but part of a
+    woman, the other part being exhibited in the chemist's shop
+    window, in the shape of a glass feeding-bottle." Blacker found
+    among a thousand patients from the maternity department of
+    University College Hospital that thirty-nine had never suckled at
+    all, seven hundred and forty-seven had suckled all their
+    children, and two hundred and fourteen had suckled only some.
+    The chief reason given for not suckling was absence or
+    insufficiency of milk; other reasons being inability or
+    disinclination to suckle, and refusal of the child to take the
+    breast (Blacker, _Medical Chronicle_, Feb., 1900). These results
+    among the London poor are certainly very much better than could
+    be found in many manufacturing towns where women work after
+    marriage. In the other large countries of Europe equally
+    unsatisfactory results are found. In Paris Madame Dluska has
+    shown that of 209 women who came for their confinement to the
+    Clinique Baudelocque, only 74 suckled their children; of the 135
+    who did not suckle, 35 were prevented by pathological causes or
+    absence of milk, 100 by the necessities of their work. Even those
+    who suckled could seldom continue more than seven months on
+    account of the physiological strain of work (Dluska,
+    _Contribution a l'Etude de l'Allaitement Maternel_, These de
+    Paris, 1894). Many statistics have been gathered in the German
+    countries. Thus Wiedow (_Centralblatt fuer Gynaekologie_, No. 29,
+    1895) found that of 525 women at the Freiburg Maternity only half
+    could suckle thoroughly during the first two weeks; imperfect
+    nipples were noted in 49 cases, and it was found that the
+    development of the nipple bore a direct relation to the value of
+    the breast as a secretory organ. At Munich Escherich and Bueller
+    found that nearly 60 per cent. of women of the lower class were
+    unable to suckle their children, and at Stuttgart three-quarters
+    of the child-bearing women were in this condition.
+
+The reasons why children should be suckled at their mothers' breasts are
+larger than some may be inclined to believe. In the first place the
+psychological reason is one of no mean importance. The breast with its
+exquisitely sensitive nipple, vibrating in harmony with the sexual organs,
+furnishes the normal mechanism by which maternal love is developed. No
+doubt the woman who never suckles her child may love it, but such love is
+liable to remain defective on the fundamental and instinctive side. In
+some women, indeed, whom we may hesitate to call abnormal, maternal love
+fails to awaken at all until brought into action through this mechanism by
+the act of suckling.
+
+A more generally recognized and certainly fundamental reason for suckling
+the child is that the milk of the mother, provided she is reasonably
+healthy, is the infant's only ideally fit food. There are some people
+whose confidence in science leads them to believe that it is possible to
+manufacture foods that are as good or better than mother's milk; they
+fancy that the milk which is best for the calf is equally best for so
+different an animal as the baby. These are delusions. The infant's best
+food is that elaborated in his own mother's body. All other foods are more
+or less possible substitutes, which require trouble to prepare properly
+and are, moreover, exposed to various risks from which the mother's milk
+is free.
+
+A further reason, especially among the poor, against the use of any
+artificial foods is that it accustoms those around the child to try
+experiments with its feeding and to fancy that any kind of food they eat
+themselves may be good for the infant. It thus happens that bread and
+potatoes, brandy and gin, are thrust into infants' mouths. With the infant
+that is given the breast it is easier to make plain that, except by the
+doctor's orders, nothing else must be given.
+
+An additional reason why the mother should suckle her child is the close
+and frequent association with the child thus involved. Not only is the
+child better cared for in all respects, but the mother is not deprived of
+the discipline of such care, and is also enabled from the outset to learn
+and to understand the child's nature.
+
+    The inability to suckle acquires great significance if we realize
+    that it is associated, probably in a large measure as a direct
+    cause, with infantile mortality. The mortality of
+    artificially-fed infants during the first year of life is seldom
+    less than double that of the breast-fed, sometimes it is as much
+    as three times that of the breast-fed, or even more; thus at
+    Derby 51.7 per cent. of hand-fed infants die under the age of
+    twelve months, but only 8.6 per cent. of breast-fed infants.
+    Those who survive are by no means free from suffering. At the end
+    of the first year they are found to weigh about 25 per cent. less
+    than the breast-fed, and to be much shorter; they are more liable
+    to tuberculosis and rickets, with all the evil results that flow
+    from these diseases; and there is some reason to believe that the
+    development of their teeth is injuriously affected. The
+    degenerate character of the artificially-fed is well indicated by
+    the fact that of 40,000 children who were brought for treatment
+    to the Children's Hospital in Munich, 86 per cent. had been
+    brought up by hand, and the few who had been suckled had usually
+    only had the breast for a short time. The evil influence persists
+    even up to adult life. In some parts of France where the
+    wet-nurse industry flourishes so greatly that nearly all the
+    children are brought up by hand, it has been found that the
+    percentage of rejected conscripts is nearly double that for
+    France generally. Corresponding results have been found by
+    Friedjung in a large German athletic association. Among 155
+    members, 65 per cent. were found on inquiry to have been
+    breast-fed as infants (for an average of six months); but among
+    the best athletes the percentage of breast-fed rose to 72 per
+    cent. (for an average period of nine or ten months), while for
+    the group of 56 who stood lowest in athletic power the percentage
+    of breast-fed fell to 57 (for an average of only three months).
+
+    The advantages for an infant of being suckled by its mother are
+    greater than can be accounted for by the mere fact of being
+    suckled rather than hand-fed. This has been shown by Vitrey (_De
+    la Mortalite Infantile_, These de Lyon, 1907), who found from the
+    statistics of the Hotel-Dieu at Lyons, that infants suckled by
+    their mothers have a mortality of only 12 per cent., but if
+    suckled by strangers, the mortality rises to 33 per cent. It may
+    be added that, while suckling is essential to the complete
+    well-being of the child, it is highly desirable for the sake of
+    the mother's health also. (Some important statistics are
+    summarized in a paper on "Infantile Mortality" in _British
+    Medical Journal_, Nov. 2, 1907), while the various aspects of
+    suckling have been thoroughly discussed by Bollinger, "Ueber
+    Saeuglings-Sterblichkeit und die Erbliche functionelle Atrophie
+    der menschlichen Milchdruese" (_Correspondenzblatt Deutschen
+    Gesellschaft Anthropologie_, Oct., 1899).
+
+    It appears that in Sweden, in the middle of the eighteenth
+    century, it was a punishable offense for a woman to give her baby
+    the bottle when she was able to suckle it. In recent years Prof.
+    Anton von Menger, of Vienna, has argued (in his _Burgerliche
+    Recht und die Besitzlosen Klassen_) that the future generation
+    has the right to make this claim, and he proposes that every
+    mother shall be legally bound to suckle her child unless her
+    inability to do so has been certified by a physician. E.A.
+    Schroeder (_Das Recht in der Geschlechtlichen Ordnung_, 1893, p.
+    346) also argued that a mother should be legally bound to suckle
+    her infant for at least nine months, unless solid grounds could
+    be shown to the contrary, and this demand, which seems reasonable
+    and natural, since it is a mother's privilege as well as her duty
+    to suckle her infant when able to do so, has been insistently
+    made by others also. It has been supported from the legal side by
+    Weinberg (_Mutterschutz_, Sept., 1907). In France the Loi Roussel
+    forbids a woman to act as a wet-nurse until her child is seven
+    months old, and this has had an excellent effect in lowering
+    infantile mortality (A. Allee, _Puericulture et la Loi Roussel_,
+    These de Paris, 1908). In some parts of Germany manufacturers are
+    compelled to set up a suckling-room in the factory, where mothers
+    can give the breast to the child in the intervals of work. The
+    control and upkeep of these rooms, with provision of doctors and
+    nurses, is undertaken by the municipality (_Sexual-Probleme_,
+    Sept., 1908, p. 573).
+
+As things are to-day in modern industrial countries the righting of these
+wrongs cannot be left to Nature, that is, to the ignorant and untrained
+impulses of persons who live in a whirl of artificial life where the voice
+of instinct is drowned. The mother, we are accustomed to think, may be
+trusted to see to the welfare of her child, and it is unnecessary, or even
+"immoral," to come to her assistance. Yet there are few things, I think,
+more pathetic than the sight of a young Lancashire mother who works in the
+mills, when she has to stay at home to nurse her sick child. She is used
+to rise before day-break to go to the mill; she has scarcely seen her
+child by the light of the sun, she knows nothing of its necessities, the
+hands that are so skilful to catch the loom cannot soothe the child. The
+mother gazes down at it in vague, awkward, speechless misery. It is not a
+sight one can ever forget.
+
+It is France that is taking the lead in the initiation of the scientific
+and practical movements for the care of the young child before and after
+birth, and it is in France that we may find the germs of nearly all the
+methods now becoming adopted for arresting infantile mortality. The
+village system of Villiers-le-Duc, near Dijon in the Cote d'Or, has proved
+a germ of this fruitful kind. Here every pregnant woman not able to secure
+the right conditions for her own life and that of the child she is
+bearing, is able to claim the assistance of the village authorities; she
+is entitled, without payment, to the attendance of a doctor and midwife
+and to one franc a day during her confinement. The measures adopted in
+this village have practically abolished both maternal and infantile
+mortality. A few years ago Dr. Samson Moore, the medical officer of health
+for Huddersfield, heard of this village, and Mr. Benjamin Broadbent, the
+Mayor of Huddersfield, visited Villiers-le-Duc. It was resolved to
+initiate in Huddersfield a movement for combating infant mortality.
+Henceforth arose what is known as the Huddersfield scheme, a scheme which
+has been fruitful in splendid results. The points of the Huddersfield
+scheme are: (1) compulsory notification of births within forty-eight
+hours; (2) the appointment of lady assistant medical officers of help to
+visit the home, inquire, advise, and assist; (3) the organized aid of
+voluntary lady workers in subordination to the municipal part of the
+scheme; (4) appeal to the medical officer of help when the baby, not being
+under medical care, fails to thrive. The infantile mortality of
+Huddersfield has been very greatly reduced by this scheme.[16]
+
+    The Huddersfield scheme may be said to be the origin of the
+    English Notification of Births Act, which came into operation in
+    1908. This Act represents, in England, the national inauguration
+    of a scheme for the betterment of the race, the ultimate results
+    of which it is impossible to foresee. When this Act comes into
+    universal action every baby of the land will be entitled--legally
+    and not by individual caprice or philanthropic condescension--to
+    medical attention from the day of birth, and every mother will
+    have at hand the counsel of an educated woman in touch with the
+    municipal authorities. There could be no greater triumph for
+    medical science, for national efficiency, and the cause of
+    humanity generally. Even on the lower financial plane, it is easy
+    to see that an enormous saving of public and private money will
+    thus be effected. The Act is adoptive, and not compulsory. This
+    was a wise precaution, for an Act of this kind cannot be
+    effectual unless it is carried out thoroughly by the community
+    adopting it, and it will not be adopted until a community has
+    clearly realized its advantages and the methods of attaining
+    them.
+
+    An important adjunct of this organization is the School for
+    Mothers. Such schools, which are now beginning to spring up
+    everywhere, may be said to have their origins in the
+    _Consultations de Nourrissons_ (with their offshoot the _Goutte
+    de Lait_), established by Professor Budin in 1892, which have
+    spread all over France and been widely influential for good. At
+    the _Consultations_ infants are examined and weighed weekly, and
+    the mothers advised and encouraged to suckle their children. The
+    _Gouttes_ are practically milk dispensaries where infants for
+    whom breast-feeding is impossible are fed with milk under medical
+    supervision. Schools for Mothers represent an enlargement of the
+    same scheme, covering a variety of subjects which it is necessary
+    for a mother to know. Some of the first of these schools were
+    established at Bonn, at the Bavarian town of Weissenberg, and in
+    Ghent. At some of the Schools for Mothers, and notably at Ghent
+    (described by Mrs. Bertrand Russell in the _Nineteenth Century_,
+    1906), the important step has been taken of giving training to
+    young girls from fourteen to eighteen; they receive instruction
+    in infant anatomy and physiology, in the preparation of
+    sterilized milk, in weighing children, in taking temperatures and
+    making charts, in managing creches, and after two years are able
+    to earn a salary. In various parts of England, schools for young
+    mothers and girls on these lines are now being established, first
+    in London, under the auspices of Dr. F.J. Sykes, Medical Officer
+    of Health for St. Pancreas (see, e.g., _A School For Mothers_,
+    1908, describing an establishment of this kind at Somers Town,
+    with a preface by Sir Thomas Barlow; an account of recent
+    attempts to improve the care of infants in London will also be
+    found in the _Lancet_, Sept. 26, 1908). It may be added that some
+    English municipalities have established depots for supplying
+    mothers cheaply with good milk. Such depots are, however, likely
+    to be more mischievous than beneficial if they promote the
+    substitution of hand-feeding for suckling. They should never be
+    established except in connection with Schools for Mothers, where
+    an educational influence may be exerted, and no mother should be
+    supplied with milk unless she presents a medical certificate
+    showing that she is unable to nourish her child (Byers, "Medical
+    Women and Public Health Questions," _British Medical Journal_,
+    Oct. 6, 1906). It is noteworthy that in England the local
+    authorities will shortly be empowered by law to establish Schools
+    for Mothers.
+
+    The great benefits produced by these institutions in France, both
+    in diminishing the infant mortality and in promoting the
+    education of mothers and their pride and interest in their
+    children, have been set forth in two Paris theses by G. Chaignon
+    (_Organisation des Consultations de Nourrissons a la Campagne_,
+    1908), and Alcide Alexandre (_Consultation de Nourrissons et
+    Goutte de Lait d'Arques_, 1908).
+
+    The movement is now spreading throughout Europe, and an
+    International Union has been formed, including all the
+    institutions specially founded for the protection of child life
+    and the promotion of puericulture. The permanent committee is in
+    Brussels, and a Congress of Infant Protection (_Goutte de Lait_)
+    is held every two years.
+
+It will be seen that all the movements now being set in action for the
+improvement of the race through the child and the child's mother,
+recognize the intimacy of the relation between the mother and her child
+and are designed to aid her, even if necessary by the exercise of some
+pressure, in performing her natural functions in relation to her child. To
+the theoretical philanthropist, eager to reform the world on paper,
+nothing seems simpler than to cure the present evils of child-rearing by
+setting up State nurseries which are at once to relieve mothers of
+everything connected with the production of the men of the future beyond
+the pleasure--if such it happens to be--of conceiving them and the trouble
+of bearing them, and at the same time to rear them up independently of the
+home, in a wholesome, economical, and scientific manner.[17] Nothing seems
+simpler, but from the fundamental psychological standpoint nothing is
+falser. The idea of a State which is outside the community is but a
+survival in another form of that antiquated notion which compelled Louis
+XIV to declare "L'Etat c'est moi!" A State which admits that the
+individuals composing it are incompetent to perform their own most sacred
+and intimate functions, and takes upon itself to perform them instead,
+attempts a task which would be undesirable, even if it were possible of
+achievement. It must always be remembered that a State which proposes to
+relieve its constituent members of their natural functions and
+responsibilities attempts something quite different from the State which
+seeks to aid its members to fulfil their own biological and social
+functions more adequately. A State which enables its mothers to rest when
+they are child-bearing is engaged in a reasonable task; a State which
+takes over its mothers' children is reducing philanthropy to absurdity. It
+is easy to realize this if we consider the inevitable course of
+circumstances under a system of "State-nurseries." The child would be
+removed from its natural mother at the earliest age, but some one has to
+perform the mother's duties; the substitute must therefore be properly
+trained for such duties; and in exercising them under favorable
+circumstances a maternal relationship is developed between the child and
+the "mother," who doubtless possesses natural maternal instincts but has
+no natural maternal bond to the child she is mothering. Such a
+relationship tends to become on both sides practically and emotionally the
+real relationship. We very often have opportunity of seeing how
+unsatisfactory such a relationship becomes. The artificial mother is
+deprived of a child she had begun to feel her own; the child's emotional
+relationships are upset, split and distorted; the real mother has the
+bitterness of feeling that for her child she is not the real mother. Would
+it not have been much better for all if the State had encouraged the vast
+army of women it had trained for the position of mothering other women's
+children, to have, instead, children of their own? The women who are
+incapable of mothering their own children could then be trained to refrain
+from bearing them.
+
+    Ellen Key (in her _Century of the Child_, and elsewhere) has
+    advocated for all young women a year of compulsory "service,"
+    analogous to the compulsory military service imposed in most
+    countries on young men. During this period the girl would be
+    trained in rational housekeeping, in the principles of hygiene,
+    in the care of the sick, and especially in the care of infants
+    and all that concerns the physical and psychic development of
+    children. The principle of this proposal has since been widely
+    accepted. Marie von Schmid (in her _Mutterdienst_, 1907) goes so
+    far as to advocate a general training of young women in such
+    duties, carried on in a kind of enlarged and improved midwifery
+    school. The service would last a year, and the young woman would
+    then be for three years in the reserves, and liable to be called
+    up for duty. There is certainly much to be said for such a
+    proposal, considerably more than is to be said for compulsory
+    military service. For while it is very doubtful whether a man
+    will ever be called on to fight, most women are liable to be
+    called on to exercise household duties or to look after children,
+    whether for themselves or for other people.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] It is not, of course, always literally true that each parent supplies
+exactly half the heredity, for, as we see among animals generally, the
+offspring may sometimes approach more nearly to one parent, sometimes to
+the other, while among plants, as De Vries and others have shown, the
+heredity may be still more unequally divided.
+
+[2] It should scarcely be necessary to say that to assert that motherhood
+is a woman's supreme function is by no means to assert that her activities
+should be confined to the home. That is an opinion which may now be
+regarded as almost extinct even among those who most glorify the function
+of woman as mother. As Friedrich Naumann and others have very truly
+pointed out, a woman is not adequately equipped to fulfil her functions as
+mother and trainer of children unless she has lived in the world and
+exercised a vocation.
+
+[3] "Were the capacities of the brain and the heart equal in the sexes,"
+Lily Braun (_Die Frauenfrage_, page 207) well says, "the entry of women
+into public life would be of no value to humanity, and would even lead to
+a still wilder competition. Only the recognition that the entire nature of
+woman is different from that of man, that it signifies a new vivifying
+principle in human life, makes the women's movement, in spite of the
+misconception of its enemies and its friends, a social revolution" (see
+also Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth edition, 1904, especially Ch.
+XVIII).
+
+[4] The word "puericulture" was invented by Dr. Caron in 1866 to signify
+the culture of children after birth. It was Pinard, the distinguished
+French obstetrician, who, in 1895, gave it a larger and truer significance
+by applying it to include the culture of children before birth. It is now
+defined as "the science which has for its end the search for the knowledge
+relative to the reproduction, the preservation, and the amelioration of
+the human race" (Pechin, _La Puericulture avant la Naissance_, These de
+Paris, 1908).
+
+[5] In _La Grossesse_ (pp. 450 et seq.) Bouchacourt has discussed the
+problems of puericulture at some length.
+
+[6] The importance of antenatal puericulture was fully recognized in China
+a thousand years ago. Thus Madame Cheng wrote at that time concerning the
+education of the child: "Even before birth his education may begin; and,
+therefore, the prospective mother of old, when lying down, lay straight;
+when sitting down, sat upright; and when standing, stood erect. She would
+not taste strange flavors, nor have anything to do with spiritualism; if
+her food were not cut straight she would not eat it, and if her mat were
+not set straight, she would not sit upon it. She would not look at any
+objectionable sight, nor listen to any objectionable sound, nor utter any
+rude word, nor handle any impure thing. At night she studied some
+canonical work, by day she occupied herself with ceremonies and music.
+Therefore, her sons were upright and eminent for their talents and
+virtues; such was the result of antenatal training" (H.A. Giles, "Woman in
+Chinese Literature," _Nineteenth Century_, Nov., 1904).
+
+[7] Max Bartels, "Islaendischer Brauch," etc., _Zeitschrift fuer
+Ethnologie_, 1900, p. 65. A summary of the customs of various peoples in
+regard to pregnancy is given by Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_, Sect. XXIX.
+
+[8] On the influence of alcohol during pregnancy on the embryo, see, e.g.,
+G. Newman, _Infant Mortality_, pp. 72-77. W.C. Sullivan (_Alcoholism_,
+1906, Ch. XI), summarizes the evidence showing that alcohol is a factor in
+human degeneration.
+
+[9] There is even reason to believe that the alcoholism of the mother's
+father may impair her ability as a mother. Bunge (_Die Zunehmende
+Unfaehigkeit der Frauen ihre Kinder zu Stillen_, fifth edition, 1907), from
+an investigation extending over 2,000 families, finds that chronic
+alcoholic poisoning in the father is the chief cause of the daughter's
+inability to suckle, this inability not usually being recovered in
+subsequent generations. Bunge has, however, been opposed by Dr. Agnes
+Bluhm, "Die Stillungsnot," _Zeitschrift fuer Soziale Medizin_, 1908 (fully
+summarized by herself in _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan., 1909).
+
+[10] See, e.g., T. Arthur Helme, "The Unborn Child," _British Medical
+Journal_, Aug. 24, 1907. Nutrition should, of course, be adequate. Noel
+Paton has shown (_Lancet_, July 4, 1903) that defective nutrition of the
+pregnant woman diminishes the weight of the offspring.
+
+[11] Debreyne, _Moechialogie_, p. 277. And from the Protestant side see
+Northcote (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, Ch. IX), who permits sexual
+intercourse during pregnancy.
+
+[12] See Appendix A to the third volume of these _Studies_; also Ploss and
+Bartels, loc. cit.
+
+[13] Thus one lady writes: "I have only had one child, but I may say that
+during pregnancy the desire for union was much stronger, for the whole
+time, than at any other period." Bouchacourt (_La Grossesse_, pp. 180-183)
+states that, as a rule, sexual desire is not diminished by pregnancy, and
+is occasionally increased.
+
+[14] This "inconvenience" remains to-day a stumbling-block with many
+excellent authorities. "Except when there is a tendency to miscarriage,"
+says Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to
+Marriage_, vol. i, p. 257), "we must be very guarded in ordering
+abstinence from intercourse during pregnancy," and Ballantyne (_The
+Foetus_, p. 475) cautiously remarks that the question is difficult to
+decide. Forel also (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, fourth edition, p. 81), who is
+not prepared to advocate complete sexual abstinence during a normal
+pregnancy, admits that it is a rather difficult question.
+
+[15] This point is discussed, for instance, by Seropian in a Paris Thesis
+(_Frequence comparee des Causes de l'Accouchement Premature_, 1907); he
+concludes that coitus during pregnancy is a more frequent cause of
+premature confinement than is commonly supposed, especially in primiparae,
+and markedly so by the ninth month.
+
+[16] "Infantile Mortality: The Huddersfield Scheme," _British Medical
+Journal_, Dec., 1907; Samson Moore, "Infant Mortality," ib., August 29,
+1908.
+
+[17] Ellen Key has admirably dealt with proposals of this kind (as put
+forth by C.P. Stetson) in her Essays "On Love and Marriage." In opposition
+to such proposals Ellen Key suggests that such women as have been properly
+trained for maternal duties and are unable entirely to support themselves
+while exercising them should be subsidized by the State during the child's
+first three years of life. It may be added that in Leipzig the plan of
+subsidizing mothers who (under proper medical and other supervision)
+suckle their infants has already been introduced.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION.
+
+Nurture Necessary as Well as Breed--Precocious Manifestations of the
+Sexual Impulse--Are They to be Regarded as Normal?--The Sexual Play of
+Children--The Emotion of Love in Childhood--Are Town Children More
+Precocious Sexually Than Country Children?--Children's Ideas Concerning
+the Origin of Babies--Need for Beginning the Sexual Education of Children
+in Early Years--The Importance of Early Training in Responsibility--Evil
+of the Old Doctrine of Silence in Matters of Sex--The Evil Magnified When
+Applied to Girls--The Mother the Natural and Best Teacher--The Morbid
+Influence of Artificial Mystery in Sex Matters--Books on Sexual
+Enlightenment of the Young--Nature of the Mother's Task--Sexual Education
+in the School--The Value of Botany--Zooelogy--Sexual Education After
+Puberty--The Necessity of Counteracting Quack Literature--Danger of
+Neglecting to Prepare for the First Onset of Menstruation--The Right
+Attitude Towards Woman's Sexual Life--The Vital Necessity of the Hygiene
+of Menstruation During Adolescence--Such Hygiene Compatible with the
+Educational and Social Equality of the Sexes--The Invalidism of Women
+Mainly Due to Hygienic Neglect--Good Influence of Physical Training on
+Women and Bad Influence of Athletics--The Evils of Emotional
+Suppression--Need of Teaching the Dignity of Sex--Influence of These
+Factors on a Woman's Fate in Marriage--Lectures and Addresses on Sexual
+Hygiene--The Doctor's Part in Sexual Education--Pubertal Initiation Into
+the Ideal World--The Place of the Religious and Ethical Teacher--The
+Initiation Rites of Savages Into Manhood and Womanhood--The Sexual
+Influence of Literature--The Sexual Influence of Art.
+
+
+It may seem to some that in attaching weight to the ancestry, the
+parentage, the conception, the gestation, even the first infancy, of the
+child we are wandering away from the sphere of the psychology of sex. That
+is far from being the case. We are, on the contrary, going to the root of
+sex. All our growing knowledge tends to show that, equally with his
+physical nature, the child's psychic nature is based on breed and nurture,
+on the quality of the stocks he belongs to, and on the care taken at the
+early moments when care counts for most, to preserve the fine quality of
+those stocks.
+
+    It must, of course, be remembered that the influences of both
+    breed and nurture are alike influential on the fate of the
+    individual. The influence of nurture is so obvious that few are
+    likely to under-rate it. The influence of breed, however, is less
+    obvious, and we may still meet with persons so ill informed, and
+    perhaps so prejudiced, as to deny it altogether. The growth of
+    our knowledge in this matter, by showing how subtle and
+    penetrative is the influence of heredity, cannot fail to dispel
+    this mischievous notion. No sound civilization is possible except
+    in a community which in the mass is not only well-nurtured but
+    well-bred. And in no part of life so much as in the sexual
+    relationships is the influence of good breeding more decisive. An
+    instructive illustration may be gleaned from the minute and
+    precise history of his early life furnished to me by a highly
+    cultured Russian gentleman. He was brought up in childhood with
+    his own brothers and sisters and a little girl of the same age
+    who had been adopted from infancy, the child of a prostitute who
+    had died soon after the infant's birth. The adopted child was
+    treated as one of the family, and all the children supposed that
+    she was a real sister. Yet from early years she developed
+    instincts unlike those of the children with whom she was
+    nurtured; she lied, she was cruel, she loved to make mischief,
+    and she developed precociously vicious sexual impulses; though
+    carefully educated, she adopted the occupation of her mother, and
+    at the age of twenty-two was exiled to Siberia for robbery and
+    attempt to murder. The child of a chance father and a prostitute
+    mother is not fatally devoted to ruin; but such a child is
+    ill-bred, and that fact, in some cases, may neutralize all the
+    influences of good nurture.
+
+When we reach the period of infancy we have already passed beyond the
+foundations and potentialities of the sexual life; we are in some cases
+witnessing its actual beginnings. It is a well-established fact that
+auto-erotic manifestations may sometimes be observed even in infants of
+less than twelve months. We are not now called upon to discuss the
+disputable point as to how far such manifestations at this age can be
+called normal.[18] A slight degree of menstrual and mammary activity
+sometimes occurs at birth.[19] It seems clear that nervous and psychic
+sexual activity has its first springs at this early period, and as the
+years go by an increasing number of individuals join the stream until at
+puberty practically all are carried along in the great current.
+
+While, therefore, it is possibly, even probably, true that the soundest
+and healthiest individuals show no definite signs of nervous and psychic
+sexuality in childhood, such manifestations are still sufficiently
+frequent to make it impossible to say that sexual hygiene may be
+completely ignored until puberty is approaching.
+
+    Precocious physical development occurs as a somewhat rare
+    variation. W. Roger Williams ("Precocious Sexual Development with
+    Abstracts of over One Hundred Cases," _British Gynaecological
+    Journal_, May, 1902) has furnished an important contribution to
+    the knowledge of this anomaly which is much commoner in girls
+    than in boys. Roger Williams's cases include only twenty boys to
+    eighty girls, and precocity is not only more frequent but more
+    pronounced in girls, who have been known to conceive at eight,
+    while thirteen is stated to be the earliest age at which boys
+    have proved able to beget children. This, it may be remarked, is
+    also the earliest age at which spermatozoa are found in the
+    seminal fluid of boys; before that age the ejaculations contain
+    no spermatozoa, and, as Fuerbringer and Moll have found, they may
+    even be absent at sixteen, or later. In female children
+    precocious sexual development is less commonly associated with
+    general increase of bodily development than in boys. (An
+    individual case of early sexual development in a girl of five has
+    been completely described and figured in the _Zeitschrift fuer
+    Ethnologie_, 1896, Heft 4, p. 262.)
+
+    Precocious sexual impulses are generally vague, occasional, and
+    more or less innocent. A case of rare and pronounced character,
+    in which a child, a boy, from the age of two had been sexually
+    attracted to girls and women, and directed all his thoughts and
+    actions to sexual attempts on them, has been described by Herbert
+    Rich, of Detroit (_Alienist and Neurologist_, Nov., 1905).
+    General evidence from the literature of the subject as to sexual
+    precocity, its frequency and significance, has been brought
+    together by L.M. Terman ("A Study in Precocity," _American
+    Journal Psychology_, April, 1905).
+
+    The erections that are liable to occur in male infants have
+    usually no sexual significance, though, as Moll remarks, they may
+    acquire it by attracting the child's attention; they are merely
+    reflex. It is believed by some, however, and notably by Freud,
+    that certain manifestations of infant activity, especially
+    thumb-sucking, are of sexual causation, and that the sexual
+    impulse constantly manifests itself at a very early age. The
+    belief that the sexual instinct is absent in childhood, Freud
+    regards as a serious error, so easy to correct by observation
+    that he wonders how it can have arisen. "In reality," he remarks,
+    "the new-born infant brings sexuality with it into the world,
+    sexual sensations accompany it through the days of lactation and
+    childhood, and very few children can fail to experience sexual
+    activities and feelings before the period of puberty" (Freud,
+    "Zur Sexuellen Aufklaerung der Kinder," _Soziale Medizin und
+    Hygiene_, Bd. ii, 1907; cf., for details, the same author's _Drei
+    Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905). Moll, on the other hand,
+    considers that Freud's views on sexuality in infancy are
+    exaggerations which must be decisively rejected, though he admits
+    that it is difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate the
+    feelings in childhood (Moll, _Das Sexualleben des Kindes_, p.
+    154). Moll believes also that psycho-sexual manifestations
+    appearing after the age of eight are not pathological; children
+    who are weakly or of bad heredity are not seldom sexually
+    precocious, but, on the other hand, Moll has known children of
+    eight or nine with strongly developed sexual impulses, who yet
+    become finely developed men.
+
+    Rudimentary sexual activities in childhood, accompanied by sexual
+    feelings, must indeed--when they are not too pronounced or too
+    premature--be regarded as coming within the normal sphere, though
+    when they occur in children of bad heredity they are not without
+    serious risks. But in healthy children, after the age of seven or
+    eight, they tend to produce no evil results, and are strictly of
+    the nature of play. Play, both in animals and men, as Groos has
+    shown with marvelous wealth of illustration, is a beneficent
+    process of education; the young creature is thereby preparing
+    itself for the exercise of those functions which in later life it
+    must carry out more completely and more seriously. In his _Spiele
+    der Menschen_, Groos applies this idea to the sexual play of
+    children, and brings forward quotations from literature in
+    evidence. Keller, in his "Romeo und Juliet auf dem Dorfe," has
+    given an admirably truthful picture of these childish
+    love-relationships. Emil Schultze-Malkowsky (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, p. 370) reproduces some scenes from the
+    life of a little girl of seven clearly illustrating the exact
+    nature of the sexual manifestation at this age.
+
+    A kind of rudimentary sexual intercourse between children, as
+    Bloch has remarked (_Beitraege_, etc., Bd. ii, p. 254), occurs in
+    many parts of the world, and is recognized by their elders as
+    play. This is, for instance, the case among the Bawenda of the
+    Transvaal (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1896, Heft 4, p. 364),
+    and among the Papuans of Kaiser-Wilhelms-Land, with the approval
+    of the parents, although much reticence is observed (id., 1889,
+    Heft 1, p. 16). Godard (_Egypte et Palestine_, 1867, p. 105)
+    noted the sexual play of the boys and girls in Cairo. In New
+    Mexico W.A. Hammond (_Sexual Impotence_, p. 107) has seen boys
+    and girls attempting a playful sexual conjunction with the
+    encouragement of men and women, and in New York he has seen boys
+    and girls of three and four doing the same in the presence of
+    their parents, with only a laughing rebuke. "Playing at pa and
+    ma" is indeed extremely common among children in genuine
+    innocence, and with a complete absence of viciousness; and is by
+    no means confined to children of low social class. Moll remarks
+    on its frequency (_Libido Sexualis_, Bd. i, p. 277), and the
+    committee of evangelical pastors, in their investigation of
+    German rural morality (_Die Geschlechtliche-sittliche
+    Verhaeltnisse_, Bd. i, p. 102) found that children who are not yet
+    of school age make attempts at coitus. The sexual play of
+    children is by no means confined to father and mother games;
+    frequently there are games of school with the climax in exposure
+    and smackings, and occasionally there are games of being doctors
+    and making examinations. Thus a young English woman says: "Of
+    course, when we were at school [at the age of twelve and earlier]
+    we used to play with one another, several of us girls; we used to
+    go into a field and pretend we were doctors and had to examine
+    one another, and then we used to pull up one another's clothes
+    and feel each other."
+
+    These games do not necessarily involve the cooeperation of the
+    sexual impulse, and still less have they any element of love. But
+    emotions of love, scarcely if at all distinguishable from adult
+    sexual love, frequently appear at equally early ages. They are of
+    the nature of play, in so far as play is a preparation for the
+    activities of later life, though, unlike the games, they are not
+    felt as play. Ramdohr, more than a century ago (_Venus Urania_,
+    1798), referred to the frequent love of little boys for women.
+    More usually the love is felt towards individuals of the opposite
+    or the same sex who are not widely different in age, though
+    usually older. The most comprehensive study of the matter has
+    been made by Sanford Bell in America on a basis of as many as
+    2,300 cases (S. Bell, "A Preliminary Study of the Emotion of Love
+    Between the Sexes," _American Journal Psychology_, July, 1902).
+    Bell finds that the presence of the emotion between three and
+    eight years of age is shown by such actions as hugging, kissing,
+    lifting each other, scuffling, sitting close to each other,
+    confessions to each other and to others, talking about each other
+    when apart, seeking each other and excluding the rest, grief at
+    separation, giving gifts, showing special courtesies to each
+    other, making sacrifices for each other, exhibiting jealousy. The
+    girls are, on the whole, more aggressive than the boys, and less
+    anxious to keep the matter secret. After the age of eight, the
+    girls increase in modesty and the boys become still more
+    secretive. The physical sensations are not usually located in the
+    sexual organs; erection of the penis and hyperaemia of the female
+    sexual parts Bell regards as marking undue precocity. But there
+    is diffused vascular and nervous tumescence and a state of
+    exaltation comparable, though not equal, to that experienced in
+    adolescent and adult age. On the whole, as Bell soundly
+    concludes, "love between children of opposite sex bears much the
+    same relation to that between adults as the flower does to the
+    fruit, and has about as little of physical sexuality in it as an
+    apple-blossom has of the apple that develops from it." Moll also
+    (op. cit. p. 76) considers that kissing and other similar
+    superficial contacts, which he denominates the phenomena of
+    contrectation, constitute most frequently the first and sole
+    manifestation of the sexual impulse in childhood.
+
+    It is often stated that it is easier for children to preserve
+    their sexual innocence in the country than in the town, and that
+    only in cities is sexuality rampant and conspicuous. This is by
+    no means true, and in some respects it is the reverse of the
+    truth. Certainly, hard work, a natural and simple life, and a
+    lack of alert intelligence often combine to keep the rural lad
+    chaste in thought and act until the period of adolescence is
+    completed. Ammon, for instance, states, though without giving
+    definite evidence, that this is common among the Baden
+    conscripts. Certainly, also, all the multiple sensory excitements
+    of urban life tend to arouse the nervous and cerebral
+    excitability of the young at a comparatively early age in the
+    sexual as in other fields, and promote premature desires and
+    curiosities. But, on the other hand, urban life offers the young
+    no gratification for their desires and curiosities. The publicity
+    of a city, the universal surveillance, the studied decorum of a
+    population conscious that it is continually exposed to the gaze
+    of strangers, combine to spread a veil over the esoteric side of
+    life, which, even when at last it fails to conceal from the young
+    the urban stimuli of that life, effectually conceals, for the
+    most part, the gratifications of those stimuli. In the country,
+    however, these restraints do not exist in any corresponding
+    degree; animals render the elemental facts of sexual life clear
+    to all; there is less need or regard for decorum; speech is
+    plainer; supervision is impossible, and the amplest opportunities
+    for sexual intimacy are at hand. If the city may perhaps be said
+    to favor unchastity of thought in the young, the country may
+    certainly be said to favor unchastity of act.
+
+    The elaborate investigations of the Committee of Lutheran pastors
+    into sexual morality (_Die Geschlechtich-sittliche Verhaeltnisse
+    im Deutschen Reiche_), published a few years ago, demonstrate
+    amply the sexual freedom in rural Germany, and Moll, who is
+    decidedly of opinion that the country enjoys no relative freedom
+    from sexuality, states (op. cit., pp. 137-139, 239) that even the
+    circulation of obscene books and pictures among school-children
+    seems to be more frequent in small towns and the country than in
+    large cities. In Russia, where it might be thought that urban and
+    rural conditions offered less contrast than in many countries,
+    the same difference has been observed. "I do not know," a Russian
+    correspondent writes, "whether Zola in _La Terre_ correctly
+    describes the life of French villages. But the ways of a Russian
+    village, where I passed part of my childhood, fairly resemble
+    those described by Zola. In the life of the rural population into
+    which I was plunged everything was impregnated with erotism. One
+    was surrounded by animal lubricity in all its immodesty. Contrary
+    to the generally received opinion, I believe that a child may
+    preserve his sexual innocence more easily in a town than in the
+    country. There are, no doubt, many exceptions to this rule. But
+    the functions of the sexual life are generally more concealed in
+    the towns than in the fields. Modesty (whether or not of the
+    merely superficial and exterior kind) is more developed among
+    urban populations. In speaking of sexual things in the towns
+    people veil their thought more; even the lower class in towns
+    employ more restraint, more euphemisms, than peasants. Thus in
+    the towns a child may easily fail to comprehend when risky
+    subjects are talked of in his presence. It may be said that the
+    corruption of towns, though more concealed, is all the deeper.
+    Maybe, but that concealment preserves children from it. The town
+    child sees prostitutes in the street every day without
+    distinguishing them from other people. In the country he would
+    every day hear it stated in the crudest terms that such and such
+    a girl has been found at night in a barn or a ditch making love
+    with such and such a youth, or that the servant girl slips every
+    night into the coachman's bed, the facts of sexual intercourse,
+    pregnancy, and childbirth being spoken of in the plainest terms.
+    In towns the child's attention is solicited by a thousand
+    different objects; in the country, except fieldwork, which fails
+    to interest him, he hears only of the reproduction of animals and
+    the erotic exploits of girls and youths. When we say that the
+    urban environment is more exciting we are thinking of adults, but
+    the things which excite the adult have usually no erotic effect
+    on the child, who cannot, however, long remain asexual when he
+    sees the great peasant girls, as ardent as mares in heat,
+    abandoning themselves to the arms of robust youths. He cannot
+    fail to remark these frank manifestations of sexuality, though
+    the subtle and perverse refinements of the town would escape his
+    notice. I know that in the countries of exaggerated prudery there
+    is much hidden corruption, more, one is sometimes inclined to
+    think, than in less hypocritical countries. But I believe that
+    that is a false impression, and am persuaded that precisely
+    because of all these little concealments which excite the
+    malicious amusement of foreigners, there are really many more
+    young people in England who remain chaste than in the countries
+    which treat sexual relations more frankly. At all events, if I
+    have known Englishmen who were very debauched and very refined in
+    vice, I have also known young men of the same nation, over
+    twenty, who were as innocent as children, but never a young
+    Frenchman, Italian, or Spaniard of whom this could be said."
+    There is undoubtedly truth in this statement, though it must be
+    remembered that, excellent as chastity is, if it is based on mere
+    ignorance, its possessor is exposed to terrible dangers.
+
+The question of sexual hygiene, more especially in its special aspect of
+sexual enlightenment, is not, however, dependent on the fact that in some
+children the psychic and nervous manifestation of sex appears at an
+earlier age than in others. It rests upon the larger general fact that in
+all children the activity of intelligence begins to work at a very early
+age, and that this activity tends to manifest itself in an inquisitive
+desire to know many elementary facts of life which are really dependent on
+sex. The primary and most universal of these desires is the desire to know
+where children come from. No question could be more natural; the question
+of origins is necessarily a fundamental one in childish philosophies as,
+in more ultimate shapes, it is in adult philosophies. Most children,
+either guided by the statements, usually the misstatements, of their
+elders, or by their own intelligence working amid such indications as are
+open to them, are in possession of a theory of the origin of babies.
+
+    Stanley Hall ("Contents of Children's Minds on Entering School,"
+    _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891) has collected some of the
+    beliefs of young children as to the origin of babies. "God makes
+    babies in heaven, though the Holy Mother and even Santa Claus
+    make some. He lets them down and drops them, and the women or
+    doctors catch them, or He leaves them on the sidewalk, or brings
+    them down a wooden ladder backwards and pulls it up again, or
+    mamma or the doctor or the nurse go up and fetch them, sometimes
+    in a balloon, or they fly down and lose off their wings in some
+    place or other and forget it, and jump down to Jesus, who gives
+    them around. They were also often said to be found in
+    flour-barrels, and the flour sticks ever so long, you know, or
+    they grew in cabbages, or God puts them in water, perhaps in the
+    sewer, and the doctor gets them out and takes them to sick folks
+    that want them, or the milkman brings them early in the morning;
+    they are dug out of the ground, or bought at the baby store."
+
+    In England and America the inquisitive child is often told that
+    the baby was found in the garden, under a gooseberry bush or
+    elsewhere; or more commonly it is said, with what is doubtless
+    felt to be a nearer approach to the truth, that the doctor
+    brought it. In Germany the common story told to children is that
+    the stork brings the baby. Various theories, mostly based on
+    folk-lore, have been put forward to explain this story, but none
+    of them seem quite convincing (see, e.g., G. Herman,
+    "Sexual-Mythen," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. i, Heft 5,
+    1906, p. 176, and P. Naecke, _Neurologische Centralblatt_, No. 17,
+    1907). Naecke thinks there is some plausibility in Professor
+    Petermann's suggestion that a frog writhing in a stork's bill
+    resembles a tiny human creature.
+
+    In Iceland, according to Max Bartels ("Islaendischer Brauch und
+    Volksglaube," etc., _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1900, Heft 2
+    and 3) we find a transition between the natural and the fanciful
+    in the stories told to children of the origin of babies (the
+    stork is here precluded, for it only extends to the southern
+    border of Scandinavian lands). In North Iceland it is said that
+    God made the baby and the mother bore it, and on that account is
+    now ill. In the northwest it is said that God made the baby and
+    gave it to the mother. Elsewhere it is said that God sent the
+    baby and the midwife brought it, the mother only being in bed to
+    be near the baby (which is seldom placed in a cradle). It is also
+    sometimes said that a lamb or a bird brought the baby. Again it
+    is said to have entered during the night through the window.
+    Sometimes, however, the child is told that the baby came out of
+    the mother's breasts, or from below her breasts, and that is why
+    she is not well.
+
+    Even when children learn that babies come out of the mother's
+    body this knowledge often remains very vague and inaccurate. It
+    very commonly happens, for instance, in all civilized countries
+    that the navel is regarded as the baby's point of exit from the
+    body. This is a natural conclusion, since the navel is seemingly
+    a channel into the body, and a channel for which there is no
+    obvious use, while the pudendal cleft would not suggest itself to
+    girls (and still less to boys) as the gate of birth, since it
+    already appears to be monopolized by the urinary excretion. This
+    belief concerning the navel is sometimes preserved through the
+    whole period of adolescence, especially in girls of the so-called
+    educated class, who are too well-bred to discuss the matter with
+    their married friends, and believe indeed that they are already
+    sufficiently well informed. At this age the belief may not be
+    altogether harmless, in so far as it leads to the real gate of
+    sex being left unguarded. In Elsass where girls commonly believe,
+    and are taught, that babies come through the navel, popular
+    folk-tales are current (_Anthropophyteia_, vol. iii, p. 89)
+    which represent the mistakes resulting from this belief as
+    leading to the loss of virginity.
+
+    Freud, who believes that children give little credit to the stork
+    fable and similar stories invented for their mystification, has
+    made an interesting psychological investigation into the real
+    theories which children themselves, as the result of observation
+    and thought, reach concerning the sexual facts of life (S. Freud,
+    "Ueber Infantile Sexualtheorien," _Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908).
+    Such theories, he remarks, correspond to the brilliant, but
+    defective hypotheses which primitive peoples arrive at concerning
+    the nature and origin of the world. There are three theories,
+    which, as Freud quite truly concludes, are very commonly formed
+    by children. The first, and the most widely disseminated, is that
+    there is no real anatomical difference between boys and girls; if
+    the boy notices that his little sister has no obvious penis he
+    even concludes that it is because she is too young, and the
+    little girl herself takes the same view. The fact that in early
+    life the clitoris is relatively larger and more penis-like helps
+    to confirm this view which Freud connects with the tendency in
+    later life to erotic dream of women furnished with a penis. This
+    theory, as Freud also remarks, favors the growth of homosexuality
+    when its germs are present. The second theory is the faecal theory
+    of the origin of babies. The child, who perhaps thinks his mother
+    has a penis, and is in any case ignorant of the vagina, concludes
+    that the baby is brought into the world by an action analogous to
+    the action of the bowels. The third theory, which is perhaps less
+    prevalent than the others, Freud terms the sadistic theory of
+    coitus. The child realizes that his father must have taken some
+    sort of part in his production. The theory that sexual
+    intercourse consists in violence has in it a trace of truth, but
+    seems to be arrived at rather obscurely. The child's own sexual
+    feelings are often aroused for the first time when wrestling or
+    struggling with a companion; he may see his mother, also,
+    resisting more or less playfully a sudden caress from his father,
+    and if a real quarrel takes place, the impression may be
+    fortified. As to what the state of marriage consists in, Freud
+    finds that it is usually regarded as a state which abolishes
+    modesty; the most prevalent theory being that marriage means that
+    people can make water before each other, while another common
+    childish theory is that marriage is when people can show each
+    other their private parts.
+
+Thus it is that at a very early stage of the child's life we are brought
+face to face with the question how we may most wisely begin his initiation
+into the knowledge of the great central facts of sex. It is perhaps a
+little late in the day to regard it as a question, but so it is among us,
+although three thousand five hundred years ago, the Egyptian father spoke
+to his child: "I have given you a mother who has carried you within her, a
+heavy burden, for your sake, and without resting on me. When at last you
+were born, she indeed submitted herself to the yoke, for during three
+years were her nipples in your mouth. Your excrements never turned her
+stomach, nor made her say, 'What am I doing?' When you were sent to school
+she went regularly every day to carry the household bread and beer to your
+master. When in your turn you marry and have a child, bring up your child
+as your mother brought you up."[20]
+
+I take it for granted, however, that--whatever doubt there may be as to
+the how or the when--no doubt is any longer possible as to the absolute
+necessity of taking deliberate and active part in this sexual initiation,
+instead of leaving it to the chance revelation of ignorant and perhaps
+vicious companions or servants. It is becoming more and more widely felt
+that the risks of ignorant innocence are too great.
+
+    "All the love and solicitude parental yearning can bestow,"
+    writes Dr. G.F. Butler, of Chicago (_Love and its Affinities_,
+    1899, p. 83), "all that the most refined religious influence can
+    offer, all that the most cultivated associations can accomplish,
+    in one fatal moment may be obliterated. There is no room for
+    ethical reasoning, indeed oftentimes no consciousness of wrong,
+    but only Margaret's 'Es war so suess'." The same writer adds (as
+    had been previously remarked by Mrs. Craik and others) that among
+    church members it is the finer and more sensitive organizations
+    that are the most susceptible to sexual emotions. So far as boys
+    are concerned, we leave instruction in matters of sex, the most
+    sacred and central fact in the world, as Canon Lyttelton remarks,
+    to "dirty-minded school-boys, grooms, garden-boys, anyone, in
+    short, who at an early age may be sufficiently defiled and
+    sufficiently reckless to talk of them." And, so far as girls are
+    concerned, as Balzac long ago remarked, "a mother may bring up
+    her daughter severely, and cover her beneath her wings for
+    seventeen years; but a servant-girl can destroy that long work by
+    a word, even by a gesture."
+
+    The great part played by servant-girls of the lower class in the
+    sexual initiation of the children of the middle class has been
+    illustrated in dealing with "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in vol.
+    iii, of these _Studies_, and need not now be further discussed.
+    I would only here say a word, in passing, on the other side.
+    Often as servant-girls take this part, we must not go so far as
+    to say that it is the case with the majority. As regards Germany,
+    Dr. Alfred Kind has lately put on record his experience: "I have
+    _never_, in youth, heard a bad or improper word on
+    sex-relationships from a servant-girl, although servant-girls
+    followed one another in our house like sunshine and showers in
+    April, and there was always a relation of comradeship between us
+    children and the servants." As regards England, I can add that my
+    own youthful experiences correspond to Dr. Kind's. This is not
+    surprising, for one may say that in the ordinary well-conditioned
+    girl, though her virtue may not be developed to heroic
+    proportions, there is yet usually a natural respect for the
+    innocence of children, a natural sexual indifference to them, and
+    a natural expectation that the male should take the active part
+    when a sexual situation arises.
+
+It is also beginning to be felt that, especially as regards women,
+ignorant innocence is not merely too fragile a possession to be worth
+preservation, but that it is positively mischievous, since it involves the
+lack of necessary knowledge. "It is little short of criminal," writes Dr.
+F.M. Goodchild,[21] "to send our young people into the midst of the
+excitements and temptations of a great city with no more preparation than
+if they were going to live in Paradise." In the case of women, ignorance
+has the further disadvantage that it deprives them of the knowledge
+necessary for intelligent sympathy with other women. The unsympathetic
+attitude of women towards women is often largely due to sheer ignorance of
+the facts of life. "Why," writes in a private letter a married lady who
+keenly realizes this, "are women brought up with such a profound ignorance
+of their own and especially other women's natures? They do not know half
+as much about other women as a man of the most average capacity learns in
+his day's march." We try to make up for our failure to educate women in
+the essential matters of sex by imposing upon the police and other
+guardians of public order the duty of protecting women and morals. But, as
+Moll insists, the real problem of chastity lies, not in the multiplication
+of laws and policemen, but largely in women's knowledge of the dangers of
+sex and in the cultivation of their sense of responsibility.[22] We are
+always making laws for the protection of children and setting the police
+on guard. But laws and the police, whether their activities are good or
+bad, are in either case alike ineffectual. They can for the most part only
+be invoked when the damage is already done. We have to learn to go to the
+root of the matter. We have to teach children to be a law to themselves.
+We have to give them that knowledge which will enable them to guard their
+own personalities.[23] There is an authentic story of a lady who had
+learned to swim, much to the horror of her clergyman, who thought that
+swimming was unfeminine. "But," she said, "suppose I was drowning." "In
+that case," he replied, "you ought to wait until a man comes along and
+saves you." There we have the two methods of salvation which have been
+preached to women, the old method and the new. In no sea have women been
+more often in danger of drowning than that of sex. There ought to be no
+question as to which is the better method of salvation.
+
+    It is difficult nowadays to find any serious arguments against
+    the desirability of early sexual enlightenment, and it is almost
+    with amusement that we read how the novelist Alphonse Daudet,
+    when asked his opinion of such enlightenment, protested--in a
+    spirit certainly common among the men of his time--that it was
+    unnecessary, because boys could learn everything from the streets
+    and the newspapers, while "as to young girls--no! I would teach
+    them none of the truths of physiology. I can only see
+    disadvantages in such a proceeding. These truths are ugly,
+    disillusioning, sure to shock, to frighten, to disgust the mind,
+    the nature, of a girl." It is as much as to say that there is no
+    need to supply sources of pure water when there are puddles in
+    the street that anyone can drink of. A contemporary of Daudet's,
+    who possessed a far finer spiritual insight, Coventry Patmore,
+    the poet, in the essay on "Ancient and Modern Ideas of Purity" in
+    his beautiful book, _Religio Poetae_, had already finely protested
+    against that "disease of impurity" which comes of "our modern
+    undivine silences" for which Daudet pleaded. And Metchnikoff,
+    more recently, from the scientific side, speaking especially as
+    regards women, declares that knowledge is so indispensable for
+    moral conduct that "ignorance must be counted the most immoral of
+    acts" (_Essais Optimistes_, p. 420).
+
+    The distinguished Belgian novelist, Camille Lemonnier, in his
+    _L'Homme en Amour_, deals with the question of the sexual
+    education of the young by presenting the history of a young man,
+    brought up under the influence of the conventional and
+    hypocritical views which teach that nudity and sex are shameful
+    and disgusting things. In this way he passes by the opportunities
+    of innocent and natural love, to become hopelessly enslaved at
+    last to a sensual woman who treats him merely as the instrument
+    of her pleasure, the last of a long succession of lovers. The
+    book is a powerful plea for a sane, wholesome, and natural
+    education in matters of sex. It was, however, prosecuted at
+    Bruges, in 1901, though the trial finally ended in acquittal.
+    Such a verdict is in harmony with the general tendency of feeling
+    at the present time.
+
+    The old ideas, expressed by Daudet, that the facts of sex are
+    ugly and disillusioning, and that they shock the mind of the
+    young, are both alike entirely false. As Canon Lyttelton remarks,
+    in urging that the laws of the transmission of life should be
+    taught to children by the mother: "The way they receive it with
+    native reverence, truthfulness of understanding and guileless
+    delicacy, is nothing short of a revelation of the never-ceasing
+    beauty of nature. People sometimes speak of the indescribable
+    beauty of children's innocence. But I venture to say that no one
+    quite knows what it is who has foregone the privilege of being
+    the first to set before them the true meaning of life and birth
+    and the mystery of their own being. Not only do we fail to build
+    up sound knowledge in them, but we put away from ourselves the
+    chance of learning something that must be divine." In the same
+    way, Edward Carpenter, stating that it is easy and natural for
+    the child to learn from the first its physical relation to its
+    mother, remarks (_Love's Coming of Age_, p. 9): "A child at the
+    age of puberty, with the unfolding of its far-down emotional and
+    sexual nature, is eminently capable of the most sensitive,
+    affectional and serene appreciation of what _sex_ means
+    (generally more so as things are to-day, than its worldling
+    parent or guardian); and can absorb the teaching, if
+    sympathetically given, without any shock or disturbance to its
+    sense of shame--that sense which is so natural and valuable a
+    safeguard of early youth."
+
+    How widespread, even some years ago, had become the conviction
+    that the sexual facts of life should be taught to girls as well
+    as boys, was shown when the opinions of a very miscellaneous
+    assortment of more or less prominent persons were sought on the
+    question ("The Tree of Knowledge," _New Review_, June, 1894). A
+    small minority of two only (Rabbi Adler and Mrs. Lynn Lynton)
+    were against such knowledge, while among the majority in favor of
+    it were Mme. Adam, Thomas Hardy, Sir Walter Besant, Bjoernson,
+    Hall Caine, Sarah Grand, Nordau, Lady Henry Somerset, Baroness
+    von Suttner, and Miss Willard. The leaders of the woman's
+    movement are, of course, in favor of such knowledge. Thus a
+    meeting of the Bund fuer Mutterschutz at Berlin, in 1905, almost
+    unanimously passed a resolution declaring that the early sexual
+    enlightenment of children in the facts of the sexual life is
+    urgently necessary (_Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 2, p. 91). It may
+    be added that medical opinion has long approved of this
+    enlightenment. Thus in England it was editorially stated in the
+    _British Medical Journal_ some years ago (June 9, 1894): "Most
+    medical men of an age to beget confidence in such affairs will be
+    able to recall instances in which an ignorance, which would have
+    been ludicrous if it had not been so sad, has been displayed on
+    matters regarding which every woman entering on married life
+    ought to have been accurately informed. There can, we think, be
+    little doubt that much unhappiness and a great deal of illness
+    would be prevented if young people of both sexes possessed a
+    little accurate knowledge regarding the sexual relations, and
+    were well impressed with the profound importance of selecting
+    healthy mates. Knowledge need not necessarily be nasty, but even
+    if it were, it certainly is not comparable in that respect with
+    the imaginings of ignorance." In America, also, where at an
+    annual meeting of the American Medical Association, Dr. Denslow
+    Lewis, of Chicago, eloquently urged the need of teaching sexual
+    hygiene to youths and girls, all the subsequent nine speakers,
+    some of them physicians of worldwide fame, expressed their
+    essential agreement (_Medico-Legal Journal_, June-Sept., 1903).
+    Howard, again, at the end of his elaborate _History of
+    Matrimonial Institutions_ (vol. iii, p. 257) asserts the
+    necessity for education in matters of sex, as going to the root
+    of the marriage problem. "In the future educational programme,"
+    he remarks, "sex questions must hold an honorable place."
+
+While, however, it is now widely recognized that children are entitled to
+sexual enlightenment, it cannot be said that this belief is widely put
+into practice. Many persons, who are fully persuaded that children should
+sooner or later be enlightened concerning the sexual sources of life, are
+somewhat nervously anxious as to the precise age at which this
+enlightenment should begin. Their latent feeling seems to be that sex is
+an evil, and enlightenment concerning sex also an evil, however necessary,
+and that the chief point is to ascertain the latest moment to which we can
+safely postpone this necessary evil. Such an attitude is, however,
+altogether wrong-headed. The child's desire for knowledge concerning the
+origin of himself is a perfectly natural, honest, and harmless desire, so
+long as it is not perverted by being thwarted. A child of four may ask
+questions on this matter, simply and spontaneously. As soon as the
+questions are put, certainly as soon as they become at all insistent, they
+should be answered, in the same simple and spontaneous spirit, truthfully,
+though according to the measure of the child's intelligence and his
+capacity and desire for knowledge. This period should not, and, if these
+indications are followed, naturally would not, in any case, be delayed
+beyond the sixth year. After that age even the most carefully guarded
+child is liable to contaminating communications from outside. Moll points
+out that the sexual enlightenment of girls in its various stages ought to
+be always a little ahead of that of boys, and as the development of girls
+up to the pubertal age is more precocious than that of boys, this demand
+is reasonable.
+
+If the elements of sexual education are to be imparted in early childhood,
+it is quite clear who ought to be the teacher. There should be no question
+that this privilege belongs by every right to the mother. Except where a
+child is artificially separated from his chief parent it is indeed only
+the mother who has any natural opportunity of receiving and responding to
+these questions. It is unnecessary for her to take any initiative in the
+matter. The inevitable awakening of the child's intelligence and the
+evolution of his boundless curiosity furnish her love and skill with all
+opportunities for guiding her child's thoughts and knowledge. Nor is it
+necessary for her to possess the slightest technical information at this
+stage. It is only essential that she should have the most absolute faith
+in the purity and dignity of her physical relationship to her child, and
+be able to speak of it with frankness and tenderness. When that essential
+condition is fulfilled every mother has all the knowledge that her young
+child needs.
+
+    Among the best authorities, both men and women, in all the
+    countries where this matter is attracting attention, there seems
+    now to be unanimity of opinion in favor of the elementary facts
+    of the baby's relationship to its mother being explained to the
+    child by the mother as soon as the child begins to ask questions.
+    Thus in Germany Moll has repeatedly argued in this sense; he
+    insists that sexual enlightenment should be mainly a private and
+    individual matter; that in schools there should be no general and
+    personal warnings about masturbation, etc. (though at a later age
+    he approves of instruction in regard to venereal diseases), but
+    that the mother is the proper person to impart intimate knowledge
+    to the child, and that any age is suitable for the commencement
+    of such enlightenment, provided it is put into a form fitted for
+    the age (Moll, op. cit., p. 264).
+
+    At the Mannheim meeting of the Congress of the German Society for
+    Combating Venereal Disease, when the question of sexual
+    enlightenment formed the sole subject of discussion, the opinion
+    in favor of early teaching by the mother prevailed. "It is the
+    mother who must, in the first place, be made responsible for the
+    child's clear understanding of sexual things, so often lacking,"
+    said Frau Krukenberg ("Die Aufgabe der Mutter,"
+    _Sexualpaedagogik_, p. 13), while Max Enderlin, a teacher, said on
+    the same occasion ("Die Sexuelle Frage in die Volksschule," id.,
+    p. 35): "It is the mother who has to give the child his first
+    explanations, for it is to his mother that he first naturally
+    comes with his questions." In England, Canon Lyttelton, who is
+    distinguished among the heads of public schools not least by his
+    clear and admirable statements on these questions, states
+    (_Mothers and Sons_, p. 99) that the mother's part in the sexual
+    enlightenment and sexual guardianship of her son is of paramount
+    importance, and should begin at the earliest years. J.H. Badley,
+    another schoolmaster ("The Sex Difficulty," _Broad Views_, June,
+    1904), also states that the mother's part comes first. Northcote
+    (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 25) believes that the duty
+    of the parents is primary in this matter, the family doctor and
+    the schoolmaster coming in at a later stage. In America, Dr. Mary
+    Wood Allen, who occupies a prominent and influential position in
+    women's social movements, urges (in _Child-Confidence Rewarded_,
+    and other pamphlets) that a mother should begin to tell her child
+    these things as soon as he begins to ask questions, the age of
+    four not being too young, and explains how this may be done,
+    giving examples of its happy results in promoting a sweet
+    confidence between the child and his mother.
+
+If, as a few believe should be the case, the first initiation is delayed
+to the tenth year or even later, there is the difficulty that it is no
+longer so easy to talk simply and naturally about such things; the mother
+is beginning to feel too shy to speak for the first time about these
+difficult subjects to a son or a daughter who is nearly as big as herself.
+She feels that she can only do it awkwardly and ineffectively, and she
+probably decides not to do it at all. Thus an atmosphere of mystery is
+created with all the embarrassing and perverting influences which mystery
+encourages.
+
+    There can be no doubt that, more especially in highly intelligent
+    children with vague and unspecialized yet insistent sexual
+    impulses, the artificial mystery with which sex is too often
+    clothed not only accentuates the natural curiosity but also tends
+    to favor the morbid intensity and even prurience of the sexual
+    impulse. This has long been recognized. Dr. Beddoes wrote at the
+    beginning of the nineteenth century: "It is in vain that we
+    dissemble to ourselves the eagerness with which children of
+    either sex seek to satisfy themselves concerning the conformation
+    of the other. No degree of reserve in the heads of families, no
+    contrivances, no care to put books of one description out of
+    sight and to garble others, has perhaps, with any one set of
+    children, succeeded in preventing or stifling this kind of
+    curiosity. No part of the history of human thought would perhaps
+    be more singular than the stratagems devised by young people in
+    different situations to make themselves masters or witnesses of
+    the secret. And every discovery, due to their own inquiries, can
+    but be so much oil poured upon an imagination in flames" (T.
+    Beddoes, _Hygeia_, 1802, vol. iii, p. 59). Kaan, again, in one of
+    the earliest books on morbid sexuality, sets down mystery as one
+    of the causes of _psychopathia sexualis_. Marro (_La Puberta_, p.
+    299) points out how the veil of mystery thrown over sexual
+    matters merely serves to concentrate attention on them. The
+    distinguished Dutch writer Multatuli, in one of his letters
+    (quoted with approval by Freud), remarks on the dangers of hiding
+    things from boys and girls in a veil of mystery, pointing out
+    that this must only heighten the curiosity of children, and so
+    far from keeping them pure, which mere ignorance can never do,
+    heats and perverts their imaginations. Mrs. Mary Wood Allen,
+    also, warns the mother (op. cit., p. 5) against the danger of
+    allowing any air of embarrassing mystery to creep over these
+    things. "If the instructor feels any embarrassment in answering
+    the queries of the child, he is not fitted to be the teacher, for
+    the feeling of embarrassment will, in some subtle way,
+    communicate itself to the child, and he will experience an
+    indefinable sense of offended delicacy which is both unnecessary
+    and undesirable. Purification of one's own thought is, then, the
+    first step towards teaching the truth purely. Why," she adds, "is
+    death, the gateway out of life, any more dignified or pathetic
+    than birth, the gateway into life? Or why is the taking of
+    earthly life a more awful fact than the giving of life?" Mrs.
+    Ennis Richmond, in a book of advice to mothers which contains
+    many wise and true things, says: "I want to insist, more strongly
+    than upon anything else, that it is the _secrecy_ that surrounds
+    certain parts of the body and their functions that gives them
+    their danger in the child's thought. Little children, from
+    earliest years, are taught to think of these parts of their body
+    as mysterious, and not only so, but that they are mysterious
+    because they are unclean. Children have not even a name for them.
+    If you have to speak to your child, you allude to them
+    mysteriously and in a half-whisper as 'that little part of you
+    that you don't speak of,' or words to that effect. Before
+    everything it is important that your child should have a good
+    working name for these parts of his body, and for their
+    functions, and that he should be taught to use and to hear the
+    names, and that as naturally and openly as though he or you were
+    speaking of his head or his foot. Convention has, for various
+    reasons, made it impossible to speak in this way in public. But
+    you can, at any rate, break through this in the nursery. There
+    this rule of convention has no advantage, and many a serious
+    disadvantage. It is easy to say to a child, the first time he
+    makes an 'awkward' remark in public: 'Look here, laddie, you may
+    say what you like to me or to daddy, but, for some reason or
+    other, one does not talk about these' (only say _what_ things)
+    'in public.' Only let your child make the remark in public
+    _before_ you speak (never mind the shock to your caller's
+    feelings), don't warn him against doing so" (Ennis Richmond,
+    _Boyhood_, p. 60). Sex must always be a mystery, but, as Mrs.
+    Richmond rightly says, "the real and true mysteries of generation
+    and birth are very different from the vulgar secretiveness with
+    which custom surrounds them."
+
+    The question as to the precise names to be given to the more
+    private bodily parts and functions is sometimes a little
+    difficult to solve. Every mother will naturally follow her own
+    instincts, and probably her own traditions, in this matter. I
+    have elsewhere pointed out (in the study of "The Evolution of
+    Modesty") how widespread and instinctive is the tendency to adopt
+    constantly new euphemisms in this field. The ancient and simple
+    words, which in England a great poet like Chaucer could still use
+    rightly and naturally, are so often dropped in the mud by the
+    vulgar that there is an instinctive hesitation nowadays in
+    applying them to beautiful uses. They are, however,
+    unquestionably the best, and, in their origin, the most dignified
+    and expressive words. Many persons are of opinion that on this
+    account they should be rescued from the mud, and their sacredness
+    taught to children. A medical friend writes that he always taught
+    his son that the vulgar sex names are really beautiful words of
+    ancient origin, and that when we understand them aright we cannot
+    possibly see in them any motive for low jesting. They are simple,
+    serious and solemn words, connoting the most central facts of
+    life, and only to ignorant and plebeian vulgarity can they cause
+    obscene mirth. An American man of science, who has privately and
+    anonymously printed some pamphlets on sex questions, also takes
+    this view, and consistently and methodically uses the ancient
+    and simple words. I am of opinion that this is the ideal to be
+    sought, but that there are obvious difficulties at present in the
+    way of attaining it. In any case, however, the mother should be
+    in possession of a very precise vocabulary for all the bodily
+    parts and acts which it concerns her children to know.
+
+It is sometimes said that at this early age children should not be told,
+even in a simple and elementary form, the real facts of their origin but
+should, instead, hear a fairy-tale having in it perhaps some kind of
+symbolic truth. This contention may be absolutely rejected, without
+thereby, in any degree, denying the important place which fairy-tales hold
+in the imagination of young children. Fairy-tales have a real value to the
+child; they are a mental food he needs, if he is not to be spiritually
+starved; to deprive him of fairy-tales at this age is to do him a wrong
+which can never be made up at any subsequent age. But not only are sex
+matters too vital even in childhood to be safely made matter for a
+fairy-tale, but the real facts are themselves as wonderful as any
+fairy-tale, and appeal to the child's imagination with as much force as a
+fairy-tale.
+
+Even, however, if there were no other reasons against telling children
+fairy-tales of sex instead of the real facts, there is one reason which
+ought to be decisive with every mother who values her influence over her
+child. He will very quickly discover, either by information from others or
+by his own natural intelligence, that the fairy-tale, that was told him in
+reply to a question about a simple matter of fact, was a lie. With that
+discovery his mother's influence over him in all such matters vanishes for
+ever, for not only has a child a horror of being duped, but he is
+extremely sensitive about any rebuff of this kind, and never repeats what
+he has been made to feel was a mistake to be ashamed of. He will not
+trouble his mother with any more questions on this matter; he will not
+confide in her; he will himself learn the art of telling "fairy-tales"
+about sex matters. He had turned to his mother in trust; she had not
+responded with equal trust, and she must suffer the punishment, as
+Henriette Fuerth puts it, of seeing "the love and trust of her son stolen
+from her by the first boy he makes friends with in the street." When, as
+sometimes happens (Moll mentions a case), a mother goes on repeating these
+silly stories to a girl or boy of seven who is secretly well-informed, she
+only degrades herself in her child's eyes. It is this fatal mistake, so
+often made by mothers, which at first leads them to imagine that their
+children are so innocent, and in later years causes them many hours of
+bitterness because they realize they do not possess their children's
+trust. In the matter of trust it is for the mother to take the first step;
+the children who do not trust their mothers are, for the most part, merely
+remembering the lesson they learned at their mother's knee.
+
+    The number of little books and pamphlets dealing with the
+    question of the sexual enlightenment of the young--whether
+    intended to be read by the young or offering guidance to mothers
+    and teachers in the task of imparting knowledge--has become very
+    large indeed during recent years in America, England, and
+    especially Germany, where there has been of late an enormous
+    production of such literature. The late Ben Elmy, writing under
+    the pseudonym of "Ellis Ethelmer," published two booklets, _Baby
+    Buds_, and _The Human Flower_ (issued by Mrs. Wolstenholme Elmy,
+    Buxton House, Congleton), which state the facts in a simple and
+    delicate manner, though the author was not a notably reliable
+    guide on the scientific aspects of these questions. A charming
+    conversation between a mother and child, from a French source, is
+    reprinted by Edward Carpenter at the end of his _Love's Coming of
+    Age. How We Are Born_, by Mrs. N.J. (apparently a Russian lady
+    writing in English), prefaced by J.H. Badley, is satisfactory.
+    Mention may also be made of _The Wonder of Life_, by Mary Tudor
+    Pole. Margaret Morley's _Song of Life_, an American book, which I
+    have not seen, has been highly praised. Most of these books are
+    intended for quite young children, and while they explain more or
+    less clearly the origin of babies, nearly always starting with
+    the facts of plant life, they touch very slightly, if at all, on
+    the relations of the sexes.
+
+    Mrs. Ennis Richmond's books, largely addressed to mothers, deal
+    with these questions in a very sane, direct, and admirable
+    manner, and Canon Lyttelton's books, discussing such questions
+    generally, are also excellent. Most of the books now to be
+    mentioned are intended to be read by boys and girls who have
+    reached the age of puberty. They refer more or less precisely to
+    sexual relationships, and they usually touch on masturbation.
+    _The Story of Life_, written by a very accomplished woman, the
+    late Ellice Hopkins, is somewhat vague, and introduces too many
+    exalted religious ideas. Arthur Trewby's _Healthy Boyhood_ is a
+    little book of wholesome tendency; it deals specially with
+    masturbation. _A Talk with Boys About Themselves_ and _A Talk
+    with Girls About Themselves_, both by Edward Bruce Kirk (the
+    latter book written in conjunction with a lady) deal with general
+    as well as sexual hygiene. There could be no better book to put
+    into the hands of a boy or girl at puberty than M.A. Warren's
+    _Almost Fourteen_, written by an American school teacher in 1892.
+    It was a most charming and delicately written book, which could
+    not have offended the innocence of the most sensitive maiden.
+    Nothing, however, is sacred to prurience, and it was easy for the
+    prurient to capture the law and obtain (in 1897) legal
+    condemnation of this book as "obscene." Anything which sexually
+    excites a prurient mind is, it is true, "obscene" for that mind,
+    for, as Mr. Theodore Schroeder remarks, obscenity is "the
+    contribution of the reading mind," but we need such books as this
+    in order to diminish the number of prurient minds, and the
+    condemnation of so entirely admirable a book makes, not for
+    morality, but for immorality. I am told that the book was
+    subsequently issued anew with most of its best portions omitted,
+    and it is stated by Schroeder (_Liberty of Speech and Press
+    Essential to Purity Propaganda_, p. 34) that the author was
+    compelled to resign his position as a public school principal.
+    Maria Lischnewska's _Geschlechtliche Belehrung der Kinder_
+    (reprinted from _Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 4 and 5) is a most
+    admirable and thorough discussion of the whole question of sexual
+    education, though the writer is more interested in the teacher's
+    share in this question than in the mother's. Suggestions to
+    mothers are contained in Hugo Salus, _Wo kommen die Kinder her?_,
+    E. Stiehl, _Eine Mutterpflicht_, and many other books. Dr. Alfred
+    Kind strongly recommends Ludwig Gurlitt's _Der Verkehr mit meinem
+    Kindern_, more especially in its combination of sexual education
+    with artistic education. Many similar books are referred to by
+    Bloch, in his _Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. xxvi.
+
+    I have enumerated the names of these little books because they
+    are frequently issued in a semi-private manner, and are seldom
+    easy to procure or to hear of. The propagation of such books
+    seems to be felt to be almost a disgraceful action, only to be
+    performed by stealth. And such a feeling seems not unnatural when
+    we see, as in the case of the author of _Almost Fourteen_, that a
+    nominally civilized country, instead of loading with honors a man
+    who has worked for its moral and physical welfare, seeks so far
+    as it can to ruin him.
+
+    I may add that while it would usually be very helpful to a mother
+    to be acquainted with a few of the booklets I have named, she
+    would do well, in actually talking to her children, to rely
+    mainly on her own knowledge and inspiration.
+
+The sexual education which it is the mother's duty and privilege to
+initiate during her child's early years cannot and ought not to be
+technical. It is not of the nature of formal instruction but is a private
+and intimate initiation. No doubt the mother must herself be taught.[24]
+But the education she needs is mainly an education in love and insight.
+The actual facts which she requires to use at this early stage are very
+simple. Her main task is to make clear the child's own intimate relations
+to herself and to show that all young things have a similar intimate
+relation to their mothers; in generalizing on this point the egg is the
+simplest and most fundamental type to explain the origin of the individual
+life, for the idea of the egg--in its widest sense as the seed--not only
+has its truth for the human creature but may be applied throughout the
+animal and vegetable world. In this explanation the child's physical
+relationship to his father is not necessarily at first involved; it may be
+left to a further stage or until the child's questions lead up to it.
+
+Apart from his interest in his origin, the child is also interested in his
+sexual, or as they seem to him exclusively, his excretory organs, and in
+those of other people, his sisters and parents. On these points, at this
+age, his mother may simply and naturally satisfy his simple and natural
+curiosity, calling things by precise names, whether the names used are
+common or uncommon being a matter in regard to which she may exercise her
+judgment and taste. In this manner the mother will, indirectly, be able to
+safeguard her child at the outset against the prudish and prurient notions
+alike which he will encounter later. She will also without unnatural
+stress be able to lead the child into a reverential attitude towards his
+own organs and so exert an influence against any undesirable tampering
+with them. In talking with him about the origin of life and about his own
+body and functions, in however elementary a fashion, she will have
+initiated him both in sexual knowledge and in sexual hygiene.
+
+The mother who establishes a relationship of confidence with her child
+during these first years will probably, if she possesses any measure of
+wisdom and tact, be able to preserve it even after the epoch of puberty
+into the difficult years of adolescence. But as an educator in the
+narrower sense her functions will, in most cases, end at or before
+puberty. A somewhat more technical and completely impersonal acquaintance
+with the essential facts of sex then becomes desirable, and this would
+usually be supplied by the school.
+
+    The great though capricious educator, Basedow, to some extent a
+    pupil of Rousseau, was an early pioneer in both the theory and
+    the practice of giving school children instruction in the facts
+    of the sexual life, from the age of ten onwards. He insists much
+    on this subject in his great treatise, the _Elementarwerk_
+    (1770-1774). The questions of children are to be answered
+    truthfully, he states, and they must be taught never to jest at
+    anything so sacred and serious as the sexual relations. They are
+    to be shown pictures of childbirth, and the dangers of sexual
+    irregularities are to be clearly expounded to them at the outset.
+    Boys are to be taken to hospitals to see the results of venereal
+    disease. Basedow is aware that many parents and teachers will be
+    shocked at his insistence on these things in his books and in his
+    practical pedagogic work, but such people, he declares, ought to
+    be shocked at the Bible (see, e.g., Pinloche, _La Reforme de
+    l'Education en Allemagne au dixhuitieme siecle: Basedow et le
+    Philanthropinisme_, pp. 125, 256, 260, 272). Basedow was too far
+    ahead of his own time, and even of ours, to exert much influence
+    in this matter, and he had few immediate imitators.
+
+    Somewhat later than Basedow, a distinguished English physician,
+    Thomas Beddoes, worked on somewhat the same lines, seeking to
+    promote sexual knowledge by lectures and demonstrations. In his
+    remarkable book, _Hygeia_, published in 1802 (vol. i, Essay IV)
+    he sets forth the absurdity of the conventional requirement that
+    "discretion and ignorance should lodge in the same bosom," and
+    deals at length with the question of masturbation and the need of
+    sexual education. He insists on the great importance of lectures
+    on natural history which, he had found, could be given with
+    perfect propriety to a mixed audience. His experiences had shown
+    that botany, the amphibia, the hen and her eggs, human anatomy,
+    even disease and sometimes the sight of it, are salutary from
+    this point of view. He thinks it is a happy thing for a child to
+    gain his first knowledge of sexual difference from anatomical
+    subjects, the dignity of death being a noble prelude to the
+    knowledge of sex and depriving it forever of morbid prurience.
+    It is scarcely necessary to remark that this method of teaching
+    children the elements of sexual anatomy in the _post-mortem_ room
+    has not found many advocates or followers; it is undesirable, for
+    it fails to take into account the sensitiveness of children to
+    such impressions, and it is unnecessary, for it is just as easy
+    to teach the dignity of life as the dignity of death.
+
+    The duty of the school to impart education in matters of sex to
+    children has in recent years been vigorously and ably advocated
+    by Maria Lischnewska (op. cit.), who speaks with thirty years'
+    experience as a teacher and an intimate acquaintance with
+    children and their home life. She argues that among the mass of
+    the population to-day, while in the home-life there is every
+    opportunity for coarse familiarity with sexual matters, there is
+    no opportunity for a pure and enlightened introduction to them,
+    parents being for the most part both morally and intellectually
+    incapable of aiding their children here. That the school should
+    assume the leading part in this task is, she believes, in
+    accordance with the whole tendency of modern civilized life. She
+    would have the instruction graduated in such a manner that during
+    the fifth or sixth year of school life the pupil would receive
+    instruction, with the aid of diagrams, concerning the sexual
+    organs and functions of the higher mammals, the bull and cow
+    being selected by preference. The facts of gestation would of
+    course be included. When this stage was reached it would be easy
+    to pass on to the human species with the statement: "Just in the
+    same way as the calf develops in the cow so the child develops in
+    the mother's body."
+
+    It is difficult not to recognize the force of Maria Lischnewska's
+    argument, and it seems highly probable that, as she asserts, the
+    instruction proposed lies in the course of our present path of
+    progress. Such instruction would be formal, unemotional, and
+    impersonal; it would be given not as specific instruction in
+    matters of sex, but simply as a part of natural history. It would
+    supplement, so far as mere knowledge is concerned, the
+    information the child had already received from its mother. But
+    it would by no means supplant or replace the personal and
+    intimate relationship of confidence between mother and child.
+    That is always to be aimed at, and though it may not be possible
+    among the ill-educated masses of to-day, nothing else will
+    adequately take its place.
+
+There can be no doubt, however, that while in the future the school will
+most probably be regarded as the proper place in which to teach the
+elements of physiology--and not as at present a merely emasculated and
+effeminated physiology--the introduction of such reformed teaching is as
+yet impracticable in many communities. A coarse and ill-bred community
+moves in a vicious circle. Its members are brought up to believe that sex
+matters are filthy, and when they become adults they protest violently
+against their children being taught this filthy knowledge. The teacher's
+task is thus rendered at the best difficult, and under democratic
+conditions impossible. We cannot, therefore, hope for any immediate
+introduction of sexual physiology into schools, even in the unobtrusive
+form in which alone it could properly be introduced, that is to say as a
+natural and inevitable part of general physiology.
+
+This objection to animal physiology by no means applies, however, to
+botany. There can be little doubt that botany is of all the natural
+sciences that which best admits of this incidental instruction in the
+fundamental facts of sex, when we are concerned with children below the
+age of puberty. There are at least two reasons why this should be so. In
+the first place botany really presents the beginnings of sex, in their
+most naked and essential forms; it makes clear the nature, origin, and
+significance of sex. In the second place, in dealing with plants the facts
+of sex can be stated to children of either sex or any age quite plainly
+and nakedly without any reserve, for no one nowadays regards the botanical
+facts of sex as in any way offensive. The expounder of sex in plants also
+has on his side the advantage of being able to assert, without question,
+the entire beauty of the sexual process. He is not confronted by the
+ignorance, bad education, and false associations which have made it so
+difficult either to see or to show the beauty of sex in animals. From the
+sex-life of plants to the sex-life of the lower animals there is, however,
+but a step which the teacher, according to his discretion, may take.
+
+    An early educational authority, Salzmann, in 1785 advocated the
+    sexual enlightenment of children by first teaching them botany,
+    to be followed by zooelogy. In modern times the method of
+    imparting sex knowledge to children by means, in the first place,
+    of botany, has been generally advocated, and from the most
+    various quarters. Thus Marro (_La Puberta_, p. 300) recommends
+    this plan. J. Hudrey-Menos ("La Question du Sexe dans
+    l'Education," _Revue Socialiste_, June, 1895), gives the same
+    advice. Rudolf Sommer, in a paper entitled "Maedchenerziehung oder
+    Menschenbildung?" (_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I,
+    Heft 3) recommends that the first introduction of sex knowledge
+    to children should be made by talking to them on simple natural
+    history subjects; "there are endless opportunities," he remarks,
+    "over a fairy-tale, or a walk, or a fruit, or an egg, the sowing
+    of seed or the nest-building of birds." Canon Lyttelton
+    (_Training of the Young in Laws of Sex_, pp. 74 et seq.) advises
+    a somewhat similar method, though laying chief stress on personal
+    confidence between the child and his mother; "reference is made
+    to the animal world just so far as the child's knowledge extends,
+    so as to prevent the new facts from being viewed in isolation,
+    but the main emphasis is laid on his feeling for his mother and
+    the instinct which exists in nearly all children of reverence due
+    to the maternal relation;" he adds that, however difficult the
+    subject may seem, the essential facts of paternity must also be
+    explained to boys and girls alike. Keyes, again (_New York
+    Medical Journal_, Feb. 10, 1906), advocates teaching children
+    from an early age the sexual facts of plant life and also
+    concerning insects and other lower animals, and so gradually
+    leading up to human beings, the matter being thus robbed of its
+    unwholesome mystery. Mrs. Ennis Richmond (_Boyhood_, p. 62)
+    recommends that children should be sent to spend some of their
+    time upon a farm, so that they may not only become acquainted
+    with the general facts of the natural world, but also with the
+    sexual lives of animals, learning things which it is difficult to
+    teach verbally. Karina Karin ("Wie erzieht man ein Kind zuer
+    wissenden Keuschheit?" _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I,
+    Heft 4), reproducing some of her talks with her nine-year old
+    son, from the time that he first asked her where children came
+    from, shows how she began with telling him about flowers, to pass
+    on to fish and birds, and finally to the facts of human
+    pregnancy, showing him pictures from an obstetrical manual of the
+    child in its mother's body. It may be added that the advisability
+    of beginning the sex teaching of children with the facts of
+    botany was repeatedly emphasized by various speakers at the
+    special meeting of the German Congress for Combating Venereal
+    Disease devoted to the subject of sexual instruction
+    (_Sexualpaedagogik_, especially pp. 36, 47, 76).
+
+The transition from botany to the elementary zooelogy of the lower animals,
+to human anatomy and physiology, and to the science of anthropology based
+on these, is simple and natural. It is not likely to be taken in detail
+until the age of puberty. Sex enters into all these subjects and should
+not be artificially excluded from them in the education of either boys or
+girls. The text-books from which the sexual system is entirely omitted
+ought no longer to be tolerated. The nature and secretion of the
+testicles, the meaning of the ovaries and of menstruation, as well as the
+significance of metabolism and the urinary excretion, should be clear in
+their main lines to all boys and girls who have reached the age of
+puberty.
+
+At puberty there arises a new and powerful reason why boys and girls
+should receive definite instruction in matters of sex. Before that age it
+is possible for the foolish parent to imagine that a child may be
+preserved in ignorant innocence.[25] At puberty that belief is obviously
+no longer possible. The efflorescence of puberty with the development of
+the sexual organs, the appearance of hair in unfamiliar places, the
+general related organic changes, the spontaneous and perhaps alarming
+occurrence in boys of seminal emissions, and in girls of menstruation, the
+unaccustomed and sometimes acute recognition of sexual desire accompanied
+by new sensations in the sexual organs and leading perhaps to
+masturbation; all these arouse, as we cannot fail to realize, a new
+anxiety in the boy's or girl's mind, and a new curiosity, all the more
+acute in many cases because it is carefully concealed as too private, and
+even too shameful, to speak of to anyone. In boys, especially if of
+sensitive temperament, the suffering thus caused may be keen and
+prolonged.
+
+    A doctor of philosophy, prominent in his profession, wrote to
+    Stanley Hall (_Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 452): "My entire youth,
+    from six to eighteen, was made miserable from lack of knowledge
+    that any one who knew anything of the nature of puberty might
+    have given; this long sense of defect, dread of operation, shame
+    and worry, has left an indelible mark." There are certainly many
+    men who could say the same. Lancaster ("Psychology and Pedagogy
+    of Adolescence," _Pedagogical Seminary_, July, 1897, pp. 123-5)
+    speaks strongly regarding the evils of ignorance of sexual
+    hygiene, and the terrible fact that millions of youths are always
+    in the hands of quacks who dupe them into the belief that they
+    are on the road to an awful destiny merely because they have
+    occasional emissions during sleep. "This is not a light matter,"
+    Lancaster declares. "It strikes at the very foundation of our
+    inmost life. It deals with the reproductory part of our natures,
+    and must have a deep hereditary influence. It is a natural result
+    of the foolish false modesty shown regarding all sex instruction.
+    Every boy should be taught the simple physiological facts before
+    his life is forever blighted by this cause." Lancaster has had in
+    his hands one thousand letters, mostly written by young people,
+    who were usually normal, and addressed to quacks who were duping
+    them. From time to time the suicides of youths from this cause
+    are reported, and in many mysterious suicides this has
+    undoubtedly been the real cause. "Week after week," writes the
+    _British Medical Journal_ in an editorial ("Dangerous Quack
+    Literature: The Moral of a Recent Suicide," Oct. 1, 1892), "we
+    receive despairing letters from those victims of foul birds of
+    prey who have obtained their first hold on those they rob,
+    torture and often ruin, by advertisements inserted by newspapers
+    of a respectable, nay, even of a valuable and respected,
+    character." It is added that the wealthy proprietors of such
+    newspapers, often enjoying a reputation for benevolence, even
+    when the matter is brought before them, refuse to interfere as
+    they would thereby lose a source of income, and a censorship of
+    advertisements is proposed. This, however, is difficult, and
+    would be quite unnecessary if youths received proper
+    enlightenment from their natural guardians.
+
+    Masturbation, and the fear that by an occasional and perhaps
+    outgrown practice of masturbation they have sometimes done
+    themselves irreparable injury, is a common source of anxiety to
+    boys. It has long been a question whether a boy should be warned
+    against masturbation. At a meeting of the Section of Psychology
+    of the British Medical Association some years ago, four speakers,
+    including the President (Dr. Blandford), were decidedly in favor
+    of parents warning their children against masturbation, while
+    three speakers were decidedly against that course, mainly on the
+    ground that it was possible to pass through even a public school
+    life without hearing of masturbation, and also that the warning
+    against masturbation might encourage the practice. It is,
+    however, becoming more and more clearly realized that ignorance,
+    even if it can be maintained, is a perilous possession, while the
+    teaching that consists, as it should, in a loving mother's
+    counsel to the child from his earliest years to treat his sexual
+    parts with care and respect, can only lead to masturbation in the
+    child who is already irresistibly impelled to it. Most of the sex
+    manuals for boys touch on masturbation, sometimes exaggerating
+    its dangers; such exaggeration should be avoided, for it leads to
+    far worse evils than those it attempts to prevent. It seems
+    undesirable that any warnings about masturbation should form part
+    of school instruction, unless under very special circumstances.
+    The sexual instruction imparted in the school on sexual as on
+    other subjects should be absolutely impersonal and objective.
+
+    At this point we approach one of the difficulties in the way of
+    sexual enlightenment: the ignorance or unwisdom of the would-be
+    teachers. This difficulty at present exists both in the home and
+    the school, while it destroys the value of many manuals written
+    for the sexual instruction of the young. The mother, who ought to
+    be the child's confidant and guide in matters of sexual
+    education, and could naturally be so if left to her own healthy
+    instincts, has usually been brought up in false traditions which
+    it requires a high degree of intelligence and character to escape
+    from; the school-teacher, even if only called upon to give
+    instruction in natural history, is oppressed by the same
+    traditions, and by false shame concerning the whole subject of
+    sex; the writer of manuals on sex has often only freed himself
+    from these bonds in order to advocate dogmatic, unscientific, and
+    sometimes mischievous opinions which have been evolved in entire
+    ignorance of the real facts. As Moll says (Das _Sexualleben des
+    Kindes_, p. 276), necessary as sexual enlightenment is, we cannot
+    help feeling a little skeptical as to its results so long as
+    those who ought to enlighten are themselves often in need of
+    enlightenment. He refers also to the fact that even among
+    competent authorities there is difference of opinion concerning
+    important matters, as, for instance, whether masturbation is
+    physiological at the first development of the sexual impulse and
+    how far sexual abstinence is beneficial. But it is evident that
+    the difficulties due to false tradition and ignorance will
+    diminish as sound traditions and better knowledge become more
+    widely diffused.
+
+The girl at puberty is usually less keenly and definitely conscious of her
+sexual nature than the boy. But the risks she runs from sexual ignorance,
+though for the most part different, are more subtle and less easy to
+repair. She is often extremely inquisitive concerning these matters; the
+thoughts of adolescent girls, and often their conversation among
+themselves, revolve much around sexual and allied mysteries. Even in the
+matter of conscious sexual impulse the girl is often not so widely
+different from her brother, nor so much less likely to escape the
+contamination of evil communications, so that the scruples of foolish and
+ignorant persons who dread to "sully her purity" by proper instruction are
+exceedingly misplaced.
+
+    Conversations dealing with the important mysteries of human
+    nature, Obici and Marchesini were told by ladies who had formerly
+    been pupils in Italian Normal Schools, are the order of the day
+    in schools and colleges, and specially circle around procreation,
+    the most difficult mystery of all. In England, even in the best
+    and most modern colleges, in which games and physical exercise
+    are much cultivated, I am told that "the majority of the girls
+    are entirely ignorant of all sexual matters, and understand
+    nothing whatever about them. But they do wonder about them, and
+    talk about them constantly" (see Appendix D, "The School
+    Friendships of Girls," in the second volume of these _Studies_).
+    "The restricted life and fettered mind of girls," wrote a
+    well-known physician some years ago (J. Milner Fothergill,
+    _Adolescence_, 1880, pp. 20, 22) "leave them with less to
+    actively occupy their thoughts than is the case with boys. They
+    are studiously taught concealment, and a girl may be a perfect
+    model of outward decorum and yet have a very filthy mind. The
+    prudishness with which she is brought up leaves her no
+    alternative but to view her passions from the nasty side of human
+    nature. All healthy thought on the subject is vigorously
+    repressed. Everything is done to darken her mind and foul her
+    imagination by throwing her back on her own thoughts and a
+    literature with which she is ashamed to own acquaintance. It is
+    opposed to a girl's best interests to prevent her from having
+    fair and just conceptions about herself and her nature. Many a
+    fair young girl is irredeemably ruined on the very threshold of
+    life, herself and her family disgraced, from ignorance as much as
+    from vice. When the moment of temptation comes she falls without
+    any palpable resistance; she has no trained educated power of
+    resistance within herself; her whole future hangs, not upon
+    herself, but upon the perfection of the social safeguards by
+    which she is hedged and surrounded." Under the free social order
+    of America to-day much the same results are found. In an
+    instructive article ("Why Girls Go Wrong," _Ladies' Home
+    Journal_, Jan., 1907) B.B. Lindsey, who, as Judge of the Juvenile
+    Court of Denver, is able to speak with authority, brings forward
+    ample evidence on this head. Both girls and boys, he has found,
+    sometimes possess manuscript books in which they had written down
+    the crudest sexual things. These children were often sweet-faced,
+    pleasant, refined and intelligent, and they had respectable
+    parents; but no one had ever spoken to them of sex matters,
+    except the worst of their school-fellows or some coarse-minded
+    and reckless adult. By careful inquiry Lindsey found that only in
+    one in twenty cases had the parents ever spoken to the children
+    of sexual subjects. In nearly every case the children
+    acknowledged that it was not from their parents, but in the
+    street or from older companions, that they learnt the facts of
+    sex. The parents usually imagined that their children were
+    absolutely ignorant of these matters, and were astonished to
+    realize their mistake; "parents do not know their children, nor
+    have they the least idea of what their children know, or what
+    their children talk about and do when away from them." The
+    parents guilty of this neglect to instruct their children, are,
+    Lindsey declares, traitors to their children. From his own
+    experience he judges that nine-tenths of the girls who "go
+    wrong," whether or not they sink in the world, do so owing to the
+    inattention of their parents, and that in the case of most
+    prostitutes the mischief is really done before the age of twelve;
+    "every wayward girl I have talked to has assured me of this
+    truth." He considers that nine-tenths of school-boys and
+    school-girls, in town or country, are very inquisitive regarding
+    matters of sex, and, to his own amazement, he has found that in
+    the girls this is as marked as in the boys.
+
+It is the business of the girl's mother, at least as much as of the boy's,
+to watch over her child from the earliest years and to win her confidence
+in all the intimate and personal matters of sex. With these aspects the
+school cannot properly meddle. But in matters of physical sexual hygiene,
+notably menstruation, in regard to which all girls stand on the same
+level, it is certainly the duty of the teacher to take an actively
+watchful part, and, moreover, to direct the general work of education
+accordingly, and to ensure that the pupil shall rest whenever that may
+seem to be desirable. This is part of the very elements of the education
+of girls. To disregard it should disqualify a teacher from taking further
+share in educational work. Yet it is constantly and persistently
+neglected. A large number of girls have not even been prepared by their
+mothers or teachers for the first onset of the menstrual flow, sometimes
+with disastrous results both to their bodily and mental health.[26]
+
+    "I know of no large girl's school," wrote a distinguished
+    gynaecologist, Sir W.S. Playfair ("Education and Training of Girls
+    at Puberty," _British Medical Journal_, Dec. 7, 1895), "in which
+    the absolute distinction which exists between boys and girls as
+    regards the dominant menstrual function is systematically cared
+    for and attended to. Indeed, the feeling of all schoolmistresses
+    is distinctly antagonistic to such an admission. The contention
+    is that there is no real difference between an adolescent male
+    and female, that what is good for one is good for the other, and
+    that such as there is is due to the evil customs of the past
+    which have denied to women the ambitions and advantages open to
+    men, and that this will disappear when a happier era is
+    inaugurated. If this be so, how comes it that while every
+    practical physician of experience has seen many cases of anaemia
+    and chlorosis in girls, accompanied by amenorrhaea or menorrhagia,
+    headaches, palpitations, emaciation, and all the familiar
+    accompaniments of breakdown, an analogous condition in a
+    school-boy is so rare that it may well be doubted if it is ever
+    seen at all?"
+
+    It is, however, only the excuses for this almost criminal
+    negligence, as it ought to be considered, which are new; the
+    negligence itself is ancient. Half a century earlier, before the
+    new era of feminine education, another distinguished
+    gynaecologist, Tilt (_Elements of Health and Principles of Female
+    Hygiene_, 1852, p. 18) stated that from a statistical inquiry
+    regarding the onset of menstruation in nearly one thousand women
+    he found that "25 per cent. were totally unprepared for its
+    appearance; that thirteen out of the twenty-five were much
+    frightened, screamed, or went into hysterical fits; and that six
+    out of the thirteen thought themselves wounded and washed with
+    cold water. Of those frightened ... the general health was
+    seriously impaired."
+
+    Engelmann, after stating that his experience in America was
+    similar to Tilt's in England, continues ("The Health of the
+    American Girl," _Transactions of the Southern Surgical and
+    Gynaecological Society_, 1890): "To innumerable women has fright,
+    nervous and emotional excitement, exposure to cold, brought
+    injury at puberty. What more natural than that the anxious girl,
+    surprised by the sudden and unexpected loss of the precious
+    life-fluid, should seek to check the bleeding wound--as she
+    supposes? For this purpose the use of cold washes and
+    applications is common, some even seek to stop the flow by a cold
+    bath, as was done by a now careful mother, who long lay at the
+    point of death from the result of such indiscretion, and but
+    slowly, by years of care, regained her health. The terrible
+    warning has not been lost, and mindful of her own experience she
+    has taught her children a lesson which but few are fortunate
+    enough to learn--the individual care during periods of functional
+    activity which is needful for the preservation of woman's
+    health."
+
+    In a study of one hundred and twenty-five American high school
+    girls Dr. Helen Kennedy refers to the "modesty" which makes it
+    impossible even for mothers and daughters to speak to each other
+    concerning the menstrual functions. "Thirty-six girls in this
+    high school passed into womanhood with no knowledge whatever,
+    from a proper source, of all that makes them women. Thirty-nine
+    were probably not much wiser, for they stated that they had
+    received some instruction, but had not talked freely on the
+    matter. From the fact that the curious girl did not talk freely
+    on what naturally interested her, it is possible she was put off
+    with a few words as to personal care, and a reprimand for her
+    curiosity. Less than half of the girls felt free to talk with
+    their mothers of this most important matter!" (Helen Kennedy,
+    "Effects of High School Work upon Girls During Adolescence,"
+    _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1896.)
+
+    The same state of things probably also prevails in other
+    countries. Thus, as regards France, Edmond de Goncourt in
+    _Cherie_ (pp. 137-139) described the terror of his young heroine
+    at the appearance of the first menstrual period for which she
+    had never been prepared. He adds: "It is very seldom, indeed,
+    that women speak of this eventuality. Mothers fear to warn their
+    daughters, elder sisters dislike confidences with their younger
+    sisters, governesses are generally mute with girls who have no
+    mothers or sisters."
+
+    Sometimes this leads to suicide or to attempts at suicide. Thus a
+    few years ago the case was reported in the French newspapers of a
+    young girl of fifteen, who threw herself into the Seine at
+    Saint-Ouen. She was rescued, and on being brought before the
+    police commissioner said that she had been attacked by an
+    "unknown disease" which had driven her to despair. Discreet
+    inquiry revealed that the mysterious malady was one common to all
+    women, and the girl was restored to her insufficiently punished
+    parents.
+
+Half a century ago the sexual life of girls was ignored by their parents
+and teachers from reasons of prudishness; at the present time, when quite
+different ideas prevail regarding feminine education, it is ignored on the
+ground that girls should be as independent of their physiological sexual
+life as boys are. The fact that this mischievous neglect has prevailed
+equally under such different conditions indicates clearly that the varying
+reasons assigned for it are merely the cloaks of ignorance. With the
+growth of knowledge we may reasonably hope that one of the chief evils
+which at present undermine in early life not only healthy motherhood but
+healthy womanhood generally, may be gradually eliminated. The data now
+being accumulated show not only the extreme prevalence of painful,
+disordered, and absent menstruation in adolescent girls and young women,
+but also the great and sometimes permanent evils inflicted upon even
+healthy girls when at the beginning of sexual life they are subjected to
+severe strain of any kind. Medical authorities, whichever sex they belong
+to, may now be said to be almost or quite unanimous on this point. Some
+years ago, indeed, Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi, in a very able book, _The
+Question of Rest for Women_, concluded that "ordinarily healthy" women may
+disregard the menstrual period, but she admitted that forty-six per cent,
+of women are not "ordinarily healthy," and a minority which comes so near
+to being a majority can by no means be dismissed as a negligible quantity.
+Girls themselves, indeed, carried away by the ardor of their pursuit of
+work or amusement, are usually recklessly and ignorantly indifferent to
+the serious risks they run. But the opinions of teachers are now tending
+to agree with medical opinion in recognizing the importance of care and
+rest during the years of adolescence, and teachers are even prepared to
+admit that a year's rest from hard work during the period that a girl's
+sexual life is becoming established, while it may ensure her health and
+vigor, is not even a disadvantage from the educational point of view. With
+the growth of knowledge and the decay of ancient prejudices, we may
+reasonably hope that women will be emancipated from the traditions of a
+false civilization, which have forced her to regard her glory as her
+shame,--though it has never been so among robust primitive peoples,--and
+it is encouraging to find that so distinguished an educator as Principal
+Stanley Hall looks forward with confidence to such a time. In his
+exhaustive work on _Adolescence_ he writes: "Instead of shame of this
+function girls should be taught the greatest reverence for it, and should
+help it to normality by regularly stepping aside at stated times for a few
+years till it is well established and normal. To higher beings that looked
+down upon human life as we do upon flowers, these would be the most
+interesting and beautiful hours of blossoming. With more self-knowledge
+women will have more self-respect at this time. Savagery reveres this
+state and it gives to women a mystic awe. The time may come when we must
+even change the divisions of the year for women, leaving to man his week
+and giving to her the same number of Sabbaths per year, but in groups of
+four successive days per month. When woman asserts her true physiological
+rights she will begin here, and will glory in what, in an age of
+ignorance, man made her think to be her shame. The pathos about the
+leaders of woman's so-called emancipation, is that they, even more than
+those they would persuade, accept man's estimate of this state."[27]
+
+These wise words cannot be too deeply pondered. The pathos of the
+situation has indeed been--at all events in the past for to-day a more
+enlightened generation is growing up--that the very leaders of the woman's
+movement have often betrayed the cause of women. They have adopted the
+ideals of men, they have urged women to become second-rate men, they have
+declared that the healthy natural woman disregards the presence of her
+menstrual functions. This is the very reverse of the truth. "They claim,"
+remarks Engelmann, "that woman in her natural state is the physical equal
+of man, and constantly point to the primitive woman, the female of savage
+peoples, as an example of this supposed axiom. Do they know how well this
+same savage is aware of the weakness of woman and her susceptibility at
+certain periods of her life? And with what care he protects her from harm
+at these periods? I believe not. The importance of surrounding women with
+certain precautions during the height of these great functional waves of
+her existence was appreciated by all peoples living in an approximately
+natural state, by all races at all times; and among their comparatively
+few religious customs this one, affording rest to women, was most
+persistently adhered to." It is among the white races alone that the
+sexual invalidism of women prevails, and it is the white races alone,
+which, outgrowing the religious ideas with which the menstrual seclusion
+of women was associated, have flung away that beneficent seclusion itself,
+throwing away the baby with the bath in an almost literal sense.[28]
+
+    In Germany Tobler has investigated the menstrual histories of
+    over one thousand women (_Monatsschrift fuer Geburtshuelfe und
+    Gynaekologie_, July, 1905). He finds that in the great majority of
+    women at the present day menstruation is associated with
+    distinct deterioration of the general health, and diminution of
+    functional energy. In 26 per cent. local pain, general malaise,
+    and mental and nervous anomalies coexisted; in larger proportion
+    come the cases in which local pain, general weak health or
+    psychic abnormality was experienced alone at this period. In 16
+    per cent. only none of these symptoms were experienced. In a very
+    small separate group the physical and mental functions were
+    stronger during this period, but in half of these cases there was
+    distinct disturbance during the intermenstrual period. Tobler
+    concludes that, while menstruation itself is physiological, all
+    these disturbances are pathological.
+
+    As far as England is concerned, at a discussion of normal and
+    painful menstruation at a meeting of the British Association of
+    Registered Medical Women on the 7th of July, 1908, it was stated
+    by Miss Bentham that 50 per cent. of girls in good position
+    suffered from painful menstruation. Mrs. Dunnett said it usually
+    occurred between the ages of twenty-four and thirty, being
+    frequently due to neglect to rest during menstruation in the
+    earlier years, and Mrs. Grainger Evans had found that this
+    condition was very common among elementary school teachers who
+    had worked hard for examinations during early girlhood.
+
+    In America various investigations have been carried out, showing
+    the prevalence of disturbance in the sexual health of school
+    girls and young women. Thus Dr. Helen P. Kennedy obtained
+    elaborate data concerning the menstrual life of one hundred and
+    twenty-five high school girls of the average age of eighteen
+    ("Effect of High School Work upon Girls During Adolescence,"
+    _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1896). Only twenty-eight felt no
+    pain during the period; half the total number experienced
+    disagreeable symptoms before the period (such as headache,
+    malaise, irritability of temper), while forty-four complained of
+    other symptoms besides pain during the period (especially
+    headache and great weakness). Jane Kelley Sabine (quoted in
+    _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, Sept. 15, 1904) found in
+    New England schools among two thousand girls that 75 per cent.
+    had menstrual troubles, 90 per cent. had leucorrhoea and ovarian
+    neuralgia, and 60 per cent. had to give up work for two days
+    during each month. These results seem more than usually
+    unfavorable, but are significant, as they cover a large number of
+    cases. The conditions in the Pacific States are not much better.
+    Dr. Mary Ritter (in a paper read before the California State
+    Medical Society in 1903) stated that of 660 Freshmen girls at the
+    University of California, 67 per cent. were subject to menstrual
+    disorders, 27 per cent. to headaches, 30 per cent. to backaches,
+    29 per cent. were habitually constipated, 16 per cent. had
+    abnormal heart sounds; only 23 per cent. were free from
+    functional disturbances. Dr. Helen MacMurchey, in an interesting
+    paper on "Physiological Phenomena Preceding or Accompanying
+    Menstruation" (_Lancet_, Oct. 5, 1901), by inquiries among one
+    hundred medical women, nurses, and women teachers in Toronto
+    concerning the presence or absence of twenty-one different
+    abnormal menstrual phenomena, found that between 50 and 60 per
+    cent. admitted that they were liable at this time to disturbed
+    sleep, to headache, to mental depression, to digestive
+    disturbance, or to disturbance of the special senses, while about
+    25 to 50 per cent. were liable to neuralgia, to vertigo, to
+    excessive nervous energy, to defective nervous and muscular
+    power, to cutaneous hyperaesthesia, to vasomotor disturbances, to
+    constipation, to diarrhoea, to increased urination, to cutaneous
+    eruption, to increased liability to take cold, or to irritating
+    watery discharges before or after the menstrual discharge. This
+    inquiry is of much interest, because it clearly brings out the
+    marked prevalence at menstruation of conditions which, though not
+    necessarily of any gravity, yet definitely indicate decreased
+    power of resistance to morbid influences and diminished
+    efficiency for work.
+
+    How serious an impediment menstrual troubles are to a woman is
+    indicated by the fact that the women who achieve success and fame
+    seem seldom to be greatly affected by them. To that we may, in
+    part, attribute the frequency with which leaders of the women's
+    movement have treated menstruation as a thing of no importance in
+    a woman's life. Adele Gerhard, and Helene Simon, also, in their
+    valuable and impartial work, _Mutterschaft und Geistige Arbeit_
+    (p. 312), failed to find, in their inquiries among women of
+    distinguished ability, that menstruation was regarded as
+    seriously disturbing to work.
+
+    Of late the suggestion that adolescent girls shall not only rest
+    from work during two days of the menstrual period, but have an
+    entire holiday from school during the first year of sexual life,
+    has frequently been put forward, both from the medical and the
+    educational side. At the meeting of the Association of Registered
+    Medical Women, already referred to, Miss Sturge spoke of the good
+    results obtained in a school where, during the first two years
+    after puberty, the girls were kept in bed for the first two days
+    of each menstrual period. Some years ago Dr. G.W. Cook ("Some
+    Disorders of Menstruation," _American Journal of Obstetrics_,
+    April, 1896), after giving cases in point, wrote: "It is my
+    deliberate conviction that no girl should be confined at study
+    during the year of her puberty, but she should live an outdoor
+    life." In an article on "Alumna's Children," by "An Alumna"
+    (_Popular Science Monthly_, May, 1904), dealing with the sexual
+    invalidism of American women and the severe strain of motherhood
+    upon them, the author, though she is by no means hostile to
+    education, which is not, she declares, at fault, pleads for rest
+    for the pubertal girl. "If the brain claims her whole vitality,
+    how can there be any proper development? Just as very young
+    children should give all their strength for some years solely to
+    physical growth before the brain is allowed to make any
+    considerable demands, so at this critical period in the life of
+    the woman nothing should obstruct the right of way of this
+    important system. A year at the least should be made especially
+    easy for her, with neither mental nor nervous strain; and
+    throughout the rest of her school days she should have her
+    periodical day of rest, free from any study or overexertion." In
+    another article on the same subject in the same journal ("The
+    Health of American Girls," Sept., 1907), Nellie Comins Whitaker
+    advocates a similar course. "I am coming to be convinced,
+    somewhat against my wish, that there are many cases when the girl
+    ought to be taken out of school entirely for some months or for a
+    year _at the period of puberty_." She adds that the chief
+    obstacle in the way is the girl's own likes and dislikes, and the
+    ignorance of her mother who has been accustomed to think that
+    pain is a woman's natural lot.
+
+    Such a period of rest from mental strain, while it would fortify
+    the organism in its resistance to any reasonable strain later,
+    need by no means be lost for education in the wider sense of the
+    word, for the education required in classrooms is but a small
+    part of the education required for life. Nor should it by any
+    means be reserved merely for the sickly and delicate girl. The
+    tragic part of the present neglect to give girls a really sound
+    and fitting education is that the best and finest girls are
+    thereby so often ruined. Even the English policeman, who
+    admittedly belongs in physical vigor and nervous balance to the
+    flower of the population, is unable to bear the strain of his
+    life, and is said to be worn out in twenty-five years. It is
+    equally foolish to submit the finest flowers of girlhood to a
+    strain which is admittedly too severe.
+
+It seems to be clear that the main factor in the common sexual and general
+invalidism of girls and young women is bad hygiene, in the first place
+consisting in neglect of the menstrual functions and in the second place
+in faulty habits generally. In all the more essential matters that concern
+the hygiene of the body the traditions of girls--and this seems to be more
+especially the case in the Anglo-Saxon countries--are inferior to those of
+youths. Women are much more inclined than men to subordinate these things
+to what seems to them some more urgent interest or fancy of the moment;
+they are trained to wear awkward and constricting garments, they are
+indifferent to regular and substantial meals, preferring innutritious and
+indigestible foods and drinks; they are apt to disregard the demands of
+the bowels and the bladder out of laziness or modesty; they are even
+indifferent to physical cleanliness.[29] In a great number of minor ways,
+which separately may seem to be of little importance, they play into the
+hands of an environment which, not always having been adequately adjusted
+to their special needs, would exert a considerable stress and strain even
+if they carefully sought to guard themselves against it. It has been found
+in an American Women's College in which about half the scholars wore
+corsets and half not, that nearly all the honors and prizes went to the
+non-corset-wearers. McBride, in bringing forward this fact, pertinently
+remarks, "If the wearing of a single style of dress will make this
+difference in the lives of young women, and that, too, in their most
+vigorous and resistive period, how much difference will a score of
+unhealthy habits make, if persisted in for a life-time?"[30]
+
+    "It seems evident," A.E. Giles concludes ("Some Points of
+    Preventive Treatment in the Diseases of Women," _The Hospital_,
+    April 10, 1897) "that dysmenorrhoea might be to a large extent
+    prevented by attention to general health and education. Short
+    hours of work, especially of standing; plenty of outdoor
+    exercise--tennis, boating, cycling, gymnastics, and walking for
+    those who cannot afford these; regularity of meals and food of
+    the proper quality--not the incessant tea and bread and butter
+    with variation of pastry; the avoidance of overexertion and
+    prolonged fatigue; these are some of the principal things which
+    require attention. Let girls pursue their study, but more
+    leisurely; they will arrive at the same goal, but a little
+    later." The benefit of allowing free movement and exercise to the
+    whole body is undoubtedly very great, both as regards the sexual
+    and general physical health and the mental balance; in order to
+    insure this it is necessary to avoid heavy and constricting
+    garments, more especially around the chest, for it is in
+    respiratory power and chest expansion more than in any other
+    respect that girls fall behind boys (see, e.g., Havelock Ellis,
+    _Man and Woman_, Ch. IX). In old days the great obstacle to the
+    free exercise of girls lay in an ideal of feminine behavior which
+    involved a prim restraint on every natural movement of the body.
+    At the present day that ideal is not so fervently preached as of
+    old, but its traditional influence still to some extent persists,
+    while there is the further difficulty that adequate time and
+    opportunity and encouragement are by no means generally afforded
+    to girls for the cultivation and training of the romping
+    instincts which are really a serious part of education, for it is
+    by such free exercise of the whole body that the neuro-muscular
+    system, the basis of all vital activity, is built up. The neglect
+    of such education is to-day clearly visible in the structure of
+    our women. Dr. F. May Dickinson Berry, Medical Examiner to the
+    Technical Education Board of the London County Council, found
+    (_British Medical Journal_, May 28, 1904) among over 1,500 girls,
+    who represent the flower of the schools, since they had obtained
+    scholarships enabling them to proceed to higher grade schools,
+    that 22 per cent, presented some degree, not always pronounced,
+    of lateral curvature of the spine, though such cases were very
+    rare among the boys. In the same way among a very similar class
+    of select girls at the Chicago Normal School, Miss Lura Sanborn
+    (_Doctors' Magazine_, Dec., 1900) found 17 per cent, with spinal
+    curvature, in some cases of a very pronounced degree. There is no
+    reason why a girl should not have as straight a back as a boy,
+    and the cause can only lie in the defective muscular development
+    which was found in most of the cases, sometimes accompanied by
+    anaemia. Here and there nowadays, among the better social classes,
+    there is ample provision for the development of muscular power in
+    girls, but in any generalized way there is no adequate
+    opportunity for such exercise, and among the working class, above
+    all, in the section of it which touches the lower middle class,
+    although their lives are destined to be filled with a constant
+    strain on the neuro-muscular system from work at home or in
+    shops, etc., there is usually a minimum of healthy exercise and
+    physical development. Dr. W.A.B. Sellman, of Baltimore ("Causes
+    of Painful Menstruation in Unmarried Women," _American Journal
+    Obstetrics_, Nov., 1907), emphasizes the admirable results
+    obtained by moderate physical exercise for young women, and in
+    training them to care for their bodies and to rest their nervous
+    systems, while Dr. Charlotte Brown, of San Francisco, rightly
+    insists on the establishment in all towns and villages alike of
+    outdoor gymnastic fields for women and girls, and of a building,
+    in connection with every large school, for training in physical,
+    manual, and domestic science. The provision of special
+    playgrounds is necessary where the exercising of girls is so
+    unfamiliar as to cause an embarrassing amount of attention from
+    the opposite sex, though when it is an immemorial custom it can
+    be carried out on the village green without attracting the
+    slightest attention, as I have seen in Spain, where one cannot
+    fail to connect it with the physical vigor of the women. In boys'
+    schools games are not only encouraged, but made compulsory; but
+    this is by no means a universal rule in girls' schools. It is not
+    necessary, and is indeed highly undesirable, that the games
+    adopted should be those of boys. In England especially, where the
+    movements of women are so often marked by awkwardness, angularity
+    and lack of grace, it is essential that nothing should be done to
+    emphasize these characteristics, for where vigor involves
+    violence we are in the presence of a lack of due neuro-muscular
+    cooerdination. Swimming, when possible, and especially some forms
+    of dancing, are admirably adapted to develop the bodily movements
+    of women both vigorously and harmoniously (see, e.g., Havelock
+    Ellis, _Man and Woman_, Ch. VII). At the International Congress
+    of School Hygiene in 1907 (see, e.g., _British Medical Journal_,
+    Aug. 24, 1907) Dr. L.H. Gulick, formerly Director of Physical
+    Training in the Public Schools of New York City, stated that
+    after many experiments it had been found in the New York
+    elementary and high schools that folk-dancing constituted the
+    very best exercise for girls. "The dances selected involved many
+    contractions of the large muscular masses of the body and had
+    therefore a great effect on respiration, circulation and
+    nutrition. Such movements, moreover, when done as dances, could
+    be carried on three or four times as long without producing
+    fatigue as formal gymnastics. Many folk-dances were imitative,
+    sowing and reaping dance, dances expressing trade movements (the
+    shoemaker's dance), others illustrating attack and defense, or
+    the pursuit of game. Such neuro-muscular movements were racially
+    old and fitted in with man's expressive life, and if it were
+    accepted that the folk-dances really expressed an epitome of
+    man's neuro-muscular history, as distinguished from mere
+    permutation of movements, the folk-dance combinations should be
+    preferred on these biological grounds to the unselected, or even
+    the physiologically selected. From the aesthetic point of view the
+    sense of beauty as shown in dancing was far commoner than the
+    power to sing, paint or model."
+
+It must always be remembered that in realizing the especial demands of
+woman's nature, we do not commit ourselves to the belief that higher
+education is unfitted for a woman. That question may now be regarded as
+settled. There is therefore no longer any need for the feverish anxiety of
+the early leaders of feminine education to prove that girls can be
+educated exactly as if they were boys, and yield at least as good
+educational results. At the present time, indeed, that anxiety is not only
+unnecessary but mischievous. It is now more necessary to show that women
+have special needs just as men have special needs, and that it is as bad
+for women, and therefore, for the world, to force them to accept the
+special laws and limitations of men as it would be bad for men, and
+therefore, for the world, to force men to accept the special laws and
+limitations of women. Each sex must seek to reach the goal by following
+the laws of its own nature, even although it remains desirable that, both
+in the school and in the world, they should work so far as possible side
+by side. The great fact to be remembered always is that, not only are
+women, in physical size and physical texture, slighter and finer than men,
+but that to an extent altogether unknown among men, their centre of
+gravity is apt to be deflected by the series of rhythmic sexual curves on
+which they are always living. They are thus more delicately poised and any
+kind of stress or strain--cerebral, nervous, or muscular--is more likely
+to produce serious disturbance and requires an accurate adjustment to
+their special needs.
+
+    The fact that it is stress and strain in general, and not
+    necessarily educational studies, that are injurious to adolescent
+    women, is sufficiently proved, if proof is necessary, by the fact
+    that sexual arrest, and physical or nervous breakdown, occur with
+    extreme frequency in girls who work in shops or mills, even in
+    girls who have never been to school at all. Even excesses in
+    athletics--which now not infrequently occur as a reaction against
+    woman's indifference to physical exercise--are bad. Cycling is
+    beneficial for women who can ride without pain or discomfort,
+    and, according to Watkins, it is even beneficial in many diseased
+    and disordered pelvic conditions, but excessive cycling is evil
+    in its results on women, more especially by inducing rigidity of
+    the perineum to an extent which may even prevent childbirth and
+    necessitate operation. I may add that the same objection applies
+    to much horse-riding. In the same way everything which causes
+    shocks to the body is apt to be dangerous to women, since in the
+    womb they possess a delicately poised organ which varies in
+    weight at different times, and it would, for instance, be
+    impossible to commend football as a game for girls. "I do not
+    believe," wrote Miss H. Ballantine, Director of Vassar College
+    Gymnasium, to Prof. W. Thomas (_Sex and Society_, p. 22) "women
+    can ever, no matter what the training, approach men in their
+    physical achievements; and," she wisely adds, "I see no reason
+    why they should." There seem, indeed, as has already been
+    indicated, to be reasons why they should not, especially if they
+    look forward to becoming mothers. I have noticed that women who
+    have lived a very robust and athletic outdoor life, so far from
+    always having the easy confinements which we might anticipate,
+    sometimes have very seriously difficult times, imperilling the
+    life of the child. On making this observation to a distinguished
+    obstetrician, the late Dr. Engelmann, who was an ardent advocate
+    of physical exercise for women (in e.g. his presidential address,
+    "The Health of the American Girl," _Transactions Southern
+    Surgical and Gynaecological Association_, 1890), he replied that
+    he had himself made the same observation, and that instructors in
+    physical training, both in America and England, had also told him
+    of such cases among their pupils. "I hold," he wrote, "precisely
+    the opinion you express [as to the unfavorable influence of
+    muscular development in women]. _Athletics_, i.e., overdone
+    physical training, causes the girl's system to approximate to the
+    masculine; this is so whether due to sport or necessity. The
+    woman who indulges in it approximates to the male in her
+    attributes; this is marked in diminished sexual intensity, and in
+    increased difficulty of childbirth, with, in time, lessened
+    fecundity. Healthy habits improve, but masculine muscular
+    development diminishes, womanly qualities, although it is true
+    that the peasant and the laboring woman have easy labor. I have
+    never advocated muscular development for girls, only physical
+    training, but have perhaps said too much for it and praised it
+    too unguardedly. In schools and colleges, so far, however, it is
+    insufficient rather than too much; only the wealthy have too much
+    golf and athletic sports. I am collecting new material, but from
+    what I already have seen I am impressed with the truth of what
+    you say. I am studying the point, and shall elaborate the
+    explanation." Any publication on this subject was, however,
+    prevented by Engelmann's death a few years later.
+
+A proper recognition of the special nature of woman, of her peculiar needs
+and her dignity, has a significance beyond its importance in education and
+hygiene. The traditions and training to which she is subjected in this
+matter have a subtle and far-reaching significance, according as they are
+good or evil. If she is taught, implicitly or explicitly, contempt for the
+characteristics of her own sex, she naturally develops masculine ideals
+which may permanently discolor her vision of life and distort her
+practical activities; it has been found that as many as fifty per cent. of
+American school girls have masculine ideals, while fifteen per cent.
+American and no fewer than thirty-four per cent. English school girls
+wished to be men, though scarcely any boys wished to be women.[31] With
+the same tendency may be connected that neglect to cultivate the emotions,
+which, by a mischievously extravagant but inevitable reaction from the
+opposite extreme, has sometimes marked the modern training of women. In
+the finely developed woman, intelligence is interpenetrated with emotion.
+If there is an exaggerated and isolated culture of intelligence a tendency
+shows itself to disharmony which breaks up the character or impairs its
+completeness. In this connection Reibmayr has remarked that the American
+woman may serve as a warning.[32] Within the emotional sphere itself, it
+may be added, there is a tendency to disharmony in women owing to the
+contradictory nature of the feelings which are traditionally impressed
+upon her, a contradiction which dates back indeed to the identification of
+sacredness and impurity at the dawn of civilization. "Every girl and
+woman," wrote Hellmann, in a pioneering book which pushed a sound
+principle to eccentric extremes, "is taught to regard her sexual parts as
+a precious and sacred spot, only to be approached by a husband or in
+special circumstances a doctor. She is, at the same time, taught to regard
+this spot as a kind of water-closet which she ought to be extremely
+ashamed to possess, and the mere mention of which should cause a painful
+blush."[33] The average unthinking woman accepts the incongruity of this
+opposition without question, and grows accustomed to adapt herself to each
+of the incompatibles according to circumstances. The more thoughtful woman
+works out a private theory of her own. But in very many cases this
+mischievous opposition exerts a subtly perverting influence on the whole
+outlook towards Nature and life. In a few cases, also, in women of
+sensitive temperament, it even undermines and ruins the psychic
+personality.
+
+    Thus Boris Sidis has recorded a case illustrating the disastrous
+    results of inculcating on a morbidly sensitive girl the doctrine
+    of the impurity of women. She was educated in a convent. "While
+    there she was impressed with the belief that woman is a vessel of
+    vice and impurity. This seemed to have been imbued in her by one
+    of the nuns who was very holy and practiced self-mortification.
+    With the onset of her periods, and with the observation of the
+    same in the other girls, this doctrine of female impurity was all
+    the stronger impressed on her sensitive mind." It lapsed,
+    however, from conscious memory and only came to the foreground in
+    subsequent years with the exhaustion and fatigue of prolonged
+    office work. Then she married. Now "she has an extreme abhorrence
+    of women. Woman, to the patient, is impurity, filth, the very
+    incarnation of degradation and vice. The house wash must not be
+    given to a laundry where women work. Nothing must be picked up in
+    the street, not even the most valuable object, perchance it might
+    have been dropped by a woman" (Boris Sidis, "Studies in
+    Psychopathology," _Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, April 4,
+    1907). That is the logical outcome of much of the traditional
+    teaching which is given to girls. Fortunately, the healthy mind
+    offers a natural resistance to its complete acceptation, yet it
+    usually, in some degree, persists and exerts a mischievous
+    influence.
+
+It is, however, not only in her relations to herself and to her sex that a
+girl's thoughts and feelings tend to be distorted by the ignorance or the
+false traditions by which she is so often carefully surrounded. Her
+happiness in marriage, her whole future career, is put in peril. The
+innocent young woman must always risk much in entering the door of
+indissoluble marriage; she knows nothing truly of her husband, she knows
+nothing of the great laws of love, she knows nothing of her own
+possibilities, and, worse still, she is even ignorant of her ignorance.
+She runs the risk of losing the game while she is still only beginning to
+learn it. To some extent that is quite inevitable if we are to insist
+that a woman should bind herself to marry a man before she has experienced
+the nature of the forces that marriage may unloose in her. A young girl
+believes she possesses a certain character; she arranges her future in
+accordance with that character; she marries. Then, in a considerable
+proportion of cases (five out of six, according to the novelist Bourget),
+within a year or even a week, she finds she was completely mistaken in
+herself and in the man she has married; she discovers within her another
+self, and that self detests the man to whom she is bound. That is a
+possible fate against which only the woman who has already been aroused to
+love is entitled to regard herself as fairly protected.
+
+There is, however, a certain kind of protection which it is possible to
+afford the bride, even without departing from our most conventional
+conceptions of marriage. We can at least insist that she shall be
+accurately informed as to the exact nature of her physical relations to
+her future husband and be safeguarded from the shocks or the disillusions
+which marriage might otherwise bring. Notwithstanding the decay of
+prejudices, it is probable that even to-day the majority of women of the
+so-called educated class marry with only the vaguest and most inaccurate
+notions, picked up more or less clandestinely, concerning the nature of
+the sexual relationships. So highly intelligent a woman as Madame Adam has
+stated that she believed herself bound to marry a man who had kissed her
+on the mouth, imagining that to be the supreme act of sexual union,[34]
+and it has frequently happened that women have married sexually inverted
+persons of their own sex, not always knowingly, but believing them to be
+men, and never discovering their mistake; it is not long indeed since in
+America three women were thus successively married to the same woman, none
+of them apparently ever finding out the real sex of the "husband." "The
+civilized girl," as Edward Carpenter remarks, "is led to the 'altar'
+often in uttermost ignorance and misunderstanding of the sacrificial rites
+about to be consummated." Certainly more rapes have been effected in
+marriage than outside it.[35] The girl is full of vague and romantic faith
+in the promises of love, often heightened by the ecstasies depicted in
+sentimental novels from which every touch of wholesome reality has been
+carefully omitted. "All the candor of faith is there," as Senancour puts
+it in his book _De l'Amour_, "the desires of inexperience, the needs of a
+new life, the hopes of an upright heart. She has all the faculties of
+love, she must love; she has all the means of pleasure, she must be loved.
+Everything expresses love and demands love: this hand formed for sweet
+caresses, an eye whose resources are unknown if it must not say that it
+consents to be loved, a bosom which is motionless and useless without
+love, and will fade without having been worshipped; these feelings that
+are so vast, so tender, so voluptuous, the ambition of the heart, the
+heroism of passion! She needs must follow the delicious rule which the law
+of the world has dictated. That intoxicating part, which she knows so
+well, which everything recalls, which the day inspires and the night
+commands, what young, sensitive, loving woman can imagine that she shall
+not play it?" But when the actual drama of love begins to unroll before
+her, and she realizes the true nature of the "intoxicating part" she has
+to play, then, it has often happened, the case is altered; she finds
+herself altogether unprepared, and is overcome with terror and alarm. All
+the felicity of her married life may then hang on a few chances, her
+husband's skill and consideration, her own presence of mind. Hirschfeld
+records the case of an innocent young girl of seventeen--in this case, it
+eventually proved, an invert--who was persuaded to marry but on
+discovering what marriage meant energetically resisted her husband's
+sexual approaches. He appealed to her mother to explain to her daughter
+the nature of "wifely duties." But the young wife replied to her mother's
+expostulations, "If that is my wifely duty then it was your parental duty
+to have told me beforehand, for, if I had known, I should never have
+married." The husband in this case, much in love with his wife, sought for
+eight years to over-persuade her, but in vain, and a separation finally
+took place.[36] That, no doubt, is an extreme case, but how many innocent
+young inverted girls never realize their true nature until after marriage,
+and how many perfectly normal girls are so shocked by the too sudden
+initiation of marriage that their beautiful early dreams of love never
+develop slowly and wholesomely into the acceptance of its still more
+beautiful realities?
+
+Before the age of puberty it would seem that the sexual initiation of the
+child--apart from such scientific information as would form part of school
+courses in botany and zooelogy--should be the exclusive privilege of the
+mother, or whomever it may be to whom the mother's duties are delegated.
+At puberty more authoritative and precise advice is desirable than the
+mother may be able or willing to give. It is at this age that she should
+put into her son's or daughter's hands some one or other of the very
+numerous manuals to which reference has already been made (page 53),
+expounding the physical and moral aspects of the sexual life and the
+principles of sexual hygiene. The boy or girl is already, we may take it,
+acquainted with the facts of motherhood, and the origin of babies, as well
+as, more or less precisely, with the father's part in their procreation.
+Whatever manual is now placed in his or her hands should at least deal
+summarily, but definitely, with the sexual relationship, and should also
+comment, warningly but in no alarmist spirit, with the chief auto-erotic
+phenomena, and by no means exclusively with masturbation. Nothing but good
+can come of the use of such a manual, if it has been wisely selected; it
+will supplant what the mother has already done, what the teacher may still
+be doing, and what later may be done by private interview with a doctor.
+It has indeed been argued that the boy or girl to whom such literature is
+presented will merely make it an opportunity for morbid revelry and
+sensual enjoyment. It can well be believed that this may sometimes happen
+with boys or girls from whom all sexual facts have always been
+mysteriously veiled, and that when at last they find the opportunity of
+gratifying their long-repressed and perfectly natural curiosity they are
+overcome by the excitement of the event. It could not happen to children
+who have been naturally and wholesomely brought up. At a later age, during
+adolescence, there is doubtless great advantage in the plan, now
+frequently adopted, especially in Germany, of giving lectures, addresses,
+or quiet talks to young people of each sex separately. The speaker is
+usually a specially selected teacher, a doctor or other qualified person
+who may be brought in for this special purpose.
+
+    Stanley Hall, after remarking that sexual education should be
+    chiefly from fathers to sons and from mothers to daughters, adds:
+    "It may be that in the future this kind of initiation will again
+    become an art, and experts will tell us with more confidence how
+    to do our duty to the manifold exigencies, types and stages of
+    youth, and instead of feeling baffled and defeated, we shall see
+    that this age and theme is the supreme opening for the highest
+    pedagogy to do its best and most transforming work, as well as
+    being the greatest of all opportunities for the teacher of
+    religion" (Stanley Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 469). "At
+    Williams College, Harvard, Johns Hopkins and Clark," the same
+    distinguished teacher observes (ib., p. 465), "I have made it a
+    duty in my departmental teaching to speak very briefly, but
+    plainly to young men under my instruction, personally if I deemed
+    it wise, and often, though here only in general terms, before
+    student bodies, and I believe I have nowhere done more good, but
+    it is a painful duty. It requires tact and some degree of hard
+    and strenuous common sense rather than technical knowledge."
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to say that the ordinary teacher of
+    either sex is quite incompetent to speak of sexual hygiene. It is
+    a task to which all, or some, teachers must be trained. A
+    beginning in this direction has been made in Germany by the
+    delivery to teachers of courses of lectures on sexual hygiene in
+    education. In Prussia the first attempt was made in Breslau when
+    the central school authorities requested Dr. Martin Chotzen to
+    deliver such a course to one hundred and fifty teachers who took
+    the greatest interest in the lectures, which covered the anatomy
+    of the sexual organs, the development of the sexual instinct, its
+    chief perversions, venereal diseases, and the importance of the
+    cultivation of self-control. In _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_
+    (Bd. i, Heft 7) Dr. Fritz Reuther gives the substance of lectures
+    which he has delivered to a class of young teachers; they cover
+    much the same ground as Chotzen's.
+
+    There is no evidence that in England the Minister of Education
+    has yet taken any steps to insure the delivery of lectures on
+    sexual hygiene to the pupils who are about to leave school. In
+    Prussia, however, the Ministry of Education has taken an active
+    interest in this matter, and such lectures are beginning to be
+    commonly delivered, though attendance at them is not usually
+    obligatory. Some years ago (in 1900), when it was proposed to
+    deliver a series of lectures on sexual hygiene to the advanced
+    pupils in Berlin schools, under the auspices of a society for the
+    improvement of morals, the municipal authorities withdrew their
+    permission to use the classrooms, on the ground that "such
+    lectures would be extremely dangerous to the moral sense of an
+    audience of the young." The same objection has been made by
+    municipal officials in France. In Germany, at all events,
+    however, opinion is rapidly growing more enlightened. In England
+    little or no progress has yet been made, but in America steps are
+    being taken in this direction, as by the Chicago Society for
+    Social Hygiene. It must, indeed, be said that those who oppose
+    the sexual enlightenment of youth in large cities are directly
+    allying themselves, whether or not they know it, with the
+    influences that make for vice and immorality.
+
+    Such lectures are also given to girls on leaving school, not only
+    girls of the well-to-do, but also those of the poor class, who
+    need them fully as much, and in some respects more. Thus Dr. A.
+    Heidenhain has published a lecture (_Sexuelle Belehrung der aus
+    den Volksschule entlassenen Maedchen_, 1907), accompanied by
+    anatomical tables, which he has delivered to girls about to leave
+    school, and which is intended to be put into their hands at this
+    time. Salvat, in a Lyons thesis (_La Depopulation de la France_,
+    1903), insists that the hygiene of pregnancy and the care of
+    infants should form part of the subject of such lectures. These
+    subjects might well be left, however, to a somewhat later period.
+
+Something is clearly needed beyond lectures on these matters. It should be
+the business of the parents or other guardians of every adolescent youth
+and girl to arrange that, once at least at this period of life, there
+should be a private, personal interview with a medical man to afford an
+opportunity for a friendly and confidential talk concerning the main
+points of sexual hygiene. The family doctor would be the best for this
+duty because he would be familiar with the personal temperament of the
+youth and the family tendencies.[37] In the case of girls a woman doctor
+would often be preferred. Sex is properly a mystery; and to the unspoilt
+youth, it is instinctively so; except in an abstract and technical form it
+cannot properly form the subject of lectures. In a private and
+individualized conversation between the novice in life and the expert, it
+is possible to say many necessary things that could not be said in public,
+and it is possible, moreover, for the youth to ask questions which shyness
+and reserve make it impossible to put to parents, while the convenient
+opportunity of putting them naturally to the expert otherwise seldom or
+never occurs. Most youths have their own special ignorances, their own
+special difficulties, difficulties and ignorances that could sometimes be
+resolved by a word. Yet it by no means infrequently happens that they
+carry them far on into adult life because they have lacked the
+opportunity, or the skill and assurance to create the opportunity, of
+obtaining enlightenment.
+
+It must be clearly understood that these talks are of medical, hygienic,
+and physiological character; they are not to be used for retailing moral
+platitudes. To make them that would be a fatal mistake. The young are
+often very hostile to merely conventional moral maxims, and suspect their
+hollowness, not always without reason. The end to be aimed at here is
+enlightenment. Certainly knowledge can never be immoral, but nothing is
+gained by jumbling up knowledge and morality together.
+
+In emphasizing the nature of the physician's task in this matter as purely
+and simply that of wise practical enlightenment, nothing is implied
+against the advantages, and indeed the immense value in sexual hygiene, of
+the moral, religious, ideal elements of life. It is not the primary
+business of the physician to inspire these, but they have a very intimate
+relation with the sexual life, and every boy and girl at puberty, and
+never before puberty, should be granted the privilege--and not the duty or
+the task--of initiation into those elements of the world's life which are,
+at the same time, natural functions of the adolescent soul. Here, however,
+is the sphere of the religious or ethical teacher. At puberty he has his
+great opportunity, the greatest he can ever obtain. The flower of sex that
+blossoms in the body at puberty has its spiritual counterpart which at the
+same moment blossoms in the soul. The churches from of old have recognized
+the religious significance of this moment, for it is this period of life
+that they have appointed as the time of confirmation and similar rites.
+With the progress of the ages, it is true, such rites become merely formal
+and apparently meaningless fossils. But they have a meaning nevertheless,
+and are capable of being again vitalized. Nor in their spirit and essence
+should they be confined to those who accept supernaturally revealed
+religion. They concern all ethical teachers, who must realize that it is
+at puberty that they are called upon to inspire or to fortify the great
+ideal aspirations which at this period tend spontaneously to arise in the
+youth's or maiden's soul.[38]
+
+The age of puberty, I have said, marks the period at which this new kind
+of sexual initiation is called for. Before puberty, although the psychic
+emotion of love frequently develops, as well as sometimes physical sexual
+emotions that are mostly vague and diffused, definite and localized sexual
+sensations are rare. For the normal boy or girl love is usually an
+unspecialized emotion; it is in Guyau's words "a state in which the body
+has but the smallest place." At the first rising of the sun of sex the
+boy or girl sees, as Blake said he saw at sunrise, not a round yellow body
+emerging above the horizon, or any other physical manifestation, but a
+great company of singing angels. With the definite eruption of physical
+sexual manifestation and desire, whether at puberty or later in
+adolescence, a new turbulent disturbing influence appears. Against the
+force of this influence, mere intellectual enlightenment, or even loving
+maternal counsel--the agencies we have so far been concerned with--may be
+powerless. In gaining control of it we must find our auxiliary in the fact
+that puberty is the efflorescence not only of a new physical but a new
+psychic force. The ideal world naturally unfolds itself to the boy or girl
+at puberty. The magic of beauty, the instinct of modesty, the naturalness
+of self-restraint, the idea of unselfish love, the meaning of duty, the
+feeling for art and poetry, the craving for religious conceptions and
+emotions--all these things awake spontaneously in the unspoiled boy or
+girl at puberty. I say "unspoiled," for if these things have been thrust
+on the child before puberty when they have yet no meaning for him--as is
+unfortunately far too often done, more especially as regards religious
+notions--then it is but too likely that he will fail to react properly at
+that moment of his development when he would otherwise naturally respond
+to them. Under natural conditions this is the period for spiritual
+initiation. Now, and not before, is the time for the religious or ethical
+teacher as the case may be--for all religions and ethical systems may
+equally adapt themselves to this task--to take the boy or girl in hand,
+not with any special and obtrusive reference to the sexual impulses but
+for the purpose of assisting the development and manifestation of this
+psychic puberty, of indirectly aiding the young soul to escape from sexual
+dangers by harnessing his chariot to a star that may help to save it from
+sticking fast in any miry ruts of the flesh.
+
+Such an initiation, it is important to remark, is more than an
+introduction to the sphere of religious sentiment. It is an initiation
+into manhood, it must involve a recognition of the masculine even more
+than of the feminine virtues. This has been well understood by the finest
+primitive races. They constantly give their boys and girls an initiation
+at puberty; it is an initiation that involves not merely education in the
+ordinary sense, but a stern discipline of the character, feats of
+endurance, the trial of character, the testing of the muscles of the soul
+as much as of the body.
+
+    Ceremonies of initiation into manhood at puberty--involving
+    physical and mental discipline, as well as instruction, lasting
+    for weeks or months, and never identical for both sexes--are
+    common among savages in all parts of the world. They nearly
+    always involve the endurance of a certain amount of pain and
+    hardship, a wise measure of training which the softness of
+    civilization has too foolishly allowed to drop, for the ability
+    to endure hardness is an essential condition of all real manhood.
+    It is as a corrective to this tendency to flabbiness in modern
+    education that the teaching of Nietzsche is so invaluable.
+
+    The initiation of boys among the natives of Torres Straits has
+    been elaborately described by A.C. Haddon (_Reports
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v, Chs. VII
+    and XII). It lasts a month, involves much severe training and
+    power of endurance, and includes admirable moral instruction.
+    Haddon remarks that it formed "a very good discipline," and adds,
+    "it is not easy to conceive of a more effectual means for a rapid
+    training."
+
+    Among the aborigines of Victoria, Australia, the initiatory
+    ceremonies, as described by R.H. Mathews ("Some Initiation
+    Ceremonies," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1905, Heft 6), last
+    for seven months, and constitute an admirable discipline. The
+    boys are taken away by the elders of the tribe, subjected to many
+    trials of patience and endurance of pain and discomfort,
+    sometimes involving even the swallowing of urine and excrement,
+    brought into contact with strange tribes, taught the laws and
+    folk-lore, and at the end meetings are held at which betrothals
+    are arranged.
+
+    Among the northern tribes of Central Australia the initiation
+    ceremonies involve circumcision and urethral subincision, as well
+    as hard manual labor and hardships. The initiation of girls into
+    womanhood is accompanied by cutting open of the vagina. These
+    ceremonies have been described by Spencer and Gillen (_Northern
+    Tribes of Central Australia_, Ch. XI). Among various peoples in
+    British East Africa (including the Masai) pubertal initiation is
+    a great ceremonial event extending over a period of many months,
+    and it includes circumcision in boys, and in girls
+    clitoridectomy, as well as, among some tribes, removal of the
+    nymphae. A girl who winces or cries out during the operation is
+    disgraced among the women and expelled from the settlement. When
+    the ceremony has been satisfactorily completed the boy or girl is
+    marriageable (C. Marsh Beadnell, "Circumcision and Clitoridectomy
+    as Practiced by the Natives of British East Africa," _British
+    Medical Journal_, April 29, 1905).
+
+    Initiation among the African Bawenda, as described by a
+    missionary, is in three stages: (1) A stage of instruction and
+    discipline during which the traditions and sacred things of the
+    tribe are revealed, the art of warfare taught, self-restraint and
+    endurance borne; then the youths are counted as full-grown. (2)
+    In the next stage the art of dancing is practiced, by each sex
+    separately, during the day. (3) In the final stage, which is that
+    of complete sexual initiation, the two sexes dance together by
+    night; the scene, in the opinion of the good missionary, "does
+    not bear description;" the initiated are now complete adults,
+    with all the privileges and responsibilities of adults (Rev. E.
+    Gottschling, "The Bawenda," _Journal Anthropological
+    Institution_, July to Dec., 1905, p. 372. Cf., an interesting
+    account of the Bawenda Tondo schools by another missionary,
+    Wessmann, _The Bawenda_, pp. 60 et seq.).
+
+    The initiation of girls in Azimba Land, Central Africa, has been
+    fully and interestingly described by H. Crawford Angus ("The
+    Chensamwali' or Initiation Ceremony of Girls," _Zeitschrift fuer
+    Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 6). At the first sign of menstruation the
+    girl is taken by her mother out of the village to a grass hut
+    prepared for her where only the women are allowed to visit her.
+    At the end of menstruation she is taken to a secluded spot and
+    the women dance round her, no men being present. It was only with
+    much difficulty that Angus was enabled to witness the ceremony.
+    The girl is then informed in regard to the hygiene of
+    menstruation. "Many songs about the relations between men and
+    women are sung, and the girl is instructed as to all her duties
+    when she becomes a wife.... The girl is taught to be faithful to
+    her husband, and to try and bear children. The whole matter is
+    looked upon as a matter of course, and not as a thing to be
+    ashamed of or to hide, and being thus openly treated of and no
+    secrecy made about it, you find in this tribe that the women are
+    very virtuous, because the subject of married life has no glamour
+    for them. When a woman is pregnant she is again danced; this time
+    all the dancers are naked, and she is taught how to behave and
+    what to do when the time of her delivery arrives."
+
+    Among the Yuman Indians of California, as described by Horatio
+    Rust ("A Puberty Ceremony of the Mission Indians," _American
+    Anthropologist_, Jan. to March, 1906, p. 28) the girls are at
+    puberty prepared for marriage by a ceremony. They are wrapped in
+    blankets and placed in a warm pit, where they lie looking very
+    happy as they peer out through their covers. For four days and
+    nights they lie here (occasionally going away for food), while
+    the old women of the tribe dance and sing round the pit
+    constantly. At times the old women throw silver coins among the
+    crowd to teach the girls to be generous. They also give away
+    cloth and wheat, to teach them to be kind to the old and needy;
+    and they sow wild seeds broadcast over the girls to cause them to
+    be prolific. Finally, all strangers are ordered away, garlands
+    are placed on the girls' heads, and they are led to a hillside
+    and shown the large and sacred stone, symbolical of the female
+    organs of generation and resembling them, which is said to
+    protect women. Then grain is thrown over all present, and the
+    ceremony is over.
+
+    The Thlinkeet Eskimo women were long noted for their fine
+    qualities. At puberty they were secluded, sometimes for a whole
+    year, being kept in darkness, suffering, and filth. Yet defective
+    and unsatisfactory as this initiation was, "Langsdorf suggests,"
+    says Bancroft (_Native Races of Pacific_, vol. i, p. 110),
+    referring to the virtues of the Thlinkeet woman, "that it may be
+    during this period of confinement that the foundation of her
+    influence is laid; that in modest reserve and meditation her
+    character is strengthened, and she comes forth cleansed in mind
+    as well as body."
+
+We have lost these ancient and invaluable rites of initiation into manhood
+and womanhood, with their inestimable moral benefits; at the most we have
+merely preserved the shells of initiation in which the core has decayed.
+In time, we cannot doubt, they will be revived in modern forms. At present
+the spiritual initiation of youths and maidens is left to the chances of
+some happy accident, and usually it is of a purely cerebral character
+which cannot be perfectly wholesome, and is at the best absurdly
+incomplete.
+
+This cerebral initiation commonly occurs to the youth through the medium
+of literature. The influence of literature in sexual education thus
+extends, in an incalculable degree, beyond the narrow sphere of manuals on
+sexual hygiene, however admirable and desirable these may be. The greater
+part of literature is more or less distinctly penetrated by erotic and
+auto-erotic conceptions and impulses; nearly all imaginative literature
+proceeds from the root of sex to flower in visions of beauty and ecstasy.
+The Divine Comedy of Dante is herein the immortal type of the poet's
+evolution. The youth becomes acquainted with the imaginative
+representations of love before he becomes acquainted with the reality of
+love, so that, as Leo Berg puts it, "the way to love among civilized
+peoples passes through imagination." All literature is thus, to the
+adolescent soul, a part of sexual education.[39] It depends, to some
+extent, though fortunately not entirely, on the judgment of those in
+authority over the young soul whether the literature to which the youth or
+girl is admitted is or is not of the large and humanizing order.
+
+    All great literature touches nakedly and sanely on the central
+    facts of sex. It is always consoling to remember this in an age
+    of petty pruderies. And it is a satisfaction to know that it
+    would not be possible to emasculate the literature of the great
+    ages, however desirable it might seem to the men of more
+    degenerate ages, or to close the avenues to that literature
+    against the young. All our religious and literary traditions
+    serve to fortify the position of the Bible and of Shakespeare.
+    "So many men and women," writes a correspondent, a literary man,
+    "gain sexual ideas in childhood from reading the Old Testament,
+    that the Bible may be called an erotic text-book. Most persons of
+    either sex with whom I have conversed on the subject, say that
+    the Books of Moses, and the stories of Amnon and Tamar, Lot and
+    his daughters, Potiphar's wife and Joseph, etc., caused
+    speculation and curiosity, and gave them information of the
+    sexual relationship. A boy and girl of fifteen, both friends of
+    the writer, and now over thirty years of age, used to find out
+    erotic passages in the Bible on Sunday mornings, while in a
+    Dissenting chapel, and pass their Bibles to one another, with
+    their fingers on the portions that interested them." In the same
+    way many a young woman has borrowed Shakespeare in order to read
+    the glowing erotic poetry of _Venus and Adonis_, which her
+    friends have told her about.
+
+    The Bible, it may be remarked, is not in every respect, a model
+    introduction for the young mind to the questions of sex. But even
+    its frank acceptance, as of divine origin, of sexual rules so
+    unlike those that are nominally our own, such as polygamy and
+    concubinage, helps to enlarge the vision of the youthful mind by
+    showing that the rules surrounding the child are not those
+    everywhere and always valid, while the nakedness and realism of
+    the Bible cannot but be a wholesome and tonic corrective to
+    conventional pruderies.
+
+    We must, indeed, always protest against the absurd confusion
+    whereby nakedness of speech is regarded as equivalent to
+    immorality, and not the less because it is often adopted even in
+    what are regarded as intellectual quarters. When in the House of
+    Lords, in the last century, the question of the exclusion of
+    Byron's statue from Westminster Abbey was under discussion, Lord
+    Brougham "denied that Shakespeare was more moral than Byron. He
+    could, on the contrary, point out in a single page of Shakespeare
+    more grossness than was to be found in all Lord Byron's works."
+    The conclusion Brougham thus reached, that Byron is an
+    incomparably more moral writer than Shakespeare, ought to have
+    been a sufficient _reductio ad absurdum_ of his argument, but it
+    does not appear that anyone pointed out the vulgar confusion into
+    which he had fallen.
+
+    It may be said that the special attractiveness which the
+    nakedness of great literature sometimes possesses for young minds
+    is unwholesome. But it must be remembered that the peculiar
+    interest of this element is merely due to the fact that elsewhere
+    there is an inveterate and abnormal concealment. It must also be
+    said that the statements of the great writers about natural
+    things are never degrading, nor even erotically exciting to the
+    young, and what Emilia Pardo Bazan tells of herself and her
+    delight when a child in the historical books of the Old
+    Testament, that the crude passages in them failed to send the
+    faintest cloud of trouble across her young imagination, is
+    equally true of most children. It is necessary, indeed, that
+    these naked and serious things should be left standing, even if
+    only to counterbalance the lewdly comic efforts to besmirch love
+    and sex, which are visible to all in every low-class bookseller's
+    shop window.
+
+    This point of view was vigorously championed by the speakers on
+    sexual education at the Third Congress of the German Gesellschaft
+    zur Bekaempfung der Geschlechtskrankheiten in 1907. Thus Enderlin,
+    speaking as a headmaster, protested against the custom of
+    bowdlerizing poems and folk-songs for the use of children, and
+    thus robbing them of the finest introduction to purified sexual
+    impulses and the highest sphere of emotion, while at the same
+    time they are recklessly exposed to the "psychic infection" of
+    the vulgar comic papers everywhere exposed for sale. "So long as
+    children are too young to respond to erotic poetry it cannot hurt
+    them; when they are old enough to respond it can only benefit
+    them by opening to them the highest and purest channels of human
+    emotion" (_Sexualpaedagogik_, p. 60). Professor Schaefenacker (id.,
+    p. 98) expresses himself in the same sense, and remarks that "the
+    method of removing from school-books all those passages which, in
+    the opinion of short-sighted and narrow-hearted schoolmasters,
+    are unsuited for youth, must be decisively condemned." Every
+    healthy boy and girl who has reached the age of puberty may be
+    safely allowed to ramble in any good library, however varied its
+    contents. So far from needing guidance they will usually show a
+    much more refined taste than their elders. At this age, when the
+    emotions are still virginal and sensitive, the things that are
+    realistic, ugly, or morbid, jar on the young spirit and are cast
+    aside, though in adult life, with the coarsening of mental
+    texture which comes of years and experience, this repugnance,
+    doubtless by an equally sound and natural instinct, may become
+    much less acute.
+
+    Ellen Key in Ch. VI of her _Century of the Child_ well summarizes
+    the reasons against the practice of selecting for children books
+    that are "suitable" for them, a practice which she considers one
+    of the follies of modern education. The child should be free to
+    read all great literature, and will himself instinctively put
+    aside the things he is not yet ripe for. His cooler senses are
+    undisturbed by scenes that his elders find too exciting, while
+    even at a later stage it is not the nakedness of great
+    literature, but much more the method of the modern novel, which
+    is likely to stain the imagination, falsify reality and injure
+    taste. It is concealment which misleads and coarsens, producing a
+    state of mind in which even the Bible becomes a stimulus to the
+    senses. The writings of the great masters yield the imaginative
+    food which the child craves, and the erotic moment in them is too
+    brief to be overheating. It is the more necessary, Ellen Key
+    remarks, for children to be introduced to great literature, since
+    they often have little opportunity to occupy themselves with it
+    in later life. Many years earlier Ruskin, in _Sesame and Lilies_,
+    had eloquently urged that even young girls should be allowed to
+    range freely in libraries.
+
+What has been said about literature applies equally to art. Art, as well
+as literature, and in the same indirect way, can be made a valuable aid in
+the task of sexual enlightenment and sexual hygiene. Modern art may,
+indeed, for the most part, be ignored from this point of view, but
+children cannot be too early familiarized with the representations of the
+nude in ancient sculpture and in the paintings of the old masters of the
+Italian school. In this way they may be immunized, as Enderlin expresses
+it, against those representations of the nude which make an appeal to the
+baser instincts. Early familiarity with nudity in art is at the same time
+an aid to the attainment of a proper attitude towards purity in nature.
+"He who has once learnt," as Hoeller remarks, "to enjoy peacefully
+nakedness in art, will be able to look on nakedness in nature as on a work
+of art."
+
+    Casts of classic nude statues and reproductions of the pictures
+    of the old Venetian and other Italian masters may fittingly be
+    used to adorn schoolrooms, not so much as objects of instruction
+    as things of beauty with which the child cannot too early become
+    familiarized. In Italy it is said to be usual for school classes
+    to be taken by their teachers to the art museums with good
+    results; such visits form part of the official scheme of
+    education.
+
+    There can be no doubt that such early familiarity with the beauty
+    of nudity in classic art is widely needed among all social
+    classes and in many countries. It is to this defect of our
+    education that we must attribute the occasional, and indeed in
+    America and England frequent, occurrence of such incidents as
+    petitions and protests against the exhibition of nude statuary in
+    art museums, the display of pictures so inoffensive as Leighton's
+    "Bath of Psyche" in shop windows, and the demand for the draping
+    of the naked personifications of abstract virtues in
+    architectural street decoration. So imperfect is still the
+    education of the multitude that in these matters the ill-bred
+    fanatic of pruriency usually gains his will. Such a state of
+    things cannot but have an unwholesome reaction on the moral
+    atmosphere of the community in which it is possible. Even from
+    the religious point of view, prurient prudery is not justifiable.
+    Northcote has very temperately and sensibly discussed the
+    question of the nude in art from the standpoint of Christian
+    morality. He points out that not only is the nude in art not to
+    be condemned without qualification, and that the nude is by no
+    means necessarily the erotic, but he also adds that even erotic
+    art, in its best and purest manifestations, only arouses emotions
+    that are the legitimate object of man's aspirations. It would be
+    impossible even to represent Biblical stories adequately on
+    canvas or in marble if erotic art were to be tabooed (Rev. H.
+    Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_, Ch. XIV).
+
+    Early familiarity with the nude in classic and early Italian art
+    should be combined at puberty with an equal familiarity with
+    photographs of beautiful and naturally developed nude models. In
+    former years books containing such pictures in a suitable and
+    attractive manner to place before the young were difficult to
+    procure. Now this difficulty no longer exists. Dr. C.H. Stratz,
+    of The Hague, has been the pioneer in this matter, and in a
+    series of beautiful books (notably in _Der Koerper des Kindes, Die
+    Schoenheit des Weiblichen Koerpers_ and _Die Rassenschoenheit des
+    Weibes_, all published by Enke in Stuttgart), he has brought
+    together a large number of admirably selected photographs of nude
+    but entirely chaste figures. More recently Dr. Shufeldt, of
+    Washington (who dedicates his work to Stratz), has published his
+    _Studies of the Human Form_ in which, in the same spirit, he has
+    brought together the results of his own studies of the naked
+    human form during many years. It is necessary to correct the
+    impressions received from classic sources by good photographic
+    illustrations on account of the false conventions prevailing in
+    classic works, though those conventions were not necessarily
+    false for the artists who originated them. The omission of the
+    pudendal hair, in representations of the nude was, for instance,
+    quite natural for the people of countries still under Oriental
+    influence are accustomed to remove the hair from the body. If,
+    however, under quite different conditions, we perpetuate that
+    artistic convention to-day, we put ourselves into a perverse
+    relation to nature. There is ample evidence of this. "There is
+    one convention so ancient, so necessary, so universal," writes
+    Mr. Frederic Harrison (_Nineteenth Century and After_, Aug.,
+    1907), "that its deliberate defiance to-day may arouse the bile
+    of the least squeamish of men and should make women withdraw at
+    once." If boys and girls were brought up at their mother's knees
+    in familiarity with pictures of beautiful and natural nakedness,
+    it would be impossible for anyone to write such silly and
+    shameful words as these.
+
+    There can be no doubt that among ourselves the simple and direct
+    attitude of the child towards nakedness is so early crushed out
+    of him that intelligent education is necessary in order that he
+    may be enabled to discern what is and what is not obscene. To the
+    plough-boy and the country servant-girl all nakedness, including
+    that of Greek statuary, is alike shameful or lustful. "I have a
+    picture of women like that," said a countryman with a grin, as he
+    pointed to a photograph of one of Tintoret's most beautiful
+    groups, "smoking cigarettes." And the mass of people in most
+    northern countries have still passed little beyond this stage of
+    discernment; in ability to distinguish between the beautiful and
+    the obscene they are still on the level of the plough-boy and the
+    servant-girl.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] These manifestations have been dealt with in the study of Autoerotism
+in vol. i of the present _Studies_. It may be added that the sexual life
+of the child has been exhaustively investigated by Moll, _Das Sexualleben
+des Kindes_, 1909.
+
+[19] This genital efflorescence in the sexual glands and breasts at birth
+or in early infancy has been discussed in a Paris thesis, by Camille
+Renouf (_La Crise Genital et les Manifestations Connexes chez le Foetus et
+le Nouveau-ne_, 1905); he is unable to offer a satisfactory explanation of
+these phenomena.
+
+[20] Amelineau, _La Morale des Egyptiens_, p. 64.
+
+[21] "The Social Evil in Philadelphia," _Arena_, March, 1896.
+
+[22] Moll, _Kontraere Sexualempfindung_, third edition, p. 592.
+
+[23] This powerlessness of the law and the police is well recognized by
+lawyers familiar with the matter. Thus F. Werthauer (_Sittlichkeitsdelikte
+der Grosstadt_, 1907) insists throughout on the importance of parents and
+teachers imparting to children from their early years a progressively
+increasing knowledge of sexual matters.
+
+[24] "Parents must be taught how to impart information," remarks E.L.
+Keyes ("Education upon Sexual Matters," _New York Medical Journal_, Feb.
+10, 1906), "and this teaching of the parent should begin when he is
+himself a child."
+
+[25] Moll (op. cit., p. 224) argues well how impossible it is to preserve
+children from sights and influence connected with the sexual life.
+
+[26] Girls are not even prepared, in many cases, for the appearance of the
+pubic hair. This unexpected growth of hair frequently causes young girls
+much secret worry, and often they carefully cut it off.
+
+[27] G.S. Hall, _Adolescence_, vol. i, p. 511. Many years ago, in 1875,
+the late Dr. Clarke, in his _Sex in Education_, advised menstrual rest for
+girls, and thereby aroused a violent opposition which would certainly not
+be found nowadays, when the special risks of womanhood are becoming more
+clearly understood.
+
+[28] For a summary of the physical and mental phenomena of the menstrual
+period, see Havelock Ellis: _Man and Woman_, Ch. XI. The primitive
+conception of menstruation is briefly discussed in Appendix A to the first
+volume of these _Studies_, and more elaborately by J.G. Frazer in _The
+Golden Bough_. A large collection of facts with regard to the menstrual
+seclusion of women throughout the world will be found in Ploss and
+Bartels, _Das Weib_. The pubertal seclusion of girls at Torres Straits has
+been especially studied by Seligmann, _Reports Anthropological Expedition
+to Torres Straits_, vol. v, Ch. VI.
+
+[29] Thus Miss Lura Sanborn, Director of Physical Training at the Chicago
+Normal School, found that a bath once a fortnight was not unusual. At the
+menstrual period especially there is still a superstitious dread of water.
+Girls should always be taught that at this period, above all, cleanliness
+is imperatively necessary. There should be a tepid hip bath night and
+morning, and a vaginal douche (which should never be cold) is always
+advantageous, both for comfort as well as cleanliness. There is not the
+slightest reason to dread water during menstruation. This point was
+discussed a few years ago in the _British Medical Journal_ with complete
+unanimity of opinion. A distinguished American obstetrician, also, Dr. J.
+Clifton Edgar, after a careful study of opinion and practice in this
+matter ("Bathing During the Menstrual Period," _American Journal
+Obstetrics_, Sept., 1900), concludes that it is possible and beneficial to
+take cold baths (though not sea-baths) during the period, provided due
+precautions are observed, and that there are no sudden changes of habits.
+Such a course should not be indiscriminately adopted, but there can be no
+doubt that in sturdy peasant women who are inured to it early in life even
+prolonged immersion in the sea in fishing has no evil results, and is even
+beneficial. Houzel (_Annales de Gynecologie_, Dec., 1894) has published
+statistics of the menstrual life of 123 fisherwomen on the French coast.
+They were accustomed to shrimp for hours at a time in the sea, often to
+above the waist, and then walk about in their wet clothes selling the
+shrimps. They all insisted that their menstruation was easier when they
+were actively at work. Their periods are notably regular, and their
+fertility is high.
+
+[30] J.H. McBride, "The Life and Health of Our Girls in Relation to Their
+Future," _Alienist and Neurologist_, Feb., 1904.
+
+[31] W.G. Chambers, "The Evolution of Ideals," _Pedagogical Seminary_,
+March, 1903; Catherine Dodd, "School Children's Ideals," _National
+Review_, Feb. and Dec., 1900, and June, 1901. No German girls acknowledged
+a wish to be men; they said it would be wicked. Among Flemish girls,
+however, Varendonck found at Ghent (_Archives de Psychologie_, July, 1908)
+that 26 per cent. had men as their ideals.
+
+[32] A. Reibmayr, _Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies_,
+1908, Bd. i, p. 70.
+
+[33] R. Hellmann, _Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit_, p. 14.
+
+[34] This belief seems frequent among young girls in Continental Europe.
+It forms the subject of one of Marcel Prevost's _Lettres de Femmes_. In
+Austria, according to Freud, it is not uncommon, exclusively among girls.
+
+[35] Yet, according to English law, rape is a crime which it is impossible
+for a husband to commit on his wife (see, e.g., Nevill Geary, _The Law of
+Marriage_, Ch. XV, Sect. V). The performance of the marriage ceremony,
+however, even if it necessarily involved a clear explanation of marital
+privileges, cannot be regarded as adequate justification for an act of
+sexual intercourse performed with violence or without the wife's consent.
+
+[36] Hirschfeld, _Jahrbuch fuer Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, 1903, p. 88. It
+may be added that a horror of coitus is not necessarily due to bad
+education, and may also occur in hereditarily degenerate women, whose
+ancestors have shown similar or allied mental peculiarities. A case of
+such "functional impotence" has been reported in a young Italian wife of
+twenty-one, who was otherwise healthy, and strongly attached to her
+husband. The marriage was annulled on the ground that "rudimentary sexual
+or emotional paranoia, which renders a wife invincibly refractory to
+sexual union, notwithstanding the integrity of the sexual organs,
+constitutes psychic functional impotence" (_Archivio di Psichiatria_,
+1906, fasc. vi, p. 806).
+
+[37] The reasonableness of this step is so obvious that it should scarcely
+need insistence. "The instruction of school-boys and school-girls is most
+adequately effected by an elderly doctor," Naecke remarks, "sometimes
+perhaps the school-doctor." "I strongly advocate," says Clouston (_The
+Hygiene of Mind_, p. 249), "that the family doctor, guided by the parent
+and the teacher, is by far the best instructor and monitor." Moll is of
+the same opinion.
+
+[38] I have further developed this argument in "Religion and the Child,"
+_Nineteenth Century and After_, 1907.
+
+[39] The intimate relation of art and poetry to the sexual impulse has
+been realized in a fragmentary way by many who have not attained to any
+wide vision of auto-erotic activity in life. "Poetry is necessarily
+related to the sexual function," says Metchnikoff (_Essais Optimistes_, p.
+352), who also quotes with approval the statement of Moebius (previously
+made by Ferrero and many others) that "artistic aptitudes must probably be
+considered as secondary sexual characters."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+SEXUAL EDUCATION AND NAKEDNESS.
+
+The Greek Attitude Towards Nakedness--How the Romans Modified That
+Attitude--The Influence of Christianity--Nakedness in Mediaeval
+Times--Evolution of the Horror of Nakedness--Concomitant Change in the
+Conception of Nakedness--Prudery--The Romantic Movement--Rise of a New
+Feeling in Regard to Nakedness--The Hygienic Aspect of Nakedness--How
+Children May Be Accustomed to Nakedness--Nakedness Not Inimical to
+Modesty--The Instinct of Physical Pride--The Value of Nakedness in
+Education--The AEsthetic Value of Nakedness--The Human Body as One of the
+Prime Tonics of Life--How Nakedness May Be Cultivated--The Moral Value of
+Nakedness.
+
+
+The discussion of the value of nakedness in art leads us on to the allied
+question of nakedness in nature. What is the psychological influence of
+familiarity with nakedness? How far should children be made familiar with
+the naked body? This is a question in regard to which different opinions
+have been held in different ages, and during recent years a remarkable
+change has begun to come over the minds of practical educationalists in
+regard to it.
+
+In Sparta, in Chios, and elsewhere in Greece, women at one time practiced
+gymnastic feats and dances in nakedness, together with the men, or in
+their presence.[40] Plato in his _Republic_ approved of such customs and
+said that the ridicule of those who laughed at them was but "unripe fruit
+plucked from the tree of knowledge." On many questions Plato's opinions
+changed, but not on this. In the _Laws_, which are the last outcome of his
+philosophic reflection in old age, he still advocates (Bk. viii) a similar
+co-education of the sexes and their cooeperation in all the works of life,
+in part with a view to blunt the over-keen edge of sexual appetite; with
+the same object he advocated the association together of youths and girls
+without constraint in costumes which offered no concealment to the form.
+
+It is noteworthy that the Romans, a coarser-grained people than the Greeks
+and in our narrow modern sense more "moral," showed no perception of the
+moralizing and refining influence of nakedness. Nudity to them was merely
+a licentious indulgence, to be treated with contempt even when it was
+enjoyed. It was confined to the stage, and clamored for by the populace.
+In the Floralia, especially, the crowd seem to have claimed it as their
+right that the actors should play naked, probably, it has been thought, as
+a survival of a folk-ritual. But the Romans, though they were eager to run
+to the theatre, felt nothing but disdain for the performers. "Flagitii
+principium est, nudare inter cives corpora." So thought old Ennius, as
+reported by Cicero, and that remained the genuine Roman feeling to the
+last. "Quanta perversitas!" as Tertullian exclaimed. "Artem magnificant,
+artificem notant."[41] In this matter the Romans, although they aroused
+the horror of the Christians, were yet in reality laying the foundation of
+Christian morality.
+
+Christianity, which found so many of Plato's opinions congenial, would
+have nothing to do with his view of nakedness and failed to recognize its
+psychological correctness. The reason was simple, and indeed
+simple-minded. The Church was passionately eager to fight against what it
+called "the flesh," and thus fell into the error of confusing the
+subjective question of sexual desire with the objective spectacle of the
+naked form. "The flesh" is evil; therefore, "the flesh" must be hidden.
+And they hid it, without understanding that in so doing they had not
+suppressed the craving for the human form, but, on the contrary, had
+heightened it by imparting to it the additional fascination of a forbidden
+mystery.
+
+    Burton, in his _Anatomy of Melancholy_ (Part III, Sect II, Mem.
+    II, Subs. IV), referring to the recommendations of Plato, adds:
+    "But _Eusebius_ and _Theodoret_ worthily lash him for it; and
+    well they might: for as one saith, the very sight of naked
+    parts, _causeth enormous, exceeding concupiscences, and stirs up
+    both men and women to burning lust_." Yet, as Burton himself adds
+    further on in the same section of his work (Mem. V, Subs. III),
+    without protest, "some are of opinion, that to see a woman naked,
+    is able of itself to alter his affection; and it is worthy of
+    consideration, saith _Montaigne_, the Frenchman, in his Essays,
+    that the skilfullest masters of amorous dalliance appoint for a
+    remedy of venereous passions, a full survey of the body."
+
+    There ought to be no question regarding the fact that it is the
+    adorned, the partially concealed body, and not the absolutely
+    naked body, which acts as a sexual excitant. I have brought
+    together some evidence on this point in the study of "The
+    Evolution of Modesty." "In Madagascar, West Africa, and the
+    Cape," says G.F. Scott Elliot (_A Naturalist in Mid-Africa_, p.
+    36), "I have always found the same rule. Chastity varies
+    inversely as the amount of clothing." It is now indeed generally
+    held that one of the chief primary objects of ornament and
+    clothing was the stimulation of sexual desire, and artists'
+    models are well aware that when they are completely unclothed,
+    they are most safe from undesired masculine advances. "A favorite
+    model of mine told me," remarks Dr. Shufeldt (_Medical Brief_,
+    Oct., 1904), the distinguished author of _Studies of the Human
+    Form_, "that it was her practice to disrobe as soon after
+    entering the artist's studio as possible, for, as men are not
+    always responsible for their emotions, she felt that she was far
+    less likely to arouse or excite them when entirely nude than when
+    only semi-draped." This fact is, indeed, quite familiar to
+    artists' models. If the conquest of sexual desire were the first
+    and last consideration of life it would be more reasonable to
+    prohibit clothing than to prohibit nakedness.
+
+When Christianity absorbed the whole of the European world this strict
+avoidance of even the sight of "the flesh," although nominally accepted by
+all as the desirable ideal, could only be carried out, thoroughly and
+completely, in the cloister. In the practice of the world outside,
+although the original Christian ideals remained influential, various pagan
+and primitive traditions in favor of nakedness still persisted, and were,
+to some extent, allowed to manifest themselves, alike in ordinary custom
+and on special occasions.
+
+    How widespread is the occasional or habitual practice of
+    nakedness in the world generally, and how entirely concordant it
+    is with even a most sensitive modesty, has been set forth in "The
+    Evolution of Modesty," in vol. i of these _Studies_.
+
+    Even during the Christian era the impulse to adopt nudity, often
+    with the feeling that it was an especially sacred practice, has
+    persisted. The Adamites of the second century, who read and
+    prayed naked, and celebrated the sacrament naked, according to
+    the statement quoted by St. Augustine, seem to have caused little
+    scandal so long as they only practiced nudity in their sacred
+    ceremonies. The German Brethren of the Free Spirit, in the
+    thirteenth century, combined so much chastity with promiscuous
+    nakedness that orthodox Catholics believed they were assisted by
+    the Devil. The French Picards, at a much later date, insisted on
+    public nakedness, believing that God had sent their leader into
+    the world as a new Adam to reestablish the law of Nature; they
+    were persecuted and were finally exterminated by the Hussites.
+
+    In daily life, however, a considerable degree of nakedness was
+    tolerated during mediaeval times. This was notably so in the
+    public baths, frequented by men and women together. Thus Alwin
+    Schultz remarks (in his _Hoefische Leben zur Zeit der
+    Minnesaenger_), that the women of the aristocratic classes, though
+    not the men, were often naked in these baths except for a hat and
+    a necklace.
+
+    It is sometimes stated that in the mediaeval religious plays Adam
+    and Eve were absolutely naked. Chambers doubts this, and thinks
+    they wore flesh-colored tights, or were, as in a later play of
+    this kind, "apparelled in white leather" (E.K. Chambers, _The
+    Mediaeval Stage_, vol. i, p. 5). It may be so, but the public
+    exposure even of the sexual organs was permitted, and that in
+    aristocratic houses, for John of Salisbury (in a passage quoted
+    by Buckle, _Commonplace Book_, 541) protests against this custom.
+
+    The women of the feminist sixteenth century in France, as R. de
+    Maulde la Claviere remarks (_Revue de l'Art_, Jan., 1898), had no
+    scruple in recompensing their adorers by admitting them to their
+    toilette, or even their bath. Late in the century they became
+    still less prudish, and many well-known ladies allowed themselves
+    to be painted naked down to the waist, as we see in the portrait
+    of "Gabrielle d'Estrees au Bain" at Chantilly. Many of these
+    pictures, however, are certainly not real portraits.
+
+    Even in the middle of the seventeenth century in England
+    nakedness was not prohibited in public, for Pepys tells us that
+    on July 29, 1667, a Quaker came into Westminster Hall, crying,
+    "Repent! Repent!" being in a state of nakedness, except that he
+    was "very civilly tied about the privities to avoid scandal."
+    (This was doubtless Solomon Eccles, who was accustomed to go
+    about in this costume, both before and after the Restoration. He
+    had been a distinguished musician, and, though eccentric, was
+    apparently not insane.)
+
+    In a chapter, "De la Nudite," and in the appendices of his book,
+    _De l'Amour_ (vol. i, p. 221), Senancour gives instances of the
+    occasional practice of nudity in Europe, and adds some
+    interesting remarks of his own; so, also, Dulaure (_Des Divinites
+    Generatrices_, Ch. XV). It would appear, as a rule, that though
+    complete nudity was allowed in other respects, it was usual to
+    cover the sexual parts.
+
+The movement of revolt against nakedness never became completely
+victorious until the nineteenth century. That century represented the
+triumph of all the forces that banned public nakedness everywhere and
+altogether. If, as Pudor insists, nakedness is aristocratic and the
+slavery of clothes a plebeian characteristic imposed on the lower classes
+by an upper class who reserved to themselves the privilege of physical
+culture, we may perhaps connect this with the outburst of democratic
+plebeianism which, as Nietzsche pointed out, reached its climax in the
+nineteenth century. It is in any case certainly interesting to observe
+that by this time the movement had entirely changed its character. It had
+become general, but at the same time its foundation had been undermined.
+It had largely lost its religious and moral character, and instead was
+regarded as a matter of convention. The nineteenth century man who
+encountered the spectacle of white limbs flashing in the sunlight no
+longer felt like the mediaeval ascetic that he was risking the salvation of
+his immortal soul or even courting the depravation of his morals; he
+merely felt that it was "indecent" or, in extreme cases, "disgusting."
+That is to say he regarded the matter as simply a question of conventional
+etiquette, at the worst, of taste, of aesthetics. In thus bringing down his
+repugnance to nakedness to so low a plane he had indeed rendered it
+generally acceptable, but at the same time he had deprived it of high
+sanction. His profound horror of nakedness was out of relation to the
+frivolous grounds on which he based it.
+
+    We must not, however, under-rate the tenacity with which this
+    horror of nakedness was held. Nothing illustrates more vividly
+    the deeply ingrained hatred which the nineteenth century felt of
+    nakedness than the ferocity--there is no other word for it--with
+    which Christian missionaries to savages all over the world, even
+    in the tropics, insisted on their converts adopting the
+    conventional clothing of Northern Europe. Travellers' narratives
+    abound in references to the emphasis placed by missionaries on
+    this change of custom, which was both injurious to the health of
+    the people and degrading to their dignity. It is sufficient to
+    quote one authoritative witness, Lord Stanmore, formerly Governor
+    of Fiji, who read a long paper to the Anglican Missionary
+    Conference in 1894 on the subject of "Undue Introduction of
+    Western Ways." "In the centre of the village," he remarked in
+    quoting a typical case (and referring not to Fiji but to Tonga),
+    "is the church, a wooden barn-like building. If the day be
+    Sunday, we shall find the native minister arrayed in a
+    greenish-black swallow-tail coat, a neckcloth, once white, and a
+    pair of spectacles, which he probably does not need, preaching to
+    a congregation, the male portion of which is dressed in much the
+    same manner as himself, while the women are dizened out in old
+    battered hats or bonnets, and shapeless gowns like bathing
+    dresses, or it may be in crinolines of an early type. Chiefs of
+    influence and women of high birth, who in their native dress
+    would look, and do look, the ladies and gentlemen they are, are,
+    by their Sunday finery, given the appearance of attendants upon
+    Jack-in-the-Green. If a visit be paid to the houses of the town,
+    after the morning's work of the people is over, the family will
+    be found sitting on chairs, listless and uncomfortable, in a room
+    full of litter. In the houses of the superior native clergy there
+    will be a yet greater aping of the manners of the West. There
+    will be chairs covered with hideous antimacassars, tasteless
+    round worsted-work mats for absent flower jars, and a lot of ugly
+    cheap and vulgar china chimney ornaments, which, there being no
+    fireplace, and consequently no chimney-piece, are set out in
+    order on a rickety deal table. The whole life of these village
+    folk is one piece of unreal acting. They are continually asking
+    themselves whether they are incurring any of the penalties
+    entailed by infraction of the long table of prohibitions, and
+    whether they are living up to the foreign garments they wear.
+    Their faces have, for the most part, an expression of sullen
+    discontent, they move about silently and joylessly, rebels in
+    heart to the restrictive code on them, but which they fear to
+    cast off, partly from a vague apprehension of possible secular
+    results, and partly because they suppose they will cease to be
+    good Christians if they do so. They have good ground for their
+    dissatisfaction. At the time when I visited the villages I have
+    specially in my eye, it was punishable by fine and imprisonment
+    to wear native clothing, punishable by fine and imprisonment to
+    wear long hair or a garland of flowers; punishable by fine or
+    imprisonment to wrestle or to play at ball; punishable by fine
+    and imprisonment to build a native-fashioned house; punishable
+    not to wear shirt and trousers, and in certain localities coat
+    and shoes also; and, in addition to laws enforcing a strictly
+    puritanical observation of the Sabbath, it was punishable by fine
+    and imprisonment to bathe on Sundays. In some other places
+    bathing on Sunday was punishable by flogging; and to my
+    knowledge women have been flogged for no other offense. Men in
+    such circumstances are ripe for revolt, and sometimes the revolt
+    comes."
+
+    An obvious result of reducing the feeling about nakedness to an
+    unreasoning but imperative convention is the tendency to
+    prudishness. This, as we know, is a form of pseudo-modesty which,
+    being a convention, and not a natural feeling, is capable of
+    unlimited extension. It is by no means confined to modern times
+    or to Christian Europe. The ancient Hebrews were not entirely
+    free from prudishness, and we find in the Old Testament that by a
+    curious euphemism the sexual organs are sometimes referred to as
+    "the feet." The Turks are capable of prudishness. So, indeed,
+    were even the ancient Greeks. "Dion the philosopher tells us,"
+    remarks Clement of Alexandria (_Stromates_, Bk. IV, Ch. XIX)
+    "that a certain woman, Lysidica, through excess of modesty,
+    bathed in her clothes, and that Philotera, when she was to enter
+    the bath, gradually drew back her tunic as the water covered her
+    naked parts; and then rising by degrees, put it on." Mincing
+    prudes were found among the early Christians, and their ways are
+    graphically described by St. Jerome in one of his letters to
+    Eustochium: "These women," he says, "speak between their teeth or
+    with the edge of the lips, and with a lisping tongue, only half
+    pronouncing their words, because they regard as gross whatever is
+    natural. Such as these," declares Jerome, the scholar in him
+    overcoming the ascetic, "corrupt even language." Whenever a new
+    and artificial "modesty" is imposed upon savages prudery tends to
+    arise. Haddon describes this among the natives of Torres Straits,
+    where even the children now suffer from exaggerated prudishness,
+    though formerly absolutely naked and unashamed (_Cambridge
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, vol. v, p. 271).
+
+The nineteenth century, which witnessed the triumph of timidity and
+prudery in this matter, also produced the first fruitful germ of new
+conceptions of nakedness. To some extent these were embodied in the great
+Romantic movement. Rousseau, indeed, had placed no special insistence on
+nakedness as an element of the return to Nature which he preached so
+influentially. A new feeling in this matter emerged, however, with
+characteristic extravagance, in some of the episodes of the Revolution,
+while in Germany in the pioneering _Lucinde_ of Friedrich Schlegel, a
+characteristic figure in the Romantic movement, a still unfamiliar
+conception of the body was set forth in a serious and earnest spirit.
+
+In England, Blake with his strange and flaming genius, proclaimed a
+mystical gospel which involved the spiritual glorification of the body and
+contempt for the civilized worship of clothes ("As to a modern man," he
+wrote, "stripped from his load of clothing he is like a dead corpse");
+while, later, in America, Thoreau and Whitman and Burroughs asserted,
+still more definitely, a not dissimilar message concerning the need of
+returning to Nature.
+
+    We find the importance of the sight of the body--though very
+    narrowly, for the avoidance of fraud in the preliminaries of
+    marriage--set forth as early as the sixteenth century by Sir
+    Thomas More in his _Utopia_, which is so rich in new and fruitful
+    ideas. In Utopia, according to Sir Thomas More, before marriage,
+    a staid and honest matron "showeth the woman, be she maid or
+    widow, naked to the wooer. And likewise a sage and discreet man
+    exhibiteth the wooer naked to the woman. At this custom we
+    laughed and disallowed it as foolish. But they, on their part, do
+    greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations which, in buying
+    a colt where a little money is in hazard, be so chary and
+    circumspect that though he be almost all bare, yet they will not
+    buy him unless the saddle and all the harness be taken off, lest
+    under these coverings be hid some gall or sore. And yet, in
+    choosing a wife, which shall be either pleasure or displeasure to
+    them all their life after, they be so reckless that all the
+    residue of the woman's body being covered with clothes, they
+    estimate her scarcely by one handsbreadth (for they can see no
+    more but her face) and so join her to them, not without great
+    jeopardy of evil agreeing together, if anything in her body
+    afterward should chance to offend or mislike them. Verily, so
+    foul deformity may be hid under these coverings that it may quite
+    alienate and take away the man's mind from his wife, when it
+    shall not be lawful for their bodies to be separate again. If
+    such deformity happen by any chance after the marriage is
+    consummate and finished, well, there is no remedy but patience.
+    But it were well done that a law were made whereby all such
+    deceits were eschewed and avoided beforehand."
+
+    The clear conception of what may be called the spiritual value of
+    nakedness--by no means from More's point of view, but as a part
+    of natural hygiene in the widest sense, and as a high and special
+    aspect of the purifying and ennobling function of beauty--is of
+    much later date. It is not clearly expressed until the time of
+    the Romantic movement at the beginning of the nineteenth century.
+    We have it admirably set forth in Senancour's _De l'Amour_ (first
+    edition, 1806; fourth and enlarged edition, 1834), which still
+    remains one of the best books on the morality of love. After
+    remarking that nakedness by no means abolishes modesty, he
+    proceeds to advocate occasional partial or complete nudity. "Let
+    us suppose," he remarks, somewhat in the spirit of Plato, "a
+    country in which at certain general festivals the women should be
+    absolutely free to be nearly or even quite naked. Swimming,
+    waltzing, walking, those who thought good to do so might remain
+    unclothed in the presence of men. No doubt the illusions of love
+    would be little known, and passion would see a diminution of its
+    transports. But is it passion that in general ennobles human
+    affairs? We need honest attachments and delicate delights, and
+    all these we may obtain while still preserving our
+    common-sense.... Such nakedness would demand corresponding
+    institutions, strong and simple, and a great respect for those
+    conventions which belong to all times" (Senancour, _De l'Amour_,
+    vol. i, p. 314).
+
+    From that time onwards references to the value and desirability
+    of nakedness become more and more frequent in all civilized
+    countries, sometimes mingled with sarcastic allusions to the
+    false conventions we have inherited in this matter. Thus Thoreau
+    writes in his journal on June 12, 1852, as he looks at boys
+    bathing in the river: "The color of their bodies in the sun at a
+    distance is pleasing. I hear the sound of their sport borne over
+    the water. As yet we have not man in Nature. What a singular fact
+    for an angel visitant to this earth to carry back in his
+    note-book, that men were forbidden to expose their bodies under
+    the severest penalties."
+
+    Iwan Bloch, in Chapter VII of his _Sexual Life of Our Time_,
+    discusses this question of nakedness from the modern point of
+    view, and concludes: "A natural conception of nakedness: that is
+    the watchword of the future. All the hygienic, aesthetic, and
+    moral efforts of our time are pointing in that direction."
+
+    Stratz, as befits one who has worked so strenuously in the cause
+    of human health and beauty, admirably sets forth the stage which
+    we have now attained in this matter. After pointing out (_Die
+    Frauenkleidung_, third edition, 1904, p. 30) that, in opposition
+    to the pagan world which worshipped naked gods, Christianity
+    developed the idea that nakedness was merely sexual, and
+    therefore immoral, he proceeds: "But over all glimmered on the
+    heavenly heights of the Cross, the naked body of the Saviour.
+    Under that protection there has gradually disengaged itself from
+    the confusion of ideas a new transfigured form of nakedness made
+    free after long struggle. I would call this _artistic nakedness_,
+    for as it was immortalized by the old Greeks through art, so also
+    among us it has been awakened to new life by art. Artistic
+    nakedness is, in its nature, much higher than either the natural
+    or the sensual conception of nakedness. The simple child of
+    Nature sees in nakedness nothing at all; the clothed man sees in
+    the uncovered body only a sensual irritation. But at the highest
+    standpoint man consciously returns to Nature, and recognizes that
+    under the manifold coverings of human fabrication there is
+    hidden the most splendid creature that God has created. One may
+    stand in silent, worshipping wonder before the sight; another may
+    be impelled to imitate and show to his fellow-man what in that
+    holy moment he has seen. But both enjoy the spectacle of human
+    beauty with full consciousness and enlightened purity of
+    thought."
+
+It was not, however, so much on these more spiritual sides, but on the
+side of hygiene, that the nineteenth century furnished its chief practical
+contribution to the new attitude towards nakedness.
+
+    Lord Monboddo, the Scotch judge, who was a pioneer in regard to
+    many modern ideas, had already in the eighteenth century realized
+    the hygienic value of "air-baths," and he invented that now
+    familiar name. "Lord Monboddo," says Boswell, in 1777 (_Life of
+    Johnson_, edited by Hill, vol. iii, p. 168) "told me that he
+    awaked every morning at four, and then for his health got up and
+    walked in his room naked, with the window open, which he called
+    taking _an air-bath_." It is said also, I know not on what
+    authority, that he made his beautiful daughters take an air-bath
+    naked on the terrace every morning. Another distinguished man of
+    the same century, Benjamin Franklin, used sometimes to work naked
+    in his study on hygienic grounds, and, it is recorded, once
+    affrighted a servant-girl by opening the door in an absent-minded
+    moment, thus unattired.
+
+    Rikli seems to have been the apostle of air-baths and sun-baths
+    regarded as a systematic method. He established light-and
+    air-baths over half a century ago at Trieste and elsewhere in
+    Austria. His motto was: "Light, Truth, and Freedom are the motive
+    forces towards the highest development of physical and moral
+    health." Man is not a fish, he declared; light and air are the
+    first conditions of a highly organized life. Solaria for the
+    treatment of a number of different disordered conditions are now
+    commonly established, and most systems of natural therapeutics
+    attach prime importance to light and air, while in medicine
+    generally it is beginning to be recognized that such influences
+    can by no means be neglected. Dr. Fernand Sandoz, in his
+    _Introduction a la Therapeutique Naturiste par les agents
+    Physiques et Dietetiques_ (1907) sets forth such methods
+    comprehensively. In Germany sun-baths have become widely common;
+    thus Lenkei (in a paper summarized in _British Medical Journal_,
+    Oct. 31, 1908) prescribes them with much benefit in tuberculosis,
+    rheumatic conditions, obesity, anaemia, neurasthenia, etc. He
+    considers that their peculiar value lies in the action of light.
+    Professor J.N. Hyde, of Chicago, even believes ("Light-Hunger in
+    the Production of Psoriasis," _British Medical Journal_, Oct. 6,
+    1906), that psoriasis is caused by deficiency of sunlight, and
+    is best cured by the application of light. This belief, which has
+    not, however, been generally accepted in its unqualified form, he
+    ingeniously supports by the fact that psoriasis tends to appear
+    on the most exposed parts of the body, which may be held to
+    naturally receive and require the maximum of light, and by the
+    absence of the disease in hot countries and among negroes.
+
+    The hygienic value of nakedness is indicated by the robust health
+    of the savages throughout the world who go naked. The vigor of
+    the Irish, also, has been connected with the fact that (as Fynes
+    Moryson's _Itinerary_ shows) both sexes, even among persons of
+    high social class, were accustomed to go naked except for a
+    mantle, especially in more remote parts of the country, as late
+    as the seventeenth century. Where-ever primitive races abandon
+    nakedness for clothing, at once the tendency to disease,
+    mortality, and degeneracy notably increases, though it must be
+    remembered that the use of clothing is commonly accompanied by
+    the introduction of other bad habits. "Nakedness is the only
+    condition universal among vigorous and healthy savages; at every
+    other point perhaps they differ," remarks Frederick Boyle in a
+    paper ("Savages and Clothes," _Monthly Review_, Sept., 1905) in
+    which he brings together much evidence concerning the hygienic
+    advantages of the natural human state in which man is "all face."
+
+    It is in Germany that a return towards nakedness has been most
+    ably and thoroughly advocated, notably by Dr. H. Pudor in his
+    _Nackt-Cultur_, and by R. Ungewitter in _Die Nacktheit_ (first
+    published in 1905), a book which has had a very large circulation
+    in many editions. These writers enthusiastically advocate
+    nakedness, not only on hygienic, but on moral and artistic
+    grounds. Pudor insists more especially that "nakedness, both in
+    gymnastics and in sport, is a method of cure and a method of
+    regeneration;" he advocates co-education in this culture of
+    nakedness. Although he makes large claims for
+    nakedness--believing that all the nations which have disregarded
+    these claims have rapidly become decadent--Pudor is less hopeful
+    than Ungewitter of any speedy victory over the prejudices opposed
+    to the culture of nakedness. He considers that the immediate task
+    is education, and that a practical commencement may best be made
+    with the foot which is specially in need of hygiene and exercise;
+    a large part of the first volume of his book is devoted to the
+    foot.
+
+As the matter is to-day viewed by those educationalists who are equally
+alive to sanitary and sexual considerations, the claims of nakedness, so
+far as concerns the young, are regarded as part alike of physical and
+moral hygiene. The free contact of the naked body with air and water and
+light makes for the health of the body; familiarity with the sight of the
+body abolishes petty pruriencies, trains the sense of beauty, and makes
+for the health of the soul. This double aspect of the matter has
+undoubtedly weighed greatly with those teachers who now approve of customs
+which, a few years ago, would have been hastily dismissed as "indecent."
+There is still a wide difference of opinion as to the limits to which the
+practice of nakedness may be carried, and also as to the age when it
+should begin to be restricted. The fact that the adult generation of
+to-day grew up under the influence of the old horror of nakedness is an
+inevitable check on any revolutionary changes in these matters.
+
+    Maria Lischnewska, one of the ablest advocates of the methodical
+    enlightenment of children in matters of sex (op. cit.), clearly
+    realizes that a sane attitude towards the body lies at the root
+    of a sound education for life. She finds that the chief objection
+    encountered in such education, as applied in the higher classes
+    of schools, is "the horror of the civilized man at his own body."
+    She shows that there can be no doubt that those who are engaged
+    in the difficult task of working towards the abolition of that
+    superstitious horror have taken up a moral task of the first
+    importance.
+
+    Walter Gerhard, in a thoughtful and sensible paper on the
+    educational question ("Ein Kapitel zur Erziehungsfrage,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. i, Heft 2), points out that
+    it is the adult who needs education in this matter--as in so many
+    other matters of sexual enlightenment--considerably more than the
+    child. Parents educate their children from the earliest years in
+    prudery, and vainly flatter themselves that they have thereby
+    promoted their modesty and morality. He records his own early
+    life in a tropical land and accustomed to nakedness from the
+    first. "It was not till I came to Germany when nearly twenty that
+    I learnt that the human body is indecent, and that it must not be
+    shown because that 'would arouse bad impulses.' It was not till
+    the human body was entirely withdrawn from my sight and after I
+    was constantly told that there was something improper behind
+    clothes, that I was able to understand this.... Until then I had
+    not known that a naked body, by the mere fact of being naked,
+    could arouse erotic feelings. I had known erotic feelings, but
+    they had not arisen from the sight of the naked body, but
+    gradually blossomed from the union of our souls." And he draws
+    the final moral that, if only for the sake of our children, we
+    must learn to educate ourselves.
+
+    Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, p. 140), speaking in entirely the
+    same sense as Gerhard, remarks that prudery may be either caused
+    or cured in children. It may be caused by undue anxiety in
+    covering their bodies and hiding from them the bodies of others.
+    It may be cured by making them realize that there is nothing in
+    the body that is unnatural and that we need be ashamed of, and by
+    encouraging bathing of the sexes in common. He points out (p.
+    512) the advantages of allowing children to be acquainted with
+    the adult forms which they will themselves some day assume, and
+    condemns the conduct of those foolish persons who assume that
+    children already possess the adult's erotic feelings about the
+    body. That is so far from being the case that children are
+    frequently unable to distinguish the sex of other children apart
+    from their clothes.
+
+    At the Mannheim Congress of the German Society for Combating
+    Venereal Diseases, specially devoted to sexual hygiene, the
+    speakers constantly referred to the necessity of promoting
+    familiarity with the naked body. Thus Eulenburg and Julian
+    Marcuse (_Sexualpaedagogik_, p. 264) emphasize the importance of
+    air-baths, not only for the sake of the physical health of the
+    young, but in the interests of rational sexual training. Hoeller,
+    a teacher, speaking at the same congress (op. cit., p. 85), after
+    insisting on familiarity with the nude in art and literature, and
+    protesting against the bowdlerising of poems for the young,
+    continues: "By bathing-drawers ordinances no soul was ever yet
+    saved from moral ruin. One who has learnt to enjoy peacefully the
+    naked in art is only stirred by the naked in nature as by a work
+    of art." Enderlin, another teacher, speaking in the same sense
+    (p. 58), points out that nakedness cannot act sexually or
+    immorally on the child, since the sexual impulse has not yet
+    become pronounced, and the earlier he is introduced to the naked
+    in nature and in art, as a matter of course, the less likely are
+    the sexual feelings to be developed precociously. The child thus,
+    indeed, becomes immune to impure influences, so that later, when
+    representations of the nude are brought before him for the object
+    of provoking his wantonness, they are powerless to injure him. It
+    is important, Enderlin adds, for familiarity with the nude in art
+    to be learnt at school, for most of us, as Siebert remarks, have
+    to learn purity through art.
+
+    Nakedness in bathing, remarks Boelsche in his _Liebesleben in der
+    Natur_ (vol. iii, pp. 139 et seq.), we already in some measure
+    possess; we need it in physical exercises, at first for the sexes
+    separately; then, when we have grown accustomed to the idea,
+    occasionally for both sexes together. We need to acquire the
+    capacity to see the bodies of individuals of the other sex with
+    such self-control and such natural instinct that they become
+    non-erotic to us and can be gazed at without erotic feeling. Art,
+    he says, shows that this is possible in civilization. Science, he
+    adds, comes to the aid of the same view.
+
+    Ungewitter (_Die Nacktheit_, p. 57) also advocates boys and girls
+    engaging in play and gymnastics together, entirely naked in
+    air-baths. "In this way," he believes, "the gymnasium would
+    become a school of morality, in which young growing things would
+    be able to retain their purity as long as possible through
+    becoming naturally accustomed to each other. At the same time
+    their bodies would be hardened and developed, and the perception
+    of beautiful and natural forms awakened." To those who have any
+    "moral" doubts on the matter, he mentions the custom in remote
+    country districts of boys and girls bathing together quite naked
+    and without any sexual consciousness. Rudolf Sommer, similarly,
+    in an excellent article entitled "Maedchenerziehung oder
+    Menschenbildung?" (_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, Heft 3)
+    advises that children should be made accustomed to each other's
+    nakedness from an early age in the family life of the house or
+    the garden, in games, and especially in bathing; he remarks that
+    parents having children of only one sex should cultivate for
+    their children's sake intimate relations with a family having
+    children of like age of the opposite sex, so that they may grow
+    up together.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to add that the cultivation of nakedness must
+always be conciliated with respect for the natural instincts of modesty.
+If the practice of nakedness led the young to experience a diminished
+reverence for their own or others' personalities the advantages of it
+would be too dearly bought. This is, in part, a matter of wholesome
+instinct, in part of wise training. We now know that the absence of
+clothes has little relation with the absence of modesty, such relation as
+there is being of the inverse order, for the savage races which go naked
+are usually more modest than those which wear clothes. The saying quoted
+by Herodotus in the early Greek world that "A woman takes off her modesty
+with her shift" was a favorite text of the Christian Fathers. But
+Plutarch, who was also a moralist, had already protested against it at the
+close of the Greek world: "By no means," he declared, "she who is modest
+clothes herself with modesty when she lays aside her tunic." "A woman may
+be naked," as Mrs. Bishop, the traveller, remarked to Dr. Baelz, in Japan,
+"and yet behave like a lady."[42]
+
+The question is complicated among ourselves because established
+traditions of rigid concealment have fostered a pruriency which is an
+offensive insult to naked modesty. In many lands the women who are
+accustomed to be almost or quite naked in the presence of their own people
+cover themselves as soon as they become conscious of the lustful
+inquisitive eyes of Europeans. Stratz refers to the prevalence of this
+impulse of offended modesty in Japan, and mentions that he himself failed
+to arouse it simply because he was a physician, and, moreover, had long
+lived in another land (Java) where also the custom of nakedness
+prevails.[43] So long as this unnatural prurience exists a free
+unqualified nakedness is rendered difficult.
+
+Modesty is not, however, the only natural impulse which has to be
+considered in relation to the custom of nakedness. It seems probable that
+in cultivating the practice of nakedness we are not merely carrying out a
+moral and hygienic prescription but allowing legitimate scope to an
+instinct which at some periods of life, especially in adolescence, is
+spontaneous and natural, even, it may be, wholesomely based in the
+traditions of the race in sexual selection. Our rigid conventions make it
+impossible for us to discover the laws of nature in this matter by
+stifling them at the outset. It may well be that there is a rhythmic
+harmony and concordance between impulses of modesty and impulses of
+ostentation, though we have done our best to disguise the natural law by
+our stupid and perverse by-laws.
+
+    Stanley Hall, who emphasizes the importance of nakedness, remarks
+    that at puberty we have much reason to assume that in a state of
+    nature there is a certain instinctive pride and ostentation that
+    accompanies the new local development, and quotes the observation
+    of Dr. Seerley that the impulse to conceal the sexual organs is
+    especially marked in young men who are underdeveloped, but not
+    evident in those who are developed beyond the average. Stanley
+    Hall (_Adolescence_, vol. ii, p. 97), also refers to the
+    frequency with which not only "virtuous young men, but even
+    women, rather glory in occasions when they can display the beauty
+    of their forms without reserve, not only to themselves and to
+    loved ones, but even to others with proper pretexts."
+
+    Many have doubtless noted this tendency, especially in women, and
+    chiefly in those who are conscious of beautiful physical
+    development. Madame Celine Renooz believes that the tendency
+    corresponds to a really deep-rooted instinct in women, little or
+    not at all manifested in men who have consequently sought to
+    impose artificially on women their own masculine conceptions of
+    modesty. "In the actual life of the young girl to-day there is a
+    moment when, by a secret atavism, she feels the pride of her sex,
+    the intuition of her moral superiority and cannot understand why
+    she must hide its cause. At this moment, wavering between the
+    laws of Nature and social conventions, she scarcely knows if
+    nakedness should, or should not, affright her. A sort of confused
+    atavistic memory recalls to her a period before clothing was
+    known, and reveals to her as a paradisaical ideal the customs of
+    that human epoch" (Celine Renooz, _Psychologie Comparee de
+    l'Homme et de la Femme_, pp. 85-87). Perhaps this was obscurely
+    felt by the German girl (mentioned in Kalbeck's _Life of
+    Brahms_), who said: "One enjoys music twice as much
+    _decolletee_."
+
+From the point of view with which we are here essentially concerned there
+are three ways in which the cultivation of nakedness--so far as it is
+permitted by the slow education of public opinion--tends to exert an
+influence: (1) It is an important element in the sexual hygiene of the
+young, introducing a wholesome knowledge and incuriosity into a sphere
+once given up to prudery and pruriency. (2) The effect of nakedness is
+beneficial on those of more mature age, also, in so far as it tends to
+cultivate the sense of beauty and to furnish the tonic and consoling
+influences of natural vigor and grace. (3) The custom of nakedness, in its
+inception at all events, has a dynamic psychological influence also on
+morals, an influence exerted in the substitution of a strenuous and
+positive morality for the merely negative and timid morality which has
+ruled in this sphere.
+
+Perhaps there are not many adults who realize the intense and secret
+absorption of thought in the minds of many boys and some girls concerning
+the problem of the physical conformation of the other sex, and the time,
+patience, and intellectual energy which they are willing to expend on the
+solution of this problem. This is mostly effected in secret, but not
+seldom the secret impulse manifests itself with a sudden violence which in
+the blind eyes of the law is reckoned as crime. A German lawyer, Dr.
+Werthauer, has lately stated that if there were a due degree of
+familiarity with the natural organs and functions of the opposite sex
+ninety per cent. of the indecent acts of youths with girl children would
+disappear, for in most cases these are not assaults but merely the
+innocent, though uncontrollable, outcome of a repressed natural curiosity.
+It is quite true that not a few children boldly enlist each others'
+cooeperation in the settlement of the question and resolve it to their
+mutual satisfaction. But even this is not altogether satisfactory, for the
+end is not attained openly and wholesomely, with a due subordination of
+the specifically sexual, but with a consciousness of wrong-doing and an
+exclusive attentiveness to the merely physical fact which tend directly to
+develop sexual excitement. When familiarity with the naked body of the
+other sex is gained openly and with no consciousness of indecorum, in the
+course of work and of play, in exercise or gymnastics, in running or in
+bathing, from a child's earliest years, no unwholesome results accompany
+the knowledge of the essential facts of physical conformation thus
+naturally acquired. The prurience and prudery which have poisoned sexual
+life in the past are alike rendered impossible.
+
+Nakedness has, however, a hygienic value, as well as a spiritual
+significance, far beyond its influences in allaying the natural
+inquisitiveness of the young or acting as a preventative of morbid
+emotion. It is an inspiration to adults who have long outgrown any
+youthful curiosities. The vision of the essential and eternal human form,
+the nearest thing to us in all the world, with its vigor and its beauty
+and its grace, is one of the prime tonics of life. "The power of a woman's
+body," said James Hinton, "is no more bodily than the power of music is a
+power of atmospheric vibrations." It is more than all the beautiful and
+stimulating things of the world, than flowers or stars or the sea. History
+and legend and myth reveal to us the sacred and awful influence of
+nakedness, for, as Stanley Hall says, nakedness has always been "a
+talisman of wondrous power with gods and men." How sorely men crave for
+the spectacle of the human body--even to-day after generations have
+inculcated the notion that it is an indecorous and even disgusting
+spectacle--is witnessed by the eagerness with which they seek after the
+spectacle of even its imperfect and meretricious forms, although these
+certainly possess a heady and stimulating quality which can never be found
+in the pathetic simplicity of naked beauty. It was another spectacle when
+the queens of ancient Madagascar at the annual Fandroon, or feast of the
+bath, laid aside their royal robes and while their subjects crowded the
+palace courtyard, descended the marble steps to the bath in complete
+nakedness. When we make our conventions of clothing rigid we at once
+spread a feast for lust and deny ourselves one of the prime tonics of
+life.
+
+    "I was feeling in despair and walking despondently along a
+    Melbourne street," writes the Australian author of a yet
+    unpublished autobiography, "when three children came running out
+    of a lane and crossed the road in full daylight. The beauty and
+    texture of their legs in the open air filled me with joy, so that
+    I forgot all my troubles whilst looking at them. It was a bright
+    revelation, an unexpected glimpse of Paradise, and I have never
+    ceased to thank the happy combination of shape, pure blood, and
+    fine skin of these poverty-stricken children, for the wind seemed
+    to quicken their golden beauty, and I retained the rosy vision of
+    their natural young limbs, so much more divine than those always
+    under cover. Another occasion when naked young limbs made me
+    forget all my gloom and despondency was on my first visit to
+    Adelaide. I came on a naked boy leaning on the railing near the
+    Baths, and the beauty of his face, torso, fair young limbs and
+    exquisite feet filled me with joy and renewed hope. The tears
+    came to my eyes, and I said to myself, 'While there is beauty in
+    the world I will continue to struggle,'"
+
+    We must, as Boelsche declares (loc. cit.), accustom ourselves to
+    gaze on the naked human body exactly as we gaze at a beautiful
+    flower, not merely with the pity with which the doctor looks at
+    the body, but with joy in its strength and health and beauty. For
+    a flower, as Boelsche truly adds, is not merely "naked body," it
+    is the most sacred region of the body, the sexual organs of the
+    plant.
+
+    "For girls to dance naked," said Hinton, "is the only truly pure
+    form of dancing, and in due time it must therefore come about.
+    This is certain: girls will dance naked and men will be pure
+    enough to gaze on them." It has already been so in Greece, he
+    elsewhere remarks, as it is to-day in Japan (as more recently
+    described by Stratz). It is nearly forty years since these
+    prophetic words were written, but Hinton himself would probably
+    have been surprised at the progress which has already been made
+    slowly (for all true progress must be slow) towards this goal.
+    Even on the stage new and more natural traditions are beginning
+    to prevail in Europe. It is not many years since an English
+    actress regarded as a calumny the statement that she appeared on
+    the stage bare-foot, and brought an action for libel, winning
+    substantial damages. Such a result would scarcely be possible
+    to-day. The movement in which Isadora Duncan was a pioneer has
+    led to a partial disuse among dancers of the offensive device of
+    tights, and it is no longer considered indecorous to show many
+    parts of the body which it was formerly usual to cover.
+
+    It should, however, be added at the same time that, while
+    dancers, in so far as they are genuine artists, are entitled to
+    determine the conditions most favorable to their art, nothing
+    whatever is gained for the cause of a wholesome culture of
+    nakedness by the "living statues" and "living pictures" which
+    have obtained an international vogue during recent years. These
+    may be legitimate as variety performances, but they have nothing
+    whatever to do with either Nature or art. Dr. Pudor, writing as
+    one of the earliest apostles of the culture of nakedness, has
+    energetically protested against these performances
+    (_Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908, p. 828). He rightly points out
+    that nakedness, to be wholesome, requires the open air, the
+    meadows, the sunlight, and that nakedness at night, in a music
+    hall, by artificial light, in the presence of spectators who are
+    themselves clothed, has no element of morality about it. Attempts
+    have here and there been quietly made to cultivate a certain
+    amount of mutual nakedness as between the sexes on remote country
+    excursions. It is significant to find a record of such an
+    experiment in Ungewitter's _Die Nacktheit_. In this case a party
+    of people, men and women, would regularly every Sunday seek
+    remote spots in woods or meadows where they would settle down,
+    picnic, and enjoy games. "They made themselves as comfortable as
+    possible, the men laying aside their coats, waistcoats, boots and
+    socks; the women their blouses, skirts, shoes and stockings.
+    Gradually, as the moral conception of nakedness developed in
+    their minds, more and more clothing fell away, until the men wore
+    nothing but bathing-drawers and the women only their chemises. In
+    this 'costume' games were carried out in common, and a regular
+    camp-life led. The ladies (some of whom were unmarried) would
+    then lie in hammocks and we men on the grass, and the intercourse
+    was delightful. We felt as members of one family, and behaved
+    accordingly. In an entirely natural and unembarrassed way we gave
+    ourselves up entirely to the liberating feelings aroused by this
+    light- and air-bath, and passed these splendid hours in joyous
+    singing and dancing, in wantonly childish fashion, freed from the
+    burden of a false civilization. It was, of course, necessary to
+    seek spots as remote as possible from high-roads, for fear of
+    being disturbed. At the same time we by no means failed in
+    natural modesty and consideration towards one another. Children,
+    who can be entirely naked, may be allowed to take part in such
+    meetings of adults, and will thus be brought up free from morbid
+    prudery" (R. Ungewitter, _Die Nacktheit_, p. 58).
+
+    No doubt it may be said that the ideal in this matter is the
+    possibility of permitting complete nakedness. This may be
+    admitted, and it is undoubtedly true that our rigid police
+    regulations do much to artificially foster a concealment in this
+    matter which is not based on any natural instinct. Dr. Shufeldt
+    narrates in his _Studies of the Human Form_ that once in the
+    course of a photographic expedition in the woods he came upon two
+    boys, naked except for bathing-drawers, engaged in getting water
+    lilies from a pond. He found them a good subject for his camera,
+    but they could not be induced to remove their drawers, by no
+    means out of either modesty or mock-modesty, but simply because
+    they feared they might possibly be caught and arrested. We have
+    to recognize that at the present day the general popular
+    sentiment is not yet sufficiently educated to allow of public
+    disregard for the convention of covering the sexual centres, and
+    all attempts to extend the bounds of nakedness must show a due
+    regard for this requirement. As concerns women, Valentin Lehr, of
+    Freiburg, in Breisgau, has invented a costume (figured in
+    Ungewitter's _Die Nacktheit_) which is suitable for either public
+    water-baths or air-baths, because it meets the demand of those
+    whose minimum requirement is that the chief sexual centres of the
+    body should be covered in public, while it is otherwise fairly
+    unobjectionable. It consists of two pieces, made of porous
+    material, one covering the breasts with a band over the
+    shoulders, and the other covering the abdomen below the navel and
+    drawn between the legs. This minimal costume, while neither ideal
+    nor aesthetic, adequately covers the sexual regions of the body,
+    while leaving the arms, waist, hips, and legs entirely free.
+
+There finally remains the moral aspect of nakedness. Although this has
+been emphasized by many during the past half century it is still
+unfamiliar to the majority. The human body can never be a little thing.
+The wise educator may see to it that boys and girls are brought up in a
+natural and wholesome familiarity with each other, but a certain terror
+and beauty must always attach to the spectacle of the body, a mixed
+attraction and repulsion. Because it has this force it naturally calls out
+the virtue of those who take part in the spectacle, and makes impossible
+any soft compliance to emotion. Even if we admit that the spectacle of
+nakedness is a challenge to passion it is still a challenge that calls
+out the ennobling qualities of self-control. It is but a poor sort of
+virtue that lies in fleeing into the desert from things that we fear may
+have in them a temptation. We have to learn that it is even worse to
+attempt to create a desert around us in the midst of civilization. We
+cannot dispense with passions if we would; reason, as Holbach said, is the
+art of choosing the right passions, and education the art of sowing and
+cultivating them in human hearts. The spectacle of nakedness has its moral
+value in teaching us to learn to enjoy what we do not possess, a lesson
+which is an essential part of the training for any kind of fine social
+life. The child has to learn to look at flowers and not pluck them; the
+man has to learn to look at a woman's beauty and not desire to possess it.
+The joyous conquest over that "erotic kleptomania," as Ellen Key has well
+said, reveals the blossoming of a fine civilization. We fancy the conquest
+is difficult, even impossibly difficult. But it is not so. This impulse,
+like other human impulses, tends under natural conditions to develop
+temperately and wholesomely. We artificially press a stupid and brutal
+hand on it, and it is driven into the two unnatural extremes of repression
+and license, one extreme as foul as the other.
+
+To those who have been bred under bad conditions, it may indeed seem
+hopeless to attempt to rise to the level of the Greeks and the other finer
+tempered peoples of antiquity in realizing the moral, as well as the
+pedagogic, hygienic, and aesthetic advantages[44] of admitting into life
+the spectacle of the naked human body. But unless we do we hopelessly
+fetter ourselves in our march along the road of civilization, we deprive
+ourselves at once of a source of moral strength and of joyous inspiration.
+Just as Wesley once asked why the devil should have all the best tunes, so
+to-day men are beginning to ask why the human body, the most divine melody
+at its finest moments that creation has yielded, should be allowed to
+become the perquisite of those who lust for the obscene. And some are,
+further, convinced that by enlisting it on the side of purity and strength
+they are raising the most powerful of all bulwarks against the invasion of
+a vicious conception of life and the consequent degradation of sex. These
+are considerations which we cannot longer afford to neglect, however great
+the opposition they arouse among the unthinking.
+
+    "Folk are afraid of such things rousing the passions," Edward
+    Carpenter remarks. "No doubt the things may act that way. But
+    why, we may ask, should people be afraid of rousing passions
+    which, after all, are the great driving forces of human life?" It
+    is true, the same writer continues, our conventional moral
+    formulae are no longer strong enough to control passion
+    adequately, and that we are generating steam in a boiler that is
+    cankered with rust. "The cure is not to cut off the passions, or
+    to be weakly afraid of them, but to find a new, sound, healthy
+    engine of general morality and common sense within which they
+    will work" (Edward Carpenter, _Albany Review_, Sept., 1907).
+
+    So far as I am aware, however, it was James Hinton who chiefly
+    sought to make clear the possibility of a positive morality on
+    the basis of nakedness, beauty, and sexual influence, regarded as
+    dynamic forces which, when suppressed, make for corruption and
+    when wisely used serve to inspire and ennoble life. He worked out
+    his thoughts on this matter in MSS., written from about 1870 to
+    his death two years later, which, never having been prepared for
+    publication, remain in a fragmentary state and have not been
+    published. I quote a few brief characteristic passages: "Is not,"
+    he wrote, "the Hindu refusal to see a woman eating strangely like
+    ours to see one naked? The real sensuality of the thought is
+    visibly identical.... Suppose, because they are delicious to eat,
+    pineapples were forbidden to be seen, except in pictures, and
+    about that there was something dubious. Suppose no one might have
+    sight of a pineapple unless he were rich enough to purchase one
+    for his particular eating, the sight and the eating being so
+    indissolubly joined. What lustfulness would surround them, what
+    constant pruriency, what stealing!... Miss ---- told us of her
+    Syrian adventures, and how she went into a wood-carver's shop and
+    he would not look at her; and how she took up a tool and worked,
+    till at last he looked, and they both burst out laughing. Will it
+    not be even so with our looking at women altogether? There will
+    come a _work_--and at last we shall look up and both burst out
+    laughing.... When men see truly what is amiss, and act with
+    reason and forethought in respect to the sexual relations, will
+    they not insist on the enjoyment of women's beauty by youths, and
+    from the earliest age, that the first feeling may be of beauty?
+    Will they not say, 'We must not allow the false purity, we must
+    have the true.' The false has been tried, and it is not good
+    enough; the power purely to enjoy beauty must be gained;
+    attempting to do with less is fatal. Every instructor of youth
+    shall say: 'This beauty of woman, God's chief work of beauty, it
+    is good you see it; it is a pleasure that serves good; all beauty
+    serves it, and above all this, for its office is to make you
+    pure. Come to it as you come to daily bread, or pure air, or the
+    cleansing bath: this is pure to you if you be pure, it will aid
+    you in your effort to be so. But if any of you are impure, and
+    make of it the feeder of impurity, then you should be ashamed and
+    pray; it is not for you our life can be ordered; it is for men
+    and not for beasts.' This must come when men open their eyes, and
+    act coolly and with reason and forethought, and not in mere panic
+    in respect to the sexual passion in its moral relations."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[40] Thus Athenaeus (Bk. xiii, Ch. XX) says: "In the Island of Chios it is
+a beautiful sight to go to the gymnasia and the race-courses, and to see
+the young men wrestling naked with the maidens who are also naked."
+
+[41] Augustine (_De civitate Dei_, lib. ii, cap. XIII) refers to the same
+point, contrasting the Romans with the Greeks who honored their actors.
+
+[42] See "The Evolution of Modesty" in the first volume of these
+_Studies_, where this question of the relationship of nakedness to modesty
+is fully discussed.
+
+[43] C.H. Stratz, _Die Koerperformen in Kunst und Leben der Japaner_,
+Second edition, Ch. III; id., _Frauenkleidung_, Third edition, pp. 22, 30.
+
+[44] I have not considered it in place here to emphasize the aesthetic
+influence of familiarity with nakedness. The most aesthetic nations
+(notably the Greeks and the Japanese) have been those that preserved a
+certain degree of familiarity with the naked body. "In all arts,"
+Maeterlinck remarks, "civilized peoples have approached or departed from
+pure beauty according as they approached or departed from the habit of
+nakedness." Ungewitter insists on the advantage to the artist of being
+able to study the naked body in movement, and it may be worth mentioning
+that Fidus (Hugo Hoeppener), the German artist of to-day who has exerted
+great influence by his fresh, powerful and yet reverent delineation of the
+naked human form in all its varying aspects, attributes his inspiration
+and vision to the fact that, as a pupil of Diefenbach, he was accustomed
+with his companions to work naked in the solitudes outside Munich which
+they frequented (F. Enzensberger, "Fidus," _Deutsche Kultur_, Aug., 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE VALUATION OF SEXUAL LOVE.
+
+The Conception of Sexual Love--The Attitude of Mediaeval Asceticism--St.
+Bernard and St. Odo of Cluny--The Ascetic Insistence on the Proximity of
+the Sexual and Excretory Centres--Love as a Sacrament of Nature--The Idea
+of the Impurity of Sex in Primitive Religions Generally--Theories of the
+Origin of This Idea--The Anti-Ascetic Element in the Bible and Early
+Christianity--Clement of Alexandria--St. Augustine's Attitude--The
+Recognition of the Sacredness of the Body by Tertullian, Rufinus and
+Athanasius--The Reformation--The Sexual Instinct regarded as Beastly--The
+Human Sexual Instinct Not Animal-like--Lust and Love--The Definition of
+Love--Love and Names for Love Unknown in Some Parts of the World--Romantic
+Love of Late Development in the White Race--The Mystery of Sexual
+Desire--Whether Love is a Delusion--The Spiritual as Well as the Physical
+Structure of the World in Part Built up on Sexual Love--The Testimony of
+Men of Intellect to the Supremacy of Love.
+
+
+It will be seen that the preceding discussion of nakedness has a
+significance beyond what it appeared to possess at the outset. The
+hygienic value, physically and mentally, of familiarity with nakedness
+during the early years of life, however considerable it may be, is not the
+only value which such familiarity possesses. Beyond its aesthetic value,
+also, there lies in it a moral value, a source of dynamic energy. And now,
+taking a still further step, we may say that it has a spiritual value in
+relation to our whole conception of the sexual impulse. Our attitude
+towards the naked human body is the test of our attitude towards the
+instinct of sex. If our own and our fellows' bodies seem to us
+intrinsically shameful or disgusting, nothing will ever really ennoble or
+purify our conceptions of sexual love. Love craves the flesh, and if the
+flesh is shameful the lover must be shameful. "Se la cosa amata e vile,"
+as Leonardo da Vinci profoundly said, "l'amante se fa vile." However
+illogical it may have been, there really was a justification for the old
+Christian identification of the flesh with the sexual instinct. They stand
+or fall together; we cannot degrade the one and exalt the other. As our
+feelings towards nakedness are, so will be our feelings towards love.
+
+"Man is nothing else than fetid sperm, a sack of dung, the food of
+worms.... You have never seen a viler dung-hill." Such was the outcome of
+St. Bernard's cloistered _Meditationes Piissimae_.[45] Sometimes, indeed,
+these mediaeval monks would admit that the skin possessed a certain
+superficial beauty, but they only made that admission in order to
+emphasize the hideousness of the body when deprived of this film of
+loveliness, and strained all their perverse intellectual acumen, and their
+ferocious irony, as they eagerly pointed the finger of mockery at every
+detail of what seemed to them the pitiful figure of man. St. Odo of
+Cluny--charming saint as he was and a pioneer in his appreciation of the
+wild beauty of the Alps he had often traversed--was yet an adept in this
+art of reviling the beauty of the human body. That beauty only lies in the
+skin, he insists; if we could see beneath the skin women would arouse
+nothing but nausea. Their adornments are but blood and mucus and bile. If
+we refuse to touch dung and phlegm even with a fingertip, how can we
+desire to embrace a sack of dung?[46] The mediaeval monks of the more
+contemplative order, indeed, often found here a delectable field of
+meditation, and the Christian world generally was content to accept their
+opinions in more or less diluted versions, or at all events never made any
+definite protest against them.
+
+Even men of science accepted these conceptions and are, indeed, only now
+beginning to emancipate themselves from such ancient superstitions. R. de
+Graef in the Preface to his famous treatise on the generative organs of
+women, _De Mulierum Organis Generatione Inservientibus_, dedicated to
+Cosmo III de Medici in 1672, considered it necessary to apologize for the
+subject of his work. Even a century later, Linnaeus in his great work, _The
+System of Nature_, dismissed as "abominable" the exact study of the female
+genitals, although he admitted the scientific interest of such
+investigations. And if men of science have found it difficult to attain an
+objective vision of women we cannot be surprised that medieval and still
+more ancient conceptions have often been subtly mingled with the views of
+philosophical and semi-philosophical writers.[47]
+
+We may regard as a special variety of the ascetic view of sex,--for the
+ascetics, as we see, freely but not quite legitimately, based their
+asceticism largely on aesthetic considerations,--that insistence on the
+proximity of the sexual to the excretory centres which found expression in
+the early Church in Augustine's depreciatory assertion: "Inter faeces et
+urinam nascimur," and still persists among many who by no means always
+associate it with religious asceticism.[48] "As a result of what
+ridiculous economy, and of what Mephistophilian irony," asks Tarde,[49]
+"has Nature imagined that a function so lofty, so worthy of the poetic and
+philosophical hymns which have celebrated it, only deserved to have its
+exclusive organ shared with that of the vilest corporal functions?"
+
+It may, however, be pointed out that this view of the matter, however
+unconsciously, is itself the outcome of the ascetic depreciation of the
+body. From a scientific point of view, the metabolic processes of the
+body from one end to the other, whether regarded chemically or
+psychologically, are all interwoven and all of equal dignity. We cannot
+separate out any particular chemical or biological process and declare:
+This is vile. Even what we call excrement still stores up the stuff of our
+lives. Eating has to some persons seemed a disgusting process. But yet it
+has been possible to say, with Thoreau, that "the gods have really
+intended that men should feed divinely, as themselves, on their own nectar
+and ambrosia.... I have felt that eating became a sacrament, a method of
+communion, an ecstatic exercise, and a sitting at the communion table of
+the world."
+
+The sacraments of Nature are in this way everywhere woven into the texture
+of men's and women's bodies. Lips good to kiss with are indeed first of
+all chiefly good to eat and drink with. So accumulated and overlapped have
+the centres of force become in the long course of development, that the
+mucous membranes of the natural orifices, through the sensitiveness gained
+in their own offices, all become agents to thrill the soul in the contact
+of love; it is idle to discriminate high or low, pure or impure; all alike
+are sanctified already by the extreme unction of Nature. The nose receives
+the breath of life; the vagina receives the water of life. Ultimately the
+worth and loveliness of life must be measured by the worth and loveliness
+for us of the instruments of life. The swelling breasts are such divinely
+gracious insignia of womanhood because of the potential child that hangs
+at them and sucks; the large curves of the hips are so voluptuous because
+of the potential child they clasp within them; there can be no division
+here, we cannot cut the roots from the tree. The supreme function of
+manhood--the handing on of the lamp of life to future races--is carried
+on, it is true, by the same instrument that is the daily conduit of the
+bladder. It has been said in scorn that we are born between urine and
+excrement; it may be said, in reverence, that the passage through this
+channel of birth is a sacrament of Nature's more sacred and significant
+than men could ever invent.
+
+These relationships have been sometimes perceived and their meaning
+realized by a sort of mystical intuition. We catch glimpses of such an
+insight now and again, first among the poets and later among the
+physicians of the Renaissance. In 1664 Rolfincius, in his _Ordo et Methods
+Generationi Partium etc._, at the outset of the second Part devoted to the
+sexual organs of women, sets forth what ancient writers have said of the
+Eleusinian and other mysteries and the devotion and purity demanded of
+those who approached these sacred rites. It is so also with us, he
+continues, in the rites of scientific investigation. "We also operate with
+sacred things. The organs of sex are to be held among sacred things. They
+who approach these altars must come with devout minds. Let the profane
+stand without, and the doors be closed." In those days, even for science,
+faith and intuition were alone possible. It is only of recent years that
+the histologist's microscope and the physiological chemist's test-tube
+have furnished them with a rational basis. It is no longer possible to cut
+Nature in two and assert that here she is pure and there impure.[50]
+
+    There thus appears to be no adequate ground for agreeing with
+    those who consider that the proximity of the generative and
+    excretory centres is "a stupid bungle of Nature's." An
+    association which is so ancient and primitive in Nature can only
+    seem repulsive to those whose feelings have become morbidly
+    unnatural. It may further be remarked that the anus, which is the
+    more aesthetically unattractive of the excretory centres, is
+    comparatively remote from the sexual centre, and that, as R.
+    Hellmann remarked many years ago in discussing this question
+    (_Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit_, p. 82): "In the first place,
+    freshly voided urine has nothing specially unpleasant about it,
+    and in the second place, even if it had, we might reflect that a
+    rosy mouth by no means loses its charm merely because it fails to
+    invite a kiss at the moment when its possessor is vomiting."
+
+    A clergyman writes suggesting that we may go further and find a
+    positive advantage in this proximity: "I am glad that you do not
+    agree with the man who considered that Nature had bungled by
+    using the genitals for urinary purposes; apart from teleological
+    or theological grounds I could not follow that line of reasoning.
+    I think there is no need for disgust concerning the urinary
+    organs, though I feel that the anus can never be attractive to
+    the normal mind; but the anus is quite separate from the
+    genitals. I would suggest that the proximity serves a good end in
+    making the organs more or less secret except at times of sexual
+    emotion or to those in love. The result is some degree of
+    repulsion at ordinary times and a strong attraction at times of
+    sexual activity. Hence, the ordinary guarding of the parts, from
+    fear of creating disgust, greatly increases their attractiveness
+    at other times when sexual emotion is paramount. Further, the
+    feeling of disgust itself is merely the result of habit and
+    sentiment, however useful it may be, and according to Scripture
+    everything is clean and good. The ascetic feeling of repulsion,
+    if we go back to origin, is due to other than Christian
+    influence. Christianity came out of Judaism which had no sense of
+    the impurity of marriage, for 'unclean' in the Old Testament
+    simply means 'sacred.' The ascetic side of the religion of
+    Christianity is no part of the religion of Christ as it came from
+    the hands of its Founder, and the modern feeling on this matter
+    is a lingering remnant of the heresy of the Manichaeans." I may
+    add, however, that, as Northcote points out (_Christianity and
+    Sex Problems_, p. 14), side by side in the Old Testament with the
+    frank recognition of sexuality, there is a circle of ideas
+    revealing the feeling of impurity in sex and of shame in
+    connection with it. Christianity inherited this mixed feeling. It
+    has really been a widespread and almost universal feeling among
+    the ancient and primitive peoples that there is something impure
+    and sinful in the things of sex, so that those who would lead a
+    religious life must avoid sexual relationships; even in India
+    celibacy has commanded respect (see, e.g., Westermarck,
+    _Marriage_, pp. 150 et seq.). As to the original foundation of
+    this notion--which it is unnecessary to discuss more fully
+    here--many theories have been put forward; St. Augustine, in his
+    _De Civitate Dei_, sets forth the ingenious idea that the penis,
+    being liable to spontaneous movements and erections that are not
+    under the control of the will, is a shameful organ and involves
+    the whole sphere of sex in its shame. Westermarck argues that
+    among nearly all peoples there is a feeling against sexual
+    relationship with members of the same family or household, and as
+    sex was thus banished from the sphere of domestic life a notion
+    of its general impurity arose; Northcote points out that from the
+    first it has been necessary to seek concealment for sexual
+    intercourse, because at that moment the couple would be a prey to
+    hostile attacks, and that it was by an easy transition that sex
+    came to be regarded as a thing that ought to be concealed, and,
+    therefore, a sinful thing. (Diderot, in his _Supplement au Voyage
+    de Bougainville_, had already referred to this motive for
+    seclusion as "the only natural element in modesty.") Crawley has
+    devoted a large part of his suggestive work, _The Mystic Rose_,
+    to showing that, to savage man, sex is a perilous, dangerous, and
+    enfeebling element in life, and, therefore, sinful.
+
+It would, however, be a mistake to think that such men as St. Bernard and
+St. Odo of Cluny, admirably as they represented the ascetic and even the
+general Christian views of their own time, are to be regarded as
+altogether typical exponents of the genuine and primitive Christian view.
+So far as I have been able to discover, during the first thousand years of
+Christianity we do not find this concentrated intellectual and emotional
+ferocity of attack on the body; it only developed at the moment when, with
+Pope Gregory VII, mediaeval Christianity reached the climax of its conquest
+over the souls of European men, in the establishment of the celibacy of
+the secular clergy, and the growth of the great cloistered communities of
+monks in severely regulated and secluded orders.[51] Before that the
+teachers of asceticism were more concerned to exhort to chastity and
+modesty than to direct a deliberate and systematic attack on the whole
+body; they concentrated their attention rather on spiritual virtues than
+on physical imperfections. And if we go back to the Gospels we find little
+of the mediaeval ascetic spirit in the reported sayings and doings of
+Jesus, which may rather indeed be said to reveal, on the whole,
+notwithstanding their underlying asceticism, a certain tenderness and
+indulgence to the body, while even Paul, though not tender towards the
+body, exhorts to reverence towards it as a temple of the Holy Spirit.
+
+We cannot expect to find the Fathers of the Church sympathetic towards the
+spectacle of the naked human body, for their position was based on a
+revolt against paganism, and paganism had cultivated the body. Nakedness
+had been more especially associated with the public bath, the gymnasium,
+and the theatre; in profoundly disapproving of these pagan institutions
+Christianity discouraged nakedness. The fact that familiarity with
+nakedness was favorable, rather than opposed, to the chastity to which it
+attached so much importance, the Church--though indeed at one moment it
+accepted nakedness in the rite of baptism--was for the most part unable to
+see if it was indeed a fact which the special conditions of decadent
+classic life had tended to disguise. But in their decided preference for
+the dressed over the naked human body the early Christians frequently
+hesitated to take the further step of asserting that the body is a focus
+of impurity and that the physical organs of sex are a device of the devil.
+On the contrary, indeed, some of the most distinguished of the Fathers,
+especially those of the Eastern Church who had felt the vivifying breath
+of Greek thought, occasionally expressed themselves on the subject of
+Nature, sex, and the body in a spirit which would have won the approval of
+Goethe or Whitman.
+
+Clement of Alexandria, with all the eccentricities of his over-subtle
+intellect, was yet the most genuinely Greek of all the Fathers, and it is
+not surprising that the dying ray of classic light reflected from his mind
+shed some illumination over this question of sex. He protested, for
+instance, against that prudery which, as the sun of the classic world set,
+had begun to overshadow life. "We should not be ashamed to name," he
+declared, "what God has not been ashamed to create."[52] It was a
+memorable declaration because, while it accepted the old classic feeling
+of no shame in the presence of nature, it put that feeling on a new and
+religious basis harmonious to Christianity. Throughout, though not always
+quite consistently, Clement defends the body and the functions of sex
+against those who treated them with contempt. And as the cause of sex is
+the cause of women he always strongly asserts the dignity of women, and
+also proclaims the holiness of marriage, a state which he sometimes places
+above that of virginity.[53]
+
+Unfortunately, it must be said, St. Augustine--another North African, but
+of Roman Carthage and not of Greek Alexandria--thought that he had a
+convincing answer to the kind of argument which Clement presented, and so
+great was the force of his passionate and potent genius that he was able
+in the end to make his answer prevail. For Augustine sin was hereditary,
+and sin had its special seat and symbol in the sexual organs; the fact of
+sin has modified the original divine act of creation, and we cannot treat
+sex and its organs as though there had been no inherited sin. Our sexual
+organs, he declares, have become shameful because, through sin, they are
+now moved by lust. At the same time Augustine by no means takes up the
+mediaeval ascetic position of contemptuous hatred towards the body. Nothing
+can be further from Odo of Cluny than Augustine's enthusiasm about the
+body, even about the exquisite harmony of the parts beneath the skin. "I
+believe it may be concluded," he even says, "that in the creation of the
+human body beauty was more regarded than necessity. In truth, necessity is
+a transitory thing, and the time is coming when we shall be able to enjoy
+one another's beauty without any lust."[54] Even in the sphere of sex he
+would be willing to admit purity and beauty, apart from the inherited
+influence of Adam's sin. In Paradise, he says, had Paradise continued, the
+act of generation would have been as simple and free from shame as the act
+of the hand in scattering seed on to the earth. "Sexual conjugation would
+have been under the control of the will without any sexual desire. The
+semen would be injected into the vagina in as simple a manner as the
+menstrual fluid is now ejected. There would not have been any words which
+could be called obscene, but all that might be said of these members would
+have been as pure as what is said of the other parts of the body."[55]
+That, however, for Augustine, is what might have been in Paradise where,
+as he believed, sexual desire had no existence. As things are, he held, we
+are right to be ashamed, we do well to blush. And it was natural that, as
+Clement of Alexandria mentions, many heretics should have gone further on
+this road and believed that while God made man down to the navel, the rest
+was made by another power; such heretics have their descendants among us
+even to-day.
+
+Alike in the Eastern and Western Churches, however, both before and after
+Augustine, though not so often after, great Fathers and teachers have
+uttered opinions which recall those of Clement rather than of Augustine.
+We cannot lay very much weight on the utterance of the extravagant and
+often contradictory Tertullian, but it is worth noting that, while he
+declared that woman is the gate of hell, he also said that we must
+approach Nature with reverence and not with blushes. "Natura veneranda
+est, non erubescenda." "No Christian author," it has indeed been said,
+"has so energetically spoken against the heretical contempt of the body as
+Tertullian. Soul and body, according to Tertullian, are in the closest
+association. The soul is the life-principle of the body, but there is no
+activity of the soul which is not manifested and conditioned by the
+flesh."[56] More weight attaches to Rufinus Tyrannius, the friend and
+fellow-student of St. Jerome, in the fourth century, who wrote a
+commentary on the Apostles' Creed, which was greatly esteemed by the early
+and mediaeval Church, and is indeed still valued even to-day. Here, in
+answer to those who declared that there was obscenity in the fact of
+Christ's birth through the sexual organs of a woman, Rufinus replies that
+God created the sexual organs, and that "it is not Nature but merely human
+opinion which teaches that these parts are obscene. For the rest, all the
+parts of the body are made from the same clay, whatever differences there
+may be in their uses and functions."[57] He looks at the matter, we see,
+piously indeed, but naturally and simply, like Clement, and not, like
+Augustine, through the distorting medium of a theological system.
+Athanasius, in the Eastern Church, spoke in the same sense as Rufinus in
+the Western Church. A certain monk named Amun had been much grieved by the
+occurrence of seminal emissions during sleep, and he wrote to Athanasius
+to inquire if such emissions are a sin. In the letter he wrote in reply,
+Athanasius seeks to reassure Amun. "All things," he tells him, "are pure
+to the pure. For what, I ask, dear and pious friend, can there be sinful
+or naturally impure in excrement? Man is the handwork of God. There is
+certainly nothing in us that is impure."[58] We feel as we read these
+utterances that the seeds of prudery and pruriency are already alive in
+the popular mind, but yet we see also that some of the most distinguished
+thinkers of the early Christian Church, in striking contrast to the more
+morbid and narrow-minded mediaeval ascetics, clearly stood aside from the
+popular movement. On the whole, they were submerged because Christianity,
+like Buddhism, had in it from the first a germ that lent itself to ascetic
+renunciation, and the sexual life is always the first impulse to be
+sacrificed to the passion for renunciation. But there were other germs
+also in Christianity, and Luther, who in his own plebeian way asserted the
+rights of the body, although he broke with mediaeval asceticism, by no
+means thereby cast himself off from the traditions of the early Christian
+Church.
+
+I have thought it worth while to bring forward this evidence, although I
+am perfectly well aware that the facts of Nature gain no additional
+support from the authority of the Fathers or even of the Bible. Nature and
+humanity existed before the Bible and would continue to exist although the
+Bible should be forgotten. But the attitude of Christianity on this point
+has so often been unreservedly condemned that it seems as well to point
+out that at its finest moments, when it was a young and growing power in
+the world, the utterances of Christianity were often at one with those of
+Nature and reason. There are many, it may be added, who find it a matter
+of consolation that in following the natural and rational path in this
+matter they are not thereby altogether breaking with the religious
+traditions of their race.
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to remark that when we turn from
+    Christianity to the other great world-religions, we do not
+    usually meet with so ambiguous an attitude towards sex. The
+    Mahommedans were as emphatic in asserting the sanctity of sex as
+    they were in asserting physical cleanliness; they were prepared
+    to carry the functions of sex into the future life, and were
+    never worried, as Luther and so many other Christians have been,
+    concerning the lack of occupation in Heaven. In India, although
+    India is the home of the most extreme forms of religious
+    asceticism, sexual love has been sanctified and divinized to a
+    greater extent than in any other part of the world. "It seems
+    never to have entered into the heads of the Hindu legislators,"
+    said Sir William Jones long since (_Works_, vol. ii, p. 311),
+    "that anything natural could be offensively obscene, a
+    singularity which pervades all their writings, but is no proof of
+    the depravity of their morals." The sexual act has often had a
+    religious significance in India, and the minutest details of the
+    sexual life and its variations are discussed in Indian erotic
+    treatises in a spirit of gravity, while nowhere else have the
+    anatomical and physiological sexual characters of women been
+    studied with such minute and adoring reverence. "Love in India,
+    both as regards theory and practice," remarks Richard Schmidt
+    (_Beitraege zur Indischen Erotik_, p. 2) "possesses an importance
+    which it is impossible for us even to conceive."
+
+In Protestant countries the influence of the Reformation, by
+rehabilitating sex as natural, indirectly tended to substitute in popular
+feeling towards sex the opprobrium of sinfulness by the opprobrium of
+animality. Henceforth the sexual impulse must be disguised or adorned to
+become respectably human. This may be illustrated by a passage in Pepys's
+_Diary_ in the seventeenth century. On the morning after the wedding day
+it was customary to call up new married couples by music; the absence of
+this music on one occasion (in 1667) seemed to Pepys "as if they had
+married like dog and bitch." We no longer insist on the music, but the
+same feeling still exists in the craving for other disguises and
+adornments for the sexual impulse. We do not always realize that love
+brings its own sanctity with it.
+
+Nowadays indeed, whenever the repugnance to the sexual side of life
+manifests itself, the assertion nearly always made is not so much that it
+is "sinful" as that it is "beastly." It is regarded as that part of man
+which most closely allies him to the lower animals. It should scarcely be
+necessary to point out that this is a mistake. On whichever side, indeed,
+we approach it, the implication that sex in man and animals is identical
+cannot be borne out. From the point of view of those who accept this
+identity it would be much more correct to say that men are inferior,
+rather than on a level with animals, for in animals under natural
+conditions the sexual instinct is strictly subordinated to reproduction
+and very little susceptible to deviation, so that from the standpoint of
+those who wish to minimize sex, animals are nearer to the ideal, and such
+persons must say with Woods Hutchinson: "Take it altogether, our animal
+ancestors have quite as good reason to be ashamed of us as we of them."
+But if we look at the matter from a wider biological standpoint of
+development, our conclusion must be very different.
+
+So far from being animal-like, the human impulses of sex are among the
+least animal-like acquisitions of man. The human sphere of sex differs
+from the animal sphere of sex to a singularly great extent.[59] Breathing
+is an animal function and here we cannot compete with birds; locomotion is
+an animal function and here we cannot equal quadrupeds; we have made no
+notable advance in our circulatory, digestive, renal, or hepatic
+functions. Even as regards vision and hearing, there are many animals that
+are more keen-sighted than man, and many that are capable of hearing
+sounds that to him are inaudible. But there are no animals in whom the
+sexual instinct is so sensitive, so highly developed, so varied in its
+manifestations, so constantly alert, so capable of irradiating the highest
+and remotest parts of the organism. The sexual activities of man and woman
+belong not to that lower part of our nature which degrades us to the level
+of the "brute," but to the higher part which raises us towards all the
+finest activities and ideals we are capable of. It is true that it is
+chiefly in the mouths of a few ignorant and ill-bred women that we find
+sex referred to as "bestial" or "the animal part of our nature."[60] But
+since women are the mothers and teachers of the human race this is a piece
+of ignorance and ill-breeding which cannot be too swiftly eradicated.
+
+There are some who seem to think that they have held the balance evenly,
+and finally stated the matter, if they admit that sexual love may be
+either beautiful or disgusting, and that either view is equally normal and
+legitimate. "Listen in turn," Tarde remarks, "to two men who, one cold,
+the other ardent, one chaste, the other in love, both equally educated and
+large-minded, are estimating the same thing: one judges as disgusting,
+odious, revolting, and bestial what the other judges to be delicious,
+exquisite, ineffable, divine. What, for one, is in Christian phraseology,
+an unforgivable sin, is, for the other, the state of true grace. Acts that
+for one seem a sad and occasional necessity, stains that must be carefully
+effaced by long intervals of continence, are for the other the golden
+nails from which all the rest of conduct and existence is suspended, the
+things that alone give human life its value."[61] Yet we may well doubt
+whether both these persons are "equally well-educated and broad-minded."
+The savage feels that sex is perilous, and he is right. But the person who
+feels that the sexual impulse is bad, or even low and vulgar, is an
+absurdity in the universe, an anomaly. He is like those persons in our
+insane asylums, who feel that the instinct of nutrition is evil and so
+proceed to starve themselves. They are alike spiritual outcasts in the
+universe whose children they are. It is another matter when a man declares
+that, personally, in his own case, he cherishes an ascetic ideal which
+leads him to restrain, so far as possible, either or both impulses. The
+man, who is sanely ascetic seeks a discipline which aids the ideal he has
+personally set before himself. He may still remain theoretically in
+harmony with the universe to which he belongs. But to pour contempt on
+the sexual life, to throw the veil of "impurity" over it, is, as Nietzsche
+declared, the unpardonable sin against the Holy Ghost of Life.
+
+There are many who seek to conciliate prejudice and reason in their
+valuation of sex by drawing a sharp distinction between "lust" and "love,"
+rejecting the one and accepting the other. It is quite proper to make such
+a distinction, but the manner in which it is made will by no means usually
+bear examination. We have to define what we mean by "lust" and what we
+mean by "love," and this is not easy if they are regarded as mutually
+exclusive. It is sometimes said that "lust" must be understood as meaning
+a reckless indulgence of the sexual impulse without regard to other
+considerations. So understood, we are quite safe in rejecting it. But that
+is an entirely arbitrary definition of the word. "Lust" is really a very
+ambiguous term; it is a good word that has changed its moral values, and
+therefore we need to define it very carefully before we venture to use it.
+Properly speaking, "lust" is an entirely colorless word[62] and merely
+means desire in general and sexual desire in particular; it corresponds to
+"hunger" or "thirst"; to use it in an offensive sense is much the same as
+though we should always assume that the word "hungry" had the offensive
+meaning of "greedy." The result has been that sensitive minds indignantly
+reject the term "lust" in connection with love.[63] In the early use of
+our language, "lust," "lusty," and "lustful" conveyed the sense of
+wholesome and normal sexual vigor; now, with the partial exception of
+"lusty," they have been so completely degraded to a lower sense that
+although it would be very convenient to restore them to their original
+and proper place, which still remains vacant, the attempt at such a
+restoration scarcely seems a hopeful task. We have so deeply poisoned the
+springs of feeling in these matters with mediaeval ascetic crudities that
+all our words of sex tend soon to become bespattered with filth; we may
+pick them up from the mud into which they have fallen and seek to purify
+them, but to many eyes they will still seem dirty. One result of this
+tendency is that we have no simple, precise, natural word for the love of
+the sexes, and are compelled to fall back on the general term, which is so
+extensive in its range that in English and French and most of the other
+leading languages of Europe, it is equally correct to "love" God or to
+"love" eating.
+
+Love, in the sexual sense, is, summarily considered, a synthesis of lust
+(in the primitive and uncolored sense of sexual emotion) and friendship.
+It is incorrect to apply the term "love" in the sexual sense to elementary
+and uncomplicated sexual desire; it is equally incorrect to apply it to
+any variety or combination of varieties of friendship. There can be no
+sexual love without lust; but, on the other hand, until the currents of
+lust in the organism have been so irradiated as to affect other parts of
+the psychic organism--at the least the affections and the social
+feelings--it is not yet sexual love. Lust, the specific sexual impulse, is
+indeed the primary and essential element in this synthesis, for it alone
+is adequate to the end of reproduction, not only in animals but in men.
+But it is not until lust is expanded and irradiated that it develops into
+the exquisite and enthralling flower of love. We may call to mind what
+happens among plants: on the one hand we have the lower organisms in which
+sex is carried on summarily and cryptogamically, never shedding any shower
+of gorgeous blossoms on the world, and on the other hand the higher plants
+among whom sex has become phanersgamous and expanded enormously into form
+and color and fragrance.
+
+    While "lust" is, of course, known all over the world, and there
+    are everywhere words to designate it, "love" is not universally
+    known, and in many languages there are no words for "love." The
+    failures to find love are often remarkable and unexpected. We may
+    find it where we least expect it. Sexual desire became idealized
+    (as Sergi has pointed out) even by some animals, especially
+    birds, for when a bird pines to death for the loss of its mate
+    this cannot be due to the uncomplicated instinct of sex, but must
+    involve the interweaving of that instinct with the other elements
+    of life to a degree which is rare even among the most civilized
+    men. Some savage races seem to have no fundamental notion of
+    love, and (like the American Nahuas) no primary word for it,
+    while, on the other hand, in Quichua, the language of the ancient
+    Peruvians, there are nearly six hundred combinations of the verb
+    _munay_, to love. Among some peoples love seems to be confined to
+    the women. Letourneau (_L'Evolution Litteraire_, p. 529) points
+    out that in various parts of the world women have taken a leading
+    part in creating erotic poetry. It may be mentioned in this
+    connection that suicide from erotic motives among primitive
+    peoples occurs chiefly among women (_Zeitschrift fuer
+    Sozialwissenschaft_, 1899, p. 578). Not a few savages possess
+    love-poems, as, for instance, the Suahali (Velten, in his _Prosa
+    und Poesie der Suahali_, devotes a section to love-poems
+    reproduced in the Suahali language). D.G. Brinton, in an
+    interesting paper on "The Conception of Love in Some American
+    Languages" (_Proceedings American Philosophical Society_, vol.
+    xxiii, p. 546, 1886) states that the words for love in these
+    languages reveal four main ways of expressing the conception: (1)
+    inarticulate cries of emotion; (2) assertions of sameness or
+    similarity; (3) assertions of conjunction or union; (4)
+    assertions of a wish, desire, a longing. Brinton adds that "these
+    same notions are those which underlie the majority of the words
+    of love in the great Aryan family of languages." The remarkable
+    fact emerges, however, that the peoples of Aryan tongue were slow
+    in developing their conception of sexual love. Brinton remarks
+    that the American Mayas must be placed above the peoples of early
+    Aryan culture, in that they possessed a radical word for the joy
+    of love which was in significance purely psychical, referring
+    strictly to a mental state, and neither to similarity nor desire.
+    Even the Greeks were late in developing any ideal of sexual love.
+    This has been well brought out by E.F.M. Benecke in his
+    _Antimachus of Colophon and the Position of Women in Greek
+    Poetry_, a book which contains some hazardous assertions, but is
+    highly instructive from the present point of view. The Greek
+    lyric poets wrote practically no love poems at all to women
+    before Anacreon, and his were only written in old age. True love
+    for the Greeks was nearly always homosexual. The Ionian lyric
+    poets of early Greece regarded woman as only an instrument of
+    pleasure and the founder of the family. Theognis compares
+    marriage to cattle-breeding; Alcman, when he wishes to be
+    complimentary to the Spartan girls, speaks of them as his "female
+    boy-friends." AEschylus makes even a father assume that his
+    daughters will misbehave if left to themselves. There is no
+    sexual love in Sophocles, and in Euripides it is only the women
+    who fall in love. Benecke concludes (p. 67) that in Greece sexual
+    love, down to a comparatively later period, was looked down on,
+    and held to be unworthy of public discussion and representation.
+    It was in Magna Graecia rather than in Greece itself that men took
+    interest in women, and it was not until the Alexandrian period,
+    and notably in Asclepiades, Benecke maintains, that the love of
+    women was regarded as a matter of life and death. Thereafter the
+    conception of sexual love, in its romantic aspects, appears in
+    European life. With the Celtic story of Tristram, as Gaston Paris
+    remarks, it finally appears in the Christian European world of
+    poetry as the chief point in human life, the great motive force
+    of conduct.
+
+    Romantic love failed, however, to penetrate the masses in Europe.
+    In the sixteenth century, or whenever it was that the ballad of
+    "Glasgerion" was written, we see it is assumed that a churl's
+    relation to his mistress is confined to the mere act of sexual
+    intercourse; he fails to kiss her on arriving or departing; it is
+    only the knight, the man of upper class, who would think of
+    offering that tender civility. And at the present day in, for
+    instance, the region between East Friesland and the Alps, Bloch
+    states (_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, p. 29), following E.H. Meyer,
+    that the word "love" is unknown among the masses, and only its
+    coarse counterpart recognized.
+
+    On the other side of the world, in Japan, sexual love seems to be
+    in as great disrepute as it was in ancient Greece; thus Miss
+    Tsuda, a Japanese head-mistress, and herself a Christian, remarks
+    (as quoted by Mrs. Eraser in _World's Work and Play_, Dec.,
+    1906): "That word 'love' has been hitherto a word unknown among
+    our girls, in the foreign sense. Duty, submission,
+    kindness--these were the sentiments which a girl was expected to
+    bring to the husband who had been chosen for her--and many happy,
+    harmonious marriages were the result. Now, your dear sentimental
+    foreign women say to our girls: 'It is wicked to marry without
+    love; the obedience to parents in such a case is an outrage
+    against nature and Christianity. If you love a man you must
+    sacrifice everything to marry him.'"
+
+    When, however, love is fully developed it becomes an enormously
+    extended, highly complex emotion, and lust, even in the best
+    sense of that word, becomes merely a cooerdinated element among
+    many other elements. Herbert Spencer, in an interesting passage
+    of his _Principles of Psychology_ (Part IV, Ch. VIII), has
+    analyzed love into as many as nine distinct and important
+    elements: (1) the physical impulse of sex; (2) the feeling for
+    beauty; (3) affection; (4) admiration and respect; (5) love of
+    approbation; (6) self-esteem; (7) proprietary feeling; (8)
+    extended liberty of action from the absence of personal barriers;
+    (9) exaltation of the sympathies. "This passion," he concludes,
+    "fuses into one immense aggregate most of the elementary
+    excitations of which we are capable."
+
+It is scarcely necessary to say that to define sexual love, or even to
+analyze its components, is by no means to explain its mystery. We seek to
+satisfy our intelligence by means of a coherent picture of love, but the
+gulf between that picture and the emotional reality must always be
+incommensurable and impassable. "There is no word more often pronounced
+than that of love," wrote Bonstetten many years ago, "yet there is no
+subject more mysterious. Of that which touches us most nearly we know
+least. We measure the march of the stars and we do not know how we love."
+And however expert we have become in detecting and analyzing the causes,
+the concomitants, and the results of love, we must still make the same
+confession to-day. We may, as some have done, attempt to explain love as a
+form of hunger and thirst, or as a force analogous to electricity, or as a
+kind of magnetism, or as a variety of chemical affinity, or as a vital
+tropism, but these explanations are nothing more than ways of expressing
+to ourselves the magnitude of the phenomenon we are in the presence of.
+
+What has always baffled men in the contemplation of sexual love is the
+seeming inadequacy of its cause, the immense discrepancy between the
+necessarily circumscribed region of mucous membrane which is the final
+goal of such love and the sea of world-embracing emotions to which it
+seems as the door, so that, as Remy de Gourmont has said, "the mucous
+membranes, by an ineffable mystery, enclose in their obscure folds all the
+riches of the infinite." It is a mystery before which the thinker and the
+artist are alike overcome. Donnay, in his play _L'Escalade_, makes a cold
+and stern man of science, who regards love as a mere mental disorder which
+can be cured like other disorders, at last fall desperately in love
+himself. He forces his way into the girl's room, by a ladder, at dead of
+night, and breaks into a long and passionate speech: "Everything that
+touches you becomes to me mysterious and sacred. Ah! to think that a thing
+so well known as a woman's body, which sculptors have modelled, which
+poets have sung of, which men of science like myself have dissected, that
+such a thing should suddenly become an unknown mystery and an infinite joy
+merely because it is the body of one particular woman--what insanity! And
+yet that is what I feel."[64]
+
+That love is a natural insanity, a temporary delusion which the individual
+is compelled to suffer for the sake of the race, is indeed an explanation
+that has suggested itself to many who have been baffled by this mystery.
+That, as we know, was the explanation offered by Schopenhauer. When a
+youth and a girl fall into each other's arms in the ecstacy of love they
+imagine that they are seeking their own happiness. But it is not so, said
+Schopenhauer; they are deluded by the genius of the race into the belief
+that they are seeking a personal end in order that they may be induced to
+effect a far greater impersonal end: the creation of the future race. The
+intensity of their passion is not the measure of the personal happiness
+they will secure but the measure of their aptitude for producing
+offspring. In accepting passion and renouncing the counsels of cautious
+prudence the youth and the girl are really sacrificing their chances of
+selfish happiness and fulfilling the larger ends of Nature. As
+Schopenhauer saw the matter, there was here no vulgar illusion. The lovers
+thought that they were reaching towards a boundlessly immense personal
+happiness; they were probably deceived. But they were deceived not because
+the reality was less than their imagination, but because it was more;
+instead of pursuing, as they thought, a merely personal end they were
+carrying on the creative work of the world, a task better left undone, as
+Schopenhauer viewed it, but a task whose magnitude he fully
+recognized.[65]
+
+It must be remembered that in the lower sense of deception, love may be,
+and frequently is, a delusion. A man may deceive himself, or be deceived
+by the object of his attraction, concerning the qualities that she
+possesses or fails to possess. In first love, occurring in youth, such
+deception is perhaps entirely normal, and in certain suggestible and
+inflammable types of people it is peculiarly apt to occur. This kind of
+deception, although far more frequent and conspicuous in matters of
+love--and more serious because of the tightness of the marriage bond--is
+liable to occur in any relation of life. For most people, however, and
+those not the least sane or the least wise, the memory of the exaltation
+of love, even when the period of that exaltation is over, still remains
+as, at the least, the memory of one of the most real and essential facts
+of life.[66]
+
+    Some writers seem to confuse the liability in matters of love to
+    deception or disappointment with the larger question of a
+    metaphysical illusion in Schopenhauer's sense. To some extent
+    this confusion perhaps exists in the discussion of love by
+    Renouvier and Prat in _La Nouvelle Monadologie_ (pp. 216 _et
+    seq._). In considering whether love is or is not a delusion, they
+    answer that it is or is not according as we are, or are not,
+    dominated by selfishness and injustice. "It was not an essential
+    error which presided over the creation of the _idol_, for the
+    idol is only what in all things the _ideal_ is. But to realize
+    the ideal in love two persons are needed, and therein is the
+    great difficulty. We are never justified," they conclude, "in
+    casting contempt on our love, or even on its object, for if it is
+    true that we have not gained possession of the sovereign beauty
+    of the world it is equally true that we have not attained a
+    degree of perfection that would have entitled us justly to claim
+    so great a prize." And perhaps most of us, it may be added, must
+    admit in the end, if we are honest with ourselves, that the
+    prizes of love we have gained in the world, whatever their flaws,
+    are far greater than we deserved.
+
+We may well agree that in a certain sense not love alone but all the
+passions and desires of men are illusions. In that sense the Gospel of
+Buddha is justified, and we may recognize the inspiration of Shakespeare
+(in the _Tempest_) and of Calderon (in _La Vida es Sueno_), who felt that
+ultimately the whole world is an insubstantial dream. But short of that
+large and ultimate vision we cannot accept illusion; we cannot admit that
+love is a delusion in some special and peculiar sense that men's other
+cravings and aspirations escape. On the contrary, it is the most solid of
+realities. All the progressive forms of life are built up on the
+attraction of sex. If we admit the action of sexual selection--as we can
+scarcely fail to do if we purge it from its unessential
+accretions[67]--love has moulded the precise shape and color, the
+essential beauty, alike of animal and human life.
+
+If we further reflect that, as many investigators believe, not only the
+physical structure of life but also its spiritual structure--our social
+feelings, our morality, our religion, our poetry and art--are, in some
+degree at least, also built up on the impulse of sex, and would have been,
+if not non-existent, certainly altogether different had other than sexual
+methods of propagation prevailed in the world, we may easily realize that
+we can only fall into confusion by dismissing love as a delusion. The
+whole edifice of life topples down, for as the idealist Schiller long
+since said, it is entirely built up on hunger and on love. To look upon
+love as in any special sense a delusion is merely to fall into the trap of
+a shallow cynicism. Love is only a delusion in so far as the whole of life
+is a delusion, and if we accept the fact of life it is unphilosophical to
+refuse to accept the fact of love.
+
+    It is unnecessary here to magnify the functions of love in the
+    world; it is sufficient to investigate its workings in its own
+    proper sphere. It may, however, be worth while to quote a few
+    expressions of thinkers, belonging to various schools, who have
+    pointed out what seemed to them the far-ranging significance of
+    the sexual emotions for the moral life. "The passions are the
+    heavenly fire which gives life to the moral world," wrote
+    Helvetius long since in _De l'Esprit_. "The activity of the mind
+    depends on the activity of the passions, and it is at the period
+    of the passions, from the age of twenty-five to thirty-five or
+    forty that men are capable of the greatest efforts of virtue or
+    of genius." "What touches sex," wrote Zola, "touches the centre
+    of social life." Even our regard for the praise and blame of
+    others has a sexual origin, Professor Thomas argues
+    (_Psychological Review_, Jan., 1904, pp. 61-67), and it is love
+    which is the source of susceptibility generally and of the
+    altruistic side of life. "The appearance of sex," Professor Woods
+    Hutchinson attempts to show ("Love as a Factor in Evolution,"
+    _Monist_, 1898), "the development of maleness and femaleness, was
+    not only the birthplace of affection, the well-spring of all
+    morality, but an enormous economic advantage to the race and an
+    absolute necessity of progress. In it first we find any conscious
+    longing for or active impulse toward a fellow creature." "Were
+    man robbed of the instinct of procreation, and of all that
+    spiritually springs therefrom," exclaimed Maudsley in his
+    _Physiology of Mind_, "that moment would all poetry, and perhaps
+    also his whole moral sense, be obliterated from his life." "One
+    seems to oneself transfigured, stronger, richer, more complete;
+    one _is_ more complete," says Nietzsche (_Der Wille zur Macht_,
+    p. 389), "we find here art as an organic function: we find it
+    inlaid in the most angelic instinct of 'love:' we find it as the
+    greatest stimulant of life.... It is not merely that it changes
+    the feeling of values: the lover _is_ worth more, is stronger. In
+    animals this condition produces new weapons, pigments, colors,
+    and forms, above all new movements, new rhythms, a new seductive
+    music. It is not otherwise in man.... Even in art the door is
+    opened to him. If we subtract from lyrical work in words and
+    sounds the suggestions of that intestinal fever, what is left
+    over in poetry and music? _L'Art pour l'art_ perhaps, the
+    quacking virtuosity of cold frogs who perish in their marsh. All
+    the rest is created by love."
+
+    It would be easy to multiply citations tending to show how many
+    diverse thinkers have come to the conclusion that sexual love
+    (including therewith parental and especially maternal love) is
+    the source of the chief manifestations of life. How far they are
+    justified in that conclusion, it is not our business now to
+    inquire.
+
+It is undoubtedly true that, as we have seen when discussing the erratic
+and imperfect distribution of the conception of love, and even of words
+for love, over the world, by no means all people are equally apt for
+experiencing, even at any time in their lives, the emotions of sexual
+exaltation. The difference between the knight and the churl still
+subsists, and both may sometimes be found in all social strata. Even the
+refinements of sexual enjoyment, it is unnecessary to insist, quite
+commonly remain on a merely physical basis, and have little effect on the
+intellectual and emotional nature.[68] But this is not the case with the
+people who have most powerfully influenced the course of the world's
+thought and feeling. The personal reality of love, its importance for the
+individual life, are facts that have been testified to by some of the
+greatest thinkers, after lives devoted to the attainment of intellectual
+labor. The experience of Renan, who toward the end of his life set down in
+his remarkable drama _L'Abbesse de Jouarre_, his conviction that, even
+from the point of view of chastity, love is, after all, the supreme thing
+in the world, is far from standing alone. "Love has always appeared as an
+inferior mode of human music, ambition as the superior mode," wrote Tarde,
+the distinguished sociologist, at the end of his life. "But will it always
+be thus? Are there not reasons for thinking that the future perhaps
+reserves for us the ineffable surprise of an inversion of that secular
+order?" Laplace, half an hour before his death, took up a volume of his
+own _Mecanique Celeste_, and said: "All that is only trifles, there is
+nothing true but love." Comte, who had spent his life in building up a
+Positive Philosophy which should be absolutely real, found (as indeed it
+may be said the great English Positivist Mill also found) the culmination
+of all his ideals in a woman, who was, he said, Egeria and Beatrice and
+Laura in one, and he wrote: "There is nothing real in the world but love.
+One grows tired of thinking, and even of acting; one never grows tired of
+loving, nor of saying so. In the worst tortures of affection I have never
+ceased to feel that the essential of happiness is that the heart should be
+worthily filled--even with pain, yes, even with pain, the bitterest pain."
+And Sophie Kowalewsky, after intellectual achievements which have placed
+her among the most distinguished of her sex, pathetically wrote: "Why can
+no one love me? I could give more than most women, and yet the most
+insignificant women are loved and I am not." Love, they all seem to say,
+is the one thing that is supremely worth while. The greatest and most
+brilliant of the world's intellectual giants, in their moments of final
+insight, thus reach the habitual level of the humble and almost anonymous
+persons, cloistered from the world, who wrote _The Imitation of Christ_ or
+_The Letters of a Portuguese Nun_. And how many others!
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[45] _Meditationes Piissimae de Cognitione Humanae Conditionis_, Migne's
+_Patrologia_, vol. clxxiv, p. 489, cap. III, "De Dignitate Animae et
+Vilitate Corporis." It may be worth while to quote more at length the
+vigorous language of the original. "Si diligenter consideres quid per os
+et nares caeterosque corporis meatus egrediatur, vilius sterquilinum
+numquam vidisti.... Attende, homo, quid fuisti ante ortum, et quid es ab
+ortu usque ad occasum, atque quid eris post hanc vitam. Profecto fuit
+quand non eras: postea de vili materia factus, et vilissimo panno
+involutus, menstruali sanguine in utero materno fuisti nutritus, et tunica
+tua fuit pellis secundina. Nihil aliud est homo quam sperma fetidum,
+saccus stercorum, cibus vermium.... Quid superbis, pulvis et cinis, cujus
+conceptus cula, nasci miseria, vivere poena, mori angustia?"
+
+[46] See (in Mignes' edition) _S. Odonis abbatis Cluniacensis
+Collationes_, lib. ii, cap. IX.
+
+[47] Duehren (_Neue Forshungen ueber die Marquis de Sade_, pp. 432 et seq.)
+shows how the ascetic view of woman's body persisted, for instance, in
+Schopenhauer and De Sade.
+
+[48] In "The Evolution of Modesty," in the first volume of these
+_Studies_, and again in the fifth volume in discussing urolagnia in the
+study of "Erotic Symbolism," the mutual reactions of the sexual and
+excretory centres were fully dealt with.
+
+[49] "La Morale Sexuelle," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Jan.,
+1907.
+
+[50] The above passage, now slightly modified, originally formed an
+unpublished part of an essay on Walt Whitman in _The New Spirit_, first
+issued in 1889.
+
+[51] Even in the ninth century, however, when the monastic movement was
+rapidly developing, there were some who withstood the tendencies of the
+new ascetics. Thus, in 850, Ratramnus, the monk of Corbie, wrote a
+treatise (_Liber de eo quod Christus ex Virgine natus est_) to prove that
+Mary really gave birth to Jesus through her sexual organs, and not, as
+some high-strung persons were beginning to think could alone be possible,
+through the more conventionally decent breasts. The sexual organs were
+sanctified. "Spiritus sanctus ... et thalamum tanto dignum sponso
+sanctificavit et portam" (Achery, _Spicilegium_, vol. i, p. 55).
+
+[52] _Paedagogus_, lib. ii, cap. X. Elsewhere (id., lib. ii, Ch. VI) he
+makes a more detailed statement to the same effect.
+
+[53] See, e.g., Wilhelm Capitaine, _Die Moral des Clemens von
+Alexandrien_, pp. 112 et seq.
+
+[54] _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xxii, cap. XXIV. "There is no need," he says
+again (id., lib. xiv, cap. V) "that in our sins and vices we accuse the
+nature of the flesh to the injury of the Creator, for in its own kind and
+degree the flesh is good."
+
+[55] St. Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xiv, cap. XXIII-XXVI.
+Chrysostom and Gregory, of Nyssa, thought that in Paradise human beings
+would have multiplied by special creation, but such is not the accepted
+Catholic doctrine.
+
+[56] W. Capitaine, _Die Moral des Clemens von Alexandrien_, pp. 112 et
+seq. Without the body, Tertullian declared, there could be no virginity
+and no salvation. The soul itself is corporeal. He carries, indeed, his
+idea of the omnipresence of the body to the absurd.
+
+[57] Rufinus, _Commentarius in Symbolum Apostolorum_, cap. XII.
+
+[58] Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, vol. xxvi, pp. 1170 et seq.
+
+[59] Even in physical conformation the human sexual organs, when compared
+with those of the lower animals, show marked differences (see "The
+Mechanism of Detumescence," in the fifth volume of these _Studies_).
+
+[60] It may perhaps be as well to point out, with Forel (_Die Sexuelle
+Frage_, p. 208), that the word "bestial" is generally used quite
+incorrectly in this connection. Indeed, not only for the higher, but also
+for the lower manifestation of the sexual impulse, it would usually be
+more correct to use instead the qualification "human."
+
+[61] _Loc. cit._, _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Jan., 1907.
+
+[62] It has, however, become colored and suspect from an early period in
+the history of Christianity. St. Augustine (_De Civitate Dei_, lib. xiv,
+cap. XV), while admitting that libido or lust is merely the generic name
+for all desire, adds that, as specially applied to the sexual appetite, it
+is justly and properly mixed up with ideas of shame.
+
+[63] Hinton well illustrates this feeling. "We call by the name of lust,"
+he declares in his MSS., "the most simple and natural desires. We might as
+well term hunger and thirst 'lust' as so call sex-passion, when expressing
+simply Nature's prompting. We miscall it 'lust,' cruelly libelling those
+to whom we ascribe it, and introduce absolute disorder. For, by foolishly
+confounding Nature's demands with lust, we insist upon restraint upon
+her."
+
+[64] Several centuries earlier another French writer, the distinguished
+physician, A. Laurentius (Des Laurens) in his _Historia Anatomica Humani
+Corporis_ (lib. viii, Quaestio vii) had likewise puzzled over "the
+incredible desire of coitus," and asked how it was that "that divine
+animal, full of reason and judgment, which we call Man, should be
+attracted to those obscene parts of women, soiled with filth, which are
+placed, like a sewer, in the lowest part of the body." It is noteworthy
+that, from the first, and equally among men of religion, men of science,
+and men of letters, the mystery of this problem has peculiarly appealed to
+the French mind.
+
+[65] Schopenhauer, _Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_, vol. ii, pp. 608
+et seq.
+
+[66] "Perhaps there is scarcely a man," wrote Malthus, a clergyman as well
+as one of the profoundest thinkers of his day (_Essay on the Principle of
+Population_, 1798, Ch. XI), "who has once experienced the genuine delight
+of virtuous love, however great his intellectual pleasures may have been,
+that does not look back to the period as the sunny spot in his whole life,
+where his imagination loves to bask, which he recollects and contemplates
+with the fondest regrets, and which he would most wish to live over again.
+The superiority of intellectual to sexual pleasures consists rather in
+their filling up more time, in their having a larger range, and in their
+being less liable to satiate, than in their being more real and
+essential."
+
+[67] The whole argument of the fourth volume of these _Studies_, on
+"Sexual Selection in Man," points in this direction.
+
+[68] "Perhaps most average men," Forel remarks (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, p.
+307), "are but slightly receptive to the intoxication of love; they are at
+most on the level of the _gourmet_, which is by no means necessarily an
+immoral plane, but is certainly not that of poetry."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE FUNCTION OF CHASTITY.
+
+Chastity Essential to the Dignity of Love--The Eighteenth Century Revolt
+Against the Ideal of Chastity--Unnatural Forms of Chastity--The
+Psychological Basis of Asceticism--Asceticism and Chastity as Savage
+Virtues--The Significance of Tahiti--Chastity Among Barbarous
+Peoples--Chastity Among the Early Christians--Struggles of the Saints with
+the Flesh--The Romance of Christian Chastity--Its Decay in Mediaeval
+Times--_Aucassin et Nicolette_ and the new Romance of Chaste Love--The
+Unchastity of the Northern Barbarians--The Penitentials--Influence of the
+Renaissance and the Reformation--The Revolt Against Virginity as a
+Virtue--The Modern Conception of Chastity as a Virtue--The Influences That
+Favor the Virtue of Chastity--Chastity as a Discipline--The Value of
+Chastity for the Artist--Potency and Impotence in Popular Estimation--The
+Correct Definitions of Asceticism and Chastity.
+
+
+The supreme importance of chastity, and even of asceticism, has never at
+any time, or in any greatly vital human society, altogether failed of
+recognition. Sometimes chastity has been exalted in human estimation,
+sometimes it has been debased; it has frequently changed the nature of its
+manifestations; but it has always been there. It is even a part of the
+beautiful vision of all Nature. "The glory of the world is seen only by a
+chaste mind," said Thoreau with his fine extravagance. "To whomsoever this
+fact is not an awful but beautiful mystery there are no flowers in
+Nature." Without chastity it is impossible to maintain the dignity of
+sexual love. The society in which its estimation sinks to a minimum is in
+the last stages of degeneration. Chastity has for sexual love an
+importance which it can never lose, least of all to-day.
+
+It is quite true that during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries many
+men of high moral and intellectual distinction pronounced very decidedly
+their condemnation of the ideal of chastity. The great Buffon refused to
+recognize chastity as an ideal and referred scornfully to "that kind of
+insanity which has turned a girl's virginity into a thing with a real
+existence," while William Morris, in his downright manner, once declared
+at a meeting of the Fellowship of the New Life, that asceticism is "the
+most disgusting vice that afflicted human nature." Blake, though he seems
+always to have been a strictly moral man in the most conventional sense,
+felt nothing but contempt for chastity, and sometimes confers a kind of
+religious solemnity on the idea of unchastity. Shelley, who may have been
+unwise in sexual matters but can scarcely be called unchaste, also often
+seems to associate religion and morality, not with chastity, but with
+unchastity, and much the same may be said of James Hinton.[69]
+
+But all these men--with other men of high character who have pronounced
+similar opinions--were reacting against false, decayed, and conventional
+forms of chastity. They were not rebelling against an ideal; they were
+seeking to set up an ideal in a place where they realized that a
+mischievous pretense was masquerading as a moral reality.
+
+We cannot accept an ideal of chastity unless we ruthlessly cast aside all
+the unnatural and empty forms of chastity. If chastity is merely a
+fatiguing effort to emulate in the sexual sphere the exploits of
+professional fasting men, an effort using up all the energies of the
+organism and resulting in no achievement greater than the abstinence it
+involves, then it is surely an unworthy ideal. If it is a feeble
+submission to an external conventional law which there is no courage to
+break, then it is not an ideal at all. If it is a rule of morality imposed
+by one sex on the opposite sex, then it is an injustice and provocative of
+revolt. If it is an abstinence from the usual forms of sexuality, replaced
+by more abnormal or more secret forms, then it is simply an unreality
+based on misconception. And if it is merely an external acceptance of
+conventions without any further acceptance, even in act, then it is a
+contemptible farce. These are the forms of chastity which during the past
+two centuries many fine-souled men have vigorously rejected.
+
+The fact that chastity, or asceticism, is a real virtue, with fine uses,
+becomes evident when we realize that it has flourished at all times, in
+connection with all kinds of religions and the most various moral codes.
+We find it pronounced among savages, and the special virtues of
+savagery--hardness, endurance, and bravery--are intimately connected with
+the cultivation of chastity and asceticism.[70] It is true that savages
+seldom have any ideal of chastity in the degraded modern sense, as a state
+of permanent abstinence from sexual relationships having a merit of its
+own apart from any use. They esteem chastity for its values, magical or
+real, as a method of self-control which contributes towards the attainment
+of important ends. The ability to bear pain and restraint is nearly always
+a main element in the initiation of youths at puberty. The custom of
+refraining from sexual intercourse before expeditions of war and hunting,
+and other serious concerns involving great muscular and mental strain,
+whatever the motives assigned, is a sagacious method of economizing
+energy. The extremely widespread habit of avoiding intercourse during
+pregnancy and suckling, again, is an admirable precaution in sexual
+hygiene which it is extremely difficult to obtain the observance of in
+civilization. Savages, also, are perfectly well aware how valuable sexual
+continence is, in combination with fasting and solitude, to acquire the
+aptitude for abnormal spiritual powers.
+
+    Thus C. Hill Tout (_Journal Anthropological Institute_,
+    Jan.-June, 1905, pp. 143-145) gives an interesting account of the
+    self-discipline undergone by those among the Salish Indians of
+    British Columbia, who seek to acquire shamanistic powers. The
+    psychic effects of such training on these men, says Hill Tout,
+    is undoubted. "It enables them to undertake and accomplish feats
+    of abnormal strength, agility, and endurance; and gives them at
+    times, besides a general exaltation of the senses, undoubted
+    clairvoyant and other supernormal mental and bodily powers." At
+    the other end of the world, as shown by the _Reports of the
+    Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_ (vol. v, p. 321),
+    closely analogous methods of obtaining supernatural powers are
+    also customary.
+
+    There are fundamental psychological reasons for the wide
+    prevalence of asceticism and for the remarkable manner in which
+    it involves self-mortification, even acute physical suffering.
+    Such pain is an actual psychic stimulant, more especially in
+    slightly neurotic persons. This is well illustrated by a young
+    woman, a patient of Janet's, who suffered from mental depression
+    and was accustomed to find relief by slightly burning her hands
+    and feet. She herself clearly understood the nature of her
+    actions. "I feel," she said, "that I make an effort when I hold
+    my hands on the stove, or when I pour boiling water on my feet;
+    it is a violent act and it awakens me: I feel that it is really
+    done by myself and not by another.... To make a mental effort by
+    itself is too difficult for me; I have to supplement it by
+    physical efforts. I have not succeeded in any other way; that is
+    all: when I brace myself up to burn myself I make my mind freer,
+    lighter and more active for several days. Why do you speak of my
+    desire for mortification? My parents believe that, but it is
+    absurd. It would be a mortification if it brought any suffering,
+    but I enjoy this suffering, it gives me back my mind; it prevents
+    my thoughts from stopping: what would one not do to attain such
+    happiness?" (P. Janet, "The Pathogenesis of Some Impulsions,"
+    _Journal of Abnormal Psychology_, April, 1906.) If we understand
+    this psychological process we may realize how it is that even in
+    the higher religions, however else they may differ, the practical
+    value of asceticism and mortification as the necessary door to
+    the most exalted religious state is almost universally
+    recognized, and with complete cheerfulness. "Asceticism and
+    ecstacy are inseparable," as Probst-Biraben remarks at the outset
+    of an interesting paper on Mahommedan mysticism ("L'Extase dans
+    le Mysticisme Musulman," _Revue Philosophique_, Nov., 1906).
+    Asceticism is the necessary ante-chamber to spiritual perfection.
+
+It thus happens that savage peoples largely base their often admirable
+enforcement of asceticism not on the practical grounds that would justify
+it, but on religious grounds that with the growth of intelligence fall
+into discredit.[71] Even, however, when the scrupulous observances of
+savages, whether in sexual or in non-sexual matters, are without any
+obviously sound basis it cannot be said that they are entirely useless if
+they tend to encourage self-control and the sense of reverence.[72] The
+would-be intelligent and practical peoples who cast aside primitive
+observances because they seem baseless or even ridiculous, need a still
+finer practical sense and still greater intelligence in order to realize
+that, though the reasons for the observances have been wrong, yet the
+observances themselves may have been necessary methods of attaining
+personal and social efficiency. It constantly happens in the course of
+civilization that we have to revive old observances and furnish them with
+new reasons.
+
+    In considering the moral quality of chastity among savages, we
+    must carefully separate that chastity which among semi-primitive
+    peoples is exclusively imposed upon women. This has no moral
+    quality whatever, for it is not exercised as a useful discipline,
+    but merely enforced in order to heighten the economic and erotic
+    value of the women. Many authorities believe that the regard for
+    women as property furnishes the true reason for the widespread
+    insistence on virginity in brides. Thus A.B. Ellis, speaking of
+    the West Coast of Africa (_Yoruba-Speaking Peoples_, pp. 183 _et
+    seq._), says that girls of good class are betrothed as mere
+    children, and are carefully guarded from men, while girls of
+    lower class are seldom betrothed, and may lead any life they
+    choose. "In this custom of infant or child betrothals we probably
+    find the key to that curious regard for ante-nuptial chastity
+    found not only among the tribes of the Gold and Slave Coasts, but
+    also among many other uncivilized peoples in different parts of
+    the world." In a very different part of the world, in Northern
+    Siberia, "the Yakuts," Sieroshevski states (_Journal
+    Anthropological Institute_, Jan.-June, 1901, p. 96), "see
+    nothing immoral in illicit love, providing only that nobody
+    suffers material loss by it. It is true that parents will scold a
+    daughter if her conduct threatens to deprive them of their gain
+    from the bride-price; but if once they have lost hope of marrying
+    her off, or if the bride-price has been spent, they manifest
+    complete indifference to her conduct. Maidens who no longer
+    expect marriage are not restrained at all, if they observe
+    decorum it is only out of respect to custom." Westermarck
+    (_History of Human Marriage_, pp. 123 et seq.) also shows the
+    connection between the high estimates of virginity and the
+    conception of woman as property, and returning to the question in
+    his later work, _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_
+    (vol. ii, Ch. XLII), after pointing out that "marriage by
+    purchase has thus raised the standard of female chastity," he
+    refers (p. 437) to the significant fact that the seduction of an
+    unmarried girl "is chiefly, if not exclusively, regarded as an
+    offense against the parents or family of the girl," and there is
+    no indication that it is ever held by savages that any wrong has
+    been done to the woman herself. Westermarck recognizes at the
+    same time that the preference given to virgins has also a
+    biological basis in the instinctive masculine feeling of jealousy
+    in regard to women who have had intercourse with other men, and
+    especially in the erotic charm for men of the emotional state of
+    shyness which accompanies virginity. (This point has been dealt
+    with in the discussion of Modesty in vol. i of these _Studies_.)
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to add that the insistence on the
+    virginity of brides is by no means confined, as A.B. Ellis seems
+    to imply, to uncivilized peoples, nor is it necessary that
+    wife-purchase should always accompany it. The preference still
+    persists, not only by virtue of its natural biological basis, but
+    as a refinement and extension of the idea of woman as property,
+    among those civilized peoples who, like ourselves, inherit a form
+    of marriage to some extent based on wife-purchase. Under such
+    conditions a woman's chastity has an important social function to
+    perform, being, as Mrs. Mona Caird has put it (_The Morality of
+    Marriage_, 1897, p. 88), the watch-dog of man's property. The
+    fact that no element of ideal morality enters into the question
+    is shown by the usual absence of any demand for ante-nuptial
+    chastity in the husband.
+
+    It must not be supposed that when, as is most usually the case,
+    there is no complete and permanent prohibition of extra-nuptial
+    intercourse, mere unrestrained license prevails. That has
+    probably never happened anywhere among uncontaminated savages.
+    The rule probably is that, as among the tribes at Torres Straits
+    (_Reports Cambridge Anthropological Expedition_, vol. v, p. 275),
+    there is no complete continence before marriage, but neither is
+    there any unbridled license.
+
+    The example of Tahiti is instructive as regards the prevalence of
+    chastity among peoples of what we generally consider low grades
+    of civilization. Tahiti, according to all who have visited it,
+    from the earliest explorers down to that distinguished American
+    surgeon, the late Dr. Nicholas Senn, is an island possessing
+    qualities of natural beauty and climatic excellence, which it is
+    impossible to rate too highly. "I seemed to be transported into
+    the garden of Eden," said Bougainville in 1768. But, mainly under
+    the influence of the early English missionaries who held ideas of
+    theoretical morality totally alien to those of the inhabitants of
+    the islands, the Tahitians have become the stock example of a
+    population given over to licentiousness and all its awful
+    results. Thus, in his valuable _Polynesian Researches_ (second
+    edition, 1832, vol. i, Ch. IX) William Ellis says that the
+    Tahitians practiced "the worst pollutions of which it was
+    possible for man to be guilty," though not specifying them. When,
+    however, we carefully examine the narratives of the early
+    visitors to Tahiti, before the population became contaminated by
+    contact with Europeans, it becomes clear that this view needs
+    serious modification. "The great plenty of good and nourishing
+    food," wrote an early explorer, J.R. Forster (_Observations Made
+    on a Voyage Round the World_, 1778, pp. 231, 409, 422), "together
+    with the fine climate, the beauty and unreserved behavior of
+    their females, invite them powerfully to the enjoyments and
+    pleasures of love. They begin very early to abandon themselves to
+    the most libidinous scenes. Their songs, their dances, and
+    dramatic performances, breathe a spirit of luxury." Yet he is
+    over and over again impelled to set down facts which bear
+    testimony to the virtues of these people. Though rather
+    effeminate in build, they are athletic, he says. Moreover, in
+    their wars they fight with great bravery and valor. They are, for
+    the rest, hospitable. He remarks that they treat their married
+    women with great respect, and that women generally are nearly the
+    equals of men, both in intelligence and in social position; he
+    gives a charming description of the women. "In short, their
+    character," Forster concludes, "is as amiable as that of any
+    nation that ever came unimproved out of the hands of Nature," and
+    he remarks that, as was felt by the South Sea peoples generally,
+    "whenever we came to this happy island we could evidently
+    perceive the opulence and happiness of its inhabitants." It is
+    noteworthy also, that, notwithstanding the high importance which
+    the Tahitians attached to the erotic side of life, they were not
+    deficient in regard for chastity. When Cook, who visited Tahiti
+    many times, was among "this benevolent humane" people, he noted
+    their esteem for chastity, and found that not only were betrothed
+    girls strictly guarded before marriage, but that men also who had
+    refrained from sexual intercourse for some time before marriage
+    were believed to pass at death immediately into the abode of the
+    blessed. "Their behavior, on all occasions, seems to indicate a
+    great openness and generosity of disposition. I never saw them,
+    in any misfortune, labor under the appearance of anxiety, after
+    the critical moment was past. Neither does care ever seem to
+    wrinkle their brow. On the contrary, even the approach of death
+    does not appear to alter their usual vivacity" (_Third Voyage of
+    Discovery_, 1776-1780). Turnbull visited Tahiti at a later period
+    (_A Voyage Round the World in 1800_, etc., pp. 374-5), but while
+    finding all sorts of vices among them, he is yet compelled to
+    admit their virtues: "Their manner of addressing strangers, from
+    the king to the meanest subject, is courteous and affable in the
+    extreme.... They certainly live amongst each other in more
+    harmony than is usual amongst Europeans. During the whole time I
+    was amongst them I never saw such a thing as a battle.... I never
+    remember to have seen an Otaheitean out of temper. They jest upon
+    each other with greater freedom than the Europeans, but these
+    jests are never taken in ill part.... With regard to food, it is,
+    I believe, an invariable law in Otaheite that whatever is
+    possessed by one is common to all." Thus we see that even among a
+    people who are commonly referred to as the supreme example of a
+    nation given up to uncontrolled licentiousness, the claims of
+    chastity were admitted, and many other virtues vigorously
+    flourished. The Tahitians were brave, hospitable,
+    self-controlled, courteous, considerate to the needs of others,
+    chivalrous to women, even appreciative of the advantages of
+    sexual restraint, to an extent which has rarely, if ever, been
+    known among those Christian nations which have looked down upon
+    them as abandoned to unspeakable vices.
+
+As we turn from savages towards peoples in the barbarous and civilized
+stages we find a general tendency for chastity, in so far as it is a
+common possession of the common people, to be less regarded, or to be
+retained only as a traditional convention no longer strictly observed. The
+old grounds for chastity in primitive religions and _tabu_ have decayed
+and no new grounds have been generally established. "Although the progress
+of civilization," wrote Gibbon long ago, "has undoubtedly contributed to
+assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have been less
+favorable to the virtue of chastity," and Westermarck concludes that
+"irregular connections between the sexes have, on the whole, exhibited a
+tendency to increase along with the progress of civilization."
+
+The main difference in the social function of chastity as we pass from
+savagery to higher stages of culture seems to be that it ceases to exist
+as a general hygienic measure or a general ceremonial observance, and, for
+the most part, becomes confined to special philosophic or religious sects
+which cultivate it to an extreme degree in a more or less professional
+way. This state of things is well illustrated by the Roman Empire during
+the early centuries of the Christian era.[73] Christianity itself was at
+first one of these sects enamored of the ideal of chastity; but by its
+superior vitality it replaced all the others and finally imposed its
+ideals, though by no means its primitive practices, on European society
+generally.
+
+Chastity manifested itself in primitive Christianity in two different
+though not necessarily opposed ways. On the one hand it took a stern and
+practical form in vigorous men and women who, after being brought up in a
+society permitting a high degree of sexual indulgence, suddenly found
+themselves convinced of the sin of such indulgence. The battle with the
+society they had been born into, and with their own old impulses and
+habits, became so severe that they often found themselves compelled to
+retire from the world altogether. Thus it was that the parched solitudes
+of Egypt were peopled with hermits largely occupied with the problem of
+subduing their own flesh. Their pre-occupation, and indeed the
+pre-occupation of much early Christian literature, with sexual matters,
+may be said to be vastly greater than was the case with the pagan society
+they had left. Paganism accepted sexual indulgence and was then able to
+dismiss it, so that in classic literature we find very little insistence
+on sexual details except in writers like Martial, Juvenal and Petronius
+who introduce them mainly for satirical ends. But the Christians could not
+thus escape from the obsession of sex; it was ever with them. We catch
+interesting glimpses of their struggles, for the most part barren
+struggles, in the Epistles of St. Jerome, who had himself been an athlete
+in these ascetic contests.
+
+    "Oh, how many times," wrote St. Jerome to Eustochium, the virgin
+    to whom he addressed one of the longest and most interesting of
+    his letters, "when in the desert, in that vast solitude which,
+    burnt up by the heart of the sun, offers but a horrible dwelling
+    to monks, I imagined myself among the delights of Rome! I was
+    alone, for my soul was full of bitterness. My limbs were covered
+    by a wretched sack and my skin was as black as an Ethiopian's.
+    Every day I wept and groaned, and if I was unwillingly overcome
+    by sleep my lean body lay on the bare earth. I say nothing of my
+    food and drink, for in the desert even invalids have no drink but
+    cold water, and cooked food is regarded as a luxury. Well, I,
+    who, out of fear of hell, had condemned myself to this prison,
+    companion of scorpions and wild beasts, often seemed in
+    imagination among bands of girls. My face was pale with fasting
+    and my mind within my frigid body was burning with desire; the
+    fires of lust would still flare up in a body that already seemed
+    to be dead. Then, deprived of all help, I threw myself at the
+    feet of Jesus, washing them with my tears and drying them with my
+    hair, subjugating my rebellious flesh by long fasts. I remember
+    that more than once I passed the night uttering cries and
+    striking my breast until God sent me peace." "Our century," wrote
+    St. Chrysostom in his _Discourse to Those Who Keep Virgins in
+    Their Houses_, "has seen many men who have bound their bodies
+    with chains, clothed themselves in sacks, retired to the summits
+    of mountains where they have lived in constant vigil and fasting,
+    giving the example of the most austere discipline and forbidding
+    all women to cross the thresholds of their humble dwellings; and
+    yet, in spite of all the severities they have exercised on
+    themselves, it was with difficulty they could repress the fury of
+    their passions." Hilarion, says Jerome, saw visions of naked
+    women when he lay down on his solitary couch and delicious meats
+    when he sat down to his frugal table. Such experiences rendered
+    the early saints very scrupulous. "They used to say," we are told
+    in an interesting history of the Egyptian anchorites, Palladius's
+    _Paradise of the Holy Fathers_, belonging to the fourth century
+    (A.W. Budge, _The Paradise_, vol. ii, p. 129), "that Abba Isaac
+    went out and found the footprint of a woman on the road, and he
+    thought about it in his mind and destroyed it saying, 'If a
+    brother seeth it he may fall.'" Similarly, according to the rules
+    of St. Caesarius of Aries for nuns, no male clothing was to be
+    taken into the convent for the purpose of washing or mending.
+    Even in old age, a certain anxiety about chastity still remained.
+    One of the brothers, we are told in _The Paradise_ (p. 132) said
+    to Abba Zeno, "Behold thou hast grown old, how is the matter of
+    fornication?" The venerable saint replied, "It knocketh, but it
+    passeth on."
+
+    As the centuries went by the same strenuous anxiety to guard
+    chastity still remained, and the old struggle constantly
+    reappeared (see, e.g., Migne's _Dictionnaire d'Ascetisme_, art.
+    "Demon, Tentation du"). Some saints, it is true, like Luigi di
+    Gonzaga, were so angelically natured that they never felt the
+    sting of sexual desire. These seem to have been the exception.
+    St. Benedict and St. Francis experienced the difficulty of
+    subduing the flesh. St. Magdalena de Pozzi, in order to dispel
+    sexual desires, would roll on thorny bushes till the blood came.
+    Some saints kept a special cask of cold water in their cells to
+    stand in (Lea, _Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol. i, p. 124). On the
+    other hand, the Blessed Angela de Fulginio tells us in her
+    _Visiones_ (cap. XIX) that, until forbidden by her confessor, she
+    would place hot coals in her secret parts, hoping by material
+    fire to extinguish the fire of concupiscence. St. Aldhelm, the
+    holy Bishop of Sherborne, in the eighth century, also adopted a
+    homeopathic method of treatment, though of a more literal kind,
+    for William of Malmsbury states that when tempted by the flesh he
+    would have women to sit and lie by him until he grew calm again;
+    the method proved very successful, for the reason, it was
+    thought, that the Devil felt he had been made a fool of.
+
+    In time the Catholic practice and theory of asceticism became
+    more formalized and elaborated, and its beneficial effects were
+    held to extend beyond the individual himself. "Asceticism from
+    the Christian point of view," writes Brenier de Montmorand in an
+    interesting study ("Ascetisme et Mysticisme," _Revue
+    Philosophique_, March, 1904) "is nothing else than all the
+    therapeutic measures making for moral purification. The Christian
+    ascetic is an athlete struggling to transform his corrupt nature
+    and make a road to God through the obstacles due to his passions
+    and the world. He is not working in his own interests alone,
+    but--by virtue of the reversibility of merit which compensates
+    that of solidarity in error--for the good and for the salvation
+    of the whole of society."
+
+This is the aspect of early Christian asceticism most often emphasized.
+But there is another aspect which may be less familiar, but has been by no
+means less important. Primitive Christian chastity was on one side a
+strenuous discipline. On another side it was a romance, and this indeed
+was its most specifically Christian side, for athletic asceticism has been
+associated with the most various religious and philosophic beliefs. If,
+indeed, it had not possessed the charm of a new sensation, of a delicious
+freedom, of an unknown adventure, it would never have conquered the
+European world. There are only a few in that world who have in them the
+stuff of moral athletes; there are many who respond to the attraction of
+romance.
+
+The Christians rejected the grosser forms of sexual indulgence, but in
+doing so they entered with a more delicate ardor into the more refined
+forms of sexual intimacy. They cultivated a relationship of brothers and
+sisters to each other, they kissed one another; at one time, in the
+spiritual orgy of baptism, they were not ashamed to adopt complete
+nakedness.[74]
+
+A very instructive picture of the forms which chastity assumed among the
+early Christians is given us in the treatise of Chrysostom _Against Those
+who Keep Virgins in their Houses_. Our fathers, Chrysostom begins, only
+knew two forms of sexual intimacy, marriage and fornication. Now a third
+form has appeared: men introduce young girls into their houses and keep
+them there permanently, respecting their virginity. "What," Chrysostom
+asks, "is the reason? It seems to me that life in common with a woman is
+sweet, even outside conjugal union and fleshly commerce. That is my
+feeling; and perhaps it is not my feeling alone; it may also be that of
+these men. They would not hold their honor so cheap nor give rise to such
+scandals if this pleasure were not violent and tyrannical.... That there
+should really be a pleasure in this which produces a love more ardent than
+conjugal union may surprise you at first. But when I give you the proofs
+you will agree that it is so." The absence of restraint to desire in
+marriage, he continues, often leads to speedy disgust, and even apart from
+this, sexual intercourse, pregnancy, delivery, lactation, the bringing up
+of children, and all the pains and anxieties that accompany these things
+soon destroy youth and dull the point of pleasure. The virgin is free from
+these burdens. She retains her vigor and youthfulness, and even at the age
+of forty may rival the young nubile girl. "A double ardor thus burns in
+the heart of him who lives with her, and the gratification of desire never
+extinguishes the bright flame which ever continues to increase in
+strength." Chrysostom describes minutely all the little cares and
+attentions which the modern girls of his time required, and which these
+men delighted to expend on their virginal sweethearts whether in public or
+in private. He cannot help thinking, however, that the man who lavishes
+kisses and caresses on a woman whose virginity he retains is putting
+himself somewhat in the position of Tantalus. But this new refinement of
+tender chastity, which came as a delicious discovery to the early
+Christians who had resolutely thrust away the licentiousness of the pagan
+world, was deeply rooted, as we discover from the frequency with which the
+grave Fathers of the Church, apprehensive of scandal, felt called upon to
+reprove it, though their condemnation is sometimes not without a trace of
+secret sympathy.[75]
+
+There was one form in which the new Christian chastity flourished
+exuberantly and unchecked: it conquered literature. The most charming,
+and, we may be sure, the most popular literature of the early Church lay
+in the innumerable romances of erotic chastity--to some extent, it may
+well be, founded on fact--which are embodied to-day in the _Acta
+Sanctorum_. We can see in even the most simple and non-miraculous early
+Christian records of the martyrdom of women that the writers were fully
+aware of the delicate charm of the heroine who, like Perpetua at Carthage,
+tossed by wild cattle in the arena, rises to gather her torn garment
+around her and to put up her disheveled hair.[76] It was an easy step to
+the stories of romantic adventure. Among these delightful stories I may
+refer especially to the legend of Thekla, which has been placed,
+incorrectly it may be, as early as the first century, "The Bride and
+Bridegroom of India" in _Judas Thomas's Acts_, "The Virgin of Antioch" as
+narrated by St. Ambrose, the history of "Achilleus and Nereus," "Mygdonia
+and Karish," and "Two Lovers of Auvergne" as told by Gregory of Tours.
+Early Christian literature abounds in the stories of lovers who had indeed
+preserved their chastity, and had yet discovered the most exquisite
+secrets of love.
+
+    Thekla's day is the twenty-third of September. There is a very
+    good Syriac version (by Lipsius and others regarded as more
+    primitive than the Greek version) of the _Acts of Paul and
+    Thekla_ (see, e.g., Wright's _Apocryphal Acts_). These _Acts_
+    belong to the latter part of the second century. The story is
+    that Thekla, refusing to yield to the passion of the high priest
+    of Syria, was put, naked but for a girdle (_subligaculum_) into
+    the arena on the back of a lioness, which licked her feet and
+    fought for her against the other beasts, dying in her defense.
+    The other beasts, however, did her no harm, and she was finally
+    released. A queen loaded her with money, she modified her dress
+    to look like a man, travelled to meet Paul, and lived to old age.
+    Sir W.M. Ramsay has written an interesting study of these _Acts_
+    (_The Church in the Roman Empire_, Ch. XVI). He is of opinion
+    that the _Acts_ are based on a first century document, and is
+    able to disentangle many elements of truth from the story. He
+    states that it is the only evidence we possess of the ideas and
+    actions of women during the first century in Asia Minor, where
+    their position was so high and their influence so great. Thekla
+    represents the assertion of woman's rights, and she administered
+    the rite of baptism, though in the existing versions of the
+    _Acts_ these features are toned down or eliminated.
+
+    Some of the most typical of these early Christian romances are
+    described as Gnostical in origin, with something of the germs of
+    Manichaean dualism which were held in the rich and complex matrix
+    of Gnosticism, while the spirit of these romances is also largely
+    Montanist, with the combined chastity and ardor, the pronounced
+    feminine tone due to its origin in Asia Minor, which marked
+    Montanism. It cannot be denied, however, that they largely passed
+    into the main stream of Christian tradition, and form an
+    essential and important part of that tradition. (Renan, in his
+    _Marc-Aurele_, Chs. IX and XV, insists on the immense debt of
+    Christianity to Gnostic and Montanist contributions). A
+    characteristic example is the story of "The Betrothed of India"
+    in _Judas Thomas's Acts_ (Wright's _Apocryphal Acts_). Judas
+    Thomas was sold by his master Jesus to an Indian merchant who
+    required a carpenter to go with him to India. On disembarking at
+    the city of Sandaruk they heard the sounds of music and singing,
+    and learnt that it was the wedding-feast of the King's daughter,
+    which all must attend, rich and poor, slaves and freemen,
+    strangers and citizens. Judas Thomas went, with his new master,
+    to the banquet and reclined with a garland of myrtle placed on
+    his head. When a Hebrew flute-player came and stood over him and
+    played, he sang the songs of Christ, and it was seen that he was
+    more beautiful than all that were there and the King sent for him
+    to bless the young couple in the bridal chamber. And when all
+    were gone out and the door of the bridal chamber closed, the
+    bridegroom approached the bride, and saw, as it were, Judas
+    Thomas still talking with her. But it was our Lord who said to
+    him, "I am not Judas, but his brother." And our Lord sat down on
+    the bed beside the young people and began to say to them:
+    "Remember, my children, what my brother spake with you, and know
+    to whom he committed you, and know that if ye preserve yourselves
+    from this filthy intercourse ye become pure temples, and are
+    saved from afflictions manifest and hidden, and from the heavy
+    care of children, the end whereof is bitter sorrow. For their
+    sakes ye will become oppressors and robbers, and ye will be
+    grievously tortured for their injuries. For children are the
+    cause of many pains; either the King falls upon them or a demon
+    lays hold of them, or paralysis befalls them. And if they be
+    healthy they come to ill, either by adultery, or theft, or
+    fornication, or covetousness, or vain-glory. But if ye will be
+    persuaded by me, and keep yourselves purely unto God, ye shall
+    have living children to whom not one of these blemishes and hurts
+    cometh nigh; and ye shall be without care and without grief and
+    without sorrow, and ye shall hope for the time when ye shall see
+    the true wedding-feast." The young couple were persuaded, and
+    refrained from lust, and our Lord vanished. And in the morning,
+    when it was dawn, the King had the table furnished early and
+    brought in before the bridegroom and bride. And he found them
+    sitting the one opposite the other, and the face of the bride was
+    uncovered and the bridegroom was very cheerful. The mother of the
+    bride saith to her: "Why art thou sitting thus, and art not
+    ashamed, but art as if, lo, thou wert married a long time, and
+    for many a day?" And her father, too, said; "Is it thy great love
+    for thy husband that prevents thee from even veiling thyself?"
+    And the bride answered and said: "Truly, my father, I am in great
+    love, and am praying to my Lord that I may continue in this love
+    which I have experienced this night. I am not veiled, because the
+    veil of corruption is taken from me, and I am not ashamed,
+    because the deed of shame has been removed far from me, and I am
+    cheerful and gay, and despise this deed of corruption and the
+    joys of this wedding-feast, because I am invited to the true
+    wedding-feast. I have not had intercourse with a husband, the end
+    whereof is bitter repentance, because I am betrothed to the true
+    Husband." The bridegroom answered also in the same spirit, very
+    naturally to the dismay of the King, who sent for the sorcerer
+    whom he had asked to bless his unlucky daughter. But Judas Thomas
+    had already left the city and at his inn the King's stewards
+    found only the flute-player, sitting and weeping because he had
+    not taken her with him. She was glad, however, when she heard
+    what had happened, and hastened to the young couple, and lived
+    with them ever afterwards. The King also was finally reconciled,
+    and all ended chastely, but happily.
+
+    In these same _Judas Thomas's Acts_, which are not later than the
+    fourth century, we find (eighth act) the story of Mygdonia and
+    Karish. Mygdonia, the wife of Karish, is converted by Thomas and
+    flees from her husband, naked save for the curtain of the chamber
+    door which she has wrapped around her, to her old nurse. With the
+    nurse she goes to Thomas, who pours holy oil over her head,
+    bidding the nurse to anoint her all over with it; then a cloth is
+    put round her loins and he baptizes her; then she is clothed and
+    he gives her the sacrament. The young rapture of chastity grows
+    lyrical at times, and Judas Thomas breaks out: "Purity is the
+    athlete who is not overcome. Purity is the truth that blencheth
+    not. Purity is worthy before God of being to Him a familiar
+    handmaiden. Purity is the messenger of concord which bringeth the
+    tidings of peace."
+
+    Another romance of chastity is furnished by the episode of
+    Drusiana in _The History of the Apostles_ traditionally
+    attributed to Abdias, Bishop of Babylon (Bk. v, Ch. IV, _et
+    seq._). Drusiana is the wife of Andronicus, and is so pious that
+    she will not have intercourse with him. The youth Callimachus
+    falls madly in love with her, and his amorous attempts involve
+    many exciting adventures, but the chastity of Drusiana is finally
+    triumphant.
+
+    A characteristic example of the literature we are here concerned
+    with is St. Ambrose's story of "The Virgin in the Brothel"
+    (narrated in his _De Virginibus_, Migne's edition of Ambrose's
+    Works, vols. iii-iv, p. 211). A certain virgin, St. Ambrose tells
+    us, who lately lived at Antioch, was condemned either to
+    sacrifice to the gods or to go to the brothel. She chose the
+    latter alternative. But the first man who came in to her was a
+    Christian soldier who called her "sister," and bade her have no
+    fear. He proposed that they should exchange clothes. This was
+    done and she escaped, while the soldier was led away to death. At
+    the place of execution, however, she ran up and exclaimed that it
+    was not death she feared but shame. He, however, maintained that
+    he had been condemned to death in her place. Finally the crown of
+    martyrdom for which they contended was adjudged to both.
+
+    We constantly observe in the early documents of this romantic
+    literature of chastity that chastity is insisted on by no means
+    chiefly because of its rewards after death, nor even because the
+    virgin who devotes herself to it secures in Christ an ever-young
+    lover whose golden-haired beauty is sometimes emphasized. Its
+    chief charm is represented as lying in its own joy and freedom
+    and the security it involves from all the troubles,
+    inconveniences and bondages of matrimony. This early Christian
+    movement of romantic chastity was clearly, in large measure, a
+    revolt of women against men and marriage. This is well brought
+    out in the instructive story, supposed to be of third century
+    origin, of the eunuchs Achilleus and Nereus, as narrated in the
+    _Acta Sanctorum_, May 12th. Achilleus and Nereus were Christian
+    eunuchs of the bedchamber to Domitia, a virgin of noble birth,
+    related to the Emperor Domitian and betrothed to Aurelian, son
+    of a Consul. One day, as their mistress was putting on her jewels
+    and her purple garments embroidered with gold, they began in turn
+    to talk to her about all the joys and advantages of virginity, as
+    compared to marriage with a mere man. The conversation is
+    developed at great length and with much eloquence. Domitia was
+    finally persuaded. She suffered much from Aurelian in
+    consequence, and when he obtained her banishment to an island she
+    went thither with Achilleus and Nereus, who were put to death.
+    Incidentally, the death of Felicula, another heroine of chastity,
+    is described. When elevated on the rack because she would not
+    marry, she constantly refused to deny Jesus, whom she called her
+    lover. "Ego non nego amatorem meum!"
+
+    A special department of this literature is concerned with stories
+    of the conversions or the penitence of courtesans. St.
+    Martinianus, for instance (Feb. 13), was tempted by the courtesan
+    Zoe, but converted her. The story of St. Margaret of Cortona
+    (Feb. 22), a penitent courtesan, is late, for she belongs to the
+    thirteenth century. The most delightful document in this
+    literature is probably the latest, the fourteenth century Italian
+    devotional romance called _The Life of Saint Mary Magdalen_,
+    commonly associated with the name of Frate Domenico Cavalca. (It
+    has been translated into English). It is the delicately and
+    deliciously told romance of the chaste and passionate love of the
+    sweet sinner, Mary Magdalene, for her beloved Master.
+
+    As time went on the insistence on the joys of chastity in this
+    life became less marked, and chastity is more and more regarded
+    as a state only to be fully rewarded in a future life. Even,
+    however, in Gregory of Tours's charming story of "The Two Lovers
+    of Auvergne," in which this attitude is clear, the pleasures of
+    chaste love in this life are brought out as clearly as in any of
+    the early romances (_Historia Francorum_, lib. i, cap. XLII). Two
+    senators of Auvergne each had an only child, and they betrothed
+    them to each other. When the wedding day came and the young
+    couple were placed in bed, the bride turned to the wall and wept
+    bitterly. The bridegroom implored her to tell him what was the
+    matter, and, turning towards him, she said that if she were to
+    weep all her days she could never wash away her grief for she had
+    resolved to give her little body immaculate to Christ, untouched
+    by men, and now instead of immortal roses she had only had on her
+    brow faded roses, which deformed rather than adorned it, and
+    instead of the dowry of Paradise which Christ had promised her
+    she had become the consort of a merely mortal man. She deplored
+    her sad fate at considerable length and with much gentle
+    eloquence. At length the bridegroom, overcome by her sweet words,
+    felt that eternal life had shone before him like a great light,
+    and declared that if she wished to abstain from carnal desires he
+    was of the same mind. She was grateful, and with clasped hands
+    they fell asleep. For many years they thus lived together,
+    chastely sharing the same bed. At length she died and was buried,
+    her lover restoring her immaculate to the hands of Christ. Soon
+    afterwards he died also, and was placed in a separate tomb. Then
+    a miracle happened which made manifest the magnitude of this
+    chaste love, for the two bodies were found mysteriously placed
+    together. To this day, Gregory concludes (writing in the sixth
+    century), the people of the place call them "The Two Lovers."
+
+    Although Renan (_Marc-Aurele_, Ch. XV) briefly called attention
+    to the existence of this copious early Christian literature
+    setting forth the romance of chastity, it seems as yet to have
+    received little or no study. It is, however, of considerable
+    importance, not merely for its own sake, but on account of its
+    psychological significance in making clear the nature of the
+    motive forces which made chastity easy and charming to the people
+    of the early Christian world, even when it involved complete
+    abstinence from sexual intercourse. The early Church
+    anathematized the eroticism of the Pagan world, and exorcized it
+    in the most effectual way by setting up a new and more exquisite
+    eroticism of its own.
+
+During the Middle Ages the primitive freshness of Christian chastity began
+to lose its charm. No more romances of chastity were written, and in
+actual life men no longer sought daring adventures in the field of
+chastity. So far as the old ideals survived at all it was in the secular
+field of chivalry. The last notable figure to emulate the achievements of
+the early Christians was Robert of Arbrissel in Normandy.
+
+    Robert of Arbrissel, who founded, in the eleventh century, the
+    famous and distinguished Order of Fontevrault for women, was a
+    Breton. This Celtic origin is doubtless significant, for it may
+    explain his unfailing ardor and gaiety, and his enthusiastic
+    veneration for womanhood. Even those of his friends who
+    deprecated what they considered his scandalous conduct bear
+    testimony to his unfailing and cheerful temperament, his
+    alertness in action, his readiness for any deed of humanity, and
+    his entire freedom from severity. He attracted immense crowds of
+    people of all conditions, especially women, including
+    prostitutes, and his influence over women was great. Once he went
+    into a brothel to warm his feet, and, incidentally, converted all
+    the women there. "Who are you?" asked one of them, "I have been
+    here twenty-five years and nobody has ever come here to talk
+    about God." Robert's relation with his nuns at Fontevrault was
+    very intimate, and he would often sleep with them. This is set
+    forth precisely in letters written by friends of his, bishops and
+    abbots, one of whom remarks that Robert had "discovered a new
+    but fruitless form of martyrdom." A royal abbess of Fontevrault
+    in the seventeenth century, pretending that the venerated founder
+    of the order could not possibly have been guilty of such
+    scandalous conduct, and that the letters must therefore be
+    spurious, had the originals destroyed, so far as possible. The
+    Bollandists, in an unscholarly and incomplete account of the
+    matter (_Acta Sanctorum_, Feb. 25), adopted this view. J. von
+    Walter, however, in a recent and thorough study of Robert of
+    Arbrissel (_Die Ersten Wanderprediger Frankreichs_, Theil I),
+    shows that there is no reason whatever to doubt the authentic and
+    reliable character of the impugned letters.
+
+The early Christian legends of chastity had, however, their successors.
+_Aucassin et Nicolette_, which was probably written in Northern France
+towards the end of the twelfth century, is above all the descendant of the
+stories in the _Acta Sanctorum_ and elsewhere. It embodied their spirit
+and carried it forward, uniting their delicate feeling for chastity and
+purity with the ideal of monogamic love. _Aucassin et Nicolette_ was the
+death-knell of the primitive Christian romance of chastity. It was the
+discovery that the chaste refinements of delicacy and devotion were
+possible within the strictly normal sphere of sexual love.
+
+There were at least two causes which tended to extinguish the primitive
+Christian attraction to chastity, even apart from the influence of the
+Church authorities in repressing its romantic manifestations. In the first
+place, the submergence of the old pagan world, with its practice and, to
+some extent, ideal of sexual indulgence, removed the foil which had given
+grace and delicacy to the tender freedom of the young Christians. In the
+second place, the austerities which the early Christians had gladly
+practised for the sake of their soul's health, were robbed of their charm
+and spontaneity by being made a formal part of codes of punishment for
+sin, first in the Penitentials and afterwards at the discretion of
+confessors. This, it may be added, was rendered the more necessary because
+the ideal of Christian chastity was no longer largely the possession of
+refined people who had been rendered immune to Pagan license by being
+brought up in its midst, and even themselves steeped in it. It was clearly
+from the first a serious matter for the violent North Africans to maintain
+the ideal of chastity, and when Christianity spread to Northern Europe it
+seemed almost a hopeless task to acclimatize its ideals among the wild
+Germans. Hereafter it became necessary for celibacy to be imposed on the
+regular clergy by the stern force of ecclesiastical authority, while
+voluntary celibacy was only kept alive by a succession of religious
+enthusiasts perpetually founding new Orders. An asceticism thus enforced
+could not always be accompanied by the ardent exaltation necessary to
+maintain it, and in its artificial efforts at self-preservation it
+frequently fell from its insecure heights to the depths of unrestrained
+license.[77] This fatality of all hazardous efforts to overpass humanity's
+normal limits begun to be realized after the Middle Ages were over by
+clear-sighted thinkers. "Qui veut faire l'ange," said Pascal, pungently
+summing up this view of the matter, "fait la bete." That had often been
+illustrated in the history of the Church.
+
+    The Penitentials began to come into use in the seventh century,
+    and became of wide prevalence and authority during the ninth and
+    tenth centuries. They were bodies of law, partly spiritual and
+    partly secular, and were thrown into the form of catalogues of
+    offences with the exact measure of penance prescribed for each
+    offence. They represented the introduction of social order among
+    untamed barbarians, and were codes of criminal law much more than
+    part of a system of sacramental confession and penance. In France
+    and Spain, where order on a Christian basis already existed, they
+    were little needed. They had their origin in Ireland and England,
+    and especially flourished in Germany; Charlemagne supported them
+    (see, e.g., Lea, _History of Auricular Confession_, vol. ii, p.
+    96, also Ch. XVII; Hugh Williams, edition of Gildas, Part II,
+    Appendix 3; the chief Penitentials are reproduced in
+    Wasserschleben's _Bussordnungen_).
+
+    In 1216 the Lateran Council, under Innocent III, made confession
+    obligatory. The priestly prerogative of regulating the amount of
+    penance according to circumstances, with greater flexibility than
+    the rigid Penitentials admitted, was first absolutely asserted by
+    Peter of Poitiers. Then Alain de Lille threw aside the
+    Penitentials as obsolete, and declared that the priest himself
+    must inquire into the circumstances of each sin and weigh
+    precisely its guilt (Lea, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 171).
+
+    Long before this period, however, the ideals of chastity, so far
+    as they involved any considerable degree of continence, although
+    they had become firmly hardened into the conventional traditions
+    and ideals of the Christian Church, had ceased to have any great
+    charm or force for the people living in Christendom. Among the
+    Northern barbarians, with different traditions of a more vigorous
+    and natural order behind them, the demands of sex were often
+    frankly exhibited. The monk Ordericus Vitalis, in the eleventh
+    century, notes what he calls the "lasciviousness" of the wives of
+    the Norman conquerors of England who, when left alone at home,
+    sent messages that if their husbands failed to return speedily
+    they would take new ones. The celibacy of the clergy was only
+    established with the very greatest difficulty, and when it was
+    established, priests became unchaste. Archbishop Odo of Rouen, in
+    the thirteenth century, recorded in the diary of his diocesan
+    visitations that there was one unchaste priest in every five
+    parishes, and even as regards the Italy of the same period the
+    friar Salimbene in his remarkable autobiography shows how little
+    chastity was regarded in the religious life. Chastity could now
+    only be maintained by force, usually the moral force of
+    ecclesiastical authority, which was itself undermined by
+    unchastity, but sometimes even physical force. It was in the
+    thirteenth century, in the opinion of some, that the girdle of
+    chastity (_cingula castitatis_) first begins to appear, but the
+    chief authority, Caufeynon (_La Ceinture de Chastete_, 1904)
+    believes it only dates from the Renaissance (Schultz, _Das
+    Hoefische Leben zur Zeit der Minnesaenger_, vol. i, p. 595; Dufour,
+    _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. v, p. 272; Krauss,
+    _Anthropophyteia_, vol. iii, p. 247). In the sixteenth century
+    convents were liable to become almost brothels, as we learn on
+    the unimpeachable authority of Burchard, a Pope's secretary, in
+    his _Diarium_, edited by Thuasne who brings together additional
+    authorities for this statement in a footnote (vol. ii, p. 79);
+    that they remained so in the eighteenth century we see clearly in
+    the pages of Casanova's _Memoires_, and in many other documents
+    of the period.
+
+The Renaissance and the rise of humanism undoubtedly affected the feeling
+towards asceticism and chastity. On the one hand a new and ancient
+sanction was found for the disregard of virtues which men began to look
+upon as merely monkish, and on the other hand the finer spirits affected
+by the new movement began to realize that chastity might be better
+cultivated and observed by those who were free to do as they would than by
+those who were under the compulsion of priestly authority. That is the
+feeling that prevails in Montaigne, and that is the idea of Rabelais when
+he made it the only rule of his Abbey of Theleme: "Fay ce que vouldras."
+
+    A little later this doctrine was repeated in varying tones by
+    many writers more or less tinged by the culture brought into
+    fashion by the Renaissance. "As long as Danae was free," remarks
+    Ferrand in his sixteenth century treatise, _De la Maladie
+    d'Amour_, "she was chaste." And Sir Kenelm Digby, the latest
+    representative of the Renaissance spirit, insists in his _Private
+    Memoirs_ that the liberty which Lycurgus, "the wisest human
+    law-maker that ever was," gave to women to communicate their
+    bodies to men to whom they were drawn by noble affection, and the
+    hope of generous offspring, was the true cause why "real chastity
+    flourished in Sparta more than in any other part of the world."
+
+In Protestant countries the ascetic ideal of chastity was still further
+discredited by the Reformation movement which was in considerable part a
+revolt against compulsory celibacy. Religion was thus no longer placed on
+the side of chastity. In the eighteenth century, if not earlier, the
+authority of Nature also was commonly invoked against chastity. It has
+thus happened that during the past two centuries serious opinion
+concerning chastity has only been partially favorable to it. It began to
+be felt that an unhappy and injurious mistake had been perpetrated by
+attempting to maintain a lofty ideal which encouraged hypocrisy. "The
+human race would gain much," as Senancour wrote early in the nineteenth
+century in his remarkable book on love, "if virtue were made less
+laborious. The merit would not be so great, but what is the use of an
+elevation which can rarely be sustained?"[78]
+
+There can be no doubt that the undue discredit into which the idea of
+chastity began to fall from the eighteenth century onwards was largely
+due to the existence of that merely external and conventional physical
+chastity which was arbitrarily enforced so far as it could be
+enforced,--and is indeed in some degree still enforced, nominally or
+really,--upon all respectable women outside marriage. The conception of
+the physical virtue of virginity had degraded the conception of the
+spiritual virtue of chastity. A mere routine, it was felt, prescribed to a
+whole sex, whether they would or not, could never possess the beauty and
+charm of a virtue. At the same time it began to be realized that, as a
+matter of fact, the state of compulsory virginity is not only not a state
+especially favorable to the cultivation of real virtues, but that it is
+bound up with qualities which are no longer regarded as of high value.[79]
+
+    "How arbitrary, artificial, contrary to Nature, is the life now
+    imposed upon women in this matter of chastity!" wrote James
+    Hinton forty years ago. "Think of that line: 'A woman who
+    deliberates is lost.' We _make_ danger, making all womanhood hang
+    upon a point like this, and surrounding it with unnatural and
+    preternatural dangers. There is a wanton unreason embodied in the
+    life of woman now; the present 'virtue' is a morbid unhealthy
+    plant. Nature and God never poised the life of a woman upon such
+    a needle's point. The whole modern idea of chastity has in it
+    sensual exaggeration, surely, in part, remaining to us from other
+    times, with what was good in it in great part gone."
+
+    "The whole grace of virginity," wrote another philosopher,
+    Guyau, "is ignorance. Virginity, like certain fruits, can only
+    be preserved by a process of desiccation."
+
+    Merimee pointed out the same desiccating influence of virginity.
+    In a letter dated 1859 he wrote: "I think that nowadays people
+    attach far too much importance to chastity. Not that I deny that
+    chastity is a virtue, but there are degrees in virtues just as
+    there are in vices. It seems to be absurd that a woman should be
+    banished from society for having had a lover, while a woman who
+    is miserly, double-faced and spiteful goes everywhere. The
+    morality of this age is assuredly not that which is taught in the
+    Gospel. In my opinion it is better to love too much than not
+    enough. Nowadays dry hearts are stuck up on a pinnacle" (_Revue
+    des Deux Mondes_, April, 1896).
+
+    Dr. H. Paul has developed an allied point. She writes: "There are
+    girls who, even as children, have prostituted themselves by
+    masturbation and lascivious thoughts. The purity of their souls
+    has long been lost and nothing remains unknown to them, but--they
+    have preserved their hymens! That is for the sake of the future
+    husband. Let no one dare to doubt their innocence with that
+    unimpeachable evidence! And if another girl, who has passed her
+    childhood in complete purity, now, with awakened senses and warm
+    impetuous womanliness, gives herself to a man in love or even
+    only in passion, they all stand up and scream that she is
+    'dishonored!' And, not least, the prostituted girl with the
+    hymen. It is she indeed who screams loudest and throws the
+    biggest stones. Yet the 'dishonored' woman, who is sound and
+    wholesome, need not fear to tell what she has done to the man who
+    desires her in marriage, speaking as one human being to another.
+    She has no need to blush, she has exercised her human rights, and
+    no reasonable man will on that account esteem her the less" (Dr.
+    H. Paul, "Die Ueberschaetzung der Jungfernschaft," _Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, p. 14, 1907).
+
+    In a similar spirit writes F. Erhard (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, p. 408): "Virginity in one sense has its
+    worth, but in the ordinary sense it is greatly overestimated.
+    Apart from the fact that a girl who possesses it may yet be
+    thoroughly perverted, this over-estimation of virginity leads to
+    the girl who is without it being despised, and has further
+    resulted in the development of a special industry for the
+    preparation, by means of a prudishly cloistral education, of
+    girls who will bring to their husbands the peculiar dainty of a
+    bride who knows nothing about anything. Naturally, this can only
+    be achieved at the expense of any rational education. What the
+    undeveloped little goose may turn into, no man can foresee."
+
+    Freud (_Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908) also points out the evil
+    results of the education for marriage which is given to girls on
+    the basis of this ideal of virginity. "Education undertakes the
+    task of repressing the girl's sensuality until the time of
+    betrothal. It not only forbids sexual relations and sets a high
+    premium on innocence, but it also withdraws the ripening womanly
+    individuality from temptation, maintaining a state of ignorance
+    concerning the practical side of the part she is intended to play
+    in life, and enduring no stirring of love which cannot lead to
+    marriage. The result is that when she is suddenly permitted to
+    fall in love by the authority of her elders, the girl cannot
+    bring her psychic disposition to bear, and goes into marriage
+    uncertain of her own feelings. As a consequence of this
+    artificial retardation of the function of love she brings nothing
+    but deception to the husband who has set all his desires upon
+    her, and manifests frigidity in her physical relations with him."
+
+    Senancour (_De l'Amour_, vol. i, p. 285) even believes that, when
+    it is possible to leave out of consideration the question of
+    offspring, not only will the law of chastity become equal for the
+    two sexes, but there will be a tendency for the situation of the
+    sexes to be, to some extent, changed. "Continence becomes a
+    counsel rather than a precept, and it is in women that the
+    voluptuous inclination will be regarded with most indulgence. Man
+    is made for work; he only meets pleasure in passing; he must be
+    content that women should occupy themselves with it more than he.
+    It is men whom it exhausts, and men must always, in part,
+    restrain their desires."
+
+As, however, we liberate ourselves from the bondage of a compulsory
+physical chastity, it becomes possible to rehabilitate chastity as a
+virtue. At the present day it can no longer be said that there is on the
+part of thinkers and moralists any active hostility to the idea of
+chastity; there is, on the contrary, a tendency to recognize the value of
+chastity. But this recognition has been accompanied by a return to the
+older and sounder conception of chastity. The preservation of a rigid
+sexual abstinence, an empty virginity, can only be regarded as a
+pseudo-chastity. The only positive virtue which Aristotle could have
+recognized in this field was a temperance involving restraint of the lower
+impulses, a wise exercise and not a non-exercise.[80] The best thinkers of
+the Christian Church adopted the same conception; St. Basil in his
+important monastic rules laid no weight on self-discipline as an end in
+itself, but regarded it as an instrument for enabling the spirit to gain
+power over the flesh. St. Augustine declared that continence is only
+excellent when practised in the faith of the highest good,[81] and he
+regarded chastity as "an orderly movement of the soul subordinating lower
+things to higher things, and specially to be manifested in conjugal
+relationships"; Thomas Aquinas, defining chastity in much the same way,
+defined impurity as the enjoyment of sexual pleasure not according to
+right reason, whether as regards the object or the conditions.[82] But for
+a time the voices of the great moralists were unheard. The virtue of
+chastity was swamped in the popular Christian passion for the annihilation
+of the flesh, and that view was, in the sixteenth century, finally
+consecrated by the Council of Trent, which formally pronounced an anathema
+upon anyone who should declare that the state of virginity and celibacy
+was not better than the state of matrimony. Nowadays the pseudo-chastity
+that was of value on the simple ground that any kind of continence is of
+higher spiritual worth than any kind of sexual relationship belongs to the
+past, except for those who adhere to ancient ascetic creeds. The mystic
+value of virginity has gone; it seems only to arouse in the modern man's
+mind the idea of a piquancy craved by the hardened rake;[83] it is men who
+have themselves long passed the age of innocence who attach so much
+importance to the innocence of their brides. The conception of life-long
+continence as an ideal has also gone; at the best it is regarded as a mere
+matter of personal preference. And the conventional simulation of
+universal chastity, at the bidding of respectability, is coming to be
+regarded as a hindrance rather than a help to the cultivation of any real
+chastity.[84]
+
+The chastity that is regarded by the moralist of to-day as a virtue has
+its worth by no means in its abstinence. It is not, in St. Theresa's
+words, the virtue of the tortoise which withdraws its limbs under its
+carapace. It is a virtue because it is a discipline in self-control,
+because it helps to fortify the character and will, and because it is
+directly favorable to the cultivation of the most beautiful, exalted, and
+effective sexual life. So viewed, chastity may be opposed to the demands
+of debased mediaeval Catholicism, but it is in harmony with the demands of
+our civilized life to-day, and by no means at variance with the
+requirements of Nature.
+
+There is always an analogy between the instinct of reproduction and the
+instinct of nutrition. In the matter of eating it is the influence of
+science, of physiology, which has finally put aside an exaggerated
+asceticism, and made eating "pure." The same process, as James Hinton well
+pointed out, has been made possible in the sexual relationships; "science
+has in its hands the key to purity."[85]
+
+Many influences have, however, worked together to favor an insistence on
+chastity. There has, in the first place, been an inevitable reaction
+against the sexual facility which had come to be regarded as natural. Such
+facility was found to have no moral value, for it tended to relaxation of
+moral fibre and was unfavorable to the finest sexual satisfaction. It
+could not even claim to be natural in any broad sense of the word, for, in
+Nature generally, sexual gratification tends to be rare and difficult.[86]
+Courtship is arduous and long, the season of love is strictly delimited,
+pregnancy interrupts sexual relationships. Even among savages, so long as
+they have been untainted by civilization, virility is usually maintained
+by a fine asceticism; the endurance of hardship, self-control and
+restraint, tempered by rare orgies, constitute a discipline which covers
+the sexual as well as every other department of savage life. To preserve
+the same virility in civilized life, it may well be felt, we must
+deliberately cultivate a virtue which under savage conditions of life is
+natural.[87]
+
+The influence of Nietzsche, direct and indirect, has been on the side of
+the virtue of chastity in its modern sense. The command: "Be hard," as
+Nietzsche used it, was not so much an injunction to an unfeeling
+indifference towards others as an appeal for a more strenuous attitude
+towards one's self, the cultivation of a self-control able to gather up
+and hold in the forces of the soul for expenditure on deliberately
+accepted ends. "A relative chastity," he wrote, "a fundamental and wise
+foresight in the face of erotic things, even in thought, is part of a fine
+reasonableness in life, even in richly endowed and complete natures."[88]
+In this matter Nietzsche is a typical representative of the modern
+movement for the restoration of chastity to its proper place as a real and
+beneficial virtue, and not a mere empty convention. Such a movement could
+not fail to make itself felt, for all that favors facility and luxurious
+softness in sexual matters is quickly felt to degrade character as well as
+to diminish the finest erotic satisfaction. For erotic satisfaction, in
+its highest planes, is only possible when we have secured for the sexual
+impulse a high degree of what Colin Scott calls "irradiation," that is to
+say a wide diffusion through the whole of the psychic organism. And that
+can only be attained by placing impediments in the way of the swift and
+direct gratification of sexual desire, by compelling it to increase its
+force, to take long circuits, to charge the whole organism so highly that
+the final climax of gratified love is not the trivial detumescence of a
+petty desire but the immense consummation of a longing in which the whole
+soul as well as the whole body has its part. "Only the chaste can be
+really obscene," said Huysmans. And on a higher plane, only the chaste can
+really love.
+
+    "Physical purity," remarks Hans Menjago ("Die Ueberschaetzung der
+    Physischen Reinheit," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. ii,
+    Part VIII) "was originally valued as a sign of greater strength
+    of will and firmness of character, and it marked a rise above
+    primitive conditions. This purity was difficult to preserve in
+    those unsure days; it was rare and unusual. From this rarity rose
+    the superstition of supernatural power residing in the virgin.
+    But this has no meaning as soon as such purity becomes general
+    and a specially conspicuous degree of firmness of character is no
+    longer needed to maintain it.... Physical purity can only possess
+    value when it is the result of individual strength of character,
+    and not when it is the result of compulsory rules of morality."
+
+    Konrad Hoeller, who has given special attention to the sexual
+    question in schools, remarks in relation to physical exercise:
+    "The greatest advantage of physical exercises, however, is not
+    the development of the active and passive strength of the body
+    and its skill, but the establishment and fortification of the
+    authority of the will over the body and its needs, so much given
+    up to indolence. He who has learnt to endure and overcome, for
+    the sake of a definite aim, hunger and thirst and fatigue, will
+    be the better able to withstand sexual impulses and the
+    temptation to gratify them, when better insight and aesthetic
+    feeling have made clear to him, as one used to maintain authority
+    over his body, that to yield would be injurious or disgraceful"
+    (K. Hoeller, "Die Aufgabe der Volksschule," _Sexualpaedagogik_, p.
+    70). Professor Schaefenacker (id., p. 102), who also emphasizes
+    the importance of self-control and self-restraint, thinks a youth
+    must bear in mind his future mission, as citizen and father of a
+    family.
+
+    A subtle and penetrative thinker of to-day, Jules de Gaultier,
+    writing on morals without reference to this specific question,
+    has discussed what new internal inhibitory motives we can appeal
+    to in replacing the old external inhibition of authority and
+    belief which is now decayed. He answers that the state of feeling
+    on which old faiths were based still persists. "May not," he
+    asks, "the desire for a thing that we love and wish for
+    beneficently replace the belief that a thing is by divine will,
+    or in the nature of things? Will not the presence of a bridle on
+    the frenzy of instinct reveal itself as a useful attitude adopted
+    by instinct itself for its own conservation, as a symptom of the
+    force and health of instinct? Is not empire over oneself, the
+    power of regulating one's acts, a mark of superiority and a
+    motive for self-esteem? Will not this joy of pride have the same
+    authority in preserving the instincts as was once possessed by
+    religious fear and the pretended imperatives of reason?" (Jules
+    de Gaultier, _La Dependance de la Morale et l'Independance des
+    Moeurs_, p. 153.)
+
+    H.G. Wells (in _A Modern Utopia_), pointing out the importance of
+    chastity, though rejecting celibacy, invokes, like Jules de
+    Gaultier, the motive of pride. "Civilization has developed far
+    more rapidly than man has modified. Under the unnatural
+    perfection of security, liberty, and abundance our civilization
+    has attained, the normal untrained human being is disposed to
+    excess in almost every direction; he tends to eat too much and
+    too elaborately, to drink too much, to become lazy faster than
+    his work can be reduced, to waste his interest upon displays, and
+    to make love too much and too elaborately. He gets out of
+    training, and concentrates upon egoistic or erotic broodings. Our
+    founders organized motives from all sorts of sources, but I think
+    the chief force to give men self-control is pride. Pride may not
+    be the noblest thing in the soul, but it is the best king there,
+    for all that. They looked to it to keep a man clean and sound and
+    sane. In this matter, as in all matters of natural desire, they
+    held no appetite must be glutted, no appetite must have
+    artificial whets, and also and equally that no appetite should be
+    starved. A man must come from the table satisfied, but not
+    replete. And, in the matter of love, a straight and clean desire
+    for a clean and straight fellow-creature was our founders' ideal.
+    They enjoined marriage between equals as the duty to the race,
+    and they framed directions of the precisest sort to prevent that
+    uxorious inseparableness, that connubiality, that sometimes
+    reduces a couple of people to something jointly less than
+    either."
+
+    With regard to chastity as an element of erotic satisfaction,
+    Edward Carpenter writes (_Love's Coming of Age_, p. 11): "There
+    is a kind of illusion about physical desire similar to that which
+    a child suffers from when, seeing a beautiful flower, it
+    instantly snatches the same, and destroys in a few moments the
+    form and fragrance which attracted it. He only gets the full
+    glory who holds himself back a little, and truly possesses, who
+    is willing, if need be, not to possess. He is indeed a master of
+    life who, accepting the grosser desires as they come to his body,
+    and not refusing them, knows how to transform them at will into
+    the most rare and fragrant flowers of human emotion."
+
+Beyond its functions in building up character, in heightening and
+ennobling the erotic life, and in subserving the adequate fulfilment of
+family and social duties, chastity has a more special value for those who
+cultivate the arts. We may not always be inclined to believe the writers
+who have declared that their verse alone is wanton, but their lives
+chaste. It is certainly true, however, that a relationship of this kind
+tends to occur. The stuff of the sexual life, as Nietzsche says, is the
+stuff of art; if it is expended in one channel it is lost for the other.
+The masters of all the more intensely emotional arts have frequently
+cultivated a high degree of chastity. This is notably the case as regards
+music; one thinks of Mozart,[89] of Beethoven, of Schubert, and many
+lesser men. In the case of poets and novelists chastity may usually seem
+to be less prevalent but it is frequently well-marked, and is not seldom
+disguised by the resounding reverberations which even the slightest
+love-episode often exerts on the poetic organism. Goethe's life seems, at
+a first glance, to be a long series of continuous love-episodes. Yet when
+we remember that it was the very long life of a man whose vigor remained
+until the end, that his attachments long and profoundly affected his
+emotional life and his work, and that with most of the women he has
+immortalized he never had actual sexual relationships at all, and when we
+realize, moreover, that, throughout, he accomplished an almost
+inconceivably vast amount of work, we shall probably conclude that sexual
+indulgence had a very much smaller part in Goethe's life than in that of
+many an average man on whom it leaves no obvious emotional or intellectual
+trace whatever. Sterne, again, declared that he must always have a
+Dulcinea dancing in his head, yet the amount of his intimate relations
+with women appears to have been small. Balzac spent his life toiling at
+his desk and carrying on during many years a love correspondence with a
+woman he scarcely ever saw and at the end only spent a few months of
+married life with. The like experience has befallen many artistic
+creators. For, in the words of Landor, "absence is the invisible and
+incorporeal mother of ideal beauty."
+
+We do well to remember that, while the auto-erotic manifestations through
+the brain are of infinite variety and importance, the brain and the
+sexual organs are yet the great rivals in using up bodily energy, and that
+there is an antagonism between extreme brain vigor and extreme sexual
+vigor, even although they may sometimes both appear at different periods
+in the same individual.[90] In this sense there is no paradox in the
+saying of Ramon Correa that potency is impotence and impotence potency,
+for a high degree of energy, whether in athletics or in intellect or in
+sexual activity, is unfavorable to the display of energy in other
+directions. Every high degree of potency has its related impotencies.
+
+    It may be added that we may find a curiously inconsistent proof
+    of the excessive importance attached to sexual function by a
+    society which systematically tries to depreciate sex, in the
+    disgrace which is attributed to the lack of "virile" potency.
+    Although civilized life offers immense scope for the activities
+    of sexually impotent persons, the impotent man is made to feel
+    that, while he need not be greatly concerned if he suffers from
+    nervous disturbances of digestion, if he should suffer just as
+    innocently from nervous disturbances of the sexual impulse, it is
+    almost a crime. A striking example of this was shown, a few years
+    ago, when it was plausibly suggested that Carlyle's relations
+    with his wife might best be explained by supposing that he
+    suffered from some trouble of sexual potency. At once admirers
+    rushed forward to "defend" Carlyle from this "disgraceful"
+    charge; they were more shocked than if it had been alleged that
+    he was a syphilitic. Yet impotence is, at the most, an infirmity,
+    whether due to some congenital anatomical defect or to a
+    disturbance of nervous balance in the delicate sexual mechanism,
+    such as is apt to occur in men of abnormally sensitive
+    temperament. It is no more disgraceful to suffer from it than
+    from dyspepsia, with which, indeed, it may be associated. Many
+    men of genius and high moral character have been sexually
+    deformed. This was the case with Cowper (though this significant
+    fact is suppressed by his biographers); Ruskin was divorced for a
+    reason of this kind; and J.S. Mill, it is said, was sexually of
+    little more than infantile development.
+
+Up to this point I have been considering the quality of chastity and the
+quality of asceticism in their most general sense and without any attempt
+at precise differentiation.[91] But if we are to accept these as modern
+virtues, valid to-day, it is necessary that we should be somewhat more
+precise in defining them. It seems most convenient, and most strictly
+accordant also with etymology, if we agree to mean by asceticism or
+_ascesis_, the athlete quality of self-discipline, controlling, by no
+means necessarily for indefinitely prolonged periods, the gratification of
+the sexual impulse. By chastity, which is primarily the quality of purity,
+and secondarily that of holiness, rather than of abstinence, we may best
+understand a due proportion between erotic claims and the other claims of
+life. "Chastity," as Ellen Key well says, "is harmony between body and
+soul in relation to love." Thus comprehended, asceticism is the virtue of
+control that leads up to erotic gratification, and chastity is the virtue
+which exerts its harmonizing influence in the erotic life itself.
+
+It will be seen that asceticism by no means necessarily involves perpetual
+continence. Properly understood, asceticism is a discipline, a training,
+which has reference to an end not itself. If it is compulsorily perpetual,
+whether at the dictates of a religious dogma, or as a mere fetish, it is
+no longer on a natural basis, and it is no longer moral, for the restraint
+of a man who has spent his whole life in a prison is of no value for life.
+If it is to be natural and to be moral asceticism must have an end outside
+itself, it must subserve the ends of vital activity, which cannot be
+subserved by a person who is engaged in a perpetual struggle with his own
+natural instincts. A man may, indeed, as a matter of taste or preference,
+live his whole life in sexual abstinence, freely and easily, but in that
+case he is not an ascetic, and his abstinence is neither a subject for
+applause nor for criticism.
+
+In the same way chastity, far from involving sexual abstinence, only has
+its value when it is brought within the erotic sphere. A purity that is
+ignorance, when the age of childish innocence is once passed, is mere
+stupidity; it is nearer to vice than to virtue. Nor is purity consonant
+with effort and struggle; in that respect it differs from asceticism. "We
+conquer the bondage of sex," Rosa Mayreder says, "by acceptance, not by
+denials, and men can only do this with the help of women." The would-be
+chastity of cold calculation is equally unbeautiful and unreal, and
+without any sort of value. A true and worthy chastity can only be
+supported by an ardent ideal, whether, as among the early Christians, this
+is the erotic ideal of a new romance, or, as among ourselves, a more
+humanly erotic ideal. "Only erotic idealism," says Ellen Key, "can arouse
+enthusiasm for chastity." Chastity in a healthily developed person can
+thus be beautifully exercised only in the actual erotic life; in part it
+is the natural instinct of dignity and temperance; in part it is the art
+of touching the things of sex with hands that remember their aptness for
+all the fine ends of life. Upon the doorway of entrance to the inmost
+sanctuary of love there is thus the same inscription as on the doorway to
+the Epidaurian Sanctuary of Aesculapius: "None but the pure shall enter
+here."
+
+    It will be seen that the definition of chastity remains somewhat
+    lacking in precision. That is inevitable. We cannot grasp purity
+    tightly, for, like snow, it will merely melt in our hands.
+    "Purity itself forbids too minute a system of rules for the
+    observance of purity," well says Sidgwick (_Methods of Ethics_,
+    Bk. iii, Ch. IX). Elsewhere (op. cit., Bk. iii, Ch. XI) he
+    attempts to answer the question: What sexual relations are
+    essentially impure? and concludes that no answer is possible.
+    "There appears to be no distinct principle, having any claim to
+    self-evidence, upon which the question can be answered so as to
+    command general assent." Even what is called "Free Love," he
+    adds, "in so far as it is earnestly advocated as a means to a
+    completer harmony of sentiment between men and women, cannot be
+    condemned as impure, for it seems paradoxical to distinguish
+    purity from impurity merely by less rapidity of transition."
+
+    Moll, from the standpoint of medical psychology, reaches the same
+    conclusion as Sidgwick from that of ethics. In a report on the
+    "Value of Chastity for Men," published as an appendix to the
+    third edition (1899) of his _Kontraere Sexualempfindung_, the
+    distinguished Berlin physician discusses the matter with much
+    vigorous common sense, insisting that "chaste and unchaste are
+    _relative ideas_." We must not, he states, as is so often done,
+    identify "chaste" with "sexually abstinent." He adds that we are
+    not justified in describing all extra-marital sexual intercourse
+    as unchaste, for, if we do so, we shall be compelled to regard
+    nearly all men, and some very estimable women, as unchaste. He
+    rightly insists that in this matter we must apply the same rule
+    to women as to men, and he points out that even when it involves
+    what may be technically adultery sexual intercourse is not
+    necessarily unchaste. He takes the case of a girl who, at
+    eighteen, when still mentally immature, is married to a man with
+    whom she finds it impossible to live and a separation
+    consequently occurs, although a divorce may be impossible to
+    obtain. If she now falls passionately in love with a man her love
+    may be entirely chaste, though it involves what is technically
+    adultery.
+
+In thus understanding asceticism and chastity, and their beneficial
+functions in life, we see that they occupy a place midway between the
+artificially exaggerated position they once held and that to which they
+were degraded by the inevitable reaction of total indifference or actual
+hostility which followed. Asceticism and chastity are not rigid
+categorical imperatives; they are useful means to desirable ends; they are
+wise and beautiful arts. They demand our estimation, but not our
+over-estimation. For in over-estimating them, it is too often forgotten,
+we over-estimate the sexual instinct. The instinct of sex is indeed
+extremely important. Yet it has not that all-embracing and supereminent
+importance which some, even of those who fight against it, are accustomed
+to believe. That artificially magnified conception of the sexual impulse
+is fortified by the artificial emphasis placed upon asceticism. We may
+learn the real place of the sexual impulse in learning how we may
+reasonably and naturally view the restraints on that impulse.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[69] For Blake and for Shelley, as well as, it may be added, for Hinton,
+chastity, as Todhunter remarks in his _Study of Shelley_, is "a type of
+submission to the actual, a renunciation of the infinite, and is therefore
+hated by them. The chaste man, i.e., the man of prudence and self-control,
+is the man who has lost the nakedness of his primitive innocence."
+
+[70] For evidence of the practices of savages in this matter, see Appendix
+_A_ to the third volume of these _Studies_, "The Sexual Instinct in
+Savages." Cf. also Chs. IV and VII of Westermarck's _History of Human
+Marriage_, and also Chs. XXXVIII and XLI of the same author's _Origin and
+Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii; Frazer's _Golden Bough_ contains
+much bearing on this subject, as also Crawley's _Mystic Rose_.
+
+[71] See, e.g., Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
+vol. ii, pp. 412 et seq.
+
+[72] Thus an old Maori declared, a few years ago, that the decline of his
+race has been entirely due to the loss of the ancient religious faith in
+the _tabu_. "For," said he (I quote from an Auckland newspaper), "in the
+olden-time our _tapu_ ramified the whole social system. The head, the
+hair, spots where apparitions appeared, places which the _tohungas_
+proclaimed as sacred, we have forgotten and disregarded. Who nowadays
+thinks of the sacredness of the head? See when the kettle boils, the young
+man jumps up, whips the cap off his head, and uses it for a kettle-holder.
+Who nowadays but looks on with indifference when the barber of the
+village, if he be near the fire, shakes the loose hair off his cloth into
+it, and the joke and the laughter goes on as if no sacred operation had
+just been concluded. Food is consumed on places which, in bygone days, it
+dared not even be carried over."
+
+[73] Thus, long before Christian monks arose, the ascetic life of the
+cloister on very similar lines existed in Egypt in the worship of Serapis
+(Dill, _Roman Society_, p. 79).
+
+[74] At night, in the baptistry, with lamps dimly burning, the women were
+stripped even of their tunics, plunged three times in the pool, then
+anointed, dressed in white, and kissed.
+
+[75] Thus Jerome, in his letter to Eustochium, refers to those couples who
+"share the same room, often even the same bed, and call us suspicious if
+we draw any conclusions," while Cyprian (_Epistola_, 86) is unable to
+approve of those men he hears of, one a deacon, who live in familiar
+intercourse with virgins, even sleeping in the same bed with them, for, he
+declares, the feminine sex is weak and youth is wanton.
+
+[76] Perpetua (_Acta Sanctorum_, March 7) is termed by Hort and Mayor
+"that fairest flower in the garden of post-Apostolic Christendom." She was
+not, however, a virgin, but a young mother with a baby at her breast.
+
+[77] The strength of early Christian asceticism lay in its spontaneous and
+voluntary character. When, in the ninth century, the Carlovingians
+attempted to enforce monastic and clerical celibacy, the result was a
+great outburst of unchastity and crime; nunneries became brothels, nuns
+were frequently guilty of infanticide, monks committed unspeakable
+abominations, the regular clergy formed incestuous relations with their
+nearest female relatives (Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol. i,
+pp, 155 et seq.).
+
+[78] Senancour, _De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 233. Islam has placed much less
+stress on chastity than Christianity, but practically, it would appear,
+there is often more regard for chastity under Mohammedan rule than under
+Christian rule. Thus it is stated by "Viator" (_Fortnightly Review_, Dec.,
+1908) that formerly, under Turkish Moslem rule, it was impossible to buy
+the virtue of women in Bosnia, but that now, under the Christian rule of
+Austria, it is everywhere possible to buy women near the Austrian
+frontier.
+
+[79] The basis of this feeling was strengthened when it was shown by
+scholars that the physical virtue of "virginity" had been masquerading
+under a false name. To remain a virgin seems to have meant at the first,
+among peoples of early Aryan culture, by no means to take a vow of
+chastity, but to refuse to submit to the yoke of patriarchal marriage. The
+women who preferred to stand outside marriage were "virgins," even though
+mothers of large families, and AEschylus speaks of the Amazons as
+"virgins," while in Greek the child of an unmarried girl was always "the
+virgin's son." The history of Artemis, the most primitive of Greek
+deities, is instructive from this point of view. She was originally only
+virginal in the sense that she rejected marriage, being the goddess of a
+nomadic and matriarchal hunting people who had not yet adopted marriage,
+and she was the goddess of childbirth, worshipped with orgiastic dances
+and phallic emblems. It was by a late transformation that Artemis became
+the goddess of chastity (Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, vol. ii,
+pp. 442 et seq.; Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Cities of Phrygia_, vol. i, p. 96; Paul
+Lafargue, "Les Mythes Historiques," _Revue des Idees_, Dec., 1904).
+
+[80] See, e.g., Nicomachean Ethics, Bk. iii, Ch. XIII.
+
+[81] _De Civitate Dei_, lib. xv, cap. XX. A little further on (lib. xvi,
+cap. XXV) he refers to Abraham as a man able to use women as a man should,
+his wife temperately, his concubine compliantly, neither immoderately.
+
+[82] _Summa_, Migne's edition, vol. iii, qu. 154, art. I.
+
+[83] See the Study of Modesty in the first volume of these _Studies_.
+
+[84] The majority of chaste youths, remarks an acute critic of modern life
+(Hellpach, _Nervositaet und Kultur_, p. 175), are merely actuated by
+traditional principles, or by shyness, fear of venereal infections, lack
+of self-confidence, want of money, very seldom by any consideration for a
+future wife, and that indeed would be a tragi-comic error, for a woman
+lays no importance on intact masculinity. Moreover, he adds, the chaste
+man is unable to choose a wife wisely, and it is among teachers and
+clergymen--the chastest class--that most unhappy marriages are made.
+Milton had already made this fact an argument for facility of divorce.
+
+[85] "In eating," said Hinton, "we have achieved the task of combining
+pleasure with an absence of 'lust.' The problem for man and woman is so to
+use and possess the sexual passion as to make it the minister to higher
+things, with no restraint on it but that. It is essentially connected with
+things of the spiritual order, and would naturally revolve round them. To
+think of it as merely bodily is a mistake."
+
+[86] See "Analysis of the Sexual Impulse," and Appendix, "The Sexual
+Instinct in Savages," in vol. iii of these _Studies_.
+
+[87] I have elsewhere discussed more at length the need in modern
+civilized life of a natural and sincere asceticism (see _Affirmations_,
+1898) "St. Francis and Others."
+
+[88] _Der Wille zur Macht_, p. 392.
+
+[89] At the age of twenty-five, when he had already produced much fine
+work, Mozart wrote in his letters that he had never touched a woman,
+though he longed for love and marriage. He could not afford to marry, he
+would not seduce an innocent girl, a venial relation was repulsive to him.
+
+[90] Reibmayr, _Die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies._, Bd.
+i, p. 437.
+
+[91] We may exclude altogether, it is scarcely necessary to repeat, the
+quality of virginity--that is to say, the possession of an intact
+hymen--since this is a merely physical quality with no necessary ethical
+relationships. The demand for virginity in women is, for the most part,
+either the demand for a better marketable article, or for a more powerful
+stimulant to masculine desire. Virginity involves no moral qualities in
+its possessor. Chastity and asceticism, on the other hand, are meaningless
+terms, except as demands made by the spirit on itself or on the body it
+controls.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PROBLEM OF SEXUAL ABSTINENCE.
+
+The Influence of Tradition--The Theological Conception of Lust--Tendency
+of These Influences to Degrade Sexual Morality--Their Result in Creating
+the Problem of Sexual Abstinence--The Protests Against Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence and Genius--Sexual Abstinence in Women--The
+Advocates of Sexual Abstinence--Intermediate Attitude--Unsatisfactory
+Nature of the Whole Discussion--Criticism of the Conception of Sexual
+Abstinence--Sexual Abstinence as Compared to Abstinence from Food--No
+Complete Analogy--The Morality of Sexual Abstinence Entirely Negative--Is
+It the Physician's Duty to Advise Extra-Conjugal Sexual
+Intercourse?--Opinions of Those Who Affirm or Deny This Duty--The
+Conclusion Against Such Advice--The Physician Bound by the Social and
+Moral Ideas of His Age--The Physician as Reformer--Sexual Abstinence and
+Sexual Hygiene--Alcohol--The Influence of Physical and Mental
+Exercise--The Inadequacy of Sexual Hygiene in This Field--The Unreal
+Nature of the Conception of Sexual Abstinence--The Necessity of Replacing
+It by a More Positive Ideal.
+
+
+When we look at the matter from a purely abstract or even purely
+biological point of view, it might seem that in deciding that asceticism
+and chastity are of high value for the personal life we have said all that
+is necessary to say. That, however, is very far from being the case. We
+soon realize here, as at every point in the practical application of
+sexual psychology, that it is not sufficient to determine the abstractly
+right course along biological lines. We have to harmonize our biological
+demands with social demands. We are ruled not only by natural instincts
+but by inherited traditions, that in the far past were solidly based on
+intelligible grounds, and that even still, by the mere fact of their
+existence, exert a force which we cannot and ought not to ignore.
+
+In discussing the valuation of the sexual impulse we found that we had
+good ground for making a very high estimate of love. In discussing
+chastity and asceticism we found that they also are highly to be valued.
+And we found that, so far from any contradiction being here involved,
+love and chastity are intertwined in all their finest developments, and
+that there is thus a perfect harmony in apparent opposition. But when we
+come to consider the matter in detail, in its particular personal
+applications, we find that a new factor asserts itself. We find that our
+inherited social and religious traditions exert a pressure, all on one
+side, which makes it impossible to place the relations of love and
+chastity simply on the basis of biology and reason. We are confronted at
+the outset by our traditions. On the one side these traditions have
+weighted the word "lust"--considered as expressing all the manifestations
+of the sexual impulse which are outside marriage or which fail to have
+marriage as their direct and ostentatious end--with deprecatory and
+sinister meanings. And on the other side these traditions have created the
+problem of "sexual abstinence," which has nothing to do with either
+asceticism or chastity as these have been defined in the previous chapter,
+but merely with the purely negative pressure on the sexual impulse,
+exerted, independently of the individual's wishes, by his religious and
+social environment.
+
+The theological conception of "lust," or "libido," as sin, followed
+logically the early Christian conception of "the flesh," and became
+inevitable as soon as that conception was firmly established. Not only,
+indeed, had early Christian ideals a degrading influence on the estimation
+of sexual desire _per se_, but they tended to depreciate generally the
+dignity of the sexual relationship. If a man made sexual advances to a
+woman outside marriage, and thus brought her within the despised circle of
+"lust," he was injuring her because he was impairing her religious and
+moral value.[92] The only way he could repair the damage done was by
+paying her money or by entering into a forced and therefore probably
+unfortunate marriage with her. That is to say that sexual relationships
+were, by the ecclesiastical traditions, placed on a pecuniary basis, on
+the same level as prostitution. By its well-meant intentions to support
+the theological morality which had developed on an ascetic basis, the
+Church was thus really undermining even that form of sexual relationship
+which it sanctified.
+
+    Gregory the Great ordered that the seducer of a virgin shall
+    marry her, or, in case of refusal, be severely punished
+    corporally and shut up in a monastery to perform penance.
+    According to other ecclesiastical rules, the seducer of a virgin,
+    though held to no responsibility by the civil forum, was required
+    to marry her, or to find a husband and furnish a dowry for her.
+    Such rules had their good side, and were especially equitable
+    when seduction had been accomplished by deceit. But they largely
+    tended in practice to subordinate all questions of sexual
+    morality to a money question. The reparation to the woman, also,
+    largely became necessary because the ecclesiastical conception of
+    lust caused her value to be depreciated by contact with lust, and
+    the reparation might be said to constitute a part of penance.
+    Aquinas held that lust, in however slight a degree, is a mortal
+    sin, and most of the more influential theologians took a view
+    nearly or quite as rigid. Some, however, held that a certain
+    degree of delectation is possible in these matters without mortal
+    sin, or asserted, for instance, that to feel the touch of a soft
+    and warm hand is not mortal sin so long as no sexual feeling is
+    thereby aroused. Others, however, held that such distinctions are
+    impossible, and that all pleasures of this kind are sinful. Tomas
+    Sanchez endeavored at much length to establish rules for the
+    complicated problems of delectation that thus arose, but he was
+    constrained to admit that no rules are really possible, and that
+    such matters must be left to the judgment of a prudent man. At
+    that point casuistry dissolves and the modern point of view
+    emerges (see, e.g., Lea, _History of Auricular Confession_, vol.
+    ii, pp. 57, 115, 246, etc.).
+
+Even to-day the influence of the old traditions of the Church still
+unconsciously survives among us. That is inevitable as regards religious
+teachers, but it is found also in men of science, even in Protestant
+countries. The result is that quite contradictory dogmas are found side by
+side, even in the same writer. On the one hand, the manifestations of the
+sexual impulse are emphatically condemned as both unnecessary and evil; on
+the other hand, marriage, which is fundamentally (whatever else it may
+also be) a manifestation of the sexual impulse, receives equally emphatic
+approval as the only proper and moral form of living.[93] There can be no
+reasonable doubt whatever that it is to the surviving and pervading
+influence of the ancient traditional theological conception of _libido_
+that we must largely attribute the sharp difference of opinions among
+physicians on the question of sexual abstinence and the otherwise
+unnecessary acrimony with which these opinions have sometimes been stated.
+
+On the one side, we find the emphatic statement that sexual intercourse is
+necessary and that health cannot be maintained unless the sexual
+activities are regularly exercised.
+
+"All parts of the body which are developed for a definite use are kept in
+health, and in the enjoyment of fair growth and of long youth, by the
+fulfilment of that use, and by their appropriate exercise in the
+employment to which they are accustomed." In that statement, which occurs
+in the great Hippocratic treatise "On the Joints," we have the classic
+expression of the doctrine which in ever varying forms has been taught by
+all those who have protested against sexual abstinence. When we come down
+to the sixteenth century outbreak of Protestantism we find that Luther's
+revolt against Catholicism was in part a protest against the teaching of
+sexual abstinence. "He to whom the gift of continence is not given," he
+said in his _Table Talk_, "will not become chaste by fasting and vigils.
+For my own part I was not excessively tormented [though elsewhere he
+speaks of the great fires of lust by which he had been troubled], but all
+the same the more I macerated myself the more I burnt." And three hundred
+years later, Bebel, the would-be nineteenth century Luther of a different
+Protestantism, took the same attitude towards sexual abstinence, while
+Hinton the physician and philosopher, living in a land of rigid sexual
+conventionalism and prudery, and moved by keen sympathy for the sufferings
+he saw around him, would break into passionate sarcasm when confronted by
+the doctrine of sexual abstinence. "There are innumerable ills--terrible
+destructions, madness even, the ruin of lives--for which the embrace of
+man and woman would be a remedy. No one thinks of questioning it.
+Terrible evils and a remedy in a delight and joy! And man has chosen so to
+muddle his life that he must say: 'There, that would be a remedy, but I
+cannot use it. I _must be virtuous!_'"
+
+    If we confine ourselves to modern times and to fairly precise
+    medical statements, we find in Schurig's _Spermatologia_ (1720,
+    pp. 274 et seq.), not only a discussion of the advantages of
+    moderate sexual intercourse in a number of disorders, as
+    witnessed by famous authorities, but also a list of
+    results--including anorexia, insanity, impotence, epilepsy, even
+    death--which were believed to have been due to sexual abstinence.
+    This extreme view of the possible evils of sexual abstinence
+    seems to have been part of the Renaissance traditions of medicine
+    stiffened by a certain opposition between religion and science.
+    It was still rigorously stated by Lallemand early in the
+    nineteenth century. Subsequently, the medical statements of the
+    evil results of sexual abstinence became more temperate and
+    measured, though still often pronounced. Thus Gyurkovechky
+    believes that these results may be as serious as those of sexual
+    excess. Krafft-Ebing showed that sexual abstinence could produce
+    a state of general nervous excitement (_Jahrbuch fuer
+    Psychiatrie_, Bd. viii, Heft 1 and 2). Schrenck-Notzing regards
+    sexual abstinence as a cause of extreme sexual hyperaesthesia and
+    of various perversions (in a chapter on sexual abstinence in his
+    _Kriminalpsychologische und Psychopathologische Studien_, 1902,
+    pp. 174-178). He records in illustration the case of a man of
+    thirty-six who had masturbated in moderation as a boy, but
+    abandoned the practice entirely, on moral grounds, twenty years
+    ago, and has never had sexual intercourse, feeling proud to enter
+    marriage a chaste man, but now for years has suffered greatly
+    from extreme sexual hyperaesthesia and concentration of thought on
+    sexual subjects, notwithstanding a strong will and the resolve
+    not to masturbate or indulge in illicit intercourse. In another
+    case a vigorous and healthy man, not inverted, and with strong
+    sexual desires, who remained abstinent up to marriage, suffers
+    from psychic impotence, and his wife remains a virgin
+    notwithstanding all her affection and caresses. Ord considered
+    that sexual abstinence might produce many minor evils. "Most of
+    us," he wrote (_British Medical Journal_, Aug. 2, 1884) "have, no
+    doubt, been consulted by men, chaste in act, who are tormented by
+    sexual excitement. They tell one stories of long-continued local
+    excitement, followed by intense muscular weariness, or by severe
+    aching pain in the back and legs. In some I have had complaints
+    of swelling and stiffness in the legs, and of pains in the
+    joints, particularly in the knees;" he gives the case of a man
+    who suffered after prolonged chastity from inflammatory
+    conditions of knees and was only cured by marriage. Pearce
+    Gould, it may be added, finds that "excessive ungratified sexual
+    desire" is one of the causes of acute orchitis. Remondino ("Some
+    Observations on Continence as a Factor in Health and Disease,"
+    _Pacific Medical Journal_, Jan., 1900) records the case of a
+    gentleman of nearly seventy who, during the prolonged illness of
+    his wife, suffered from frequent and extreme priapism, causing
+    insomnia. He was very certain that his troubles were not due to
+    his continence, but all treatment failed and there were no
+    spontaneous emissions. At last Remondino advised him to, as he
+    expresses it, "imitate Solomon." He did so, and all the symptoms
+    at once disappeared. This case is of special interest, because
+    the symptoms were not accompanied by any conscious sexual desire.
+    It is no longer generally believed that sexual abstinence tends
+    to produce insanity, and the occasional cases in which prolonged
+    and intense sexual desire in young women is followed by insanity
+    will usually be found to occur on a basis of hereditary
+    degeneration. It is held by many authorities, however, that minor
+    mental troubles, of a more or less vague character, as well as
+    neurasthenia and hysteria, are by no means infrequently due to
+    sexual abstinence. Thus Freud, who has carefully studied
+    angstneurosis, the obsession of anxiety, finds that it is a
+    result of sexual abstinence, and may indeed be considered as a
+    vicarious form of such abstinence (Freud, _Sammlung Kleiner
+    Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, 1906, pp. 76 et seq.).
+
+    The whole subject of sexual abstinence has been discussed at
+    length by Nystroem, of Stockholm, in _Das Geschlechtsleben und
+    seine Gesetze_, Ch. III. He concludes that it is desirable that
+    continence should be preserved as long as possible in order to
+    strengthen the physical health and to develop the intelligence
+    and character. The doctrine of permanent sexual abstinence,
+    however, he regards as entirely false, except in the case of a
+    small number of religious or philosophic persons. "Complete
+    abstinence during a long period of years cannot be borne without
+    producing serious results both on the body and the mind....
+    Certainly, a young man should repress his sexual impulses as long
+    as possible and avoid everything that may artificially act as a
+    sexual stimulant. If, however, he has done so, and still suffers
+    from unsatisfied normal sexual desires, and if he sees no
+    possibility of marriage within a reasonable time, no one should
+    dare to say that he is committing a sin if, with mutual
+    understanding, he enters into sexual relations with a woman
+    friend, or forms temporary sexual relationships, provided, that
+    is, that he takes the honorable precaution of begetting no
+    children, unless his partner is entirely willing to become a
+    mother, and he is prepared to accept all the responsibilities of
+    fatherhood." In an article of later date ("Die Einwirkung der
+    Sexuellen Abstinenz auf die Gesundheit," _Sexual-Probleme_, July,
+    1908) Nystroem vigorously sums up his views. He includes among the
+    results of sexual abstinence orchitis, frequent involuntary
+    seminal emissions, impotence, neurasthenia, depression, and a
+    great variety of nervous disturbances of vaguer character,
+    involving diminished power of work, limited enjoyment of life,
+    sleeplessness, nervousness, and pre-occupation with sexual
+    desires and imaginations. More especially there is heightened
+    sexual irritability with erections, or even seminal emissions on
+    the slightest occasion, as on gazing at an attractive woman or in
+    social intercourse with her, or in the presence of works of art
+    representing naked figures. Nystroem has had the opportunity of
+    investigating and recording ninety cases of persons who have
+    presented these and similar symptoms as the result, he believes,
+    of sexual abstinence. He has published some of these cases
+    (_Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Oct., 1908), but it may be
+    added that Rohleder ("Die Abstinentia Sexualis," ib., Nov., 1908)
+    has criticized these cases, and doubts whether any of them are
+    conclusive. Rohleder believes that the bad results of sexual
+    abstinence are never permanent, and also that no anatomically
+    pathological states (such as orchitis) can be thereby produced.
+    But he considers, nevertheless, that even incomplete and
+    temporary sexual abstinence may produce fairly serious results,
+    and especially neurasthenic disturbances of various kinds, such
+    as nervous irritability, anxiety, depression, disinclination for
+    work; also diurnal emissions, premature ejaculations, and even a
+    state approaching satyriasis; and in women hysteria,
+    hystero-epilepsy, and nymphomaniacal manifestations; all these
+    symptoms may, however, he believes, be cured when the abstinence
+    ceases.
+
+    Many advocates of sexual abstinence have attached importance to
+    the fact that men of great genius have apparently been completely
+    continent throughout life. This is certainly true (see _ante_, p.
+    173). But this fact can scarcely be invoked as an argument in
+    favor of the advantages of sexual abstinence among the ordinary
+    population. J.F. Scott selects Jesus, Newton, Beethoven, and Kant
+    as "men of vigor and mental acumen who have lived chastely as
+    bachelors." It cannot, however, be said that Dr. Scott has been
+    happy in the four figures whom he has been able to select from
+    the whole history of human genius as examples of life-long sexual
+    abstinence. We know little with absolute certainty of Jesus, and
+    even if we reject the diagnosis which Professor Binet-Sangle (in
+    his _Folie de Jesus_) has built up from a minute study of the
+    Gospels, there are many reasons why we should refrain from
+    emphasizing the example of his sexual abstinence; Newton, apart
+    from his stupendous genius in a special field, was an incomplete
+    and unsatisfactory human being who ultimately reached a condition
+    very like insanity; Beethoven was a thoroughly morbid and
+    diseased man, who led an intensely unhappy existence; Kant, from
+    first to last, was a feeble valetudinarian. It would probably be
+    difficult to find a healthy normal man who would voluntarily
+    accept the life led by any of these four, even as the price of
+    their fame. J.A. Godfrey (_Science of Sex_, pp. 139-147)
+    discusses at length the question whether sexual abstinence is
+    favorable to ordinary intellectual vigor, deciding that it is
+    not, and that we cannot argue from the occasional sexual
+    abstinence of men of genius, who are often abnormally
+    constituted, and physically below the average, to the normally
+    developed man. Sexual abstinence, it may be added, is by no means
+    always a favorable sign, even in men who stand intellectually
+    above the average. "I have not obtained the impression," remarks
+    Freud (_Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908), "that sexual abstinence
+    is helpful to energetic and independent men of action or original
+    thinkers, to courageous liberators or reformers. The sexual
+    conduct of a man is often symbolic of his whole method of
+    reaction in the world. The man who energetically grasps the
+    object of his sexual desire may be trusted to show a similarly
+    relentless energy in the pursuit of other aims."
+
+Many, though not all, who deny that prolonged sexual abstinence is
+harmless, include women in this statement. There are some authorities
+indeed who believe that, whether or not any conscious sexual desire is
+present, sexual abstinence is less easily tolerated by women than by
+men.[94]
+
+    Cabanis, in his famous and pioneering work, _Rapports du Physique
+    et du Moral_, said in 1802, that women not only bear sexual
+    excess more easily than men, but sexual privations with more
+    difficulty, and a cautious and experienced observer of to-day,
+    Loewenfeld (_Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_, 1899, p. 53), while
+    not considering that normal women bear sexual abstinence less
+    easily than men, adds that this is not the case with women of
+    neuropathic disposition, who suffer much more from this cause,
+    and either masturbate when sexual intercourse is impossible or
+    fall into hystero-neurasthenic states. Busch stated (_Das
+    Geschlechtsleben des Weibes_, 1839, vol. i, pp. 69, 71) that not
+    only is the working of the sexual functions in the organism
+    stronger in women than in men, but that the bad results of sexual
+    abstinence are more marked in women. Sir Benjamin Brodie said
+    long ago that the evils of continence to women are perhaps
+    greater than those of incontinence, and to-day Hammer (_Die
+    Gesundheitlichen Gefahren der Geschlechtlichen Enthaltsamkeit_,
+    1904) states that, so far as reasons of health are concerned,
+    sexual abstinence is no more to be recommended to women than to
+    men. Nystroem is of the same opinion, though he thinks that women
+    bear sexual abstinence better than men, and has discussed this
+    special question at length in a section of his _Geschlechtsleben
+    und seine Gesetze_. He agrees with the experienced Erb that a
+    large number of completely chaste women of high character, and
+    possessing distinguished qualities of mind and heart, are more or
+    less disordered through their sexual abstinence; this is
+    specially often the case with women married to impotent men,
+    though it is frequently not until they approach the age of
+    thirty, Nystroem remarks, that women definitely realize their
+    sexual needs.
+
+    A great many women who are healthy, chaste, and modest, feel at
+    times such powerful sexual desire that they can scarcely resist
+    the temptation to go into the street and solicit the first man
+    they meet. Not a few such women, often of good breeding, do
+    actually offer themselves to men with whom they may have perhaps
+    only the slightest acquaintance. Routh records such cases
+    (_British Gynaecological Journal_, Feb., 1887), and most men have
+    met with them at some time. When a woman of high moral character
+    and strong passions is subjected for a very long period to the
+    perpetual strain of such sexual craving, especially if combined
+    with love for a definite individual, a chain of evil results,
+    physical and moral, may be set up, and numerous distinguished
+    physicians have recorded such cases, which terminated at once in
+    complete recovery as soon as the passion was gratified. Lauvergne
+    long since described a case. A fairly typical case of this kind
+    was reported in detail by Brachet (_De l'Hypochondrie_, p. 69)
+    and embodied by Griesinger in his classic work on "Mental
+    Pathology." It concerned a healthy married lady, twenty-six years
+    old, having three children. A visiting acquaintance completely
+    gained her affections, but she strenuously resisted the seducing
+    influence, and concealed the violent passion that he had aroused
+    in her. Various serious symptoms, physical and mental, slowly
+    began to appear, and she developed what seemed to be signs of
+    consumption. Six months' stay in the south of France produced no
+    improvement, either in the bodily or mental symptoms. On
+    returning home she became still worse. Then she again met the
+    object of her passion, succumbed, abandoned her husband and
+    children, and fled with him. Six months later she was scarcely
+    recognizable; beauty, freshness and plumpness had taken the place
+    of emaciation; while the symptoms of consumption and all other
+    troubles had entirely disappeared. A somewhat similar case is
+    recorded by Camill Lederer, of Vienna (_Monatsschrift fuer
+    Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906, Heft 3). A widow, a
+    few months after her husband's death, began to cough, with
+    symptoms of bronchial catarrh, but no definite signs of lung
+    disease. Treatment and change of climate proved entirely
+    unavailing to effect a cure. Two years later, as no signs of
+    disease had appeared in the lungs, though the symptoms continued,
+    she married again. Within a very few weeks all symptoms had
+    disappeared, and she was entirely fresh and well.
+
+    Numerous distinguished gynaecologists have recorded their belief
+    that sexual excitement is a remedy for various disorders of the
+    sexual system in women, and that abstinence is a cause of such
+    disorders. Matthews Duncan said that sexual excitement is the
+    only remedy for amenorrhoea; "the only emmenagogue medicine that
+    I know of," he wrote (_Medical Times_, Feb. 2, 1884), "is not to
+    be found in the Pharmacopoeia: it is erotic excitement. Of the
+    value of erotic excitement there is no doubt." Anstie, in his
+    work on _Neuralgia_, refers to the beneficial effect of sexual
+    intercourse on dysmenorrhoea, remarking that the necessity of the
+    full natural exercise of the sexual function is shown by the
+    great improvement in such cases after marriage, and especially
+    after childbirth. (It may be remarked that not all authorities
+    find dysmenorrhoea benefited by marriage, and some consider that
+    the disease is often thereby aggravated; see, e.g., Wythe Cook,
+    _American Journal Obstetrics_, Dec., 1893.) The distinguished
+    gynaecologist, Tilt, at a somewhat earlier date (_On Uterine and
+    Ovarian Inflammation_, 1862, p. 309), insisted on the evil
+    results of sexual abstinence in producing ovarian irritation, and
+    perhaps subacute ovaritis, remarking that this was specially
+    pronounced in young widows, and in prostitutes placed in
+    penitentiaries. Intense desire, he pointed out, determines
+    organic movements resembling those required for the gratification
+    of the desire. These burning desires, which can only be quenched
+    by their legitimate satisfaction, are still further heightened by
+    the erotic influence of thoughts, books, pictures, music, which
+    are often even more sexually stimulating than social intercourse
+    with men, but the excitement thus produced is not relieved by
+    that natural collapse which should follow a state of vital
+    turgescence. After referring to the biological facts which show
+    the effect of psychic influences on the formative powers of the
+    ovario-uterine organs in animals, Tilt continues: "I may fairly
+    infer that similar incitements on the mind of females may have a
+    stimulating effect on the organs of ovulation. I have frequently
+    known menstruation to be irregular, profuse, or abnormal in type
+    during courtship in women in whom nothing similar had previously
+    occurred, and that this protracted the treatment of chronic
+    ovaritis and of uterine inflammation." Bonnifield, of Cincinnati
+    (_Medical Standard_, Dec., 1896), considers that unsatisfied
+    sexual desire is an important cause of catarrhal endometritis. It
+    is well known that uterine fibroids bear a definite relation to
+    organic sexual activity, and that sexual abstinence, more
+    especially the long-continued deprivation of pregnancy, is a very
+    important cause of the disease. This is well shown by an analysis
+    by A.E. Giles (_Lancet_, March 2, 1907) of one hundred and fifty
+    cases. As many as fifty-six of these cases, more than a third,
+    were unmarried women, though nearly all were over thirty years of
+    age. Of the ninety-four married women, thirty-four had never been
+    pregnant; of those who had been pregnant, thirty-six had not been
+    so for at least ten years. Thus eighty-four per cent, had either
+    not been pregnant at all, or had had no pregnancy for at least
+    ten years. It is, therefore, evident that deprivation of sexual
+    function, whether or not involving abstinence from sexual
+    intercourse, is an important cause of uterine fibroid tumors.
+    Balls-Headley, of Victoria (_Evolution of the Diseases of Women_,
+    1894, and "Etiology of Diseases of Female Genital Organs,"
+    Allbutt and Playfair, _System of Gynaecology_,) believes that
+    unsatisfied sexual desire is a factor in very many disorders of
+    the sexual organs in women. "My views," he writes in a private
+    letter, "are founded on a really special gynaecological practice
+    of twenty years, during which I have myself taken about seven
+    thousand most careful records. The normal woman is sexually
+    well-formed and her sexual feelings require satisfaction in the
+    direction of the production of the next generation, but under the
+    restrictive and now especially abnormal conditions of
+    civilization some women undergo hereditary atrophy, and the
+    uterus and sexual feelings are feeble; in others of good average
+    local development the feeling is in restraint; in others the
+    feelings, as well as the organs, are strong, and if normal use be
+    withheld evils ensue. Bearing in mind these varieties of
+    congenital development in relation to the respective condition of
+    virginity, or sterile or parous married life, the mode of
+    occurrence and of progress of disease grows on the physician's
+    mind, and there is no more occasion for bewilderment than to the
+    mathematician studying conic sections, when his knowledge has
+    grown from the basis of the science. The problem is suggested:
+    Has a crowd of unassociated diseases fallen as through a sieve on
+    woman, or have these affections almost necessarily ensued from
+    the circumstances of her unnatural environment?" It may be added
+    that Kisch (_Sexual Life of Woman_), while protesting against any
+    exaggerated estimate of the effects of sexual abstinence,
+    considers that in women it may result, not only in numerous local
+    disorders, but also in nervous disturbance, hysteria, and even
+    insanity, while in neurasthenic women "regulated sexual
+    intercourse has an actively beneficial effect which is often
+    striking."
+
+    It is important to remark that the evil results of sexual
+    abstinence in women, in the opinion of many of those who insist
+    upon their importance, are by no means merely due to unsatisfied
+    sexual desire. They may be pronounced even when the woman herself
+    has not the slightest consciousness of sexual needs. This was
+    clearly pointed out forty years ago by the sagacious Anstie (_op.
+    cit._) In women, especially, he remarks, "a certain restless
+    hyperactivity of mind, and perhaps of body also, seems to be the
+    expression of Nature's unconscious resentment of the _neglect of
+    sexual functions_." Such women, he adds, have kept themselves
+    free from masturbation "at the expense of a perpetual and almost
+    fierce activity of mind and muscle." Anstie had found that some
+    of the worst cases of the form of nervosity and neurasthenia
+    which he termed "spinal irritation," often accompanied by
+    irritable stomach and anaemia, get well on marriage. "There can be
+    no question," he continues, "that a very large proportion of
+    these cases in single women (who form by far the greater number
+    of subjects of spinal irritation) are due to this conscious or
+    unconscious irritation kept up by an unsatisfied sexual want. It
+    is certain that very many young persons (women more especially)
+    are tormented by the irritability of the sexual organs without
+    having the least consciousness of sexual desire, and present the
+    sad spectacle of a _vie manquee_ without ever knowing the true
+    source of the misery which incapacitates them for all the active
+    duties of life. It is a singular fact that in occasional
+    instances one may even see two sisters, inheriting the same kind
+    of nervous organization, both tormented with the symptoms of
+    spinal irritation and both probably suffering from repressed
+    sexual functions, but of whom one shall be pure-minded and
+    entirely unconscious of the real source of her troubles, while
+    the other is a victim to conscious and fruitless sexual
+    irritation." In this matter Anstie may be regarded as a
+    forerunner of Freud, who has developed with great subtlety and
+    analytic power the doctrine of the transformation of repressed
+    sexual instinct in women into morbid forms. He considers that the
+    nervosity of to-day is largely due to the injurious action on the
+    sexual life of that repression of natural instincts on which our
+    civilization is built up. (Perhaps the clearest brief statement
+    of Freud's views on the matter is to be found in a very
+    suggestive article, "Die 'Kulturelle' Sexualmoral und die Moderne
+    Nervositaet," in _Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908, reprinted in the
+    second series of Freud's _Sammlung Kleiner Schriften zur
+    Neurosenlehre_, 1909). We possess the aptitude, he says, of
+    sublimating and transforming our sexual activities into other
+    activities of a psychically related character, but non-sexual.
+    This process cannot, however, be carried out to an unlimited
+    extent any more than can the conversion of heat into mechanical
+    work in our machines. A certain amount of direct sexual
+    satisfaction is for most organizations indispensable, and the
+    renunciation of this individually varying amount is punished by
+    manifestations which we are compelled to regard as morbid. The
+    process of sublimation, under the influence of civilization,
+    leads both to sexual perversions and to psycho-neuroses. These
+    two conditions are closely related, as Freud views the process of
+    their development; they stand to each other as positive and
+    negative, sexual perversions being the positive pole and
+    psycho-neuroses the negative. It often happens, he remarks, that
+    a brother may be sexually perverse, while his sister, with a
+    weaker sexual temperament, is a neurotic whose symptoms are a
+    transformation of her brother's perversion; while in many
+    families the men are immoral, the women pure and refined but
+    highly nervous. In the case of women who have no defect of sexual
+    impulse there is yet the same pressure of civilized morality
+    pushing them into neurotic states. It is a terribly serious
+    injustice, Freud remarks, that the civilized standard of sexual
+    life is the same for all persons, because though some, by their
+    organization, may easily accept it, for others it involves the
+    most difficult psychic sacrifices. The unmarried girl, who has
+    become nervously weak, cannot be advised to seek relief in
+    marriage, for she must be strong in order to "bear" marriage,
+    while we urge a man on no account to marry a girl who is not
+    strong. The married woman who has experienced the deceptions of
+    marriage has usually no way of relief left but by abandoning her
+    virtue. "The more strenuously she has been educated, and the more
+    completely she has been subjected to the demands of civilization,
+    the more she fears this way of escape, and in the conflict
+    between her desires and her sense of duty, she also seeks
+    refuge--in neurosis. Nothing protects her virtue so surely as
+    disease." Taking a still wider view of the influence of the
+    narrow "civilized" conception of sexual morality on women, Freud
+    finds that it is not limited to the production of neurotic
+    conditions; it affects the whole intellectual aptitude of women.
+    Their education denies them any occupation with sexual problems,
+    although such problems are so full of interest to them, for it
+    inculcates the ancient prejudice that any curiosity in such
+    matters is unwomanly and a proof of wicked inclinations. They are
+    thus terrified from thinking, and knowledge is deprived of worth.
+    The prohibition to think extends, automatically and inevitably,
+    far beyond the sexual sphere. "I do not believe," Freud
+    concludes, "that there is any opposition between intellectual
+    work and sexual activity such as was supposed by Moebius. I am of
+    opinion that the unquestionable fact of the intellectual
+    inferiority of so many women is due to the inhibition of thought
+    imposed upon them for the purpose of sexual repression."
+
+    It is only of recent years that this problem has been realized
+    and faced, though solitary thinkers, like Hinton, have been
+    keenly conscious of its existence; for "sorrowing virtue," as
+    Mrs. Ella Wheeler Wilcox puts it, "is more ashamed of its woes
+    than unhappy sin, because the world has tears for the latter and
+    only ridicule for the former." "It is an almost cynical trait of
+    our age," Hellpach wrote a few years ago, "that it is constantly
+    discussing the theme of prostitution, of police control, of the
+    age of consent, of the 'white slavery,' and passes over the moral
+    struggle of woman's soul without an attempt to answer her burning
+    questions."
+
+On the other hand we find medical writers not only asserting with much
+moral fervor that sexual intercourse outside marriage is always and
+altogether unnecessary, but declaring, moreover, the harmlessness or even
+the advantages of sexual abstinence.
+
+    Ribbing, the Swedish professor, in his _Hygiene Sexuelle_,
+    advocates sexual abstinence outside marriage, and asserts its
+    harmlessness. Gilles de la Tourette, Fere, and Augagneur in
+    France agree. In Germany Fuerbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health
+    and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 228) asserts
+    that continence is possible and necessary, though admitting that
+    it may, however, mean serious mischief in exceptional cases.
+    Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 14) doubts whether anyone,
+    who otherwise lived a reasonable life, ever became ill, or more
+    precisely neurasthenic, through sexual abstinence. Hegar,
+    replying to the arguments of Bebel in his well-known book on
+    women, denies that sexual abstinence can ever produce satyriasis
+    or nymphomania. Naecke, who has frequently discussed the problem
+    of sexual abstinence (e.g., _Archiv fuer Kriminal-Anthropologie_,
+    1903, Heft 1, and _Sexual-Probleme_, June, 1908), maintains that
+    sexual abstinence can, at most, produce rare and slight
+    unfavorable results, and that it is no more likely to produce
+    insanity, even in predisposed individuals, than are the opposite
+    extremes of sexual excess and masturbation. He adds that, so far
+    as his own observations are concerned, the patients in asylums
+    suffer scarcely at all from their compulsory sexual abstinence.
+
+    It is in England, however, that the virtues of sexual abstinence
+    have been most loudly and emphatically proclaimed, sometimes
+    indeed with considerable lack of cautious qualification. Acton,
+    in his _Reproductive Organs_, sets forth the traditional English
+    view, as well as Beale in his _Morality and the Moral Question_.
+    A more distinguished representative of the same view was Paget,
+    who, in his lecture on "Sexual Hypochondriasis," coupled sexual
+    intercourse with "theft or lying." Sir William Gowers (_Syphilis
+    and the Nervous System_, 1892, p. 126) also proclaims the
+    advantages of "unbroken chastity," more especially as a method of
+    avoiding syphilis. He is not hopeful, however, even as regards
+    his own remedy, for he adds: "We can trace small ground for hope
+    that the disease will thus be materially reduced." He would
+    still, however, preach chastity to the individual, and he does so
+    with all the ascetic ardor of a mediaeval monk. "With all the
+    force that any knowledge I possess, and any authority I have, can
+    give, I assert that no man ever yet was in the slightest degree
+    or way the worse for continence or better for incontinence. From
+    the latter all are worse morally; a clear majority are worse
+    physically; and in no small number the result is, and ever will
+    be, utter physical shipwreck on one of the many rocks, sharp,
+    jagged-edged, which beset the way, or on one of the many beds of
+    festering slime which no care can possibly avoid." In America the
+    same view widely prevails, and Dr. J.F. Scott, in his
+    _Sexual-Instinct_ (second edition, 1908, Ch. III), argues very
+    vigorously and at great length in favor of sexual abstinence. He
+    will not even admit that there are two sides to the question,
+    though if that were the case, the length and the energy of his
+    arguments would be unnecessary.
+
+    Among medical authorities who have discussed the question of
+    sexual abstinence at length it is not, indeed, usually possible
+    to find such unqualified opinions in its favor as those I have
+    quoted. There can be no doubt, however, that a large proportion
+    of physicians, not excluding prominent and distinguished
+    authorities, when casually confronted with the question whether
+    sexual abstinence is harmless, will at once adopt the obvious
+    path of least resistance and reply: Yes. In only a few cases will
+    they even make any qualification of this affirmative answer. This
+    tendency is very well illustrated by an inquiry made by Dr.
+    Ludwig Jacobsohn, of St. Petersburgh ("Die Sexuelle
+    Enthaltsamkeit im Lichte der Medizin," _St. Petersburger
+    Medicinische Wochenschrift_, March 17, 1907). He wrote to over
+    two hundred distinguished Russian and German professors of
+    physiology, neurology, psychiatry, etc., asking them if they
+    regarded sexual abstinence as harmless. The majority returned no
+    answer; eleven Russian and twenty-eight Germans replied, but four
+    of them merely said that "they had no personal experience," etc.;
+    there thus remained thirty-five. Of these E. Pflueger, of Bonn,
+    was skeptical of the advantage of any propaganda of abstinence:
+    "if all the authorities in the world declared the harmlessness of
+    abstinence that would have no influence on youth. Forces are here
+    in play that break through all obstacles." The harmlessness of
+    abstinence was affirmed by Kraepelin, Cramer, Gaertner, Tuczek,
+    Schottelius, Gaffky, Finkler, Selenew, Lassar, Seifert, Gruber;
+    the last, however, added that he knew very few abstinent young
+    men, and himself only considered abstinence good before full
+    development, and intercourse not dangerous in moderation even
+    before then. Brieger knew cases of abstinence without harmful
+    results, but himself thought that no general opinion could be
+    given. Juergensen said that abstinence _in itself_ is not harmful,
+    but that in some cases intercourse exerts a more beneficial
+    influence. Hoffmann said that abstinence is harmless, adding that
+    though it certainly leads to masturbation, that is better than
+    gonorrhoea, to say nothing of syphilis, and is easily kept within
+    bounds. Struempell replied that sexual abstinence is harmless, and
+    indirectly useful as preserving from the risk of venereal
+    disease, but that sexual intercourse, being normal, is always
+    more desirable. Hensen said that abstinence is not to be
+    unconditionally approved. Rumpf replied that abstinence was not
+    harmful for most before the age of thirty, but after that age
+    there was a tendency to mental obsessions, and marriage should
+    take place at twenty-five. Leyden also considered abstinence
+    harmless until towards thirty, when it leads to psychic
+    anomalies, especially states of anxiety, and a certain
+    affectation. Hein replied that abstinence is harmless for most,
+    but in some leads to hysterical manifestations and indirectly to
+    bad results from masturbation, while for the normal man
+    abstinence cannot be directly beneficial, since intercourse is
+    natural. Gruetzner thought that abstinence is almost never
+    harmful. Nescheda said it is harmless in itself, but harmful in
+    so far as it leads to unnatural modes of gratification. Neisser
+    believes that more prolonged abstinence than is now usual would
+    be beneficial, but admitted the sexual excitations of our
+    civilization; he added that of course he saw no harm for healthy
+    men in intercourse. Hoche replied that abstinence is quite
+    harmless in normal persons, but not always so in abnormal
+    persons. Weber thought it had a useful influence in increasing
+    will-power. Tarnowsky said it is good in early manhood, but
+    likely to be unfavorable after twenty-five. Orlow replied that,
+    especially in youth, it is harmless, and a man should be as
+    chaste as his wife. Popow said that abstinence is good at all
+    ages and preserves the energy. Blumenau said that in adult age
+    abstinence is neither normal nor beneficial, and generally leads
+    to masturbation, though not generally to nervous disorders; but
+    that even masturbation is better than syphilis. Tschiriew saw no
+    harm in abstinence up to thirty, and thought sexual weakness more
+    likely to follow excess than abstinence. Tschish regarded
+    abstinence as beneficial rather than harmful up to twenty-five or
+    twenty-eight, but thought it difficult to decide after that age
+    when nervous alterations seem to be caused. Darkschewitcz
+    regarded abstinence as harmless up to twenty-five. Fraenkel said
+    it was harmless for most, but that for a considerable proportion
+    of people intercourse is a necessity. Erb's opinion is regarded
+    by Jacobsohn as standing alone; he placed the age below which
+    abstinence is harmless at twenty; after that age he regarded it
+    as injurious to health, seriously impeding work and capacity,
+    while in neurotic persons it leads to still more serious results.
+    Jacobsohn concludes that the general opinion of those answering
+    the inquiry may thus be expressed: "Youth should be abstinent.
+    Abstinence can in no way injure them; on the contrary, it is
+    beneficial. If our young people will remain abstinent and avoid
+    extra-conjugal intercourse they will maintain a high ideal of
+    love and preserve themselves from venereal diseases."
+
+    The harmlessness of sexual abstinence was likewise affirmed in
+    America in a resolution passed by the American Medical
+    Association in 1906. The proposition thus formally accepted was
+    thus worded: "Continence is not incompatible with health." It
+    ought to be generally realized that abstract propositions of this
+    kind are worthless, because they mean nothing. Every sane person,
+    when confronted by the demand to boldly affirm or deny the
+    proposition, "Continence is not incompatible with health," is
+    bound to affirm it. He might firmly believe that continence is
+    incompatible with the health of most people, and that prolonged
+    continence is incompatible with anyone's health, and yet, if he
+    is to be honest in the use of language, it would be impossible
+    for him to deny the vague and abstract proposition that
+    "Continence is not incompatible with health." Such propositions
+    are therefore not only without value, but actually misleading.
+
+    It is obvious that the more extreme and unqualified opinions in
+    favor of sexual abstinence are based not on medical, but on what
+    the writers regard as moral considerations. Moreover, as the same
+    writers are usually equally emphatic in regard to the advantages
+    of sexual intercourse in marriage, it is clear that they have
+    committed themselves to a contradiction. The same act, as Naecke
+    rightly points out, cannot become good or bad according as it is
+    performed in or out of marriage. There is no magic efficacy in a
+    few words pronounced by a priest or a government official.
+
+    Remondino (loc. cit.) remarks that the authorities who have
+    committed themselves to declarations in favor of the
+    unconditional advantages of sexual abstinence tend to fall into
+    three errors: (1) they generalize unduly, instead of considering
+    each case individually, on its own merits; (2) they fail to
+    realize that human nature is influenced by highly mixed and
+    complex motives and cannot be assumed to be amenable only to
+    motives of abstract morality; (3) they ignore the great army of
+    masturbators and sexual perverts who make no complaint of sexual
+    suffering, but by maintaining a rigid sexual abstinence, so far
+    as normal relationships are concerned, gradually drift into
+    currents whence there is no return.
+
+Between those who unconditionally affirm or deny the harmlessness of
+sexual abstinence we find an intermediate party of authorities whose
+opinions are more qualified. Many of those who occupy this more guarded
+position are men whose opinions carry much weight, and it is probable that
+with them rather than with the more extreme advocates on either side the
+greater measure of reason lies. So complex a question as this cannot be
+adequately investigated merely in the abstract, and settled by an
+unqualified negative or affirmative. It is a matter in which every case
+requires its own special and personal consideration.
+
+    "Where there is such a marked opposition of opinion truth is not
+    exclusively on one side," remarks Loewenfeld (_Sexualleben und
+    Nervenleiden_, second edition, p. 40). Sexual abstinence is
+    certainly often injurious to neuropathic persons. (This is now
+    believed by a large number of authorities, and was perhaps first
+    decisively stated by Krafft-Ebing, "Ueber Neurosen durch
+    Abstinenz," _Jahrbuch fuer Psychiatrie_, 1889, p. 1). Loewenfeld
+    finds no special proclivity to neurasthenia among the Catholic
+    clergy, and when it does occur, there is no reason to suppose a
+    sexual causation. "In healthy and not hereditarily neuropathic
+    men complete abstinence is possible without injury to the nervous
+    system." Injurious effects, he continues, when they appear,
+    seldom occur until between twenty-four and thirty-six years of
+    age, and even then are not usually serious enough to lead to a
+    visit to a doctor, consisting mainly in frequency of nocturnal
+    emissions, pain in testes or rectum, hyperaesthesia in the
+    presence of women or of sexual ideas. If, however, conditions
+    arise which specially stimulate the sexual emotions, neurasthenia
+    may be produced. Loewenfeld agrees with Freud and Gattel that the
+    neurosis of anxiety tends to occur in the abstinent, careful
+    examination showing that the abstinence is a factor in its
+    production in both sexes. It is common among young women married
+    to much older men, often appearing during the first years of
+    marriage. Under special circumstances, therefore, abstinence can
+    be injurious, but on the whole the difficulties due to such
+    abstinence are not severe, and they only exceptionally call forth
+    actual disturbance in the nervous or psychic spheres. Moll takes
+    a similar temperate and discriminating view. He regards sexual
+    abstinence before marriage as the ideal, but points out that we
+    must avoid any doctrinal extremes in preaching sexual abstinence,
+    for such preaching will merely lead to hypocrisy. Intercourse
+    with prostitutes, and the tendency to change a woman like a
+    garment, induce loss of sensitiveness to the spiritual and
+    personal element in woman, while the dangers of sexual abstinence
+    must no more be exaggerated than the dangers of sexual
+    intercourse (Moll, _Libido Sexualis_, 1898, vol. i, p. 848; id.,
+    _Kontraere Sexualempfindung_, 1899, p. 588). Bloch also (in a
+    chapter on the question of sexual abstinence in his _Sexualleben
+    unserer Zeit_, 1908) takes a similar standpoint. He advocates
+    abstention during early life and temporary abstention in adult
+    life, such abstention being valuable, not only for the
+    conservation and transformation of energy, but also to emphasize
+    the fact that life contains other matters to strive for beyond
+    the ends of sex. Redlich (_Medizinische Klinik_, 1908, No. 7)
+    also, in a careful study of the medical aspects of the question,
+    takes an intermediate standpoint in relation to the relative
+    advantages and disadvantages of sexual abstinence. "We may say
+    that sexual abstinence is not a condition which must, under all
+    circumstances and at any price, be avoided, though it is true
+    that for the majority of healthy adult persons regular sexual
+    intercourse is advantageous, and sometimes is even to be
+    recommended."
+
+    It may be added that from the standpoint of Christian religious
+    morality this same attitude, between the extremes of either
+    party, recognizing the advantages of sexual abstinence, but not
+    insisting that they shall be purchased at any price, has also
+    found representation. Thus, in England, an Anglican clergyman,
+    the Rev. H. Northcote (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, pp. 58,
+    60) deals temperately and sympathetically with the difficulties
+    of sexual abstinence, and is by no means convinced that such
+    abstinence is always an unmixed advantage; while in Germany a
+    Catholic priest, Karl Jentsch (_Sexualethik, Sexualjustiz,
+    Sexualpolizei_, 1900) sets himself to oppose the rigorous and
+    unqualified assertions of Ribbing in favor of sexual abstinence.
+    Jentsch thus expresses what he conceives ought to be the attitude
+    of fathers, of public opinion, of the State and the Church
+    towards the young man in this matter: "Endeavor to be abstinent
+    until marriage. Many succeed in this. If you can succeed, it is
+    good. But, if you cannot succeed, it is unnecessary to cast
+    reproaches on yourself and to regard yourself as a scoundrel or a
+    lost sinner. Provided that you do not abandon yourself to mere
+    enjoyment or wantonness, but are content with what is necessary
+    to restore your peace of mind, self-possession, and cheerful
+    capacity for work, and also that you observe the precautions
+    which physicians or experienced friends impress upon you."
+
+When we thus analyze and investigate the the three main streams of expert
+opinions in regard to this question of sexual abstinence--the opinions in
+favor of it, the opinions in opposition to it, and the opinions which take
+an intermediate course--we can scarcely fail to conclude how
+unsatisfactory the whole discussion is. The state of "sexual abstinence"
+is a completely vague and indefinite state. The indefinite and even
+meaningless character of the expression "sexual abstinence" is shown by
+the frequency with which those who argue about it assume that it can, may,
+or even must, involve masturbation. That fact alone largely deprives it of
+value as morality and altogether as abstinence. At this point, indeed, we
+reach the most fundamental criticism to which the conception of "sexual
+abstinence" lies open. Rohleder, an experienced physician and a recognized
+authority on questions of sexual pathology, has submitted the current
+views on "sexual abstinence" to a searching criticism in a lengthy and
+important paper.[95] He denies altogether that strict sexual abstinence
+exists at all. "Sexual abstinence," he points out, in any strict scenes of
+the term, must involve abstinence not merely from sexual intercourse but
+from auto-erotic manifestations, from masturbation, from homosexual acts,
+from all sexually perverse practices. It must further involve a permanent
+abstention from indulgence in erotic imaginations and voluptuous reverie.
+When, however, it is possible thus to render the whole psychic field a
+_tabula rasa_ so far as sexual activity is concerned--and if it fails to
+be so constantly and consistently there is no strict sexual
+abstinence--then, Rohleder points out, we have to consider whether we are
+not in presence of a case of sexual anaesthesia, of _anaphrodisia
+sexualis_. That is a question which is rarely, if ever, faced by those who
+discuss sexual abstinence. It is, however, an extremely pertinent
+question, because, as Rohleder insists, if sexual anaesthesia exists the
+question of sexual abstinence falls to the ground, for we can only
+"abstain" from actions that are in our power. Complete sexual anaesthesia
+is, however, so rare a state that it may be practically left out of
+consideration, and as the sexual impulse, if it exists, must by
+physiological necessity sometimes become active in some shape--even if
+only, according to Freud's view, by transformation into some morbid
+neurotic condition--we reach the conclusion that "sexual abstinence" is
+strictly impossible. Rohleder has met with a few cases in which there
+seemed to him no escape from the conclusion that sexual abstinence
+existed, but in all of these he subsequently found that he was mistaken,
+usually owing to the practice of masturbation, which he believes to be
+extremely common and very frequently accompanied by a persistent attempt
+to deceive the physician concerning its existence. The only kind of
+"sexual abstinence" that exists is a partial and temporary abstinence.
+Instead of saying, as some say, "Permanent abstinence is unnatural and
+cannot exist without physical and mental injury," we ought to say,
+Rohleder believes, "Permanent abstinence is unnatural and has never
+existed."
+
+It is impossible not to feel as we contemplate this chaotic mass of
+opinions, that the whole discussion is revolving round a purely negative
+idea, and that fundamental fact is responsible for what at first seem to
+be startling conflicts of statement. If indeed we were to eliminate what
+is commonly regarded as the religious and moral aspect of the matter--an
+aspect, be it remembered, which has no bearing on the essential natural
+facts of the question--we cannot fail to perceive that these ostentatious
+differences of conviction would be reduced within very narrow and trifling
+limits.
+
+We cannot strictly coordinate the impulse of reproduction with the impulse
+of nutrition. There are very important differences between them, more
+especially the fundamental difference that while the satisfaction of the
+one impulse is absolutely necessary both to the life of the individual and
+of the race, the satisfaction of the other is absolutely necessary only to
+the life of the race. But when we reduce this question to one of "sexual
+abstinence" we are obviously placing it on the same basis as that of
+abstinence from food, that is to say at the very opposite pole to which we
+place it when (as in the previous chapter) we consider it from the point
+of view of asceticism and chastity. It thus comes about that on this
+negative basis there really is an interesting analogy between nutritive
+abstinence, though necessarily only maintained incompletely and for a
+short time, and sexual abstinence, maintained more completely and for a
+longer time. A patient of Janet's seems to bring out clearly this
+resemblance. Nadia, whom Janet was able to study during five years, was a
+young woman of twenty-seven, healthy and intelligent, not suffering from
+hysteria nor from anorexia, for she had a normal appetite. But she had an
+idea; she was anxious to be slim and to attain this end she cut down her
+meals to the smallest size, merely a little soup and a few eggs. She
+suffered much from the abstinence she thus imposed on herself, and was
+always hungry, though sometimes her hunger was masked by the inevitable
+stomach trouble caused by so long a persistence in this _regime_. At
+times, indeed, she had been so hungry that she had devoured greedily
+whatever she could lay her hands on, and not infrequently she could not
+resist the temptation to eat a few biscuits in secret. Such actions caused
+her horrible remorse, but, all the same, she would be guilty of them
+again. She realized the great efforts demanded by her way of life, and
+indeed looked upon herself as a heroine for resisting so long.
+"Sometimes," she told Janet, "I passed whole hours in thinking about food,
+I was so hungry. I swallowed my saliva, I bit my handkerchief, I rolled
+on the ground, I wanted to eat so badly. I searched books for descriptions
+of meals and feasts, I tried to deceive my hunger by imagining that I too
+was enjoying all these good things. I was really famished, and in spite of
+a few weaknesses for biscuits I know that I showed much courage."[96]
+Nadia's motive idea, that she wished to be slim, corresponds to the
+abstinent man's idea that he wishes to be "moral," and only differs from
+it by having the advantage of being somewhat more positive and personal,
+for the idea of the person who wishes to avoid sexual indulgence because
+it is "not right" is often not merely negative but impersonal and imposed
+by the social and religious environment. Nadia's occasional outbursts of
+reckless greediness correspond to the sudden impulses to resort to
+prostitution, and her secret weaknesses for biscuits, followed by keen
+remorse, to lapses into the habit of masturbation. Her fits of struggling
+and rolling on the ground are precisely like the outbursts of futile
+desire which occasionally occur to young abstinent men and women in health
+and strength. The absorption in thoughts about meals and in literary
+descriptions of meals is clearly analogous to the abstinent man's
+absorption in wanton thoughts and erotic books. Finally, Nadia's
+conviction that she is a heroine corresponds exactly to the attitude of
+self-righteousness which often marks the sexually abstinent.
+
+If we turn to Freud's penetrating and suggestive study of the problem of
+sexual abstinence in relation to "civilized" sexual morality, we find
+that, though he makes no reference to the analogy with abstinence from
+food, his words would for the most part have an equal application to both
+cases. "The task of subduing so powerful an instinct as the sexual
+impulse, otherwise than by giving it satisfaction," he writes, "is one
+which may employ the whole strength of a man. Subjugation through
+sublimation, by guiding the sexual forces into higher civilizational
+paths, may succeed with a minority, and even with these only for a time,
+least easily during the years of ardent youthful energy. Most others
+become neurotic or otherwise come to grief. Experience shows that the
+majority of people constituting our society are constitutionally unequal
+to the task of abstinence. We say, indeed, that the struggle with this
+powerful impulse and the emphasis the struggle involves on the ethical and
+aesthetic forces in the soul's life 'steels' the character, and for a few
+favorably organized natures this is true; it must also be acknowledged
+that the differentiation of individual character so marked in our time
+only becomes possible through sexual limitations. But in by far the
+majority of cases the struggle with sensuality uses up the available
+energy of character, and this at the very time when the young man needs
+all his strength in order to win his place in the world."[97]
+
+When we have put the problem on this negative basis of abstinence it is
+difficult to see how we can dispute the justice of Freud's conclusions.
+They hold good equally for abstinence from food and abstinence from sexual
+love. When we have placed the problem on a more positive basis, and are
+able to invoke the more active and fruitful motives of asceticism and
+chastity this unfortunate fight against a natural impulse is abolished. If
+chastity is an ideal of the harmonious play of all the organic impulses of
+the soul and body, if asceticism, properly understood, is the athletic
+striving for a worthy object which causes, for the time, an indifference
+to the gratification of sexual impulses, we are on wholesome and natural
+ground, and there is no waste of energy in fruitless striving for a
+negative end, whether imposed artificially from without, as it usually is,
+or voluntarily chosen by the individual himself.
+
+For there is really no complete analogy between sexual desire and hunger,
+between abstinence from sexual relations and abstinence from food. When we
+put them both on the basis of abstinence we put them on a basis which
+covers the impulse for food but only half covers the impulse for sexual
+love. We confer no pleasure and no service on our food when we eat it. But
+the half of sexual love, perhaps the most important and ennobling half,
+lies in what we give and not in what we take. To reduce this question to
+the low level of abstinence, is not only to centre it in a merely negative
+denial but to make it a solely self-regarding question. Instead of asking:
+How can I bring joy and strength to another? we only ask: How can I
+preserve my empty virtue?
+
+Therefore it is that from whatever aspect we consider the
+question,--whether in view of the flagrant contradiction between the
+authorities who have discussed this question, or of the illegitimate
+mingling here of moral and physiological considerations, or of the merely
+negative and indeed unnatural character of the "virtue" thus set up, or of
+the failure involved to grasp the ennoblingly altruistic and mutual side
+of sexual love,--from whatever aspect we approach the problem of "sexual
+abstinence" we ought only to agree to do so under protest.
+
+If we thus decide to approach it, and if we have reached the
+conviction--which, in view of all the evidence we can scarcely
+escape--that, while sexual abstinence in so far as it may be recognized as
+possible is not incompatible with health, there are yet many adults for
+whom it is harmful, and a very much larger number for whom when prolonged
+it is undesirable, we encounter a serious problem. It is a problem which
+confronts any person, and especially the physician, who may be called upon
+to give professional advice to his fellows on this matter. If sexual
+relationships are sometimes desirable for unmarried persons, or for
+married persons who, for any reason, are debarred from conjugal union, is
+a physician justified in recommending such sexual relationships to his
+patient? This is a question that has frequently been debated and decided
+in opposing senses.
+
+    Various distinguished physicians, especially in Germany, have
+    proclaimed the duty of the doctor to recommend sexual intercourse
+    to his patient whenever he considers it desirable. Gyurkovechky,
+    for instance, has fully discussed this question, and answered it
+    in the affirmative. Nystroem (_Sexual-Probleme_, July, 1908, p.
+    413) states that it is the physician's duty, in some cases of
+    sexual weakness, when all other methods of treatment have failed,
+    to recommend sexual intercourse as the best remedy. Dr. Max
+    Marcuse stands out as a conspicuous advocate of the unconditional
+    duty of the physician to advocate sexual intercourse in some
+    cases, both to men and to women, and has on many occasions argued
+    in this sense (e.g., _Darf der Arzt zum Ausserehelichen
+    Geschlechtsverkehr raten?_ 1904). Marcuse is strongly of opinion
+    that a physician who, allowing himself to be influenced by moral,
+    sociological, or other considerations, neglects to recommend
+    sexual intercourse when he considers it desirable for the
+    patient's health, is unworthy of his profession, and should
+    either give up medicine or send his patients to other doctors.
+    This attitude, though not usually so emphatically stated, seems
+    to be widely accepted. Lederer goes even further when he states
+    (_Monatsschrift fuer Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906,
+    Heft 3) that it is the physician's duty in the case of a woman
+    who is suffering from her husband's impotence, to advise her to
+    have intercourse with another man, adding that "whether she does
+    so with her husband's consent is no affair of the physician's,
+    for he is not the guardian of morality, but the guardian of
+    health." The physicians who publicly take this attitude are,
+    however, a small minority. In England, so far as I am aware, no
+    physician of eminence has openly proclaimed the duty of the
+    doctor to advise sexual intercourse outside marriage, although,
+    it is scarcely necessary to add, in England, as elsewhere, it
+    happens that doctors, including women doctors, from time to time
+    privately point out to their unmarried and even married patients,
+    that sexual intercourse would probably be beneficial.
+
+    The duty of the physician to recommend sexual intercourse has
+    been denied as emphatically as it has been affirmed. Thus
+    Eulenburg (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 43), would by no means
+    advise extra-conjugal relations to his patient; "such advice is
+    quite outside the physician's competence." It is, of course,
+    denied by those who regard sexual abstinence as always harmless,
+    if not beneficial. But it is also denied by many who consider
+    that, under some circumstances, sexual intercourse would do good.
+
+    Moll has especially, and on many occasions, discussed the duty of
+    the physician in relation to the question of advising sexual
+    intercourse outside marriage (e.g., in his comprehensive work,
+    _Aerztliche Ethik_, 1902; also _Zeitschrift fuer Aerztliche
+    Fortbildung_, 1905, Nos. 12-15; _Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 3;
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. ii, Heft 8). At the outset
+    Moll had been disposed to assert the right of the physician to
+    recommend sexual intercourse under some circumstances; "so long
+    as marriage is unduly delayed and sexual intercourse outside
+    marriage exists," he wrote (_Die Contraere Sexualempfindung_,
+    second edition, p. 287), "so long, I think, we may use such
+    intercourse therapeutically, provided that the rights of no third
+    person (husband or wife) are injured." In all his later writings,
+    however, Moll ranges himself clearly and decisively on the
+    opposite side. He considers that the physician has no right to
+    overlook the possible results of his advice in inflicting
+    venereal disease, or, in the case of a woman, pregnancy, on his
+    patient, and he believes that these serious results are far more
+    likely to happen than is always admitted by those who defend the
+    legitimacy of such advice. Nor will Moll admit that the physician
+    is entitled to overlook the moral aspects of the question. A
+    physician may know that a poor man could obtain many things good
+    for his health by stealing, but he cannot advise him to steal.
+    Moll takes the case of a Catholic priest who is suffering from
+    neurasthenia due to sexual abstinence. Even although the
+    physician feels certain that the priest may be able to avoid all
+    the risks of disease as well as of publicity, he is not entitled
+    to urge him to sexual intercourse. He has to remember that in
+    thus causing a priest to break his vows of chastity he may induce
+    a mental conflict and a bitter remorse which may lead to the
+    worst results, even on his patient's physical health. Similar
+    results, Moll remarks, may follow such advice when given to a
+    married man or woman, to say nothing of possible divorce
+    proceedings and accompanying evils.
+
+    Rohleder (_Vorlesungen ueber Geschlechtstrieb und Gesamtes
+    Geschlechtsleben der Menschen_) adopts a somewhat qualified
+    attitude in this matter. As a general rule he is decidedly
+    against recommending sexual intercourse outside marriage to those
+    who are suffering from partial or temporary abstinence (the only
+    form of abstinence he recognizes), partly on the ground that the
+    evils of abstinence are not serious or permanent, and partly
+    because the patient is fairly certain to exercise his own
+    judgment in the matter. But in some classes of cases he
+    recommends such intercourse, and notably to bisexual persons, on
+    the ground that he is thus preserving his patient from the
+    criminal risks of homosexual practices.
+
+It seems to me that there should be no doubt whatever as to the correct
+professional attitude of the physician in relation to this question of
+advice concerning sexual intercourse. The physician is never entitled to
+advise his patient to adopt sexual intercourse outside marriage nor any
+method of relief which is commonly regarded as illegitimate. It is said
+that the physician has nothing to do with considerations of conventional
+morality. If he considers that champagne would be good for a poor patient
+he ought to recommend him to take champagne; he is not called upon to
+consider whether the patient will beg, borrow, or steal the champagne.
+But, after all, even if that be admitted, it must still be said that the
+physician knows that the champagne, however obtained, is not likely to be
+poisonous. When, however, he prescribes sexual intercourse, with the same
+lofty indifference to practical considerations, he has no such knowledge.
+In giving such a prescription the physician has in fact not the slightest
+knowledge of what he may be prescribing. He may be giving his patient a
+venereal disease; he may be giving the anxieties and responsibilities of
+an illegitimate child; the prescriber is quite in the dark. He is in the
+same position as if he had prescribed a quack medicine of which the
+composition was unknown to him, with the added disadvantage that the
+medicine may turn out to be far more potently explosive than is the case
+with the usually innocuous patent medicine. The utmost that a physician
+can properly permit himself to do is to put the case impartially before
+his patient and to present to him all the risks. The solution must be for
+the patient himself to work out, as best he can, for it involves social
+and other considerations which, while they are indeed by no means outside
+the sphere of medicine, are certainly entirely outside the control of the
+individual private practitioner of medicine.
+
+    Moll also is of opinion that this impartial presentation of the
+    case for and against sexual intercourse corresponds to the
+    physician's duty in the matter. It is, indeed, a duty which can
+    scarcely be escaped by the physician in many cases. Moll points
+    out that it can by no means be assimilated, as some have
+    supposed, with the recommendation of sexual intercourse. It is,
+    on the contrary, he remarks, much more analogous to the
+    physician's duty in reference to operations. He puts before the
+    patient the nature of the operation, its advantages and its
+    risks, but he leaves it to the patient's judgment to accept or
+    reject the operation. Lewitt also (_Geschlechtliche
+    Enthaltsamkeit und Gesundheitsstoerungen_, 1905), after discussing
+    the various opinions on this question, comes to the conclusion
+    that the physician, if he thinks that intercourse outside
+    marriage might be beneficial, should explain the difficulties and
+    leave the patient himself to decide.
+
+There is another reason why, having regard to the prevailing moral
+opinions at all events among the middle classes, a physician should
+refrain from advising extra-conjugal intercourse: he places himself in a
+false relation to his social environment. He is recommending a remedy the
+nature of which he could not publicly avow, and so destroying the public
+confidence in himself. The only physician who is morally entitled to
+advise his patients to enter into extra-conjugal relationships is one who
+openly acknowledges that he is prepared to give such advice. The doctor
+who is openly working for social reform has perhaps won the moral right to
+give advice in accordance with the tendency of his public activity, but
+even then his advice may be very dubiously judicious, and he would be
+better advised to confine his efforts at social reform to his public
+activities. The voice of the physician, as Professor Max Flesch of
+Frankfort observes, is more and more heard in the development and new
+growth of social institutions; he is a natural leaders in such movements,
+and proposals for reform properly come from him. "But," as Flesch
+continues, "publicly to accept the excellence of existing institutions and
+in the privacy of the consulting-room to give advice which assumes the
+imperfection of those institutions is illogical and confusing. It is the
+physician's business to give advice which is in accordance with the
+interests of the community as a whole, and those interests require that
+sexual relationships should be entered into between healthy men and women
+who are able and willing to accept the results of their union. That should
+be the physician's rule of conduct. Only so can he become, what to-day he
+is often proclaimed to be, the leader of the nation."[98] This view is
+not, as we see, entirely in accord with that which assumes that the
+physician's duty is solely and entirely to his patient, without regard to
+the bearing of his advice on social conduct. The patient's interests are
+primary, but they are not entitled to be placed in antagonism to the
+interests of society. The advice given by the wise physician must always
+be in harmony with the social and moral tone of his age. Thus it is that
+the tendency among the younger generation of physicians to-day to take an
+active interest in raising that tone and in promoting social reform--a
+tendency which exists not only in Germany where such interests have long
+been acute, but also in so conservative a land as England--is full of
+promise for the future.
+
+The physician is usually content to consider his duty to his patient in
+relationship to sexual abstinence as sufficiently fulfilled when he
+attempts to allay sexual hyperaesthesia by medical or hygienic treatment.
+It can scarcely be claimed, however, that the results of such treatment
+are usually satisfactory, and sometimes indeed the treatment has a result
+which is the reverse of that intended. The difficulty generally is that in
+order to be efficacious the treatment must be carried to an extreme which
+exhausts or inhibits not only the genital activities alone but the
+activities of the whole organism, and short of that it may prove a
+stimulant rather than a sedative. It is difficult and usually impossible
+to separate out a man's sexual activities and bring influence to bear on
+these activities alone. Sexual activity is so closely intertwined with the
+other organic activities, erotic exuberance is so much a flower which is
+rooted in the whole organism, that the blow which crushes it may strike
+down the whole man. The bromides are universally recognized as powerful
+sexual sedatives, but their influence in this respect only makes itself
+felt when they have dulled all the finest energies of the organism.
+Physical exercise is universally recommended to sexually hyperaesthetic
+patients. Yet most people, men and women, find that physical exercise is a
+positive stimulus to sexual activity. This is notably so as regards
+walking, and exuberantly energetic young women who are troubled by the
+irritant activity of their healthy sexual emotions sometimes spend a large
+part of their time in the vain attempt to lull their activity by long
+walks. Physical exercise only proves efficacious in this respect when it
+is carried to an extent which produces general exhaustion. Then indeed the
+sexual activity is lulled; but so are all the mental and physical
+activities. It is undoubtedly true that exercises and games of all sorts
+for young people of both sexes have a sexually hygienic as well as a
+generally hygienic influence which is undoubtedly beneficial. They are, on
+all grounds, to be preferred to prolonged sedentary occupations. But it is
+idle to suppose that games and exercises will suppress the sexual
+impulses, for in so far as they favor health, they favor all the impulses
+that are the result of health. The most that can be expected is that they
+may tend to restrain the manifestations of sex by dispersing the energy
+they generate.
+
+There are many physical rules and precautions which are advocated, not
+without reason, as tending to inhibit or diminish sexual activity. The
+avoidance of heat and the cultivation of cold is one of the most important
+of these. Hot climates, a close atmosphere, heavy bed-clothing, hot baths,
+all tend powerfully to excite the sexual system, for that system is a
+peripheral sensory organ, and whatever stimulates the skin generally,
+stimulates the sexual system.[99] Cold, which contracts the skin, also
+deadens the sexual feelings, a fact which the ascetics of old knew and
+acted upon. The garments and the posture of the body are not without
+influence. Constriction or pressure in the neighborhood of the sexual
+region, even tight corsets, as well as internal pressure, as from a
+distended bladder, are sources of sexual irritation. Sleeping on the back,
+which congests the spinal centres, also acts in the same way, as has long
+been known by those who attend to sexual hygiene; thus it is stated that
+in the Franciscan order it is prohibited to lie on the back. Food and
+drink are, further, powerful sexual stimulants. This is true even of the
+simplest and most wholesome nourishment, but it is more especially true of
+flesh meat, and, above all, of alcohol in its stronger forms such as
+spirits, liqueurs, sparkling and heavy wines, and even many English beers.
+This has always been clearly realized by those who cultivate asceticism,
+and it is one of the powerful reasons why alcohol should not be given in
+early youth. As St. Jerome wrote, when telling Eustochium that she must
+avoid wine like poison, "wine and youth are the two fires of lust. Why
+add oil to the flame?"[100] Idleness, again, especially when combined with
+rich living, promotes sexual activity, as Burton sets forth at length in
+his _Anatomy of Melancholy_, and constant occupation, on the other hand,
+concentrates the wandering activities.
+
+Mental exercise, like physical exercise, has sometimes been advocated as a
+method of calming sexual excitement, but it seems to be equally equivocal
+in its action. If it is profoundly interesting and exciting it may stir up
+rather than lull the sexual emotions. If it arouses little interest it is
+unable to exert any kind of influence. This is true even of mathematical
+occupations which have been advocated by various authorities, including
+Broussais, as aids to sexual hygiene.[101] "I have tried mechanical mental
+work," a lady writes, "such as solving arithmetical or algebraic problems,
+but it does no good; in fact it seems only to increase the excitement." "I
+studied and especially turned my attention to mathematics," a clergyman
+writes, "with a view to check my sexual tendencies. To a certain extent I
+was successful. But at the approach of an old friend, a voice or a touch,
+these tendencies came back again with renewed strength. I found
+mathematics, however, the best thing on the whole to take off my attention
+from women, better than religious exercises which I tried when younger
+(twenty-two to thirty)." At the best, however, such devices are of merely
+temporary efficacy.
+
+It is easier to avoid arousing the sexual impulses than to impose silence
+on them by hygienic measures when once they are aroused. It is,
+therefore, in childhood and youth that all these measures may be most
+reasonably observed in order to avoid any premature sexual excitement. In
+one group of stolidly normal children influences that might be expected to
+act sexually pass away unperceived. At the other extreme, another group of
+children are so neurotically and precociously sensitive that no
+precautions will preserve them from such influences. But between these
+groups there is another, probably much the largest, who resist slight
+sexual suggestions but may succumb to stronger or longer influences, and
+on these the cares of sexual hygiene may profitably be bestowed.[102]
+
+After puberty, when the spontaneous and inner voice of sex may at any
+moment suddenly make itself heard, all hygienic precautions are liable to
+be flung to the winds, and even the youth or maiden most anxious to retain
+the ideals of chastity can often do little but wait till the storm has
+passed. It sometimes happens that a prolonged period of sexual storm and
+stress occurs soon after puberty, and then dies away although there has
+been little or no sexual gratification, to be succeeded by a period of
+comparative calm. It must be remembered that in many, and perhaps most,
+individuals, men and women, the sexual appetite, unlike hunger or thirst,
+can after a prolonged struggle, be reduced to a more or less quiescent
+state which, far from injuring, may even benefit the physical and psychic
+vigor generally. This may happen whether or not sexual gratification has
+been obtained. If there has never been any such gratification, the
+struggle is less severe and sooner over, unless the individual is of
+highly erotic temperament. If there has been gratification, if the mind
+is filled not merely with desires but with joyous experience to which the
+body also has grown accustomed, then the struggle is longer and more
+painfully absorbing. The succeeding relief, however, if it comes, is
+sometimes more complete and is more likely to be associated with a state
+of psychic health. For the fundamental experiences of life, under normal
+conditions, bring not only intellectual sanity, but emotional
+pacification. A conquest of the sexual appetites which has never at any
+period involved a gratification of these appetites seldom produces results
+that commend themselves as rich and beautiful.
+
+In these combats there are, however, no permanent conquests. For a very
+large number of people, indeed, though there may be emotional changes and
+fluctuations dependent on a variety of circumstances, there can scarcely
+be said to be any conquest at all. They are either always yielding to the
+impulses that assail them, or always resisting those impulses, in the
+first case with remorse, in the second with dissatisfaction. In either
+case much of their lives, at the time when life is most vigorous, is
+wasted. With women, if they happen to be of strong passions and reckless
+impulses to abandonment, the results may be highly enervating, if not
+disastrous to the general psychic life. It is to this cause, indeed, that
+some have been inclined to attribute the frequent mediocrity of women's
+work in artistic and intellectual fields. Women of intellectual force are
+frequently if not generally women of strong passions, and if they resist
+the tendency to merge themselves in the duties of maternity their lives
+are often wasted in emotional conflict and their psychic natures
+impoverished.[103]
+
+    The extent to which sexual abstinence and the struggles it
+    involves may hamper and absorb the individual throughout life is
+    well illustrated in the following case. A lady, vigorous, robust,
+    and generally healthy, of great intelligence and high character,
+    has reached middle life without marrying, or ever having sexual
+    relationships. She was an only child, and when between three and
+    four years of age, a playmate some six years older, initiated her
+    into the habit of playing with her sexual parts. She was,
+    however, at this age quite devoid of sexual feelings, and the
+    habit dropped naturally, without any bad effects, as soon as she
+    left the neighborhood of this girl a year or so later. Her health
+    was good and even brilliant, and she developed vigorously at
+    puberty. At the age of sixteen, however, a mental shock caused
+    menstruation to diminish in amount during some years, and
+    simultaneously with this diminution persistent sexual excitement
+    appeared spontaneously, for the first time. She regarded such
+    feelings as abnormal and unhealthy, and exerted all her powers of
+    self-control in resisting them. But will power had no effect in
+    diminishing the feelings. There was constant and imperious
+    excitement, with the sense of vibration, tension, pressure,
+    dilatation and tickling, accompanied, it may be, by some ovarian
+    congestion, for she felt that on the left side there was a
+    network of sexual nerves, and retroversion of the uterus was
+    detected some years later. Her life was strenuous with many
+    duties, but no occupation could be pursued without this
+    undercurrent of sexual hyperaesthesia involving perpetual
+    self-control. This continued more or less acutely for many years,
+    when menstruation suddenly stopped altogether, much before the
+    usual period of the climacteric. At the same time the sexual
+    excitement ceased, and she became calm, peaceful, and happy.
+    Diminished menstruation was associated with sexual excitement,
+    but abundant menstruation and its complete absence were both
+    accompanied by the relief of excitement. This lasted for two
+    years. Then, for the treatment of a trifling degree of anaemia,
+    she was subjected to a long, and, in her case, injudicious course
+    of hypodermic injections of strychnia. From that time, five years
+    ago, up to the present, there has been constant sexual
+    excitement, and she has always to be on guard lest she should be
+    overtaken by a sexual spasm. Her torture is increased by the fact
+    that her traditions make it impossible for her (except under very
+    exceptional circumstances) to allude to the cause of her
+    sufferings. "A woman is handicapped," she writes. "She may never
+    speak to anyone on such a subject. She must live her tragedy
+    alone, smiling as much as she can under the strain of her
+    terrible burden." To add to her trouble, two years ago, she felt
+    impelled to resort to masturbation, and has done so about once a
+    month since; this not only brings no real relief, and leaves
+    irritability, wakefulness, and dark marks under the eyes, but is
+    a cause of remorse to her, for she regards masturbation as
+    entirely abnormal and unnatural. She has tried to gain benefit,
+    not merely by the usual methods of physical hygiene, but by
+    suggestion, Christian Science, etc., but all in vain. "I may
+    say," she writes, "that it is the most passionate desire of my
+    heart to be freed from this bondage, that I may relax the
+    terrible years-long tension of resistance, and be happy in my own
+    way. If I had this affliction once a month, once a week, even
+    twice a week, to stand against it would be child's play. I should
+    scorn to resort to unnatural means, however moderately. But
+    self-control itself has its revenges, and I sometimes feel as if
+    it is no longer to be borne."
+
+Thus while it is an immense benefit in physical and psychic development if
+the eruption of the disturbing sexual emotions can be delayed until
+puberty or adolescence, and while it is a very great advantage, after that
+eruption has occurred, to be able to gain control of these emotions, to
+crush altogether the sexual nature would be a barren, if not, indeed, a
+perilous victory, bringing with it no satisfaction. "If I had only had
+three weeks' happiness," said a woman, "I would not quarrel with Fate, but
+to have one's whole life so absolutely empty is horrible." If such vacuous
+self-restraint may, by courtesy, be termed a virtue, it is but a negative
+virtue. The persons who achieve it, as the result of congenitally feeble
+sexual aptitudes, merely (as Gyurkovechky, Fuerbringer, and Loewenfeld have
+all alike remarked) made a virtue of their weakness. Many others, whose
+instincts were less weak, when they disdainfully put to flight the desires
+of sex in early life, have found that in later life that foe returns in
+tenfold force and perhaps in unnatural shapes.[104]
+
+The conception of "sexual abstinence" is, we see, an entirely false and
+artificial conception. It is not only ill-adjusted to the hygienic facts
+of the case but it fails even to invoke any genuinely moral motive, for it
+is exclusively self-regarding and self-centred. It only becomes genuinely
+moral, and truly inspiring, when we transform it into the altruistic
+virtue of self-sacrifice. When we have done so we see that the element of
+abstinence in it ceases to be essential, "Self-sacrifice," writes the
+author of a thoughtful book on the sexual life, "is acknowledged to be the
+basis of virtue; the noblest instances of self-sacrifice are those
+dictated by sexual affection. Sympathy is the secret of altruism; nowhere
+is sympathy more real and complete than in love. Courage, both moral and
+physical, the love of truth and honor, the spirit of enterprise, and the
+admiration of moral worth, are all inspired by love as by nothing else in
+human nature. Celibacy denies itself that inspiration or restricts its
+influence, according to the measure of its denial of sexual intimacy. Thus
+the deliberate adoption of a consistently celibate life implies the
+narrowing down of emotional and moral experience to a degree which is,
+from the broad scientific standpoint, unjustified by any of the advantages
+piously supposed to accrue from it."[105]
+
+In a sane natural order all the impulses are centred in the fulfilment of
+needs and not in their denial. Moreover, in this special matter of sex, it
+is inevitable that the needs of others, and not merely the needs of the
+individual himself, should determine action. It is more especially the
+needs of the female which are the determining factor; for those needs are
+more various, complex and elusive, and in his attentiveness to their
+gratification the male finds a source of endless erotic satisfaction. It
+might be thought that the introduction of an altruistic motive here is
+merely the claim of theoretical morality insisting that there shall be a
+firm curb on animal instinct. But, as we have again and again seen
+throughout the long course of these _Studies_, it is not so. The animal
+instinct itself makes this demand. It is a biological law that rules
+throughout the zooelogical world and has involved the universality of
+courtship. In man it is only modified because in man sexual needs are not
+entirely concentrated in reproduction, but more or less penetrate the
+whole of life.
+
+While from the point of view of society, as from that of Nature, the end
+and object of the sexual impulse is procreation, and nothing beyond
+procreation, that is by no means true for the individual, whose main
+object it must be to fulfil himself harmoniously with that due regard for
+others which the art of living demands. Even if sexual relationships had
+no connection with procreation whatever--as some Central Australian tribes
+believe--they would still be justifiable, and are, indeed, an
+indispensable aid to the best moral development of the individual, for it
+is only in so intimate a relationship as that of sex that the finest
+graces and aptitudes of life have full scope. Even the saints cannot
+forego the sexual side of life. The best and most accomplished saints from
+Jerome to Tolstoy--even the exquisite Francis of Assisi--had stored up in
+their past all the experiences that go to the complete realization of
+life, and if it were not so they would have been the less saints.
+
+The element of positive virtue thus only enters when the control of the
+sexual impulse has passed beyond the stage of rigid and sterile abstinence
+and has become not merely a deliberate refusal of what is evil in sex, but
+a deliberate acceptance of what is good. It is only at that moment that
+such control becomes a real part of the great art of living. For the art
+of living, like any other art, is not compatible with rigidity, but lies
+in the weaving of a perpetual harmony between refusing and accepting,
+between giving and taking.[106]
+
+The future, it is clear, belongs ultimately to those who are slowly
+building up sounder traditions into the structure of life. The "problem of
+sexual abstinence" will more and more sink into insignificance. There
+remain the great solid fact of love, the great solid fact of chastity.
+Those are eternal. Between them there is nothing but harmony. The
+development of one involves the development of the other.
+
+It has been necessary to treat seriously this problem of "sexual
+abstinence" because we have behind us the traditions of two thousand years
+based on certain ideals of sexual law and sexual license, together with
+the long effort to build up practices more or less conditioned by those
+ideals. We cannot immediately escape from these traditions even when we
+question their validity for ourselves. We have not only to recognize their
+existence, but also to accept the fact that for some time to come they
+must still to a considerable extent control the thoughts and even in some
+degree the actions of existing communities.
+
+It is undoubtedly deplorable. It involves the introduction of an
+artificiality into a real natural order. Love is real and positive;
+chastity is real and positive. But sexual abstinence is unreal and
+negative, in the strict sense perhaps impossible. The underlying feelings
+of all those who have emphasized its importance is that a physiological
+process can be good or bad according as it is or is not carried out under
+certain arbitrary external conditions, which render it licit or illicit.
+An act of sexual intercourse under the name of "marriage" is beneficial;
+the very same act, under the name of "incontinence," is pernicious. No
+physiological process, and still less any spiritual process, can bear such
+restriction. It is as much as to say that a meal becomes good or bad,
+digestible or indigestible, according as a grace is or is not pronounced
+before the eating of it.
+
+It is deplorable because, such a conception being essentially unreal, an
+element of unreality is thus introduced into a matter of the gravest
+concern alike to the individual and to society. Artificial disputes have
+been introduced where no matter of real dispute need exist. A contest has
+been carried on marked by all the ferocity which marks contests about
+metaphysical or pseudo-metaphysical differences having no concrete basis
+in the actual world. As will happen in such cases, there has, after all,
+been no real difference between the disputants because the point they
+quarreled over was unreal. In truth each side was right and each side was
+wrong.
+
+It is necessary, we see, that the balance should be held even. An absolute
+license is bad; an absolute abstinence--even though some by nature or
+circumstances are urgently called to adopt it--is also bad. They are both
+alike away from the gracious equilibrium of Nature. And the force, we see,
+which naturally holds this balance even is the biological fact that the
+act of sexual union is the satisfaction of the erotic needs, not of one
+person, but of two persons.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[92] This view was an ambiguous improvement on the view, universally
+prevalent, as Westermarck has shown, among primitive peoples, that the
+sexual act involves indignity to a woman or depreciation of her only in so
+far as she is the property of another person who is the really injured
+party.
+
+[93] This implicit contradiction has been acutely pointed out from the
+religious side by the Rev. H. Northcote, _Christianity and Sex Problems_,
+p. 53.
+
+[94] It has already been necessary to discuss this point briefly in "The
+Sexual Impulse in Women," vol. iii of these _Studies_.
+
+[95] "Die Abstinentia Sexualis," _Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_,
+Nov., 1908.
+
+[96] P. Janet, "La Maladie du Scrupule," _Revue Philosophique_, May, 1901.
+
+[97] S. Freud, _Sexual-Probleme_, March, 1908. As Adele Schreiber also
+points out (_Mutterschutz_, Jan., 1907, p. 30), it is not enough to prove
+that abstinence is not dangerous; we have to remember that the spiritual
+and physical energy used up in repressing this mighty instinct often
+reduces a joyous and energetic nature to a weary and faded shadow.
+Similarly, Helene Stoecker (_Die Liebe und die Frauen_, p. 105) says: "The
+question whether abstinence is harmful is, to say the truth, a ridiculous
+question. One needs to be no nervous specialist to know, as a matter of
+course, that a life of happy love and marriage is the healthy life, and
+its complete absence cannot fail to lead to severe psychic depression,
+even if no direct physiological disturbances can be demonstrated."
+
+[98] Max Flesch, "Ehe, Hygine und Sexuelle Moral," _Mutterschutz_, 1905,
+Heft 7.
+
+[99] See the Section on Touch in the fourth volume of these _Studies_.
+
+[100] "I have had two years' close experience and connexion with the
+Trappists," wrote Dr. Butterfield, of Natal (_British Medical Journal_,
+Sept. 15, 1906, p. 668), "both as medical attendant and as being a
+Catholic in creed myself. I have studied them and investigated their life,
+habits and diet, and though I should be very backward in adopting it
+myself, as not suited to me individually, the great bulk of them are in
+absolute ideal health and strength, seldom ailing, capable of vast work,
+mental and physical. Their life is very simple and very regular. A
+healthier body of men and women, with perfect equanimity of temper--this
+latter I lay great stress on--it would be difficult to find. Health beams
+in their eyes and countenance and actions. Only in sickness or prolonged
+journeys are they allowed any strong foods--meats, eggs, etc.--or any
+alcohol."
+
+[101] Fere, _L'Instinct Sexuel_, second edition, p. 332.
+
+[102] Rural life, as we have seen when discussing its relation to sexual
+precocity, _is_ on one side the reverse of a safeguard against sexual
+influences. But, on the other hand, in so far as it involves hard work and
+simple living under conditions that are not nervously stimulating, it is
+favorable to a considerably delayed sexual activity in youth and to a
+relative continence. Ammon, in the course of his anthropological
+investigations of Baden conscripts, found that sexual intercourse was rare
+in the country before twenty, and even sexual emissions during sleep rare
+before nineteen or twenty. It is said, also, he repeats, that no one has a
+right to run after girls who does not yet carry a gun, and the elder lads
+sometimes brutally ill-treat any younger boy found going about with a
+girl. No doubt this is often preliminary to much license later.
+
+[103] The numerical preponderance which celibate women teachers have now
+gained in the American school system has caused much misgiving among many
+sagacious observers, and is said to be unsatisfactory in its results on
+the pupils of both sexes. A distinguished authority, Professor McKeen
+Cattell ("The School and the Family," _Popular Science Monthly_, Jan.,
+1909), referring to this preponderance of "devitalized and unsexed
+spinsters," goes so far as to say that "the ultimate result of letting the
+celibate female be the usual teacher has been such as to make it a
+question whether it would not be an advantage to the country if the whole
+school plant could be scrapped."
+
+[104] Corre (_Les Criminels_, p. 351) mentions that of thirteen priests
+convicted of crime, six were guilty of sexual attempts on children, and of
+eighty-three convicted lay teachers, forty-eight had committed similar
+offenses. This was at a time when lay teachers were in practice almost
+compelled to live a celibate life; altered conditions have greatly
+diminished this class of offense among them. Without going so far as
+crime, many moral and religious men, clergymen and others, who have led
+severely abstinent lives in youth, sometimes experience in middle age or
+later the eruption of almost uncontrollable sexual impulses, normal or
+abnormal. In women such manifestations are apt to take the form of
+obsessional thoughts of sexual character, as e.g., the case
+(_Comptes-Rendus Congres International de Medecine_, Moscow, 1897, vol.
+iv, p. 27) of a chaste woman who was compelled to think about and look at
+the sexual organs of men.
+
+[105] J.A. Godfrey, _The Science of Sex_, p. 138.
+
+[106] See, e.g., Havelock Ellis, "St. Francis and Others," _Affirmations_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+PROSTITUTION.
+
+I. _The Orgy:_--The Religious Origin of the Orgy--The Feast of
+Fools--Recognition of the Orgy by the Greeks and Romans--The Orgy Among
+Savages--The Drama--The Object Subserved by the Orgy.
+
+II. _The Origin and Development of Prostitution:_--The Definition of
+Prostitution--Prostitution Among Savages--The Conditions Under Which
+Professional Prostitution Arises--Sacred Prostitution--The Rite of
+Mylitta--The Practice of Prostitution to Obtain a Marriage Portion--The
+Rise of Secular Prostitution in Greece--Prostitution in the East--India,
+China, Japan, etc.--Prostitution in Rome--The Influence of Christianity on
+Prostitution--The Effort to Combat Prostitution--The Mediaeval Brothel--The
+Appearance of the Courtesan--Tullia D'Aragona--Veronica Franco--Ninon de
+Lenclos--Later Attempts to Eradicate Prostitution--The Regulation of
+Prostitution--Its Futility Becoming Recognized.
+
+III. _The Causes of Prostitution:_--Prostitution as a Part of the Marriage
+System--The Complex Causation of Prostitution--The Motives Assigned by
+Prostitutes--(1) Economic Factor of Prostitution--Poverty Seldom the Chief
+Motive for Prostitution--But Economic Pressure Exerts a Real
+Influence--The Large Proportion of Prostitutes Recruited from Domestic
+Service--Significance of This Fact--(2) The Biological Factor of
+Prostitution--The So-called Born-Prostitute--Alleged Identity with the
+Born-Criminal--The Sexual Instinct in Prostitutes--The Physical and
+Psychic Characters of Prostitutes--(3) Moral Necessity as a Factor in the
+Existence of Prostitution--The Moral Advocates of Prostitution--The Moral
+Attitude of Christianity Towards Prostitution--The Attitude of
+Protestantism--Recent Advocates of the Moral Necessity of
+Prostitution--(4) Civilizational Value as a Factor of Prostitution--The
+Influence of Urban Life--The Craving for Excitement--Why Servant-girls
+so Often Turn to Prostitution--The Small Part Played by
+Seduction--Prostitutes Come Largely from the Country--The Appeal of
+Civilization Attracts Women to Prostitution--The Corresponding Attraction
+Felt by Men--The Prostitute as Artist and Leader of Fashion--The Charm of
+Vulgarity.
+
+IV. _The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution:_--The Decay of the
+Brothel--The Tendency to the Humanization of Prostitution--The Monetary
+Aspects of Prostitution--The Geisha--The Hetaira--The Moral Revolt
+Against Prostitution--Squalid Vice Based on Luxurious Virtue--The Ordinary
+Attitude Towards Prostitutes--Its Cruelty Absurd--The Need of Reforming
+Prostitution--The Need of Reforming Marriage--These These Two Needs
+Closely Correlated--The Dynamic Relationships Involved.
+
+
+_I. The Orgy_.
+
+Traditional morality, religion, and established convention combine to
+promote not only the extreme of rigid abstinence but also that of reckless
+license. They preach and idealize the one extreme; they drive those who
+cannot accept it to adopt the opposite extreme. In the great ages of
+religion it even happens that the severity of the rule of abstinence is
+more or less deliberately tempered by the permission for occasional
+outbursts of license. We thus have the orgy, which flourished in mediaeval
+days and is, indeed, in its largest sense, a universal manifestation,
+having a function to fulfil in every orderly and laborious civilization,
+built up on natural energies that are bound by more or less inevitable
+restraints.
+
+The consideration of the orgy, it may be said, lifts us beyond the merely
+sexual sphere, into a higher and wider region which belongs to religion.
+The Greek _orgeia_ referred originally to ritual things done with a
+religious purpose, though later, when dances of Bacchanals and the like
+lost their sacred and inspiring character, the idea was fostered by
+Christianity that such things were immoral.[107] Yet Christianity was
+itself in its origin an orgy of the higher spiritual activities released
+from the uncongenial servitude of classic civilization, a great festival
+of the poor and the humble, of the slave and the sinner. And when, with
+the necessity for orderly social organization, Christianity had ceased to
+be this it still recognized, as Paganism had done, the need for an
+occasional orgy. It appears that in 743 at a Synod held in Hainault
+reference was made to the February debauch (_de Spurcalibus in februario_)
+as a pagan practice; yet it was precisely this pagan festival which was
+embodied in the accepted customs of the Christian Church as the chief orgy
+of the ecclesiastical year, the great Carnival prefixed to the long fast
+of Lent. The celebration on Shrove Tuesday and the previous Sunday
+constituted a Christian Bacchanalian festival in which all classes joined.
+The greatest freedom and activity of physical movement was encouraged;
+"some go about naked without shame, some crawl on all fours, some on
+stilts, some imitate animals."[108] As time went on the Carnival lost its
+most strongly marked Bacchanalian features, but it still retains its
+essential character as a permitted and temporary relaxation of the tension
+of customary restraints and conventions. The Mediaeval Feast of Fools--a
+New Year's Revel well established by the twelfth century, mainly in
+France--presented an expressive picture of a Christian orgy in its extreme
+form, for here the most sacred ceremonies of the Church became the subject
+of fantastic parody. The Church, according to Nietzsche's saying, like all
+wise legislators, recognized that where great impulses and habits have to
+be cultivated, intercalary days must be appointed in which these impulses
+and habits may be denied, and so learn to hunger anew.[109] The clergy
+took the leading part in these folk-festivals, for to the men of that age,
+as Meray remarks, "the temple offered the complete notes of the human
+gamut; they found there the teaching of all duties, the consolation of all
+sorrows, the satisfaction of all joys. The sacred festivals of mediaeval
+Christianity were not a survival from Roman times; they leapt from the
+very heart of Christian society."[110] But, as Meray admits, all great and
+vigorous peoples, of the East and the West, have found it necessary
+sometimes to play with their sacred things.
+
+Among the Greeks and Romans this need is everywhere visible, not only in
+their comedy and their literature generally, but in everyday life. As
+Nietzsche truly remarks (in his _Geburt der Tragoedie_) the Greeks
+recognized all natural impulses, even those that are seemingly unworthy,
+and safeguarded them from working mischief by providing channels into
+which, on special days and in special rites, the surplus of wild energy
+might harmlessly flow. Plutarch, the last and most influential of the
+Greek moralists, well says, when advocating festivals (in his essay "On
+the Training of Children"), that "even in bows and harps we loosen their
+strings that we may bend and wind them up again." Seneca, perhaps the most
+influential of Roman if not of European moralists, even recommended
+occasional drunkenness. "Sometimes," he wrote in his _De Tranquillilate_,
+"we ought to come even to the point of intoxication, not for the purpose
+of drowning ourselves but of sinking ourselves deep in wine. For it washes
+away cares and raises our spirits from the lowest depths. The inventor of
+wine is called _Liber_ because he frees the soul from the servitude of
+care, releases it from slavery, quickens it, and makes it bolder for all
+undertakings." The Romans were a sterner and more serious people than the
+Greeks, but on that very account they recognized the necessity of
+occasionally relaxing their moral fibres in order to preserve their tone,
+and encouraged the prevalence of festivals which were marked by much more
+abandonment than those of Greece. When these festivals began to lose
+their moral sanction and to fall into decay the decadence of Rome had
+begun.
+
+All over the world, and not excepting the most primitive savages--for even
+savage life is built up on systematic constraints which sometimes need
+relaxation--the principle of the orgy is recognized and accepted. Thus
+Spencer and Gillen describe[111] the Nathagura or fire-ceremony of the
+Warramunga tribe of Central Australia, a festival taken part in by both
+sexes, in which all the ordinary rules of social life are broken, a kind
+of Saturnalia in which, however, there is no sexual license, for sexual
+license is, it need scarcely be said, no essential part of the orgy, even
+when the orgy lightens the burden of sexual constraints. In a widely
+different part of the world, in British Columbia, the Salish Indians,
+according to Hill Tout,[112] believed that, long before the whites came,
+their ancestors observed a Sabbath or seventh day ceremony for dancing and
+praying, assembling at sunrise and dancing till noon. The Sabbath, or
+periodically recurring orgy,--not a day of tension and constraint but a
+festival of joy, a rest from all the duties of everyday life,--has, as we
+know, formed an essential part of many of the orderly ancient
+civilizations on which our own has been built;[113] it is highly probable
+that the stability of these ancient civilizations was intimately
+associated with their recognition of the need of a Sabbath orgy. Such
+festivals are, indeed, as Crawley observes, processes of purification and
+reinvigoration, the effort to put off "the old man" and put on "the new
+man," to enter with fresh energy on the path of everyday life.[114]
+
+The orgy is an institution which by no means has its significance only for
+the past. On the contrary, the high tension, the rigid routine, the gray
+monotony of modern life insistently call for moments of organic relief,
+though the precise form that that orgiastic relief takes must necessarily
+change with other social changes. As Wilhelm von Humboldt said, "just as
+men need suffering in order to become strong so they need joy in order to
+become good." Charles Wagner, insisting more recently (in his _Jeunesse_)
+on the same need of joy in our modern life, regrets that dancing in the
+old, free, and natural manner has gone out of fashion or become
+unwholesome. Dancing is indeed the most fundamental and primitive form of
+the orgy, and that which most completely and healthfully fulfils its
+object. For while it is undoubtedly, as we see even among animals, a
+process by which sexual tumescence is accomplished,[115] it by no means
+necessarily becomes focused in sexual detumescence but it may itself
+become a detumescent discharge of accumulated energy. It was on this
+account that, at all events in former days, the clergy in Spain, on moral
+grounds, openly encouraged the national passion for dancing. Among
+cultured people in modern times, the orgy tends to take on a purely
+cerebral form, which is less wholesome because it fails to lead to
+harmonious discharge along motor channels. In these comparatively passive
+forms, however, the orgy tends to become more and more pronounced under
+the conditions of civilization. Aristotle's famous statement concerning
+the function of tragedy as "purgation" seems to be a recognition of the
+beneficial effects of the orgy.[116] Wagner's music-dramas appeal
+powerfully to this need; the theatre, now as ever, fulfils a great
+function of the same kind, inherited from the ancient days when it was the
+ordered expression of a sexual festival.[117] The theatre, indeed, tends
+at the present time to assume a larger importance and to approximate to
+the more serious dramatic performances of classic days by being
+transferred to the day-time and the open-air. France has especially taken
+the initiative in these performances, analogous to the Dionysiac festivals
+of antiquity and the Mysteries and Moralities of the Middle Ages. The
+movement began some years ago at Orange. In 1907 there were, in France, as
+many as thirty open-air theatres ("Theatres de la Nature," "Theatres du
+Soleil," etc.,) while it is in Marseilles that the first formal open-air
+theatre has been erected since classic days.[118] In England, likewise,
+there has been a great extension of popular interest in dramatic
+performances, and the newly instituted Pageants, carried out and taken
+part in by the population of the region commemorated in the Pageant, are
+festivals of the same character. In England, however, at the present time,
+the real popular orgiastic festivals are the Bank holidays, with which may
+be associated the more occasional celebrations, "Maffekings," etc., often
+called out by comparatively insignificant national events but still
+adequate to arouse orgiastic emotions as genuine as those of antiquity,
+though they are lacking in beauty and religious consecration. It is easy
+indeed for the narrowly austere person to view such manifestations with a
+supercilious smile, but in the eyes of the moralist and the philosopher
+these orgiastic festivals exert a salutary and preservative function. In
+every age of dull and monotonous routine--and all civilization involves
+such routine--many natural impulses and functions tend to become
+suppressed, atrophied, or perverted. They need these moments of joyous
+exercise and expression, moments in which they may not necessarily attain
+their full activity but in which they will at all events be able, as
+Cyples expresses it, to rehearse their great possibilities.[119]
+
+
+_II. The Origin and Development of Prostitution_.
+
+The more refined forms of the orgy flourish in civilization, although on
+account of their mainly cerebral character they are not the most
+beneficent or the most effective. The more primitive and muscular forms of
+the orgy tend, on the other hand, under the influence of civilization, to
+fall into discredit and to be so far as possible suppressed altogether. It
+is partly in this way that civilization encourages prostitution. For the
+orgy in its primitive forms, forbidden to show itself openly and
+reputably, seeks the darkness, and allying itself with a fundamental
+instinct to which civilized society offers no complete legitimate
+satisfaction, it firmly entrenches itself in the very centre of civilized
+life, and thereby constitutes a problem of immense difficulty and
+importance.[120]
+
+It is commonly said that prostitution has existed always and everywhere.
+That statement is far from correct. A kind of amateur prostitution is
+occasionally found among savages, but usually it is only when barbarism is
+fully developed and is already approaching the stage of civilization that
+well developed prostitution is found. It exists in a systematic form in
+every civilization.
+
+What is prostitution? There has been considerable discussion as to the
+correct definition of prostitution.[121] The Roman Ulpian said that a
+prostitute was one who openly abandons her body to a number of men without
+choice, for money.[122] Not all modern definitions have been so
+satisfactory. It is sometimes said a prostitute is a woman who gives
+herself to numerous men. To be sound, however, a definition must be
+applicable to both sexes alike and we should certainly hesitate to
+describe a man who had sexual intercourse with many women as a prostitute.
+The idea of venality, the intention to sell the favors of the body, is
+essential to the conception of prostitution. Thus Guyot defines a
+prostitute as "any person for whom sexual relationships are subordinated
+to gain."[123] It is not, however, adequate to define a prostitute simply
+as a woman who sells her body. That is done every day by women who become
+wives in order to gain a home and a livelihood, yet, immoral as this
+conduct may be from any high ethical standpoint, it would be inconvenient
+and even misleading to call it prostitution.[124] It is better, therefore,
+to define a prostitute as a woman who temporarily sells her sexual favors
+to various persons. Thus, according to Wharton's _Law-lexicon_ a
+prostitute is "a woman who indiscriminately consorts with men for hire";
+Bonger states that "those women are prostitutes who sell their bodies for
+the exercise of sexual acts and make of this a profession";[125] Richard
+again states that "a prostitute is a woman who publicly gives herself to
+the first comer in return for a pecuniary remuneration."[126] As, finally,
+the prevalence of homosexuality has led to the existence of male
+prostitutes, the definition must be put in a form irrespective of sex, and
+we may, therefore, say that a prostitute is a person who makes it a
+profession to gratify the lust of various persons of the opposite sex or
+the same sex.
+
+    It is essential that the act of prostitution should be habitually
+    performed with "various persons." A woman who gains her living by
+    being mistress to a man, to whom she is faithful, is not a
+    prostitute, although she often becomes one afterwards, and may
+    have been one before. The exact point at which a woman begins to
+    be a prostitute is a question of considerable importance in
+    countries in which prostitutes are subject to registration. Thus
+    in Berlin, not long ago, a girl who was mistress to a rich
+    cavalry officer and supported by him, during the illness of the
+    officer accidentally met a man whom she had formerly known, and
+    once or twice invited him to see her, receiving from him presents
+    in money. This somehow came to the knowledge of the police, and
+    she was arrested and sentenced to one day's imprisonment as an
+    unregistered prostitute. On appeal, however, the sentence was
+    annulled. Liszt, in his _Strafrecht_, lays it down that a girl
+    who obtains whole or part of her income from "fixed
+    relationships" is not practicing unchastity for gain in the sense
+    of the German law (_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang 1,
+    Heft 9, p. 345).
+
+It is not altogether easy to explain the origin of the systematized
+professional prostitution with the existence of which we are familiar in
+civilization. The amateur kind of prostitution which has sometimes been
+noted among primitive peoples--the fact, that is, that a man may give a
+woman a present in seeking to persuade her to allow him to have
+intercourse with her--is really not prostitution as we understand it. The
+present in such a case is merely part of a kind of courtship leading to a
+temporary relationship. The woman more or less retains her social position
+and is not forced to make an avocation of selling herself because
+henceforth no other career is possible to her. When Cook came to New
+Zealand his men found that the women were not impregnable, "but the terms
+and manner of compliance were as decent as those in marriage among us,"
+and according "to their notions the agreement was as innocent." The
+consent of the woman's friends was necessary, and when the preliminaries
+were settled it was also necessary to treat this "Juliet of a night" with
+"the same delicacy as is here required with the wife for life, and the
+lover who presumed to take any liberties by which this was violated was
+sure to be disappointed."[127] In some of the Melanesian Islands, it is
+said that women would sometimes become prostitutes, or on account of their
+bad conduct be forced to become prostitutes for a time; they were not,
+however, particularly despised, and when they had in this way accumulated
+a certain amount of property they could marry well, after which it would
+not be proper to refer to their former career.[128]
+
+When prostitution first arises among a primitive people it sometimes
+happens that little or no stigma is attached to it for the reason that the
+community has not yet become accustomed to attach any special value to the
+presence of virginity. Schurtz quotes from the old Arabic geographer
+Al-Bekri some interesting remarks about the Slavs: "The women of the
+Slavs, after they have married, are faithful to their husbands. If,
+however, a young girl falls in love with a man she goes to him and
+satisfies her passion. And if a man marries and finds his wife a virgin he
+says to her: 'If you were worth anything men would have loved you, and you
+would have chosen one who would have taken away your virginity.' Then he
+drives her away and renounces her." It is a feeling of this kind which,
+among some peoples, leads a girl to be proud of the presents she has
+received from her lovers and to preserve them as a dowry for her marriage,
+knowing that her value will thus be still further heightened. Even among
+the Southern Slavs of modern Europe, who have preserved much of the
+primitive sexual freedom, this freedom, as Krauss, who has minutely
+studied the manners and customs of these peoples, declares, is
+fundamentally different from vice, licentiousness, or immodesty.[129]
+
+Prostitution tends to arise, as Schurtz has pointed out, in every society
+in which early marriage is difficult and intercourse outside marriage is
+socially disapproved. "Venal women everywhere appear as soon as the free
+sexual intercourse of young people is repressed, without the necessary
+consequences being impeded by unusually early marriages."[130] The
+repression of sexual intimacies outside marriage is a phenomenon of
+civilization, but it is not itself by any means a measure of a people's
+general level, and may, therefore, begin to appear at an early period. But
+it is important to remember that the primitive and rudimentary forms of
+prostitution, when they occur, are merely temporary, and
+frequently--though not invariably--involve no degrading influence on the
+woman in public estimation, sometimes indeed increasing her value as a
+wife. The woman who sells herself for money purely as a professional
+matter, without any thought of love or passion, and who, by virtue of her
+profession, belongs to a pariah class definitely and rigidly excluded from
+the main body of her sex, is a phenomenon which can seldom be found except
+in developed civilization. It is altogether incorrect to speak of
+prostitutes as a mere survival from primitive times.
+
+On the whole, while among savages sexual relationships are sometimes free
+before marriage, as well as on the occasion of special festivals, they are
+rarely truly promiscuous and still more rarely venal. When savage women
+nowadays sell themselves, or are sold by their husbands, it has usually
+been found that we are concerned with the contamination of European
+civilization.
+
+The definite ways in which professional prostitution may arise are no
+doubt many.[131] We may assent to the general principle, laid down by
+Schurtz, that whenever the free union of young people is impeded under
+conditions in which early marriage is also difficult prostitution must
+certainly arise. There are, however, different ways in which this
+principle may take shape. So far as our western civilization is
+concerned--the civilization, that is to say, which has its cradle in the
+Mediterranean basin--it would seem that the origin of prostitution is to
+be found primarily in a religious custom, religion, the great conserver of
+social traditions, preserving in a transformed shape a primitive freedom
+that was passing out of general social life.[132] The typical example is
+that recorded by Herodotus, in the fifth century before Christ, at the
+temple of Mylitta, the Babylonian Venus, where every woman once in her
+life had to come and give herself to the first stranger who threw a coin
+in her lap, in worship of the goddess. The money could not be refused,
+however small the amount, but it was given as an offertory to the temple,
+and the woman, having followed the man and thus made oblation to Mylitta,
+returned home and lived chastely ever afterwards.[133] Very similar
+customs existed in other parts of Western Asia, in North Africa, in Cyprus
+and other islands of the Eastern Mediterranean, and also in Greece, where
+the Temple of Aphrodite on the fort at Corinth possessed over a thousand
+hierodules, dedicated to the service of the goddess, from time to time, as
+Strabo states, by those who desired to make thank-offering for mercies
+vouchsafed to them. Pindar refers to the hospitable young Corinthian women
+ministrants whose thoughts often turn towards Ourania Aphrodite[134] in
+whose temple they burned incense; and Athenaeus mentions the importance
+that was attached to the prayers of the Corinthian prostitutes in any
+national calamity.[135]
+
+We seem here to be in the presence, not merely of a religiously preserved
+survival of a greater sexual freedom formerly existing,[136] but of a
+specialized and ritualized development of that primitive cult of the
+generative forces of Nature which involves the belief that all natural
+fruitfulness is associated with, and promoted by, acts of human sexual
+intercourse which thus acquire a religious significance. At a later stage
+acts of sexual intercourse having a religious significance become
+specialized and localized in temples, and by a rational transition of
+ideas it becomes believed that such acts of sexual intercourse in the
+service of the god, or with persons devoted to the god's service, brought
+benefits to the individual who performed them, more especially, if a
+woman, by insuring her fertility. Among primitive peoples generally this
+conception is embodied mainly in seasonal festivals, but among the peoples
+of Western Asia who had ceased to be primitive, and among whom traditional
+priestly and hieratic influences had acquired very great influence, the
+earlier generative cult had thus, it seems probable, naturally changed
+its form in becoming attached to the temples.[137]
+
+    The theory that religious prostitution developed, as a general
+    rule, out of the belief that the generative activity of human
+    beings possessed a mysterious and sacred influence in promoting
+    the fertility of Nature generally seems to have been first set
+    forth by Mannhardt in his _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_ (pp. 283
+    et seq.). It is supported by Dr. F.S. Krauss ("Beischlafausuebung
+    als Kulthandlung," _Anthropophyteia_, vol. iii, p. 20), who
+    refers to the significant fact that in Baruch's time, at a period
+    long anterior to Herodotus, sacred prostitution took place under
+    the trees. Dr. J.G. Frazer has more especially developed this
+    conception of the origin of sacred prostitution in his _Adonis,
+    Attis, Osiris_. He thus summarizes his lengthy discussion: "We
+    may conclude that a great Mother Goddess, the personification of
+    all the reproductive energies of nature, was worshipped under
+    different names, but with a substantial similarity of myth and
+    ritual by many peoples of western Asia; that associated with her
+    was a lover, or rather series of lovers, divine yet mortal, with
+    whom she mated year by year, their commerce being deemed
+    essential to the propagation of animals and plants, each in their
+    several kind; and further, that the fabulous union of the divine
+    pair was simulated, and, as it were, multiplied on earth by the
+    real, though temporary, union of the human sexes at the sanctuary
+    of the goddess for the sake of thereby ensuring the fruitfulness
+    of the ground and the increase of man and beast. In course of
+    time, as the institution of individual marriage grew in favor,
+    and the old communism fell more and more into discredit, the
+    revival of the ancient practice, even for a single occasion in a
+    woman's life, became ever more repugnant to the moral sense of
+    the people, and accordingly they resorted to various expedients
+    for evading in practice the obligation which they still
+    acknowledged in theory.... But while the majority of women thus
+    contrived to observe the form of religion without sacrificing
+    their virtue, it was still thought necessary to the general
+    welfare that a certain number of them should discharge the old
+    obligation in the old way. These became prostitutes, either for
+    life or for a term of years, at one of the temples: dedicated to
+    the service of religion, they were invested with a sacred
+    character, and their vocation, far from being deemed infamous,
+    was probably long regarded by the laity as an exercise of more
+    than common virtue, and rewarded with a tribute of mixed wonder,
+    reverence, and pity, not unlike that which in some parts of the
+    world is still paid to women who seek to honor their Creator in a
+    different way by renouncing the natural functions of their sex
+    and the tenderest relations of humanity" (J.G. Frazer, _Adonis,
+    Attis, Osiris_, 1907, pp. 23 et seq.).
+
+    It is difficult to resist the conclusion that this theory
+    represents the central and primitive idea which led to the
+    development of sacred prostitution. It seems equally clear,
+    however, that as time went on, and especially as temple cults
+    developed and priestly influence increased, this fundamental and
+    primitive idea tended to become modified, and even transformed.
+    The primitive conception became specialized in the belief that
+    religious benefits, and especially the gift of fruitfulness, were
+    gained _by the worshipper_, who thus sought the goddess's favor
+    by an act of unchastity which might be presumed to be agreeable
+    to an unchaste deity. The rite of Mylitta, as described by
+    Herodotus, was a late development of this kind in an ancient
+    civilization, and the benefit sought was evidently for the
+    worshipper herself. This has been pointed out by Dr. Westermarck,
+    who remarks that the words spoken to the woman by her partner as
+    he gives her the coin--"May the goddess be auspicious to
+    thee!"--themselves indicate that the object of the act was to
+    insure her fertility, and he refers also to the fact that
+    strangers frequently had a semi-supernatural character, and their
+    benefits a specially efficacious character (Westermarck, _Origin
+    and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 446). It may be
+    added that the rite of Mylitta thus became analogous with another
+    Mediterranean rite, in which the act of simulating intercourse
+    with the representative of a god, or his image, ensured a woman's
+    fertility. This is the rite practiced by the Egyptians of Mendes,
+    in which a woman went through the ceremony of simulated
+    intercourse with the sacred goat, regarded as the representative
+    of a deity of Pan-like character (Herodotus, Bk. ii, Ch. XLVI;
+    and see Dulaure, _Des Divinites Generatrices_, Ch. II; cf. vol. v
+    of these _Studies_, "Erotic Symbolism," Sect. IV). This rite was
+    maintained by Roman women, in connection with the statues of
+    Priapus, to a very much later date, and St. Augustine mentions
+    how Roman matrons placed the young bride on the erect member of
+    Priapus (_De Civitate Dei_, Bk. iii, Ch. IX). The idea evidently
+    running through this whole group of phenomena is that the deity,
+    or the representative or even mere image of the deity, is able,
+    through a real or simulated act of intercourse, to confer on the
+    worshipper a portion of its own exalted generative activity.
+
+At a later period, in Corinth, prostitutes were still the priestesses of
+Venus, more or less loosely attached to her temples, and so long as that
+was the case they enjoyed a considerable degree of esteem. At this stage,
+however, we realize that religious prostitution was developing a
+utilitarian side. These temples flourished chiefly in sea-coast towns, in
+islands, in large cities to which many strangers and sailors came. The
+priestesses of Cyprus burnt incense on her altars and invoked her sacred
+aid, but at the same time Pindar addresses them as "young girls who
+welcome all strangers and give them hospitality." Side by side with the
+religious significance of the act of generation the needs of men far from
+home were already beginning to be definitely recognized. The Babylonian
+woman had gone to the temple of Mylitta to fulfil a personal religious
+duty; the Corinthian priestess had begun to act as an avowed minister to
+the sexual needs of men in strange cities.
+
+The custom which Herodotus noted in Lydia of young girls prostituting
+themselves in order to acquire a marriage portion which they may dispose
+of as they think fit (Bk. I, Ch. 93) may very well have developed (as
+Frazer also believes) out of religious prostitution; we can indeed trace
+its evolution in Cyprus where eventually, at the period when Justinian
+visited the island, the money given by strangers to the women was no
+longer placed on the altar but put into a chest to form marriage-portions
+for them. It is a custom to be found in Japan and various other parts of
+the world, notably among the Ouled-Nail of Algeria,[138] and is not
+necessarily always based on religious prostitution; but it obviously
+cannot exist except among peoples who see nothing very derogatory in free
+sexual intercourse for the purpose of obtaining money, so that the custom
+of Mylitta furnished a natural basis for it.[139]
+
+As a more spiritual conception of religion developed, and as the growth of
+civilization tended to deprive sexual intercourse of its sacred halo,
+religious prostitution in Greece was slowly abolished, though on the
+coasts of Asia Minor both religious prostitution and prostitution for the
+purpose of obtaining a marriage portion persisted to the time of
+Constantine, who put an end to these ancient customs.[140] Superstition
+was on the side of the old religious prostitution; it was believed that
+women who had never sacrificed to Aphrodite became consumed by lust, and
+according to the legend recorded by Ovid--a legend which seems to point to
+a certain antagonism between sacred and secular prostitution--this was the
+case with the women who first became public prostitutes. The decay of
+religious prostitution, doubtless combined with the cravings always born
+of the growth of civilization, led up to the first establishment,
+attributed by legend to Solon, of a public brothel, a purely secular
+establishment for a purely secular end: the safeguarding of the virtue of
+the general population and the increase of the public revenue. With that
+institution the evolution of prostitution, and of the modern marriage
+system of which it forms part, was completed. The Athenian _dikterion_ is
+the modern brothel; the _dikteriade_ is the modern state-regulated
+prostitute. The free _hetairae_, indeed, subsequently arose, educated women
+having no taint of the _dikterion_, but they likewise had no official part
+in public worship.[141] The primitive conception of the sanctity of sexual
+intercourse in the divine service had been utterly lost.
+
+    A fairly typical example of the conditions existing among savages
+    is to be found in the South Sea Island of Rotuma, where
+    "prostitution for money or gifts was quite unknown." Adultery
+    after marriage was also unknown. But there was great freedom in
+    the formation of sexual relationships before marriage (J. Stanley
+    Gardiner, _Journal Anthropological Institute_, February, 1898, p.
+    409). Much the same is said of the Bantu Ba mbola of Africa (_op.
+    cit._, July-December, 1905, p. 410).
+
+    Among the early Cymri of Wales, representing a more advanced
+    social stage, prostitution appears to have been not absolutely
+    unknown, but public prostitution was punished by loss of valuable
+    privileges (R.B. Holt, "Marriage Laws and Customs of the Cymri,"
+    _Journal Anthropological Institute_, August-November, 1898, pp.
+    161-163).
+
+    Prostitution was practically unknown in Burmah, and regarded as
+    shameful before the coming of the English and the example of the
+    modern Hindus. The missionaries have unintentionally, but
+    inevitably, favored the growth of prostitution by condemning free
+    unions (_Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, November, 1903, p.
+    720). The English brought prostitution to India. "That was not
+    specially the fault of the English," said a Brahmin to Jules
+    Bois, "it is the crime of your civilization. We have never had
+    prostitutes. I mean by that horrible word the brutalized servants
+    of the gross desire of the passerby. We had, and we have, castes
+    of singers and dancers who are married to trees--yes, to
+    trees--by touching ceremonies which date from Vedic times; our
+    priests bless them and receive much money from them. They do not
+    refuse themselves to those who love them and please them. Kings
+    have made them rich. They represent all the arts; they are the
+    visible beauty of the universe" (Jules Bois, _Visions de l'Inde_,
+    p. 55).
+
+    Religious prostitutes, it may be added, "the servants of the
+    god," are connected with temples in Southern India and the
+    Deccan. They are devoted to their sacred calling from their
+    earliest years, and it is their chief business to dance before
+    the image of the god, to whom they are married (though in Upper
+    India professional dancing girls are married to inanimate
+    objects), but they are also trained in arousing and assuaging the
+    desires of devotees who come on pilgrimage to the shrine. For the
+    betrothal rites by which, in India, sacred prostitutes are
+    consecrated, see, e.g., A. Van Gennep, _Rites de Passage_, p.
+    142.
+
+    In many parts of Western Asia, where barbarism had reached a high
+    stage of development, prostitution was not unknown, though
+    usually disapproved. The Hebrews knew it, and the historical
+    Biblical references to prostitutes imply little reprobation.
+    Jephtha was the son of a prostitute, brought up with the
+    legitimate children, and the story of Tamar is instructive. But
+    the legal codes were extremely severe on Jewish maidens who
+    became prostitutes (the offense was quite tolerable in strange
+    women), while Hebrew moralists exercised their invectives against
+    prostitution; it is sufficient to refer to a well-known passage
+    in the Book of Proverbs (see art. "Harlot," by Cheyne, in the
+    _Encyclopaedia Biblica_). Mahomed also severely condemned
+    prostitution, though somewhat more tolerant to it in slave
+    women; according to Haleby, however, prostitution was practically
+    unknown in Islam during the first centuries after the Prophet's
+    time.
+
+    The Persian adherents of the somewhat ascetic _Zendavesta_ also
+    knew prostitution, and regarded it with repulsion: "It is the
+    Gahi [the courtesan, as an incarnation of the female demon,
+    Gahi], O Spitama Zarathustra! who mixes in her the seed of the
+    faithful and the unfaithful, of the worshipper of Mazda and the
+    worshipper of the Daevas, of the wicked and the righteous. Her
+    look dries up one-third of the mighty floods that run from the
+    mountains, O Zarathustra; her look withers one-third of the
+    beautiful, golden-hued, growing plants, O Zarathustra; her look
+    withers one-third of the strength of Spenta Armaiti [the earth];
+    and her touch withers in the faithful one-third of his good
+    thoughts, of his good words, of his good deeds, one-third of his
+    strength, of his victorious power, of his holiness. Verily I say
+    unto thee, O Spitama Zarathustra! such creatures ought to be
+    killed even more than gliding snakes, than howling wolves, than
+    the she-wolf that falls upon the fold, or than the she-frog that
+    falls upon the waters with her thousandfold brood" (_Zend-Avesta,
+    the Vendidad_, translated by James Darmesteter, Farfad XVIII).
+
+    In practice, however, prostitution is well established in the
+    modern East. Thus in the Tartar-Turcoman region houses of
+    prostitution lying outside the paths frequented by Christians
+    have been described by a writer who appears to be well informed
+    ("Orientalische Prostitution," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_,
+    1907, Bd. ii, Heft 1). These houses are not regarded as immoral
+    or forbidden, but as places in which the visitor will find a
+    woman who gives him for a few hours the illusion of being in his
+    own home, with the pleasure of enjoying her songs, dances, and
+    recitations, and finally her body. Payment is made at the door,
+    and no subsequent question of money arises; the visitor is
+    henceforth among friends, almost as if in his own family. He
+    treats the prostitute almost as if she were his wife, and no
+    indecorum or coarseness of speech occurs. "There is no obscenity
+    in the Oriental brothel." At the same time there is no artificial
+    pretence of innocence.
+
+    In Eastern Asia, among the peoples of Mongolian stock, especially
+    in China, we find prostitution firmly established and organized
+    on a practical business basis. Prostitution is here accepted and
+    viewed with no serious disfavor, but the prostitute herself is,
+    nevertheless, treated with contempt. Young children are
+    frequently sold to be trained to a life of prostitution, educated
+    accordingly, and kept shut up from the world. Young widows
+    (remarriage being disapproved) frequently also slide into a life
+    of prostitution. Chinese prostitutes often end through opium and
+    the ravages of syphilis (see, e.g., Coltman's _The Chinese_,
+    1900, Ch. VII). In ancient China, it is said prostitutes were a
+    superior class and occupied a position somewhat similar to that
+    of the _hetairae_ in Greece. Even in modern China, however, where
+    they are very numerous, and the flower boats, in which in towns
+    by the sea they usually live, very luxurious, it is chiefly for
+    entertainment, according to some writers, that they are resorted
+    to. Tschang Ki Tong, military attache in Paris (as quoted by
+    Ploss and Bartels), describes the flower boat as less analogous
+    to a European brothel than to a _cafe chantant_; the young
+    Chinaman comes here for music, for tea, for agreeable
+    conversation with the flower-maidens, who are by no means
+    necessarily called upon to minister to the lust of their
+    visitors.
+
+    In Japan, the prostitute's lot is not so degraded as in China.
+    The greater refinement of Japanese civilization allows the
+    prostitute to retain a higher degree of self-respect. She is
+    sometimes regarded with pity, but less often with contempt. She
+    may associate openly with men, ultimately be married, even to men
+    of good social class, and rank as a respectable woman. "In riding
+    from Tokio to Yokohama, the past winter," Coltman observes (_op.
+    cit._, p. 113), "I saw a party of four young men and three quite
+    pretty and gaily-painted prostitutes, in the same car, who were
+    having a glorious time. They had two or three bottles of various
+    liquors, oranges, and fancy cakes, and they ate, drank and sang,
+    besides playing jokes on each other and frolicking like so many
+    kittens. You may travel the whole length of the Chinese Empire
+    and never witness such a scene." Yet the history of Japanese
+    prostitutes (which has been written in an interesting and
+    well-informed book, _The Nightless City_, by an English student
+    of sociology who remains anonymous) shows that prostitution in
+    Japan has not only been severely regulated, but very widely
+    looked down upon, and that Japanese prostitutes have often had to
+    suffer greatly; they were at one time practically slaves and
+    often treated with much hardship. They are free now, and any
+    condition approaching slavery is strictly prohibited and guarded
+    against. It would seem, however, that the palmiest days of
+    Japanese prostitution lay some centuries back. Up to the middle
+    of the eighteenth century Japanese prostitutes were highly
+    accomplished in singing, dancing, music, etc. Towards this
+    period, however, they seem to have declined in social
+    consideration and to have ceased to be well educated. Yet even
+    to-day, says Matignon ("La Prostitution au Japon," _Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, October, 1906), less infamy attaches
+    to prostitution in Japan than in Europe, while at the same time
+    there is less immorality in Japan than in Europe. Though
+    prostitution is organized like the postal or telegraph service,
+    there is also much clandestine prostitution. The prostitution
+    quarters are clean, beautiful and well-kept, but the Japanese
+    prostitutes have lost much of their native good taste in costume
+    by trying to imitate European fashions. It was when prostitution
+    began to decline two centuries ago, that the geishas first
+    appeared and were organized in such a way that they should not,
+    if possible, compete as prostitutes with the recognized and
+    licensed inhabitants of the Yoshiwara, as the quarter is called
+    to which prostitutes are confined. The geishas, of course, are
+    not prostitutes, though their virtue may not always be
+    impregnable, and in social position they correspond to actresses
+    in Europe.
+
+    In Korea, at all events before Korea fell into the hands of the
+    Japanese, it would seem that there was no distinction between the
+    class of dancing girls and prostitutes. "Among the courtesans,"
+    Angus Hamilton states, "the mental abilities are trained and
+    developed with a view to making them brilliant and entertaining
+    companions. These 'leaves of sunlight' are called _gisaing_, and
+    correspond to the geishas of Japan. Officially, they are attached
+    to a department of government, and are controlled by a bureau of
+    their own, in common with the Court musicians. They are supported
+    from the national treasury, and they are in evidence at official
+    dinners and all palace entertainments. They read and recite; they
+    dance and sing; they become accomplished artists and musicians.
+    They dress with exceptional taste; they move with exceeding
+    grace; they are delicate in appearance, very frail and very
+    human, very tender, sympathetic, and imaginative." But though
+    they are certainly the prettiest women in Korea, move in the
+    highest society, and might become concubines of the Emperor, they
+    are not allowed to marry men of good class (Angus Hamilton,
+    _Korea_, p. 52).
+
+The history of European prostitution, as of so many other modern
+institutions, may properly be said to begin in Rome. Here at the outset we
+already find that inconsistently mixed attitude towards prostitution which
+to-day is still preserved. In Greece it was in many respects different.
+Greece was nearer to the days of religious prostitution, and the sincerity
+and refinement of Greek civilization made it possible for the better kind
+of prostitute to exert, and often be worthy to exert, an influence in all
+departments of life which she has never been able to exercise since,
+except perhaps occasionally, in a much slighter degree, in France. The
+course, vigorous, practical Roman was quite ready to tolerate the
+prostitute, but he was not prepared to carry that toleration to its
+logical results; he never felt bound to harmonize inconsistent facts of
+life. Cicero, a moralist of no mean order, without expressing approval of
+prostitution, yet could not understand how anyone should wish to prohibit
+youths from commerce with prostitutes, such severity being out of harmony
+with all the customs of the past or the present.[142] But the superior
+class of Roman prostitutes, the _bonae mulieres_, had no such dignified
+position as the Greek _hetairae_. Their influence was indeed immense, but
+it was confined, as it is in the case of their European successors to-day,
+to fashions, customs, and arts. There was always a certain moral rigidity
+in the Roman which prevented him from yielding far in this direction. He
+encouraged brothels, but he only entered them with covered head and face
+concealed in his cloak. In the same way, while he tolerated the
+prostitute, beyond a certain point he sharply curtailed her privileges.
+Not only was she deprived of all influence in the higher concerns of life,
+but she might not even wear the _vitta_ or the _stola_; she could indeed
+go almost naked if she pleased, but she must not ape the emblems of the
+respectable Roman matron.[143]
+
+The rise of Christianity to political power produced on the whole less
+change of policy than might have been anticipated. The Christian rulers
+had to deal practically as best they might with a very mixed, turbulent,
+and semi-pagan world. The leading fathers of the Church were inclined to
+tolerate prostitution for the avoidance of greater evils, and Christian
+emperors, like their pagan predecessors, were willing to derive a tax from
+prostitution. The right of prostitution to exist was, however, no longer
+so unquestionably recognized as in pagan days, and from time to time some
+vigorous ruler sought to repress prostitution by severe enactments. The
+younger Theodosius and Valentinian definitely ordained that there should
+be no more brothels and that anyone giving shelter to a prostitute should
+be punished. Justinian confirmed that measure and ordered that all panders
+were to be exiled on pain of death. These enactments were quite vain. But
+during a thousand years they were repeated again and again in various
+parts of Europe, and invariably with the same fruitless or worse than
+fruitless results. Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, punished with death
+those who promoted prostitution, and Recared, a Catholic king of the same
+people in the sixth century, prohibited prostitution altogether and
+ordered that a prostitute, when found, should receive three hundred
+strokes of the whip and be driven out of the city. Charlemagne, as well as
+Genserich in Carthage, and later Frederick Barbarossa in Germany, made
+severe laws against prostitution which were all of no effect, for even if
+they seemed to be effective for the time the reaction was all the greater
+afterwards.[144]
+
+It is in France that the most persistent efforts have been made to combat
+prostitution. Most notable of all were the efforts of the King and Saint,
+Louis IX. In 1254 St. Louis ordained that prostitutes should be driven out
+altogether and deprived of all their money and goods, even to their
+mantles and gowns. In 1256 he repeated this ordinance and in 1269, before
+setting out for the Crusades, he ordered the destruction of all places of
+prostitution. The repetition of those decrees shows how ineffectual they
+were. They even made matters worse, for prostitutes were forced to mingle
+with the general population and their influence was thus extended. St.
+Louis was unable to put down prostitution even in his own camp in the
+East, and it existed outside his own tent. His legislation, however, was
+frequently imitated by subsequent rulers of France, even to the middle of
+the seventeenth century, always with the same ineffectual and worse
+results. In 1560 an edict of Charles IX abolished brothels, but the number
+of prostitutes was thereby increased rather than diminished, while many
+new kinds of brothels appeared in unsuspected shapes and were more
+dangerous than the more recognized brothels which had been
+suppressed.[145] In spite of all such legislation, or because of it, there
+has been no country in which prostitution has played a more conspicuous
+part.[146]
+
+At Mantua, so great was the repulsion aroused by prostitutes that they
+were compelled to buy in the markets any fruit or bread that had been
+soiled by the mere touch of their hands. It was so also in Avignon in
+1243. In Catalonia they could not sit at the same table as a lady or a
+knight or kiss any honorable person.[147] Even in Venice, the paradise of
+prostitution, numerous and severe regulations were passed against it, and
+it was long before the Venetian rulers resigned themselves to its
+toleration and regulation.[148]
+
+The last vigorous attempt to uproot prostitution in Europe was that of
+Maria Theresa at Vienna in the middle of the eighteenth century. Although
+of such recent date it may be mentioned here because it was mediaeval alike
+in its conception and methods. Its object indeed, was to suppress not only
+prostitution, but fornication generally, and the means adopted were fines,
+imprisonment, whipping and torture. The supposed causes of fornication
+were also dealt with severely; short dresses were prohibited; billiard
+rooms and cafes were inspected; no waitresses were allowed, and when
+discovered, a waitress was liable to be handcuffed and carried off by the
+police. The Chastity Commission, under which these measures were
+rigorously carried out, was, apparently, established in 1751 and was
+quietly abolished by the Emperor Joseph II, in the early years of his
+reign. It was the general opinion that this severe legislation was really
+ineffective, and that it caused much more serious evils than it
+cured.[149] It is certain in any case that, for a long time past,
+illegitimacy has been more prevalent in Vienna than in any other great
+European capital.
+
+Yet the attitude towards prostitutes was always mixed and inconsistent at
+different places or different times, or even at the same time and place.
+Dufour has aptly compared their position to that of the mediaeval Jews;
+they were continually persecuted, ecclesiastically, civilly, and socially,
+yet all classes were glad to have recourse to them and it was impossible
+to do without them. In some countries, including England in the fourteenth
+century, a special costume was imposed on prostitutes as a mark of
+infamy.[150] Yet in many respects no infamy whatever attached to
+prostitution. High placed officials could claim payment of their expenses
+incurred in visiting prostitutes when traveling on public business.
+Prostitution sometimes played an official part in festivities and
+receptions accorded by great cities to royal guests, and the brothel might
+form an important part of the city's hospitality. When the Emperor
+Sigismund came to Ulm in 1434 the streets were illuminated at such times
+as he or his suite desired to visit the common brothel. Brothels under
+municipal protection are found in the thirteenth century in Augsburg, in
+Vienna, in Hamburg.[151] In France the best known _abbayes_ of prostitutes
+were those of Toulouse and Montpellier.[152] Durkheim is of opinion that
+in the early middle ages, before this period, free love and marriage were
+less severely differentiated. It was the rise of the middle class, he
+considers, anxious to protect their wives and daughters, which led to a
+regulated and publicly recognized attempt to direct debauchery into a
+separate channel, brought under control.[153] These brothels constituted a
+kind of public service, the directors of them being regarded almost as
+public officials, bound to keep a certain number of prostitutes, to charge
+according to a fixed tariff, and not to receive into their houses girls
+belonging to the neighborhood. The institutions of this kind lasted for
+three centuries. It was, in part, perhaps, the impetus of the new
+Protestant movement, but mainly the terrible devastation produced by the
+introduction of syphilis from America at the end of the fifteenth century
+which, as Burckhardt and others have pointed out, led to the decline of
+the mediaeval brothels.[154]
+
+The superior modern prostitute, the "courtesan" who had no connection with
+the brothel, seems to have been the outcome of the Renaissance and made
+her appearance in Italy at the end of the fifteenth century. "Courtesan"
+or "cortegiana" meant a lady following the court, and the term began at
+this time to be applied to a superior prostitute observing a certain
+degree of decorum and restraint.[155] In the papal court of Alexander
+Borgia the courtesan flourished even when her conduct was not altogether
+dignified. Burchard, the faithful and unimpeachable chronicler of this
+court, describes in his diary how, one evening, in October, 1501, the Pope
+sent for fifty courtesans to be brought to his chamber; after supper, in
+the presence of Caesar Borgia and his young sister Lucrezia, they danced
+with the servitors and others who were present, at first clothed,
+afterwards naked. The candlesticks with lighted candles were then placed
+upon the floor and chestnuts thrown among them, to be gathered by the
+women crawling between the candlesticks on their hands and feet. Finally a
+number of prizes were brought forth to be awarded to those men "qui
+pluries dictos meretrices carnaliter agnoscerent," the victor in the
+contest being decided according to the judgment of the spectators.[156]
+This scene, enacted publicly in the Apostolic palace and serenely set
+forth by the impartial secretary, is at once a notable episode in the
+history of modern prostitution and one of the most illuminating
+illustrations we possess of the paganism of the Renaissance.
+
+    Before the term "courtesan" came into repute, prostitutes were
+    even in Italy commonly called "sinners," _peccatrice_. The
+    change, Graf remarks in a very interesting study of the
+    Renaissance prostitute ("Una Cortigiana fra Mille," _Attraverso
+    il Cinquecento_, pp. 217-351), "reveals a profound alteration in
+    ideas and in life;" a term that suggested infamy gave place to
+    one that suggested approval, and even honor, for the courts of
+    the Renaissance period represented the finest culture of the
+    time. The best of these courtesans seem to have been not
+    altogether unworthy of the honor they received. We can detect
+    this in their letters. There is a chapter on the letters of
+    Renaissance prostitutes, especially those of Camilla de Pisa
+    which are marked by genuine passion, in Lothar Schmidt's
+    _Frauenbriefe der Renaissance_. The famous Imperia, called by a
+    Pope in the early years of the sixteenth century "nobilissimum
+    Romae scortum," knew Latin and could write Italian verse. Other
+    courtesans knew Italian and Latin poetry by heart, while they
+    were accomplished in music, dancing, and speech. We are reminded
+    of ancient Greece, and Graf, discussing how far the Renaissance
+    courtesans resembled the hetairae, finds a very considerable
+    likeness, especially in culture and influence, though with some
+    differences due to the antagonism between religion and
+    prostitution at the later period.
+
+    The most distinguished figure in every respect among the
+    courtesans of that time was certainly Tullia D'Aragona. She was
+    probably the daughter of Cardinal D'Aragona (an illegitimate
+    scion of the Spanish royal family) by a Ferrarese courtesan who
+    became his mistress. Tullia has gained a high reputation by her
+    verse. Her best sonnet is addressed to a youth of twenty, whom
+    she passionately loved, but who did not return her love. Her
+    _Guerrino Meschino_, a translation from the Spanish, is a very
+    pure and chaste work. She was a woman of refined instincts and
+    aspirations, and once at least she abandoned her life of
+    prostitution. She was held in high esteem and respect. When, in
+    1546, Cosimo, Duke of Florence, ordered all prostitutes to wear a
+    yellow veil or handkerchief as a public badge of their
+    profession, Tullia appealed to the Duchess, a Spanish lady of
+    high character, and received permission to dispense with this
+    badge on account of her "rara scienzia di poesia et filosofia."
+    She dedicated her _Rime_ to the Duchess. Tullia D'Aragona was
+    very beautiful, with yellow hair, and remarkably large and bright
+    eyes, which dominated those who came near her. She was of proud
+    bearing and inspired unusual respect (G. Biagi, "Un' Etera
+    Romana," _Nuova Antologia_, vol. iv, 1886, pp. 655-711; S.
+    Bongi, _Rivista critica della Letteratura Italiana_, 1886, IV, p.
+    186).
+
+    Tullia D'Aragona was clearly not a courtesan at heart. Perhaps
+    the most typical example of the Renaissance courtesan at her best
+    is furnished by Veronica Franco, born in 1546 at Venice, of
+    middle class family and in early life married to a doctor. Of her
+    also it has been said that, while by profession a prostitute, she
+    was by inclination a poet. But she appears to have been well
+    content with her profession, and never ashamed of it. Her life
+    and character have been studied by Arturo Graf, and more slightly
+    in a little book by Tassini. She was highly cultured, and knew
+    several languages; she also sang well and played on many
+    instruments. In one of her letters she advises a youth who was
+    madly in love with her that if he wishes to obtain her favors he
+    must leave off importuning her and devote himself tranquilly to
+    study. "You know well," she adds, "that all those who claim to be
+    able to gain my love, and who are extremely dear to me, are
+    strenuous in studious discipline.... If my fortune allowed it I
+    would spend all my time quietly in the academies of virtuous
+    men." The Diotimas and Aspasias of antiquity, as Graf comments,
+    would not have demanded so much of their lovers. In her poems it
+    is possible to trace some of her love histories, and she often
+    shows herself torn by jealousy at the thought that perhaps
+    another woman may approach her beloved. Once she fell in love
+    with an ecclesiastic, possibly a bishop, with whom she had no
+    relationships, and after a long absence, which healed her love,
+    she and he became sincere friends. Once she was visited by Henry
+    III of France, who took away her portrait, while on her part she
+    promised to dedicate a book to him; she so far fulfilled this as
+    to address some sonnets to him and a letter; "neither did the
+    King feel ashamed of his intimacy with the courtesan," remarks
+    Graf, "nor did she suspect that he would feel ashamed of it."
+    When Montaigne passed through Venice she sent him a little book
+    of hers, as we learn from his _Journal_, though they do not
+    appear to have met. Tintoret was one of her many distinguished
+    friends, and she was a strenuous advocate of the high qualities
+    of modern, as compared with ancient, art. Her friendships were
+    affectionate, and she even seems to have had various grand ladies
+    among her friends. She was, however, so far from being ashamed of
+    her profession of courtesan that in one of her poems she affirms
+    she has been taught by Apollo other arts besides those he is
+    usually regarded as teaching:
+
+        "Cosi dolce e gustevole divento,
+         Quando mi trovo con persona in letto
+         Da cui amata e gradita mi sento."
+
+    In a certain _catalogo_ of the prices of Venetian courtesans
+    Veronica is assigned only 2 scudi for her favors, while the
+    courtesan to whom the catalogue is dedicated is set down at 25
+    scudi. Graf thinks there may be some mistake or malice here, and
+    an Italian gentleman of the time states that she required not
+    less than 50 scudi from those to whom she was willing to accord
+    what Montaigne called the "negotiation entiere."
+
+    In regard to this matter it may be mentioned that, as stated by
+    Bandello, it was the custom for a Venetian prostitute to have six
+    or seven gentlemen at a time as her lovers. Each was entitled to
+    come to sup and sleep with her on one night of the week, leaving
+    her days free. They paid her so much per month, but she always
+    definitely reserved the right to receive a stranger passing
+    through Venice, if she wished, changing the time of her
+    appointment with her lover for the night. The high and special
+    prices which we find recorded are, of course, those demanded from
+    the casual distinguished stranger who came to Venice as, once in
+    the sixteenth century, Montaigne came.
+
+    In 1580 (when not more than thirty-four) Veronica confessed to
+    the Holy Office that she had had six children. In the same year
+    she formed the design of founding a home, which should not be a
+    monastery, where prostitutes who wished to abandon their mode of
+    life could find a refuge with their children, if they had any.
+    This seems to have led to the establishment of a Casa del
+    Soccorso. In 1591 she died of fever, reconciled with God and
+    blessed by many unfortunates. She had a good heart and a sound
+    intellect, and was the last of the great Renaissance courtesans
+    who revived Greek hetairism (Graf, _Attraverso il Cinquecento_,
+    pp. 217-351). Even in sixteenth century Venice, however, it will
+    be seen, Veronica Franco seems to have been not altogether at
+    peace in the career of a courtesan. She was clearly not adapted
+    for ordinary marriage, yet under the most favorable conditions
+    that the modern world has ever offered it may still be doubted
+    whether a prostitute's career can offer complete satisfaction to
+    a woman of large heart and brain.
+
+    Ninon de Lenclos, who is frequently called "the last of the great
+    courtesans," may seem an exception to the general rule as to the
+    inability of a woman of good heart, high character, and fine
+    intelligence to find satisfaction in a prostitute's life. But it
+    is a total misconception alike of Ninon de Lenclos's temperament
+    and her career to regard her as in any true sense a prostitute at
+    all. A knowledge of even the barest outlines of her life ought to
+    prevent such a mistake. Born early in the seventeenth century,
+    she was of good family on both sides; her mother was a woman of
+    severe life, but her father, a gentleman of Touraine, inspired
+    her with his own Epicurean philosophy as well as his love of
+    music. She was extremely well educated. At the age of sixteen or
+    seventeen she had her first lover, the noble and valiant Gaspard
+    de Coligny; he was followed for half a century by a long
+    succession of other lovers, sometimes more than one at a time;
+    three years was the longest period during which she was faithful
+    to one lover. Her attractions lasted so long that, it is said,
+    three generations of Sevignes were among her lovers. Tallemant
+    des Reaux enables us to study in detail her _liaisons_.
+
+    It is not, however, the abundance of lovers which makes a woman a
+    prostitute, but the nature of her relationships with them.
+    Sainte-Beuve, in an otherwise admirable study of Ninon de Lenclos
+    (_Causeries du Lundi_, vol. iv), seems to reckon her among the
+    courtesans. But no woman is a prostitute unless she uses men as a
+    source of pecuniary gain. Not only is there no evidence that this
+    was the case with Ninon, but all the evidence excludes such a
+    relationship. "It required much skill," said Voltaire, "and a
+    great deal of love on her part, to induce her to accept
+    presents." Tallemant, indeed, says that she sometimes took money
+    from her lovers, but this statement probably involves nothing
+    beyond what is contained in Voltaire's remark, and, in any case,
+    Tallemant's gossip, though usually well-informed, was not always
+    reliable. All are agreed as to her extreme disinterestedness.
+
+    When we hear precisely of Ninon de Lenclos in connection with
+    money, it is not as receiving a gift, but only as repaying a debt
+    to an old lover, or restoring a large sum left with her for safe
+    keeping when the owner was exiled. Such incidents are far from
+    suggesting the professional prostitute of any age; they are
+    rather the relationships which might exist between men friends.
+    Ninon de Lenclos's character was in many respects far from
+    perfect, but she combined many masculine virtues, and especially
+    probity, with a temperament which, on the whole, was certainly
+    feminine; she hated hypocrisy, and she was never influenced by
+    pecuniary considerations. She was, moreover, never reckless, but
+    always retained a certain self-restraint and temperance, even in
+    eating and drinking, and, we are told, she never drank wine. She
+    was, as Sainte-Beuve has remarked, the first to realize that
+    there must be the same virtues for men and for women, and that it
+    is absurd to reduce all feminine virtues to one. "Our sex has
+    been burdened with all the frivolities," she wrote, "and men have
+    reserved to themselves the essential qualities: I have made
+    myself a man." She sometimes dressed as a man when riding (see,
+    e.g., _Correspondence Authentique_ of Ninon de Lenclos, with a
+    good introduction by Emile Colombey). Consciously or not, she
+    represented a new feminine idea at a period when--as we may see
+    in many forgotten novels written by the women of that time--ideas
+    were beginning to emerge in the feminine sphere. She was the
+    first, and doubtless, from one point of view, the most extreme
+    representative of a small and distinguished group of French women
+    among whom Georges Sand is the finest personality.
+
+    Thus it is idle to attempt to adorn the history of prostitution
+    with the name of Ninon de Lenclos. A debauched old prostitute
+    would never, like Ninon towards the end of her long life, have
+    been able to retain or to conquer the affection and the esteem
+    of many of the best men and women of her time; even to the
+    austere Saint-Simon it seemed that there reigned in her little
+    court a decorum which the greatest princesses cannot achieve. She
+    was not a prostitute, but a woman of unique personality with a
+    little streak of genius in it. That she was inimitable we need
+    not perhaps greatly regret. In her old age, in 1699, her old
+    friend and former lover, Saint-Evremond, wrote to her, with only
+    a little exaggeration, that there were few princesses and few
+    saints who would not leave their courts and their cloisters to
+    change places with her. "If I had known beforehand what my life
+    would be I would have hanged myself," was her oft-quoted answer.
+    It is, indeed, a solitary phrase that slips in, perhaps as the
+    expression of a momentary mood; one may make too much of it. More
+    truly characteristic is the fine saying in which her Epicurean
+    philosophy seems to stretch out towards Nietzsche: "La joie de
+    l'esprit en marque la force."
+
+The frank acceptance of prostitution by the spiritual or even the temporal
+power has since the Renaissance become more and more exceptional. The
+opposite extreme of attempting to uproot prostitution has also in practice
+been altogether abandoned. Sporadic attempts have indeed been made, here
+and there, to put down prostitution with a strong hand even in quite
+modern times. It is now, however, realized that in such a case the remedy
+is worse than the disease.
+
+    In 1860 a Mayor of Portsmouth felt it his duty to attempt to
+    suppress prostitution. "In the early part of his mayoralty,"
+    according to a witness before the Select Committee on the
+    Contagious Diseases Acts (p. 393), "there was an order passed
+    that every beerhouse-keeper and licensed victualer in the borough
+    known to harbor these women would be dealt with, and probably
+    lose his license. On a given day about three hundred or four
+    hundred of these forlorn outcasts were bundled wholesale into the
+    streets, and they formed up in a large body, many of them with
+    only a shift and a petticoat on, and with a lot of drunken men
+    and boys with a fife and fiddle they paraded the streets for
+    several days. They marched in a body to the workhouse, but for
+    many reasons they were refused admittance.... These women
+    wandered about for two or three days shelterless, and it was felt
+    that the remedy was very much worse than the disease, and the
+    women were allowed to go back to their former places."
+
+    Similar experiments have been made even more recently in America.
+    "In Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in 1891, the houses of prostitutes
+    were closed, the inmates turned out upon the streets, and were
+    refused lodging and even food by the citizens of that place. A
+    wave of popular remonstrance, all over the country, at the
+    outrage on humanity, created a reaction which resulted in a last
+    condition by no means better than the first." In the same year
+    also a similar incident occurred in New York with the same
+    unfortunate results (Isidore Dyer, "The Municipal Control of
+    Prostitution in the United States," report presented to the
+    Brussels International Conference in 1899).
+
+There grew up instead the tendency to regulate prostitution, to give it a
+semi-official toleration which enabled the authorities to exercise a
+control over it, and to guard as far as possible against its evil by
+medical and police inspection. The new brothel system differed from the
+ancient mediaeval houses of prostitution in important respects; it involved
+a routine of medical inspection and it endeavored to suppress any rivalry
+by unlicensed prostitutes outside. Bernard Mandeville, the author of the
+_Fable of the Bees_, and an acute thinker, was a pioneer in the advocacy
+of this system. In 1724, in his _Modest Defense of Publick Stews_, he
+argues that "the encouraging of public whoring will not only prevent most
+of the mischievous effects of this vice, but even lessen the quantity of
+whoring in general, and reduce it to the narrowest bounds which it can
+possibly be contained in." He proposed to discourage private prostitution
+by giving special privileges and immunities to brothels by Act of
+Parliament. His scheme involved the erection of one hundred brothels in a
+special quarter of the city, to contain two thousand prostitutes and one
+hundred matrons of ability and experience with physicians and surgeons, as
+well as commissioners to oversee the whole. Mandeville was regarded merely
+as a cynic or worse, and his scheme was ignored or treated with contempt.
+It was left to the genius of Napoleon, eighty years later, to establish
+the system of "maisons de tolerance," which had so great an influence over
+modern European practice during a large part of the last century and even
+still in its numerous survivals forms the subject of widely divergent
+opinions.
+
+On the whole, however, it must be said that the system of registering,
+examining, and regularizing prostitutes now belongs to the past. Many
+great battles have been fought over this question; the most important is
+that which raged for many years in England over the Contagious Diseases
+Acts, and is embodied in the 600 pages of a Report by a Select Committee
+on these Acts issued in 1882. The majority of the members of the Committee
+reported favorably to the Acts which were, notwithstanding, repealed in
+1886, since which date no serious attempt has been made in England to
+establish them again.
+
+At the present time, although the old system still stands in many
+countries with the inert stolidity of established institutions, it no
+longer commands general approval. As Paul and Victor Margueritte have
+truly stated, in the course of an acute examination of the phenomena of
+state-regulated prostitution as found in Paris, the system is "barbarous
+to start with and almost inefficacious as well." The expert is every day
+more clearly demonstrating its inefficacy while the psychologist and the
+sociologist are constantly becoming more convinced that it is barbarous.
+
+It can indeed by no means be said that any unanimity has been attained. It
+is obviously so urgently necessary to combat the flood of disease and
+misery which proceeds directly from the spread of syphilis and gonorrhoea,
+and indirectly from the prostitution which is the chief propagator of
+these diseases, that we cannot be surprised that many should eagerly catch
+at any system which seems to promise a palliation of the evils. At the
+present time, however, it is those best acquainted with the operation of
+the system of control who have most clearly realized that the supposed
+palliation is for the most part illusory,[157] and in any case attained at
+the cost of the artificial production of other evils. In France, where the
+system of the registration and control of prostitutes has been
+established for over a century,[158] and where consequently its
+advantages, if such there are, should be clearly realized, it meets with
+almost impassioned opposition from able men belonging to every section of
+the community. In Germany the opposition to regularized control has long
+been led by well-equipped experts, headed by Blaschko of Berlin. Precisely
+the same conclusions are being reached in America. Gottheil, of New York,
+finds that the municipal control of prostitution is "neither successful
+nor desirable." Heidingsfeld concludes that the regulation and control
+system in force in Cincinnati has done little good and much harm; under
+the system among the private patients in his own clinic the proportion of
+cases of both syphilis and gonorrhoea has increased; "suppression of
+prostitutes is impossible and control is impracticable."[159]
+
+    It is in Germany that the attempt to regulate prostitution still
+    remains most persistent, with results that in Germany itself are
+    regarded as unfortunate. Thus the German law inflicts a penalty
+    on householders who permit illegitimate sexual intercourse in
+    their houses. This is meant to strike the unlicensed prostitute,
+    but it really encourages prostitution, for a decent youth and
+    girl who decide to form a relationship which later may develop
+    into marriage, and which is not illegal (for extra-marital sexual
+    intercourse _per se_ is not in Germany, as it is by the
+    antiquated laws of several American States, a punishable
+    offense), are subjected to so much trouble and annoyance by the
+    suspicious police that it is much easier for the girl to become a
+    prostitute and put herself under the protection of the police.
+    The law was largely directed against those who live on the
+    profits of prostitution. But in practice it works out
+    differently. The prostitute simply has to pay extravagantly high
+    rents, so that her landlord really lives on the fruits of her
+    trade, while she has to carry on her business with increased
+    activity and on a larger scale in order to cover her heavy
+    expenses (P. Hausmeister, "Zur Analyse der Prostitution,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, vol. ii, 1907, p. 294).
+
+    In Italy, opinion on this matter is much divided. The regulation
+    of prostitution has been successively adopted, abandoned, and
+    readopted. In Switzerland, the land of governmental experiments,
+    various plans are tried in different cantons. In some there is
+    no attempt to interfere with prostitution, except under special
+    circumstances; in others all prostitution, and even fornication
+    generally, is punishable; in Geneva only native prostitutes are
+    permitted to practice; in Zurich, since 1897, prostitution is
+    prohibited, but care is taken to put no difficulties in the path
+    of free sexual relationships which are not for gain. With these
+    different regulations, morals in Switzerland generally are said
+    to be much on the same level as elsewhere (Moreau-Christophe, _Du
+    Probleme de la Misere_, vol. iii, p. 259). The same conclusion
+    holds good of London. A disinterested observer, Felix Remo (_La
+    Vie Galante en Angleterre_, 1888, p. 237), concluded that,
+    notwithstanding its free trade in prostitution, its alcoholic
+    excesses, its vices of all kinds, "London is one of the most
+    moral capitals in Europe." The movement towards freedom in this
+    matter has been evidenced in recent years by the abandonment of
+    the system of regulation by Denmark in 1906.
+
+Even the most ardent advocates of the registration of prostitutes
+recognize that not only is the tendency of civilization opposed rather
+than favorable to the system, but that in the numerous countries where the
+system persists registered prostitutes are losing ground in the struggle
+against clandestine prostitutes. Even in France, the classic land of
+police-controlled prostitutes, the "maisons de tolerance" have long been
+steadily decreasing in number, by no means because prostitution is
+decreasing but because low-class _brasseries_ and small _cafes-chantants_,
+which are really unlicensed brothels, are taking their place.[160]
+
+The wholesale regularization of prostitution in civilized centres is
+nowadays, indeed, advocated by few, if any, of the authorities who belong
+to the newer school. It is at most claimed as desirable in certain places
+under special circumstances.[161] Even those who would still be glad to
+see prostitution thoroughly in the control of the police now recognize
+that experience shows this to be impossible. As many girls begin their
+career as prostitutes at a very early age, a sound system of regulation
+should be prepared to enroll as permanent prostitutes even girls who are
+little more than children. That, however, is a logical conclusion against
+which the moral sense, and even the common sense, of a community
+instinctively revolts. In Paris girls may not be inscribed as prostitutes
+until they have reached the age of sixteen and some consider even that age
+too low.[162] Moreover, whenever she becomes diseased, or grows tired of
+her position, the registered woman may always slip out of the hands of the
+police and establish herself elsewhere as a clandestine prostitute. Every
+rigid attempt to keep prostitution within the police ring leads to
+offensive interference with the actions and the freedom of respectable
+women which cannot fail to be intolerable in any free community. Even in a
+city like London, where prostitution is relatively free, the supervision
+of the police has led to scandalous police charges against women who have
+done nothing whatever which should legitimately arouse suspicion of their
+behavior. The escape of the infected woman from the police cordon has, it
+is obvious, an effect in raising the apparent level of health of
+registered women, and the police statistics are still further fallaciously
+improved by the fact that the inmates of brothels are older on the average
+than clandestine prostitutes and have become immune to disease.[163] These
+facts are now becoming fairly obvious and well recognized. The state
+regulation of prostitution is undesirable, on moral grounds for the
+oft-emphasized reason that it is only applied to one sex, and on practical
+grounds because it is ineffective. Society allows the police to harass the
+prostitute with petty persecutions under the guise of charges of
+"solicitation," "disorderly conduct," etc., but it is no longer convinced
+that she ought to be under the absolute control of the police.
+
+The problem of prostitution, when we look at it narrowly, seems to be in
+the same position to-day as at any time in the course of the past three
+thousand years. In order, however, to comprehend the real significance of
+prostitution, and to attain a reasonable attitude towards it, we must look
+at it from a broader point of view; we must consider not only its
+evolution and history, but its causes and its relation to the wider
+aspects of modern social life. When we thus view the problem from a
+broader standpoint we shall find that there is no conflict between the
+claims of ethics and those of social hygiene, and that the cooerdinated
+activity of both is involved in the progressive refinement and
+purification of civilized sexual relationships.
+
+
+_III. The Causes of Prostitution._
+
+The history of the rise and development of prostitution enables us to see
+that prostitution is not an accident of our marriage system, but an
+essential constituent which appears concurrently with its other essential
+constituents. The gradual development of the family on a patriarchal and
+largely monogamic basis rendered it more and more difficult for a woman to
+dispose of her own person. She belongs in the first place to her father,
+whose interest it was to guard her carefully until a husband appeared who
+could afford to purchase her. In the enhancement of her value the new idea
+of the market value of virginity gradually developed, and where a "virgin"
+had previously meant a woman who was free to do as she would with her own
+body its meaning was now reversed and it came to mean a woman who was
+precluded from having intercourse with men. When she was transferred from
+her father to a husband, she was still guarded with the same care;
+husband and father alike found their interest in preserving their women
+from unmarried men. The situation thus produced resulted in the existence
+of a large body of young men who were not yet rich enough to obtain wives,
+and a large number of young women, not yet chosen as wives, and many of
+whom could never expect to become wives. At such a point in social
+evolution prostitution is clearly inevitable; it is not so much the
+indispensable concomitant of marriage as an essential part of the whole
+system. Some of the superfluous or neglected women, utilizing their money
+value and perhaps at the same time reviving traditions of an earlier
+freedom, find their social function in selling their favors to gratify the
+temporary desires of the men who have not yet been able to acquire wives.
+Thus every link in the chain of the marriage system is firmly welded and
+the complete circle formed.
+
+But while the history of the rise and development of prostitution shows us
+how indestructible and essential an element prostitution is of the
+marriage system which has long prevailed in Europe--under very varied
+racial, political, social, and religious conditions--it yet fails to
+supply us in every respect with the data necessary to reach a definite
+attitude towards prostitution to-day. In order to understand the place of
+prostitution in our existing system, it is necessary that we should
+analyze the chief factors of prostitution. We may most conveniently learn
+to understand these if we consider prostitution, in order, under four
+aspects. These are: (1) _economic_ necessity; (2) _biological_
+predisposition; (3) _moral_ advantages; and (4) what may be called its
+_civilizational_ value.
+
+While these four factors of prostitution seem to me those that here
+chiefly concern us, it is scarcely necessary to point out that many other
+causes contribute to produce and modify prostitution. Prostitutes
+themselves often seek to lead other girls to adopt the same paths;
+recruits must be found for brothels, whence we have the "white slave
+trade," which is now being energetically combated in many parts of the
+world; while all the forms of seduction towards this life are favored and
+often predisposed to by alcoholism. It will generally be found that
+several causes have combined to push a girl into the career of
+prostitution.
+
+    The ways in which various factors of environment and suggestion
+    unite to lead a girl into the paths of prostitution are indicated
+    in the following statement in which a correspondent has set forth
+    his own conclusions on this matter as a man of the world: "I have
+    had a somewhat varied experience among loose women, and can say,
+    without hesitation, that not more than 1 per cent, of the women I
+    have known could be regarded as educated. This indicates that
+    almost invariably they are of humble origin, and the terrible
+    cases of overcrowding that are daily brought to light suggest
+    that at very early ages the sense of modesty becomes extinct, and
+    long before puberty a familiarity with things sexual takes place.
+    As soon as they are old enough these girls are seduced by their
+    sweethearts; the familiarity with which they regard sexual
+    matters removes the restraint which surrounds a girl whose early
+    life has been spent in decent surroundings. Later they go to work
+    in factories and shops; if pretty and attractive, they consort
+    with managers and foremen. Then the love of finery, which forms
+    so large a part of the feminine character, tempts the girl to
+    become the 'kept' woman of some man of means. A remarkable thing
+    in this connection is the fact that they rarely enjoy excitement
+    with their protectors, preferring rather the coarser embraces of
+    some man nearer their own station in life, very often a soldier.
+    I have not known many women who were seduced and deserted, though
+    this is a fiction much affected by prostitutes. Barmaids supply a
+    considerable number to the ranks of prostitution, largely on
+    account of their addiction to drink; drunkenness invariably leads
+    to laxness of moral restraint in women. Another potent factor in
+    the production of prostitutes lies in the flare of finery
+    flaunted by some friend who has adopted the life. A girl, working
+    hard to live, sees some friend, perhaps making a call in the
+    street where the hard-working girl lives, clothed in finery,
+    while she herself can hardly get enough to eat. She has a
+    conversation with her finely-clad friend who tells her how easily
+    she can earn money, explaining what a vital asset the sexual
+    organs are, and soon another one is added to the ranks."
+
+    There is some interest in considering the reasons assigned for
+    prostitutes entering their career. In some countries this has
+    been estimated by those who come closely into official or other
+    contact with prostitutes. In other countries, it is the rule for
+    girls, before they are registered as prostitutes, to state the
+    reasons for which they desire to enter the career.
+
+    Parent-Duchatelet, whose work on prostitutes in Paris is still an
+    authority, presented the first estimate of this kind. He found
+    that of over five thousand prostitutes, 1441 were influenced by
+    poverty, 1425 by seduction of lovers who had abandoned them,
+    1255 by the loss of parents from death or other cause. By such an
+    estimate, nearly the whole number are accounted for by
+    wretchedness, that is by economic causes, alone
+    (Parent-Duchatelet, _De la Prostitution_, 1857, vol. i, p. 107).
+
+    In Brussels during a period of twenty years (1865-1884) 3505
+    women were inscribed as prostitutes. The causes they assigned for
+    desiring to take to this career present a different picture from
+    that shown by Parent-Duchatelet, but perhaps a more reliable one,
+    although there are some marked and curious discrepancies. Out of
+    the 3505, 1523 explained that extreme poverty was the cause of
+    their degradation; 1118 frankly confessed that their sexual
+    passions were the cause; 420 attributed their fall to evil
+    company; 316 said they were disgusted and weary of their work,
+    because the toil was so arduous and the pay so small; 101 had
+    been abandoned by their lovers; 10 had quarrelled with their
+    parents; 7 were abandoned by their husbands; 4 did not agree with
+    their guardians; 3 had family quarrels; 2 were compelled to
+    prostitute themselves by their husbands, and 1 by her parents
+    (_Lancet_, June 28, 1890, p. 1442).
+
+    In London, Merrick found that of 16,022 prostitutes who passed
+    through his hands during the years he was chaplain at Millbank
+    prison, 5061 voluntarily left home or situation for "a life of
+    pleasure;" 3363 assigned poverty as the cause; 3154 were
+    "seduced" and drifted on to the street; 1636 were betrayed by
+    promises of marriage and abandoned by lover and relations. On the
+    whole, Merrick states, 4790, or nearly one-third of the whole
+    number, may be said to owe the adoption of their career directly
+    to men, 11,232 to other causes. He adds that of those pleading
+    poverty a large number were indolent and incapable (G.P. Merrick,
+    _Work Among the Fallen_, p. 38).
+
+    Logan, an English city missionary with an extensive acquaintance
+    with prostitutes, divided them into the following groups: (1)
+    One-fourth of the girls are servants, especially in public
+    houses, beer shops, etc., and thus led into the life; (2)
+    one-fourth come from factories, etc.; (3) nearly one-fourth are
+    recruited by procuresses who visit country towns, markets, etc.;
+    (4) a final group includes, on the one hand, those who are
+    induced to become prostitutes by destitution, or indolence, or a
+    bad temper, which unfits them for ordinary avocations, and, on
+    the other hand, those who have been seduced by a false promise of
+    marriage (W. Logan, _The Great Social Evil_, 1871, p. 53).
+
+    In America Sanger has reported the results of inquiries made of
+    two thousand New York prostitutes as to the causes which induced
+    them to take up their avocation:
+
+        Destitution                                        525
+        Inclination                                        513
+        Seduced and abandoned                              258
+        Drink and desire for drink                         181
+        Ill-treatment by parents, relations, or husbands   164
+        As an easy life                                    124
+        Bad company                                         84
+        Persuaded by prostitutes                            71
+        Too idle to work                                    29
+        Violated                                            27
+        Seduced on emigrant ship                            16
+        Seduced in emigrant boarding homes                   8
+                                                         -----
+                                                         2,000
+
+        (Sanger, _History of Prostitution_, p. 488.)
+
+    In America, again, more recently, Professor Woods Hutchinson put
+    himself into communication with some thirty representative men in
+    various great metropolitan centres, and thus summarizes the
+    answers as regards the etiology of prostitution:
+
+                                                      Per cent.
+
+        Love of display, luxury and idleness            42.1
+        Bad family surroundings                         23.8
+        Seduction in which they were innocent victims   11.3
+        Lack of employment                               9.4
+        Heredity                                         7.8
+        Primary sexual appetite                          5.6
+
+        (Woods Hutchinson, "The Economics of Prostitution," _American
+        Gynaecologic and Obstetric Journal_, September, 1895; _Id., The
+        Gospel According to Darwin_, p. 194.)
+
+    In Italy, in 1881, among 10,422 inscribed prostitutes from the
+    age of seventeen upwards, the causes of prostitution were
+    classified as follows:
+
+        Vice and depravity                            2,752
+        Death of parents, husband, etc.               2,139
+        Seduction by lover                            1,653
+        Seduction by employer                           927
+        Abandoned by parents, husband, etc.             794
+        Love of luxury                                  698
+        Incitement by lover or other persons outside
+          family                                        666
+        Incitement by parents or husband                400
+        To support parents or children                  393
+
+        (Ferriani, _Minorenni Delinquenti_, p. 193.) The reasons
+        assigned by Russian prostitutes for taking up their career are
+        (according to Federow) as follows:
+
+        38.5 per cent. insufficient wages.
+        21.  per cent. desire for amusement.
+        14.  per cent. loss of place.
+         9.5 per cent. persuasion by women friends.
+         6.5 per cent. loss of habit of work.
+         5.5 per cent. chagrin, and to punish lover.
+          .5 per cent. drunkenness.
+
+        (Summarized in _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Nov. 15,
+        1901.)
+
+1. _The Economic Causation of Prostitution_.--Writers on prostitution
+frequently assert that economic conditions lie at the root of prostitution
+and that its chief cause is poverty, while prostitutes themselves often
+declare that the difficulty of earning a livelihood in other ways was a
+main cause in inducing them to adopt this career. "Of all the causes of
+prostitution," Parent-Duchatelet wrote a century ago, "particularly in
+Paris, and probably in all large cities, none is more active than lack of
+work and the misery which is the inevitable result of insufficient wages."
+In England, also, to a large extent, Sherwell states, "morals fluctuate
+with trade."[164] It is equally so in Berlin where the number of
+registered prostitutes increases during bad years.[165] It is so also in
+America. It is the same in Japan; "the cause of causes is poverty."[166]
+
+Thus the broad and general statement that prostitution is largely or
+mainly an economic phenomenon, due to the low wages of women or to sudden
+depressions in trade, is everywhere made by investigators. It must,
+however, be added that these general statements are considerably qualified
+in the light of the detailed investigations made by careful inquirers.
+Thus Stroehmberg, who minutely investigated 462 prostitutes, found that
+only one assigned destitution as the reason for adopting her career, and
+on investigation this was found to be an impudent lie.[167] Hammer found
+that of ninety registered German prostitutes not one had entered on the
+career out of want or to support a child, while some went on the street
+while in the possession of money, or without wishing to be paid.[168]
+Pastor Buschmann, of the Teltow Magdalene Home in Berlin, finds that it is
+not want but indifference to moral considerations which leads girls to
+become prostitutes. In Germany, before a girl is put on the police
+register, due care is always taken to give her a chance of entering a Home
+and getting work; in Berlin, in the course of ten years, only two
+girls--out of thousands--were willing to take advantage of this
+opportunity. The difficulty experienced by English Rescue Homes in finding
+girls who are willing to be "rescued" is notorious. The same difficulty is
+found in other cities, even where entirely different conditions prevail;
+thus it is found in Madrid, according to Bernaldo de Quiros and Llanas
+Aguilaniedo, that the prostitutes who enter the Homes, notwithstanding all
+the devotion of the nuns, on leaving at once return to their old life.
+While the economic factor in prostitution undoubtedly exists, the undue
+frequency and emphasis with which it is put forward and accepted is
+clearly due, in part to ignorance of the real facts, in part to the fact
+that such an assumption appeals to those whose weakness it is to explain
+all social phenomena by economic causes, and in part to its obvious
+plausibility.[169]
+
+Prostitutes are mainly recruited from the ranks of factory girls, domestic
+servants, shop girls, and waitresses. In some of these occupations it is
+difficult to obtain employment all the year round. In this way many
+milliners, dressmakers and tailoresses become prostitutes when business is
+slack, and return to business when the season begins. Sometimes the
+regular work of the day is supplemented concurrently by prostitution in
+the street in the evening. It is said, possibly with some truth, that
+amateur prostitution of this kind is extremely prevalent in England, as it
+is not checked by the precautions which, in countries where prostitution
+is regulated, the clandestine prostitute must adopt in order to avoid
+registration. Certain public lavatories and dressing-rooms in central
+London are said to be used by the girls for putting on, and finally
+washing off before going home, the customary paint.[170] It is certain
+that in England a large proportion of parents belonging to the working and
+even lower middle class ranks are unacquainted with the nature of the
+lives led by their own daughters. It must be added, also, that
+occasionally this conduct of the daughter is winked at or encouraged by
+the parents; thus a correspondent writes that he "knows some towns in
+England where prostitution is not regarded as anything disgraceful, and
+can remember many cases where the mother's house has been used by the
+daughter with the mother's knowledge."
+
+Acton, in a well-informed book on London prostitution, written in the
+middle of the last century, said that prostitution is "a transitory stage,
+through which an untold number of British women are ever on their
+passage."[171] This statement was strenuously denied at the time by many
+earnest moralists who refused to admit that it was possible for a woman
+who had sunk into so deep a pit of degradation ever to climb out again,
+respectably safe and sound. Yet it is certainly true as regards a
+considerable proportion of women, not only in England, but in other
+countries also. Thus Parent-Duchatelet, the greatest authority on French
+prostitution, stated that "prostitution is for the majority only a
+transitory stage; it is quitted usually during the first year; very few
+prostitutes continue until extinction." It is difficult, however, to
+ascertain precisely of how large a proportion this is true; there are no
+data which would serve as a basis for exact estimation,[172] and it is
+impossible to expect that respectable married women would admit that they
+had ever been "on the streets"; they would not, perhaps, always admit it
+even to themselves.
+
+    The following case, though noted down over twenty years ago, is
+    fairly typical of a certain class, among the lower ranks of
+    prostitution, in which the economic factor counts for much, but
+    in which we ought not too hastily to assume that it is the sole
+    factor.
+
+    Widow, aged thirty, with two children. Works in an umbrella
+    manufactory in the East End of London, earning eighteen shillings
+    a week by hard work, and increasing her income by occasionally
+    going out on the streets in the evenings. She haunts a quiet side
+    street which is one of the approaches to a large city railway
+    terminus. She is a comfortable, almost matronly-looking woman,
+    quietly dressed in a way that is only noticeable from the skirts
+    being rather short. If spoken to she may remark that she is
+    "waiting for a lady friend," talks in an affected way about the
+    weather, and parenthetically introduces her offers. She will
+    either lead a man into one of the silent neighboring lanes filled
+    with warehouses, or will take him home with her. She is willing
+    to accept any sum the man may be willing or able to give;
+    occasionally it is a sovereign, sometimes it is only a sixpence;
+    on an average she earns a few shillings in an evening. She had
+    only been in London for ten months; before that she lived in
+    Newcastle. She did not go on the streets there; "circumstances
+    alter cases," she sagely remarks. Though not speaking well of
+    the police, she says they do not interfere with her as they do
+    with some of the girls. She never gives them money, but hints
+    that it is sometimes necessary to gratify their desires in order
+    to keep on good terms with them.
+
+It must always be remembered, for it is sometimes forgotten by socialists
+and social reformers, that while the pressure of poverty exerts a markedly
+modifying influence on prostitution, in that it increases the ranks of the
+women who thereby seek a livelihood and may thus be properly regarded as a
+factor of prostitution, no practicable raising of the rate of women's
+wages could possibly serve, directly and alone, to abolish prostitution.
+De Molinari, an economist, after remarking that "prostitution is an
+industry" and that if other competing industries can offer women
+sufficiently high pecuniary inducements they will not be so frequently
+attracted to prostitution, proceeds to point out that that by no means
+settles the question. "Like every other industry prostitution is governed
+by the demand of the need to which it responds. As long as that need and
+that demand persist, they will provoke an offer. It is the need and the
+demand that we must act on, and perhaps science will furnish us the means
+to do so."[173] In what way Molinari expects science to diminish the
+demand for prostitutes, however, is not clearly brought out.
+
+Not only have we to admit that no practicable rise in the rate of wages
+paid to women in ordinary industries can possibly compete with the wages
+which fairly attractive women of quite ordinary ability can earn by
+prostitution,[174] but we have also to realize that a rise in general
+prosperity--which alone can render a rise of women's wages healthy and
+normal--involves a rise in the wages of prostitution, and an increase in
+the number of prostitutes. So that if good wages is to be regarded as the
+antagonist of prostitution, we can only say that it more than gives back
+with one hand what it takes with the other. To so marked a degree is this
+the case that Despres in a detailed moral and demographic study of the
+distribution of prostitution in France comes to the conclusion that we
+must reverse the ancient doctrine that "poverty engenders prostitution"
+since prostitution regularly increases with wealth,[175] and as a
+departement rises in wealth and prosperity, so the number both of its
+inscribed and its free prostitutes rises also. There is indeed a fallacy
+here, for while it is true, as Despres argues, that wealth demands
+prostitution, it is also true that a wealthy community involves the
+extreme of poverty as well as of riches and that it is among the poorer
+elements that prostitution chiefly finds its recruits. The ancient dictum
+that "poverty engenders prostitution" still stands, but it is complicated
+and qualified by the complex conditions of civilization. Bonger, in his
+able discussion of the economic side of the question, has realized the
+wide and deep basis of prostitution when he reaches the conclusion that it
+is "on the one hand the inevitable complement of the existing legal
+monogamy, and on the other hand the result of the bad conditions in which
+many young girls grow up, the result of the physical and psychical
+wretchedness in which the women of the people live, and the consequence
+also of the inferior position of women in our actual society."[176] A
+narrowly economic consideration of prostitution can by no means bring us
+to the root of the matter.
+
+    One circumstance alone should have sufficed to indicate that the
+    inability of many women to secure "a living wage," is far from
+    being the most fundamental cause of prostitution: a large
+    proportion of prostitutes come from the ranks of domestic
+    service. Of all the great groups of female workers, domestic
+    servants are the freest from economic anxieties; they do not pay
+    for food or for lodging; they often live as well as their
+    mistresses, and in a large proportion of cases they have fewer
+    money anxieties than their mistresses. Moreover, they supply an
+    almost universal demand, so that there is never any need for even
+    very moderately competent servants to be in want of work. They
+    constitute, it is true, a very large body which could not fail to
+    supply a certain contingent of recruits to prostitution. But when
+    we see that domestic service is the chief reservoir from which
+    prostitutes are drawn, it should be clear that the craving for
+    food and shelter is by no means the chief cause of prostitution.
+
+    It may be added that, although the significance of this
+    predominance of servants among prostitutes is seldom realized by
+    those who fancy that to remove poverty is to abolish
+    prostitution, it has not been ignored by the more thoughtful
+    students of social questions. Thus Sherwell, while pointing out
+    truly that, to a large extent, "morals fluctuate with trade,"
+    adds that, against the importance of the economic factor, it is a
+    suggestive and in every way impressive fact that the majority of
+    the girls who frequent the West End of London (88 per cent.,
+    according to the Salvation Army's Registers) are drawn from
+    domestic service where the economic struggle is not severely felt
+    (Arthur Sherwell, _Life in West London_, Ch. V, "Prostitution").
+
+    It is at the same time worthy of note that by the conditions of
+    their lives servants, more than any other class, resemble
+    prostitutes (Bernaldo de Quiros and Llanas Aguilaniedo have
+    pointed this out in _La Mala Vida en Madrid_, p. 240). Like
+    prostitutes, they are a class of women apart; they are not
+    entitled to the considerations and the little courtesies usually
+    paid to other women; in some countries they are even registered,
+    like prostitutes; it is scarcely surprising that when they suffer
+    from so many of the disadvantages of the prostitute, they should
+    sometimes desire to possess also some of her advantages. Lily
+    Braun (_Frauenfrage_, pp. 389 et seq.) has set forth in detail
+    these unfavorable conditions of domestic labor as they bear on
+    the tendency of servant-girls to become prostitutes. R. de
+    Ryckere, in his important work, _La Servante Criminelle_ (1907,
+    pp. 460 et seq.; cf., the same author's article, "La Criminalite
+    Ancillaire," _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, July and
+    December, 1906), has studied the psychology of the servant-girl.
+    He finds that she is specially marked by lack of foresight,
+    vanity, lack of invention, tendency to imitation, and mobility of
+    mind. These are characters which ally her to the prostitute. De
+    Ryckere estimates the proportion of former servants among
+    prostitutes generally as fifty per cent., and adds that what is
+    called the "white slavery" here finds its most complacent and
+    docile victims. He remarks, however, that the servant prostitute
+    is, on the whole, not so much immoral as non-moral.
+
+    In Paris Parent-Duchatelet found that, in proportion to their
+    number, servants furnished the largest contingent to
+    prostitution, and his editors also found that they head the list
+    (Parent-Duchatelet, edition 1857, vol. i, p. 83). Among
+    clandestine prostitutes at Paris, Commenge has more recently
+    found that former servants constitute forty per cent. In Bordeaux
+    Jeannel (_De le Prostitution Publique_, p. 102) also found that
+    in 1860 forty per cent, of prostitutes had been servants,
+    seamstresses coming next with thirty-seven per cent.
+
+    In Germany and Austria it has long been recognized that domestic
+    service furnishes the chief number of recruits to prostitution.
+    Lippert, in Germany, and Gross-Hoffinger, in Austria, pointed out
+    this predominance of maid-servants and its significance before
+    the middle of the nineteenth century, and more recently Blaschko
+    has stated ("Hygiene der Syphilis" in Weyl's _Handbuch der
+    Hygiene_, Bd. ii, p. 40) that among Berlin prostitutes in 1898
+    maid-servants stand at the head with fifty-one per cent.
+    Baumgarten has stated that in Vienna the proportion of servants
+    is fifty-eight per cent.
+
+    In England, according to the Report of a Select Committee of the
+    Lords on the laws for the protection of children, sixty per cent,
+    of prostitutes have been servants. F. Remo, in his _Vie Galante
+    en Angleterre_, states the proportion as eighty per cent. It
+    would appear to be even higher as regards the West End of London.
+    Taking London as a whole the extensive statistics of Merrick
+    (_Work Among the Fallen_), chaplain of the Millbank Prison,
+    showed that out of 14,790 prostitutes, 5823, or about forty per
+    cent., had previously been servants, laundresses coming next, and
+    then dressmakers; classifying his data somewhat more summarily
+    and roughly, Merrick found that the proportion of servants was
+    fifty-three per cent.
+
+    In America, among two thousand prostitutes, Sanger states that
+    forty-three per cent, had been servants, dressmakers coming next,
+    but at a long interval, with six per cent. (Sanger, _History of
+    Prostitution_, p. 524). Among Philadelphia prostitutes, Goodchild
+    states that "domestics are probably in largest proportion,"
+    although some recruits may be found from almost any occupation.
+
+    It is the same in other countries. In Italy, according to Tammeo
+    (_La Prostituzione_, p. 100), servants come first among
+    prostitutes with a proportion of twenty-eight per cent., followed
+    by the group of dressmakers, tailoresses and milliners, seventeen
+    per cent. In Sardinia, A Mantegazza states, most prostitutes are
+    servants from the country. In Russia, according to Fiaux, the
+    proportion is forty-five per cent. In Madrid, according to Eslava
+    (as quoted by Bernaldo de Quiros and Llanas Aguilaniedo (_La Mala
+    Vida, en Madrid_, p. 239)), servants come at the head of
+    registered prostitutes with twenty-seven per cent.--almost the
+    same proportion as in Italy--and are followed by dressmakers. In
+    Sweden, according to Welander (_Monatshefte fuer Praktische
+    Dermatologie_, 1899, p. 477) among 2541 inscribed prostitutes,
+    1586 (or sixty-two per cent.) were domestic servants; at a long
+    interval followed 210 seamstresses, then 168 factory workers,
+    etc.
+
+2. _The Biological Factor of Prostitution_.--Economic considerations, as
+we see, have a highly important modificatory influence on prostitution,
+although it is by no means correct to assert that they form its main
+cause. There is another question which has exercised many investigators:
+To what extent are prostitutes predestined to this career by organic
+constitution? It is generally admitted that economic and other conditions
+are an exciting cause of prostitution; in how far are those who succumb
+predisposed by the possession of abnormal personal characteristics? Some
+inquirers have argued that this predisposition is so marked that
+prostitution may fairly be regarded as a feminine equivalent for
+criminality, and that in a family in which the men instinctively turn to
+crime, the women instinctively turn to prostitution. Others have as
+strenuously denied this conclusion.
+
+    Lombroso has more especially advocated the doctrine that
+    prostitution is the vicarious equivalent of criminality. In this
+    he was developing the results reached, in the important study of
+    the Jukes family, by Dugdale, who found that "there where the
+    brothers commit crime, the sisters adopt prostitution;" the fines
+    and imprisonments of the women of the family were not for
+    violations of the right of property, but mainly for offences
+    against public decency. "The psychological as well as anatomical
+    identity of the criminal and the born prostitute," Lombroso and
+    Ferrero concluded, "could not be more complete: both are
+    identical with the moral insane, and therefore, according to the
+    axiom, equal to each other. There is the same lack of moral
+    sense, the same hardness of heart, the same precocious taste for
+    evil, the same indifference to social infamy, the same
+    volatility, love of idleness, and lack of foresight, the same
+    taste for facile pleasures, for the orgy and for alcohol, the
+    same, or almost the same, vanity. Prostitution is only the
+    feminine side of criminality. And so true is it that prostitution
+    and criminality are two analogous, or, so to say, parallel,
+    phenomena, that at their extremes they meet. The prostitute is,
+    therefore, psychologically a criminal: if she commits no offenses
+    it is because her physical weakness, her small intelligence, the
+    facility of acquiring what she wants by more easy methods,
+    dispenses her from the necessity of crime, and on these very
+    grounds prostitution represents the specific form of feminine
+    criminality." The authors add that "prostitution is, in a certain
+    sense, socially useful as an outlet for masculine sexuality and a
+    preventive of crime" (Lombroso and Ferrero, _La Donna
+    Delinquente_, 1893, p. 571).
+
+    Those who have opposed this view have taken various grounds, and
+    by no means always understood the position they are attacking.
+    Thus W. Fischer (in _Die Prostitution_) vigorously argues that
+    prostitution is not an inoffensive equivalent of criminality, but
+    a factor of criminality. Fere, again (in _Degenerescence et
+    Criminalite_), asserts that criminality and prostitution are not
+    equivalent, but identical. "Prostitutes and criminals," he holds,
+    "have as a common character their unproductiveness, and
+    consequently they are both anti-social. Prostitution thus
+    constitutes a form of criminality." The essential character of
+    criminals is not, however, their unproductiveness, for that they
+    share with a considerable proportion of the wealthiest of the
+    upper classes; it must be added, also, that the prostitute,
+    unlike the criminal, is exercising an activity for which there is
+    a demand, for which she is willingly paid, and for which she has
+    to work (it has sometimes been noted that the prostitute looks
+    down on the thief, who "does not work"); she is carrying on a
+    profession, and is neither more nor less productive than those
+    who carry on many more reputable professions. Aschaffenburg, also
+    believing himself in opposition to Lombroso, argues, somewhat
+    differently from Fere, that prostitution is not indeed, as Fere
+    said, a form of criminality, but that it is too frequently united
+    with criminality to be regarded as an equivalent. Moenkemoeller has
+    more recently supported the same view. Here, however, as usual,
+    there is a wide difference of opinion as to the proportion of
+    prostitutes of whom this is true. It is recognized by all
+    investigators to be true of a certain number, but while
+    Baumgarten, from an examination of eight thousand prostitutes,
+    only found a minute proportion who were criminals, Stroehmberg
+    found that among 462 prostitutes there were as many as 175
+    thieves. From another side, Morasso (as quoted in _Archivio di
+    Psichiatria_, 1896, fasc. I), on the strength of his own
+    investigations, is more clearly in opposition to Lombroso, since
+    he protests altogether against any purely degenerative view of
+    prostitutes which would in any way assimilate them with
+    criminals.
+
+The question of the sexuality of prostitutes, which has a certain bearing
+on the question of their tendency to degeneration, has been settled by
+different writers in different senses. While some, like Morasso, assert
+that sexual impulse is a main cause inducing women to adopt a prostitute's
+career, others assert that prostitutes are usually almost devoid of sexual
+impulse. Lombroso refers to the prevalence of sexual frigidity among
+prostitutes.[177] In London, Merrick, speaking from a knowledge of over
+16,000 prostitutes, states that he has met with "only a very few cases"
+in which gross sexual desire has been the motive to adopt a life of
+prostitution. In Paris, Raciborski had stated at a much earlier period
+that "among prostitutes one finds very few who are prompted to libertinage
+by sexual ardor."[178] Commenge, again, a careful student of the Parisian
+prostitute, cannot admit that sexual desire is to be classed among the
+serious causes of prostitution. "I have made inquiries of thousands of
+women on this point," he states, "and only a very small number have told
+me that they were driven to prostitution for the satisfaction of sexual
+needs. Although girls who give themselves to prostitution are often
+lacking in frankness, on this point, I believe, they have no wish to
+deceive. When they have sexual needs they do not conceal them, but, on the
+contrary, show a certain _amour-propre_ in acknowledging them, as a
+sufficient sort of justification for their life; so that if only a very
+small minority avow this motive the reason is that for the great majority
+it has no existence."
+
+There can be no doubt that the statements made regarding the sexual
+frigidity of prostitutes are often much too unqualified. This is in part
+certainly due to the fact that they are usually made by those who speak
+from a knowledge of old prostitutes whose habitual familiarity with normal
+sexual intercourse in its least attractive aspects has resulted in
+complete indifference to such intercourse, so far as their clients are
+concerned.[179] It may be stated with truth that to the woman of deep
+passions the ephemeral and superficial relationships of prostitution can
+offer no temptation. And it may be added that the majority of prostitutes
+begin their career at a very early age, long before the somewhat late
+period at which in women the tendency for passion to become strong, has
+yet arrived.[180] It may also be said that an indifference to sexual
+relationships, a tendency to attach no personal value to them, is often a
+predisposing cause in the adoption of a prostitute's career; the general
+mental shallowness of prostitutes may well be accompanied by shallowness
+of physical emotion. On the other hand, many prostitutes, at all events
+early in their careers, appear to show a marked degree of sensuality, and
+to women of coarse sexual fibre the career of prostitution has not been
+without attractions from this point of view; the gratification of physical
+desire is known to act as a motive in some cases and is clearly indicated
+in others.[181] This is scarcely surprising when we remember that
+prostitutes are in a very large proportion of cases remarkably robust and
+healthy persons in general respects.[182] They withstand without
+difficulty the risks of their profession, and though under its influence
+the manifestations of sexual feeling can scarcely fail to become modified
+or perverted in course of time, that is no proof of the original absence
+of sexual sensibility. It is not even a proof of its loss, for the real
+sexual nature of the normal prostitute, and her possibilities of sexual
+ardor, are chiefly manifested, not in her professional relations with her
+clients, but in her relations with her "fancy boy" or "bully."[183] It is
+quite true that the conditions of her life often make it practically
+advantageous to the prostitute to have attached to her a man who is
+devoted to her interests and will defend them if necessary, but that is
+only a secondary, occasional, and subsidiary advantage of the "fancy boy,"
+so far as prostitutes generally are concerned. She is attracted to him
+primarily because he appeals to her personally and she wants him for
+herself. The motive of her attachment is, above all, erotic, in the full
+sense, involving not merely sexual relations but possession and common
+interests, a permanent and intimate life led together. "You know that what
+one does in the way of business cannot fill one's heart," said a German
+prostitute; "Why should we not have a husband like other women? I, too,
+need love. If that were not so we should not want a bully." And he, on his
+part, reciprocates this feeling and is by no means merely moved by
+self-interest.[184]
+
+    One of my correspondents, who has had much experience of
+    prostitutes, not only in Britain, but also in Germany, France,
+    Belgium and Holland, has found that the normal manifestations of
+    sexual feeling are much more common in British than in
+    continental prostitutes. "I should say," he writes, "that in
+    normal coitus foreign women are generally unconscious of sexual
+    excitement. I don't think I have ever known a foreign woman who
+    had any semblance of orgasm. British women, on the other hand, if
+    a man is moderately kind, and shows that he has some feelings
+    beyond mere sensual gratification, often abandon themselves to
+    the wildest delights of sexual excitement. Of course in this
+    life, as in others, there is keen competition, and a woman, to
+    vie with her competitors, must please her gentlemen friends; but
+    a man of the world can always distinguish between real and
+    simulated passion." (It is possible, however, that he may be most
+    successful in arousing the feelings of his own fellow-country
+    women.) On the other hand, this writer finds that the foreign
+    women are more anxious to provide for the enjoyment of their
+    temporary consorts and to ascertain what pleases them. "The
+    foreigner seems to make it the business of her life to discover
+    some abnormal mode of sexual gratification for her consort." For
+    their own pleasure also foreign prostitutes frequently ask for
+    _cunnilinctus_, in preference to normal coitus, while anal coitus
+    is also common. The difference evidently is that the British
+    women, when they seek gratification, find it in normal coitus,
+    while the foreign women prefer more abnormal methods. There is,
+    however, one class of British prostitutes which this
+    correspondent finds to be an exception to the general rule: the
+    class of those who are recruited from the lower walks of the
+    stage. "Such women are generally more licentious--that is to say,
+    more acquainted with the bizarre in sexualism--than girls who
+    come from shops or bars; they show a knowledge of _fellatio_, and
+    even anal coitus, and during menstruation frequently suggest
+    inter-mammary coitus."
+
+On the whole it would appear that prostitutes, though not usually impelled
+to their life by motives of sensuality, on entering and during the early
+part of their career possess a fairly average amount of sexual impulse,
+with variations in both directions of excess and deficiency as well as of
+perversion. At a somewhat later period it is useless to attempt to measure
+the sexual impulse of prostitutes by the amount of pleasure they take in
+the professional performance of sexual intercourse. It is necessary to
+ascertain whether they possess sexual instincts which are gratified in
+other ways. In a large proportion of cases this is found to be so.
+Masturbation, especially, is extremely common among prostitutes
+everywhere; however prevalent it may be among women who have no other
+means of obtaining sexual gratification it is admitted by all to be still
+more prevalent among prostitutes, indeed almost universal.[185]
+
+Homosexuality, though not so common as masturbation, is very frequently
+found among prostitutes--in France, it would seem, more frequently than in
+England--and it may indeed be said that it occurs more often among
+prostitutes than among any other class of women. It is favored by the
+acquired distaste for normal coitus due to professional intercourse with
+men, which leads homosexual relationships to be regarded as pure and ideal
+by comparison. It would appear also that in a considerable proportion of
+cases prostitutes present a congenital condition of sexual inversion, such
+a condition, with an accompanying indifference to intercourse with men,
+being a predisposing cause of the adoption of a prostitute's career.
+Kurella even regards prostitutes as constituting a sub-variety of
+congenital inverts. Anna Rueling in Germany states that about twenty per
+cent. prostitutes are homosexual; when asked what induced them to become
+prostitutes, more than one inverted woman of the street has replied to her
+that it was purely a matter of business, sexual feeling not coming into
+the question except with a friend of the same sex.[186]
+
+The occurrence of congenital inversion among prostitutes--although we need
+not regard prostitutes as necessarily degenerate as a class--suggests the
+question whether we are likely to find an unusually large number of
+physical and other anomalies among them. It cannot be said that there is
+unanimity of opinion on this point. For some authorities prostitutes are
+merely normal ordinary women of low social rank, if indeed their instincts
+are not even a little superior to those of the class in which they were
+born. Other investigators find among them so large a proportion of
+individuals deviating from the normal that they are inclined to place
+prostitutes generally among one or other of the abnormal classes.[187]
+
+    Baumgarten, in Vienna, from a knowledge of over 8000 prostitutes,
+    concluded that only a very minute proportion are either criminal
+    or psychopathic in temperament or organization (_Archiv fuer
+    Kriminal-Anthropologie_, vol. xi, 1902). It is not clear,
+    however, that Baumgarten carried out any detailed and precise
+    investigations. Mr. Lane, a London police magistrate, has stated
+    as the result of his own observation, that prostitution is "at
+    once a symptom and outcome of the same deteriorated physique and
+    decadent moral fibre which determine the manufacture of male
+    tramps, petty thieves, and professional beggars, of whom the
+    prostitute is in general the female analogue" (_Ethnological
+    Journal_, April, 1905, p. 41). This estimate is doubtless correct
+    as regards a considerable proportion of the women, often
+    enfeebled by drink, who pass through the police courts, but it
+    could scarcely be applied without qualification to prostitutes
+    generally.
+
+    Morasso (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1896, fasc. I) has protested
+    against a purely degenerative view of prostitutes on the strength
+    of his own observations. There is, he states, a category of
+    prostitutes, unknown to scientific inquirers, which he calls that
+    of the _prostitute di alto bordo_. Among these the signs of
+    degeneration, physical or moral, are not to be found in greater
+    number than among women who do not belong to prostitution. They
+    reveal all sorts of characters, some of them showing great
+    refinement, and are chiefly marked off by the possession of an
+    unusual degree of sexual appetite. Even among the more degraded
+    group of the _bassa prostituzione_, he asserts, we find a
+    predominance of sexual, as well as professional, characters,
+    rather than the signs of degeneration. It is sufficient to quote
+    one more testimony, as set down many years ago by a woman of high
+    intelligence and character, Mrs. Craik, the novelist: "The women
+    who fall are by no means the worst of their station," she wrote.
+    "I have heard it affirmed by more than one lady--by one in
+    particular whose experience was as large as her benevolence--that
+    many of them are of the very best, refined, intelligent,
+    truthful, and affectionate. 'I don't know how it is,' she would
+    say, 'whether their very superiority makes them dissatisfied with
+    their own rank--such brutes or clowns as laboring men often
+    are!--so that they fall easier victims to the rank above them; or
+    whether, though this theory will shock many people, other virtues
+    can exist and flourish entirely distinct from, and after the
+    loss of, that which we are accustomed to believe the
+    indispensable prime virtue of our sex--chastity. I cannot explain
+    it; I can only say that it is so, that some of my most promising
+    village girls have been the first to come to harm; and some of
+    the best and most faithful servants I ever had, have been girls
+    who have fallen into shame, and who, had I not gone to the rescue
+    and put them in the way to do well, would infallibly have become
+    "lost women"'" (_A Woman's Thoughts About Women_, 1858, p. 291).
+    Various writers have insisted on the good moral qualities of
+    prostitutes. Thus in France, Despine first enumerates their vices
+    as (1) greediness and love of drink, (2) lying, (3) anger, (4)
+    want of order and untidiness, (5) mobility of character, (6) need
+    of movement, (7) tendency to homosexuality; and then proceeds to
+    detail their good qualities: their maternal and filial affection,
+    their charity to each other; and their refusal to denounce each
+    other; while they are frequently religious, sometimes modest, and
+    generally very honest (Despine, _Psychologie Naturelle_, vol.
+    iii, pp. 207 et seq.; as regards Sicilian prostitutes, cf.
+    Callari, _Archivio di Psichiatria_, fasc. IV, 1903). The charity
+    towards each other, often manifested in distress, is largely
+    neutralized by a tendency to professional suspicion and jealousy
+    of each other.
+
+    Lombroso believes that the basis of prostitution must be found in
+    moral idiocy. If by moral idiocy we are to understand a condition
+    at all closely allied with insanity, this assertion is dubious.
+    There seems no clear relationship between prostitution and
+    insanity, and Tammeo has shown (_La Prostituzione_, p. 76) that
+    the frequency of prostitutes in the various Italian provinces is
+    in inverse ratio to the frequency of insane persons; as insanity
+    increases, prostitution decreases. But if we mean a minor degree
+    of moral imbecility--that is to say, a bluntness of perception
+    for the ordinary moral considerations of civilization which,
+    while it is largely due to the hardening influence of an
+    unfavorable early environment, may also rest on a congenital
+    predisposition--there can be no doubt that moral imbecility of
+    slight degree is very frequently found among prostitutes. It
+    would be plausible, doubtless, to say that every woman who gives
+    her virginity in exchange for an inadequate return is an
+    imbecile. If she gives herself for love, she has, at the worst,
+    made a foolish mistake, such as the young and inexperienced may
+    at any time make. But if she deliberately proposes to sell
+    herself, and does so for nothing or next to nothing, the case is
+    altered. The experiences of Commenge in Paris are instructive on
+    this point. "For many young girls," he writes, "modesty has no
+    existence, they experience no emotion in showing themselves
+    completely undressed, they abandon themselves to any chance
+    individual whom they will never see again. They attach no
+    importance to their virginity; they are deflowered under the
+    strangest conditions, without the least thought or care about the
+    act they are accomplishing. No sentiment, no calculation, pushes
+    them into a man's arms. They let themselves go without reflexion
+    and without motive, in an almost animal manner, from indifference
+    and without pleasure." He was acquainted with forty-five girls
+    between the ages of twelve and seventeen who were deflowered by
+    chance strangers whom they never met again; they lost their
+    virginity, in Dumas's phrase, as they lost their milk-teeth, and
+    could give no plausible account of the loss. A girl of fifteen,
+    mentioned by Commenge, living with her parents who supplied all
+    her wants, lost her virginity by casually meeting a man who
+    offered her two francs if she would go with him; she did so
+    without demur and soon begun to accost men on her own account. A
+    girl of fourteen, also living comfortably with her parents,
+    sacrificed her virginity at a fair in return for a glass of beer,
+    and henceforth begun to associate with prostitutes. Another girl
+    of the same age, at a local fete, wishing to go round on the
+    hobby horse, spontaneously offered herself to the man directing
+    the machinery for the pleasure of a ride. Yet another girl, of
+    fifteen, at another fete, offered her virginity in return for the
+    same momentary joy (Commenge, _Prostitution Clandestine_, 1897,
+    pp. 101 et seq.). In the United States, Dr. W. Travis Gibb,
+    examining physician to the New York Society for the Prevention of
+    Cruelty to Children, bears similar testimony to the fact that in
+    a fairly large proportion of "rape" cases the child is the
+    willing victim. "It is horribly pathetic," he says (_Medical
+    Record_, April 20, 1907), "to learn how far a nickel or a quarter
+    will go towards purchasing the virtue of these children."
+
+    In estimating the tendency of prostitutes to display congenital
+    physical anomalies, the crudest and most obvious test, though not
+    a precise or satisfactory one, is the general impression produced
+    by the face. In France, when nearly 1000 prostitutes were divided
+    into five groups from the point of view of their looks, only from
+    seven to fourteen per cent, were found to belong to the first
+    group, or that of those who could be said to possess youth and
+    beauty (Jeannel, _De la Prostitution Publique_, 1860, p. 168).
+    Woods Hutchinson, again, judging from an extensive acquaintance
+    with London, Paris, Vienna, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago,
+    asserts that a handsome or even attractive-looking prostitute, is
+    rare, and that the general average of beauty is lower than in any
+    other class of women. "Whatever other evils," he remarks, "the
+    fatal power of beauty may be responsible for, it has nothing to
+    do with prostitution" (Woods Hutchinson, "The Economics of
+    Prostitution," _American Gynaecological and Obstetric Journal_,
+    September, 1895). It must, of course, be borne in mind that these
+    estimates are liable to be vitiated through being based chiefly
+    on the inspection of women who most obviously belong to the class
+    of prostitutes and have already been coarsened by their
+    profession.
+
+    If we may conclude--and the fact is probably undisputed--that
+    beautiful, agreeable, and harmoniously formed faces are rare
+    rather than common among prostitutes, we may certainly say that
+    minute examination will reveal a large number of physical
+    abnormalities. One of the earliest important physical
+    investigations of prostitutes was that of Dr. Pauline Tarnowsky
+    in Russia (first published in the _Vratch_ in 1887, and
+    afterwards as _Etudes anthropometriques sur les Prostituees et
+    les Voleuses_). She examined fifty St. Petersburg prostitutes who
+    had been inmates of a brothel for not less than two years, and
+    also fifty peasant women of, so far as possible, the same age and
+    mental development. She found that (1) the prostitute showed
+    shorter anterior-posterior and transverse diameters of skull; (2)
+    a proportion equal to eighty-four per cent. showed various signs
+    of physical degeneration (irregular skull, asymmetry of face,
+    anomalies of hard palate, teeth, ears, etc.). This tendency to
+    anomaly among the prostitutes was to some extent explained when
+    it was found that about four-fifths of them had parents who were
+    habitual drunkards, and nearly one-fifth were the last survivors
+    of large families; such families have been often produced by
+    degenerate parents.
+
+    The frequency of hereditary degeneration has been noted by
+    Bonhoeffer among German prostitutes. He investigated 190 Breslau
+    prostitutes in prison, and therefore of a more abnormal class
+    than ordinary prostitutes, and found that 102 were hereditarily
+    degenerate, and mostly with one or both parents who were
+    drunkards; 53 also showed feeble-mindedness (_Zeitschrift fuer die
+    Gesamte Strafwissenschaft_, Bd. xxiii, p. 106).
+
+    The most detailed examinations of ordinary non-criminal
+    prostitutes, both anthropometrically and as regards the
+    prevalence of anomalies, have been made in Italy, though not on a
+    sufficiently large number of subjects to yield absolutely
+    decisive results. Thus Fornasari made a detailed examination of
+    sixty prostitutes belonging chiefly to Emilia and Venice, and
+    also of twenty-seven others belonging to Bologna, the latter
+    group being compared with a third group of twenty normal women
+    belonging to Bologna (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1892, fasc. VI).
+    The prostitutes were found to be of lower type than the normal
+    individuals, having smaller heads and larger faces. As the author
+    himself points out, his subjects were not sufficiently numerous
+    to justify far-reaching generalizations, but it may be worth
+    while to summarize some of his results. At equal heights the
+    prostitutes showed greater weight; at equal ages they were of
+    shorter stature than other women, not only of well-to-do, but of
+    the poor class: height of face, bi-zygomatic diameter (though not
+    the distance between zygomas), the distance from chin to external
+    auditory meatus, and the size of the jaw were all greater in the
+    prostitutes; the hands were longer and broader, compared to the
+    palm, than in ordinary women; the foot also was longer in
+    prostitutes, and the thigh, as compared to the calf, was larger.
+    It is noteworthy that in most particulars, and especially in
+    regard to head measurements, the variations were much greater
+    among the prostitutes than among the other women examined; this
+    is to some extent, though not entirely, to be accounted for by
+    the slightly greater number of the former.
+
+    Ardu (in the same number of the _Archivio_) gave the result of
+    observations (undertaken at Lombroso's suggestion) as to the
+    frequency of abnormalities among prostitutes. The subjects were
+    seventy-four in number and belonged to Professor Giovannini's
+    _Clinica Sifilopatica_ at Turin. The abnormalities investigated
+    were virile distribution of hair on pubes, chest, and limbs,
+    hypertrichosis on forehead, left-handedness, atrophy of nipple,
+    and tattooing (which was only found once). Combining Ardu's
+    observations with another series of observations on fifty-five
+    prostitutes examined by Lombroso, it is found that virile
+    disposition of hair is found in fifteen per cent. as against six
+    per cent. in normal women; some degree of hypertrichosis in
+    eighteen per cent.; left-handedness in eleven per cent. (but in
+    normal women as high as twelve per cent. according to Gallia);
+    and atrophy of nipple in twelve per cent.
+
+    Giuffrida-Ruggeri, again (_Atti della, Societa Romana di
+    Antropologia_, 1897, p. 216), on examining eighty-two prostitutes
+    found anomalies in the following order of decreasing frequency:
+    tendency of eyebrows to meet, lack of cranial symmetry,
+    depression at root of nose, defective development of calves,
+    hypertrichosis and other anomalies of hair, adherent or absent
+    lobule, prominent zigoma, prominent forehead or frontal bones,
+    bad implantation of teeth, Darwinian tubercle of ear, thin
+    vertical lips. These signs are separately of little or no
+    importance, though together not without significance as an
+    indication of general anomaly.
+
+    More recently Ascarilla, in an elaborate study (_Archivio di
+    Psichiatria_, 1906, fasc. VI, p. 812) of the finger prints of
+    prostitutes, comes to the conclusion that even in this respect
+    prostitutes tend to form a class showing morphological
+    inferiority to normal women. The patterns tend to show unusual
+    simplicity and uniformity, and the significance of this is
+    indicated by the fact that a similar uniformity is shown by the
+    finger prints of the insane and deaf-mutes (De Sanctis and
+    Toscano, _Atti Societa Romana Antropologia_, vol. viii, 1901,
+    fasc. II).
+
+    In Chicago Dr. Harriet Alexander, in conjunction with Dr. E.S.
+    Talbot and Dr. J.G. Kiernan, examined thirty prostitutes in the
+    Bridewell, or House of Correction; only the "obtuse" class of
+    professional prostitutes reach this institution, and it is not
+    therefore surprising that they were found to exhibit very marked
+    stigmata of degeneracy. In race nearly half of those examined
+    were Celtic Irish. In sixteen the zygomatic processes were
+    unequal and very prominent. Other facial asymmetries were common.
+    In three cases the heads were of Mongoloid type; sixteen were
+    epignathic, and eleven prognathic; five showed arrest of
+    development of face. Brachycephaly predominated (seventeen
+    cases); the rest were mesaticephalic; there were no
+    dolichocephals. Abnormalities in shape of the skull were
+    numerous, and twenty-nine had defective ears. Four were
+    demonstrably insane, and one was an epileptic (H.C.B. Alexander,
+    "Physical Abnormalities in Prostitutes," Chicago Academy of
+    Medicine, April, 1893; E.S. Talbot, _Degeneracy_, p. 320; _Id.,
+    Irregularities of the Teeth_, fourth edition, p. 141).
+
+It would seem, on the whole, so far as the evidence at present goes, that
+prostitutes are not quite normal representatives of the ranks into which
+they were born. There has been a process of selection of individuals who
+slightly deviate congenitally from the normal average and are,
+correspondingly, slightly inapt for normal life.[188] The psychic
+characteristics which accompany such deviation are not always necessarily
+of an obviously unfavorable nature; the slightly neurotic girl of low
+class birth--disinclined for hard work, through defective energy, and
+perhaps greedy and selfish--may even seem to possess a refinement superior
+to her station. While, however, there is a tendency to anomaly among
+prostitutes, it must be clearly recognized that that tendency remains
+slight so long as we consider impartially the whole class of prostitutes.
+Those investigators who have reached the conclusion that prostitutes are a
+highly degenerate and abnormal class have only observed special groups of
+prostitutes, more especially those who are frequently found in prison. It
+is not possible to form a just conception of prostitutes by studying them
+only in prison, any more than it would be possible to form a just
+conception of clergymen, doctors, or lawyers by studying them exclusively
+in prison, and this remains true even although a much larger proportion of
+prostitutes than of members of the more reputable professions pass through
+prisons; that fact no doubt partly indicates the greater abnormality of
+prostitutes.
+
+It has, of course, to be remembered that the special conditions of the
+lives of prostitutes tend to cause in them the appearance of certain
+professional characteristics which are entirely acquired and not
+congenital. In that way we may account for the gradual modification of the
+feminine secondary and tertiary sexual characters, and the appearance of
+masculine characters, such as the frequent deep voice, etc.[189] But with
+all due allowance for these acquired characters, it remains true that such
+comparative investigations as have so far been made, although
+inconclusive, seem to indicate that, even apart from the prevalence of
+acquired anomalies, the professional selection of their avocation tends to
+separate out from the general population of the same social class,
+individuals who possess anthropometrical characters varying in a definite
+direction. The observations thus made seem, in this way, to indicate that
+prostitutes tend to be in weight over the average, though not in stature,
+that in length of arm they are inferior though the hands are longer (this
+has been found alike in Italy and Russia); they have smaller ankles and
+larger calves, and still larger thighs in proportion to their large
+calves. The estimated skull capacity and the skull circumference and
+diameters are somewhat below the normal, not only when compared with
+respectable women but also with thieves; there is a tendency to
+brachycephaly (both in Italy and Russia); the cheek-bones are usually
+prominent and the jaws developed; the hair is darker than in respectable
+women though less so than in thieves; it is also unusually abundant, not
+only on the head but also on the pudenda and elsewhere; the eyes have been
+found to be decidedly darker than those of either respectable women or
+criminals.[190]
+
+So far as the evidence goes it serves to indicate that prostitutes tend to
+approximate to the type which, as was shown in the previous volume, there
+is reason to regard as specially indicative of developed sexuality. It is,
+however, unnecessary to discuss this question until our anthropometrical
+knowledge of prostitutes is more extended and precise.
+
+3. _The Moral Justification of Prostitution_.--There are and always have
+been moralists--many of them people whose opinions are deserving of the
+most serious respect--who consider that, allowing for the need of
+improved hygienic conditions, the existence of prostitution presents no
+serious problem for solution. It is, at most, they say, a necessary evil,
+and, at best, a beneficent institution, the bulwark of the home, the
+inevitable reverse of which monogamy is the obverse. "The immoral guardian
+of public morality," is the definition of prostitutes given by one writer,
+who takes the humble view of the matter, and another, taking the loftier
+ground, writes: "The prostitute fulfils a social mission. She is the
+guardian of virginal modesty, the channel to carry off adulterous desire,
+the protector of matrons who fear late maternity; it is her part to act as
+the shield of the family." "Female Decii," said Balzac in his _Physiologie
+du Mariage_ of prostitutes, "they sacrifice themselves for the republic
+and make of their bodies a rampart for the protection of respectable
+families." In the same way Schopenhauer called prostitutes "human
+sacrifices on the altar of monogamy." Lecky, again, in an oft-quoted
+passage of rhetoric,[191] may be said to combine both the higher and the
+lower view of the prostitute's mission in human society, to which he even
+seeks to give a hieratic character. "The supreme type of vice," he
+declared, "she is ultimately the most efficient guardian of virtue. But
+for her, the unchallenged purity of countless happy homes would be
+polluted, and not a few who, in the pride of their untempted chastity,
+think of her with an indignant shudder, would have known the agony of
+remorse and of despair. On that one degraded and ignoble form are
+concentrated the passions that might have filled the world with shame. She
+remains, while creeds and civilizations rise and fall, the eternal
+priestess of humanity, blasted for the sins of the people."[192]
+
+I am not aware that the Greeks were greatly concerned with the moral
+justification of prostitution. They had not allowed it to assume very
+offensive forms and for the most part they were content to accept it. The
+Romans usually accepted it, too, but, we gather, not quite so easily.
+There was an austerely serious, almost Puritanic, spirit in the Romans of
+the old stock and they seem sometimes to have felt the need to assure
+themselves that prostitution really was morally justifiable. It is
+significant to note that they were accustomed to remember that Cato was
+said to have expressed satisfaction on seeing a man emerge from a brothel,
+for otherwise he might have gone to lie with his neighbor's wife.[193]
+
+The social necessity of prostitution is the most ancient of all the
+arguments of moralists in favor of the toleration of prostitutes; and if
+we accept the eternal validity of the marriage system with which
+prostitution developed, and of the theoretical morality based on that
+system, this is an exceedingly forcible, if not an unanswerable, argument.
+
+The advent of Christianity, with its special attitude towards the "flesh,"
+necessarily caused an enormous increase of attention to the moral aspects
+of prostitution. When prostitution was not morally denounced, it became
+clearly necessary to morally justify it; it was impossible for a Church,
+whose ideals were more or less ascetic, to be benevolently indifferent in
+such a matter. As a rule we seem to find throughout that while the more
+independent and irresponsible divines take the side of denunciation, those
+theologians who have had thrust upon them the grave responsibilities of
+ecclesiastical statesmanship have rather tended towards the reluctant
+moral justification of prostitution. Of this we have an example of the
+first importance in St. Augustine, after St. Paul the chief builder of the
+Christian Church. In a treatise written in 386 to justify the Divine
+regulation of the world, we find him declaring that just as the
+executioner, however repulsive he may be, occupies a necessary place in
+society, so the prostitute and her like, however sordid and ugly and
+wicked they may be, are equally necessary; remove prostitutes from human
+affairs and you would pollute the world with lust: "Aufer meretrices de
+rebus humanis, turbaveris omnia libidinibus."[194] Aquinas, the only
+theological thinker of Christendom who can be named with Augustine, was of
+the same mind with him on this question of prostitution. He maintained the
+sinfulness of fornication but he accepted the necessity of prostitution as
+a beneficial part of the social structure, comparing it to the sewers
+which keep a palace pure.[195] "Prostitution in towns is like the sewer in
+a palace; take away the sewers and the palace becomes an impure and
+stinking place." Liguori, the most influential theologian of more modern
+times, was of the like opinion.
+
+This wavering and semi-indulgent attitude towards prostitution was indeed
+generally maintained by theologians. Some, following Augustine and
+Aquinas, would permit prostitution for the avoidance of greater evils;
+others were altogether opposed to it; others, again, would allow it in
+towns but nowhere else. It was, however, universally held by theologians
+that the prostitute has a right to her wages, and is not obliged to make
+restitution.[196] The earlier Christian moralists found no difficulty in
+maintaining that there is no sin in renting a house to a prostitute for
+the purposes of her trade; absolution was always granted for this and
+abstention not required.[197] Fornication, however, always remained a sin,
+and from the twelfth century onwards the Church made a series of organized
+attempts to reclaim prostitutes. All Catholic theologians hold that a
+prostitute is bound to confess the sin of prostitution, and most, though
+not all, theologians have believed that a man also must confess
+intercourse with a prostitute. At the same time, while there was a certain
+indulgence to the prostitute herself, the Church was always very severe on
+those who lived on the profits of promoting prostitution, on the
+_lenones_. Thus the Council of Elvira, which was ready to receive without
+penance the prostitute who married, refused reconciliation, even at death,
+to persons who had been guilty of _lenocinium_.[198]
+
+Protestantism, in this as in many other matters of sexual morality, having
+abandoned the confessional, was usually able to escape the necessity for
+any definite and responsible utterances concerning the moral status of
+prostitution. When it expressed any opinion, or sought to initiate any
+practical action, it naturally founded itself on the Biblical injunctions
+against fornication, as expressed by St. Paul, and showed no mercy for
+prostitutes and no toleration for prostitution. This attitude, which was
+that of the Puritans, was the more easy since in Protestant countries,
+with the exception of special districts at special periods--such as Geneva
+and New England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries--theologians
+have in these matters been called upon to furnish religious exhortation
+rather than to carry out practical policies. The latter task they have
+left to others, and a certain confusion and uncertainty has thus often
+arisen in the lay Protestant mind. This attitude in a thoughtful and
+serious writer, is well illustrated in England by Burton, writing a
+century after the Reformation. He refers with mitigated approval to "our
+Pseudo-Catholics," who are severe with adultery but indulgent to
+fornication, being perhaps of Cato's mind that it should be encouraged to
+avoid worse mischiefs at home, and who holds brothels "as necessary as
+churches" and "have whole Colleges of Courtesans in their towns and
+cities." "They hold it impossible," he continues, "for idle persons,
+young, rich and lusty, so many servants, monks, friars, to live honest,
+too tyrannical a burden to compel them to be chaste, and most unfit to
+suffer poor men, younger brothers and soldiers at all to marry, as also
+diseased persons, votaries, priests, servants. Therefore as well to keep
+and ease the one as the other, they tolerate and wink at these kind of
+brothel-houses and stews. Many probable arguments they have to prove the
+lawfulness, the necessity, and a toleration of them, as of usery; and
+without question in policy they are not to be contradicted, but altogether
+in religion."[199]
+
+It was not until the beginning of the following century that the ancient
+argument of St. Augustine for the moral justification of prostitution was
+boldly and decisively stated in Protestant England, by Bernard Mandeville
+in his _Fable of the Bees_, and at its first promulgation it seemed so
+offensive to the public mind that the book was suppressed. "If courtesans
+and strumpets were to be prosecuted with as much rigor as some silly
+people would have it," Mandeville wrote, "what locks or bars would be
+sufficient to preserve the honor of our wives and daughters?... It is
+manifest that there is a necessity of sacrificing one part of womankind to
+preserve the other, and prevent a filthiness of a more heinous nature.
+From whence I think I may justly conclude that chastity may be supported
+by incontinence, and the best of virtues want the assistance of the worst
+of vices."[200] After Mandeville's time this view of prostitution began to
+become common in Protestant as well as in other countries, though it was
+not usually so clearly expressed.
+
+    It may be of interest to gather together a few more modern
+    examples of statements brought forward for the moral
+    justification of prostitution.
+
+    Thus in France Meusnier de Querlon, in his story of _Psaphion_,
+    written in the middle of the eighteenth century, puts into the
+    mouth of a Greek courtesan many interesting reflections
+    concerning the life and position of the prostitute. She defends
+    her profession with much skill, and argues that while men imagine
+    that prostitutes are merely the despised victims of their
+    pleasures, these would-be tyrants are really dupes who are
+    ministering to the needs of the women they trample beneath their
+    feet, and themselves equally deserve the contempt they bestow.
+    "We return disgust for disgust, as they must surely perceive. We
+    often abandon to them merely a statue, and while inflamed by
+    their own desires they consume themselves on insensible charms,
+    our tranquil coldness leisurely enjoys their sensibility. Then it
+    is we resume all our rights. A little hot blood has brought
+    these proud creatures to our feet, and rendered us mistresses of
+    their fate. On which side, I ask, is the advantage?" But all men,
+    she adds, are not so unjust towards the prostitute, and she
+    proceeds to pronounce a eulogy, not without a slight touch of
+    irony in it, of the utility, facility, and convenience of the
+    brothel.
+
+    A large number of the modern writers on prostitution insist on
+    its socially beneficial character. Thus Charles Richard concludes
+    his book on the subject with the words: "The conduct of society
+    with regard to prostitution must proceed from the principle of
+    gratitude without false shame for its utility, and compassion for
+    the poor creatures at whose expense this is attained" (_La
+    Prostitution devant le Philosophe_, 1882, p. 171). "To make
+    marriage permanent is to make it difficult," an American medical
+    writer observes; "to make it difficult is to defer it; to defer
+    it is to maintain in the community an increasing number of
+    sexually perfect individuals, with normal, or, in cases where
+    repression is prolonged, excessive sexual appetites. The social
+    evil is the natural outcome of the physical nature of man, his
+    inherited impulses, and the artificial conditions under which he
+    is compelled to live" ("The Social Evil," _Medicine_, August and
+    September, 1906). Woods Hutchinson, while speaking with strong
+    disapproval of prostitution and regarding prostitutes as "the
+    worst specimens of the sex," yet regards prostitution as a social
+    agency of the highest value. "From a medico-economic point of
+    view I venture to claim it as one of the grand selective and
+    eliminative agencies of nature, and of highest value to the
+    community. It may be roughly characterized as a safety valve for
+    the institution of marriage" (_The Gospel According to Darwin_,
+    p. 193; cf. the same author's article on "The Economics of
+    Prostitution," summarized in _Boston Medical and Surgical
+    Journal_, November 21, 1895). Adolf Gerson, in a somewhat similar
+    spirit, argues ("Die Ursache der Prostitution,"
+    _Sexual-Probleme_, September, 1908) that "prostitution is one of
+    the means used by Nature to limit the procreative activity of
+    men, and especially to postpone the period of sexual maturity."
+    Molinari considers that the social benefits of prostitution have
+    been manifested in various ways from the first; by sterilizing,
+    for instance, the more excessive manifestations of the sexual
+    impulse prostitution suppressed the necessity for the infanticide
+    of superfluous children, and led to the prohibition of that
+    primitive method of limiting the population (G. de Molinari, _La
+    Viriculture_, p. 45). In quite another way than that mentioned by
+    Molinari, prostitution has even in very recent times led to the
+    abandonment of infanticide. In the Chinese province of Ping-Yang,
+    Matignon states, it was usual not many years ago for poor parents
+    to kill forty per cent. of the girl children, or even all of
+    them, at birth, for they were too expensive to rear and brought
+    nothing in, since men who wished to marry could easily obtain a
+    wife in the neighboring province of Wenchu, where women were
+    very easy to obtain. Now, however, the line of steamships along
+    the coast makes it very easy for girls to reach the brothels of
+    Shang-Hai, where they can earn money for their families; the
+    custom of killing them has therefore died out (Matignon,
+    _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, 1896, p. 72). "Under
+    present conditions," writes Dr. F. Erhard ("Auch ein Wort zur
+    Ehereform," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I, Heft 9),
+    "prostitution (in the broadest sense, including free
+    relationships) is necessary in order that young men may, in some
+    degree, learn to know women, for conventional conversation cannot
+    suffice for this; an exact knowledge of feminine thought and
+    action is, however, necessary for a proper choice, since it is
+    seldom possible to rely on the certainty of instinct. It is good
+    also that men should wear off their horns before marriage, for
+    the polygamous tendency will break through somewhere.
+    Prostitution will only spoil those men in whom there is not much
+    to spoil, and if the desire for marriage is thus lost, the man's
+    unbegotten children may have cause to thank him." Neisser, Naecke,
+    and many others, have pleaded for prostitution, and even for
+    brothels, as "necessary evils."
+
+    It is scarcely necessary to add that many, among even the
+    strongest upholders of the moral advantages of prostitution,
+    believe that some improvement in method is still desirable. Thus
+    Berault looks forward to a time when regulated brothels will
+    become less contemptible. Various improvements may, he thinks, in
+    the near future, "deprive them of the barbarous attributes which
+    mark them out for the opprobrium of the skeptical or ignorant
+    multitude, while their recognizable advantages will put an end to
+    the contempt aroused by their cynical aspect" (_La Maison de
+    Tolerance_, These de Paris, 1904).
+
+4. _The Civilizational Value of Prostitution._--The moral argument for
+prostitution is based on the belief that our marriage system is so
+infinitely precious that an institution which serves as its buttress must
+be kept in existence, however ugly or otherwise objectionable it may in
+itself be. There is, however, another argument in support of prostitution
+which scarcely receives the emphasis it deserves. I refer to its influence
+in adding an element, in some form or another necessary, of gaiety and
+variety to the ordered complexity of modern life, a relief from the
+monotony of its mechanical routine, a distraction from its dull and
+respectable monotony. This is distinct from the more specific function of
+prostitution as an outlet for superfluous sexual energy, and may even
+affect those who have little or no commerce with prostitutes. This
+element may be said to constitute the civilizational value of
+prostitution.
+
+It is not merely the general conditions of civilization, but more
+specifically the conditions of urban life, which make this factor
+insistent. Urban life imposes by the stress of competition a very severe
+and exacting routine of dull work. At the same time it makes men and women
+more sensitive to new impressions, more enamored of excitement and change.
+It multiplies the opportunities of social intercourse; it decreases the
+chances of detection of illegitimate intercourse while at the same time it
+makes marriage more difficult, for, by heightening social ambitions and
+increasing the expenses of living, it postpones the time when a home can
+be created. Urban life delays marriage and yet renders the substitutes for
+marriage more imperative.[201]
+
+There cannot be the slightest doubt that it is this motive--the effort to
+supplement the imperfect opportunities for self-development offered by our
+restrained, mechanical, and laborious civilization--which plays one of the
+chief parts in inducing women to adopt, temporarily or permanently, a
+prostitute's life. We have seen that the economic factor is not, as was
+once supposed, by any means predominant in this choice. Nor, again, is
+there any reason to suppose that an over-mastering sexual impulse is a
+leading factor. But a large number of young women turn instinctively to a
+life of prostitution because they are moved by an obscure impulse which
+they can scarcely define to themselves or express, and are often ashamed
+to confess. It is, therefore, surprising that this motive should find so
+large a place even in the formal statistics of the factors of
+prostitution. Merrick, in London, found that 5000, or nearly a third, of
+the prostitutes he investigated, voluntarily gave up home or situation
+"for a life of pleasure," and he puts this at the head of the causes of
+prostitution.[202] In America Sanger found that "inclination" came almost
+at the head of the causes of prostitution, while Woods Hutchinson found
+"love of display, luxury and idleness" by far at the head. "Disgusted and
+wearied with work" is the reason assigned by a large number of Belgian
+girls when stating to the police their wish to be enrolled as prostitutes.
+In Italy a similar motive is estimated to play an important part. In
+Russia "desire for amusement" comes second among the causes of
+prostitution. There can, I think, be little doubt that, as a thoughtful
+student of London life has concluded, the problem of prostitution is "at
+bottom a mad and irresistible craving for excitement, a serious and wilful
+revolt against the monotony of commonplace ideals, and the uninspired
+drudgery of everyday life."[203] It is this factor of prostitution, we may
+reasonably conclude, which is mainly responsible for the fact, pointed out
+by F. Schiller,[204] that with the development of civilization the supply
+of prostitutes tends to outgrow the demand.
+
+    Charles Booth seems to be of the same opinion, and quotes (_Life
+    and Labor of the People_, Third Series, vol. vii, p. 364) from a
+    Rescue Committee Report: "The popular idea is, that these women
+    are eager to leave a life of sin. The plain and simple truth is
+    that, for the most part, they have no desire at all to be
+    rescued. So many of these women do not, and will not, regard
+    prostitution as a sin. 'I am taken out to dinner and to some
+    place of amusement every night; why should I give it up?'"
+    Merrick, who found that five per cent. of 14,000 prostitutes who
+    passed through Millbank Prison, were accustomed to combine
+    religious observance with the practice of their profession, also
+    remarks in regard to their feelings about morality: "I am
+    convinced that there are many poor men and women who do not in
+    the least understand what is implied in the term 'immorality.'
+    Out of courtesy to you, they may assent to what you say, but they
+    do not comprehend your meaning when you talk of virtue or purity;
+    you are simply talking over their heads" (Merrick, op. cit., p.
+    28). The same attitude may be found among prostitutes everywhere.
+    In Italy Ferriani mentions a girl of fifteen who, when accused of
+    indecency with a man in a public garden, denied with tears and
+    much indignation. He finally induced her to confess, and then
+    asked her: "Why did you try to make me believe you were a good
+    girl?" She hesitated, smiled, and said: "Because _they say_ girls
+    ought not to do what I do, but ought to work. But I am what I am,
+    and it is no concern of theirs." This attitude is often more than
+    an instinctive feeling; in intelligent prostitutes it frequently
+    becomes a reasoned conviction. "I can bear everything, if so it
+    must be," wrote the author of the _Tagebuch einer Verlorenen_ (p.
+    291), "even serious and honorable contempt, but I cannot bear
+    scorn. Contempt--yes, if it is justified. If a poor and pretty
+    girl with sick and bitter heart stands alone in life, cast off,
+    with temptations and seductions offering on every side, and, in
+    spite of that, out of inner conviction she chooses the grey and
+    monotonous path of renunciation and middle-class morality, I
+    recognize in that girl a personality, who has a certain
+    justification in looking down with contemptuous pity on weaker
+    girls. But those geese who, under the eyes of their shepherds and
+    life-long owners, have always been pastured in smooth green
+    fields, have certainly no right to laugh scornfully at others who
+    have not been so fortunate." Nor must it be supposed that there
+    is necessarily any sophistry in the prostitute's justification of
+    herself. Some of our best thinkers and observers have reached a
+    conclusion that is not dissimilar. "The actual conditions of
+    society are opposed to any high moral feeling in women," Marro
+    observes (_La Puberta_, p. 462), "for between those who sell
+    themselves to prostitution and those who sell themselves to
+    marriage, the only difference is in price and duration of the
+    contract."
+
+We have already seen how very large a part in prostitution is furnished by
+those who have left domestic service to adopt this life (_ante_ p. 264).
+It is not difficult to find in this fact evidence of the kind of impulse
+which impels a woman to adopt the career of prostitution. "The servant, in
+our society of equality," wrote Goncourt, recalling somewhat earlier days
+when she was often admitted to a place in the family life, "has become
+nothing but a paid pariah, a machine for doing household work, and is no
+longer allowed to share the employer's human life."[205] And in England,
+even half a century ago, we already find the same statements concerning
+the servant's position: "domestic service is a complete slavery," with
+early hours and late hours, and constant running up and down stairs till
+her legs are swollen; "an amount of ingenuity appears too often to be
+exercised, worthy of a better cause, in obtaining the largest possible
+amount of labor out of the domestic machine"; in addition she is "a kind
+of lightning conductor," to receive the ill-temper and morbid feelings of
+her mistress and the young ladies; so that, as some have said, "I felt so
+miserable I did not care what became of me, I wished I was dead."[206] The
+servant is deprived of all human relationships; she must not betray the
+existence of any simple impulse, or natural need. At the same time she
+lives on the fringe of luxury; she is surrounded by the tantalizing
+visions of pleasure and amusement for which her fresh young nature
+craves.[207] It is not surprising that, repelled by unrelieved drudgery
+and attracted by idle luxury, she should take the plunge which will alone
+enable her to enjoy the glittering aspects of civilization which seem so
+desirable to her.[208]
+
+    It is sometimes stated that the prevalence of prostitution among
+    girls who were formerly servants is due to the immense numbers of
+    servants who are seduced by their masters or the young men of the
+    family, and are thus forced on to the streets. Undoubtedly in a
+    certain proportion of cases, perhaps sometimes a fairly
+    considerable proportion, this is a decisive factor in the matter,
+    but it scarcely seems to be the chief factor. The existence of
+    relationships between servants and masters, it must be
+    remembered, by no means necessarily implies seduction. In a
+    large number of cases the servant in a household is, in sexual
+    matters, the teacher rather than the pupil. (In "The Sexual
+    Impulse in Women," in the third volume of these _Studies_, I have
+    discussed the part played by servants as sexual initiators of the
+    young boys in the households in which they are placed.) The more
+    precise statistics of the causes of prostitution seldom assign
+    seduction as the main determining factor in more than about
+    twenty per cent. of cases, though this is obviously one of the
+    most easily avowable motives (see _ante_, p. 256). Seduction by
+    any kind of employer constitutes only a proportion (usually less
+    than half) even of these cases. The special case of seduction of
+    servants by masters can thus play no very considerable part as a
+    factor of prostitution.
+
+    The statistics of the parentage of illegitimate children have
+    some bearing on this question. In a series of 180 unmarried
+    mothers assisted by the Berlin Bund fuer Mutterschutz, particulars
+    are given of the occupations both of the mothers, and, as far as
+    possible, of the fathers. The former were one-third
+    servant-girls, and the great majority of the remainder assistants
+    in trades or girls carrying on work at home. At the head of the
+    fathers (among 120 cases) came artisans (33), followed by
+    tradespeople (22); only a small proportion (20 to 25) could be
+    described as "gentlemen," and even this proportion loses some of
+    its significance when it is pointed out that some of the girls
+    were also of the middle-class; in nineteen cases the fathers were
+    married men (_Mutterschutz_, January, 1907, p. 45).
+
+    Most authorities in most countries are of opinion that girls who
+    eventually (usually between the ages of fifteen and twenty)
+    become prostitutes have lost their virginity at an early age, and
+    in the great majority of cases through men of their own class.
+    "The girl of the people falls by the people," stated Reuss in
+    France (_La Prostitution_, p. 41). "It is her like, workers like
+    herself, who have the first fruits of her beauty and virginity.
+    The man of the world who covers her with gold and jewels only has
+    their leavings." Martineau, again (_De la Prostitution
+    Clandestine_, 1885), showed that prostitutes are usually
+    deflowered by men of their own class. And Jeannel, in Bordeaux,
+    found reason for believing that it is not chiefly their masters
+    who lead servants astray; they often go into service because they
+    have been seduced in the country, while lazy, greedy, and
+    unintelligent girls are sent from the country into the town to
+    service. In Edinburgh, W. Tait (_Magdalenism_, 1842) found that
+    soldiers more than any other class in the community are the
+    seducers of women, the Highlanders being especially notorious in
+    this respect. Soldiers have this reputation everywhere, and in
+    Germany especially it is constantly found that the presence of
+    the soldiery in a country district, as at the annual manoeuvres,
+    is the cause of unchastity and illegitimate births; it is so also
+    in Austria, where, long ago, Gross-Hoffinger stated that
+    soldiers were responsible for at least a third of all
+    illegitimate births, a share out of all proportion to their
+    numbers. In Italy, Marro, investigating the occasion of the loss
+    of virginity in twenty-two prostitutes, found that ten gave
+    themselves more or less spontaneously to lovers or masters, ten
+    yielded in the expectation of marriage, and two were outraged
+    (_La Puberta_, p. 461). The loss of virginity, Marro adds, though
+    it may not be the direct cause of prostitution, often leads on to
+    it. "When a door has once been broken in," a prostitute said to
+    him, "it is difficult to keep it closed." In Sardinia, as A.
+    Mantegazza and Ciuffo found, prostitutes are very largely
+    servants from the country who have already been deflowered by men
+    of their own class.
+
+This civilizational factor of prostitution, the influence of luxury and
+excitement and refinement in attracting the girl of the people, as the
+flame attracts the moth, is indicated by the fact that it is the
+country-dwellers who chiefly succumb to the fascination. The girls whose
+adolescent explosive and orgiastic impulses, sometimes increased by a
+slight congenital lack of nervous balance, have been latent in the dull
+monotony of country life and heightened by the spectacle of luxury acting
+on the unrelieved drudgery of town life, find at last their complete
+gratification in the career of a prostitute. To the town girl, born and
+bred in the town, this career has not usually much attraction, unless she
+has been brought up from the first in an environment that predisposes her
+to adopt it. She is familiar from childhood with the excitements of urban
+civilization and they do not intoxicate her; she is, moreover, more shrewd
+to take care of herself than the country girl, and too well acquainted
+with the real facts of the prostitute's life to be very anxious to adopt
+her career. Beyond this, also, it is probable that the stocks she belongs
+to possess a native or acquired power of resistance to unbalancing
+influences which has enabled them to survive in urban life. She has become
+immune to the poisons of that life.[209]
+
+    In all great cities a large proportion, if not the majority, of
+    the inhabitants have usually been born outside the city (in
+    London only about fifty per cent. of heads of households are
+    definitely reported as born in London); and it is not therefore
+    surprising that prostitutes also should often be outsiders. Still
+    it remains a significant fact that so typically urban a
+    phenomenon as prostitution should be so largely recruited from
+    the country. This is everywhere the case. Merrick enumerates the
+    regions from which came some 14,000 prostitutes who passed
+    through Millbank Prison. Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex and Devon
+    are the counties that stand at the head, and Merrick estimates
+    that the contingent of London from the four counties which make
+    up London was 7000, or one-half of the whole; military towns like
+    Colchester and naval ports like Plymouth supply many prostitutes
+    to London; Ireland furnished many more than Scotland, and Germany
+    far more than any other European country, France being scarcely
+    represented at all (Merrick, _Work Among the Fallen_, 1890, pp.
+    14-18). It is, of course, possible that the proportions among
+    those who pass through a prison do not accurately represent the
+    proportions among prostitutes generally. The registers of the
+    London Salvation Army Rescue Home show that sixty per cent. of
+    the girls and women come from the provinces (A. Sherwell, _Life
+    in West London_, Ch. V). This is exactly the same proportion as
+    Tait found among prostitutes generally, half a century earlier,
+    in Edinburgh. Sanger found that of 2000 prostitutes in New York
+    as many as 1238 were born abroad (706 in Ireland), while of the
+    remaining 762 only half were born in the State of New York, and
+    clearly (though the exact figures are not given) a still smaller
+    proportion in New York City. Prostitutes come from the
+    North--where the climate is uncongenial, and manufacturing and
+    sedentary occupations prevail--much more than from the South;
+    thus Maine, a cold bleak maritime State, sent twenty-four of
+    these prostitutes to New York, while equidistant Virginia, which
+    at the same rate should have sent seventy-two, only sent nine;
+    there was a similar difference between Rhode Island and Maryland
+    (Sanger, _History of Prostitution_, p. 452). It is instructive to
+    see here the influence of a dreary climate and monotonous labor
+    in stimulating the appetite for a "life of pleasure." In France,
+    as shown by a map in Parent-Duchatelet's work (vol. i, pp. 37-64,
+    1857), if the country is divided into five zones, on the whole
+    running east and west, there is a steady and progressive decrease
+    in the number of prostitutes each zone sends to Paris, as we
+    descend southwards. Little more than a third seem to belong to
+    Paris, and, as in America, it is the serious and hard-working
+    North, with its relatively cold climate, which furnishes the
+    largest contingent; even in old France, Dufour remarks (_op.
+    cit._, vol. iv, Ch. XV), prostitution, as the _fabliaux_ and
+    _romans_ show, was less infamous in the _langue d'oil_ than in
+    the _langue d'oc_, so that they were doubtless rare in the
+    South. At a later period Reuss states (_La Prostitution_, p. 12)
+    that "nearly all the prostitutes of Paris come from the
+    provinces." Jeannel found that of one thousand Bordeaux
+    prostitutes only forty-six belonged to the city itself, and
+    Potton (Appendix to Parent-Duchatelet, vol. ii, p. 446) states
+    that of nearly four thousand Lyons prostitutes only 376 belonged
+    to Lyons. In Vienna, in 1873, Schrank remarks that of over 1500
+    prostitutes only 615 were born in Vienna. The general rule, it
+    will be seen, though the variations are wide, is that little more
+    than a third of a city's prostitutes are children of the city.
+
+    It is interesting to note that this tendency of the prostitute to
+    reach cities from afar, this migratory tendency--which they
+    nowadays share with waiters--is no merely modern phenomenon.
+    "There are few cities in Lombardy, or France, or Gaul," wrote St.
+    Boniface nearly twelve centuries ago, "in which there is not an
+    adulteress or prostitute of the English nation," and the Saint
+    attributes this to the custom of going on pilgrimage to foreign
+    shrines. At the present time there is no marked English element
+    among Continental prostitutes. Thus in Paris, according to Reuss
+    (_La Prostitution_, p. 12), the foreign prostitutes in decreasing
+    order are Belgian, German (Alsace-Lorraine), Swiss (especially
+    Geneva), Italian, Spanish, and only then English. Connoisseurs in
+    this matter say, indeed, that the English prostitute, as compared
+    with her Continental (and especially French) sister, fails to
+    show to advantage, being usually grasping as regards money and
+    deficient in charm.
+
+It is the appeal of civilization, though not of what is finest and best in
+civilization, which more than any other motive, calls women to the career
+of a prostitute. It is now necessary to point out that for the man also,
+the same appeal makes itself felt in the person of the prostitute. The
+common and ignorant assumption that prostitution exists to satisfy the
+gross sensuality of the young unmarried man, and that if he is taught to
+bridle gross sexual impulse or induced to marry early the prostitute must
+be idle, is altogether incorrect. If all men married when quite young, not
+only would the remedy be worse than the disease--a point which it would be
+out of place to discuss here--but the remedy would not cure the disease.
+The prostitute is something more than a channel to drain off superfluous
+sexual energy, and her attraction by no means ceases when men are married,
+for a large number of the men who visit prostitutes, if not the majority,
+are married. And alike whether they are married or unmarried the motive
+is not one of uncomplicated lust.
+
+    In England, a well-informed writer remarks that "the value of
+    marriage as a moral agent is evidenced by the fact that all the
+    better-class prostitutes in London are almost entirely supported
+    by married men," while in Germany, as stated in the interesting
+    series of reminiscences by a former prostitute, Hedwig Hard's
+    _Beichte einer Gefallenen_, (p. 208), the majority of the men who
+    visit prostitutes are married. The estimate is probably
+    excessive. Neisser states that only twenty-five per cent. of
+    cases of gonorrhoea occur in married men. This indication is
+    probably misleading in the opposite direction, as the married
+    would be less reckless than the young and unmarried. As regards
+    the motives which lead married men to prostitutes, Hedwig Hard
+    narrates from her own experiences an incident which is
+    instructive and no doubt typical. In the town in which she lived
+    quietly as a prostitute a man of the best social class was
+    introduced by a friend, and visited her habitually. She had often
+    seen and admired his wife, who was one of the beauties of the
+    place, and had two charming children; husband and wife seemed
+    devoted to each other, and every one envied their happiness. He
+    was a man of intellect and culture who encouraged Hedwig's love
+    of books; she became greatly attached to him, and one day
+    ventured to ask him how he could leave his lovely and charming
+    wife to come to one who was not worthy to tie her shoe-lace.
+    "Yes, my child," he answered, "but all her beauty and culture
+    brings nothing to my heart. She is cold, cold as ice, proper,
+    and, above all, phlegmatic. Pampered and spoilt, she lives only
+    for herself; we are two good comrades, and nothing more. If, for
+    instance, I come back from the club in the evening and go to her
+    bed, perhaps a little excited, she becomes nervous and she thinks
+    it improper to wake her. If I kiss her she defends herself, and
+    tells me that I smell horribly of cigars and wine. And if perhaps
+    I attempt more, she jumps out of bed, bristles up as though I
+    were assaulting her, and threatens to throw herself out of the
+    window if I touch her. So, for the sake of peace, I leave her
+    alone and come to you." There can be no doubt whatever that this
+    is the experience of many married men who would be well content
+    to find the sweetheart as well as the friend in their wives. But
+    the wives, from a variety of causes, have proved incapable of
+    becoming the sexual mates of their husbands. And the husbands,
+    without being carried away by any impulse of strong passion or
+    any desire for infidelity, seek abroad what they cannot find at
+    home.
+
+    This is not the only reason why married men visit prostitutes.
+    Even men who are happily married to women in all chief respects
+    fitted to them, are apt to find, after some years of married
+    life, a mysterious craving for variety. They are not tired of
+    their wives, they have not the least wish or intention to abandon
+    them, they will not, if they can help it, give them the slightest
+    pain. But from time to time they are led by an almost
+    irresistible and involuntary impulse to seek a temporary intimacy
+    with women to whom nothing would persuade them to join themselves
+    permanently. Pepys, whose _Diary_, in addition to its other
+    claims upon us, is a psychological document of unique importance,
+    furnishes a very characteristic example of this kind of impulse.
+    He had married a young and charming wife, to whom he is greatly
+    attached, and he lives happily with her, save for a few
+    occasional domestic quarrels soon healed by kisses; his love is
+    witnessed by his jealousy, a jealousy which, as he admits, is
+    quite unreasonable, for she is a faithful and devoted wife. Yet a
+    few years after marriage, and in the midst of a life of strenuous
+    official activity, Pepys cannot resist the temptation to seek the
+    temporary favors of other women, seldom prostitutes, but nearly
+    always women of low social class--shop women, workmen's wives,
+    superior servant-girls. Often he is content to invite them to a
+    quiet ale-house, and to take a few trivial liberties. Sometimes
+    they absolutely refuse to allow more than this; when that happens
+    he frequently thanks Almighty God (as he makes his entry in his
+    _Diary_ at night) that he has been saved from temptation and from
+    loss of time and money; in any case, he is apt to vow that it
+    shall never occur again. It always does occur again. Pepys is
+    quite sincere with himself; he makes no attempt at justification
+    or excuse; he knows that he has yielded to a temptation; it is an
+    impulse that comes over him at intervals, an impulse that he
+    seems unable long to resist. Throughout it all he remains an
+    estimable and diligent official, and in most respects a tolerably
+    virtuous man, with a genuine dislike of loose people and loose
+    talk. The attitude of Pepys is brought out with incomparable
+    simplicity and sincerity because he is setting down these things
+    for his own eyes only, but his case is substantially that of a
+    vast number of other men, perhaps indeed of the typical _homme
+    moyen sensuel_ (see Pepys, _Diary_, ed. Wheatley; e.g., vol. iv,
+    passim).
+
+    There is a third class of married men, less considerable in
+    number but not unimportant, who are impelled to visit
+    prostitutes: the class of sexually perverted men. There are a
+    great many reasons why such men may desire to be married, and in
+    some cases they marry women with whom they find it possible to
+    obtain the particular form of sexual gratification they crave.
+    But in a large proportion of cases this is not possible. The
+    conventionally bred woman often cannot bring herself to humor
+    even some quite innocent fetishistic whim of her husband's, for
+    it is too alien to her feelings and too incomprehensible to her
+    ideas, even though she may be genuinely in love with him; in many
+    cases the husband would not venture to ask, and scarcely even
+    wish, that his wife should lend herself to play the fantastic or
+    possibly degrading part his desires demand. In such a case he
+    turns naturally to the prostitute, the only woman whose business
+    it is to fulfil his peculiar needs. Marriage has brought no
+    relief to these men, and they constitute a noteworthy proportion
+    of a prostitute's clients in every great city. The most ordinary
+    prostitute of any experience can supply cases from among her own
+    visitors to illustrate a treatise of psychopathic sexuality. It
+    may suffice here to quote a passage from the confessions of a
+    young London (Strand) prostitute as written down from her lips by
+    a friend to whom I am indebted for the document; I have merely
+    turned a few colloquial terms into more technical forms. After
+    describing how, when she was still a child of thirteen in the
+    country, a rich old gentleman would frequently come and exhibit
+    himself before her and other girls, and was eventually arrested
+    and imprisoned, she spoke of the perversities she had met with
+    since she had become a prostitute. She knew a young man, about
+    twenty-five, generally dressed in a sporting style, who always
+    came with a pair of live pigeons, which he brought in a basket.
+    She and the girl with whom she lived had to undress and take the
+    pigeons and wring their necks; he would stand in front of them,
+    and as the necks were wrung orgasm occurred. Once a man met her
+    in the street and asked her if he might come with her and lick
+    her boots. She agreed, and he took her to a hotel, paid half a
+    guinea for a room, and, when she sat down, got under the table
+    and licked her boots, which were covered with mud; he did nothing
+    more. Then there were some things, she said, that were too dirty
+    to repeat; well, one man came home with her and her friend and
+    made them urinate into his mouth. She also had stories of
+    flagellation, generally of men who whipped the girls, more rarely
+    of men who liked to be whipped by them. One man, who brought a
+    new birch every time, liked to whip her friend until he drew
+    blood. She knew another man who would do nothing but smack her
+    nates violently. Now all these things, which come into the
+    ordinary day's work of the prostitute, are rooted in deep and
+    almost irresistible impulses (as will be clear to any reader of
+    the discussion of Erotic Symbolism in the previous volume of
+    these _Studies_). They must find some outlet. But it is only the
+    prostitute who can be relied upon, through her interests and
+    training, to overcome the natural repulsion to such actions, and
+    gratify desires which, without gratification, might take on other
+    and more dangerous forms.
+
+Although Woods Hutchinson quotes with approval the declaration of a
+friend, "Out of thousands I have never seen one with good table manners,"
+there is still a real sense in which the prostitute represents, however
+inadequately, the attraction of civilization. "There was no house in
+which I could habitually see a lady's face and hear a lady's voice," wrote
+the novelist Anthony Trollope in his _Autobiography_, concerning his early
+life in London. "No allurement to decent respectability came in my way. It
+seems to me that in such circumstances the temptations of loose life will
+almost certainly prevail with a young man. The temptation at any rate
+prevailed with me." In every great city, it has been said, there are
+thousands of men who have no right to call any woman but a barmaid by her
+Christian name.[210] All the brilliant fever of civilization pulses round
+them in the streets but their lips never touch it. It is the prostitute
+who incarnates this fascination of the city, far better than the virginal
+woman, even if intimacy with her were within reach. The prostitute
+represents it because she herself feels it, because she has even
+sacrificed her woman's honor in the effort to identify herself with it.
+She has unbridled feminine instincts, she is a mistress of the feminine
+arts of adornment, she can speak to him concerning the mysteries of
+womanhood and the luxuries of sex with an immediate freedom and knowledge
+the innocent maiden cloistered in her home would be incapable of. She
+appeals to him by no means only because she can gratify the lower desires
+of sex, but also because she is, in her way, an artist, an expert in the
+art of feminine exploitation, a leader of feminine fashions. For she is
+this, and there are, as Simmel has stated in his _Philosophie der Mode_,
+good psychological reasons why she always should be this. Her uncertain
+social position makes all that is conventional and established hateful to
+her, while her temperament makes perpetual novelty delightful. In new
+fashions she finds "an aesthetic form of that instinct of destruction which
+seems peculiar to all pariah existences, in so far as they are not
+completely enslaved in spirit."
+
+    "However surprising it may seem to some," a modern writer
+    remarks, "prostitutes must be put on the same level as artists.
+    Both use their gifts and talents for the joy and pleasure of
+    others, and, as a rule, for payment. What is the essential
+    difference between a singer who gives pleasure to hearers by her
+    throat and a prostitute who gives pleasure to those who seek her
+    by another part of her body? All art works on the senses." He
+    refers to the significant fact that actors, and especially
+    actresses, were formerly regarded much as prostitutes are now (R.
+    Hellmann, _Ueber Geschlechtsfreiheit_, pp. 245-252).
+
+    Bernaldo de Quiros and Llanas Aguilaniedo (_La Mala Vida en
+    Madrid_, p. 242) trace the same influence still lower in the
+    social scale. They are describing the more squalid kind of _cafe
+    chantant_, in which, in Spain and elsewhere, the most vicious and
+    degenerate feminine creatures become waitresses (and occasionally
+    singers and dancers), playing the part of amiable and
+    distinguished _hetairae_ to the public of carmen and shop-boys who
+    frequent these resorts. "Dressed with what seems to the youth
+    irreproachable taste, with hair elaborately prepared, and clean
+    face adorned with flowers or trinkets, affable and at times
+    haughty, superior in charm and in finery to the other women he is
+    able to know, the waitresses become the most elevated example of
+    the _femme galante_ whom he is able to contemplate and talk to,
+    the courtesan of his sphere."
+
+But while to the simple, ignorant, and hungry youth the prostitute appeals
+as the embodiment of many of the refinements and perversities of
+civilization, on many more complex and civilized men she exerts an
+attraction of an almost reverse kind. She appeals by her fresh and natural
+coarseness, her frank familiarity with the crudest facts of life; and so
+lifts them for a moment out of the withering atmosphere of artificial
+thought and unreal sentiment in which so many civilized persons are
+compelled to spend the greater part of their lives. They feel in the words
+which the royal friend of a woman of this temperament is said to have used
+in explaining her incomprehensible influence over him: "She is so
+splendidly vulgar!"
+
+    In illustration of this aspect of the appeal of prostitution, I
+    may quote a passage in which the novelist, Hermant, in his
+    _Confession d'un Enfant d'Hier_ (Lettre VII), has set down the
+    reasons which may lead the super-refined child of a cultured age,
+    yet by no means radically or completely vicious, to find
+    satisfaction in commerce with prostitutes: "As long as my heart
+    was not touched the object of my satisfaction was completely
+    indifferent to me. I was, moreover, a great lover of absolute
+    liberty, which is only possible in the circle of these anonymous
+    creatures and in their reserved dwelling. There everything became
+    permissible. With other women, however low we may seek them,
+    certain convenances must be observed, a kind of protocol. To
+    these one can say everything: one is protected by incognito and
+    assured that nothing will be divulged. I profited by this
+    freedom, which suited my age, but with a perverse fancy which was
+    not characteristic of my years. I scarcely know where I found
+    what I said to them, for it was the opposite of my tastes, which
+    were simple, and, if I may venture to say so, classic. It is true
+    that, in matters of love, unrestrained naturalism always tends to
+    perversion, a fact that can only seem paradoxical at first sight.
+    Primitive peoples have many traits in common with degenerates. It
+    was, however, only in words that I was unbridled; and that was
+    the only occasion on which I can recollect seriously lying. But
+    that necessity, which I then experienced, of expelling a lower
+    depth of ignoble instincts, seems to me characteristic and
+    humiliating. I may add that even in the midst of these
+    dissipations I retained a certain reserve. The contacts to which
+    I exposed myself failed to soil me; nothing was left when I had
+    crossed the threshold. I have always retained, from that forcible
+    and indifferent commerce, the habit of attributing no consequence
+    to the action of the flesh. The amorous function, which religion
+    and morality have surrounded with mystery or seasoned with sin,
+    seems to me a function like any other, a little vile, but
+    agreeable, and one to which the usual epilogue is too long....
+    This kind of companionship only lasted for a short time." This
+    analysis of the attitude of a certain common type of civilized
+    modern man seems to be just, but it may perhaps occur to some
+    readers that a commerce which led to "the action of the flesh"
+    being regarded as of no consequence can scarcely be said to have
+    left no taint.
+
+    In a somewhat similar manner, Henri de Regnier, in his novel,
+    _Les Rencontres de Monsieur Breot_ (p. 50), represents Bercaille
+    as deliberately preferring to take his pleasures with
+    servant-girls rather than with ladies, for pleasure was, to his
+    mind, a kind of service, which could well be accommodated with
+    the services they are accustomed to give; and then they are
+    robust and agreeable, they possess the _naivete_ which is always
+    charming in the common people, and they are not apt to be
+    repelled by those little accidents which might offend the
+    fastidious sensibilities of delicately bred ladies.
+
+    Bloch, who has especially emphasized this side of the appeal of
+    prostitution (_Das Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, pp. 359-362),
+    refers to the delicate and sensitive young Danish writer, J.P.
+    Jakobsen, who seems to have acutely felt the contrast between the
+    higher and more habitual impulses, and the occasional outburst of
+    what he felt to be lower instincts; in his _Niels Lyhne_ he
+    describes the kind of double life in which a man is true for a
+    fortnight to the god he worships, and is then overcome by other
+    powers which madly bear him in their grip towards what he feels
+    to be humiliating, perverse, and filthy. "At such moments," Bloch
+    remarks, "the man is another being. The 'two souls' in the breast
+    become a reality. Is that the famous scholar, the lofty idealist,
+    the fine-souled aesthetician, the artist who has given us so many
+    splendid and pure works in poetry and painting? We no longer
+    recognize him, for at such moments another being has come to the
+    surface, another nature is moving within him, and with the power
+    of an elementary force is impelling him towards things at which
+    his 'upper consciousness,' the civilized man within him, would
+    shudder." Bloch believes that we are here concerned with a kind
+    of normal masculine masochism, which prostitution serves to
+    gratify.
+
+
+_IV. The Present Social Attitude Towards Prostitution._
+
+We have now surveyed the complex fact of prostitution in some of its most
+various and typical aspects, seeking to realise, intelligently and
+sympathetically, the fundamental part it plays as an elementary
+constituent of our marriage system. Finally we have to consider the
+grounds on which prostitution now appears to a large and growing number of
+persons not only an unsatisfactory method of sexual gratification but a
+radically bad method.
+
+The movement of antagonism towards prostitution manifests itself most
+conspicuously, as might beforehand have been anticipated, by a feeling of
+repugnance towards the most ancient and typical, once the most credited
+and best established prostitutional manifestation, the brothel. The growth
+of this repugnance is not confined to one or two countries but is
+international, and may thus be regarded as corresponding to a real
+tendency in our civilization. It is equally pronounced in prostitutes
+themselves and in the people who are their clients. The distaste on the
+one side increases the distaste on the other. Since only the most helpless
+or the most stupid prostitutes are nowadays willing to accept the
+servitude of the brothel, the brothel-keeper is forced to resort to
+extraordinary methods for entrapping victims, and even to take part in
+that cosmopolitan trade in "white slaves" which exists solely to feed
+brothels.[211] This state of things has a natural reaction in prejudicing
+the clients of prostitution against an institution which is going out of
+fashion and out of credit. An even more fundamental antipathy is
+engendered by the fact that the brothel fails to respond to the high
+degree of personal freedom and variety which civilization produces, and
+always demands even when it fails to produce. On one side the prostitute
+is disinclined to enter into a slavery which usually fails even to bring
+her any reward; on the other side her client feels it as part of the
+fascination of prostitution under civilized conditions that he shall enjoy
+a freedom and choice the brothel cannot provide.[212] Thus it comes about
+that brothels which once contained nearly all the women who made it a
+business to minister to the sexual needs of men, now contain only a
+decreasing minority, and that the transformation of cloistered
+prostitution into free prostitution is approved by many social reformers
+as a gain to the cause of morality.[213]
+
+The decay of brothels, whether as cause or as effect, has been associated
+with a vast increase of prostitution outside brothels. But the repugnance
+to brothels in many essential respects also applies to prostitution
+generally, and, as we shall see, it is exerting a profoundly modifying
+influence on that prostitution.
+
+The changing feeling in regard to prostitution seems to express itself
+mainly in two ways. On the one hand there are those who, without desiring
+to abolish prostitution, resent the abnegation which accompanies it, and
+are disgusted by its sordid aspects. They may have no moral scruples
+against prostitution, and they know no reason why a woman should not
+freely do as she will with her own person. But they believe that, if
+prostitution is necessary, the relationships of men with prostitutes
+should be humane and agreeable to each party, and not degrading to either.
+It must be remembered that under the conditions of civilized urban life,
+the discipline of work is often too severe, and the excitements of urban
+existence too constant, to render an abandonment to orgy a desirable
+recreation. The gross form of orgy appeals, not to the town-dweller but to
+the peasant, and to the sailor or soldier who reaches the town after long
+periods of dreary routine and emotional abstinence. It is a mistake, even,
+to suppose that the attraction of prostitution is inevitably associated
+with the fulfilment of the sexual act. So far is this from being the case
+that the most attractive prostitute may be a woman who, possessing few
+sexual needs of her own, desires to please by the charm of her
+personality; these are among those who most often find good husbands.
+There are many men who are even well content merely to have a few hours'
+free intimacy with an agreeable woman, without any further favor, although
+that may be open to them. For a very large number of men under urban
+conditions of existence the prostitute is ceasing to be the degraded
+instrument of a moment's lustful desire; they seek an agreeable human
+person with whom they may find relaxation from the daily stress or routine
+of life. When an act of prostitution is thus put on a humane basis,
+although it by no means thereby becomes conducive to the best development
+of either party, it at least ceases to be hopelessly degrading. Otherwise
+it would not have been possible for religious prostitution to flourish for
+so long in ancient days among honorable women of good birth on the shores
+of the Mediterranean, even in regions like Lydia, where the position of
+women was peculiarly high.[214]
+
+It is true that the monetary side of prostitution would still exist. But
+it is possible to exaggerate its importance. It must be pointed out that,
+though it is usual to speak of the prostitute as a woman who "sells
+herself," this is rather a crude and inexact way of expressing, in its
+typical form, the relationship of a prostitute to her client. A prostitute
+is not a commodity with a market-price, like a loaf or a leg of mutton.
+She is much more on a level with people belonging to the professional
+classes, who accept fees in return for services rendered; the amount of
+the fee varies, on the one hand in accordance with professional standing,
+on the other hand in accordance with the client's means, and under special
+circumstances may be graciously dispensed with altogether. Prostitution
+places on a venal basis intimate relationships which ought to spring up
+from natural love, and in so doing degrades them. But strictly speaking
+there is in such a case no "sale." To speak of a prostitute "selling
+herself" is scarcely even a pardonable rhetorical exaggeration; it is both
+inexact and unjust.[215]
+
+    This tendency in an advanced civilization towards the
+    humanization of prostitution is the reverse process, we may note,
+    to that which takes place at an earlier stage of civilization
+    when the ancient conception of the religious dignity of
+    prostitution begins to fall into disrepute. When men cease to
+    reverence women who are prostitutes in the service of a goddess
+    they set up in their place prostitutes who are merely abject
+    slaves, flattering themselves that they are thereby working in
+    the cause of "progress" and "morality." On the shores of the
+    Mediterranean this process took place more than two thousand
+    years ago, and is associated with the name of Solon. To-day we
+    may see the same process going on in India. In some parts of
+    India (as at Jejuri, near Poonah) first born girls are dedicated
+    to Khandoba or other gods; they are married to the god and termed
+    _muralis_. They serve in the temple, sweep it, and wash the holy
+    vessels, also they dance, sing and prostitute themselves. They
+    are forbidden to marry, and they live in the homes of their
+    parents, brothers, or sisters; being consecrated to religious
+    service, they are untouched by degradation. Nowadays, however,
+    Indian "reformers," in the name of "civilization and science,"
+    seek to persuade the _muralis_ that they are "plunged in a career
+    of degradation." No doubt in time the would-be moralists will
+    drive the _muralis_ out of their temples and their homes, deprive
+    them of all self-respect, and convert them into wretched
+    outcasts, all in the cause of "science and civilization" (see,
+    e.g., an article by Mrs. Kashibai Deodhar, _The New Reformer_,
+    October, 1907). So it is that early reformers create for the
+    reformers of a later day the task of humanizing prostitution
+    afresh.
+
+    There can be no doubt that this more humane conception of
+    prostitution is to-day beginning to be realized in the actual
+    civilized life of Europe. Thus in writing of prostitution in
+    Paris, Dr. Robert Michels ("Erotische Streifzuege,"
+    _Mutterschutz_, 1906, Heft 9, p. 368) remarks: "While in Germany
+    the prostitute is generally considered as an 'outcast' creature,
+    and treated accordingly, an instrument of masculine lust to be
+    used and thrown away, and whom one would under no circumstances
+    recognize in public, in France the prostitute plays in many
+    respects the part which once give significance and fame to the
+    _hetairae_ of Athens." And after describing the consideration and
+    respect which the Parisian prostitute is often able to require of
+    her friends, and the non-sexual relation of comradeship which she
+    can enter into with other men, the writer continues: "A girl who
+    certainly yields herself for money, but by no means for the first
+    comer's money, and who, in addition to her 'business friends,'
+    feels the need of, so to say, non-sexual companions with whom she
+    can associate in a free comrade-like way, and by whom she is
+    treated and valued as a free human being, is not wholly lost for
+    the moral worth of humanity." All prostitution is bad, Michels
+    concludes, but we should have reason to congratulate ourselves if
+    love-relationships of this Parisian species represented the
+    lowest known form of extra-conjugal sexuality. (As bearing on the
+    relative consideration accorded to prostitutes I may mention that
+    a Paris prostitute remarked to a friend of mine that Englishmen
+    would ask her questions which no Frenchman would venture to ask.)
+
+    It is not, however, only in Paris, although here more markedly
+    and prominently, that this humanizing change in prostitution is
+    beginning to make itself felt. It is manifested, for instance, in
+    the greater openness of a man's sexual life. "While he formerly
+    slinked into a brothel in a remote street," Dr. Willy Hellpach
+    remarks (_Nervositaet und Kultur_, p. 169), "he now walks abroad
+    with his 'liaison,' visiting the theatres and cafes, without
+    indeed any anxiety to meet his acquaintances, but with no
+    embarrassment on that point. The thing is becoming more
+    commonplace, more--natural." It is also, Hellpach proceeds to
+    point out, thus becoming more moral also, and much unwholesome
+    prudery and pruriency is being done away with.
+
+    In England, where change is slow, this tendency to the
+    humanization of prostitution may be less pronounced. But it
+    certainly exists. In the middle of the last century Lecky wrote
+    (_History of European Morals_, vol. ii, p. 285) that habitual
+    prostitution "is in no other European country so hopelessly
+    vicious or so irrevocable." That statement, which was also made
+    by Parent-Duchatelet and other foreign observers, is fully
+    confirmed by the evidence on record. But it is a statement which
+    would hardly be made to-day, except perhaps, in reference to
+    special confined areas of our cities. It is the same in America,
+    and we may doubtless find this tendency reflected in the report
+    on _The Social Evil_ (1902), drawn up by a committee in New York,
+    who gave it (p. 176) as one of their chief recommendations that
+    prostitution should no longer be regarded as a crime, in which
+    light, one gathers, it had formerly been regarded in New York.
+    That may seem but a small step in the path of humanization, but
+    it is in the right direction.
+
+    It is by no means only in lands of European civilization that we
+    may trace with developing culture the refinement and humanization
+    of the slighter bonds of relationship with women. In Japan
+    exactly the same demands led, several centuries ago, to the
+    appearance of the geisha. In the course of an interesting and
+    precise study of the geisha Mr. R.T. Farrer remarks (_Nineteenth
+    Century_, April, 1904): "The geisha is in no sense necessarily a
+    courtesan. She is a woman educated to attract; perfected from her
+    childhood in all the intricacies of Japanese literature;
+    practiced in wit and repartee; inured to the rapid give-and-take
+    of conversation on every topic, human and divine. From her
+    earliest youth she is broken into an inviolable charm of manner
+    incomprehensible to the finest European, yet she is almost
+    invariably a blossom of the lower classes, with dumpy claws, and
+    squat, ugly nails. Her education, physical and moral, is far
+    harder than that of the _ballerina_, and her success is achieved
+    only after years of struggle and a bitter agony of torture....
+    And the geisha's social position may be compared with that of the
+    European actress. The Geisha-house offers prizes as desirable as
+    any of the Western stage. A great geisha with twenty nobles
+    sitting round her, contending for her laughter, and kept in
+    constant check by the flashing bodkin of her wit, holds a
+    position no less high and famous than that of Sarah Bernhardt in
+    her prime. She is equally sought, equally flattered, quite as
+    madly adored, that quiet little elderly plain girl in dull blue.
+    But she is prized thus primarily for her tongue, whose power only
+    ripens fully as her physical charms decline. She demands vast
+    sums for her owners, and even so often appears and dances only at
+    her own pleasure. Few, if any, Westerners ever see a really
+    famous geisha. She is too great to come before a European, except
+    for an august or imperial command. Finally she may, and
+    frequently does, marry into exalted places. In all this there is
+    not the slightest necessity for any illicit relation."
+
+    In some respects the position of the ancient Greek _hetaira_ was
+    more analogous to that of the Japanese _geisha_ than to that of
+    the prostitute in the strict sense. For the Greeks, indeed, the
+    _hetaira_, was not strictly a _porne_ or prostitute at all. The
+    name meant friend or companion, and the woman to whom the name
+    was applied held an honorable position, which could not be
+    accorded to the mere prostitute. Athenaeus (Bk. xiii, Chs.
+    XXVIII-XXX) brings together passages showing that the _hetaira_
+    could be regarded as an independent citizen, pure, simple, and
+    virtuous, altogether distinct from the common crew of
+    prostitutes, though these might ape her name. The _hetairae_ "were
+    almost the only Greek women," says Donaldson (_Woman_, p. 59),
+    "who exhibited what was best and noblest in women's nature." This
+    fact renders it more intelligible why a woman of such
+    intellectual distinction as Aspasia should have been a _hetaira_.
+    There seems little doubt as to her intellectual distinction.
+    "AEschines, in his dialogue entitled 'Aspasia,'" writes Gomperz,
+    the historian of Greek philosophy (_Greek Thinkers_, vol. iii,
+    pp. 124 and 343), "puts in the mouth of that distinguished woman
+    an incisive criticism of the mode of life traditional for her
+    sex. It would be exceedingly strange," Gomperz adds, in arguing
+    that an inference may thus be drawn concerning the historical
+    Aspasia, "if three authors--Plato, Xenophon and AEschines--had
+    agreed in fictitiously enduing the companion of Pericles with
+    what we might very reasonably have expected her to possess--a
+    highly cultivated mind and intellectual influence." It is even
+    possible that the movement for woman's right which, as we dimly
+    divine through the pages of Aristophanes, took place in Athens in
+    the fourth century B.C., was led by _hetairae_. According to Ivo
+    Bruns (_Frauenemancipation in Athen_, 1900, p. 19) "the most
+    certain information which we possess concerning Aspasia bears a
+    strong resemblance to the picture which Euripides and
+    Aristophanes present to us of the leaders of the woman movement."
+    It was the existence of this movement which made Plato's ideas on
+    the community of women appear far less absurd than they do to us.
+    It may perhaps be thought by some that this movement represented
+    on a higher plane that love of distruction, or, as we should
+    better say, that spirit of revolt and aspiration, which Simmel
+    finds to mark the intellectual and artistic activity of those who
+    are unclassed or dubiously classed in the social hierarchy. Ninon
+    de Lenclos, as we have seen, was not strictly a courtesan, but
+    she was a pioneer in the assertion of woman's rights. Aphra Behn
+    who, a little later in England, occupied a similarly dubious
+    social position, was likewise a pioneer in generous humanitarian
+    aspirations, which have since been adopted in the world at
+    large.
+
+    These refinements of prostitution may be said to be chiefly the
+    outcome of the late and more developed stages in civilization. As
+    Schurtz has put it (_Altersklassen und Maennerbuende_, p. 191):
+    "The cheerful, skilful and artistically accomplished _hetaira_
+    frequently stands as an ideal figure in opposition to the
+    intellectually uncultivated wife banished to the interior of the
+    house. The courtesan of the Italian Renaissance, Japanese
+    geishas, Chinese flower-girls, and Indian bayaderas, all show
+    some not unnoble features, the breath of a free artistic
+    existence. They have achieved--with, it is true, the sacrifice of
+    their highest worth--an independence from the oppressive rule of
+    man and of household duties, and a part of the feminine endowment
+    which is so often crippled comes in them to brilliant
+    development. Prostitution in its best form may thus offer a path
+    by which these feminine characteristics may exert a certain
+    influence on the development of civilization. We may also believe
+    that the artistic activity of women is in some measure able to
+    offer a counterpoise to the otherwise less pleasant results of
+    sexual abandonment, preventing the coarsening and destruction of
+    the emotional life; in his _Magda_ Sudermann has described a type
+    of woman who, from the standpoint of strict morality, is open to
+    condemnation, but in her art finds a foothold, the strength of
+    which even ill-will must unwillingly recognize." In his _Sex and
+    Character_, Weininger has developed in a more extreme and
+    extravagant manner the conception of the prostitute as a
+    fundamental and essential part of life, a permanent feminine
+    type.
+
+There are others, apparently in increasing numbers, who approach the
+problem of prostitution not from an aesthetic standpoint but from a moral
+standpoint. This moral attitude is not, however, that conventionalized
+morality of Cato and St. Augustine and Lecky, set forth in previous pages,
+according to which the prostitute in the street must be accepted as the
+guardian of the wife in the home. These moralists reject indeed the claim
+of that belief to be considered moral at all. They hold that it is not
+morally possible that the honor of some women shall be purchaseable at the
+price of the dishonor of other women, because at such a price virtue loses
+all moral worth. When they read that, as Goncourt stated, "the most
+luxurious articles of women's _trousseaux_, the bridal chemises of girls
+with dowries of six hundred thousand francs, are made in the prison of
+Clairvaux,"[216] they see the symbol of the intimate dependence of our
+luxurious virtue on our squalid vice. And while they accept the
+historical and sociological evidence which shows that prostitution is an
+inevitable part of the marriage system which still survives among us, they
+ask whether it is not possible so to modify our marriage system that it
+shall not be necessary to divide feminine humanity into "disreputable"
+women, who make sacrifices which it is dishonorable to make, and
+"respectable" women, who take sacrifices which it cannot be less
+dishonorable to accept.
+
+    Prostitutes, a distinguished man of science has said (Duclaux,
+    _L'Hygiene Sociale_, p. 243), "have become things which the
+    public uses when it wants them, and throws on the dungheap when
+    it has made them vile. In its pharisaism it even has the
+    insolence to treat their trade as shameful, as though it were not
+    just as shameful to buy as to sell in this market." Bloch
+    (_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, Ch. XV) insists that prostitution
+    must be ennobled, and that only so can it be even diminished.
+    Isidore Dyer, of New Orleans, also argues that we cannot check
+    prostitution unless we create "in the minds of men and women a
+    spirit of tolerance instead of intolerance of fallen women." This
+    point may be illustrated by a remark by the prostitute author of
+    the _Tagebuch einer Verlorenen_. "If the profession of yielding
+    the body ceased to be a shameful one," she wrote, "the army of
+    'unfortunates' would diminish by four-fifths--I will even say
+    nine-tenths. Myself, for example! How gladly would I take a
+    situation as companion or governess!" "One of two things," wrote
+    the eminent sociologist Tarde ("La Morale Sexuelle," _Archives
+    d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, January, 1907), "either prostitution
+    will disappear through continuing to be dishonorable and will be
+    replaced by some other institution which will better remedy the
+    defects of monogamous marriage, or it will survive by becoming
+    respectable, that is to say, by making itself respected, whether
+    liked or disliked." Tarde thought this might perhaps come about
+    by a better organization of prostitutes, a more careful selection
+    among those who desired admission to their ranks and the
+    cultivation of professional virtues which would raise their moral
+    level. "If courtesans fulfil a need," Balzac had already said in
+    his _Physiologie du Mariage_, "they must become an institution."
+
+This moral attitude is supported and enforced by the inevitable democratic
+tendency of civilization which, although it by no means destroys the idea
+of class, undermines that idea as the mark of fundamental human
+distinctions and renders it superficial. Prostitution no longer makes a
+woman a slave; it ought not to make her even a pariah: "My body is my
+own," said the young German prostitute of to-day, "and what I do with it
+is nobody else's concern." When the prostitute was literally a slave moral
+duty towards her was by no means necessarily identical with moral duty
+towards the free woman. But when, even in the same family, the prostitute
+may be separated by a great and impassable social gulf from her married
+sister, it becomes possible to see, and in the opinion of many
+imperatively necessary to see, that a readjustment of moral values is
+required. For thousands of years prostitution has been defended on the
+ground that the prostitute is necessary to ensure the "purity of women."
+In a democratic age it begins to be realized that prostitutes also are
+women.
+
+The developing sense of a fundamental human equality underlying the
+surface divisions of class tends to make the usual attitude towards the
+prostitute, the attitude of her clients even more than that of society
+generally, seem painfully cruel. The callous and coarsely frivolous tone
+of so many young men about prostitutes, it has been said, is "simply
+cruelty of a peculiarly brutal kind," not to be discerned in any other
+relation of life.[217] And if this attitude is cruel even in speech it is
+still more cruel in action, whatever attempts may be made to disguise its
+cruelty.
+
+    Canon Lyttelton's remarks may be taken to refer chiefly to young
+    men of the upper middle class. Concerning what is perhaps the
+    usual attitude of lower middle class people towards prostitution,
+    I may quote from a remarkable communication which has reached me
+    from Australia: "What are the views of a young man brought up in
+    a middle-class Christian English family on prostitutes? Take my
+    father, for instance. He first mentioned prostitutes to me, if I
+    remember rightly, when speaking of his life before marriage. And
+    he spoke of them as he would speak of a horse he had hired, paid
+    for, and dismissed from his mind when it had rendered him
+    service. Although my mother was so kind and good she spoke of
+    abandoned women with disgust and scorn as of some unclean animal.
+    As it flatters vanity and pride to be able with good countenance
+    and universal consent to look down on something, I soon grasped
+    the situation and adopted an attitude which is, in the main, that
+    of most middle-class Christian Englishmen towards prostitutes.
+    But as puberty develops this attitude has to be accommodated with
+    the wish to make use of this scum, these moral lepers. The
+    ordinary young man, who likes a spice of immorality and has it
+    when in town, and thinks it is not likely to come to his mother's
+    or sisters' ears, does not get over his arrogance and disgust or
+    abate them in the least. He takes them with him, more or less
+    disguised, to the brothel, and they color his thoughts and
+    actions all the time he is sleeping with prostitutes, or kissing
+    them, or passing his hands over them, as he would over a mare,
+    getting as much as he can for his money. To tell the truth, on
+    the whole, that was my attitude too. But if anyone had asked me
+    for the smallest reason for this attitude, for this feeling of
+    superiority, pride, _hauteur_, and prejudice, I should, like any
+    other 'respectable' young man, have been entirely at a loss, and
+    could only have gaped foolishly."
+
+From the modern moral standpoint which now concerns us, not only is the
+cruelty involved in the dishonor of the prostitute absurd, but not less
+absurd, and often not less cruel, seems the honor bestowed on the
+respectable women on the other side of the social gulf. It is well
+recognized that men sometimes go to prostitutes to gratify the excitement
+aroused by fondling their betrothed.[218] As the emotional and physical
+results of ungratified excitement are not infrequently more serious in
+women than in men, the betrothed women in these cases are equally
+justified in seeking relief from other men, and the vicious circle of
+absurdity might thus be completed.
+
+From the point of view of the modern moralist there is another
+consideration which was altogether overlooked in the conventional and
+traditional morality we have inherited, and was indeed practically
+non-existent in the ancient days when that morality was still a living
+reality. Women are no longer divided only into the two groups of wives who
+are to be honored, and prostitutes who are the dishonored guardians of
+that honor; there is a large third class of women who are neither wives
+nor prostitutes. For this group of the unmarried virtuous the traditional
+morality had no place at all; it simply ignored them. But the new
+moralist, who is learning to recognize both the claims of the individual
+and the claims of society, begins to ask whether on the one hand these
+women are not entitled to the satisfaction of their affectional and
+emotional impulses if they so desire, and on the other hand whether, since
+a high civilization involves a diminished birthrate, the community is not
+entitled to encourage every healthy and able-bodied woman to contribute to
+maintain the birthrate when she so desires.
+
+All the considerations briefly indicated in the preceding pages--the
+fundamental sense of human equality generated by our civilization, the
+repugnance to cruelty which accompanies the refinement of urban life, the
+ugly contrast of extremes which shock our developing democratic
+tendencies, the growing sense of the rights of the individual to authority
+over his own person, the no less strongly emphasized right of the
+community to the best that the individual can yield--all these
+considerations are every day more strongly influencing the modern moralist
+to assume towards the prostitute an attitude altogether different from
+that of the morality which we derived from Cato and Augustine. He sees the
+question in a larger and more dynamic manner. Instead of declaring that it
+is well worth while to tolerate and at the same time to condemn the
+prostitute, in order to preserve the sanctity of the wife in her home, he
+is not only more inclined to regard each as the proper guardian of her own
+moral freedom, but he is less certain about the time-honored position of
+the prostitute, and moreover, by no means sure that the wife in the home
+may not be fully as much in need of rescuing as the prostitute in the
+street; he is prepared to consider whether reform in this matter is not
+most likely to take place in the shape of a fairer apportionment of sexual
+privileges and sexual duties to women generally, with an inevitably
+resultant elevation in the sexual lives of men also.
+
+    The revolt of many serious reformers against the injustice and
+    degradation now involved by our system of prostitution is so
+    profound that some have declared themselves ready to accept any
+    revolution of ideas which would bring about a more wholesome
+    transmutation of moral values. "Better indeed were a saturnalia
+    of _free_ men and women," exclaims Edward Carpenter (_Love's
+    Coming of Age_, p. 62), "than the spectacle which, as it is, our
+    great cities present at night."
+
+    Even those who would be quite content with as conservative a
+    treatment as possible of social institutions still cannot fail to
+    realize that prostitution is unsatisfactory, unless we are
+    content to make very humble claims of the sexual act. "The act of
+    prostitution," Godfrey declares (_The Science of Sex_, p. 202),
+    "may be physiologically complete, but it is complete in no other
+    sense. All the moral and intellectual factors which combine with
+    physical desire to form the perfect sexual attraction are absent.
+    All the higher elements of love--admiration, respect, honor, and
+    self-sacrificing devotion--are as foreign to prostitution as to
+    the egoistic act of masturbation. The principal drawbacks to the
+    morality of the act lie in its associations more than in the act
+    itself. Any affectional quality which a more or less promiscuous
+    connection might possess is at once destroyed by the intrusion of
+    the monetary element. In the resulting degradation the woman has
+    the largest share, since it makes her a pariah and involves her
+    in all the hardening and depraving influences of social
+    ostracism. But her degradation only serves to render her
+    influence on her partners more demoralizing. Prostitution," he
+    concludes, "has a strong tendency towards emphasizing the
+    naturally selfish attitude of men towards women, and encouraging
+    them in the delusion, born of unregulated passions, that the
+    sexual act itself is the aim and end of the sex life.
+    Prostitution can therefore make no claim to afford even a
+    temporary solution to the sex problem. It fulfils only that
+    mission which has made it a 'necessary evil'--the mission of
+    palliative to the physical rigors of celibacy and monogamy. It
+    does so at the cost of a considerable amount of physical and
+    moral deterioration, much of which is undoubtedly due to the
+    action of society in completing the degradation of the prostitute
+    by persistent ostracism. Prostitution was not so great an evil
+    when it was not thought so great, yet even at its best it was a
+    real evil, a melancholy and sordid travesty of sincere and
+    natural passional relations. It is an evil which we are bound to
+    have with us so long as celibacy is a custom and monogamy a law."
+    It is the wife as well as the prostitute who is degraded by a
+    system which makes venal love possible. "The time has gone past,"
+    the same writer remarks elsewhere (p. 195) "when a mere ceremony
+    can really sanctify what is base and transform lust and greed
+    into the sincerity of sexual affection. If, to enter into sexual
+    connections with a man for a solely material end is a disgrace to
+    humanity, it is a disgrace under the marriage bond just as much
+    as apart from the hypocritical blessing of the church or the law.
+    If the public prostitute is a being who deserves to be treated as
+    a pariah, it is hopelessly irrational to withhold every sort of
+    moral opprobrium from the woman who leads a similar life under a
+    different set of external circumstances. Either the prostitute
+    wife must come under the moral ban, or there must be an end to
+    the complete ostracism under which the prostitute labors."
+
+    The thinker who more clearly and fundamentally than others, and
+    first of all, realized the dynamical relationships of
+    prostitution, as dependent upon a change in the other social
+    relationships of life, was James Hinton. More than thirty years
+    ago, in fragmentary writings that still remain unpublished, since
+    he never worked them into an orderly form, Hinton gave vigorous
+    and often passionate expression to this fundamental idea. It may
+    be worth while to quote a few brief passages from Hinton's MSS.:
+    "I feel that the laws of force should hold also amid the waves of
+    human passion, that the relations of mechanics are true, and will
+    rule also in human life.... There is a tension, a crushing of the
+    soul, by our modern life, and it is ready for a sudden spring to
+    a different order in which the forces shall rearrange themselves.
+    It is a dynamical question presented in moral terms.... Keeping a
+    portion of the woman population without prospect of marriage
+    means having prostitutes, that is women as instruments of man's
+    mere sensuality, and this means the killing, in many of them, of
+    all pure love or capacity of it. This is the fact we have to
+    face.... To-day I saw a young woman whose life was being consumed
+    by her want of love, a case of threatened utter misery: now see
+    the price at which we purchase her ill-health; for her ill-health
+    we pay the crushing of another girl into hell. We give that for
+    it; her wretchedness of soul and body are bought by prostitution;
+    we have prostitutes made for that.... We devote some women
+    recklessly to perdition to make a hothouse Heaven for the
+    rest.... One wears herself out in vainly trying to endure
+    pleasures she is not strong enough to enjoy, while other women
+    are perishing for lack of these very pleasures. If marriage is
+    this, is it not embodied lust? The happy Christian homes are the
+    true dark places of the earth.... Prostitution for man, restraint
+    for woman--they are two sides of the same thing, and both are
+    denials of love, like luxury and asceticism. The mountains of
+    restraint must be used to fill up the abysses of luxury."
+
+    Some of Hinton's views were set forth by a writer intimately
+    acquainted with him in a pamphlet entitled _The Future of
+    Marriage: An Eirenicon for a Question of To-day_, by a
+    Respectable Woman (1885). "When once the conviction is forced
+    home upon the 'good' women," the writer remarks, "that their
+    place of honor and privilege rests upon the degradation of others
+    as its basis, they will never rest till they have either
+    abandoned it or sought for it some other pedestal. If our
+    inflexible marriage system has for its essential condition the
+    existence side by side with it of prostitution, then one of two
+    things follows: either prostitution must be shown to be
+    compatible with the well-being, moral and physical, of the women
+    who practice it, or our marriage system must be condemned. If it
+    was clearly put before anyone, he could not seriously assert that
+    to be 'virtue' which could only be practiced at the expense of
+    another's vice.... Whilst the laws of physics are becoming so
+    universally recognized that no one dreams of attempting to
+    annihilate a particle of matter, or of force, yet we do not
+    instinctively apply the same conception to moral forces, but
+    think and act as if we could simply do away with an evil, while
+    leaving unchanged that which gives it its strength. This is the
+    only view of the social problem which can give us hope. That
+    prostitution should simply cease, leaving everything else as it
+    is, would be disastrous if it were possible. But it is not
+    possible. The weakness of all existing efforts to put down
+    prostitution is that they are directed against it as an isolated
+    thing, whereas it is only one of the symptoms proceeding from a
+    common disease."
+
+    Ellen Key, who during recent years has been the chief apostle of
+    a gospel of sexual morality based on the needs of women as the
+    mothers of the race, has, in a somewhat similar spirit, denounced
+    alike prostitution and rigid marriage, declaring (in her _Essays
+    on Love and Marriage_) that "the development of erotic personal
+    consciousness is as much hindered by socially regulated
+    'morality' as by socially regulated 'immorality,'" and that "the
+    two lowest and socially sanctioned expressions of sexual dualism,
+    rigid marriage and prostitution, will gradually become
+    impossible, because with the conquest of the idea of erotic unity
+    they will no longer correspond to human needs."
+
+We may sum up the present situation as regards prostitution by saying that
+on the one hand there is a tendency for its elevation, in association with
+the growing humanity and refinement of civilization, characteristics which
+must inevitably tend to mark more and more both those women who become
+prostitutes and those men who seek them; on the other hand, but perhaps
+through the same dynamic force, there is a tendency towards the slow
+elimination of prostitution by the successful competition of higher and
+purer methods of sexual relationship freed from pecuniary considerations.
+This refinement and humanization, this competition by better forms of
+sexual love, are indeed an essential part of progress as civilization
+becomes more truly sound, wholesome, and sincere.
+
+This moral change cannot, it seems probable, fail to be accompanied by the
+realization that the facts of human life are more important than the
+forms. For all changes from lower to higher social forms, from savagery to
+civilization, are accompanied--in so far as they are vital changes--by a
+slow and painful groping towards the truth that it is only in natural
+relations that sanity and sanctity can be found, for, as Nietzsche said,
+the "return" to Nature should rather be called the "ascent." Only so can
+we achieve the final elimination from our hearts of that clinging
+tradition that there is any impurity or dishonor in acts of love for which
+the reasonable, and not merely the conventional, conditions have been
+fulfilled. For it is vain to attempt to cleanse our laws, or even our
+by-laws, until we have first cleansed our hearts.
+
+It would be out of place here to push further the statement of the moral
+question as it is to-day beginning to shape itself in the sphere of sex.
+In a psychological discussion we are only concerned to set down the actual
+attitude of the moralist, and of civilization. The practical outcome of
+that attitude must be left to moralists and sociologists and the community
+generally to work out.
+
+Our inquiry has also, it may be hoped, incidentally tended to show that in
+practically dealing with the question of prostitution it is pre-eminently
+necessary to remember the warning which, as regards many other social
+problems, has been embodied by Herbert Spencer in his famous illustration
+of the bent iron plate. In trying to make the bent plate smooth, it is
+useless, Spencer pointed out, to hammer directly on the buckled up part;
+if we do so we merely find that we have made matters worse; our hammering,
+to be effective, must be around, and not directly on, the offensive
+elevation we wish to reduce; only so can the iron plate be hammered
+smooth.[219] But this elementary law has not been understood by
+moralists. The plain, practical, common-sense reformer, as he fancied
+himself to be--from the time of Charlemagne onwards--has over and over
+again brought his heavy fist directly down on to the evil of prostitution
+and has always made matters worse. It is only by wisely working outside
+and around the evil that we can hope to lessen it effectually. By aiming
+to develop and raise the relationships of men to women, and of women to
+women, by modifying our notions of sexual relationships, and by
+introducing a saner and truer conception of womanhood and of the
+responsibilities of women as well as of men, by attaining, socially as
+well as economically, a higher level of human living--it is only by such
+methods as these that we can reasonably expect to see any diminution and
+alleviation of the evil of prostitution. So long as we are incapable of
+such methods we must be content with the prostitution we deserve, learning
+to treat it with the pity, and the respect, which so intimate a failure of
+our civilization is entitled to.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[107] See, e.g., Cheetham's Hulsean Lectures, _The Mysteries, Pagan and
+Christian_, pp. 123, 136.
+
+[108] Hormayr's _Taschenbuch_, 1835, p. 255. Hagelstange, in a chapter on
+mediaeval festivals in his _Sueddeutsches Bauernleben im Mittelalter_,
+shows how, in these Christian orgies which were really of pagan origin, the
+German people reacted with tremendous and boisterous energy against the
+laborious and monotonous existence of everyday life.
+
+[109] This was clearly realized by the more intelligent upholders of the
+Feast of Fools. Austere persons wished to abolish this Feast, and in a
+remarkable petition sent up to the Theological Faculty of Paris (and
+quoted by Flogel, _Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen_, fourth edition, p.
+204) the case for the Feast is thus presented: "We do this according to
+ancient custom, in order that folly, which is second nature to man and
+seems to be inborn, may at least once a year have free outlet. Wine casks
+would burst if we failed sometimes to remove the bung and let in air. Now
+we are all ill-bound casks and barrels which would let out the wine of
+wisdom if by constant devotion and fear of God we allowed it to ferment.
+We must let in air so that it may not be spoilt. Thus on some days we give
+ourselves up to sport, so that with the greater zeal we may afterwards
+return to the worship of God." The Feast of Fools was not suppressed until
+the middle of the sixteenth century, and relics of it persisted (as at
+Aix) till near the end of the eighteenth century.
+
+[110] A Meray, _La Vie au Temps des Libres Precheurs_, vol. ii, Ch. X. A
+good and scholarly account of the Feast of Fools is given by E.K.
+Chambers, _The Mediaeval Stage_, Ch. XIII. It is true that the Church and
+the early Fathers often anathematized the theatre. But Gregory of
+Nazianzen wished to found a Christian theatre; the Mediaeval Mysteries were
+certainly under the protection of the clergy; and St. Thomas Aquinas, the
+greatest of the schoolmen, only condemns the theatre with cautious
+qualifications.
+
+[111] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, Ch. XII.
+
+[112] _Journal Anthropological Institute_, July-Dec., 1904, p. 329.
+
+[113] Westermarck (_Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii,
+pp. 283-9) shows how widespread is the custom of setting apart a
+periodical rest day.
+
+[114] A.E. Crawley, _The Mystic Rose_, pp. 273 et seq., Crawley brings
+into association with this function of great festivals the custom, found
+in some parts of the world, of exchanging wives at these times. "It has
+nothing whatever to do with the marriage system, except as breaking it for
+a season, women of forbidden degree being lent, on the same grounds as
+conventions and ordinary relations are broken at festivals of the
+Saturnalia type, the object being to change life and start afresh, by
+exchanging every thing one can, while the very act of exchange coincides
+with the other desire, to weld the community together" (Ib., p. 479).
+
+[115] See "The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse" in vol. iii of these
+_Studies_.
+
+[116] G. Murray, _Ancient Greek Literature_, p. 211.
+
+[117] The Greek drama probably arose out of a folk-festival of more or
+less sexual character, and it is even possible that the mediaeval drama had
+a somewhat similar origin (see Donaldson, _The Greek Theatre_; Gilbert
+Murray, loc. cit.; Karl Pearson, _The Chances of Death_, vol. ii, pp.
+135-6, 280 et seq.).
+
+[118] R. Canudo, "Les Choreges Francais," _Mercure de France_, May 1,
+1907, p. 180.
+
+[119] "This is, in fact," Cyples declares (_The Process of Human
+Experience_, p. 743), "Art's great function--to rehearse within us greater
+egoistic possibilities, to habituate us to larger actualizations of
+personality in a rudimentary manner," and so to arouse, "aimlessly but
+splendidly, the sheer as yet unfulfilled possibilities within us."
+
+[120] Even when monotonous labor is intellectual, it is not thereby
+protected against degrading orgiastic reactions. Prof. L. Gurlitt shows
+(_Die Neue Generation_, January, 1909, pp. 31-6) how the strenuous,
+unremitting intellectual work of Prussian seminaries leads among both
+teachers and scholars to the worst forms of the orgy.
+
+[121] Rabutaux discusses various definitions of prostitution, _De la
+Prostitution en Europe_, pp. 119 et seq. For the origin of the names to
+designate the prostitute, see Schrader, _Reallexicon_, art.
+"Beischlaeferin."
+
+[122] _Digest_, lib. xxiii, tit. ii, p. 43. If she only gave herself to
+one or two persons, though for money, it was not prostitution.
+
+[123] Guyot, _La Prostitution_, p. 8. The element of venality is
+essential, and religious writers (like Robert Wardlaw, D.D., of Edinburgh,
+in his _Lectures on Female Prostitution_, 1842, p. 14) who define
+prostitution as "the illicit intercourse of the sexes," and synonymous
+with theological "fornication," fall into an absurd confusion.
+
+[124] "Such marriages are sometimes stigmatized as 'legalized
+prostitution,'" remarks Sidgwick (_Methods of Ethics_, Bk. iii, Ch. XI),
+"but the phrase is felt to be extravagant and paradoxical."
+
+[125] Bonger, _Criminalite et Conditions Economiques_, p. 378. Bonger
+believes that the act of prostitution is "intrinsically equal to that of a
+man or woman who contracts a marriage for economical reasons."
+
+[126] E. Richard, _La Prostitution a Paris_, 1890, p. 44. It may be
+questioned whether publicity or notoriety should form an essential part of
+the definition; it seems, however, to be involved, or the prostitute
+cannot obtain clients. Reuss states that she must, in addition, be
+absolutely without means of subsistence; that is certainly not essential.
+Nor is it necessary, as the _Digest_ insisted, that the act should be
+performed "without pleasure;" that may be as it will, without affecting
+the prostitutional nature of the act.
+
+[127] Hawkesworth, _Account of the Voyages_, etc., 1775, vol. ii, p. 254.
+
+[128] R.W. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 235.
+
+[129] F.S. Krauss, _Romanische Forschungen_, 1903, p. 290.
+
+[130] H. Schurtz, _Altersklassen und Maennerbuende_, 1902, p. 190. In this
+work Schurtz brings together (pp. 189-201) some examples of the germs of
+prostitution among primitive peoples. Many facts and references are given
+by Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_, pp. 66 et seq., and _Origin
+and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, pp. 441 _et seq._).
+
+[131] Bachofen (more especially in his _Mutterrecht_ and _Sage von
+Tanaquil_) argued that even religious prostitution sprang from the
+resistance of primitive instincts to the individualization of love. Cf.
+Robertson Smith, _Religion of Semites_, second edition, p. 59.
+
+[132] Whatever the reason may be, there can be no doubt that there is a
+widespread tendency for religion and prostitution to be associated; it is
+possibly to some extent a special case of that general connection between
+the religious and sexual impulses which has been discussed elsewhere
+(Appendix C to vol. i of these _Studies_). Thus A.B. Ellis, in his book on
+_The Ewe-speaking Peoples of West Africa_ (pp. 124, 141) states that here
+women dedicated to a god become promiscuous prostitutes. W.G. Sumner
+(_Folkways_, Ch. XVI) brings together many facts concerning the wide
+distribution of religious prostitution.
+
+[133] Herodotus, Bk. I, Ch. CXCIX; Baruch, Ch. VI, p. 43. Modern scholars
+confirm the statements of Herodotus from the study of Babylonian
+literature, though inclined to deny that religious prostitution occupied
+so large a place as he gives it. A tablet of the Gilgamash epic, according
+to Morris Jastrow, refers to prostitutes as attendants of the goddess
+Ishtar in the city Uruk (or Erech), which was thus a centre, and perhaps
+the chief centre, of the rites described by Herodotus (Morris Jastrow,
+_The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, 1898, p. 475). Ishtar was the
+goddess of fertility, the great mother goddess, and the prostitutes were
+priestesses, attached to her worship, who took part in ceremonies intended
+to symbolize fertility. These priestesses of Ishtar were known by the
+general name Kadishtu, "the holy ones" (op. cit., pp. 485, 660).
+
+[134] It is usual among modern writers to associate Aphrodite Pandemos,
+rather than Ourania, with venal or promiscuous sexuality, but this is a
+complete mistake, for the Aphrodite Pandemos was purely political and had
+no sexual significance. The mistake was introduced, perhaps intentionally,
+by Plato. It has been suggested that that arch-juggler, who disliked
+democratic ideas, purposely sought to pervert and vulgarize the conception
+of Aphrodite Pandemos (Farnell, _Cults of Greek States_, vol. ii, p. 660).
+
+[135] Athenaeus, Bk. xiii, cap. XXXII. It appears that the only other
+Hellenic community where the temple cult involved unchastity was a city of
+the Locri Epizephyrii (Farnell, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 636).
+
+[136] I do not say an earlier "promiscuity," for the theory of a primitive
+sexual promiscuity is now widely discredited, though there can be no
+reasonable doubt that the early prevalence of mother-right was more
+favorable to the sexual freedom of women than the later patriarchal
+system. Thus in very early Egyptian days a woman could give her favors to
+any man she chose by sending him her garment, even if she were married. In
+time the growth of the rights of men led to this being regarded as
+criminal, but the priestesses of Amen retained the privilege to the last,
+as being under divine protection (Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian Tales_, pp.
+10, 48).
+
+[137] It should be added that Farnell ("The Position of Women in Ancient
+Religion," _Archiv fuer Religionswissenschaft_, 1904, p. 88) seeks to
+explain the religious prostitution of Babylonia as a special religious
+modification of the custom of destroying virginity before marriage in
+order to safeguard the husband from the mystic dangers of defloration.
+E.S. Hartland, also ("Concerning the Rite at the Temple of Mylitta,"
+_Anthropological Essays Presented to E.B. Tyler_, p. 189), suggests that
+this was a puberty rite connected with ceremonial defloration. This theory
+is not, however, generally accepted by Semitic scholars.
+
+[138] The girls of this tribe, who are remarkably pretty, after spending
+two or three years in thus amassing a little dowry, return home to marry,
+and are said to make model wives and mothers. They are described by
+Bertherand in Parent-Duchatelet, _La Prostitution a Paris_, vol. ii, p.
+539.
+
+[139] In Abyssinia (according to Fiaschi, _British Medical Journal_, March
+13, 1897), where prostitution has always been held in high esteem, the
+prostitutes, who are now subject to medical examination twice a week,
+still attach no disgrace to their profession, and easily find husbands
+afterwards. Potter (_Sohrab and Rustem_, pp. 168 et seq.) gives references
+as regards peoples, widely dispersed in the Old World and the New, among
+whom the young women have practiced prostitution to obtain a dowry.
+
+[140] At Tralles, in Lydia, even in the second century A.D., as Sir W.M.
+Ramsay notes (_Cities of Phrygia_, vol. i, pp. 94, 115), sacred
+prostitution was still an honorable practice for women of good birth who
+"felt themselves called upon to live the divine life under the influence
+of divine inspiration."
+
+[141] The gradual secularization of prostitution from its earlier
+religious form has been traced by various writers (see, e.g., Dupouey, _La
+Prostitution dans l'Antiquite_). The earliest complimentary reference to
+the _Hetaira_ in literature is to be found, according to Benecke
+(_Antimachus of Colophon_, p. 36), in Bacchylides.
+
+[142] Cicero, _Oratio pro Coelio_, Cap. XX.
+
+[143] Pierre Dufour, _Histoire de la Prostitution_, vol. ii, Chs. XIX-XX.
+The real author of this well-known history of prostitution, which, though
+not scholarly in its methods, brings together a great mass of interesting
+information, is said to be Paul Lacroix.
+
+[144] Rabutaux, in his _Histoire de la Prostitution en Europe_, describes
+many attempts to suppress prostitution; cf. Dufour, _op. cit._, vol. iii.
+
+[145] Dufour, op. cit., vol. vi, Ch. XLI. It was in the reign of the
+homosexual Henry III that the tolerance of brothels was established.
+
+[146] In the eighteenth century, especially, houses of prostitution in
+Paris attained to an astonishing degree of elaboration and prosperity.
+Owing to the constant watchful attention of the police a vast amount of
+detailed information concerning these establishments was accumulated, and
+during recent years much of it has been published. A summary of this
+literature will be found in Duehren's _Neue Forshungen ueber den Marquis de
+Sade und seine Zeit_, 1904, pp. 97 et seq.
+
+[147] Rabutaux, op. cit., p. 54.
+
+[148] Calza has written the history of Venetian prostitution; and some of
+the documents he found have been reproduced by Mantegazza, _Gli Amori
+degli Uomimi_, cap. XIV. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, a
+comparatively late period, Coryat visited Venice, and in his _Crudities_
+gives a full and interesting account of its courtesans, who then numbered,
+he says, at least 20,000; the revenue they brought into the State
+maintained a dozen galleys.
+
+[149] J. Schrank, _Die Prostitution in Wien_, Bd. I, pp. 152-206.
+
+[150] U. Robert, _Les Signes d'Infamie au Moyen Age_, Ch. IV.
+
+[151] Rudeck (_Geschichte der oeffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland_,
+pp. 26-36) gives many details concerning the important part played by
+prostitutes and brothels in mediaeval German life.
+
+[152] They are described by Rabutaux, op. cit., pp. 90 _et seq._
+
+[153] _L'Annee Sociologique_, seventh year, 1904, p. 440.
+
+[154] Bloch, _Der Ursprung der Syphilis_. As regards the German
+"Frauenhausen" see Max Bauer, _Das Geschlechtsleben in der Deutschen
+Vergangenheit_, pp. 133-214. In Paris, Dufour states (op. cit., vol. v,
+Ch. XXXIV), brothels under the ordinances of St. Louis had many rights
+which they lost at last in 1560, when they became merely tolerated houses,
+without statutes, special costumes, or confinement to special streets.
+
+[155] "Cortegiana, hoc est meretrix honesta," wrote Burchard, the Pope's
+Secretary, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, _Diarium_, ed.
+Thuasne, vol. ii, p. 442; other authorities are quoted by Thuasne in a
+note.
+
+[156] Burchard, _Diarium_, vol. iii, p. 167. Thuasne quotes other
+authorities in confirmation.
+
+[157] The example of Holland, where some large cities have adopted the
+regulation of prostitution and others have not, is instructive as regards
+the illusory nature of the advantages of regulation. In 1883 Dr. Despres
+brought forward figures, supplied by Dutch officials, showing that in
+Rotterdam, where prostitution was regulated, both prostitution and
+venereal diseases were more prevalent than in Amsterdam, a city without
+regulation (A. Despres, _La Prostitution en France_, p. 122).
+
+[158] It was in 1802 that the medical inspection of prostitutes in Paris
+brothels was introduced, though not until 1825 fully established and made
+general.
+
+[159] M.L. Heidingsfeld, "The Control of Prostitution," _Journal American
+Medical Association_, January 30, 1904.
+
+[160] See, e.g., G. Berault, _La Maison de Tolerance_, These de Paris,
+1904.
+
+[161] Thus the circumstances of the English army in India are of a special
+character. A number of statements (from the reports of committees,
+official publications, etc.) regarding the good influence of regulation in
+reducing venereal diseases in India are brought together by
+Surgeon-Colonel F.H. Welch, "The Prevention of Syphilis," _Lancet_, August
+12, 1899. The system has been abolished, but only as the result of a
+popular outcry and not on the question of its merits.
+
+[162] Thus Richard, who accepts regulation and was instructed to report on
+it for the Paris Municipal Council, would not have girls inscribed as
+professional prostitutes until they are of age and able to realize what
+they are binding themselves to (E. Richard, _La Prostitution a Paris_, p.
+147). But at that age a large proportion of prostitutes have been
+practicing their profession for years.
+
+[163] In Germany, where the cure of infected prostitutes under regulation
+is nearly everywhere compulsory, usually at the cost of the community, it
+is found that 18 is the average age at which they are affected by
+syphilis; the average age of prostitutes in brothels is higher than that
+of those outside, and a much larger proportion have therefore become
+immune to disease (Blaschko, "Hygiene der Syphilis," in Weyl's _Handbuch
+der Hygiene_, Bd. ii, p. 62, 1900).
+
+[164] A. Sherwell, _Life in West London_, 1897, Ch. V.
+
+[165] Bonger brings together statistics illustrating this point, op. cit.,
+pp. 402-6.
+
+[166] _The Nightless City_, p. 125.
+
+[167] Stroehmberg, as quoted by Aschaffenburg, _Das Verbrechen_, 1903, p.
+77.
+
+[168] _Monatsschrift fuer Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906. Heft
+10, p. 460. But this cause is undoubtedly effective in some cases of
+unmarried women in Germany unable to get work (see article by Sister
+Henrietta Arendt, Police-Assistant at Stuttgart, _Sexual-Probleme_,
+December, 1908).
+
+[169] Thus, for instance, we find Irma von Troll-Borostyani saying in her
+book, _Im Freien Reich_ (p. 176): "Go and ask these unfortunate creatures
+if they willingly and freely devoted themselves to vice. And nearly all of
+them will tell you a story of need and destitution, of hunger and lack of
+work, which compelled them to it, or else of love and seduction and the
+fear of the discovery of their false step which drove them out of their
+homes, helpless and forsaken, into the pool of vice from which there is
+hardly any salvation." It is, of course, quite true that the prostitute is
+frequently ready to tell such stories to philanthropic persons who expect
+to hear them, and sometimes even put the words into her mouth.
+
+[170] C. Booth, _Life and Labour_, final volume, p. 125. Similarly in
+Sweden, Kullberg states that girls of thirteen to seventeen, living at
+home with their parents in comfortable circumstances, have often been
+found on the streets.
+
+[171] W. Acton, _Prostitution_, 1870, pp. 39, 49.
+
+[172] In Lyons, according to Potton, of 3884 prostitutes, 3194 abandoned,
+or apparently abandoned, their profession; in Paris a very large number
+became servants, dressmakers, or tailoresses, occupations which, in many
+cases, doubtless, they had exercised before (Parent-Duchatelet, _De la
+Prostitution_, 1857, vol. i, p. 584; vol. ii, p. 451). Sloggett (quoted by
+Acton) stated that at Davenport, 250 of the 1775 prostitutes there
+married. It is well known that prostitutes occasionally marry extremely
+well. It was remarked nearly a century ago that marriages of prostitutes
+to rich men were especially frequent in England, and usually turned out
+well; the same seems to be true still. In their own social rank they not
+infrequently marry cabmen and policemen, the two classes of men with whom
+they are brought most closely in contact in the streets. As regards
+Germany, C.K. Schneider (_Die Prostituirte und die Gesellschaft_), states
+that young prostitutes take up all sorts of occupations and situations,
+sometimes, if they have saved a little money, establishing a business,
+while old prostitutes become procuresses, brothel-keepers, lavatory women,
+and so on. Not a few prostitutes marry, he adds, but the proportion among
+inscribed German prostitutes is very small, less than 2 per cent.
+
+[173] G. de Molinari, _La Viriculture_, 1897, p. 155.
+
+[174] Reuss and other writers have reproduced typical extracts from the
+private account books of prostitutes, showing the high rate of their
+earnings. Even in the common brothels, in Philadelphia (according to
+Goodchild, "The Social Evil in Philadelphia," _Arena_, March, 1896), girls
+earn twenty dollars or more a week, which is far more than they could earn
+in any other occupation open to them.
+
+[175] A. Despres, _La Prostitution en France_, 1883.
+
+[176] Bonger, _Criminalite et Conditions Economiques_, 1905, pp. 378-414.
+
+[177] _La Donna Delinquente_, p. 401.
+
+[178] Raciborski, _Traite de l'Impuissance_, p. 20. It may be added that
+Bergh, a leading authority on the anatomical peculiarities of the external
+female sexual organs, who believe that strong development of the external
+genital organs accompanies libidinous tendencies, has not found such
+development to be common among prostitutes.
+
+[179] Hammer, who has had much opportunity of studying the psychology of
+prostitutes, remarks that he has seen no reason to suspect sexual coldness
+(_Monatsschrift fuer Harnkrankheiten und Sexuelle Hygiene_, 1906, Heft 2,
+p. 85), although, as he has elsewhere stated, he is of opinion that
+indolence, rather than excess of sensuality, is the chief cause of
+prostitution.
+
+[180] See "The Sexual Impulse in Women," in the third volume of these
+_Studies_.
+
+[181] Tait stated that in Edinburgh many married women living with their
+husbands in comfortable circumstances, and having children, were found to
+be acting as prostitutes, that is, in the regular habit of making
+assignations with strangers (W. Tait, _Magdalenism in Edinburgh_, 1842, p.
+16).
+
+[182] Janke brings together opinions to this effect, _Die Willkuerliche
+Hervorbringen des Geschlechts_, p. 275. "If we compare a prostitute of
+thirty-five with her respectable sister," Acton remarked (_Prostitution_,
+1870, p. 39), "we seldom find that the constitutional ravages often
+thought to be necessary consequences of prostitution exceed those
+attributable to the cares of a family and the heart-wearing struggles of
+virtuous labor."
+
+[183] Hirschfeld states (_Wesen der Liebe_, p. 35) that the desire for
+intercourse with a sympathetic person is heightened, and not decreased, by
+a professional act of coitus.
+
+[184] This has been clearly shown by Hans Ostwald (from whom I take the
+above-quoted observation of a prostitute), one of the best authorities on
+prostitute life and character; see, e.g., his article, "Die erotischen
+Beziehungen zwischen Dirne und Zuhaelter," _Sexual-Probleme_, June, 1908.
+In the subsequent number of the same periodical (July, 1908, p. 393) Dr.
+Max Marcuse supports Ostwald's experiences, and says that the letters of
+prostitutes and their bullies are love-letters exactly like those of
+respectable people of the same class, and with the same elements of love
+and jealousy; these relationships, he remarks, often prove very enduring.
+The prostitute author of the _Tagebuch einer Verlorenen_ (p. 147) also has
+some remarks on the prostitute's relations to her bully, stating that it
+is simply the natural relationship of a girl to her lover.
+
+[185] Thus Moraglia found that among 180 prostitutes in North Italian
+brothels, and among 23 elegant Italian and foreign cocottes, every one
+admitted that she masturbated, preferably by friction of the clitoris; 113
+of them, the majority, declared that they preferred solitary or mutual
+masturbation to normal coitus. Hammer states (_Zehn Lebenslaeufe Berliner
+Kontrollmaedchen_ in Ostwald's series of "Grosstadt Dokumente," 1905) that
+when in hospital all but three or four of sixty prostitutes masturbate,
+and those who do not are laughed at by the rest.
+
+[186] _Jahrbuch fuer Sexuelle Zwischenstufen_, Jahrgang VII, 1905, p. 148;
+"Sexual Inversion," vol. ii of these _Studies_, Ch. IV. Hammer found that
+of twenty-five prostitutes in a reformatory as many as twenty-three were
+homosexual, or, on good grounds, suspected to be such. Hirschfeld
+(_Berlins Drittes Geschlecht_, p. 65) mentions that prostitutes sometimes
+accost better-class women who, from their man-like air, they take to be
+homosexual; from persons of their own sex prostitutes will accept a
+smaller remuneration, and sometimes refuse payment altogether.
+
+[187] With prostitution, as with criminality, it is of course difficult to
+disentangle the element of heredity from that of environment, even when we
+have good grounds for believing that the factor of heredity here, as
+throughout the whole of life, cannot fail to carry much weight. It is
+certain, in any case, that prostitution frequently runs in families. "It
+has often been my experience," writes a former prostitute (Hedwig Hard,
+_Beichte einer Gefallenen_, p. 156) "that when in a family a girl enters
+this path, her sister soon afterwards follows her: I have met with
+innumerable cases; sometimes three sisters will all be on the register,
+and I knew a case of four sisters, whose mother, a midwife, had been in
+prison, and the father drank. In this case, all four sisters, who were
+very beautiful, married, one at least very happily, to a rich doctor who
+took her out of the brothel at sixteen and educated her."
+
+[188] This fact is not contradicted by the undoubted fact that prostitutes
+are by no means always contented with the life they choose.
+
+[189] This point has been discussed by Bloch, _Sexualleben unserer Zeit_,
+Ch. XIII.
+
+[190] Various series of observations are summarized by Lombroso and
+Ferrero, _La Donna Delinquente_, 1893, Part III, cap. IV.
+
+[191] _History of European Morals_, vol. iii, p. 283.
+
+[192] Similarly Lord Morley has written (_Diderot_, vol. ii, p. 20): "The
+purity of the family, so lovely and dear as it is, has still only been
+secured hitherto by retaining a vast and dolorous host of female outcasts
+... upon whose heads, as upon the scapegoat of the Hebrew ordinance, we
+put all the iniquities of the children of the house, and all their
+transgressions in all their sins, and then banish them with maledictions
+into the foul outer wilderness and the land not inhabited."
+
+[193] Horace, _Satires_, lib. i, 2.
+
+[194] Augustine, _De Ordine_, Bk. II, Ch. IV.
+
+[195] _De Regimine Principum_ (_Opuscula XX_), lib. iv, cap. XIV. I am
+indebted to the Rev. H. Northcote for the reference to the precise place
+where this statement occurs; it is usually quoted more vaguely.
+
+[196] Lea, _History of Auricular Confession_, vol. ii, p. 69. There was
+even, it seems, an eccentric decision of the Salamanca theologians that a
+nun might so receive money, "licite et valide."
+
+[197] Lea, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 263, 399.
+
+[198] Rabutaux, _De la Prostitution en Europe_, pp. 22 et seq.
+
+[199] Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_, Part III, Sect. III, Mem. IV, Subs.
+II.
+
+[200] B. Mandeville, _Remarks to Fable of the Bees_, 1714, pp. 93-9; cf.
+P. Sakmann, _Bernard de Mandeville_, pp. 101-4.
+
+[201] These conditions favor temporary free unions, but they also favor
+prostitution. The reason is, according to Adolf Gerson (_Sexual-Probleme_,
+September, 1908), that the woman of good class will not have free unions.
+Partly moved by moral traditions, and partly by the feeling that a man
+should be legally her property, she will not give herself out of love to a
+man; and he therefore turns to the lower-class woman who gives herself for
+money.
+
+[202] Many girls, said Ellice Hopkins, get into mischief merely because
+they have in them an element of the "black kitten," which must frolic and
+play, but has no desire to get into danger. "Do you not think it a little
+hard," she added, "that men should have dug by the side of her foolish
+dancing feet a bottomless pit, and that she cannot have her jump and fun
+in safety, and put on her fine feathers like the silly bird-witted thing
+she is, without a single false step dashing her over the brink, and
+leaving her with the very womanhood dashed out of her?"
+
+[203] A. Sherwell, _Life in West London_, 1897, Ch. V.
+
+[204] As quoted by Bloch, _Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, p. 358. In Berlin
+during recent years the number of prostitutes has increased at nearly
+double the rate at which the general population has increased. It is no
+doubt probable that the supply tends to increase the demand.
+
+[205] Goncourt, _Journal_, vol. iii, p. 49.
+
+[206] Vanderkiste, _The Dens of London_, 1854, p. 242.
+
+[207] Bonger (_Criminalite et Conditions Economiques_, p. 406) refers to
+the prevalence of prostitution among dressmakers and milliners, as well as
+among servants, as showing the influence of contact with luxury, and adds
+that the rich women, who look down on prostitution, do not always realize
+that they are themselves an important factor of prostitution, both by
+their luxury and their idleness; while they do not seem to be aware that
+they would themselves act in the same way if placed under the same
+conditions.
+
+[208] H. Lippert, in his book on prostitution in Hamburg, laid much stress
+on the craving for dress and adornment as a factor of prostitution, and
+Bloch (_Das Sexualleben unsurer Zeit_, p. 372) considers that this factor
+is usually underestimated, and that it exerts an especially powerful
+influence on servants.
+
+[209] Since this was written the influence of several generations of
+town-life in immunizing a stock to the evils of that life (though without
+reference to prostitution) has been set forth by Reibmayr, _Die
+Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genies_, 1908, vol. ii, pp. 73 _et
+seq._
+
+[210] In France this intimacy is embodied in the delicious privilege of
+_tutoiement_. "The mystery of _tutoiement!_" exclaims Ernest La Jennesse
+in _L'Holocauste:_ "Barriers broken down, veils drawn away, and the ease
+of existence! At a time when I was very lonely, and trying to grow
+accustomed to Paris and to misfortune, I would go miles--on foot,
+naturally--to see a girl cousin and an aunt, merely to have something to
+_tutoyer_. Sometimes they were not at home, and I had to come back with my
+_tu_, my thirst for confidence and familiarity and brotherliness."
+
+[211] For some facts and references to the extensive literature concerning
+this trade, see, e.g., Bloch, _Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, pp. 374-376;
+also K.M. Baer, _Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Sept., 1908;
+Paulucci de Calboli, _Nuova Antologia_, April, 1902.
+
+[212] These considerations do not, it is true, apply to many kinds of
+sexual perverts who form an important proportion of the clients of
+brothels. These can frequently find what they crave inside a brothel much
+more easily than outside.
+
+[213] Thus Charles Booth, in his great work on _Life and Labor in London_,
+final volume (p. 128), recommends that "houses of accommodation," instead
+of being hunted out, should be tolerated as a step towards the suppression
+of brothels.
+
+[214] "Towns like Woolwich, Aldershot, Portsmouth, Plymouth," it has been
+said, "abound with wretched, filthy monsters that bear no resemblance to
+women; but it is drink, scorn, brutality and disease which have reduced
+them to this state, not the mere fact of associating with men."
+
+[215] "The contract of prostitution in the opinion of prostitutes
+themselves," Bernaldo de Quiros and Llanas Aguilaniedo remark (_La Mala
+Vida en Madrid_, p. 254), "cannot be assimilated to a sale, nor to a
+contract of work, nor to any other form of barter recognized by the civil
+law. They consider that in these pacts there always enters an element
+which makes it much more like a gift in a matter in which no payment could
+be adequate. 'A woman's body is without price' is an axiom of
+prostitution. The money placed in the hands of her who procures the
+satisfaction of sexual desire is not the price of the act, but an offering
+which the priestess of Venus applies to her maintenance." To the Spaniard,
+it is true, every transaction which resembles trade is repugnant, but the
+principle underlying this feeling holds good of prostitution generally.
+
+[216] _Journal des Goncourt_, vol. iii; this was in 1866.
+
+[217] Rev. the Hon. C. Lyttelton, _Training of the Young in Laws of Sex_,
+p. 42.
+
+[218] See, e.g., R.W. Taylor, _Treatise on Sexual Disorders_, 1897, pp.
+74-5. Georg Hirth (_Wege zur Heimat_, 1909, p. 619) narrates the case of a
+young officer who, being excited by the caresses of his betrothed and
+having too much respect for her to go further than this, and too much
+respect for himself to resort to masturbation, knew nothing better than to
+go to a prostitute. Syphilis developed a few days after the wedding. Hirth
+adds, briefly, that the results were terrible.
+
+[219] It is an oft-quoted passage, but can scarcely be quoted too often:
+"You see that this wrought-iron plate is not quite flat: it sticks up a
+little, here towards the left--'cockles,' as we say. How shall we flatten
+it? Obviously, you reply, by hitting down on the part that is prominent.
+Well, here is a hammer, and I give the plate a blow as you advise. Harder,
+you say. Still no effect. Another stroke? Well, there is one, and another,
+and another. The prominence remains, you see: the evil is as great as
+ever--greater, indeed. But that is not all. Look at the warp which the
+plate has got near the opposite edge. Where it was flat before it is now
+curved. A pretty bungle we have made of it. Instead of curing the original
+defect we have produced a second. Had we asked an artisan practiced in
+'planishing,' as it is called, he would have told us that no good was to
+be done, but only mischief, by hitting down on the projecting part. He
+would have taught us how to give variously-directed and specially-adjusted
+blows with a hammer elsewhere: so attacking the evil, not by direct, but
+by indirect actions. The required process is less simple than you thought.
+Even a sheet of metal is not to be successfully dealt with after those
+common-sense methods in which you have so much confidence. What, then,
+shall we say about a society?... Is humanity more readily straightened
+than an iron plate?" (_The Study of Sociology_, p. 270.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE CONQUEST OF THE VENEREAL DISEASES.
+
+The Significance of the Venereal Diseases--The History of Syphilis--The
+Problem of Its Origin--The Social Gravity of Syphilis--The Social Dangers
+of Gonorrhoea--The Modern Change in the Methods of Combating
+Venereal Diseases--Causes of the Decay of the System of Police
+Regulation--Necessity of Facing the Facts--The Innocent Victims of
+Venereal Diseases--Diseases Not Crimes--The Principle of Notification--The
+Scandinavian System--Gratuitous Treatment--Punishment for Transmitting
+Venereal Diseases--Sexual Education in Relation to Venereal
+Diseases--Lectures, Etc.--Discussion in Novels and on the Stage--The
+"Disgusting" Not the "Immoral."
+
+
+It may, perhaps, excite surprise that in the preceding discussion of
+prostitution scarcely a word has been said of venereal diseases. In the
+eyes of many people, the question of prostitution is simply the question
+of syphilis. But from the psychological point of view with which we are
+directly concerned, as from the moral point of view with which we cannot
+fail to be indirectly concerned, the question of the diseases which may
+be, and so frequently are, associated with prostitution cannot be placed
+in the first line of significance. The two questions, however intimately
+they may be mingled, are fundamentally distinct. Not only would venereal
+diseases still persist even though prostitution had absolutely ceased,
+but, on the other hand, when we have brought syphilis under the same
+control as we have brought the somewhat analogous disease of leprosy, the
+problem of prostitution would still remain.
+
+Yet, even from the standpoint which we here occupy, it is scarcely
+possible to ignore the question of venereal disease, for the psychological
+and moral aspects of prostitution, and even the whole question of the
+sexual relationships, are, to some extent, affected by the existence of
+the serious diseases which are specially liable to be propagated by sexual
+intercourse.
+
+Fournier, one of the leading authorities on this subject, has well said
+that syphilis, alcoholism, and tuberculosis are the three modern plagues.
+At a much earlier period (1851) Schopenhauer in _Parerga und Paralipomena_
+had expressed the opinion that the two things which mark modern social
+life, in distinction from that of antiquity, and to the advantage of the
+latter, are the knightly principle of honor and venereal disease;
+together, he added, they have poisoned life, and introduced a hostile and
+even diabolical element into the relations of the sexes, which has
+indirectly affected all other social relationships.[220] It is like a
+merchandise, says Havelburg, of syphilis, which civilization has
+everywhere carried, so that only a very few remote districts of the globe
+(as in Central Africa and Central Brazil) are to-day free from it.[221]
+
+It is undoubtedly true that in the older civilized countries the
+manifestations of syphilis, though still severe and a cause of physical
+deterioration in the individual and the race, are less severe than they
+were even a generation ago.[222] This is partly the result of earlier and
+better treatment, partly, it is possible, the result also of the
+syphilization of the race, some degree of immunity having now become an
+inherited possession, although it must be remembered that an attack of
+syphilis does not necessarily confer immunity from the actual attack of
+the disease even in the same individual. But it must be added that, even
+though it has become less severe, syphilis, in the opinion of many, is
+nevertheless still spreading, even in the chief centres of civilization;
+this has been noted alike in Paris and in London.[223]
+
+According to the belief which is now tending to prevail, syphilis was
+brought to Europe at the end of the fifteenth century by the first
+discoverers of America. In Seville, the chief European port for America,
+it was known as the Indian disease, but when Charles VIII and his army
+first brought it to Italy in 1495, although this connection with the
+French was only accidental, it was called the Gallic disease, "a monstrous
+disease," said Cataneus, "never seen in previous centuries and altogether
+unknown in the world."
+
+The synonyms of syphilis were at first almost innumerable. It was in his
+Latin poem _Syphilis sive Morbus Gallicus_, written before 1521 and
+published at Verona in 1530, that Fracastorus finally gave the disease its
+now universally accepted name, inventing a romantic myth to account for
+its origin.
+
+    Although the weight of authoritative opinion now seems to incline
+    towards the belief that syphilis was brought to Europe from
+    America, on the discovery of the New World, it is only within
+    quite recent years that that belief has gained ground, and it
+    scarcely even yet seems certain that what the Spaniards brought
+    back from America was really a disease absolutely new to the Old
+    World, and not a more virulent form of an old disease of which
+    the manifestations had become benign. Buret, for instance (_Le
+    Syphilis Aujourd'hui et chez les Anciens_, 1890), who some years
+    ago reached "the deep conviction that syphilis dates from the
+    creation of man," and believed, from a minute study of classic
+    authors, that syphilis existed in Rome under the Caesars, was of
+    opinion that it has broken out at different places and at
+    different times, in epidemic bursts exhibiting different
+    combinations of its manifold symptoms, so that it passed
+    unnoticed at ordinary times, and at the times of its more intense
+    manifestation was looked upon as a hitherto unknown disease. It
+    was thus regarded in classic times, he considers, as coming from
+    Egypt, though he looked upon its real home as Asia. Leopold Glueck
+    has likewise quoted (_Archiv fuer Dermatologie und Syphilis_,
+    January, 1899) passages from the medical epigrams of a sixteenth
+    century physician, Gabriel Ayala, declaring that syphilis is not
+    really a new disease, though popularly supposed to be so, but an
+    old disease which has broken out with hitherto unknown violence.
+    There is, however, no conclusive reason for believing that
+    syphilis was known at all in classic antiquity. A.V. Notthaft
+    ("Die Legende von der Althertums-syphilis," in the Rindfleisch
+    _Festschrift_, 1907, pp. 377-592) has critically investigated the
+    passages in classic authors which were supposed by Rosenbaum,
+    Buret, Proksch and others to refer to syphilis. It is quite
+    true, Notthaft admits, that many of these passages might possibly
+    refer to syphilis, and one or two would even better fit syphilis
+    than any other disease. But, on the whole, they furnish no proof
+    at all, and no syphilologist, he concludes, has ever succeeded in
+    demonstrating that syphilis was known in antiquity. That belief
+    is a legend. The most damning argument against it, Notthaft
+    points out, is the fact that, although in antiquity there were
+    great physicians who were keen observers, not one of them gives
+    any description of the primary, secondary, tertiary, and
+    congenital forms of this disease. China is frequently mentioned
+    as the original home of syphilis, but this belief is also quite
+    without basis, and the Japanese physician, Okamura, has shown
+    (_Monatsschrift fuer praktische Dermatologie_, vol. xxviii, pp.
+    296 et seq.) that Chinese records reveal nothing relating to
+    syphilis earlier than the sixteenth century. At the Paris Academy
+    of Medicine in 1900 photographs from Egypt were exhibited by
+    Fouquet of human remains which date from B.C. 2400, showing bone
+    lesions which seemed to be clearly syphilitic; Fournier, however,
+    one of the greatest of authorities, considered that the diagnosis
+    of syphilis could not be maintained until other conditions liable
+    to produce somewhat similar bone lesions had been eliminated
+    (_British Medical Journal_, September 29, 1900, p. 946). In
+    Florida and various regions of Central America, in undoubtedly
+    pre-Columbian burial places, diseased bones have been found which
+    good authorities have declared could not be anything else than
+    syphilitic (e.g., _British Medical Journal_, November 20, 1897,
+    p. 1487), though it may be noted that so recently as 1899 the
+    cautious Virchow stated that pre-Columbian syphilis in America
+    was still for him an open question (_Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_,
+    Heft 2 and 3, 1899, p. 216). From another side, Seler, the
+    distinguished authority on Mexican antiquity, shows (_Zeitschrift
+    fuer Ethnologie_, 1895, Heft 5, p. 449) that the ancient Mexicans
+    were acquainted with a disease which, as they described it, might
+    well have been syphilis. It is obvious, however, that while the
+    difficulty of demonstrating syphilitic diseased bones in America
+    is as great as in Europe, the demonstration, however complete,
+    would not suffice to show that the disease had not already an
+    existence also in the Old World. The plausible theory of Ayala
+    that fifteenth century syphilis was a virulent recrudescence of
+    an ancient disease has frequently been revived in more modern
+    times. Thus J. Knott ("The Origin of Syphilis," _New York Medical
+    Journal_, October 31, 1908) suggests that though not new in
+    fifteenth century Europe, it was then imported afresh in a form
+    rendered more aggravated by coming from an exotic race, as is
+    believed often to be the case.
+
+    It was in the eighteenth century that Jean Astruc began the
+    rehabilitation of the belief that syphilis is really a
+    comparatively modern disease of American origin, and since then
+    various authorities of weight have given their adherence to this
+    view. It is to the energy and learning of Dr. Iwan Bloch, of
+    Berlin (the first volume of whose important work, _Der Ursprung
+    der Syphilis_, was published in 1901) that we owe the fullest
+    statement of the evidence in favor of the American origin of
+    syphilis. Bloch regards Ruy Diaz de Isla, a distinguished Spanish
+    physician, as the weightiest witness for the Indian origin of the
+    disease, and concludes that it was brought to Europe by
+    Columbus's men from Central America, more precisely from the
+    Island of Haiti, to Spain in 1493 and 1494, and immediately
+    afterwards was spread by the armies of Charles VIII in an
+    epidemic fashion over Italy and the other countries of Europe.
+
+    It may be added that even if we have to accept the theory that
+    the central regions of America constitute the place of origin of
+    European syphilis, we still have to recognize that syphilis has
+    spread in the North American continent very much more slowly and
+    partially than it has in Europe, and even at the present day
+    there are American Indian tribes among whom it is unknown.
+    Holder, on the basis of his own experiences among Indian tribes,
+    as well as of wide inquiries among agency physicians, prepared a
+    table showing that among some thirty tribes and groups of tribes,
+    eighteen were almost or entirely free from venereal disease,
+    while among thirteen it was very prevalent. Almost without
+    exception, the tribes where syphilis is rare or unknown refuse
+    sexual intercourse with strangers, while those among whom such
+    disease is prevalent are morally lax. It is the whites who are
+    the source of infection among these tribes (A.B. Holder, "Gynecic
+    Notes Among the American Indians," _American Journal of
+    Obstetrics_, 1892, No. 1).
+
+Syphilis is only one, certainly the most important, of a group of three
+entirely distinct "venereal diseases" which have only been distinguished
+in recent times, and so far as their precise nature and causation are
+concerned, are indeed only to-day beginning to be understood, although two
+of them were certainly known in antiquity. It is but seventy years ago
+since Ricord, the great French syphilologist, following Bassereau, first
+taught the complete independence of syphilis both from gonorrhoea
+and soft chancre, at the same time expounding clearly the three stages,
+primary, secondary and tertiary, through which syphilitic manifestations
+tend to pass, while the full extent of tertiary syphilitic symptoms is
+scarcely yet grasped, and it is only to-day beginning to be generally
+realized that two of the most prevalent and serious diseases of the brain
+and nervous system--general paralysis and tabes dorsalis or locomotor
+ataxia--have their predominant though not sole and exclusive cause in the
+invasion of the syphilitic poison many years before. In 1879 a new stage
+of more precise knowledge of the venereal diseases began with Neisser's
+discovery of the gonococcus which is the specific cause of gonorrhoea.
+This was followed a few years later by the discovery by Ducrey and Unna of
+the bacillus of soft chancre, the least important of the venereal diseases
+because exclusively local in its effects. Finally, in 1905--after
+Metchnikoff had prepared the way by succeeding in carrying syphilis from
+man to monkey, and Lassar, by inoculation, from monkey to monkey--Fritz
+Schaudinn made his great discovery of the protozoal _Spirochoeta
+pallida_ (since sometimes called _Treponema pallidum_), which is now
+generally regarded as the cause of syphilis, and thus revealed the final
+hiding place of one of the most dangerous and insidious foes of
+humanity.[224]
+
+There is no more subtle poison than that of syphilis. It is not, like
+smallpox or typhoid, a disease which produces a brief and sudden storm, a
+violent struggle with the forces of life, in which it tends, even without
+treatment, provided the organism is healthy, to succumb, leaving little or
+no traces of its ravages behind. It penetrates ever deeper and deeper into
+the organism, with the passage of time leading to ever new manifestations,
+and no tissue is safe from its attack. And so subtle is this all-pervading
+poison that though its outward manifestations are amenable to prolonged
+treatment, it is often difficult to say that the poison has been finally
+killed out.[225]
+
+The immense importance of syphilis, and the chief reason why it is
+necessary to consider it here, lies in the fact that its results are not
+confined to the individual himself, nor even to the persons to whom he may
+impart it by the contagion due to contact in or out of sexual
+relationships: it affects the offspring, and it affects the power to
+produce offspring. It attacks men and women at the centre of life, as the
+progenitors of the coming race, inflicting either sterility or the
+tendency to aborted and diseased products of conception. The father alone
+can perhaps transmit syphilis to his child, even though the mother escapes
+infection, and the child born of syphilitic parents may come into the
+world apparently healthy only to reveal its syphilitic origin after a
+period of months or even years. Thus syphilis is probably a main cause of
+the enfeeblement of the race.[226]
+
+Alike in the individual and in his offspring syphilis shows its
+deteriorating effects on all the structures of the body, but especially on
+the brain and nervous system. There are, as has been pointed out by Mott,
+a leading authority in this matter,[227] five ways in which syphilis
+affects the brain and nervous system: (1) by moral shock; (2) by the
+effects of the poison in producing anaemia and impaired general nutrition;
+(3) by causing inflammation of the membranes and tissues of the brain; (4)
+by producing arterial degeneration, leading on to brain-softening,
+paralysis, and dementia; (5) as a main cause of the para-syphilitic
+affections of general paralysis and tabes dorsalis.
+
+It is only within recent years that medical men have recognized the
+preponderant part played by acquired or inherited syphilis in producing
+general paralysis, which so largely helps to fill lunatic asylums, and
+tabes dorsalis which is the most important disease of the spinal cord.
+Even to-day it can scarcely be said that there is complete agreement as
+to the supreme importance of the factor of syphilis in these diseases.
+There can, however, be little doubt that in about ninety-five per cent. at
+least of cases of general paralysis syphilis is present.[228]
+
+Syphilis is not indeed by itself an adequate cause of general paralysis
+for among many savage peoples syphilis is very common while general
+paralysis is very rare. It is, as Krafft-Ebing was accustomed to say,
+syphilization and civilization working together which produce general
+paralysis, perhaps in many cases, there is reason for thinking, on a
+nervous soil that is hereditarily degenerated to some extent; this is
+shown by the abnormal prevalence of congenital stigmata of degeneration
+found in general paralytics by Naecke and others. "Paralyticus nascitur
+atque fit," according to the dictum of Obersteiner. Once undermined by
+syphilis, the deteriorated brain is unable to resist the jars and strains
+of civilized life, and the result is general paralysis, truly described as
+"one of the most terrible scourges of modern times." In 1902 the
+Psychological Section of the British Medical Association, embodying the
+most competent English authority on this question, unanimously passed a
+resolution recommending that the attention of the Legislature and other
+public bodies should be called to the necessity for immediate action in
+view of the fact that "general paralysis, a very grave and frequent form
+of brain disease, together with other varieties of insanity, is largely
+due to syphilis, and is therefore preventable." Yet not a single step has
+yet been taken in this direction.
+
+The dangers of syphilis lie not alone in its potency and its persistence
+but also in its prevalence. It is difficult to state the exact incidence
+of syphilis, but a great many partial investigations have been made in
+various countries, and it would appear that from five to twenty per cent.
+of the population in European countries is syphilitic, while about fifteen
+per cent. of the syphilitic cases die from causes directly or indirectly
+due to the disease.[229] In France generally, Fournier estimates that
+seventeen per cent. of the whole population have had syphilis, and at
+Toulouse, Audry considers that eighteen per cent. of all his patients are
+syphilitic. In Copenhagen, where notification is obligatory, over four per
+cent. of the population are said to be syphilitic. In America a committee
+of the Medical Society of New York, appointed to investigate the question,
+reported as the result of exhaustive inquiry that in the city of New York
+not less than a quarter of a million of cases of venereal disease occurred
+every year, and a leading New York dermatologist has stated that among the
+better class families he knows intimately at least one-third of the sons
+have had syphilis. In Germany eight hundred thousand cases of venereal
+disease are by one authority estimated to occur yearly, and in the larger
+universities twenty-five per cent. of the students are infected every
+term, venereal disease being, however, specially common among students.
+The yearly number of men invalided in the German army by venereal diseases
+equals a third of the total number wounded in the Franco-Prussian war. Yet
+the German army stands fairly high as regards freedom from venereal
+disease when compared with the British army which is more syphilized than
+any other European army.[230] The British army, however, being
+professional and not national, is less representative of the people than
+is the case in countries where some form of conscription prevails. At one
+London hospital it could be ascertained that ten per cent. of the patients
+had had syphilis; this probably means a real proportion of about fifteen
+per cent., a high though not extremely high ratio. Yet it is obvious that
+even if the ratio is really lower than this the national loss in life and
+health, in defective procreation and racial deterioration, must be
+enormous and practically incalculable. Even in cash the venereal budget is
+comparable in amount to the general budget of a great nation. Stritch
+estimates that the cost to the British nation of venereal diseases in the
+army, navy and Government departments alone, amounts annually to
+L3,000,000, and when allowance is made for superannuations and sick-leave
+indirectly occasioned through these diseases, though not appearing in the
+returns as such, the more accurate estimate of the cost to the nation is
+stated to be L7,000,000. The adoption of simple hygienic measures for the
+prevention and the speedy cure of venereal diseases will be not only
+indirectly but even directly a source of immense wealth to the nation.
+
+Syphilis is the most obviously and conspicuously appalling of the venereal
+diseases. Yet it is less frequent and in some respects less dangerously
+insidious than the other chief venereal disease, gonorrhoea.[231]
+At one time the serious nature of gonorrhoea, especially in women, was
+little realized. Men accepted it with a light heart as a trivial accident;
+women ignored it. This failure to realize the gravity of gonorrhoea, even
+sometimes on the part of the medical profession--so that it has been
+popularly looked upon, in Grandin's words, as of little more significance
+than a cold in the nose--has led to a reaction on the part of some towards
+an opposite extreme, and the risks and dangers of gonorrhoea have been
+even unduly magnified. This is notably the case as regards sterility. The
+inflammatory results of gonorrhoea are indubitably a potent cause of
+sterility in both sexes; some authorities have stated that not only eighty
+per cent. of the deaths from inflammatory diseases of the pelvic organs
+and the majority of the cases of chronic invalidism in women, but ninety
+per cent. of involuntary sterile marriages, are due to gonorrhoea.
+Neisser, a great authority, ascribes to this disease without doubt fifty
+per cent, of such marriages. Even this estimate is in the experience of
+some observers excessive. It is fully proved that the great majority of
+men who have had gonorrhoea, even if they marry within two years of being
+infected, fail to convey the disease to their wives, and even of the women
+infected by their husbands more than half have children. This is, for
+instance, the result of Erb's experience, and Kisch speaks still more
+strongly in the same sense. Bumm, again, although regarding gonorrhoea as
+one of the two chief causes of sterility in women, finds that it is not
+the most frequent cause, being only responsible for about one-third of the
+cases; the other two-thirds are due to developmental faults in the genital
+organs. Dunning in America has reached results which are fairly concordant
+with Bumm's.
+
+With regard to another of the terrible results of gonorrhoea, the part it
+plays in producing life-long blindness from infection of the eyes at
+birth, there has long been no sort of doubt. The Committee of the
+Ophthalmological Society in 1884, reported that thirty to forty-one per
+cent. of the inmates of four asylums for the blind in England owed their
+blindness to this cause.[232] In German asylums Reinhard found that thirty
+per cent. lost their sight from the same cause. The total number of
+persons blind from gonorrhoeal infection from their mothers at birth is
+enormous. The British Royal Commission on the Condition of the Blind
+estimated there were about seven thousand persons in the United Kingdom
+alone (or twenty-two per cent. of the blind persons in the country) who
+became blind as the result of this disease, and Mookerji stated in his
+address on Ophthalmalogy at the Indian Medical Congress of 1894 that in
+Bengal alone there were six hundred thousand totally blind beggars, forty
+per cent. of whom lost their sight at birth through maternal gonorrhoea;
+and this refers to the beggar class alone.
+
+Although gonorrhoea is liable to produce many and various calamities,[233]
+there can be no doubt that the majority of gonorrhoeal persons escape
+either suffering or inflicting any very serious injury. The special reason
+why gonorrhoea has become so peculiarly serious a scourge is its extreme
+prevalence. It is difficult to estimate the proportion of men and women in
+the general population who have had gonorrhoea, and the estimates vary
+within wide limits. They are often set too high. Erb, of Heidelberg,
+anxious to disprove exaggerated estimates of the prevalence of gonorrhoea,
+went over the records of two thousand two hundred patients in his private
+practice (excluding all hospital patients) and found the proportion of
+those who had suffered from gonorrhoea was 48.5 per cent.
+
+Among the working classes the disease is much less prevalent than among
+higher-class people. In a Berlin Industrial Sick Club, 412 per 10,000 men
+and 69 per 10,000 women had gonorrhoea in a year; taking a series of years
+the Club showed a steady increase in the number of men, and decrease in
+the number of women, with venereal infection; this seems to indicate that
+the laboring classes are beginning to have intercourse more with
+prostitutes and less with respectable girls.[234] In America Wood Ruggles
+has given (as had Noggerath previously, for New York), the prevalence of
+gonorrhoea among adult males as from 75 to 80 per cent.; Tenney places it
+much lower, 20 per cent. for males and 5 per cent. for females. In
+England, a writer in the _Lancet_, some years ago,[235] found as the
+result of experience and inquiries that 75 per cent. adult males have had
+gonorrhoea once, 40 per cent. twice, 15 per cent. three or more times.
+According to Dulberg about twenty per cent. of new cases occur in married
+men of good social class, the disease being comparatively rare among
+married men of the working class in England.
+
+Gonorrhoea in its prevalence is thus only second to measles and in the
+gravity of its results scarcely second to tuberculosis. "And yet," as
+Grandin remarks in comparing gonorrhoea to tuberculosis, "witness the
+activity of the crusade against the latter and the criminal apathy
+displayed when the former is concerned."[236] The public must learn to
+understand, another writer remarks, that "gonorrhoea is a pest that
+concerns its highest interests and most sacred relations as much as do
+smallpox, cholera, diphtheria, or tuberculosis."[237]
+
+It cannot fairly be said that no attempts have been made to beat back the
+flood of venereal disease. On the contrary, such attempts have been made
+from the first. But they have never been effectual;[238] they have never
+been modified to changed condition; at the present day they are
+hopelessly unscientific and entirely opposed alike to the social and the
+individual demands of modern peoples. At the various conferences on this
+question which have been held during recent years the only generally
+accepted conclusion which has emerged is that all the existing systems
+of interference or non-interference with prostitution are
+unsatisfactory.[239]
+
+The character of prostitution has changed and the methods of dealing with
+it must change. Brothels, and the systems of official regulation which
+grew up with special reference to brothels, are alike out of date; they
+have about them a mediaeval atmosphere, an antiquated spirit, which now
+render them unattractive and suspected. The conspicuously distinctive
+brothel is falling into disrepute; the liveried prostitute absolutely
+under municipal control can scarcely be said to exist. Prostitution tends
+to become more diffused, more intimately mingled with social life
+generally, less easily distinguished as a definitely separable part of
+life. We can nowadays only influence it by methods of permeation which
+bear upon the whole of our social life.
+
+    The objection to the regulation of prostitution is still of slow
+    growth, but it is steadily developing everywhere, and may be
+    traced equally in scientific opinion and in popular feeling. In
+    France the municipalities of some of the largest cities have
+    either suppressed the system of regulation entirely or shown
+    their disapproval of it, while an inquiry among several hundred
+    medical men showed that less than one-third were in favor of
+    maintaining regulation (_Die Neue Generation_, June, 1909, p.
+    244). In Germany, where there is in some respects more patient
+    endurance of interference with the liberty of the individual than
+    in France, England, or America, various elaborate systems for
+    organizing prostitution and dealing with venereal disease
+    continue to be maintained, but they cannot be completely carried
+    out, and it is generally admitted that in any case they could not
+    accomplish the objects sought. Thus in Saxony no brothels are
+    officially tolerated, though as a matter of fact they
+    nevertheless exist. Here, as in many other parts of Germany, most
+    minute and extensive regulations are framed for the use of
+    prostitutes. Thus at Leipzig they must not sit on the benches in
+    public promenades, nor go to picture galleries, or theatres, or
+    concerts, or restaurants, nor look out of their windows, nor
+    stare about them in the street, nor smile, nor wink, etc., etc.
+    In fact, a German prostitute who possesses the heroic
+    self-control to carry out conscientiously all the self-denying
+    ordinances officially decreed for her guidance would seem to be
+    entitled to a Government pension for life.
+
+    Two methods of dealing with prostitution prevail in Germany. In
+    some cities public houses of prostitution are tolerated (though
+    not licensed); in other cities prostitution is "free," though
+    "secret." Hamburg is the most important city where houses of
+    prostitution are tolerated and segregated. But, it is stated,
+    "everywhere, by far the larger proportion of the prostitutes
+    belong to the so-called 'secret' class." In Hamburg, alone, are
+    suspected men, when accused of infecting women, officially
+    examined; men of every social class must obey a summons of this
+    kind, which is issued secretly, and if diseased, they are bound
+    to go under treatment, if necessary under compulsory treatment in
+    the city hospital, until no longer dangerous to the community.
+
+    In Germany it is only when a woman has been repeatedly observed
+    to act suspiciously in the streets that she is quietly warned; if
+    the warning is disregarded she is invited to give her name and
+    address to the police, and interviewed. It is not until these
+    methods fail that she is officially inscribed as a prostitute.
+    The inscribed women, in some cities at all events, contribute to
+    a sick benefit fund which pays their expenses when in hospital.
+    The hesitation of the police to inscribe a woman on the official
+    list is legitimate and inevitable, for no other course would be
+    tolerated; yet the majority of prostitutes begin their careers
+    very young, and as they tend to become infected very early after
+    their careers begin, it is obvious that this delay contributes to
+    render the system of regulation ineffective. In Berlin, where
+    there are no officially recognized brothels, there are some six
+    thousand inscribed prostitutes, but it is estimated that there
+    are over sixty thousand prostitutes who are not inscribed. (The
+    foregoing facts are taken from a series of papers describing
+    personal investigations in Germany made by Dr. F. Bierhoff, of
+    New York, "Police Methods for the Sanitary Control of
+    Prostitution," _New York Medical Journal_, August, 1907.) The
+    estimation of the amount of clandestine prostitution can indeed
+    never be much more than guesswork; exactly the same figure of
+    sixty thousand is commonly brought forward as the probable number
+    of prostitutes not only in Berlin, but also in London and in New
+    York. It is absolutely impossible to say whether it is under or
+    over the real number, for secret prostitution is quite
+    intangible. Even if the facts were miraculously revealed there
+    would still remain the difficulty of deciding what is and what is
+    not prostitution. The avowed and public prostitute is linked by
+    various gradations on the one side to the respectable girl living
+    at home who seeks some little relief from the oppression of her
+    respectability, and on the other hand to the married woman who
+    has married for the sake of a home. In any case, however, it is
+    very certain that public prostitutes living entirely on the
+    earnings of prostitution form but a small proportion of the vast
+    army of women who may be said, in a wide sense of the word, to be
+    prostitutes, i.e., who use their attractiveness to obtain from
+    men not love alone, but money or goods.
+
+"The struggle against syphilis is only possible if we agree to regard its
+victims as unfortunate and not as guilty.... We must give up the prejudice
+which has led to the creation of the term 'shameful diseases,' and which
+commands silence concerning this scourge of the family and of humanity."
+In these words of Duclaux, the distinguished successor of Pasteur at the
+Pasteur Institute, in his noble and admirable work _L'Hygiene Sociale_, we
+have indicated to us, I am convinced, the only road by which we can
+approach the rational and successful treatment of the great social problem
+of venereal disease.
+
+    The supreme importance of this key to the solution of a problem
+    which has often seemed insoluble is to-day beginning to become
+    recognized in all quarters, and in every country. Thus a
+    distinguished German authority, Professor Finger (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, Heft 5) declares that venereal disease must
+    not be regarded as the well-merited punishment for a debauched
+    life, but as an unhappy accident. It seems to be in France,
+    however, that this truth has been proclaimed with most courage
+    and humanity, and not alone by the followers of science and
+    medicine, but by many who might well be excused from interfering
+    with so difficult and ungrateful a task. Thus the brothers, Paul
+    and Victor Margueritte, who occupy a brilliant and honorable
+    place in contemporary French letters, have distinguished
+    themselves by advocating a more humane attitude towards
+    prostitutes, and a more modern method of dealing with the
+    question of venereal disease. "The true method of prevention is
+    that which makes it clear to all that syphilis is not a
+    mysterious and terrible thing, the penalty of the sin of the
+    flesh, a sort of shameful evil branded by Catholic malediction,
+    but an ordinary disease which may be treated and cured." It may
+    be remarked that the aversion to acknowledge venereal disease is
+    at least as marked in France as in any other country; "maladies
+    honteuses" is a consecrated French term, just as "loathsome
+    disease" is in English; "in the hospital," says Landret, "it
+    requires much trouble to obtain an avowal of gonorrhoea,
+    and we may esteem ourselves happy if the patient acknowledges the
+    fact of having had syphilis."
+
+No evils can be combated until they are recognized, simply and frankly,
+and honestly discussed. It is a significant and even symbolic fact that
+the bacteria of disease rarely flourish when they are open to the free
+currents of pure air. Obscurity, disguise, concealment furnish the best
+conditions for their vigor and diffusion, and these favoring conditions we
+have for centuries past accorded to venereal diseases. It was not always
+so, as indeed the survival of the word 'venereal' itself in this
+connection, with its reference to a goddess, alone suffices to show. Even
+the name "syphilis" itself, taken from a romantic poem in which
+Fracastorus sought a mythological origin for the disease, bears witness to
+the same fact. The romantic attitude is indeed as much out of date as that
+of hypocritical and shamefaced obscurantism. We need to face these
+diseases in the same simple, direct, and courageous way which has already
+been adopted successfully in the ease of smallpox, a disease which, of
+old, men thought analogous to syphilis and which was indeed once almost as
+terrible in its ravages.
+
+At this point, however, we encounter those who say that it is unnecessary
+to show any sort of recognition of venereal diseases, and immoral to do
+anything that might seem to involve indulgence to those who suffer from
+such diseases; they have got what they deserve and may well be left to
+perish. Those who take this attitude place themselves so far outside the
+pale of civilization--to say nothing of morality or religion--that they
+might well be disregarded. The progress of the race, the development of
+humanity, in fact and in feeling, has consisted in the elimination of an
+attitude which it is an insult to primitive peoples to term savage. Yet
+it is an attitude which should not be ignored for it still carries weight
+with many who are too weak to withstand those who juggle with fine moral
+phrases. I have even seen in a medical quarter the statement that venereal
+disease cannot be put on the same level with other infectious diseases
+because it is "the result of voluntary action." But all the diseases,
+indeed all the accidents and misfortunes of suffering human beings, are
+equally the involuntary results of voluntary actions. The man who is run
+over in crossing the street, the family poisoned by unwholesome food, the
+mother who catches the disease of the child she is nursing, all these
+suffer as the involuntary result of the voluntary act of gratifying some
+fundamental human instinct--the instinct of activity, the instinct of
+nutrition, the instinct of affection. The instinct of sex is as
+fundamental as any of these, and the involuntary evils which may follow
+the voluntary act of gratifying it stand on exactly the same level. This
+is the essential fact: a human being in following the human instincts
+implanted within him has stumbled and fallen. Any person who sees, not
+this essential fact but merely some subsidiary aspect of it, reveals a
+mind that is twisted and perverted; he has no claim to arrest our
+attention.
+
+But even if we were to adopt the standpoint of the would-be moralist, and
+to agree that everyone must be left to suffer his deserts, it is far
+indeed from being the fact that all those who contract venereal diseases
+are in any sense receiving their deserts. In a large number of cases the
+disease has been inflicted on them in the most absolutely involuntary
+manner. This is, of course, true in the case of the vast number of infants
+who are infected at conception or at birth. But it is also true in a
+scarcely less absolute manner of a large proportion of persons infected in
+later life.
+
+_Syphilis insontium_, or syphilis of the innocent, as it is commonly
+called, may be said to fall into five groups: (1) the vast army of
+congenitally syphilitic infants who inherit the disease from father or
+mother; (2) the constantly occurring cases of syphilis contracted, in the
+course of their professional duties, by doctors, midwives and wet-nurses;
+(3) infection as a result of affection, as in simple kissing; (4)
+accidental infection from casual contacts and from using in common the
+objects and utensils of daily life, such as cups, towels, razors, knives
+(as in ritual circumcision), etc; (5) the infection of wives by their
+husbands.[240]
+
+Hereditary congenital syphilis belongs to the ordinary pathology of the
+disease and is a chief element in its social danger since it is
+responsible for an enormous infantile mortality.[241] The risks of
+extragenital infection in the professional activity of doctors, midwives
+and wet-nurses is also universally recognized. In the case of wet-nurses
+infected by their employers' syphilitic infants at their breast, the
+penalty inflicted on the innocent is peculiarly harsh and unnecessary. The
+influence of infected low-class midwives is notably dangerous, for they
+may inflict widespread injury in ignorance; thus the case has been
+recorded of a midwife, whose finger became infected in the course of her
+duties, and directly or indirectly contaminated one hundred persons.
+Kissing is an extremely common source of syphilitic infection, and of all
+extragenital regions the mouth is by far the most frequent seat of primary
+syphilitic sores. In some cases, it is true, especially in prostitutes,
+this is the result of abnormal sexual contacts. But in the majority of
+cases it is the result of ordinary and slight kisses as between young
+children, between parents and children, between lovers and friends and
+acquaintances. Fairly typical examples, which have been reported, are
+those of a child, kissed by a prostitute, who became infected and
+subsequently infected its mother and grandmother; of a young French bride
+contaminated on her wedding-day by one of the guests who, according to
+French custom, kissed her on the cheek after the ceremony; of an American
+girl who, returning from a ball, kissed, at parting, the young man who had
+accompanied her home, thus acquiring the disease which she not long
+afterwards imparted in the same way to her mother and three sisters. The
+ignorant and unthinking are apt to ridicule those who point out the
+serious risks of miscellaneous kissing. But it remains nevertheless true
+that people who are not intimate enough to know the state of each other's
+health are not intimate enough to kiss each other. Infection by the use of
+domestic utensils, linen, etc., while comparatively rare among the better
+social classes, is extremely common among the lower classes and among the
+less civilized nations; in Russia, according to Tarnowsky, the chief
+authority, seventy per cent. of all cases of syphilis in the rural
+districts are due to this cause and to ordinary kissing, and a special
+conference in St. Petersburg in 1897, for the consideration of the methods
+of dealing with venereal disease, recorded its opinion to the same effect;
+much the same seems to be true regarding Bosnia and various parts of the
+Balkan peninsula where syphilis is extremely prevalent among the
+peasantry. As regards the last group, according to Bulkley in America,
+fifty per cent. of women generally contract syphilis innocently, chiefly
+from their husbands, while Fournier states that in France seventy-five per
+cent. of married women with syphilis have been infected by their husbands,
+most frequently (seventy per cent.) by husbands who were themselves
+infected before marriage and supposed that they were cured. Among men the
+proportion of syphilitics who have been accidentally infected, though less
+than among women, is still very considerable; it is stated to be at least
+ten per cent., and possibly it is a much larger proportion of cases. The
+scrupulous moralist who is anxious that all should have their deserts
+cannot fail to be still more anxious to prevent the innocent from
+suffering in place of the guilty. But it is absolutely impossible for him
+to combine these two aims; syphilis cannot be at the same time perpetuated
+for the guilty and abolished for the innocent.
+
+    I have been taking only syphilis into account, but nearly all
+    that is said of the accidental infection of syphilis applies with
+    equal or greater force to gonorrhoea, for though gonorrhoea does
+    not enter into the system by so many channels as syphilis, it is
+    a more common as well as a more subtle and elusive disease.
+
+    The literature of Syphilis Insontium is extremely extensive.
+    There is a bibliography at the end of Duncan Bulkley's _Syphilis
+    in the Innocent_, and a comprehensive summary of the question in
+    a Leipzig Inaugural Dissertation by F. Moses, _Zur Kasuistik der
+    Extragenitalen Syphilis-infektion_, 1904.
+
+Even, however, when we have put aside the vast number of venereally
+infected people who may be said to be, in the narrowest and most
+conventionally moral sense, "innocent" victims of the diseases they have
+contracted, there is still much to be said on this question. It must be
+remembered that the majority of those who contract venereal diseases by
+illegitimate sexual intercourse are young. They are youths, ignorant of
+life, scarcely yet escaped from home, still undeveloped, incompletely
+educated, and easily duped by women; in many cases they have met, as they
+thought, a "nice" girl, not indeed strictly virtuous but, it seemed to
+them, above all suspicion of disease, though in reality she was a
+clandestine prostitute. Or they are young girls who have indeed ceased to
+be absolutely chaste, but have not yet lost all their innocence, and who
+do not consider themselves, and are not by others considered, prostitutes;
+that indeed, is one of the rocks on which the system of police regulation
+of prostitution comes to grief, for the police cannot catch the prostitute
+at a sufficiently early stage. Of women who become syphilitic, according
+to Fournier, twenty per cent. are infected before they are nineteen; in
+hospitals the proportion is as high as forty per cent.; and of men fifteen
+per cent. cases occur between eleven and twenty-one years of age. The age
+of maximum frequency of infection is for women twenty years (in the rural
+population eighteen), and for men twenty-three years. In Germany Erb
+finds that as many as eighty-five per cent men with gonorrhoea
+contracted the disease between the ages of sixteen and twenty-five, a very
+small percentage being infected after thirty. These young things for the
+most part fell into a trap which Nature had baited with her most
+fascinating lure; they were usually ignorant; not seldom they were
+deceived by an attractive personality; often they were overcome by
+passion; frequently all prudence and reserve had been lost in the fumes of
+wine. From a truly moral point of view they were scarcely less innocent
+than children.
+
+    "I ask," says Duclaux, "whether when a young man, or a young
+    girl, abandon themselves to a dangerous caress society has done
+    what it can to warn them. Perhaps its intentions were good, but
+    when the need came for precise knowledge a silly prudery has held
+    it back, and it has left its children without _viaticum_.... I
+    will go further, and proclaim that in a large number of cases the
+    husbands who contaminate their wives are innocent. No one is
+    responsible for the evil which he commits without knowing it and
+    without willing it." I may recall the suggestive fact, already
+    referred to, that the majority of husbands who infect their wives
+    contracted the disease before marriage. They entered on marriage
+    believing that their disease was cured, and that they had broken
+    with their past. Doctors have sometimes (and quacks frequently)
+    contributed to this result by too sanguine an estimate of the
+    period necessary to destroy the poison. So great an authority as
+    Fournier formerly believed that the syphilitic could safely be
+    allowed to marry three or four years after the date of infection,
+    but now, with increased experience, he extends the period to four
+    or five years. It is undoubtedly true that, especially when
+    treatment has been thorough and prompt, the diseased
+    constitution, in a majority of cases, can be brought under
+    complete control in a shorter period than this, but there is
+    always a certain proportion of cases in which the powers of
+    infection persist for many years, and even when the syphilitic
+    husband is no longer capable of infecting his wife he may still
+    perhaps be in a condition to effect a disastrous influence on the
+    offspring.
+
+In nearly all these cases there was more or less ignorance--which is but
+another word for innocence as we commonly understand innocence--and when
+at last, after the event, the facts are more or less bluntly explained to
+the victim he frequently exclaims: "Nobody told me!" It is this fact which
+condemns the pseudo-moralist. If he had seen to it that mothers began to
+explain the facts of sex to their little boys and girls from childhood, if
+he had (as Dr. Joseph Price urges) taught the risks of venereal disease in
+the Sunday-school, if he had plainly preached on the relations of the
+sexes from the pulpit, if he had seen to it that every youth at the
+beginning of adolescence received some simple technical instruction from
+his family doctor concerning sexual health and sexual disease--then,
+though there would still remain the need of pity for those who strayed
+from a path that must always be difficult to walk in, the would-be
+moralist at all events would in some measure be exculpated. But he has
+seldom indeed lifted a finger to do any of these things.
+
+Even those who may be unwilling to abandon an attitude of private moral
+intolerance towards the victims of venereal diseases may still do well to
+remember that since the public manifestation of their intolerance is
+mischievous, and at the best useless, it is necessary for them to restrain
+it in the interests of society. They would not be the less free to order
+their own personal conduct in the strictest accordance with their superior
+moral rigidity; and that after all is for them the main thing. But for the
+sake of society it is necessary for them to adopt what they may consider
+the convention of a purely hygienic attitude towards these diseases. The
+erring are inevitably frightened by an attitude of moral reprobation into
+methods of concealment, and these produce an endless chain of social evils
+which can only be dissipated by openness. As Duclaux has so earnestly
+insisted, it is impossible to grapple successfully with venereal disease
+unless we consent not to introduce our prejudices, or even our morals and
+religion, into the question, but treat it purely and simply as a sanitary
+question. And if the pseudo-moralist still has difficulty in cooeperating
+towards the healing of this social sore he may be reminded that he
+himself--like every one of us little though we may know it--has certainly
+had a great army of syphilitic and gonorrhoeal persons among his own
+ancestors during the past four centuries. We are all bound together, and
+it is absurd, even when it is not inhuman, to cast contempt on our own
+flesh and blood.
+
+I have discussed rather fully the attitude of those who plead morality as
+a reason for ignoring the social necessity of combating venereal disease,
+because although there may not be many who seriously and understandingly
+adopt so anti-social and inhuman an attitude there are certainly many who
+are glad at need of the existence of so fine an excuse for their moral
+indifference or their mental indolence.[242] When they are confronted by
+this great and difficult problem they find it easy to offer the remedy of
+conventional morality, although they are well aware that on a large scale
+that remedy has long been proved to be ineffectual. They ostentatiously
+affect to proffer the useless thick end of the wedge at a point where it
+is only possible with much skill and prudence to insinuate the thin
+working end.
+
+The general acceptance of the fact that syphilis and gonorrhoea
+are diseases, and not necessarily crimes or sins, is the condition for any
+practical attempt to deal with this question from the sanitary point of
+view which is now taking the place of the antiquated and ineffective
+police point of view. The Scandinavian countries of Europe have been the
+pioneers in practical modern hygienic methods of dealing with venereal
+disease. There are several reasons why this has come about. All the
+problems of sex--of sexual love as well as of sexual disease--have long
+been prominent in these countries, and an impatience with prudish
+hypocrisy seems here to have been more pronounced than elsewhere; we see
+this spirit, for instance, emphatically embodied in the plays of Ibsen,
+and to some extent in Bjoernson's works. The fearless and energetic temper
+of the people impels them to deal practically with sexual difficulties,
+while their strong instincts of independence render them averse to the
+bureaucratic police methods which have flourished in Germany and France.
+The Scandinavians have thus been the natural pioneers of the methods of
+combating venereal diseases which are now becoming generally recognized
+to be the methods of the future, and they have fully organized the system
+of putting venereal diseases under the ordinary law and dealing with them
+as with other contagious diseases.
+
+The first step in dealing with a contagious disease is to apply to it the
+recognized principles of notification. Every new application of the
+principle, it is true, meets with opposition. It is without practical
+result, it is an unwarranted inquisition into the affairs of the
+individual, it is a new tax on the busy medical practitioner, etc.
+Certainly notification by itself will not arrest the progress of any
+infectious disease. But it is an essential element in every attempt to
+deal with the prevention of disease. Unless we know precisely the exact
+incidence, local variations, and temporary fluctuations of a disease we
+are entirely in the dark and can only beat about at random. All progress
+in public hygiene has been accompanied by the increased notification of
+disease, and most authorities are agreed that such notification must be
+still further extended, any slight inconvenience thus caused to
+individuals being of trifling importance compared to the great public
+interests at stake. It is true that so great an authority as Neisser has
+expressed doubt concerning the extension of notification to gonorrhoea;
+the diagnosis cannot be infallible, and the patients often give false
+names. These objections, however, seem trivial; diagnosis can very seldom
+be infallible (though in this field no one has done so much for exact
+diagnosis as Neisser himself), and names are not necessary for
+notification, and are not indeed required in the form of compulsory
+notification of venereal disease which existed a few years ago in Norway.
+
+The principle of the compulsory notification of venereal diseases seems to
+have been first established in Prussia, where it dates from 1835. The
+system here, however, is only partial, not being obligatory in all cases
+but only when in the doctor's opinion secrecy might be harmful to the
+patient himself or to the community; it is only obligatory when the
+patient is a soldier. This method of notification is indeed on a wrong
+basis, it is not part of a comprehensive sanitary system but merely an
+auxiliary to police methods of dealing with prostitution. According to
+the Scandinavian system, notification, though not an essential part of
+this system, rests on an entirely different basis.
+
+The Scandinavian plan in a modified form has lately been established in
+Denmark. This little country, so closely adjoining Germany, for some time
+followed in this matter the example of its great neighbor and adopted the
+police regulation of prostitution and venereal disease. The more
+fundamental Scandinavian affinities of Denmark were, however, eventually
+asserted, and in 1906, the system of regulation was entirely abandoned and
+Denmark resolved to rely on thorough and systematic application of the
+sanitary principle already accepted in the country, although something of
+German influence still persists in the strict regulation of the streets
+and the penalties imposed upon brothel-keepers, leaving prostitution
+itself free. The decisive feature of the present system is, however, that
+the sanitary authorities are now exclusively medical. Everyone, whatever
+his social or financial position, is entitled to the free treatment of
+venereal disease. Whether he avails himself of it or not, he is in any
+case bound to undergo treatment. Every diseased person is thus, so far as
+it can be achieved, in a doctor's hands. All doctors have their
+instructions in regard to such cases, they have not only to inform their
+patients that they cannot marry so long as risks of infection are
+estimated to be present, but that they are liable for the expenses of
+treatment, as well as the dangers suffered, by any persons whom they may
+infect. Although it has not been possible to make the system at every
+point thoroughly operative, its general success is indicated by the entire
+reliance now placed on it, and the abandonment of the police regulation of
+prostitution. A system very similar to that of Denmark was established
+some years previously in Norway. The principle of the treatment of
+venereal disease at the public expense exists also in Sweden as well as in
+Finland, where treatment is compulsory.[243]
+
+It can scarcely be said that the principle of notification has yet been
+properly applied on a large scale to venereal diseases. But it is
+constantly becoming more widely advocated, more especially in England and
+the United States,[244] where national temperament and political
+traditions render the system of the police regulation of prostitution
+impossible--even if it were more effective than it practically is--and
+where the system of dealing with venereal disease on the basis of public
+health has to be recognized as not only the best but the only possible
+system.[245]
+
+In association with this, it is necessary, as is also becoming ever more
+widely recognized, that there should be the most ample facilities for the
+gratuitous treatment of venereal diseases; the general establishment of
+free dispensaries, open in the evenings, is especially necessary, for many
+can only seek advice and help at this time. It is largely to the
+systematic introduction of facilities for gratuitous treatment that the
+enormous reduction in venereal disease in Sweden, Norway, and Bosnia is
+attributed. It is the absence of the facilities for treatment, the implied
+feeling that the victims of venereal disease are not sufferers but merely
+offenders not entitled to care, that has in the past operated so
+disastrously in artificially promoting the dissemination of preventable
+diseases which might be brought under control.
+
+If we dispense with the paternal methods of police regulation, if we rely
+on the general principles of medical hygiene, and for the rest allow the
+responsibility for his own good or bad actions to rest on the individual
+himself, there is a further step, already fully recognized in principle,
+which we cannot neglect to take: We must look on every person as
+accountable for the venereal diseases he transmits. So long as we refuse
+to recognize venereal diseases as on the same level as other infectious
+diseases, and so long as we offer no full and fair facilities for their
+treatment, it is unjust to bring the individual to account for spreading
+them. But if we publicly recognize the danger of infectious venereal
+diseases, and if we leave freedom to the individual, we must inevitably
+declare, with Duclaux, that every man or woman must be held responsible
+for the diseases he or she communicates.
+
+According to the Oldenburg Code of 1814 it was a punishable offence for a
+venereally diseased person to have sexual intercourse with a healthy
+person, whether or not infection resulted. In Germany to-day, however,
+there is no law of this kind, although eminent German legal authorities,
+notably Von Liszt, are of opinion that a paragraph should be added to the
+Code declaring that sexual intercourse on the part of a person who knows
+that he is diseased should be punishable by imprisonment for a period not
+exceeding two years, the law not to be applied as between married couples
+except on the application of one of the parties. At the present time in
+Germany the transmission of venereal disease is only punishable as a
+special case of the infliction of bodily injury.[246] In this matter
+Germany is behind most of the Scandinavian countries where individual
+responsibility for venereal infection is well recognized and actively
+enforced.
+
+In France, though the law is not definite and satisfactory, actions for
+the transmission of syphilis are successfully brought before the courts.
+Opinion seems to be more decisively in favor of punishment for this
+offense than it is in Germany. In 1883 Despres discussed the matter and
+considered the objections. Few may avail themselves of the law, he
+remarks, but all would be rendered more cautious by the fear of infringing
+it; while the difficulties of tracing and proving infection are not
+greater, he points out, than those of tracing and proving paternity in the
+case of illegitimate children. Despres would punish with imprisonment for
+not more than two years any person, knowing himself to be diseased, who
+transmitted a venereal disease, and would merely fine those who
+communicated the contagion by imprudence, not realizing that they were
+diseased.[247] The question has more recently been discussed by Aurientis
+in a Paris thesis. He states that the present French law as regards the
+transmission of sexual diseases is not clearly established and is
+difficult to act upon, but it is certainly just that those who have been
+contaminated and injured in this way should easily be able to obtain
+reparation. Although it is admitted in principle that the communication of
+syphilis is an offence even under common law he is in agreement with those
+who would treat it as a special offence, making a new and more practical
+law.[248] Heavy damages are even at the present time obtained in the
+French courts from men who have infected young women in sexual
+intercourse, and also from the doctors as well as the mothers of
+syphilitic infants who have infected the foster-mothers they were
+entrusted to. Although the French Penal Code forbids in general the
+disclosure of professional secrets, it is the duty of the medical
+practitioner to warn the foster-mother in such a case of the danger she is
+incurring, but without naming the disease; if he neglects to give this
+warning he may be held liable.
+
+In England, as well as in the United States, the law is more
+unsatisfactory and more helpless, in relation to this class of offences,
+than it is in France. The mischievous and barbarous notion, already dealt
+with, according to which venereal disease is the result of illicit
+intercourse and should be tolerated as a just visitation of God, seems
+still to flourish in these countries with fatal persistency. In England
+the communication of venereal disease by illicit intercourse is not an
+actionable wrong if the act of intercourse has been voluntary, even
+although there has been wilful and intentional concealment of the disease.
+_Ex turpi causa non oritur actio_, it is sententiously said; for there is
+much dormitative virtue in a Latin maxim. No legal offence has still been
+committed if a husband contaminates his wife, or a wife her husband.[249]
+The "freedom" enjoyed in this matter by England and the United States is
+well illustrated by an American case quoted by Dr. Isidore Dyer, of New
+Orleans, in his report to the Brussels Conference on the Prevention of
+Venereal Diseases, in 1899: "A patient with primary syphilis refused even
+charitable treatment and carried a book wherein she kept the number of men
+she had inoculated. When I first saw her she declared the number had
+reached two hundred and nineteen and that she would not be treated until
+she had had revenge on five hundred men." In a community where the most
+elementary rules of justice prevailed facilities would exist to enable
+this woman to obtain damages from the man who had injured her or even to
+secure his conviction to a term of imprisonment. In obtaining some
+indemnity for the wrong done her, and securing the "revenge" she craved,
+she would at the same time have conferred a benefit on society. She is
+shut out from any action against the one person who injured her; but as a
+sort of compensation she is allowed to become a radiating focus of
+disease, to shorten many lives, to cause many deaths, to pile up
+incalculable damages; and in so doing she is to-day perfectly within her
+legal rights. A community which encourages this state of things is not
+only immoral but stupid.
+
+There seems, however, to be a growing body of influential opinion, both in
+England and in the United States, in favor of making the transmission of
+venereal disease an offence punishable by heavy fine or by
+imprisonment.[250] In any enactment no stress should be put on the
+infection being conveyed "knowingly." Any formal limitation of this kind
+is unnecessary, as in such a case the Court always takes into account the
+offender's ignorance or mere negligence, and it is mischievous because it
+tends to render an enactment ineffective and to put a premium on
+ignorance; the husbands who infect their wives with gonorrhoea
+immediately after marriage have usually done so from ignorance, and it
+should be at least necessary for them to prove that they have been
+fortified in their ignorance by medical advice. It is sometimes said that
+the existing law could be utilized for bringing actions of this kind, and
+that no greater facilities should be offered for fear of increasing
+attempts at blackmail. The inutility of the law at present for this
+purpose is shown by the fact that it seldom or never happens that any
+attempt is made to utilize it, while not only are there a number of
+existing punishable offences which form the subject of attempts at
+blackmail, but blackmail can still be demanded even in regard to
+disreputable actions that are not legally punishable at all. Moreover, the
+attempt to levy blackmail is itself an offence always sternly dealt with
+in the courts.
+
+It is possible to trace the beginning of a recognition that the
+transmission of a venereal disease is a matter of which legal cognizance
+may be taken in the English law courts. It is now well settled that the
+infection of a wife by her husband may be held to constitute the legal
+cruelty which, according to the present law, must be proved, in addition
+to adultery, before a wife can obtain divorce from her husband. In 1777
+Restif de la Bretonne proposed in his _Gynographes_ that the communication
+of a venereal disease should itself be an adequate ground for divorce;
+this, however, is not at present generally accepted.[251]
+
+It is sometimes said that it is very well to make the individual legally
+responsible for the venereal disease he communicates, but that the
+difficulties of bringing that responsibility home would still remain. And
+those who admit these difficulties frequently reply that at the worst we
+should have in our hands a means of educating responsibility; the man who
+deliberately ran the risk of transmitting such infection would be made to
+feel that he was no longer fairly within his legal rights but had done a
+bad action. We are thus led on finally to what is now becoming generally
+recognized as the chief and central method of combating venereal disease,
+if we are to accept the principle of individual responsibility as ruling
+in this sphere of life. Organized sanitary and medical precautions, and
+proper legal protection for those who have been injured, are inoperative
+without the educative influence of elementary hygienic instruction placed
+in the possession of every young man and woman. In a sphere that is
+necessarily so intimate medical organization and legal resort can never be
+all-sufficing; knowledge is needed at every step in every individual to
+guide and even to awaken that sense of personal moral responsibility which
+must here always rule. Wherever the importance of these questions is
+becoming acutely realized--and notably at the Congresses of the German
+Society for Combating Venereal Disease--the problem is resolving itself
+mainly into one of education.[252] And although opinion and practice in
+this matter are to-day more advanced in Germany than elsewhere the
+conviction of this necessity is becoming scarcely less pronounced in all
+other civilized countries, in England and America as much as in France and
+the Scandinavian lands.
+
+A knowledge of the risks of disease by sexual intercourse, both in and out
+of marriage,--and indeed, apart from sexual intercourse altogether,--is a
+further stage of that sexual education which, as we have already seen,
+must begin, so far as the elements are concerned, at a very early age.
+Youths and girls should be taught, as the distinguished Austrian
+economist, Anton von Menger wrote, shortly before his death, in his
+excellent little book, _Neue Sittenlehre_, that the production of children
+is a crime when the parents are syphilitic or otherwise incompetent
+through transmissible chronic diseases. Information about venereal disease
+should not indeed be given until after puberty is well established. It is
+unnecessary and undesirable to impart medical knowledge to young boys and
+girls and to warn them against risks they are yet little liable to be
+exposed to. It is when the age of strong sexual instinct, actual or
+potential, begins that the risks, under some circumstances, of yielding to
+it, need to be clearly present to the mind. No one who reflects on the
+actual facts of life ought to doubt that it is in the highest degree
+desirable that every adolescent youth and girl ought to receive some
+elementary instruction in the general facts of venereal disease,
+tuberculosis, and alcoholism. These three "plagues of civilization" are so
+widespread, so subtle and manifold in their operation, that everyone comes
+in contact with them during life, and that everyone is liable to suffer,
+even before he is aware, perhaps hopelessly and forever, from the results
+of that contact. Vague declamation about immorality and vaguer warnings
+against it have no effect and possess no meaning, while rhetorical
+exaggeration is unnecessary. A very simple and concise statement of the
+actual facts concerning the evils that beset life is quite sufficient and
+adequate, and quite essential. To ignore this need is only possible to
+those who take a dangerously frivolous view of life.
+
+It is the young woman as much as the youth who needs this enlightenment.
+There are still some persons so ill-informed as to believe that though it
+may be necessary to instruct the youth it is best to leave his sister
+unsullied, as they consider it, by a knowledge of the facts of life. This
+is the very reverse of the truth. It is desirable indeed that all should
+be acquainted with facts so vital to humanity, even although not
+themselves personally concerned. But the girl is even more concerned than
+the youth. A man has the matter more within his own grasp, and if he so
+chooses he may avoid all the grosser risks of contact with venereal
+disease. But it is not so with the woman. Whatever her own purity, she
+cannot be sure that she may not have to guard against the possibility of
+disease in her future husband as well as in those to whom she may entrust
+her child. It is a possibility which the educated woman, so far from
+being dispensed from, is more liable to encounter than is the
+working-class woman, for venereal disease is less prevalent among the poor
+than the rich.[253] The careful physician, even when his patient is a
+minister of religion, considers it his duty to inquire if he has had
+syphilis, and the clergyman of most severely correct life recognizes the
+need of such inquiry and may perhaps smile, but seldom feels himself
+insulted. The relationship between husband and wife is even much more
+intimate and important than that between doctor and patient, and a woman
+is not dispensed from the necessity of such inquiry concerning her future
+husband by the conviction that the reply must surely be satisfactory.
+Moreover, it may well be in some cases that, if she is adequately
+enlightened, she may be the means of saving him, before it is too late,
+from the guilt of premature marriage and its fateful consequences, so
+deserving to earn his everlasting gratitude. Even if she fails in winning
+that, she still has her duty to herself and to the future race which her
+children will help to form.
+
+    In most countries there is a growing feeling in favor of the
+    enlightenment of young women equally with young men as regards
+    venereal diseases. Thus in Germany Max Flesch, in his
+    _Prostitution und Frauenkrankheiten_, considers that at the end
+    of their school days all girls should receive instruction
+    concerning the grave physical and social dangers to which women
+    are exposed in life. In France Duclaux (in his _L'Hygiene
+    Sociale_) is emphatic that women must be taught. "Already," he
+    states, "doctors who by custom have been made, in spite of
+    themselves, the husband's accomplices, will tell you of the
+    ironical gaze they sometimes encounter when they seek to lead a
+    wife astray concerning the causes of her ills. The day is
+    approaching of a revolt against the social lie which has made so
+    many victims, and you will be obliged to teach women what they
+    need to know in order to guard themselves against you." It is the
+    same in America. Reform in this field, Isidore Dyer declares,
+    must emblazon on its flag the motto, "Knowledge is Health," as
+    well of mind as of body, for women as well as for men. In a
+    discussion introduced by Denslow Lewis at the annual meeting of
+    the American Medical Association in 1901 on the limitation of
+    venereal diseases (_Medico-Legal Journal_, June and September,
+    1903), there was a fairly general agreement among all the
+    speakers that almost or quite the chief method of prevention lay
+    in education, the education of women as much as of men.
+    "Education lies at the bottom of the whole thing," declared one
+    speaker (Seneca Egbert, of Philadelphia), "and we will never gain
+    much headway until every young man, and every young woman, even
+    before she falls in love and becomes engaged, knows what these
+    diseases are, and what it will mean if she marries a man who has
+    contracted them." "Educate father and mother, and they will
+    educate their sons and daughters," exclaims Egbert Grandin, more
+    especially in regard to gonorrhoea (_Medical Record_, May 26,
+    1906); "I lay stress on the daughter because she becomes the
+    chief sufferer from inoculation, and it is her right to know that
+    she should protect herself against the gonorrhoeic as well as
+    against the alcoholic."
+
+We must fully face the fact that it is the woman herself who must be
+accounted responsible, as much as a man, for securing the right conditions
+of a marriage she proposes to enter into. In practice, at the outset, that
+responsibility may no doubt be in part delegated to parents or guardians.
+It is unreasonable that any false delicacy should be felt about this
+matter on either side. Questions of money and of income are discussed
+before marriage, and as public opinion grows sounder none will question
+the necessity of discussing the still more serious question of health,
+alike that of the prospective bridegroom and of the bride. An incalculable
+amount of disease and marital unhappiness would be prevented if before an
+engagement was finally concluded each party placed himself or herself in
+the hands of a physician and authorized him to report to the other party.
+Such a report would extend far beyond venereal disease. If its necessity
+became generally recognized it would put an end to much fraud which now
+takes place when entering the marriage bond. It constantly happens at
+present that one party or the other conceals the existence of some serious
+disease or disability which is speedily discovered after marriage,
+sometimes with a painful and alarming shock--as when a man discovers his
+wife in an epileptic fit on the wedding night--and always with the bitter
+and abiding sense of having been duped. There can be no reasonable doubt
+that such concealment is an adequate cause of divorce. Sir Thomas More
+doubtless sought to guard against such frauds when he ordained in his
+_Utopia_ that each party should before marriage be shown naked to the
+other. The quaint ceremony he describes was based on a reasonable idea,
+for it is ludicrous, if it were not often tragic in its results, that any
+person should be asked to undertake to embrace for life a person whom he
+or she has not so much as seen.
+
+It may be necessary to point out that every movement in this direction
+must be the spontaneous action of individuals directing their own lives
+according to the rules of an enlightened conscience, and cannot be
+initiated by the dictation of the community as a whole enforcing its
+commands by law. In these matters law can only come in at the end, not at
+the beginning. In the essential matters of marriage and procreation laws
+are primarily made in the brains and consciences of individuals for their
+own guidance. Unless such laws are already embodied in the actual practice
+of the great majority of the community it is useless for parliaments to
+enact them by statute. They will be ineffective or else they will be worse
+than ineffective by producing undesigned mischiefs. We can only go to the
+root of the matter by insisting on education in moral responsibility and
+instruction, in matters of fact.
+
+The question arises as to the best person to impart this instruction. As
+we have seen there can be little doubt that before puberty the parents,
+and especially the mother, are the proper instructors of their children in
+esoteric knowledge. But after puberty the case is altered. The boy and the
+girl are becoming less amenable to parental influence, there is greater
+shyness on both sides, and the parents rarely possess the more technical
+knowledge that is now required. At this stage it seems that the assistance
+of the physician, of the family doctor if he has the proper qualities for
+the task, should be called in. The plan usually adopted, and now widely
+carried out, is that of lectures setting forth the main facts concerning
+venereal diseases, their dangers, and allied topics.[254] This method is
+quite excellent. Such lectures should be delivered at intervals by medical
+lecturers at all urban, educational, manufacturing, military, and naval
+centres, wherever indeed a large number of young persons are gathered
+together. It should be the business of the central educational authority
+either to carry them out or to enforce on those controlling or employing
+young persons the duty of providing such lectures. The lectures should be
+free to all who have attained the age of sixteen.
+
+    In Germany the principle of instruction by lectures concerning
+    venereal diseases seems to have become established, at all events
+    so far as young men are concerned, and such lectures are
+    constantly becoming more usual. In 1907 the Minister of Education
+    established courses of lectures by doctors on sexual hygiene and
+    venereal diseases for higher schools and educational
+    institutions, though attendance was not made compulsory. The
+    courses now frequently given by medical men to the higher classes
+    in German secondary schools on the general principles of sexual
+    anatomy and physiology nearly always include sexual hygiene with
+    special reference to venereal diseases (see, e.g.,
+    _Sexualpaedagogik_, pp. 131-153). In Austria, also, lectures on
+    personal hygiene and the dangers of venereal disease are
+    delivered to students about to leave the gymnasium for the
+    university; and the working men's clubs have instituted regular
+    courses of lectures on the same subjects delivered by physicians.
+    In France many distinguished men, both inside and outside the
+    medical profession, are working for the cause of the instruction
+    of the young in sexual hygiene, though they have to contend
+    against a more obstinate degree of prejudice and prudery on the
+    part of the middle class than is to be found in the Germanic
+    lands. The Commission Extraparlementaire du Regime des Moeurs,
+    with the conjunction of Augagneur, Alfred Fournier, Yves Guyot,
+    Gide, and other distinguished professors, teachers, etc., has
+    lately pronounced in favor of the official establishment of
+    instruction in sexual hygiene, to be given in the highest classes
+    at the lycees, or in the earliest class at higher educational
+    colleges; such instruction, it is argued, would not only furnish
+    needed enlightenment, but also educate the sense of moral
+    responsibility. There is in France, also, an active and
+    distinguished though unofficial Societe Francaise de Prophylaxie
+    Sanitaire et Morale, which delivers public lectures on sexual
+    hygiene. Fournier, Pinard, Burlureaux and other eminent
+    physicians have written pamphlets on this subject for popular
+    distribution (see, e.g., _Le Progres Medical_ of September,
+    1907). In England and the United States very little has yet been
+    done in this direction, but in the United States, at all events,
+    opinion in favor of action is rapidly growing (see, e.g., W.A.
+    Funk, "The Venereal Peril," _Medical Record_, April 13, 1907).
+    The American Society of Sanitary and Moral Prophylaxis (based on
+    the parent society founded in Paris in 1900 by Fournier) was
+    established in New York in 1905. There are similar societies in
+    Chicago and Philadelphia. The main object is to study venereal
+    diseases and to work toward their social control. Doctors,
+    laymen, and women are members. Lectures and short talks are now
+    given under the auspices of these societies to small groups of
+    young women in social settlements, and in other ways, with
+    encouraging success; it is found to be an excellent method of
+    reaching the young women of the working classes. Both men and
+    women physicians take part in the lectures (Clement Cleveland,
+    Presidential Address on "Prophylaxis of Venereal Diseases,"
+    _Transactions American Gynecological Society_, Philadelphia, vol.
+    xxxii, 1907).
+
+    An important auxiliary method of carrying out the task of sexual
+    hygiene, and at the same time of spreading useful enlightenment,
+    is furnished by the method of giving to every syphilitic patient
+    in clinics where such cases are treated a card of instruction for
+    his guidance in hygienic matters, together with a warning of the
+    risks of marriage within four or five years after infection, and
+    in no case without medical advice. Such printed instruction, in
+    clear, simple, and incisive language, should be put into the
+    hands of every syphilitic patient as a matter of routine, and it
+    might be as well to have a corresponding card for gonorrhoeal
+    patients. This plan has already been introduced at some
+    hospitals, and it is so simple and unobjectionable a precaution
+    that it will, no doubt, be generally adopted. In some countries
+    this measure is carried out on a wider scale. Thus in Austria, as
+    the result of a movement in which several university professors
+    have taken an active part, leaflets and circulars, explaining
+    briefly the chief symptoms of venereal diseases and warning
+    against quacks and secret remedies, are circulated among young
+    laborers and factory hands, matriculating students, and scholars
+    who are leaving trade schools.
+
+    In France, where great social questions are sometimes faced with
+    a more chivalrous daring than elsewhere, the dangers of syphilis,
+    and the social position of the prostitute, have alike been dealt
+    with by distinguished novelists and dramatists. Huysmans
+    inaugurated this movement with his first novel, _Marthe_, which
+    was immediately suppressed by the police. Shortly afterwards
+    Edmond de Goncourt published _La Fille Elisa_, the first notable
+    novel of the kind by a distinguished author. It was written with
+    much reticence, and was not indeed a work of high artistic
+    value, but it boldly faced a great social problem and clearly set
+    forth the evils of the common attitude towards prostitution. It
+    was dramatized and played by Antoine at the Theatre Libre, but
+    when, in 1891, Antoine wished to produce it at the
+    Porte-Saint-Martin Theatre, the censor interfered and prohibited
+    the play on account of its "contexture generale." The Minister of
+    Education defended this decision on the ground that there was
+    much in the play that might arouse repugnance and disgust.
+    "Repugnance here is more moral than attraction," exclaimed M.
+    Paul Deroulede, and the newspapers criticized a censure which
+    permitted on the stage all the trivial indecencies which favor
+    prostitution, but cannot tolerate any attack on prostitution. In
+    more recent years the brothers Margueritte, both in novels and in
+    journalism, have largely devoted their distinguished abilities
+    and high literary skill to the courageous and enlightened
+    advocacy of many social reforms. Victor Margueritte, in his
+    _Prostituee_ (1907)--a novel which has attracted wide attention
+    and been translated into various languages--has sought to
+    represent the condition of women in our actual society, and more
+    especially the condition of the prostitute under what he regards
+    as the odious and iniquitous system still prevailing. The book is
+    a faithful picture of the real facts, thanks to the assistance
+    the author received from the Paris Prefecture of Police, and
+    largely for that reason is not altogether a satisfactory work of
+    art, but it vividly and poignantly represents the cruelty,
+    indifference, and hypocrisy so often shown by men towards women,
+    and is a book which, on that account, cannot be too widely read.
+    One of the most notable of modern plays is Brieux's _Les Avaries_
+    (1902). This distinguished dramatist, himself a medical man,
+    dedicates his play to Fournier, the greatest of syphilographers.
+    "I think with you," he writes here, "that syphilis will lose much
+    of its danger when it is possible to speak openly of an evil
+    which is neither a shame nor a punishment, and when those who
+    suffer from it, knowing what evils they may propagate, will
+    better understand their duties towards others and towards
+    themselves." The story developed in the drama is the old and
+    typical story of the young man who has spent his bachelor days in
+    what he considers a discrete and regular manner, having only had
+    two mistresses, neither of them prostitutes, but at the end of
+    this period, at a gay supper at which he bids farewell to his
+    bachelor life, he commits a fatal indiscretion and becomes
+    infected by syphilis; his marriage is approaching and he goes to
+    a distinguished specialist who warns him that treatment takes
+    time, and that marriage is impossible for several years; he finds
+    a quack, however, who undertakes to cure him in six months; at
+    the end of the time he marries; a syphilitic child is born; the
+    wife discovers the state of things and forsakes her home to
+    return to her parents; her indignant father, a deputy in
+    Parliament, arrives in Paris; the last word is with the great
+    specialist who brings finally some degree of peace and hope into
+    the family. The chief morals Brieux points out are that it is the
+    duty of the bride's parents before marriage to ascertain the
+    bridegroom's health; that the bridegroom should have a doctor's
+    certificate; that at every marriage the part of the doctors is at
+    least as important as that of the lawyers. Even if it were a less
+    accomplished work of art than it is, _Les Avaries_ is a play
+    which, from the social and educative point of view alone, all who
+    have reached the age of adolescence should be compelled to see.
+
+    Another aspect of the same problem has been presented in _Plus
+    Fort que le Mal_, a book written in dramatic form (though not as
+    a properly constituted play intended for the stage) by a
+    distinguished French medical author who here adopts the name of
+    Espy de Metz. The author (who is not, however, pleading _pro
+    domo_) calls for a more sympathetic attitude towards those who
+    suffer from syphilis, and though he writes with much less
+    dramatic skill than Brieux, and scarcely presents his moral in so
+    unequivocal a form, his work is a notable contribution to the
+    dramatic literature of syphilis.
+
+    It will probably be some time before these questions, poignant as
+    they are from the dramatic point of view, and vitally important
+    from the social point of view, are introduced on the English or
+    the American stage. It is a remarkable fact that, notwithstanding
+    the Puritanic elements which still exist in Anglo-Saxon thought
+    and feeling generally, the Puritanic aspect of life has never
+    received embodiment in the English or American drama. On the
+    English stage it is never permitted to hint at the tragic side of
+    wantonness; vice must always be made seductive, even though a
+    _deus ex machina_ causes it to collapse at the end of the
+    performance. As Mr. Bernard Shaw has said, the English theatrical
+    method by no means banishes vice; it merely consents that it
+    shall be made attractive; its charms are advertised and its
+    penalties suppressed. "Now, it is futile to plead that the stage
+    is not the proper place for the representation and discussion of
+    illegal operations, incest, and venereal disease. If the stage is
+    the proper place for the exhibition and discussion of seduction,
+    adultery, promiscuity, and prostitution, it must be thrown open
+    to all the consequences of these things, or it will demoralize
+    the nation."
+
+    The impulse to insist that vice shall always be made attractive
+    is not really, notwithstanding appearances, a vicious impulse. It
+    arises from a mental confusion, a common psychic tendency, which
+    is by no means confined to Anglo-Saxon lands, and is even more
+    well marked among the better educated in the merely literary
+    sense, than among the worse educated people. The aesthetic is
+    confused with the moral, and what arouses disgust is thus
+    regarded as immoral. In France the novels of Zola, the most
+    pedestrianally moralistic of writers, were for a long time
+    supposed to be immoral because they were often disgusting. The
+    same feeling is still more widespread in England. If a
+    prostitute is brought on the stage, and she is pretty,
+    well-dressed, seductive, she may gaily sail through the play and
+    every one is satisfied. But if she were not particularly pretty,
+    well-dressed, or seductive, if it were made plain that she was
+    diseased and was reckless in infecting others with that disease,
+    if it were hinted that she could on occasion be foul-mouthed, if,
+    in short, a picture were shown from life--then we should hear
+    that the unfortunate dramatist had committed something that was
+    "disgusting" and "immoral." Disgusting it might be, but, on that
+    very account, it would be moral. There is a distinction here that
+    the psychologist cannot too often point out or the moralist too
+    often emphasize.
+
+It is not for the physician to complicate and confuse his own task as
+teacher by mixing it up with considerations which belong to the spiritual
+sphere. But in carrying out impartially his own special work of
+enlightenment he will always do well to remember that there is in the
+adolescent mind, as it has been necessary to point out in a previous
+chapter, a spontaneous force working on the side of sexual hygiene. Those
+who believe that the adolescent mind is merely bent on sensual indulgence
+are not less false and mischievous in their influence than are those who
+think it possible and desirable for adolescents to be preserved in sheer
+sexual ignorance. However concealed, suppressed, or deformed--usually by
+the misplaced and premature zeal of foolish parents and teachers--there
+arise at puberty ideal impulses which, even though they may be rooted in
+sex, yet in their scope transcend sex. These are capable of becoming far
+more potent guides of the physical sex impulse than are merely material or
+even hygienic considerations.
+
+It is time to summarize and conclude this discussion of the prevention of
+venereal disease, which, though it may seem to the superficial observer to
+be merely a medical and sanitary question outside the psychologist's
+sphere, is yet seen on closer view to be intimately related even to the
+most spiritual conception of the sexual relationships. Not only are
+venereal diseases the foes to the finer development of the race, but we
+cannot attain to any wholesome and beautiful vision of the relationships
+of sex so long as such relationships are liable at every moment to be
+corrupted and undermined at their source. We cannot yet precisely measure
+the interval which must elapse before, so far as Europe at least is
+concerned, syphilis and gonorrhoea are sent to that limbo of monstrous old
+dead diseases to which plague and leprosy have gone and smallpox is
+already drawing near. But society is beginning to realize that into this
+field also must be brought the weapons of light and air, the sword and the
+breastplate with which all diseases can alone be attacked. As we have
+seen, there are four methods by which in the more enlightened countries
+venereal disease is now beginning to be combated.[255] (1) By proclaiming
+openly that the venereal diseases are diseases like any other disease,
+although more subtle and terrible than most, which may attack anyone from
+the unborn baby to its grandmother, and that they are not, more than other
+diseases, the shameful penalties of sin, from which relief is only to be
+sought, if at all, by stealth, but human calamities; (2) by adopting
+methods of securing official information concerning the extent,
+distribution, and variation of venereal disease, through the already
+recognized plan of notification and otherwise, and by providing such
+facilities for treatment, especially for free treatment, as may be found
+necessary; (3) by training the individual sense of moral responsibility,
+so that every member of the community may realize that to inflict a
+serious disease on another person, even only as a result of reckless
+negligence, is a more serious offence than if he or she had used the knife
+or the gun or poison as the method of attack, and that it is necessary to
+introduce special legal provision in every country to assist the recovery
+of damages for such injuries and to inflict penalties by loss of liberty
+or otherwise; (4) by the spread of hygienic knowledge, so that all
+adolescents, youths and girls alike, may be furnished at the outset of
+adult life with an equipment of information which will assist them to
+avoid the grosser risks of contamination and enable them to recognize and
+avoid danger at the earliest stages.
+
+A few years ago, when no method of combating venereal disease was known
+except that system of police regulation which is now in its decadence, it
+would have been impossible to bring forward such considerations as these;
+they would have seemed Utopian. To-day they are not only recognizable as
+practical, but they are being actually put into practice, although, it is
+true, with very varying energy and insight in different countries. Yet it
+is certain that in the competition of nationalities, as Max von Niessen
+has well said, "that country will best take a leading place in the march
+of civilization which has the foresight and courage to introduce and carry
+through those practical movements of sexual hygiene which have so wide and
+significant a bearing on its own future, and that of the human race
+generally."[256]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[220] It is probable that Schopenhauer felt a more than merely speculative
+interest in this matter. Bloch has shown good reason for believing that
+Schopenhauer himself contracted syphilis in 1813, and that this was a
+factor in constituting his conception of the world and in confirming his
+constitutional pessimism (_Medizinische Klinik_, Nos. 25 and 26, 1906).
+
+[221] Havelburg, in Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 186-189.
+
+[222] This is the very definite opinion of Lowndes after an experience of
+fifty-four years in the treatment of venereal diseases in Liverpool
+(_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 9, 1907, p. 334). It is further indicated
+by the fact (if it is a real fact) that since 1876 there has been a
+decline of both the infantile and general mortality from syphilis in
+England.
+
+[223] "There is no doubt whatever that syphilis is on the increase in
+London, judging from hospital work alone," says Pernet (_British Medical
+Journal_, March 30, 1907). Syphilis was evidently very prevalent, however,
+a century or two ago, and there is no ground for asserting positively that
+it is more prevalent to-day.
+
+[224] See, e.g., A. Neisser, _Die experimentelle Syphilisforschung_, 1906,
+and E. Hoffmann (who was associated with Schaudinn's discovery), _Die
+Aetiologie der Syphilis_, 1906; D'Arcy Power, _A System of Syphilis_,
+1908, etc.; F.W. Mott, "Pathology of Syphilis in the Light of Modern
+Research," _British Medical Journal_, February 20, 1909; also, _Archives
+of Neurology and Psychiatry_, vol. iv, 1909.
+
+[225] There is some difference of opinion on this point, and though it
+seems probable that early and thorough treatment usually cures the disease
+in a few years and renders further complications highly improbable, it is
+not possible, even under the most favorable circumstances, to speak with
+absolute certainty as to the future.
+
+[226] "That syphilis has been, and is, one of the chief causes of physical
+degeneration in England cannot be denied, and it is a fact that is
+acknowledged on all sides," writes Lieutenant-Colonel Lambkin, the medical
+officer in command of the London Military Hospital for Venereal Diseases.
+"To grapple with the treatment of syphilis among the civil population of
+England ought to be the chief object of those interested in that most
+burning question, the physical degeneration of our race" (_British Medical
+Journal_, August 19, 1905).
+
+[227] F.W. Mott, "Syphilis as a Cause of Insanity," _British Medical
+Journal_, October 18, 1902.
+
+[228] It can seldom be proved in more than eighty per cent. of cases, but
+in twenty per cent. of old syphilitic cases it is commonly impossible to
+find traces of the disease or to obtain a history of it. Crocker found
+that it was only in eighty per cent. of cases of absolutely certain
+syphilitic skin diseases that he could obtain a history of syphilitic
+infection, and Mott found exactly the same percentage in absolutely
+certain syphilitic lesions of the brain; Mott believes (e.g., "Syphilis in
+Relation to the Nervous System," _British Medical Journal_, January 4,
+1908) that syphilis is the essential cause of general paralysis and tabes.
+
+[229] Audry. _La Semaine Medicale_, June 26, 1907. When Europeans carry
+syphilis to lands inhabited by people of lower race, the results are often
+very much worse than this. Thus Lambkin, as a result of a special mission
+to investigate syphilis in Uganda, found that in some districts as many as
+ninety per cent, of the people suffer from syphilis, and fifty to sixty
+per cent, of the infant mortality is due to this cause. These people are
+Baganda, a highly intelligent, powerful, and well-organized tribe before
+they received, in the gift of syphilis, the full benefit of civilization
+and Christianity, which (Lambkin points out) has been largely the cause of
+the spread of the disease by breaking down social customs and emancipating
+the women. Christianity is powerful enough to break down the old morality,
+but not powerful enough to build up a new morality (_British Medical
+Journal_, October 3, 1908, p. 1037).
+
+[230] Even within the limits of the English army it is found In India
+(H.C. French, _Syphilis in the Army_, 1907) that venereal disease is ten
+times more frequent among British troops than among Native troops. Outside
+of national armies it is found, by admission to hospital and death rates,
+that the United States stands far away at the head for frequency of
+venereal disease, being followed by Great Britain, then France and
+Austria-Hungary, Russia, and Germany.
+
+[231] There is no dispute concerning the antiquity of gonorrhoea in the
+Old World as there is regarding syphilis. The disease was certainly known
+at a very remote period. Even Esarhaddon, the famous King of Assyria,
+referred to in the Old Testament, was treated by the priests for a
+disorder which, as described in the cuneiform documents of the time, could
+only have been gonorrhoea. The disease was also well known to the ancient
+Egyptians, and evidently common, for they recorded many prescriptions for
+its treatment (Oefele, "Gonorrhoe 1350 vor Christi Geburt," _Monatshefte
+fuer Praktische Dermatologie_, 1899, p. 260).
+
+[232] Cf. Memorandum by Sydney Stephenson, Report of Ophthalmia Neonatorum
+Committee, _British Medical Journal_, May 8, 1909.
+
+[233] The extent of these evils is set forth, e.g., in a comprehensive
+essay by Taylor, _American Journal Obstetrics_, January, 1908.
+
+[234] Neisser brings together figures bearing on the prevalence of
+gonorrhoea in Germany, Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, pp. 486-492.
+
+[235] _Lancet_, September 23, 1882. As regards women, Dr. Frances Ivens
+(_British Medical Journal_, June 19, 1909) has found at Liverpool that 14
+per cent. of gynaecological cases revealed the presence of gonorrhoea. They
+were mostly poor respectable married women. This is probably a high
+proportion, as Liverpool is a busy seaport, but it is less than Saenger's
+estimate of 18 per cent.
+
+[236] E.H. Grandin, _Medical Record_, May 26, 1906.
+
+[237] E.W. Cushing, "Sociological Aspects of Gonorrhoea," _Transactions
+American Gynecological Society_, vol. xxii, 1897.
+
+[238] It is only in very small communities ruled by an autocratic power
+with absolute authority to control conditions and to examine persons of
+both sexes that reglementation becomes in any degree effectual. This is
+well shown by Dr. W.E. Harwood, who describes the system he organized in
+the mines of the Minnesota Iron Company (_Journal American Medical
+Association_, December 22, 1906). The women in the brothels on the
+company's estate were of the lowest class, and disease was very prevalent.
+Careful examination of the women was established, and control of the men,
+who, immediately on becoming diseased, were bound to declare by what woman
+they had been infected. The woman was responsible for the medical bill of
+the man she infected, and even for his board, if incapacitated, and the
+women were compelled to maintain a fund for their own hospital expenses
+when required. In this way venereal disease, though not entirely uprooted,
+was very greatly diminished.
+
+[239] A clear and comprehensive statement of the present position of the
+question is given by Iwan Bloch, _Das Sexualleben Unserer Zeit_, Chs.
+XIII-XV. How ineffectual the system of police regulation is, even in
+Germany, where police interference is tolerated to so marked a degree, may
+be illustrated by the case of Mannheim. Here the regulation of
+prostitution is very severe and thorough, yet a careful inquiry in 1905
+among the doctors of Mannheim (ninety-two of whom sent in detailed
+returns) showed that of six hundred cases of venereal disease in men,
+nearly half had been contracted from prostitutes. About half the remaining
+cases (nearly a quarter of the whole) were due to waitresses and
+bar-maids; then followed servant-girls (Lion and Loeb, in
+_Sexualpaedagogik_, the Proceedings of the Third German Congress for
+Combating Venereal Diseases, 1907, p. 295).
+
+[240] A sixth less numerous class might be added of the young girls, often
+no more than children, who have been practically raped by men who believe
+that intercourse with a virgin is a cure for obstinate venereal disease.
+In America this belief is frequently held by Italians, Chinese, negroes,
+etc. W. Travis Gibb, Examining Physician of the New York Society for the
+Prevention of Cruelty to Children, has examined over 900 raped children
+(only a small proportion, he states, of the cases actually occurring), and
+finds that thirteen per cent have venereal diseases. A fairly large
+proportion of these cases, among girls from twelve to sixteen, are, he
+states, willing victims. Dr. Flora Pollack, also, of the Johns Hopkins
+Hospital Dispensary, estimates that in Baltimore alone from 800 to 1,000
+children between the ages of one and fifteen are venereally infected every
+year. The largest number, she finds, is at the age of six, and the chief
+cause appears to be, not lust, but superstition.
+
+[241] For a discussion of inherited syphilis, see, e.g., Clement Lucas,
+_Lancet_, February 1, 1908.
+
+[242] Much harm has been done in some countries by the foolish and
+mischievous practice of friendly societies and sick clubs of ignoring
+venereal diseases, and not according free medical aid or sick pay to those
+members who suffer from them. This practice prevailed, for instance, in
+Vienna until 1907, when a more humane and enlightened policy was
+inaugurated, venereal diseases being placed on the same level as other
+diseases.
+
+[243] Active measures against venereal disease were introduced in Sweden
+early in the last century, and compulsory and gratuitous treatment
+established. Compulsory notification was introduced many years ago in
+Norway, and by 1907 there was a great diminution in the prevalence of
+venereal diseases; there is compulsory treatment.
+
+[244] See, e.g., Morrow, _Social Diseases and Marriage_, Ch. XXXVII.
+
+[245] A committee of the Medical Society of New York, appointed in 1902 to
+consider this question, reported in favor of notification without giving
+names and addresses, and Dr. C.R. Drysdale, who took an active part in the
+Brussels International Conference of 1899, advocated a similar plan in
+England, _British Medical Journal_, February 3, 1900.
+
+[246] Thus in Munich, in 1908, a man who had given gonorrhoea to a
+servant-girl was sent to prison for ten months on this ground. The state
+of German opinion to-day on this subject is summarized by Bloch,
+_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, p. 424.
+
+[247] A. Despres, _La Prostitution a Paris_, p. 191.
+
+[248] F. Aurientis, _Etude Medico-legale sur la jurisprudence actuelle a
+propos de la Transmission des Maladies Veneriennes_, These de Paris, 1906.
+
+[249] In England at present "a husband knowingly and wilfully infecting
+his wife with the venereal disease, cannot be convicted criminally, either
+under a charge of assault or of inflicting grievous bodily harm" (N.
+Geary, _The Law of Marriage_, p. 479). This was decided in 1888 in the
+case of _R. v. Clarence_ by nine judges to four judges in the Court for
+the Consideration of Crown Cases Reserved.
+
+[250] Modern democratic sentiment is opposed to the sequestration of a
+prostitute merely because she is diseased. But there can be no reasonable
+doubt whatever that if a diseased prostitute infects another person, and
+is unable to pay the very heavy damages which should be demanded in such a
+case, she ought to be secluded and subjected to treatment. That is
+necessary in the interests of the community. But it is also necessary, to
+avoid placing a premium on the commission of an offence which would ensure
+gratuitous treatment and provision for a prostitute without means, that
+she should be furnished with facilities for treatment in any case.
+
+[251] It has, however, been decided by the Paris Court of Appeal that for
+a husband to marry when knowingly suffering from a venereal disease and to
+communicate that disease to his wife is a sufficient cause for divorce
+(_Semaine Medicale_, May, 1896).
+
+[252] The large volume, entitled _Sexualpaedagogik_, containing the
+Proceedings of the Third of these Congresses, almost ignores the special
+subject of venereal disease, and is devoted to the questions involved by
+the general sexual education of the young, which, as many of the speakers
+maintained, must begin with the child at his mother's knee.
+
+[253] "Workmen, soldiers, and so on," Neisser remarks (Senator and
+Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, p. 485),
+"can more easily find non-prostitute girls of their own class willing to
+enter into amorous relations with them which result in sexual intercourse,
+and they are therefore less exposed to the danger of infection than those
+men who have recourse almost exclusively to prostitutes" (see also Bloch,
+_Sexualleben unserer Zeit_, p. 437).
+
+[254] The character and extent of such lectures are fully discussed in the
+Proceedings of the Third Congress of the German Society for Combating
+Venereal Diseases, _Sexualpaedagogik_, 1907.
+
+[255] I leave out of account, as beyond the scope of the present work, the
+auxiliary aids to the suppression of venereal diseases furnished by the
+promising new methods, only now beginning to be understood, of treating or
+even aborting such diseases (see, e.g., Metchnikoff, _The New Hygiene_,
+1906).
+
+[256] Max von Niessen, "Herr Doktor, darf ich heiraten?" _Mutterschutz_,
+1906, p. 352.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SEXUAL MORALITY.
+
+Prostitution in Relation to Our Marriage System--Marriage and
+Morality--The Definition of the Term "Morality"--Theoretical Morality--Its
+Division Into Traditional Morality and Ideal Morality--Practical
+Morality--Practical Morality Based on Custom--The Only Subject of
+Scientific Ethics--The Reaction Between Theoretical and Practical
+Morality--Sexual Morality in the Past an Application of Economic
+Morality--The Combined Rigidity and Laxity of This Morality--The
+Growth of a Specific Sexual Morality and the Evolution of Moral
+Ideals--Manifestations of Sexual Morality--Disregard of the Forms of
+Marriage--Trial Marriage--Marriage After Conception of Child--Phenomena in
+Germany, Anglo-Saxon Countries, Russia, etc.--The Status of Woman--The
+Historical Tendency Favoring Moral Equality of Women with Men--The Theory
+of the Matriarchate--Mother-Descent--Women in Babylonia--Egypt--Rome--The
+Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries--The Historical Tendency
+Favoring Moral Inequality of Woman--The Ambiguous Influence of
+Christianity--Influence of Teutonic Custom and Feudalism--Chivalry--Woman
+in England--The Sale of Wives--The Vanishing Subjection of
+Woman--Inaptitude of the Modern Man to Domineer--The Growth of Moral
+Responsibility in Women--The Concomitant Development of Economic
+Independence--The Increase of Women Who Work--Invasion of the Modern
+Industrial Field by Women--In How Far This Is Socially Justifiable--The
+Sexual Responsibility of Women and Its Consequences--The Alleged Moral
+Inferiority of Women--The "Self-Sacrifice" of Women--Society Not Concerned
+with Sexual Relationships--Procreation the Sole Sexual Concern of the
+State--The Supreme Importance of Maternity.
+
+
+It has been necessary to deal fully with the phenomena of prostitution
+because, however aloof we may personally choose to hold ourselves from
+those phenomena, they really bring us to the heart of the sexual question
+in so far as it constitutes a social problem. If we look at prostitution
+from the outside, as an objective phenomenon, as a question of social
+dynamics, it is seen to be not a merely accidental and eliminable incident
+of our present marriage system but an integral part of it, without which
+it would fall to pieces. This will probably be fairly clear to all who
+have followed the preceding exposition of prostitutional phenomena. There
+is, however, more than this to be said. Not only is prostitution to-day,
+as it has been for more than two thousand years, the buttress of our
+marriage system, but if we look at marriage, not from the outside as a
+formal institution, but from the inside with relation to the motives that
+constitute it, we find that marriage in a large proportion of cases is
+itself in certain respects a form of prostitution. This has been
+emphasized so often and from so many widely different standpoints that it
+may seem hardly necessary to labor the point here. But the point is one of
+extreme importance in relation to the question of sexual morality. Our
+social conditions are unfavorable to the development of a high moral
+feeling in woman. The difference between the woman who sells herself in
+prostitution and the woman who sells herself in marriage, according to the
+saying of Marro already quoted, "is only a difference in price and
+duration of the contract." Or, as Forel puts it, marriage is "a more
+fashionable form of prostitution," that is to say, a mode of obtaining, or
+disposing of, for monetary considerations, a sexual commodity. Marriage
+is, indeed, not merely a more fashionable form of prostitution, it is a
+form sanctified by law and religion, and the question of morality is not
+allowed to intrude. Morality may be outraged with impunity provided that
+law and religion have been invoked. The essential principle of
+prostitution is thus legalized and sanctified among us. That is why it is
+so difficult to arouse any serious indignation, or to maintain any
+reasoned objections, against our prostitution considered by itself. The
+most plausible ground is that of those[257] who, bringing marriage down to
+the level of prostitution, maintain that the prostitute is a "blackleg"
+who is accepting less than the "market rate of wages," i.e., marriage, for
+the sexual services she renders. But even this low ground is quite unsafe.
+The prostitute is really paid extremely well considering how little she
+gives in return; the wife is really paid extremely badly considering how
+much she often gives, and how much she necessarily gives up. For the sake
+of the advantage of economic dependence on her husband, she must give up,
+as Ellen Key observes, those rights over her children, her property, her
+work, and her own person which she enjoys as an unmarried woman, even, it
+may be added, as a prostitute. The prostitute never signs away the right
+over her own person, as the wife is compelled to do; the prostitute,
+unlike the wife, retains her freedom and her personal rights, although
+these may not often be of much worth. It is the wife rather than the
+prostitute who is the "blackleg."
+
+    It is by no means only during recent years that our marriage
+    system has been arraigned before the bar of morals. Forty years
+    ago James Hinton exhausted the vocabulary of denunciation in
+    describing the immorality and selfish licentiousness which our
+    marriage system covers with the cloak of legality and sanctity.
+    "There is an unsoundness in our marriage relations," Hinton
+    wrote. "Not only practically are they dreadful, but they do not
+    answer to feelings and convictions far too widespread to be
+    wisely ignored. Take the case of women of marked eminence
+    consenting to be a married man's mistress; of pure and simple
+    girls saying they cannot see why they should have a marriage by
+    law; of a lady saying that if she were in love she would not have
+    any legal tie; of its being necessary--or thought so by good and
+    wise men--to keep one sex in bitter and often fatal ignorance.
+    These things (and how many more) show some deep unsoundness in
+    the marriage relations. This must be probed and searched to the
+    bottom."
+
+    At an earlier date, in 1847, Gross-Hoffinger, in his _Die
+    Schicksale der Frauen und die Prostitution_--a remarkable book
+    which Bloch, with little exaggeration, describes as possessing an
+    epoch-marking significance--vigorously showed that the problem of
+    prostitution is in reality the problem of marriage, and that we
+    can only reform away prostitution by reforming marriage, regarded
+    as a compulsory institution resting on an antiquated economic
+    basis. Gross-Hoffinger was a pioneering precursor of Ellen Key.
+
+    More than a century and a half earlier a man of very different
+    type scathingly analyzed the morality of his time, with a brutal
+    frankness, indeed, that seemed to his contemporaries a
+    revoltingly cynical attitude towards their sacred institutions,
+    and they felt that nothing was left to them save to burn his
+    books. Describing modern marriage in his _Fable of the Bees_
+    (1714, p. 64), and what that marriage might legally cover,
+    Mandeville wrote: "The fine gentleman I spoke of need not
+    practice any greater self-denial than the savage, and the latter
+    acted more according to the laws of nature and sincerity than the
+    first. The man that gratifies his appetite after the manner the
+    custom of the country allows of, has no censure to fear. If he
+    is hotter than goats or bulls, as soon as the ceremony is over,
+    let him sate and fatigue himself with joy and ecstasies of
+    pleasure, raise and indulge his appetite by turns, as
+    extravagantly as his strength and manhood will give him leave. He
+    may, with safety, laugh at the wise men that should reprove him:
+    all the women and above nine in ten of the men are of his side;
+    nay, he has the liberty of valuing himself upon the fury of his
+    unbridled passions, and the more he wallows in lust and strains
+    every faculty to be abandonedly voluptuous, the sooner he shall
+    have the good-will and gain the affection of the women, not the
+    young, vain, and lascivious only, but the prudent, grave, and
+    most sober matrons."
+
+    Thus the charge brought against our marriage system from the
+    point of view of morality is that it subordinates the sexual
+    relationship to considerations of money and of lust. That is
+    precisely the essence of prostitution.
+
+The only legitimately moral end of marriage--whether we regard it from the
+wider biological standpoint or from the narrower standpoint of human
+society--is as a sexual selection, effected in accordance with the laws of
+sexual selection, and having as its direct object a united life of
+complete mutual love and as its indirect object the procreation of the
+race. Unless procreation forms part of the object of marriage, society has
+nothing whatever to do with it and has no right to make its voice heard.
+But if procreation is one of the ends of marriage, then it is imperative
+from the biological and social points of view that no influences outside
+the proper natural influence of sexual selection should be permitted to
+affect the choice of conjugal partners, for in so far as wholesome sexual
+selection is interfered with the offspring is likely to be injured and the
+interests of the race affected.
+
+    It must, of course, be clearly understood that the idea of
+    marriage as a form of sexual union based not on biological but on
+    economic considerations, is very ancient, and is sometimes found
+    in societies that are almost primitive. Whenever, however,
+    marriage on a purely property basis, and without due regard to
+    sexual selection, has occurred among comparatively primitive and
+    vigorous peoples, it has been largely deprived of its evil
+    results by the recognition of its merely economic character, and
+    by the absence of any desire to suppress, even nominally, other
+    sexual relationships on a more natural basis which were outside
+    this artificial form of marriage. Polygamy especially tended to
+    conciliate unions on an economic basis with unions on a natural
+    sexual basis. Our modern marriage system has, however, acquired
+    an artificial rigidity which excludes the possibility of this
+    natural safeguard and compensation. Whatever its real moral
+    content may be, a modern marriage is always "legal" and "sacred."
+    We are indeed so accustomed to economic forms of marriage that,
+    as Sidgwick truly observed (_Method of Ethics_, Bk. ii, Ch. XI),
+    when they are spoken of as "legalized prostitution" it constantly
+    happens that "the phrase is felt to be extravagant and
+    paradoxical."
+
+A man who marries for money or for ambition is departing from the
+biological and moral ends of marriage. A woman who sells herself for life
+is morally on the same level as one who sells herself for a night. The
+fact that the payment seems larger, that in return for rendering certain
+domestic services and certain personal complacencies--services and
+complacencies in which she may be quite inexpert--she will secure an
+almshouse in which she will be fed and clothed and sheltered for life
+makes no difference in the moral aspect of her case. The moral
+responsibility is, it need scarcely be said, at least as much the man's as
+the woman's. It is largely due to the ignorance and even the indifference
+of men, who often know little or nothing of the nature of women and the
+art of love. The unintelligence with which even men who might, one thinks,
+be not without experience, select as a mate, a woman who, however fine and
+charming she may be, possesses none of the qualities which her wooer
+really craves, is a perpetual marvel. To refrain from testing and proving
+the temper and quality of the woman he desires for a mate is no doubt an
+amiable trait of humility on a man's part. But it is certain that a man
+should never be content with less than the best of what a woman's soul and
+body have to give, however unworthy he may feel himself of such a
+possession. This demand, it must be remarked, is in the highest interests
+of the woman herself. A woman can offer to a man what is a part at all
+events of the secret of the universe. The woman degrades herself who sinks
+to the level of a candidate for an asylum for the destitute.
+
+Our discussion of the psychic facts of sex has thus, it will be seen,
+brought us up to the question of morality. Over and over again, in
+setting forth the phenomena of prostitution, it has been necessary to use
+the word "moral." That word, however, is vague and even, it may be,
+misleading because it has several senses. So far, it has been left to the
+intelligent reader, as he will not fail to perceive, to decide from the
+context in what sense the word was used. But at the present point, before
+we proceed to discuss sexual psychology in relation to marriage, it is
+necessary, in order to avoid ambiguity, to remind the reader what
+precisely are the chief main senses in which the word "morality" is
+commonly used.
+
+The morality with which ethical treatises are concerned is _theoretical
+morality_. It is concerned with what people "ought"--or what is "right"
+for them--to do. Socrates in the Platonic dialogues was concerned with
+such theoretical morality: what "ought" people to seek in their actions?
+The great bulk of ethical literature, until recent times one may say the
+whole of it, is concerned with that question. Such theoretical morality
+is, as Sidgwick said, a study rather than a science, for science can only
+be based on what is, not on what ought to be.
+
+Even within the sphere of theoretical morality there are two very
+different kinds of morality, so different indeed that sometimes each
+regards the other as even inimical or at best only by courtesy, with yet a
+shade of contempt, "moral." These two kinds of theoretical morality are
+_traditional morality_ and _ideal morality_. Traditional morality is
+founded on the long established practices of a community and possesses the
+stability of all theoretical ideas based in the past social life and
+surrounding every individual born into the community from his earliest
+years. It becomes the voice of conscience which speaks automatically in
+favor of all the rules that are thus firmly fixed, even when the
+individual himself no longer accepts them. Many persons, for example, who
+were brought up in childhood to the Puritanical observance of Sunday, will
+recall how, long after they had ceased to believe that such observances
+were "right," they yet in the violation of them heard the protest of the
+automatically aroused voice of "conscience," that is to say the expression
+within the individual of customary rules which have indeed now ceased to
+be his own but were those of the community in which he was brought up.
+
+Ideal morality, on the other hand, refers not to the past of the community
+but to its future. It is based not on the old social actions that are
+becoming antiquated, and perhaps even anti-social in their tendency, but
+on new social actions that are as yet only practiced by a small though
+growing minority of the community. Nietzsche in modern times has been a
+conspicuous champion of ideal morality, the heroic morality of the
+pioneer, of the individual of the coming community, against traditional
+morality, or, as he called it, herd-morality, the morality of the crowd.
+These two moralities are necessarily opposed to each other, but, we have
+to remember, they are both equally sound and equally indispensable, not
+only to those who accept them but to the community which they both
+contribute to hold in vital theoretical balance. We have seen them both,
+for instance, applied to the question of prostitution; traditional
+morality defends prostitution, not for its own sake, but for the sake of
+the marriage system which it regards as sufficiently precious to be worth
+a sacrifice, while ideal morality refuses to accept the necessity of
+prostitution, and looks forward to progressive changes in the marriage
+system which will modify and diminish prostitution.
+
+But altogether outside theoretical morality, or the question of what
+people "ought" to do, there remains _practical morality_, or the question
+of what, as a matter of fact, people actually do. This is the really
+fundamental and essential morality. Latin _mores_ and Greek aethos both
+refer to _custom_, to the things that are, and not to the things that
+"ought" to be, except in the indirect and secondary sense that whatever
+the members of the community, in the mass, actually do, is the thing that
+they feel they ought to do. In the first place, however, a moral act was
+not done because it was felt that it ought to be done, but for reasons of
+a much deeper and more instinctive character.[258] It was not first done
+because it was felt it ought to be done, but it was felt it "ought" to be
+done because it had actually become the custom to do it.
+
+The actions of a community are determined by the vital needs of a
+community under the special circumstances of its culture, time, and land.
+When it is the general custom for children to kill their aged parents that
+custom is always found to be the best not only for the community but even
+for the old people themselves, who desire it; the action is both
+practically moral and theoretically moral.[259] And when, as among
+ourselves, the aged are kept alive, that action is also both practically
+and theoretically moral; it is in no wise dependent on any law or rule
+opposed to the taking of life, for we glory in the taking of life under
+the patriotic name of "war," and are fairly indifferent to it when
+involved by the demands of our industrial system; but the killing of the
+aged no longer subserves any social need and their preservation ministers
+to our civilized emotional needs. The killing of a man is indeed
+notoriously an act which differs widely in its moral value at different
+periods and in different countries. It was quite moral in England two
+centuries ago and less, to kill a man for trifling offences against
+property, for such punishment commended itself as desirable to the general
+sense of the educated community. To-day it would be regarded as highly
+immoral. We are even yet only beginning to doubt the morality of
+condemning to death and imprisoning for life an unmarried girl who
+destroyed her infant at birth, solely actuated, against all her natural
+impulses, by the primitive instinct of self-defense. It cannot be said
+that we have yet begun to doubt the morality of killing men in war, though
+we no longer approve of killing women and children, or even non-combatants
+generally. Every age or land has its own morality.
+
+"Custom, in the strict sense of the word," well says Westermarck,
+"involves a moral rule.... Society is the school in which men learn to
+distinguish between right and wrong. The headmaster is custom."[260]
+Custom is not only the basis of morality but also of law. "Custom is
+law."[261] The field of theoretical morality has been found so fascinating
+a playground for clever philosophers that there has sometimes been a
+danger of forgetting that, after all, it is not theoretical morality but
+practical morality, the question of what men in the mass of a community
+actually do, which constitutes the real stuff of morals.[262] If we define
+more precisely what we mean by morals, on the practical side, we may say
+that it is constituted by those customs which the great majority of the
+members of a community regard as conducive to the welfare of the community
+at some particular time and place. It is for this reason--i.e., because it
+is a question of what is and not of merely what some think ought to
+be--that practical morals form the proper subject of science. "If the word
+'ethics' is to be used as the name for a science," Westermarck says, "the
+object of that science can only be to study the moral consciousness as a
+fact."[263]
+
+    Lecky's _History of European Morals_ is a study in practical
+    rather than in theoretical morals. Dr. Westermarck's great work,
+    _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, is a more modern
+    example of the objectively scientific discussion of morals,
+    although this is not perhaps clearly brought out by the title. It
+    is essentially a description of the actual historical facts of
+    what has been, and not of what "ought" to be. Mr. L.T. Hobhouse's
+    _Morals in Evolution_, published almost at the same time, is
+    similarly a work which, while professedly dealing with ideas,
+    i.e., with rules and regulations, and indeed disclaiming the task
+    of being "the history of conduct," yet limits itself to those
+    rules which are "in fact, the normal conduct of the average man"
+    (vol. i, p. 26). In other words, it is essentially a history of
+    practical morality, and not of theoretical morality. One of the
+    most subtle and suggestive of living thinkers, M. Jules de
+    Gaultier, in several of his books, and notably in _La Dependance
+    de la Morale et l'Independance des Moeurs_ (1907), has analyzed
+    the conception of morals in a somewhat similar sense. "Phenomena
+    relative to conduct," as he puts it (op. cit., p. 58), "are given
+    in experience like other phenomena, so that morality, or the
+    totality of the laws which at any given moment of historic
+    evolution are applied to human practice, is dependent on
+    customs." I may also refer to the masterly exposition of this
+    aspect of morality in Levy-Bruhl's _La Morale et la Science des
+    Moeurs_ (there is an English translation).
+
+Practical morality is thus the solid natural fact which forms the
+biological basis of theoretical morality, whether traditional or ideal.
+The excessive fear, so widespread among us, lest we should injure morality
+is misplaced. We cannot hurt morals though we can hurt ourselves. Morals
+is based on nature and can at the most only be modified. As Crawley
+rightly insists,[264] even the categorical imperatives of our moral
+traditions, so far from being, as is often popularly supposed, attempts to
+suppress Nature, arise in the desire to assist Nature; they are simply an
+attempt at the rigid formulation of natural impulses. The evil of them
+only lies in the fact that, like all things that become rigid and dead,
+they tend to persist beyond the period when they were a beneficial vital
+reaction to the environment. They thus provoke new forms of ideal
+morality; and practical morals develops new structures, in accordance with
+new vital relationships, to replace older and desiccated traditions.
+
+There is clearly an intimate relationship between theoretical morals and
+practical morals or morality proper. For not only is theoretical morality
+the outcome in consciousness of realized practices embodied in the
+general life of the community, but, having thus become conscious, it
+reacts on those practices and tends to support them or, by its own
+spontaneous growth, to modify them. This action is diverse, according as
+we are dealing with one or the other of the strongly marked divisions of
+theoretical morality: traditional and posterior morality, retarding the
+vital growth of moral practice, or ideal and anterior morality,
+stimulating the vital growth of moral practice. Practical morality, or
+morals proper, may be said to stand between these two divisions of
+theoretical morality. Practice is perpetually following after anterior
+theoretical morality, in so far of course as ideal morality really is
+anterior and not, as so often happens, astray up a blind alley. Posterior
+or traditional morality always follows after practice. The result is that
+while the actual morality, in practice at any time or place, is always
+closely related to theoretical morality, it can never exactly correspond
+to either of its forms. It always fails to catch up with ideal morality;
+it is always outgrowing traditional morality.
+
+It has been necessary at this point to formulate definitely the three
+chief forms in which the word "moral" is used, although under one shape or
+another they cannot but be familiar to the reader. In the discussion of
+prostitution it has indeed been easily possible to follow the usual custom
+of allowing the special sense in which the word was used to be determined
+by the context. But now, when we are, for the moment, directly concerned
+with the specific question of the evolution of sexual morality, it is
+necessary to be more precise in formulating the terms we use. In this
+chapter, except when it is otherwise stated, we are concerned primarily
+with morals proper, with actual conduct as it develops among the masses of
+a community, and only secondarily with anterior morality or with posterior
+morality.
+
+Sexual morality, like all other kinds of morality, is necessarily
+constituted by inherited traditions modified by new adaptations to the
+changing social environment. If the influence of tradition becomes unduly
+pronounced the moral life tends to decay and lose its vital adaptability.
+If adaptability becomes too facile the moral life tends to become unstable
+and to lose authority. It is only by a reasonable synthesis of structure
+and function--of what is called the traditional with what is called the
+ideal--that the moral life can retain its authority without losing its
+reality. Many, even among those who call themselves moralists, have found
+this hard to understand. In a vain desire for an impossible logicality
+they have over-emphasized either the ideal influence on practical morals
+or, still more frequently, the traditional influence, which has appealed
+to them because of the impressive authority its _dicta_ seem to convey.
+The results in the sphere we are here concerned with have often been
+unfortunate, for no social impulse is so rebellious to decayed traditions,
+so volcanically eruptive, as that of sex.
+
+We are accustomed to identify our present marriage system with "morality"
+in the abstract, and for many people, perhaps for most, it is difficult to
+realize that the slow and insensible movement which is always affecting
+social life at the present time, as at every other time, is profoundly
+affecting our sexual morality. A transference of values is constantly
+taking place; what was once the very standard of morality becomes immoral,
+what was once without question immoral becomes a new standard. Such a
+process is almost as bewildering as for the European world two thousand
+years ago was the great struggle between the Roman city and the Christian
+Church, when it became necessary to realize that what Marcus Aurelius, the
+great pattern of morality, had sought to crush as without question
+immoral,[265] was becoming regarded as the supreme standard of morality.
+The classic world considered love and pity and self-sacrifice as little
+better than weakness and sometimes worse; the Christian world not only
+regarded them as moralities but incarnated them in a god. Our sexual
+morality has likewise disregarded natural human emotions, and is incapable
+of understanding those who declare that to retain unduly traditional laws
+that are opposed to the vital needs of human societies is not a morality
+but an immorality.
+
+The reason why the gradual evolution of moral ideals, which is always
+taking place, tends in the sexual sphere, at all events among ourselves,
+to reach a stage in which there seems to be an opposition between
+different standards lies in the fact that as yet we really have no
+specific sexual morality at all.[266] That may seem surprising at first to
+one who reflects on the immense weight which is usually attached to
+"sexual morality." And it is undoubtedly true that we have a morality
+which we apply to the sphere of sex. But that morality is one which
+belongs mainly to the sphere of property and was very largely developed on
+a property basis. All the historians of morals in general, and of marriage
+in particular, have set forth this fact, and illustrated it with a wealth
+of historical material. We have as yet no generally recognized sexual
+morality which has been based on the specific sexual facts of life. That
+becomes clear at once when we realize the central fact that the sexual
+relationship is based on love, at the very least on sexual desire, and
+that that basis is so deep as to be even physiological, for in the absence
+of such sexual desire it is physiologically impossible for a man to effect
+intercourse with a woman. Any specific sexual morality must be based on
+that fact. But our so-called "sexual morality," so far from being based on
+that fact, attempts to ignore it altogether. It makes contracts, it
+arranges sexual relationships beforehand, it offers to guarantee
+permanency of sexual inclinations. It introduces, that is, considerations
+of a kind that is perfectly sound in the economic sphere to which such
+considerations rightly belong, but ridiculously incongruous in the sphere
+of sex to which they have solemnly been applied. The economic
+relationships of life, in the large sense, are, as we shall see, extremely
+important in the evolution of any sound sexual morality, but they belong
+to the conditions of its development and do not constitute its basis.[267]
+
+    The fact that, from the legal point of view, marriage is
+    primarily an arrangement for securing the rights of property and
+    inheritance is well illustrated by the English divorce law
+    to-day. According to this law, if a woman has sexual intercourse
+    with any man beside her husband, he is entitled to divorce her;
+    if, however, the husband has intercourse with another woman
+    beside his wife, she is not entitled to a divorce; that is only
+    accorded if, in addition, he has also been cruel to her, or
+    deserted her, and from any standpoint of ideal morality such a
+    law is obviously unjust, and it has now been discarded in nearly
+    all civilized lands except England.
+
+    But from the standpoint of property and inheritance it is quite
+    intelligible, and on that ground it is still supported by the
+    majority of Englishmen. If the wife has intercourse with other
+    men there is a risk that the husband's property will be inherited
+    by a child who is not his own. But the sexual intercourse of the
+    husband with other women is followed by no such risk. The
+    infidelity of the wife is a serious offence against property; the
+    infidelity of the husband is no offence against property, and
+    cannot possibly, therefore, be regarded as a ground for divorce
+    from our legal point of view. The fact that his adultery
+    complicated by cruelty is such a ground, is simply a concession
+    to modern feeling. Yet, as Helena Stoecker truly points out
+    ("Verschiedenheit im Liebesleben des Weibes und des Mannes,"
+    _Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Dec., 1908), a married man
+    who has an unacknowledged child with a woman outside of marriage,
+    has committed an act as seriously anti-social as a married woman
+    who has a child without acknowledging that the father is not her
+    husband. In the first case, the husband, and in the second case,
+    the wife, have placed an undue amount of responsibility on
+    another person. (The same point is brought forward by the author
+    of _The Question of English Divorce_, p. 56.)
+
+    I insist here on the economic element in our sexual morality,
+    because that is the element which has given it a kind of
+    stability and become established in law. But if we take a wider
+    view of our sexual morality, we cannot ignore the ancient element
+    of asceticism, which has given religious passion and sanction to
+    it. Our sexual morality is thus, in reality, a bastard born of
+    the union of property-morality with primitive ascetic morality,
+    neither in true relationship to the vital facts of the sexual
+    life. It is, indeed, the property element which, with a few
+    inconsistencies, has become finally the main concern of our law,
+    but the ascetic element (with, in the past, a wavering
+    relationship to law) has had an important part in moulding
+    popular sentiment and in creating an attitude of reprobation
+    towards sexual intercourse _per se_, although such intercourse is
+    regarded as an essential part of the property-based and
+    religiously sanctified institution of legal marriage.
+
+    The glorification of virginity led by imperceptible stages to the
+    formulation of "fornication" as a deadly sin, and finally as an
+    actual secular "crime." It is sometimes stated that it was not
+    until the Council of Trent that the Church formally anathematized
+    those who held that the state of marriage was higher than that of
+    virginity, but the opinion had been more or less formally held
+    from almost the earliest ages of Christianity, and is clear in
+    the epistles of Paul. All the theologians agree that fornication
+    is a mortal sin. Caramuel, indeed, the distinguished Spanish
+    theologian, who made unusual concessions to the demands of reason
+    and nature, held that fornication is only evil because it is
+    forbidden, but Innocent XI formally condemned that proposition.
+    Fornication as a mortal sin became gradually secularized into
+    fornication as a crime. Fornication was a crime in France even as
+    late as the eighteenth century, as Tarde found in his historical
+    investigations of criminal procedure in Perigord; adultery was
+    also a crime and severely punished quite independently of any
+    complaint from either of the parties (Tarde, "Archeologie
+    Criminelle en Perigord," _Archives de l'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, Nov. 15, 1898).
+
+    The Puritans of the Commonwealth days in England (like the
+    Puritans of Geneva) followed the Catholic example and adopted
+    ecclesiastical offences against chastity into the secular law. By
+    an Act passed in 1653 fornication became punishable by three
+    months' imprisonment inflicted on both parties. By the same Act
+    the adultery of a wife (nothing is said of a husband) was made
+    felony, both for her and her partner in guilt, and therefore
+    punishable by death (Scobell, _Acts and Ordinances_, p. 121).
+
+The action of a pseudo-morality, such as our sexual morality has been, is
+double-edged. On the one side it induces a secret and shamefaced laxity,
+on the other it upholds a rigid and uninspiring theoretical code which so
+few can consistently follow that theoretical morality is thereby degraded
+into a more or less empty form. "The human race would gain much," said the
+wise Senancour, "if virtue were made less laborious. The merit would not
+be so great, but what is the use of an elevation which can rarely be
+sustained?"[268] At present, as a more recent moralist, Ellen Key, puts
+it, we only have an immorality which favors vice and makes virtue
+irrealizable, and, as she exclaims with pardonable extravagance, to preach
+a sounder morality to the young, without at the same time condemning the
+society which encourages the prevailing immorality, is "worse than folly,
+it is crime."
+
+It is on the lines along which Senancour a century ago and Ellen Key
+to-day are great pioneers that the new forms of anterior or ideal
+theoretical morality are now moving, in advance, according to the general
+tendency in morals, of traditional morality and even of practice.
+
+There is one great modern movement of a definite kind which will serve to
+show how clearly sexual morality is to-day moving towards a new
+standpoint. This is the changing attitude of the bulk of the community
+towards both State marriage and religious marriage, and the growing
+tendency to disallow State interference with sexual relationships, apart
+from the production of children.
+
+There has no doubt always been a tendency among the masses of the
+population in Europe to dispense with the official sanction of sexual
+relationships until such relationships have been well established and the
+hope of offspring has become justifiable. This tendency has been
+crystallized into recognized customs among numberless rural communities
+little touched either by the disturbing influences of the outside world or
+the controlling influences of theological Christian conceptions. But at
+the present day this tendency is not confined to the more primitive and
+isolated communities of Europe among whom, on the contrary, it has tended
+to die out. It is an unquestionable fact, says Professor Bruno Meyer, that
+far more than the half of sexual intercourse now takes place outside legal
+marriage.[269] It is among the intelligent classes and in prosperous and
+progressive communities that this movement is chiefly marked. We see
+throughout the world the practical common sense of the people shaping
+itself in the direction which has been pioneered by the ideal moralists
+who invariably precede the new growth of practical morality.
+
+The voluntary childless marriages of to-day have served to show the
+possibility of such unions outside legal marriage, and such free unions
+are becoming, as Mrs. Parsons points out, "a progressive substitute for
+marriage."[270] The gradual but steady rise in the age for entering on
+legal marriage also points in the same direction, though it indicates not
+merely an increase of free unions but an increase of all forms of normal
+and abnormal sexuality outside marriage. Thus in England and Wales, in
+1906, only 43 per 1,000 husbands and 146 per 1,000 wives were under age,
+while the average age for husbands was 28.6 years and for wives 26.4
+years. For men the age has gone up some eight months during the past forty
+years, for women more than this. In the large cities, like London, where
+the possibilities of extra-matrimonial relationships are greater, the age
+for legal marriage is higher than in the country.
+
+    If we are to regard the age of legal marriage as, on the whole,
+    the age at which the population enters into sexual unions, it is
+    undoubtedly too late. Beyer, a leading German neurologist, finds
+    that there are evils alike in early and in late marriage, and
+    comes to the conclusion that in temperate zones the best age for
+    women to marry is the twenty-first year, and for men the
+    twenty-fifth year.
+
+    Yet, under bad economic conditions and with a rigid marriage law,
+    early marriages are in every respect disastrous. They are among
+    the poor a sign of destitution. The very poorest marry first, and
+    they do so through the feeling that their condition cannot be
+    worse. (Dr. Michael Ryan brought together much interesting
+    evidence concerning the causes of early marriage in Ireland in
+    his _Philosophy of Marriage_, 1837, pp. 58-72). Among the poor,
+    therefore, early marriage is always a misfortune. "Many good
+    people," says Mr. Thomas Holmes, Secretary of the Howard
+    Association and missionary at police courts (in an interview,
+    _Daily Chronicle_, Sept. 8, 1906), "advise boys and girls to get
+    married in order to prevent what they call a 'disgrace.' This I
+    consider to be absolutely wicked, and it leads to far greater
+    evils than it can possibly avert."
+
+    Early marriages are one of the commonest causes both of
+    prostitution and divorce. They lead to prostitution in
+    innumerable cases, even when no outward separation takes place.
+    The fact that they lead to divorce is shown by the significant
+    circumstance that in England, although only 146 per 1,000 women
+    are under twenty-one at marriage, of the wives concerned in
+    divorce cases, 280 per 1,000 were under twenty-one at marriage,
+    and this discrepancy is even greater than it appears, for in the
+    well-to-do class, which can alone afford the luxury of divorce,
+    the normal age at marriage is much higher than for the population
+    generally. Inexperience, as was long ago pointed out by Milton
+    (who had learnt this lesson to his cost), leads to shipwreck in
+    marriage. "They who have lived most loosely," he wrote, "prove
+    most successful in their matches, because their wild affections,
+    unsettling at will, have been so many divorces to teach them
+    experience."
+
+    Miss Clapperton, referring to the educated classes, advocates
+    very early marriage, even during student life, which might then
+    be to some extent carried on side by side (_Scientific
+    Meliorism_, Ch. XVII). Ellen Key, also, advocates early marriage.
+    But she wisely adds that it involves the necessity for easy
+    divorce. That, indeed, is the only condition which can render
+    early marriage generally desirable. Young people--unless they
+    possess very simple and inert natures--can neither foretell the
+    course of their own development and their own strongest needs,
+    nor estimate accurately the nature and quality of another
+    personality. A marriage formed at an early age very speedily
+    ceases to be a marriage in anything but name. Sometimes a young
+    girl applies for a separation from her husband even on the very
+    day after marriage.
+
+The more or less permanent free unions formed among us in Europe are
+usually to be regarded merely as trial-marriages. That is to say they are
+a precaution rendered desirable both by uncertainty as to either the
+harmony or the fruitfulness of union until actual experiment has been
+made, and by the practical impossibility of otherwise rectifying any
+mistake in consequence of the antiquated rigidity of most European divorce
+laws. Such trial marriages are therefore demanded by prudence and caution,
+and as foresight increases with the development of civilization, and
+constantly grows among us, we may expect that there will be a parallel
+development in the frequency of trial marriage and in the social attitude
+towards such unions. The only alternative--that a radical reform in
+European marriage laws should render the divorce of a legal marriage as
+economical and as convenient as the divorce of a free marriage--cannot yet
+be expected, for law always lags behind public opinion and public
+practice.
+
+If, however, we take a wider historical view, we find that we are in
+presence of a phenomenon which, though favored by modern conditions, is
+very ancient and widespread, dating, so far as Europe is concerned, from
+the time when the Church first sought to impose ecclesiastical marriage,
+so that it is practically a continuation of the ancient European custom of
+private marriage.
+
+    Trial-marriages pass by imperceptible gradations into the group
+    of courtship customs which, while allowing the young couple to
+    spend the night together, in a position of more or less intimacy,
+    exclude, as a rule, actual sexual intercourse. Night-courtship
+    flourishes in stable and well-knit European communities not
+    liable to disorganization by contact with strangers. It seems to
+    be specially common in Teutonic and Celtic lands, and is known by
+    various names, as _Probenaechte, fensterln, Kiltgang,
+    hand-fasting, bundling, sitting-up, courting on the bed, etc_. It
+    is well known in Wales; it is found in various English counties
+    as in Cheshire; it existed in eighteenth century Ireland
+    (according to Richard Twiss's _Travels_); in New England it was
+    known as _tarrying_; in Holland it is called _questing_. In
+    Norway, where it is called _night-running_, on account of the
+    long distance between the homesteads, I am told that it is
+    generally practiced, though the clergy preach against it; the
+    young girl puts on several extra skirts and goes to bed, and the
+    young man enters by door or window and goes to bed with her; they
+    talk all night, and are not bound to marry unless it should
+    happen that the girl becomes pregnant.
+
+    Rhys and Brynmor-Jones (_Welsh People_, pp. 582-4) have an
+    interesting passage on this night-courtship with numerous
+    references. As regards Germany see, e.g., Rudeck, _Geschichte der
+    oeffentlichen Sittlichkeit_, pp. 146-154. With reference to
+    trial-marriage generally many facts and references are given by
+    M.A. Potter (_Sohrab and Rustem_, pp. 129-137).
+
+    The custom of free marriage unions, usually rendered legal before
+    or after the birth of children, seems to be fairly common in
+    many, or perhaps all, rural parts of England. The union is made
+    legal, if found satisfactory, even when there is no prospect of
+    children. In some counties it is said to be almost a universal
+    practice for the women to have sexual relationships before legal
+    marriage; sometimes she marries the first man whom she tries;
+    sometimes she tries several before finding the man who suits her.
+    Such marriages necessarily, on the whole, turn out better than
+    marriages in which the woman, knowing nothing of what awaits her
+    and having no other experiences for comparison, is liable to be
+    disillusioned or to feel that she "might have done better." Even
+    when legal recognition is not sought until after the birth of
+    children, it by no means follows that any moral deterioration is
+    involved. Thus in some parts of Staffordshire where it is the
+    custom of the women to have a child before marriage,
+    notwithstanding this "corruption," we are told (Burton, _City of
+    the Saints_, Appendix IV), the women are "very good neighbors,
+    excellent, hard-working, and affectionate wives and mothers."
+
+    "The lower social classes, especially peasants," remarks Dr.
+    Ehrhard ("Auch Ein Wort zur Ehereform," _Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, Jahrgang I, Heft 10), "know better than we that
+    the marriage bed is the foundation of marriage. On that account
+    they have retained the primitive custom of trial-marriage which,
+    in the Middle Ages, was still practiced even in the best circles.
+    It has the further advantage that the marriage is not concluded
+    until it has shown itself to be fruitful. Trial-marriage assumes,
+    of course, that virginity is not valued beyond its true worth."
+    With regard to this point it may be mentioned that in many parts
+    of the world a woman is more highly esteemed if she has had
+    intercourse before marriage (see, e.g., Potter, op. cit., pp. 163
+    et seq.). While virginity is one of the sexual attractions a
+    woman may possess, an attraction that is based on a natural
+    instinct (see "The Evolution of Modesty," in vol. i of these
+    _Studies_), yet an exaggerated attention to virginity can only be
+    regarded as a sexual perversion, allied to _paidophilia_, the
+    sexual attraction to children.
+
+    In very small cooerdinated communities the primitive custom of
+    trial-marriage tends to decay when there is a great invasion of
+    strangers who have not been brought up to the custom (which seems
+    to them indistinguishable from the license of prostitution), and
+    who fail to undertake the obligations which trial-marriage
+    involves. This is what happened in the case of the so-called
+    "island custom" of Portland, which lasted well on into the
+    nineteenth century; according to this custom a woman before
+    marriage lived with her lover until pregnant and then married
+    him; she was always strictly faithful to him while living with
+    him, but if no pregnancy occurred the couple might decide that
+    they were not meant for each other, and break off relations. The
+    result was that for a long period of years no illegitimate
+    children were born, and few marriages were childless. But when
+    the Portland stone trade was developed, the workmen imported from
+    London took advantage of the "island custom," but refused to
+    fulfil the obligation of marriage when pregnancy occurred. The
+    custom consequently fell into disuse (see, e.g., translator's
+    note to Bloch's _Sexual Life of Our Time_, p. 237, and the
+    quotation there given from Hutchins, _History and Antiquities of
+    Dorset_, vol. ii, p. 820).
+
+    It is, however, by no means only in rural districts, but in great
+    cities also that marriages are at the outset free unions. Thus in
+    Paris Despres stated more than thirty years ago (_La Prostitution
+    a Paris_, p. 137) that in an average arrondissement nine out of
+    ten legal marriages are the consolidation of a free union;
+    though, while that was an average, in a few arrondissements it
+    was only three out of ten. Much the same conditions prevail in
+    Paris to-day; at least half the marriages, it is stated, are of
+    this kind.
+
+    In Teutonic lands the custom of free unions is very ancient and
+    well-established. Thus in Sweden, Ellen Key states (_Liebe und
+    Ehe_, p. 123), the majority of the population begin married life
+    in this way. The arrangement is found to be beneficial, and
+    "marital fidelity is as great as pre-marital freedom is
+    unbounded." In Denmark, also, a large number of children are
+    conceived before the unions of the parents are legalized (Rubin
+    and Westergaard, quoted by Gaedeken, _Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, Feb. 15, 1909).
+
+    In Germany not only is the proportion of illegitimate births very
+    high, since in Berlin it is 17 per cent., and in some towns very
+    much higher, but ante-nuptial conceptions take place in nearly
+    half the marriages, and sometimes in the majority. Thus in Berlin
+    more than 40 per cent, of all legitimate firstborn children are
+    conceived before marriage, while in some rural provinces (where
+    the proportion of illegitimate births is lower) the percentage of
+    marriages following ante-nuptial conceptions is much higher than
+    in Berlin. The conditions in rural Germany have been especially
+    investigated by a committee of Lutheran pastors, and were set
+    forth a few years ago in two volumes, _Die Geschlecht-sittlich
+    Verhaeltnisse im Deutschen Reiche_, which are full of instruction
+    concerning German sexual morality. In Hanover, it is said in this
+    work, the majority of authorities state that intercourse before
+    marriage is the rule. At the very least, a _probe_, or trial, is
+    regarded as a matter-of-course preliminary to a marriage, since
+    no one wishes "to buy a pig in a poke." In Saxony, likewise, we
+    are told, it is seldom that a girl fails to have intercourse
+    before marriage, or that her first child is not born, or at all
+    events conceived, outside marriage. This is justified as a proper
+    proving of a bride before taking her for good. "One does not buy
+    even a penny pipe without trying it," a German pastor was
+    informed. Around Stettin, in twelve districts (nearly half the
+    whole), sexual intercourse before marriage is a recognized
+    custom, and in the remainder, if not exactly a custom, it is very
+    common, and is not severely or even at all condemned by public
+    opinion. In some districts marriage immediately follows
+    pregnancy. In the Dantzig neighborhood, again, according to the
+    Lutheran Committee, intercourse before marriage occurs in more
+    than half the cases, but marriage by no means always follows
+    pregnancy. Nearly all the girls who go as servants have lovers,
+    and country people in engaging servants sometimes tell them that
+    at evening and night they may do as they like. This state of
+    things is found to be favorable to conjugal fidelity. The German
+    peasant girl, as another authority remarks (E.H. Meyer, _Deutsche
+    Volkskunde_, 1898, pp. 154, 164), has her own room; she may
+    receive her lover; it is no great shame if she gives herself to
+    him. The number of women who enter legal marriage still virgins
+    is not large (this refers more especially to Baden), but public
+    opinion protects them, and such opinion is unfavorable to the
+    disregard of the responsibilities involved by sexual
+    relationships. The German woman is less chaste before marriage
+    than her French or Italian sister. But, Meyer adds, she is
+    probably more faithful after marriage than they are.
+
+    It is assumed by many that this state of German morality as it
+    exists to-day is a new phenomenon, and the sign of a rapid
+    national degeneration. That is by no means the case. In this
+    connection we may accept the evidence of Catholic priests, who,
+    by the experience of the confessional, are enabled to speak with
+    authority. An old Bavarian priest thus writes (_Geschlecht und
+    Gesellschaft_, 1907, Bd. ii, Heft I): "At Moral Congresses we
+    hear laudation of 'the good old times' when, faith and morality
+    prevailed among the people. Whether that is correct is another
+    question. As a young priest I heard of as many and as serious
+    sins as I now hear of as an old man. The morality of the people
+    is not greater nor is it less. The error is the belief that
+    immorality goes out of the towns and poisons the country. People
+    talk as though the country were a pure Paradise of innocence. I
+    will by no means call our country people immoral, but from an
+    experience of many years I can say that in sexual respects there
+    is no difference between town and country. I have learnt to know
+    more than a hundred different parishes, and in the most various
+    localities, in the mountain and in the plain, on poor land and on
+    rich land. But everywhere I find the same morals and lack of
+    morals. There are everywhere the same men, though in the country
+    there are often better Christians than in the towns."
+
+    If, however, we go much farther back than the memories of a
+    living man it seems highly probable that the sexual customs of
+    the German people of the present day are not substantially
+    different--though it may well be that at different periods
+    different circumstances have accentuated them--from what they
+    were in the dawn of Teutonic history. This is the opinion of one
+    of the profoundest students of Indo-Germanic origins. In his
+    _Reallexicon_ (art. "Keuschheit") O. Schrader points out that the
+    oft-quoted Tacitus, strictly considered, can only be taken to
+    prove that women were chaste after marriage, and that no
+    prostitution existed. There can be no doubt, he adds, and the
+    earliest historical evidence shows, that women in ancient Germany
+    were not chaste before marriage. This fact has been disguised by
+    the tendency of the old classic writers to idealize the Northern
+    peoples.
+
+    Thus we have to realize that the conception of "German virtue,"
+    which has been rendered so familiar to the world by a long
+    succession of German writers, by no means involves any special
+    devotion to the virtue of chastity. Tacitus, indeed, in the
+    passage more often quoted in Germany than any other passage in
+    classic literature, while correctly emphasizing the late puberty
+    of the Germans and their brutal punishment of conjugal infidelity
+    on the part of the wife, seemed to imply that they were also
+    chaste. But we have always to remark that Tacitus wrote as a
+    satirizing moralist as well as a historian, and that, as he
+    declaimed concerning the virtues of the German barbarians, he had
+    one eye on the Roman gallery whose vices he desired to lash. Much
+    the same perplexing confusion has been created by Gildas, who, in
+    describing the results of the Saxon Conquest of Britain, wrote as
+    a preacher as well as a historian, and the same moral purpose (as
+    Dill has pointed out) distorts Salvian's picture of the vices of
+    fifth century Gaul. (I may add that some of the evidence in favor
+    of the sexual freedom involved by early Teutonic faiths and
+    customs is brought together in the study of "Sexual Periodicity"
+    in the first volume of these _Studies_; cf. also, Rudeck,
+    _Geschichte der oeffentlichen Sittlichkeit in Deutschland_, 1897,
+    pp. 146 et seq.).
+
+    The freedom and tolerance of Russian sexual customs is fairly
+    well-known. As a Russian correspondent writes to me, "the
+    liberalism of Russian manners enables youths and girls to enjoy
+    complete independence. They visit each other alone, they walk out
+    alone, and they return home at any hour they please. They have a
+    liberty of movement as complete as that of grown-up persons; some
+    avail themselves of it to discuss politics and others to make
+    love. They are able also to procure any books they please; thus
+    on the table of a college girl I knew I saw the _Elements of
+    Social Science_, then prohibited in Russia; this girl lived with
+    her aunt, but she had her own room, which only her friends were
+    allowed to enter: her aunt or other relations never entered it.
+    Naturally, she went out and came back at what hours she pleased.
+    Many other college girls enjoy the same freedom in their
+    families. It is very different in Italy, where girls have no
+    freedom of movement, and can neither go out alone nor receive
+    gentlemen alone, and where, unlike Russia, a girl who has sexual
+    intercourse outside marriage is really 'lost' and 'dishonored'"
+    (cf. _Sexual-Probleme_, Aug., 1908, p. 506).
+
+    It would appear that freedom of sexual relationships in
+    Russia--apart from the influence of ancient custom--has largely
+    been rendered necessary by the difficulty of divorce. Married
+    couples, who were unable to secure divorce, separated and found
+    new partners without legal marriage. In 1907, however, an attempt
+    was made to remedy this defect in the law; a liberal divorce law
+    has been introduced, mutual consent with separation for a period
+    of over a year being recognized as adequate ground for divorce
+    (Beiblatt to _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, Heft 5, p.
+    145).
+
+    During recent years there has developed among educated young men
+    and women in Russia a movement of sexual license, which, though
+    it is doubtless supported by the old traditions of sexual
+    freedom, must by no means be confused with that freedom, since it
+    is directly due to causes of an entirely different order. The
+    strenuous revolutionary efforts made during the last years of the
+    past century to attain political freedom absorbed the younger and
+    more energetic section of the educated classes, involved a high
+    degree of mental tension, and were accompanied by a tendency to
+    asceticism. The prospect of death was constantly before their
+    eyes, and any pre-occupation with sexual matters would have been
+    felt as out of harmony with the spirit of revolution. But during
+    the present century revolutionary activity has largely ceased. It
+    has been, to a considerable extent, replaced by a movement of
+    interest in sexual problems and of indulgence in sexual
+    unrestraint, often taking on a somewhat licentious and sensual
+    character. "Free love" unions have been formed by the students of
+    both sexes for the cultivation of these tendencies. A novel,
+    Artzibascheff's _Ssanin_, has had great influence in promoting
+    these tendencies. It is not likely that this movement, in its
+    more extravagant forms, will be of long duration. (For some
+    account of this movement, see, e.g., Werner Daya, "Die Sexuelle
+    Bewegung in Russland," _Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_,
+    Aug., 1908; also, "Les Associations Erotiques en Russe," _Journal
+    du Droit International Prive_, Jan., 1909, fully summarized in
+    _Revue des Idees_, Feb., 1909.)
+
+    The movement of sexual freedom in Russia lies much deeper,
+    however, than this fashion of sensual license; it is found in
+    remote and uncontaminated parts of the country, and is connected
+    with very ancient customs.
+
+    There is considerable interest in realizing the existence of
+    long-continued sexual freedom--by some incorrectly termed
+    "immorality," for what is in accordance with the customs or
+    _mores_ of a people cannot be immoral--among peoples so virile
+    and robust, so eminently capable of splendid achievements, as the
+    Germans and the Russians. There is, however, a perhaps even
+    greater interest in tracing the development of the same tendency
+    among new prosperous and highly progressive communities who have
+    either not inherited the custom of sexual freedom or are now only
+    reviving it. We may, for instance, take the case of Australia and
+    New Zealand. This development may not, indeed, be altogether
+    recent. The frankness of sexual freedom in Australia and the
+    tolerance in regard to it were conspicuous thirty years ago to
+    those who came from England to live in the Southern continent,
+    and were doubtless equally visible at an earlier date. It seems,
+    however, to have developed with the increase of self-conscious
+    civilization. "After careful inquiry," says the Rev. H.
+    Northcote, who has lived for many years in the Southern
+    hemisphere (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, Ch. VIII), "the
+    writer finds sufficient evidence that of recent years intercourse
+    out of wedlock has tended towards an actual increase in parts of
+    Australia." Coghlan, the chief authority on Australian
+    statistics, states more precisely in his _Childbirth in New South
+    Wales_, published a few years ago: "The prevalence of births of
+    ante-nuptial conception--a matter hitherto little understood--has
+    now been completely investigated. In New South Wales, during six
+    years, there were 13,366 marriages, in respect of which there was
+    ante-nuptial conception, and, as the total number of marriages
+    was 49,641, at least twenty-seven marriages in a hundred followed
+    conception. During the same period the illegitimate births
+    numbered 14,779; there were, therefore, 28,145 cases of
+    conception amongst unmarried women; in 13,366 instances marriage
+    preceded the birth of the child, so that the children were
+    legitimatized in rather more than forty-seven cases out of one
+    hundred. A study of the figures of births of ante-nuptial
+    conception makes it obvious that in a very large number of
+    instances pre-marital intercourse is not an anticipation of
+    marriage already arranged, but that the marriages are forced upon
+    the parties, and would not be entered into were it not for the
+    condition of the woman" (cf. Powys, _Biometrika_, vol. i, 1901-2,
+    p. 30). That marriage should be, as Coghlan puts it, "forced upon
+    the parties," is not, of course, desirable in the general moral
+    interests, and it is also a sign of imperfect moral
+    responsibility in the parties themselves.
+
+    The existence of such a state of things, in a young country
+    belonging to a part of the world where the general level of
+    prosperity, intelligence, morality and social responsibility may
+    perhaps be said to be higher than in any other region inhabited
+    by people of white race, is a fact of the very first significance
+    when we are attempting to forecast the direction in which
+    civilized morality is moving.
+
+It is sometimes said, or at least implied, that in this movement women are
+taking only a passive part, and that the initiative lies with men who are
+probably animated by a desire to escape the responsibilities of marriage.
+This is very far from being the case.
+
+    The active part taken by German girls in sexual matters is
+    referred to again and again by the Lutheran pastors in their
+    elaborate and detailed report. Of the Dantzig district it is said
+    "the young girls give themselves to the youths, or even seduce
+    them." The military manoeuvres are frequently a source of
+    unchastity in rural districts. "The fault is not merely with the
+    soldiers, but chiefly with the girls, who become half mad as soon
+    as they see a soldier," it is reported from the Dresden district.
+    And in summarizing conditions in East Germany the report states:
+    "In sexual wantonness girls are not behind the young men; they
+    allow themselves to be seduced only too willingly; even grown-up
+    girls often go with half-grown youths, and girls frequently give
+    themselves to several men, one after the other. It is by no means
+    always the youth who effects the seduction, it is very frequently
+    the girls who entice the youth to sexual intercourse; they do not
+    always wait till the men come to their rooms, but will go to the
+    men's rooms and await them in their beds. With this inclination
+    to sexual intercourse, it is not surprising that many believe
+    that after sixteen no girl is a virgin. Unchastity among the
+    rural laboring classes is universal, and equally pronounced in
+    both sexes" (op. cit., vol. i, 218).
+
+    Among women of the educated classes the conditions are somewhat
+    different. Restraints, both internal and external, are very much
+    greater. Virginity, at all events in its physical fact, is
+    retained, for the most part, till long past girlhood, and when it
+    is lost that loss is concealed with a scrupulous care and
+    prudence unknown to the working-classes. Yet the fundamental
+    tendencies remain the same. So far as England is concerned,
+    Geoffrey Mortimer quite truly writes (_Chapters on Human Love_,
+    1898, p. 117) that the two groups of (1) women who live in
+    constant secret association with a single lover, and (2) women
+    who give themselves to men, without fear, from the force of their
+    passions, are "much larger than is generally supposed. In all
+    classes of society there are women who are only virgins by
+    repute. Many have borne children without being even suspected of
+    cohabitation; but the majority adopt methods of preventing
+    conception. A doctor in a small provincial town declared to me
+    that such irregular intimacies were the rule, and not by any
+    means the exception in his district." As regards Germany, a lady
+    doctor, Frau Adams-Lehmann, states in a volume of the
+    Transactions of the German Society for Combating Venereal Disease
+    (_Sexualpaedagogik_, p. 271): "I can say that during consultation
+    hours I see very few virgins over thirty. These women," she adds,
+    "are sensible, courageous and natural, often the best of their
+    sex; and we ought to give them our moral support. They are
+    working towards a new age."
+
+It is frequently stated that the pronounced tendency witnessed at the
+present time to dispense as long as possible with the formal ceremony of
+binding marriage is unfortunate because it places women in a
+disadvantageous position. In so far as the social environment in which she
+lives views with disapproval sexual relationship without formal marriage,
+the statement is obviously to that extent true, though it must be
+remarked, on the other hand, that when social opinion strongly favors
+legal marriage it acts as a compelling force in the direction of
+legitimating free unions. But if the absence of the formal marriage bond
+constituted a real and intrinsic disadvantage to women in sexual relations
+they would not show themselves so increasingly ready to dispense with it.
+And, as a matter of fact, those who are intimately acquainted with the
+facts declare that the absence of formal marriage tends to give increased
+consideration to women and is even favorable to fidelity and to the
+prolongation of the union. This seems to be true as regards people of the
+most different social classes and even of different races. It is probably
+based on fundamental psychological facts, for the sense of compulsion
+always tends to produce a movement of exasperation and revolt. We are not
+here concerned with the question as to how far formal marriage also is
+based on natural facts; that is a question which will come up for
+discussion at a later stage.
+
+    The advantage for women of free sexual unions over compulsory
+    marriage is well recognized in the case of the working classes of
+    London, among whom sexual relationships before marriage are not
+    unusual, and are indulgently regarded. It is, for instance,
+    clearly asserted in the monumental work of C. Booth, _Life and
+    Labour of the People_. "It is even said of rough laborers," we
+    read, for instance, in the final volume of this work (p. 41),
+    "that they behave best if not married to the woman with whom they
+    live." The evidence on this point is often the more impressive
+    because brought forward by people who are very far indeed from
+    being anxious to base any general conclusions on it. Thus in the
+    same volume a clergyman is quoted as saying: "These people manage
+    to live together fairly peaceably so long as they are not
+    married, but if they marry it always seems to lead to blows and
+    rows."
+
+    It may be said that in such a case we witness not so much the
+    operation of a natural law as the influences of a great centre of
+    civilization exerting its moralizing effects even on those who
+    stand outside the legally recognized institution of marriage.
+    That contention may, however, be thrust aside. We find exactly
+    the same tendency in Jamaica where the population is largely
+    colored, and the stress of a high civilization can scarcely be
+    said to exist. Legal marriage is here discarded to an even
+    greater extent than in London, for little care is taken to
+    legitimate children by marriage. It was found by a committee
+    appointed to inquire into the marriage laws of Jamaica, that
+    three out of every five births are illegitimate, that is to say
+    that legal illegitimacy has ceased to be immoral, having become
+    the recognized custom of the majority of the inhabitants. There
+    is no social feeling against illegitimacy. The men approve of the
+    decay of legal marriage, because they say the women work better
+    in the house when they are not married; the women approve of it,
+    because they say that men are more faithful when not bound by
+    legal marriage. This has been well brought out by W.P.
+    Livingstone in his interesting book, _Black Jamaica_ (1899). The
+    people recognize, he tells us (p. 210), that "faithful living
+    together constitutes marriage;" they say that they are "married
+    but not parsoned." One reason against legal marriage is that they
+    are disinclined to incur the expense of the official sanction.
+    (In Venezuela, it may be added, where also the majority of births
+    take place outside official marriage, the chief reason is stated
+    to be, not moral laxity, but the same disinclination to pay the
+    expenses of legal weddings.) Frequently in later life, sometimes
+    when they have grown up sons and daughters, couples go through
+    the official ceremony. (In Abyssinia, also, it is stated by
+    Hugues Le Roux, where the people are Christian and marriage is
+    indissoluble and the ceremony expensive, it is not usual for
+    married couples to make their unions legal until old age is
+    coming on, _Sexual-Probleme_, April, 1908, p. 217.) It is
+    significant that this condition of things in Jamaica, as
+    elsewhere, is associated with the superiority of women. "The
+    women of the peasant class," remarks Livingstone (p. 212), "are
+    still practically independent of the men, and are frequently
+    their superiors, both in physical and mental capacity." They
+    refuse to bind themselves to a man who may turn out to be good
+    for nothing, a burden instead of a help and protection. So long
+    as the unions are free they are likely to be permanent. If made
+    legal, the risk is that they will become intolerable, and cease
+    by one of the parties leaving the other. "The necessity for
+    mutual kindness and forbearance establishes a condition that is
+    the best guarantee of permanency" (p. 214). It is said, however,
+    that under the influence of religious and social pressure the
+    people are becoming more anxious to adopt "respectable" ideas of
+    sexual relationships, though it seems evident, in view of
+    Livingstone's statement, that such respectability is likely to
+    involve a decrease of real morality. Livingstone points out,
+    however, one serious defect in the present conditions which makes
+    it easy for immoral men to escape paternal responsibilities, and
+    this is the absence of legal provision for the registration of
+    the father's name on birth certificates (p. 256). In every
+    country where the majority of births are illegitimate it is an
+    obvious social necessity that the names of both parents should be
+    duly registered on all birth certificates. It has been an
+    unpardonable failure on the part of the Jamaican Government to
+    neglect the simple measure needed to give "each child born in the
+    country a legal father" (p. 258).
+
+We thus see that we have to-day reached a position in which--partly owing
+to economic causes and partly to causes which are more deeply rooted in
+the tendencies involved by civilization--women are more often detached
+than of old from legal sexual relationship with men and both sexes are
+less inclined than in earlier stages of civilization to sacrifice their
+own independence even when they form such relationships. "I never heard of
+a woman over sixteen years of age who, prior to the breakdown of
+aboriginal customs after the coming of the whites, had not a husband,"
+wrote Curr of the Australian Blacks.[271] Even as regards some parts of
+Europe, it is still possible to-day to make almost the same statement. But
+in all the richer, more energetic, and progressive countries very
+different conditions prevail. Marriage is late and a certain proportion of
+men, and a still larger proportion of women (who exceed the men in the
+general population) never marry at all.[272]
+
+Before we consider the fateful significance of this fact of the growing
+proportion of adult unmarried women whose sexual relationships are
+unrecognized by the state and largely unrecognized altogether, it may be
+well to glance summarily at the two historical streams of tendency, both
+still in action among us, which affect the status of women, the one
+favoring the social equality of the sexes, the other favoring the social
+subjection of women. It is not difficult to trace these two streams both
+in conduct and opinion, in practical morality and in theoretical morality.
+
+At one time it was widely held that in early states of society, before the
+establishment of the patriarchal stage which places women under the
+protection of men, a matriarchal stage prevailed in which women possessed
+supreme power.[273] Bachofen, half a century ago, was the great champion
+of this view. He found a typical example of a matriarchal state among the
+ancient Lycians of Asia Minor with whom, Herodotus stated, the child takes
+the name of the mother, and follows her status, not that of the
+father.[274] Such peoples, Bachofen believed, were gynaecocratic; power was
+in the hands of women. It can no longer be said that this opinion, in the
+form held by Bachofen, meets with any considerable support. As to the
+widespread prevalence of descent through the mother, there is no doubt
+whatever that it has prevailed very widely. But such descent through the
+mother, it has become recognized, by no means necessarily involves the
+power of the mother, and mother-descent may even be combined with a
+patriarchal system.[275] There has even been a tendency to run to the
+opposite extreme from Bachofen and to deny that mother-descent conferred
+any special claim for consideration on women. That, however, seems
+scarcely in accordance with the evidence and even in the absence of
+evidence could scarcely be regarded as probable. It would seem that we may
+fairly take as a type of the matriarchal family that based on the _ambil
+anak_ marriage of Sumatra, in which the husband lives in the wife's
+family, paying nothing and occupying a subordinate position. The example
+of the Lycians is here in point, for although, as reported by Herodotus,
+there is nothing to show that there was anything of the nature of a
+gynaecocracy in Lycia, we know that women in all these regions of Asia
+Minor enjoyed high consideration and influence, traces of which may be
+detected in the early literature and history of Christianity. A decisive
+and better known example of the favorable influence of mother-descent on
+the status of woman is afforded by the _beena_ marriage of early Arabia.
+Under such a system the wife is not only preserved from the subjection
+involved by purchase, which always casts upon her some shadow of the
+inferiority belonging to property, but she herself is the owner of the
+tent and the household property, and enjoys the dignity always involved by
+the possession of property and the ability to free herself from her
+husband.[276]
+
+It is also impossible to avoid connecting the primitive tendency to
+mother-descent, and the emphasis it involved on maternal rather than
+paternal generative energy, with the tendency to place the goddess rather
+than the god in the forefront of primitive pantheons, a tendency which
+cannot possibly fail to reflect honor on the sex to which the supreme
+deity belongs, and which may be connected with the large part which
+primitive women often play in the functions of religion. Thus, according
+to traditions common to all the central tribes of Australia, the woman
+formerly took a much greater share in the performance of sacred ceremonies
+which are now regarded as coming almost exclusively within the masculine
+province, and in at least one tribe which seems to retain ancient
+practices the women still actually take part in these ceremonies.[277] It
+seems to have been much the same in Europe. We observe, too, both in the
+Celtic pantheon and among Mediterranean peoples, that while all the
+ancient divinities have receded into the dim background yet the goddesses
+loom larger than the gods.[278] In Ireland, where ancient custom and
+tradition have always been very tenaciously preserved, women retained a
+very high position, and much freedom both before and after marriage.
+"Every woman," it was said, "is to go the way she willeth freely," and
+after marriage she enjoyed a better position and greater freedom of
+divorce than was afforded either by the Christian Church or the English
+common law.[279] There is less difficulty in recognizing that
+mother-descent was peculiarly favorable to the high status of women when
+we realize that even under very unfavorable conditions women have been
+able to exert great pressure on the men and to resist successfully the
+attempts to tyrannize over them.[280]
+
+If we consider the status of woman in the great empires of antiquity we
+find on the whole that in their early stage, the stage of growth, as well
+as in their final stage, the stage of fruition, women tend to occupy a
+favorable position, while in their middle stage, usually the stage of
+predominating military organization on a patriarchal basis, women occupy a
+less favorable position. This cyclic movement seems to be almost a natural
+law of the development of great social groups. It was apparently well
+marked in the very stable and orderly growth of Babylonia. In the earliest
+times a Babylonian woman had complete independence and equal rights with
+her brothers and her husband; later (as shown by the code of Hamurabi) a
+woman's rights, though not her duties, were more circumscribed; in the
+still later Neo-Babylonian periods, she again acquired equal rights with
+her husband.[281]
+
+In Egypt the position of women stood highest at the end, but it seems to
+have been high throughout the whole of the long course of Egyptian
+history, and continuously improving, while the fact that little regard was
+paid to prenuptial chastity and that marriage contracts placed no stress
+on virginity indicate the absence of the conception of women as property.
+More than three thousand five hundred years ago men and women were
+recognized as equal in Egypt. The high position of the Egyptian woman is
+significantly indicated by the fact that her child was never illegitimate;
+illegitimacy was not recognized even in the case of a slave woman's
+child.[282] "It is the glory of Egyptian morality," says Amelineau, "to
+have been the first to express the Dignity of Woman."[283] The idea of
+marital authority was altogether unknown in Egypt. There can be no doubt
+that the high status of woman in two civilizations so stable, so vital, so
+long-lived, and so influential on human culture as Babylonia and Egypt, is
+a fact of much significance.
+
+    Among the Jews there seems to have been no intermediate stage of
+    subordination of women, but instead a gradual progress throughout
+    from complete subjection of the woman as wife to ever greater
+    freedom. At first the husband could repudiate his wife at will
+    without cause. (This was not an extension of patriarchal
+    authority, but a purely marital authority.) The restrictions on
+    this authority gradually increased, and begin to be observable
+    already in the Book of Deuteronomy. The Mishnah went further and
+    forbade divorce whenever the wife's condition inspired pity (as
+    in insanity, captivity, etc.). By A.D. 1025, divorce was no
+    longer possible except for legitimate reasons or by the wife's
+    consent. At the same time, the wife also began to acquire the
+    right of divorce in the form of compelling the husband to
+    repudiate her on penalty of punishment in case of refusal. On
+    divorce the wife became an independent woman in her own right,
+    and was permitted to carry off the dowry which her husband gave
+    her on marriage. Thus, notwithstanding Jewish respect for the
+    letter of the law, the flexible jurisprudence of the Rabbis, in
+    harmony with the growth of culture, accorded an ever-growing
+    measure of sexual justice and equality to women (D.W. Amram, _The
+    Jewish Law of Divorce_).
+
+    Among the Arabs the tendency of progress has also been favorable
+    to women in many respects, especially as regards inheritance.
+    Before Mahommed, in accordance with the system prevailing at
+    Medina, women had little or no right of inheritance. The
+    legislation of the Koran modified this rule, without entirely
+    abolishing it, and placed women in a much better position. This
+    is attributed largely to the fact that Mahommed belonged not to
+    Medina, but to Mecca, where traces of matriarchal custom still
+    survived (W. Marcais, _Des Parents et des Allies Successibles en
+    Droit Musulman_).
+
+    It may be pointed out--for it is not always realized--that even
+    that stage of civilization--when it occurs--which involves the
+    subordination and subjection of woman and her rights really has
+    its origin in the need for the protection of women, and is
+    sometimes even a sign of the acquirement of new privileges by
+    women. They are, as it were, locked up, not in order to deprive
+    them of their rights, but in order to guard those rights. In the
+    later more stable phase of civilization, when women are no longer
+    exposed to the same dangers, this motive is forgotten and the
+    guardianship of woman and her rights seems, and indeed has really
+    become, a hardship rather than an advantage.
+
+Of the status of women at Rome in the earliest periods we know little or
+nothing; the patriarchal system was already firmly established when Roman
+history begins to become clear and it involved unusually strict
+subordination of the woman to her father first and then to her husband.
+But nothing is more certain than that the status of women in Rome rose
+with the rise of civilization, exactly in the same way as in Babylonia and
+in Egypt. In the case of Rome, however, the growing refinement of
+civilization, and the expansion of the Empire, were associated with the
+magnificent development of the system of Roman law, which in its final
+forms consecrated the position of women. In the last days of the Republic
+women already began to attain the same legal level as men, and later the
+great Antonine jurisconsults, guided by their theory of natural law,
+reached the conception of the equality of the sexes as a principle of the
+code of equity. The patriarchal subordination of women fell into complete
+discredit, and this continued until, in the days of Justinian, under the
+influence of Christianity, the position of women began to suffer.[284] In
+the best days the older forms of Roman marriage gave place to a form
+(apparently old but not hitherto considered reputable) which amounted in
+law to a temporary deposit of the woman by her family. She was independent
+of her husband (more especially as she came to him with her own dowry) and
+only nominally dependent on her family. Marriage was a private contract,
+accompanied by a religious ceremony if desired, and being a contract it
+could be dissolved, for any reason, in the presence of competent
+witnesses and with due legal forms, after the advice of the family council
+had been taken. Consent was the essence of this marriage and no shame,
+therefore, attached to its dissolution. Nor had it any evil effect either
+on the happiness or the morals of Roman women.[285] Such a system is
+obviously more in harmony with modern civilized feeling than any system
+that has ever been set up in Christendom.
+
+In Rome, also, it is clear that this system was not a mere legal invention
+but the natural outgrowth of an enlightened public feeling in favor of the
+equality of men and women, often even in the field of sexual morality.
+Plautus, who makes the old slave Syra ask why there is not the same law in
+this respect for the husband as for the wife,[286] had preceded the legist
+Ulpian who wrote: "It seems to be very unjust that a man demands chastity
+of his wife while he himself shows no example of it."[287] Such demands
+lie deeper than social legislation, but the fact that these questions
+presented themselves to typical Roman men indicates the general attitude
+towards women. In the final stage of Roman society the bond of the
+patriarchal system so far as women were concerned dwindled to a mere
+thread binding them to their fathers and leaving them quite free face to
+face with their husbands. "The Roman matron of the Empire," says Hobhouse,
+"was more fully her own mistress than the married woman of any earlier
+civilization, with the possible exception of a certain period of Egyptian
+history, and, it must be added, than the wife of any later civilization
+down to our own generation."[288]
+
+    On the strength of the statements of two satirical writers,
+    Juvenal and Tacitus, it has been supposed by many that Roman
+    women of the late period were given up to license. It is,
+    however, idle to seek in satirists any balanced picture of a
+    great civilization. Hobhouse (loc. cit., p. 216) concludes that
+    on the whole, Roman women worthily retained the position of their
+    husbands' companions, counsellors and friends which they had
+    held when an austere system placed them legally in his power.
+    Most authorities seem now to be of this opinion, though at an
+    earlier period Friedlaender expressed himself more dubiously. Thus
+    Dill, in his judicious _Roman Society_ (p. 163), states that the
+    Roman woman's position, both in law and in fact, rose during the
+    Empire; without being less virtuous or respected, she became far
+    more accomplished and attractive; with fewer restraints she had
+    greater charm and influence, even in public affairs, and was more
+    and more the equal of her husband. "In the last age of the
+    Western Empire there is no deterioration in the position and
+    influence of women." Principal Donaldson, also, in his valuable
+    historical sketch, _Woman_, considers (p. 113) that there was no
+    degradation of morals in the Roman Empire; "the licentiousness of
+    Pagan Rome is nothing to the licentiousness of Christian Africa,
+    Rome, and Gaul, if we can put any reliance on the description of
+    Salvian." Salvian's description of Christendom is probably
+    exaggerated and one-sided, but exactly the same may be said in an
+    even greater degree of the descriptions of ancient Rome left by
+    clever Pagan satirists and ascetic Christian preachers.
+
+It thus becomes necessary to leap over considerably more than a thousand
+years before we reach a stage of civilization in any degree approaching in
+height the final stage of Roman society. In the eighteenth and nineteenth
+centuries, at first in France, then in England, we find once more the
+moral and legal movement tending towards the equalization of women with
+men. We find also a long series of pioneers of that movement foreshadowing
+its developments: Mary Astor, "Sophia, a Lady of Quality," Segur, Mrs.
+Wheeler, and very notably Mary Wollstonecraft in _A Vindication of the
+Rights of Woman_, and John Stuart Mill in _The Subjection of Women_.[289]
+
+The main European stream of influences in this matter within historical
+times has involved, we can scarcely doubt when we take into consideration
+its complex phenomena as a whole, the maintenance of an inequality to the
+disadvantage of women. The fine legacy of Roman law to Europe was indeed
+favorable to women, but that legacy was dispersed and for the most part
+lost in the more predominating influence of tenacious Teutonic custom
+associated with the vigorously organized Christian Church. Notwithstanding
+that the facts do not all point in the same direction, and that there is
+consequently some difference of opinion, it seems evident that on the
+whole both Teutonic custom and Christian religion were unfavorable to the
+equality of women with men. Teutonic custom in this matter was determined
+by two decisive factors: (1) the existence of marriage by purchase which
+although, as Crawley has pointed out, it by no means necessarily involves
+the degradation of women, certainly tends to place them in an inferior
+position, and (2) pre-occupation with war which is always accompanied by a
+depreciation of peaceful and feminine occupations and an indifference to
+love. Christianity was at its origin favorable to women because it
+liberated and glorified the most essentially feminine emotions, but when
+it became an established and organized religion with definitely ascetic
+ideals, its whole emotional tone grew unfavorable to women. It had from
+the first excluded them from any priestly function. It now regarded them
+as the special representatives of the despised element of sex in
+life.[290] The eccentric Tertullian had once declared that woman was
+_janua Diaboli_; nearly seven hundred years later, even the gentle and
+philosophic Anselm wrote: _Femina fax est Satanae_.[291]
+
+    Thus among the Franks, with whom the practice of monogamy
+    prevailed, a woman was never free; she could not buy or sell or
+    inherit without the permission of those to whom she belonged. She
+    passed into the possession of her husband by acquisition, and
+    when he fixed the wedding day he gave her parents coins of small
+    money as _arrha_, and the day after the wedding she received from
+    him a present, the _morgengabe_. A widow belonged to her parents
+    again (Bedolliere, _Histoire de Moeurs des Francais_,
+    vol. i, p. 180). It is true that the Salic law ordained a
+    pecuniary fine for touching a woman, even for squeezing her
+    finger, but it is clear that the offence thus committed was an
+    offence against property, and by no means against the sanctity of
+    a woman's personality. The primitive German husband could sell
+    his children, and sometimes his wife, even into slavery. In the
+    eleventh century cases of wife-selling are still heard of, though
+    no longer recognized by law.
+
+    The traditions of Christianity were more favorable to sexual
+    equality than were Teutonic customs, but in becoming amalgamated
+    with those customs they added their own special contribution as
+    to woman's impurity. This spiritual inferiority of woman was
+    significantly shown by the restrictions sometimes placed on women
+    in church, and even in the right to enter a church; in some
+    places they were compelled to remain in the narthex, even in
+    non-monastic churches (see for these rules, Smith and Cheetham,
+    _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, art. "Sexes, Separation
+    of").
+
+    By attempting to desexualize the idea of man and to oversexualize
+    the idea of woman, Christianity necessarily degraded the position
+    of woman and the conception of womanhood. As Donaldson well
+    remarks, in pointing this out (op. cit., p. 182), "I may define
+    man as a male human being and woman as a female human being....
+    What the early Christians did was to strike the 'male' out of the
+    definition of man, and 'human being' out of the definition of
+    woman." Religion generally appears to be a powerfully depressing
+    influence on the position of woman notwithstanding the appeal
+    which it makes to woman. Westermarck considers, indeed (_Origin
+    and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 669), that
+    religion "has probably been the most persistent cause of the
+    wife's subjection to her husband's rule."
+
+    It is sometimes said that the Christian tendency to place women
+    in an inferior spiritual position went so far that a church
+    council formally denied that women have souls. This foolish story
+    has indeed been repeated in a parrot-like fashion by a number of
+    writers. The source of the story is probably to be found in the
+    fact, recorded by Gregory of Tours, in his history (lib. viii,
+    cap. XX), that at the Council of Macon, in 585, a bishop was in
+    doubt as to whether the term "man" included woman, but was
+    convinced by the other members of the Council that it did. The
+    same difficulty has presented itself to lawyers in more modern
+    times, and has not always been resolved so favorably to woman as
+    by the Christian Council of Macon.
+
+    The low estimate of women that prevailed even in the early Church
+    is admitted by Christian scholars. "We cannot but notice," writes
+    Meyrick (art. "Marriage," Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of
+    Christian Antiquities_), "even in the greatest of the Christian
+    fathers a lamentably low estimate of woman, and consequently of
+    the marriage relationship. Even St. Augustine can see no
+    justification for marriage, except in a grave desire deliberately
+    adopted of having children; and in accordance with this view, all
+    married intercourse, except for this single purpose, is harshly
+    condemned. If marriage is sought after for the sake of children,
+    it is justifiable; if entered into as a _remedium_ to avoid worse
+    evils, it is pardonable; the idea of the mutual society, help,
+    and comfort that the one ought to have of the other, both in
+    prosperity and adversity, hardly existed, and could hardly yet
+    exist."
+
+    From the woman's point of view, Lily Braun, in her important work
+    on the woman question (_Die Frauenfrage_, 1901, pp. 28 et seq.)
+    concludes that, in so far as Christianity was favorable to women,
+    we must see that favorable influence in the placing of women on
+    the same moral level as men, as illustrated in the saying of
+    Jesus, "Let him who is without sin amongst you cast the first
+    stone," implying that each sex owes the same fidelity. It
+    reached, she adds, no further than this. "Christianity, which
+    women accepted as a deliverance with so much enthusiasm, and died
+    for as martyrs, has not fulfilled their hopes."
+
+    Even as regards the moral equality of the sexes in marriage, the
+    position of Christian authorities was sometimes equivocal. One of
+    the greatest of the Fathers, St. Basil, in the latter half of the
+    fourth century, distinguished between adultery and fornication as
+    committed by a married man; if with a married woman, it was
+    adultery; if with an unmarried woman, it was merely fornication.
+    In the former case, a wife should not receive her husband back;
+    in the latter case, she should (art. "Adultery," Smith and
+    Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_). Such a
+    decision, by attaching supreme importance to a distinction which
+    could make no difference to the wife, involved a failure to
+    recognize her moral personality. Many of the Fathers in the
+    Western Church, however, like Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose,
+    could see no reason why the moral law should not be the same for
+    the husband as for the wife, but as late Roman feeling both on
+    the legal and popular side was already approximating to that
+    view, the influence of Christianity was scarcely required to
+    attain it. It ultimately received formal sanction in the Roman
+    Canon Law, which decreed that adultery is equally committed by
+    either conjugal party in two degrees: (1) _simplex_, of the
+    married with the unmarried, and (2) _duplex_, of the married with
+    the married.
+
+    It can scarcely be said, however, that Christianity succeeded in
+    attaining the inclusion of this view of the moral equality of the
+    sexes into actual practical morality. It was accepted in theory;
+    it was not followed in practice. W.G. Sumner, discussing this
+    question (_Folkways_, pp. 359-361), concludes: "Why are these
+    views not in the _mores?_ Undoubtedly it is because they are
+    dogmatic in form, invented or imposed by theological authority or
+    philosophical speculation. They do not grow out of the experience
+    of life, and cannot be verified by it. The reasons are in
+    ultimate physiological facts, by virtue of which one is a woman
+    and the other is a man." There is, however, more to be said on
+    this point later.
+
+It was probably, however, not so much the Church as Teutonic customs and
+the development of the feudal system, with the masculine and military
+ideals it fostered, that was chiefly decisive in fixing the inferior
+position of women in the mediaeval world. Even the ideas of chivalry, which
+have often been supposed to be peculiarly favorable to women, so far as
+they affected women seem to have been of little practical significance.
+
+    In his great work on chivalry Gautier brings forward much
+    evidence to show that the feudal spirit, like the military spirit
+    always and everywhere, on the whole involved at bottom a disdain
+    for women, even though it occasionally idealized them. "Go into
+    your painted and gilded rooms," we read in _Renaus de Montauban_,
+    "sit in the shade, make yourselves comfortable, drink, eat, work
+    tapestry, dye silk, but remember that you must not occupy
+    yourselves with our affairs. Our business is to strike with the
+    steel sword. Silence!" And if the woman insists she is struck on
+    the face till the blood comes. The husband had a legal right to
+    beat his wife, not only for adultery, but even for contradicting
+    him. Women were not, however, entirely without power, and in a
+    thirteenth century collection of _Coutumes_, it is set down that
+    a husband must only beat his wife reasonably, _resnablement_. (As
+    regards the husband's right to chastise his wife, see also
+    Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. i, p. 234. In England it
+    was not until the reign of Charles II, from which so many modern
+    movements date, that the husband was deprived of this legal
+    right.)
+
+    In the eyes of a feudal knight, it may be added, the beauty of a
+    horse competed, often successfully, with the beauty of a woman.
+    In _Girbers de Metz_, two knights, Garin and his cousin Girbert,
+    ride by a window at which sits a beautiful girl with the face of
+    a rose and the white flesh of a lily. "Look, cousin Girbert,
+    look! By Saint Mary, a beautiful woman!" "Ah," Girbert replies,
+    "a beautiful beast is my horse!" "I have never seen anything so
+    charming as that young girl with her fresh color and her dark
+    eyes," says Garin. "I know no steed to compare with mine,"
+    retorts Girbert. When the men were thus absorbed in the things
+    that pertain to war, it is not surprising that amorous advances
+    were left to young girls to make. "In all the _chansons de
+    geste_," Gautier remarks, "it is the young girls who make the
+    advances, often with effrontery," though, he adds, wives are
+    represented as more virtuous (L. Gautier, _La Chevalerie_, pp.
+    236-8, 348-50).
+
+    In England Pollock and Maitland (_History of English Law_, vol.
+    ii, p. 437) do not believe that a life-long tutela of women ever
+    existed as among other Teutonic peoples. "From the Conquest
+    onwards," Hobhouse states (op. cit., vol. i, p. 224), "the
+    unmarried English woman, on attaining her majority, becomes
+    fully equipped with all legal and civil rights, as much a legal
+    personality as the Babylonian woman had been three thousand years
+    before." But the developed English law more than made up for any
+    privileges thus accorded to the unmarried by the inconsistent
+    manner in which it swathed up the wife in endless folds of
+    irresponsibility, except when she committed the supreme offence
+    of injuring her lord and master. The English wife, as Hobhouse
+    continues (loc. cit.) was, if not her husband's slave, at any
+    rate his liege subject; if she killed him it was "petty treason,"
+    the revolt of a subject against a sovereign in a miniature
+    kingdom, and a more serious offence than murder. Murder she could
+    not commit in his presence, for her personality was merged in
+    him; he was responsible for most of her crimes and offences (it
+    was that fact which gave him the right to chastise her), and he
+    could not even enter into a contract with her, for that would be
+    entering into a contract with himself. "The very being and legal
+    existence of a woman is suspended during marriage," said
+    Blackstone, "or at least is incorporated and consolidated into
+    that of her husband, under whose wing, protection and cover she
+    performs everything. So great a favorite," he added, "is the
+    female sex of the laws of England." "The strength of woman," says
+    Hobhouse, interpreting the sense of the English law, "was her
+    weakness. She conquered by yielding. Her gentleness had to be
+    guarded from the turmoil of the world, her fragrance to be kept
+    sweet and fresh, away from the dust and the smoke of battle.
+    Hence her need of a champion and guardian."
+
+    In France the wife of the mediaeval and Renaissance periods
+    occupied much the same position in her husband's house. He was
+    her absolute master and lord, the head and soul of "the feminine
+    and feeble creature" who owed to him "perfect love and
+    obedience." She was his chief servant, the eldest of his
+    children, his wife and subject; she signed herself "your humble
+    obedient daughter and friend," when she wrote to him. The
+    historian, De Maulde la Claviere, who has brought together
+    evidence on this point in his _Femmes de la Renaissance_, remarks
+    that even though the husband enjoyed this lofty and superior
+    position in marriage, it was still generally he, and not the
+    wife, who complained of the hardships of marriage.
+
+Law and custom assumed that a woman should be more or less under the
+protection of a man, and even the ideals of fine womanhood which arose in
+this society, during feudal and later times, were necessarily tinged by
+the same conception. It involved the inequality of women as compared with
+men, but under the social conditions of a feudal society such inequality
+was to woman's advantage. Masculine force was the determining factor in
+life and it was necessary that every woman should have a portion of this
+force on her side. This sound and reasonable idea naturally tended to
+persist even after the growth of civilization rendered force a much less
+decisive factor in social life. In England in Queen Elizabeth's time no
+woman must be masterless, although the feminine subjects of Queen
+Elizabeth had in their sovereign the object lesson of a woman who could
+play a very brilliant and effective part in life and yet remain absolutely
+masterless. Still later, in the eighteenth century, even so fine a
+moralist as Shaftesbury, in his _Characteristics_, refers to lovers of
+married women as invaders of property. If such conceptions still ruled
+even in the best minds, it is not surprising that in the same century,
+even in the following century, they were carried out into practice by less
+educated people who frankly bought and sold women.
+
+    Schrader, in his _Reallexicon_ (art. "Brautkauf"), points out
+    that, originally, the purchase of a wife was the purchase of her
+    person, and not merely of the right of protecting her. The
+    original conception probably persisted long in Great Britain on
+    account of its remoteness from the centres of civilization. In
+    the eleventh century Gregory VII desired Lanfranc to stop the
+    sale of wives in Scotland and elsewhere in the island of the
+    English (Pike, _History of Crime in England_, vol. i, p. 99). The
+    practice never quite died out, however, in remote country
+    districts.
+
+    Such transactions have taken place even in London. Thus in the
+    _Annual Register_ for 1767 (p. 99) we read: "About three weeks
+    ago a bricklayer's laborer at Marylebone sold a woman, whom he
+    had cohabited with for several years, to a fellow-workman for a
+    quarter guinea and a gallon of beer. The workman went off with
+    the purchase, and she has since had the good fortune to have a
+    legacy of L200, and some plate, left her by a deceased uncle in
+    Devonshire. The parties were married last Friday."
+
+    The Rev. J. Edward Vaux (_Church Folk-lore_, second edition, p.
+    146) narrates two authentic cases in which women had been bought
+    by their husbands in open market in the nineteenth century. In
+    one case the wife, with her own full consent, was brought to
+    market with a halter round her neck, sold for half a crown, and
+    led to her new home, twelve miles off by the new husband who had
+    purchased her; in the other case a publican bought another man's
+    wife for a two-gallon jar of gin.
+
+    It is the same conception of woman as property which, even to the
+    present, has caused the retention in many legal codes of clauses
+    rendering a man liable to pay pecuniary damages to a woman,
+    previously a virgin, whom he has intercourse with and
+    subsequently forsakes (Natalie Fuchs, "Die Jungfernschaft im
+    Recht und Sitte," _Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1908). The woman is
+    "dishonored" by sexual intercourse, depreciated in her market
+    value, exactly as a new garment becomes "second-hand," even if it
+    has but once been worn. A man, on the other hand, would disdain
+    the idea that his personal value could be diminished by any
+    number of acts of sexual intercourse.
+
+    This fact has even led some to advocate the "abolition of
+    physical virginity." Thus the German authoress of _Una
+    Poenitentium_ (1907), considering that the protection of a woman
+    is by no means so well secured by a little piece of membrane as
+    by the presence of a true and watchful soul inside, advocates the
+    operation of removal of the hymen in childhood. It is undoubtedly
+    true that the undue importance attached to the hymen has led to a
+    false conception of feminine "honor," and to an unwholesome
+    conception of feminine purity.
+
+Custom and law are slowly changing in harmony with changed social
+conditions which no longer demand the subjection of women either in their
+own interests or in the interests of the community. Concomitantly with
+these changes a different ideal of womanly personality is developing. It
+is true that the ancient ideal of the lordship of the husband over the
+wife is still more or less consciously affirmed around us. The husband
+frequently dictates to the wife what avocations she may not pursue, what
+places she may not visit, what people she may not know, what books she may
+not read. He assumes to control her, even in personal matters having no
+direct concern with himself, by virtue of the old masculine prerogative of
+force which placed a woman under the hand, as the ancient patriarchal
+legists termed it, of a man. It is, however, becoming more and more widely
+recognized that such a part is not suited to the modern man. The modern
+man, as Rosa Mayreder has pointed out in a thoughtful essay,[292] is no
+longer equipped to play this domineering part in relation to his wife. The
+"noble savage," leading a wild life on mountain and in forest, hunting
+dangerous beasts and scalping enemies when necessary, may occasionally
+bring his club gently and effectively on to the head of his wife, even, it
+may be, with grateful appreciation on her part.[293] But the modern man,
+who for the most part spends his days tamely at a desk, who has been
+trained to endure silently the insults and humiliations which superior
+officials or patronizing clients may inflict upon him, this typical modern
+man is no longer able to assume effectually the part of the "noble savage"
+when he returns to his home. He is indeed so unfitted for the part that
+his wife resents his attempts to play it. He is gradually recognizing
+this, even apart from any consciousness of the general trend of
+civilization. The modern man of ideas recognizes that, as a matter of
+principle, his wife is entitled to equality with himself; the modern man
+of the world feels that it would be both ridiculous and inconvenient not
+to accord his wife much the same kind of freedom which he himself
+possesses. And, moreover, while the modern man has to some extent acquired
+feminine qualities, the modern woman has to a corresponding extent
+acquired masculine qualities.
+
+Brief and summary as the preceding discussion has necessarily been, it
+will have served to bring us face to face with the central fact in the
+sexual morality which the growth of civilization has at the present day
+rendered inevitable: personal responsibility. "The responsible human
+being, man or woman, is the centre of modern ethics as of modern law;"
+that is the conclusion reached by Hobhouse in his discussion of the
+evolution of human morality.[294] The movement which is taking place among
+us to liberate sexual relationships from an excessive bondage to fixed and
+arbitrary regulations would have been impossible and mischievous but for
+the concomitant growth of a sense of personal responsibility in the
+members of the community. It could not indeed have subsisted for a single
+year without degenerating into license and disorder. Freedom in sexual
+relations involves mutual trust and that can only rest on a basis of
+personal responsibility. Where there can be no reliance on personal
+responsibility there can be no freedom. In most fields of moral action
+this sense of personal responsibility is acquired at a fairly early stage
+of social progress. Sexual morality is the last field of morality to be
+brought within the sphere of personal responsibility. The community
+imposes the most varied, complicated, and artificial codes of sexual
+morality on its members, especially its feminine members, and, naturally
+enough, it is always very suspicious of their ability to observe these
+codes, and is careful to allow them, so far as possible, no personal
+responsibility in the matter. But a training in restraint, when carried
+through a long series of generations, is the best preparation for freedom.
+The law laid on the earlier generations, as old theology stated the
+matter, has been the schoolmaster to bring the later generations to
+Christ; or, as new science expresses exactly the same idea, the later
+generations have become immunized and have finally acquired a certain
+degree of protection against the virus which would have destroyed the
+earlier generations.
+
+    The process by which a people acquires the sense of personal
+    responsibility is slow, and perhaps it cannot be adequately
+    acquired at all by races lacking a high grade of nervous
+    organization. This is especially the case as regards sexual
+    morality, and has often been illustrated on the contact of a
+    higher with a lower civilization. It has constantly happened that
+    missionaries--entirely against their own wishes, it need not be
+    said--by overthrowing the strict moral system they have found
+    established, and by substituting the freedom of European customs
+    among people entirely unprepared for such freedom, have exerted
+    the most disastrous effects on morality. This has been the case
+    among the formerly well-organized and highly moral Baganda of
+    Central Africa, as recorded in an official report by Colonel
+    Lambkin (_British Medical Journal_, Oct. 3, 1908).
+
+    As regards Polynesia, also, R.L. Stevenson, in his interesting
+    book, _In the South Seas_ (Ch. V), pointed out that, while before
+    the coming of the whites the Polynesians were, on the whole,
+    chaste, and the young carefully watched, now it is far otherwise.
+
+    Even in Fiji, where, according to Lord Stanmore--who was High
+    Commissioner of the Pacific, and an independent
+    critic--missionary effort has been "wonderfully successful,"
+    where all own at least nominal allegiance to Christianity, which
+    has much modified life and character, yet chastity has suffered.
+    This was shown by a Royal Commission on the condition of the
+    native races in Fiji. Mr. Fitchett, commenting on this report
+    (Australasian _Review of Reviews_, Oct., 1897) remarks: "Not a
+    few witnesses examined by the commission declare that the moral
+    advance in Fiji is of a curiously patchy type. The abolition of
+    polygamy, for example, they say, has not told at every point in
+    favor of women. The woman is the toiler in Fiji; and when the
+    support of the husband was distributed over four wives, the
+    burden on each wife was less than it is now, when it has to be
+    carried by one. In heathen times female chastity was guarded by
+    the club; a faithless wife, an unmarried mother, was summarily
+    put to death. Christianity has abolished club-law, and purely
+    moral restraints, or the terror of the penalties of the next
+    world, do not, to the limited imagination of the Fijian, quite
+    take its place. So the standard of Fijian chastity is
+    distressingly low."
+
+    It must always be remembered that when the highly organized
+    primitive system of mixed spiritual and physical restraints is
+    removed, chastity becomes more delicately and unstably poised.
+    The controlling power of personal responsibility, valuable and
+    essential as it is, cannot permanently and unremittingly restrain
+    the volcanic forces of the passion of love even in high
+    civilizations. "No perfection of moral constitution in a woman,"
+    Hinlon has well said, "no power of will, no wish and resolution
+    to be 'good,' no force of religion or control of custom, can
+    secure what is called the virtue of woman. The emotion of
+    absolute devotion with which some man may inspire her will sweep
+    them all away. Society, in choosing to erect itself on that
+    basis, chooses inevitable disorder, and so long as it continues
+    to choose it will continue to have that result."
+
+It is necessary to insist for a while on this personal responsibility in
+matters of sexual morality, in the form in which it is making itself felt
+among us, and to search out its implications. The most important of these
+is undoubtedly economic independence. That is indeed so important that
+moral responsibility in any fine sense can scarcely be said to have any
+existence in its absence. Moral responsibility and economic independence
+are indeed really identical; they are but two sides of the same social
+fact. The responsible person is the person who is able to answer for his
+actions and, if need be, to pay for them. The economically dependent
+person can accept a criminal responsibility; he can, with an empty purse,
+go to prison or to death. But in the ordinary sphere of everyday morality
+that large penalty is not required of him; if he goes against the wishes
+of his family or his friends or his parish, they may turn their backs on
+him but they cannot usually demand against him the last penalties of the
+law. He can exert his own personal responsibility, he can freely choose to
+go his own way and to maintain himself in it before his fellowmen on one
+condition, that he is able to pay for it. His personal responsibility has
+little or no meaning except in so far as it is also economic independence.
+
+In civilized societies as they attain maturity, the women tend to acquire
+a greater and greater degree alike of moral responsibility and economic
+independence. Any freedom and seeming equality of women, even when it
+actually assumes the air of superiority, which is not so based, is unreal.
+It is only on sufferance; it is the freedom accorded to the child, because
+it asks for it so prettily or may scream if it is refused. This is merely
+parasitism.[295] The basis of economic independence ensures a more real
+freedom. Even in societies which by law and custom hold women in strict
+subordination, the woman who happens to be placed in possession of
+property enjoys a high degree alike of independence and of
+responsibility.[296] The growth of a high civilization seems indeed to be
+so closely identified with the economic freedom and independence of women
+that it is difficult to say which is cause and which effect. Herodotus, in
+his fascinating account of Egypt, a land which he regarded as admirable
+beyond all other lands, noted with surprise that, totally unlike the
+fashion of Greece, women left the men at home to the management of the
+loom and went to market to transact the business of commerce.[297] It is
+the economic factor in social life which secures the moral responsibility
+of women and which chiefly determines the position of the wife in relation
+to her husband.[298] In this respect in its late stages civilization
+returns to the same point it had occupied at the beginning, when, as has
+already been noted, we find greater equality with men and at the same time
+greater economic independence.[299]
+
+In all the leading modern civilized countries, for a century past, custom
+and law have combined to give an ever greater economic independence to
+women. In some respects England took the lead by inaugurating the great
+industrial movement which slowly swept women into its ranks,[300] and made
+inevitable the legal changes which, by 1882, insured to a married woman
+the possession of her own earnings. The same movement, with its same
+consequences, is going on elsewhere. In the United States, just as in
+England, there is a vast army of five million women, rapidly increasing,
+who earn their own living, and their position in relation to men workers
+is even better than in England. In France from twenty-five to seventy-five
+per cent. of the workers in most of the chief industries--the liberal
+professions, commerce, agriculture, factory industries--are women, and in
+some of the very largest, such as home industries and textile industries,
+more women are employed than men. In Japan, it is said, three-fifths of
+the factory workers are women, and all the textile industries are in the
+hands of women.[301] This movement is the outward expression of the modern
+conception of personal rights, personal moral worth, and personal
+responsibility, which, as Hobhouse has remarked, has compelled women to
+take their lives into their own hands, and has at the same time rendered
+the ancient marriage laws an anachronism, and the ancient ideals of
+feminine innocence shrouded from the world a mere piece of false
+sentiment.[302]
+
+    There can be no doubt that the entrance of women into the field
+    of industrial work, in rivalry with men and under somewhat the
+    same conditions as men, raises serious questions of another
+    order. The general tendency of civilization towards the economic
+    independence and the moral responsibility of women is
+    unquestionable. But it is by no means absolutely clear that it is
+    best for women, and, therefore, for the community, that women
+    should exercise all the ordinary avocations and professions of
+    men on the same level as men. Not only have the conditions of the
+    avocations and professions developed in accordance with the
+    special aptitudes of men, but the fact that the sexual processes
+    by which the race is propagated demand an incomparably greater
+    expenditure of time and energy on the part of women than of men,
+    precludes women in the mass from devoting themselves so
+    exclusively as men to industrial work. For some biologists,
+    indeed, it seems clear that outside the home and the school women
+    should not work at all. "Any nation that works its women is
+    damned," says Woods Hutchinson (_The Gospel According to Darwin_,
+    p. 199). That view is extreme. Yet from the economic side, also,
+    Hobson, in summing up this question, regards the tendency of
+    machine-industry to drive women away from the home as "a tendency
+    antagonistic to civilization." The neglect of the home, he
+    states, is, "on the whole, the worst injury modern industry has
+    inflicted on our lives, and it is difficult to see how it can be
+    compensated by any increase of material products. Factory life
+    for women, save in extremely rare cases, saps the physical and
+    moral health of the family. The exigencies of factory life are
+    inconsistent with the position of a good mother, a good wife, or
+    the maker of a home. Save in extreme circumstances, no increase
+    of the family wage can balance these losses, whose values stand
+    upon a higher qualitative level" (J.A. Hobson, _Evolution of
+    Modern Capitalism_, Ch. XII; cf. what has been said in Ch. I of
+    the present volume). It is now beginning to be recognized that
+    the early pioneers of the "woman's movement" in working to remove
+    the "subjection of woman" were still dominated by the old ideals
+    of that subjection, according to which the masculine is in all
+    main respects the superior sex. Whatever was good for man, they
+    thought, must be equally good for woman. That has been the source
+    of all that was unbalanced and unstable, sometimes both a little
+    pathetic and a little absurd, in the old "woman's movement."
+    There was a failure to perceive that, first of all, women must
+    claim their right to their own womanhood as mothers of the race,
+    and thereby the supreme law-givers in the sphere of sex and the
+    large part of life dependent on sex. This special position of
+    woman seems likely to require a readjustment of economic
+    conditions to their needs, though it is not likely that such
+    readjustment would be permitted to affect their independence or
+    their responsibility. We have had, as Madame Juliette Adam has
+    put it, the rights of men sacrificing women, followed by the
+    rights of women sacrificing the child; that must be followed by
+    the rights of the child reconstituting the family. It has already
+    been necessary to touch on this point in the first chapter of
+    this volume, and it will again be necessary in the last chapter.
+
+The question as to the method by which the economic independence of women
+will be completely insured, and the part which the community may be
+expected to take in insuring it, on the ground of woman's special
+child-bearing functions, is from the present point of view subsidiary.
+There can be no doubt, however, as to the reality of the movement in that
+direction, whatever doubt there may be as to the final adjustment of the
+details. It is only necessary in this place to touch on some of the
+general and more obvious respects in which the growth of woman's
+responsibility is affecting sexual morality.
+
+The first and most obvious way in which the sense of moral responsibility
+works is in an insistence on reality in the relationships of sex. Moral
+irresponsibility has too often combined with economic dependence to induce
+a woman to treat the sexual event in her life which is biologically of
+most fateful gravity as a merely gay and trivial event, at the most an
+event which has given her a triumph over her rivals and over the superior
+male, who, on his part, willingly condescends, for the moment, to assume
+the part of the vanquished. "Gallantry to the ladies," we are told of the
+hero of the greatest and most typical of English novels, "was among his
+principles of honor, and he held it as much incumbent on him to accept a
+challenge to love as if it had been a challenge to fight;" he heroically
+goes home for the night with a lady of title he meets at a masquerade,
+though at the time very much in love with the girl whom he eventually
+marries.[303] The woman whose power lies only in her charms, and who is
+free to allow the burden of responsibility to fall on a man's
+shoulder,[304] could lightly play the seducing part, and thereby exert
+independence and authority in the only shapes open to her. The man on his
+part, introducing the misplaced idea of "honor" into the field from which
+the natural idea of responsibility has been banished, is prepared to
+descend at the lady's bidding into the arena, according to the old legend,
+and rescue the glove, even though he afterwards flings it contemptuously
+in her face. The ancient conception of gallantry, which Tom Jones so well
+embodies, is the direct outcome of a system involving the moral
+irresponsibility and economic dependence of women, and is as opposed to
+the conceptions, prevailing in the earlier and later civilized stages, of
+approximate sexual equality as it is to the biological traditions of
+natural courtship in the world generally.
+
+In controlling her own sexual life, and in realizing that her
+responsibility for such control can no longer be shifted on to the
+shoulders of the other sex, women will also indirectly affect the sexual
+lives of men, much as men already affect the sexual lives of women. In
+what ways that influence will in the main be exerted it is still premature
+to say. According to some, just as formerly men bought their wives and
+demanded prenuptial virginity in the article thus purchased, so nowadays,
+among the better classes, women are able to buy their husbands, and in
+their turn are disposed to demand continence.[305] That, however, is too
+simple-minded a way of viewing the question. It is enough to refer to the
+fact that women are not attracted to virginal innocence in men and that
+they frequently have good ground for viewing such innocence with
+suspicion.[306] Yet it may well be believed that women will more and more
+prefer to exert a certain discrimination in the approval of their
+husbands' past lives. However instinctively a woman may desire that her
+husband shall be initiated in the art of making love to her, she may often
+well doubt whether the finest initiation is to be secured from the average
+prostitute. Prostitution, as we have seen, is ultimately as incompatible
+with complete sexual responsibility as is the patriarchal marriage system
+with which it has been so closely associated. It is an arrangement mainly
+determined by the demands of men, to whatever extent it may have
+incidentally subserved various needs of women. Men arranged that one group
+of women should be set apart to minister exclusively to their sexual
+necessities, while another group should be brought up in asceticism as
+candidates for the privilege of ministering to their household and family
+necessities. That this has been in many respects a most excellent
+arrangement is sufficiently proved by the fact that it has nourished for
+so long a period, notwithstanding the influences that are antagonistic to
+it. But it is obviously only possible during a certain stage of
+civilization and in association with a certain social organization. It is
+not completely congruous with a democratic stage of civilization involving
+the economic independence and the sexual responsibility of both sexes
+alike in all social classes. It is possible that women may begin to
+realize this fact earlier than men.
+
+It is also believed by many that women will realize that a high degree of
+moral responsibility is not easily compatible with the practice of
+dissimulation and that economic independence will deprive deceit--which is
+always the resort of the weak--of whatever moral justification it may
+possess. Here, however, it is necessary to speak with caution or we may be
+unjust to women. It must be remarked that in the sphere of sex men also
+are often the weak, and are therefore apt to resort to the refuge of the
+weak. With the recognition of that fact we may also recognize that
+deception in women has been the cause of much of the age-long blunders of
+the masculine mind in the contemplation of feminine ways. Men have
+constantly committed the double error of overlooking the dissimulation of
+women and of over-estimating it. This fact has always served to render
+more difficult still the inevitably difficult course of women through the
+devious path of sexual behavior. Pepys, who represents so vividly and so
+frankly the vices and virtues of the ordinary masculine mind, tells how
+one day when he called to see Mrs. Martin her sister Doll went out for a
+bottle of wine and came back indignant because a Dutchman had pulled her
+into a stable and tumbled and tossed her. Pepys having been himself often
+permitted to take liberties with her, it seemed to him that her
+indignation with the Dutchman was "the best instance of woman's falseness
+in the world."[307] He assumes without question that a woman who has
+accorded the privilege of familiarity to a man she knows and, one hopes,
+respects, would be prepared to accept complacently the brutal attentions
+of the first drunken stranger she meets in the street.
+
+It was the assumption of woman's falseness which led the ultra-masculine
+Pepys into a sufficiently absurd error. At this point, indeed, we
+encounter what has seemed to some a serious obstacle to the full moral
+responsibility of women. Dissimulation, Lombroso and Ferrero argue, is in
+woman "almost physiological," and they give various grounds for this
+conclusion.[308] The theologians, on their side, have reached a similar
+conclusion. "A confessor must not immediately believe a woman's words,"
+says Father Gury, "for women are habitually inclined to lie."[309] This
+tendency, which seems to be commonly believed to affect women as a sex,
+however free from it a vast number of individual women are, may be said,
+and with truth, to be largely the result of the subjection of women and
+therefore likely to disappear as that subjection disappears. In so far,
+however, as it is "almost physiological," and based on radical feminine
+characters, such as modesty, affectability, and sympathy, which have an
+organic basis in the feminine constitution and can therefore never
+altogether be changed, feminine dissimulation seems scarcely likely to
+disappear. The utmost that can be expected is that it should be held in
+check by the developed sense of moral responsibility, and, being reduced
+to its simply natural proportions, become recognizably intelligible.
+
+    It is unnecessary to remark that there can be no question here as
+    to any inherent moral superiority of one sex over the other. The
+    answer to that question was well stated many years ago by one of
+    the most subtle moralists of love. "Taken altogether," concluded
+    Senancour (_De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 85), "we have no reason to
+    assert the moral superiority of either sex. Both sexes, with
+    their errors and their good intentions, very equally fulfil the
+    ends of nature. We may well believe that in either of the two
+    divisions of the human species the sum of evil and that of good
+    are about equal. If, for instance, as regards love, we oppose the
+    visibly licentious conduct of men to the apparent reserve of
+    women, it would be a vain valuation, for the number of faults
+    committed by women with men is necessarily the same as that of
+    men with women. There exist among us fewer scrupulous men than
+    perfectly honest women, but it is easy to see how the balance is
+    restored. If this question of the moral preeminence of one sex
+    over the other were not insoluble it would still remain very
+    complicated with reference to the whole of the species, or even
+    the whole of a nation, and any dispute here seems idle."
+
+    This conclusion is in accordance with the general compensatory
+    and complementary relationship of women to men (see, e.g.,
+    Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth edition, especially pp.
+    448 et seq.).
+
+    In a recent symposium on the question whether women are morally
+    inferior to men, with special reference to aptitude for loyalty
+    (_La Revue_, Jan. 1, 1909), to which various distinguished French
+    men and women contributed their opinions, some declared that
+    women are usually superior; others regarded it as a question of
+    difference rather than of superiority or inferiority; all were
+    agreed that when they enjoy the same independence as men, women
+    are quite as loyal as men.
+
+It is undoubtedly true that--partly as a result of ancient traditions and
+education, partly of genuine feminine characteristics--many women are
+diffident as to their right to moral responsibility and unwilling to
+assume it. And an attempt is made to justify their attitude by asserting
+that woman's part in life is naturally that of self-sacrifice, or, to put
+the statement in a somewhat more technical form, that women are naturally
+masochistic; and that there is, as Krafft-Ebing argues, a natural "sexual
+subjection" of woman. It is by no means clear that this statement is
+absolutely true, and if it were true it would not serve to abolish the
+moral responsibility of women.
+
+    Bloch (_Beitraege zur AEtiologie der Psychopathia Sexualis_, Part
+    II, p. 178), in agreement with Eulenburg, energetically denies
+    that there is any such natural "sexual subjection" of women,
+    regarding it as artificially produced, the result of the socially
+    inferior position of women, and arguing that such subjection is
+    in much higher degree a physiological characteristic of men than
+    of women. (It has been necessary to discuss this question in
+    dealing with "Love and Pain" in the third volume of these
+    _Studies_.) It seems certainly clear that the notion that women
+    are especially prone to self-sacrifice has little biological
+    validity. Self-sacrifice by compulsion, whether physical or moral
+    compulsion, is not worthy of the name; when it is deliberate it
+    is simply the sacrifice of a lesser good for the sake of a
+    greater good. Doubtless a man who eats a good dinner may be said
+    to "sacrifice" his hunger. Even within the sphere of traditional
+    morality a woman who sacrifices her "honor" for the sake of her
+    love to a man has, by her "sacrifice," gained something that she
+    values more. "What a triumph it is to a woman," a woman has said,
+    "to give pleasure to a man she loves!" And in a morality on a
+    sound biological basis no "sacrifice" is here called for. It may
+    rather be said that the biological laws of courtship
+    fundamentally demand self-sacrifice of the male rather than of
+    the female. Thus the lioness, according to Gerard the
+    lion-hunter, gives herself to the most vigorous of her lion
+    wooers; she encourages them to fight among themselves for
+    superiority, lying on her belly to gaze at the combat and lashing
+    her tail with delight. Every female is wooed by many males, but
+    she only accepts one; it is not the female who is called upon for
+    erotic self-sacrifice, but the male. That is indeed part of the
+    divine compensation of Nature, for since the heavier part of the
+    burden of sex rests on the female, it is fitting that she should
+    be less called upon for renunciation.
+
+It thus seems probable that the increase of moral responsibility may tend
+to make a woman's conduct more intelligible to others;[310] it will in any
+case certainly tend to make it less the concern of others. This is
+emphatically the case as regards the relations of sex. In the past men
+have been invited to excel in many forms of virtue; only one virtue has
+been open to women. That is no longer possible. To place upon a woman the
+main responsibility for her own sexual conduct is to deprive that conduct
+of its conspicuously public character as a virtue or a vice. Sexual union,
+for a woman as much as for a man, is a physiological fact; it may also be
+a spiritual fact; but it is not a social act. It is, on the contrary, an
+act which, beyond all other acts, demands retirement and mystery for its
+accomplishment. That indeed is a general human, almost zooelogical, fact.
+Moreover, this demand of mystery is more especially made by woman in
+virtue of her greater modesty which, we have found reason to believe, has
+a biological basis. It is not until a child is born or conceived that the
+community has any right to interest itself in the sexual acts of its
+members. The sexual act is of no more concern to the community than any
+other private physiological act. It is an impertinence, if not an outrage,
+to seek to inquire into it. But the birth of a child is a social act. Not
+what goes into the womb but what comes out of it concerns society. The
+community is invited to receive a new citizen. It is entitled to demand
+that that citizen shall be worthy of a place in its midst and that he
+shall be properly introduced by a responsible father and a responsible
+mother. The whole of sexual morality, as Ellen Key has said, revolves
+round the child.
+
+At this final point in our discussion of sexual morality we may perhaps be
+able to realize the immensity of the change which has been involved by the
+development in women of moral responsibility. So long as responsibility
+was denied to women, so long as a father or a husband, backed up by the
+community, held himself responsible for a woman's sexual behavior, for
+her "virtue," it was necessary that the whole of sexual morality should
+revolve around the entrance to the vagina. It became absolutely essential
+to the maintenance of morality that all eyes in the community should be
+constantly directed on to that point, and the whole marriage law had to be
+adjusted accordingly. That is no longer possible. When a woman assumes her
+own moral responsibility, in sexual as in other matters, it becomes not
+only intolerable but meaningless for the community to pry into her most
+intimate physiological or spiritual acts. She is herself directly
+responsible to society as soon as she performs a social act, and not
+before.
+
+In relation to the fact of maternity the realization of all that is
+involved in the new moral responsibility of women is especially
+significant. Under a system of morality by which a man is left free to
+accept the responsibility for his sexual acts while a woman is not equally
+free to do the like, a premium is placed on sexual acts which have no end
+in procreation, and a penalty is placed on the acts which lead to
+procreation. The reason is that it is the former class of acts in which
+men find chief gratification; it is the latter class in which women find
+chief gratification. For the tragic part of the old sexual morality in its
+bearing on women was that while it made men alone morally responsible for
+sexual acts in which both a man and a woman took part, women were rendered
+both socially and legally incapable of availing themselves of the fact of
+masculine responsibility unless they had fulfilled conditions which men
+had laid down for them, and yet refrained from imposing upon themselves.
+The act of sexual intercourse, being the sexual act in which men found
+chief pleasure, was under all circumstances an act of little social
+gravity; the act of bringing a child into the world, which is for women
+the most massively gratifying of all sexual acts, was counted a crime
+unless the mother had before fulfilled the conditions demanded by man.
+That was perhaps the most unfortunate and certainly the most unnatural of
+the results of the patriarchal regulation of society. It has never existed
+in any great State where women have possessed some degree of regulative
+power.
+
+    It has, of course, been said by abstract theorists that women
+    have the matter in their own hands. They must never love a man
+    until they have safely locked him up in the legal bonds of
+    matrimony. Such an argument is absolutely futile, for it ignores
+    the fact that, while love and even monogamy are natural, legal
+    marriage is merely an external form, with a very feeble power of
+    subjugating natural impulses, except when those impulses are
+    weak, and no power at all of subjugating them permanently.
+    Civilization involves the growth of foresight, and of
+    self-control in both sexes; but it is foolish to attempt to place
+    on these fine and ultimate outgrowths of civilization a strain
+    which they could never bear. How foolish it is has been shown,
+    once and for all, by Lea in his admirable _History of Sacerdotal
+    Celibacy_.
+
+    Moreover, when we compare the respective aptitudes of men and
+    women in this particular region, it must be remembered that men
+    possess a greater power of forethought and self-control than
+    women, notwithstanding the modesty and reserve of women. The
+    sexual sphere is immensely larger in women, so that when its
+    activity is once aroused it is much more difficult to master or
+    control. (The reasons were set out in detail in the discussion of
+    "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in volume iii of these _Studies_.)
+    It is, therefore, unfair to women, and unduly favors men, when
+    too heavy a premium is placed on forethought and self-restraint
+    in sexual matters. Since women play the predominant part in the
+    sexual field their natural demands, rather than those of men,
+    must furnish the standard.
+
+With the realization of the moral responsibility of women the natural
+relations of life spring back to their due biological adjustment.
+Motherhood is restored to its natural sacredness. It becomes the concern
+of the woman herself, and not of society nor of any individual, to
+determine the conditions under which the child shall be conceived. Society
+is entitled to require that the father shall in every case acknowledge the
+fact of his paternity, but it must leave the chief responsibility for all
+the circumstances of child-production to the mother. That is the point of
+view which is now gaining ground in all civilized lands both in theory and
+in practice.[311]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[257] E.g., E. Belfort Bax, _Outspoken Essays_, p. 6.
+
+[258] Such reasons are connected with communal welfare. "All immoral acts
+result in communal unhappiness, all moral acts in communal happiness," as
+Prof. A. Mathews remarks, "Science and Morality," _Popular Science
+Monthly_, March, 1909.
+
+[259] See Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol.
+i, pp. 386-390, 522.
+
+[260] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, pp. 9,
+159; also the whole of Ch. VII. Actions that are in accordance with custom
+call forth public approval, actions that are opposed to custom call forth
+public resentment, and Westermarck powerfully argues that such approval
+and such resentment are the foundation of moral judgments.
+
+[261] This is well recognized by legal writers (e.g., E.A. Schroeder, _Das
+Recht in der Geschlechtlichen Ordnung_, p. 5).
+
+[262] W.G. Sumner (_Folkways_, p. 418) even considers it desirable to
+change the form of the word in order to emphasize the real and fundamental
+meaning of morals, and proposes the word _mores_ to indicate "popular
+usages and traditions conducive to societal reform." "'Immoral,'" he
+points out, "never means anything but contrary to the _mores_ of the time
+and place." There is, however, no need whatever to abolish or to
+supplement the good old ancient word "morality," so long as we clearly
+realize that, on the practical side, it means essentially custom.
+
+[263] Westermarck, op. cit., vol. i, p. 19.
+
+[264] See, e.g., "Exogamy and the Mating of Cousins," in _Essays Presented
+to E.B. Tylor_, 1907, p. 53. "In many departments of primitive life we
+find a naive desire to, as it were, assist Nature, to affirm what is
+normal, and later to confirm it by the categorical imperative of custom
+and law. This tendency still flourishes in our civilized communities, and,
+as the worship of the normal, is often a deadly foe to the abnormal and
+eccentric, and too often paralyzes originality."
+
+[265] The spirit of Christianity, as illustrated by Paulinus, in his
+_Epistle XXV_, was from the Roman point of view, as Dill remarks (_Roman
+Society_, p. 11), "a renunciation, not only of citizenship, but of all the
+hard-won fruits of civilization and social life."
+
+[266] It thus happens that, as Lecky said in his _History of European
+Morals_, "of all the departments of ethics the questions concerning the
+relations of the sexes and the proper position of woman are those upon the
+future of which there rests the greatest uncertainty." Some progress has
+perhaps been made since these words were written, but they still hold true
+for the majority of people.
+
+[267] Concerning economic marriage as a vestigial survival, see, e.g.,
+Bloch, _The Sexual Life of Our Time_, p. 212.
+
+[268] Senancour, _De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 233. The author of _The
+Question of English Divorce_ attributes the absence of any widespread
+feeling against sexual license to the absurd rigidity of the law.
+
+[269] Bruno Meyer, "Etwas von Positiver Sexualreform," _Sexual-Probleme_,
+Nov., 1908.
+
+[270] Elsie Clews Parsons, _The Family_, p. 351. Dr. Parsons rightly
+thinks such unions a social evil when they check the development of
+personality.
+
+[271] For evidence regarding the general absence of celibacy among both
+savage and barbarous peoples, see, e.g., Westermarck, _History of Human
+Marriage_, Ch. VII.
+
+[272] There are, for instance, two millions of unmarried women in France,
+while in Belgium 30 per cent, of the women, and in Germany sometimes even
+50 per cent, are unmarried.
+
+[273] Such a position would not be biologically unreasonable, in view of
+the greatly preponderant part played by the female in the sexual process
+which insures the conservation of the race. "If the sexual instinct is
+regarded solely from the physical side," says D.W.H. Busch (_Das
+Geschlechtsleben des Weibes_, 1839, vol. i, p. 201), "the woman cannot be
+regarded as the property of the man, but with equal and greater reason the
+man may be regarded as the property of the woman."
+
+[274] Herodotus, Bk. i, Ch. CLXXIII.
+
+[275] That power and relationship are entirely distinct was pointed out
+many years ago by L. von Dargun, _Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht_, 1892.
+Westermarck (_Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 655),
+who is inclined to think that Steinmetz has not proved conclusively that
+mother-descent involves less authority of husband over wife, makes the
+important qualification that the husband's authority is impaired when he
+lives among his wife's kinsfolk.
+
+[276] Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_; J.G. Frazer
+has pointed out (_Academy_, March 27, 1886) that the partially Semitic
+peoples on the North frontier of Abyssinia, not subjected to the
+revolutionary processes of Islam, preserve a system closely resembling
+_beena_ marriage, as well as some traces of the opposite system, by
+Robertson Smith called _ba'al_ marriage, in which the wife is acquired by
+purchase and becomes a piece of property.
+
+[277] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 358.
+
+[278] Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_, pp. 55-6; cf. Rhys,
+_Celtic Heathendom_, p. 93.
+
+[279] Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, op. cit., p. 214.
+
+[280] Crawley (_The Mystic Rose_, p. 41 et seq.) gives numerous instances.
+
+[281] Revillout, "La Femme dans l'Antiquite," _Journal Asiatique_, 1906,
+vol. vii, p. 57. See, also, Victor Marx, _Beitraege zur Assyriologie_,
+1899, Bd. iv, Heft 1.
+
+[282] Donaldson, _Woman_, pp. 196, 241 et seq. Nietzold, (_Die Ehe in_
+"_Agypten_," p. 17), thinks the statement of Diodorus that no children
+were illegitimate, needs qualification, but that certainly the
+illegitimate child in Egypt was at no social disadvantage.
+
+[283] Amelineau, _La Morale Egyptienne_, p. 194; Hobhouse, _Morals in
+Evolution_, vol. i, p. 187; Flinders Petrie, _Religion and Conscience in
+Ancient Egypt_, pp. 131 et seq.
+
+[284] Maine, _Ancient Law_, Ch. V.
+
+[285] Donaldson, _Woman_, pp. 109, 120.
+
+[286] _Mercator_, iv, 5.
+
+[287] Digest XLVIII, 13, 5.
+
+[288] Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. i, p. 213.
+
+[289] For an account of the work of some of the less known of these
+pioneers, see a series of articles by Harriet McIlquham in the
+_Westminster Review_, especially Nov., 1898, and Nov., 1903.
+
+[290] The influence of Christianity on the position of women has been well
+discussed by Lecky, _History of European Morals_, vol. ii, pp. 316 et
+seq., and more recently by Donaldson, _Woman_, Bk. iii.
+
+[291] Migne, _Patrologia_, vol. clviii, p. 680.
+
+[292] Rosa Mayreder, "Einiges ueber die Starke Faust," _Zur Kritik der
+Weiblichkeit_, 1905.
+
+[293] Rasmussen (_People of the Polar North_, p. 56), describes a
+ferocious quarrel between husband and wife, who each in turn knocked the
+other down. "Somewhat later, when I peeped in, they were lying
+affectionately asleep, with their arms around each other."
+
+[294] Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. ii, p. 367. Dr. Stoecker, in
+_Die Liebe und die Frauen_, also insists on the significance of this
+factor of personal responsibility.
+
+[295] Olive Schreiner has especially emphasized the evils of parasitism
+for women. "The increased wealth of the male," she remarks ("The Woman's
+Movement of Our Day," _Harper's Bazaar_, Jan., 1902), "no more of
+necessity benefits and raises the female upon whom he expends it, than the
+increased wealth of his mistress necessarily benefits, mentally or
+physically, a poodle, because she can then give him a down cushion in
+place of one of feathers, and chicken in place of beef." Olive Schreiner
+believes that feminine parasitism is a danger which really threatens
+society at the present time, and that if not averted "the whole body of
+females in civilized societies must sink into a state of more or less
+absolute dependence."
+
+[296] In Rome and in Japan, Hobhouse notes (op. cit., vol. i, pp. 169,
+176), the patriarchal system reached its fullest extension, yet the laws
+of both these countries placed the husband in a position of practical
+subjugation to a rich wife.
+
+[297] Herodotus, Bk. ii, Ch. XXXV. Herodotus noted that it was the woman
+and not the man on whom the responsibility for supporting aged parents
+rested. That alone involved a very high economic position of women. It is
+not surprising that to some observers, as to Diodorus Siculus, it seemed
+that the Egyptian woman was mistress over her husband.
+
+[298] Hobhouse (loc. cit.), Hale, and also Grosse, believe that good
+economic position of a people involves high position of women. Westermarck
+(_Moral Ideas_, vol. i, p. 661), here in agreement with Olive Schreiner,
+thinks this statement cannot be accepted without modification, though
+agreeing that agricultural life has a good effect on woman's position,
+because they themselves become actively engaged in it. A good economic
+position has no real effect in raising woman's position, unless women
+themselves take a real and not merely parasitic part in it.
+
+[299] Westermarck (_Moral Ideas_, vol. i, Ch. XXVI, vol. ii, p. 29) gives
+numerous references with regard to the considerable proprietary and other
+privileges of women among savages which tend to be lost at a somewhat
+higher stage of culture.
+
+[300] The steady rise in the proportion of women among English workers in
+machine industries began in 1851. There are now, it is estimated, three
+and a half million women employed in industrial occupations, beside a
+million and a half domestic servants. (See for details, James Haslam, in a
+series of papers in the _Englishwoman_ 1909.)
+
+[301] See, e.g., J.A. Hobson, _The Evolution of Modern Capitalism_, second
+edition, 1907, Ch. XII, "Women in Modern Industry."
+
+[302] Hobhouse, op. cit., vol. i, p. 228.
+
+[303] Fielding, _Tom Jones_, Bk. iii, Ch. VII.
+
+[304] Even the Church to some extent adopted this allotment of the
+responsibility, and "solicitation," i.e., the sin of a confessor in
+seducing his female penitent, is constantly treated as exclusively the
+confessor's sin.
+
+[305] Adolf Gerson, _Sexual-Probleme_, Sept., 1908, p. 547.
+
+[306] It has already been necessary to refer to the unfortunate results
+which may follow the ignorance of husbands (see, e.g., "The Sexual Impulse
+in Women," vol. iii of these _Studies_), and will be necessary again in
+Ch. XI of the present volume.
+
+[307] Pepys, _Diary_, ed. Wheatley, vol. vii, p. 10.
+
+[308] Lombroso and Ferrero, _La Donna Delinquente_; cf. Havelock Ellis,
+_Man and Woman_, fourth edition, p. 196.
+
+[309] Gury, _Theologie Morale_, art. 381.
+
+[310] "Men will not learn what women are," remarks Rosa Mayreder (_Zur
+Kritik der Weiblichkeit_, p. 199), "until they have left off prescribing
+what they ought to be."
+
+[311] It has been set out, for instance, by Professor Wahrmund in _Ehe und
+Eherecht_, 1908. I need scarcely refer again to the writings of Ellen Key,
+which may be said to be almost epoch-making in their significance,
+especially (in German translation) _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_ (also French
+translation), and (in English translation, Putnam, 1909), the valuable,
+though less important work, _The Century of the Child_. See also Edward
+Carpenter, _Love's Coming of Age_; Forel, _Die Sexuelle Frage_ (English
+translation, abridged, _The Sexual Question_, Rebman, 1908); Bloch,
+_Sexualleben unsere Zeit_ (English translation, _The Sexual Life of Our
+Time_, Rebman, 1908); Helene Stoecker, _Die Liebe und die Frauen_, 1906;
+and Paul Lapie, _La Femme dans la Famille_, 1908.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+MARRIAGE.
+
+The Definition of Marriage--Marriage Among Animals--The Predominance of
+Monogamy--The Question of Group Marriage--Monogamy a Natural Fact, Not
+Based on Human Law--The Tendency to Place the Form of Marriage Above the
+Fact of Marriage--The History of Marriage--Marriage in Ancient
+Rome--Germanic Influence on Marriage--Bride-Sale--The Ring--The Influence
+of Christianity on Marriage--The Great Extent of This Influence--The
+Sacrament of Matrimony--Origin and Growth of the Sacramental
+Conception--The Church Made Marriage a Public Act--Canon Law--Its Sound
+Core--Its Development--Its Confusions and Absurdities--Peculiarities of
+English Marriage Law--Influence of the Reformation on Marriage--The
+Protestant Conception of Marriage as a Secular Contract--The Puritan
+Reform of Marriage--Milton as the Pioneer of Marriage Reform--His Views on
+Divorce--The Backward Position of England in Marriage Reform--Criticism of
+the English Divorce Law--Traditions of the Canon Law Still Persistent--The
+Question of Damages for Adultery--Collusion as a Bar to
+Divorce--Divorce in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, etc.--The United
+States--Impossibility of Deciding by Statute the Causes for
+Divorce--Divorce by Mutual Consent--Its Origin and Development--Impeded by
+the Traditions of Canon Law--Wilhelm von Humboldt--Modern Pioneer
+Advocates of Divorce by Mutual Consent--The Arguments Against Facility of
+Divorce--The Interests of the Children--The Protection of Women--The
+Present Tendency of the Divorce Movement--Marriage Not a Contract--The
+Proposal of Marriage for a Term of Years--Legal Disabilities and
+Disadvantages in the Position of the Husband and the Wife--Marriage Not a
+Contract But a Fact--Only the Non-Essentials of Marriage, Not the
+Essentials, a Proper Matter for Contract--The Legal Recognition of
+Marriage as a Fact Without Any Ceremony--Contracts of the Person Opposed
+to Modern Tendencies--The Factor of Moral Responsibility--Marriage as an
+Ethical Sacrament--Personal Responsibility Involves Freedom--Freedom the
+Best Guarantee of Stability--False Ideas of Individualism--Modern Tendency
+of Marriage--With the Birth of a Child Marriage Ceases to be a Private
+Concern--Every Child Must Have a Legal Father and Mother--How This Can be
+Effected--The Firm Basis of Monogamy--The Question of Marriage
+Variations--Such Variations Not Inimical to Monogamy--The Most Common
+Variations--The Flexibility of Marriage Holds Variations in
+Check--Marriage Variations _versus_ Prostitution--Marriage on a Reasonable
+and Humane Basis--Summary and Conclusion.
+
+
+The discussion in the previous chapter of the nature of sexual morality,
+with the brief sketch it involved of the direction in which that morality
+is moving, has necessarily left many points vague. It may still be asked
+what definite and precise forms sexual unions are tending to take among
+us, and what relation these unions bear to the religious, social, and
+legal traditions we have inherited. These are matters about which a very
+considerable amount of uncertainty seems to prevail, for it is not unusual
+to hear revolutionary or eccentric opinions concerning them.
+
+Sexual union, involving the cohabitation, temporary or permanent, of two
+or more persons, and having for one of its chief ends the production and
+care of offspring, is commonly termed marriage. The group so constituted
+forms a family. This is the sense in which the words "marriage" and the
+"family" are most properly used, whether we speak of animals or of Man.
+There is thus seen to be room for variation as regards both the time
+during which the union lasts, and the number of individuals who form it,
+the chief factor in the determination of these points being the interests
+of the offspring. In actual practice, however, sexual unions, not only in
+Man but among the higher animals, tend to last beyond the needs of the
+offspring of a single season, while the fact that in most species the
+numbers of males and females are approximately equal makes it inevitable
+that both among animals and in Man the family is produced by a single
+sexual couple, that is to say that monogamy is, with however many
+exceptions, necessarily the fundamental rule.
+
+It will thus be seen that marriage centres in the child, and has at the
+outset no reason for existence apart from the welfare of the offspring.
+Among those animals of lowly organization which are able to provide for
+themselves from the beginning of existence there is no family and no need
+for marriage. Among human races, when sexual unions are not followed by
+offspring, there may be other reasons for the continuance of the union
+but they are not reasons in which either Nature or society is in the
+slightest degree directly concerned. The marriage which grew up among
+animals by heredity on the basis of natural selection, and which has been
+continued by the lower human races through custom and tradition, by the
+more civilized races through the superimposed regulative influence of
+legal institutions, has been marriage for the sake of the offspring.[312]
+Even in civilized races among whom the proportion of sterile marriages is
+large, marriage tends to be so constituted as always to assume the
+procreation of children and to involve the permanence required by such
+procreation.
+
+    Among birds, which from the point of view of erotic development
+    stand at the head of the animal world, monogamy frequently
+    prevails (according to some estimates among 90 per cent.), and
+    unions tend to be permanent; there is an approximation to the
+    same condition among some of the higher mammals, especially the
+    anthropoid apes; thus among gorillas and oran-utans permanent
+    monogamic marriages take place, the young sometimes remaining
+    with the parents to the age of six, while any approach to loose
+    behavior on the part of the wife is severely punished by the
+    husband. The variations that occur are often simply matters of
+    adaptation to circumstances; thus, according to J.G. Millais
+    (_Natural History of British Ducks_, pp. 8, 63), the Shoveler
+    duck, though normally monogamic, will become polyandric when
+    males are in excess, the two males being in constant and amicable
+    attendance on the female without signs of jealousy; among the
+    monogamic mallards, similarly, polygyny and polyandry may also
+    occur. See also R.W. Shufeldt, "Mating Among Birds," _American
+    Naturalist_, March, 1907; for mammal marriages, a valuable paper
+    by Robert Mueller, "Saeugethierehen," _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan.,
+    1909, and as regards the general prevalence of monogamy, Woods
+    Hutchinson, "Animal Marriage," _Contemporary Review_, Oct., 1904,
+    and Sept., 1905.
+
+    There has long been a dispute among the historians of marriage as
+    to the first form of human marriage. Some assume a primitive
+    promiscuity gradually modified in the direction of monogamy;
+    others argue that man began where the anthropoid apes left off,
+    and that monogamy has prevailed, on the whole, throughout. Both
+    these opposed views, in an extreme form, seem untenable, and the
+    truth appears to lie midway. It has been shown by various
+    writers, and notably Westermarck (_History of Human Marriage_,
+    Chs. IV-VI), that there is no sound evidence in favor of
+    primitive promiscuity, and that at the present day there are few,
+    if any, savage peoples living in genuine unrestricted sexual
+    promiscuity. This theory of a primitive promiscuity seems to have
+    been suggested, as J.A. Godfrey has pointed out (_Science of
+    Sex_, p. 112), by the existence in civilized societies of
+    promiscuous prostitution, though this kind of promiscuity was
+    really the result, rather than the origin, of marriage. On the
+    other hand, it can scarcely be said that there is any convincing
+    evidence of primitive strict monogamy beyond the assumption that
+    early man continued the sexual habits of the anthropoid apes. It
+    would seem probable, however, that the great forward step
+    involved in passing from ape to man was associated with a change
+    in sexual habits involving the temporary adoption of a more
+    complex system than monogamy. It is difficult to see in what
+    other social field than that of sex primitive man could find
+    exercise for the developing intellectual and moral aptitudes, the
+    subtle distinctions and moral restraints, which the strict
+    monogamy practiced by animals could afford no scope for. It is
+    also equally difficult to see on what basis other than that of a
+    more closely associated sexual system the combined and harmonious
+    efforts needed for social progress could have developed. It is
+    probable that at least one of the motives for exogamy, or
+    marriage outside the group, is (as was probably first pointed out
+    by St. Augustine in his _De Civitate Dei_) the need of creating a
+    larger social circle, and so facilitating social activities and
+    progress. Exactly the same end is effected by a complex marriage
+    system binding a large number of people together by common
+    interests. The strictly small and confined monogamic family,
+    however excellently it subserved the interests of the offspring,
+    contained no promise of a wider social progress. We see this
+    among both ants and bees, who of all animals, have attained the
+    highest social organization; their progress was only possible
+    through a profound modification of the systems of sexual
+    relationship. As Espinas said many years ago (in his suggestive
+    work, _Des Societes Animales_): "The cohesion of the family and
+    the probabilities for the birth of societies are inverse." Or, as
+    Schurtz more recently pointed out, although individual marriage
+    has prevailed more or less from the first, early social
+    institutions, early ideas and early religion involved sexual
+    customs which modified a strict monogamy.
+
+    The most primitive form of complex human marriage which has yet
+    been demonstrated as still in existence is what is called
+    group-marriage, in which all the women of one class are regarded
+    as the actual, or at all events potential, wives of all the men
+    in another class. This has been observed among some central
+    Australian tribes, a people as primitive and as secluded from
+    external influence as could well be found, and there is evidence
+    to show that it was formerly more widespread among them. "In the
+    Urabunna tribe, for example," say Spencer and Gillen, "a group of
+    men actually do have, continually and as a normal condition,
+    marital relations with a group of women. This state of affairs
+    has nothing whatever to do with polygamy any more than it has
+    with polyandry. It is simply a question of a group of men and a
+    group of women who may lawfully have what we call marital
+    relations. There is nothing whatever abnormal about it, and, in
+    all probability, this system of what has been called group
+    marriage, serving as it does to bind more or less closely
+    together groups of individuals who are mutually interested in one
+    another's welfare, has been one of the most powerful agents in
+    the early stages of the upward development of the human race"
+    (Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p.
+    74; cf. A.W. Howitt, _The Native Tribes of South-East
+    Australia_). Group-marriage, with female descent, as found in
+    Australia, tends to become transformed by various stages of
+    progress into individual marriage with descent in the male line,
+    a survival of group-marriage perhaps persisting in the
+    much-discussed _jus primae noctis_. (It should be added that Mr.
+    N.W. Thomas, in his book on _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_,
+    1908, concludes that group-marriage in Australia has not been
+    demonstrated, and that Professor Westermarck, in his _Origin and
+    Development of the Moral Ideas_, as in his previous _History of
+    Human Marriage_, maintains a skeptical opinion in regard to
+    group-marriage generally; he thinks the Urabunna custom may have
+    developed out of ordinary individual marriage, and regards the
+    group-marriage theory as "the residuary legatee of the old theory
+    of promiscuity." Durkheim also believes that the Australian
+    marriage system is not primitive, "Organisation Matrimoniale
+    Australienne," _L'Annee Sociologique_, eighth year, 1905). With
+    the attainment of a certain level of social progress it is easy
+    to see that a wide and complicated system of sexual relationships
+    ceases to have its value, and a more or less qualified monogamy
+    tends to prevail as more in harmony with the claims of social
+    stability and executive masculine energy.
+
+    The best historical discussion of marriage is still probably
+    Westermarck's _History of Human Marriage_, though at some points
+    it now needs to be corrected or supplemented; among more recent
+    books dealing with primitive sexual conceptions may be specially
+    mentioned Crawley's _Mystic Rose_, while the facts concerning the
+    transformation of marriage among the higher human races are set
+    forth in G.E. Howard's _History of Matrimonial Institutions_ (3
+    vols.), which contains copious bibliographical references. There
+    is an admirably compact, but clear and comprehensive, sketch of
+    the development of modern marriage in Pollock and Maitland,
+    _History of English Law_, vol. ii.
+
+It is necessary to make allowance for variations, thereby shunning the
+extreme theorists who insist on moulding all facts to their theories, but
+we may conclude that--as the approximately equal number of the sexes
+indicates--in the human species, as among many of the higher animals, a
+more or less permanent monogamy has on the whole tended to prevail. That
+is a fact of great significance in its implications. For we have to
+realize that we are here in the presence of a natural fact. Sexual
+relationships, in human as in animal societies, follow a natural law,
+oscillating on each side of the norm, and there is no place for the theory
+that that law was imposed artificially. If all artificial "laws" could be
+abolished the natural order of the sexual relationships would continue to
+subsist substantially as at present. Virtue, said Cicero, is but Nature
+carried out to the utmost. Or, as Holbach put it, arguing that our
+institutions tend whither Nature tends, "art is only Nature acting by the
+help of the instruments she has herself made." Shakespeare had already
+seen much the same truth when he said that the art which adds to Nature
+"is an art that Nature makes." Law and religion have buttressed monogamy;
+it is not based on them but on the needs and customs of mankind, and these
+constitute its completely adequate sanctions.[313] Or, as Cope put it,
+marriage is not the creation of law but the law is its creation.[314]
+Crawley, again, throughout his study of primitive sex relationships,
+emphasizes the fact that our formal marriage system is not, as so many
+religious and moral writers once supposed, a forcible repression of
+natural impulses, but merely the rigid crystallization of those natural
+impulses, which in a more fluid form have been in human nature from the
+first. Our conventional forms, we must believe, have not introduced any
+elements of value, while in some respects they have been mischievous.
+
+    It is necessary to bear in mind that the conclusion that
+    monogamic marriage is natural, and represents an order which is
+    in harmony with the instincts of the majority of people, by no
+    means involves agreement with the details of any particular legal
+    system of monogamy. Monogamic marriage is a natural biological
+    fact, alike in many animals and in man. But no system of legal
+    regulation is a natural biological fact. When a highly esteemed
+    alienist, Dr. Clouston, writes (_The Hygiene of Mind_, p. 245)
+    "there is only one natural mode of gratifying sexual _nisus_ and
+    reproductive instinct, that of marriage," the statement requires
+    considerable exegesis before it can be accepted, or even receive
+    an intelligible meaning, and if we are to understand by
+    "marriage" the particular form and implications of the English
+    marriage law, or even of the somewhat more enlightened Scotch
+    law, the statement is absolutely false. There is a world of
+    difference, as J.A. Godfrey remarks (_The Science of Sex_, 1901,
+    p. 278), between natural monogamous marriage and our legal
+    system; "the former is the outward expression of the best that
+    lies in the sexuality of man; the latter is a creation in which
+    religious and moral superstitions have played a most important
+    part, not always to the benefit of individual and social health."
+
+    We must, therefore, guard against the tendency to think that
+    there is anything rigid or formal in the natural order of
+    monogamy. Some sociologists would even limit the naturalness of
+    monogamy still further. Thus Tarde ("La Morale Sexuelle,"
+    _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, Jan., 1907), while
+    accepting as natural under present conditions the tendency for
+    monogamy, mitigated by more or less clandestine concubinage, to
+    prevail over all other forms of marriage, considers that this is
+    not due to any irresistible influence, but merely to the fact
+    that this kind of marriage is practiced by the majority of
+    people, including the most civilized.
+
+    With the acceptance of the tendency to monogamy we are not at the
+    end of sexual morality, but only at the beginning. It is not
+    monogamy that is the main thing, but the kind of lives that
+    people lead in monogamy. The mere acceptance of a monogamic rule
+    carries us but a little way. That is a fact which cannot fail to
+    impress itself on those who approach the questions of sex from
+    the psychological side.
+
+If monogamy is thus firmly based it is unreasonable to fear, or to hope
+for, any radical modification in the institution of marriage, regarded,
+not under its temporary religious and legal aspects but as an order which
+appeared on the earth even earlier than man. Monogamy is the most natural
+expression of an impulse which cannot, as a rule, be so adequately
+realized in full fruition under conditions involving a less prolonged
+period of mutual communion and intimacy. Variations, regarded as
+inevitable oscillations around the norm, are also natural, but union in
+couples must always be the rule because the numbers of the sexes are
+always approximately equal, while the needs of the emotional life, even
+apart from the needs of offspring, demand that such unions based on mutual
+attraction should be so far as possible permanent.
+
+    It must here again be repeated that it is the reality, and not
+    the form or the permanence of the marriage union, which is its
+    essential and valuable part. It is not the legal or religious
+    formality which sanctifies marriage, it is the reality of the
+    marriage which sanctifies the form. Fielding has satirized in
+    Nightingale, Tom Jones's friend, the shallow-brained view of
+    connubial society which degrades the reality of marriage to exalt
+    the form. Nightingale has the greatest difficulty in marrying a
+    girl with whom he has already had sexual relations, although he
+    is the only man who has had relations with her. To Jones's
+    arguments he replies: "Common-sense warrants all you say, but yet
+    you well know that the opinion of the world is so contrary to it,
+    that were I to marry a whore, though my own, I should be ashamed
+    of ever showing my face again." It cannot be said that Fielding's
+    satire is even yet out of date. Thus in Prussia, according to
+    Adele Schreiber ("Heirathsbeschraenkungen," _Die Neue Generation_,
+    Feb., 1909), it seems to be still practically impossible for a
+    military officer to marry the mother of his own illegitimate
+    child.
+
+    The glorification of the form at the expense of the reality of
+    marriage has even been attempted in poetry by Tennyson in the
+    least inspired of his works, _The Idylls of the King_. In
+    "Lancelot and Elaine" and "Guinevere" (as Julia Magruder points
+    out, _North American Review_, April, 1905) Guinevere is married
+    to King Arthur, whom she has never seen, when already in love
+    with Lancelot, so that the "marriage" was merely a ceremony, and
+    not a real marriage (cf., May Child, "The Weird of Sir Lancelot,"
+    _North American Review_, Dec., 1908).
+
+It may seem to some that so conservative an estimate of the tendencies of
+civilization in matters of sexual love is due to a timid adherence to mere
+tradition. That is not the case. We have to recognize that marriage is
+firmly held in position by the pressure of two opposing forces. There are
+two currents in the stream of our civilization: one that moves towards an
+ever greater social order and cohesion, the other that moves towards an
+ever greater individual freedom. There is real harmony underlying the
+apparent opposition of these two tendencies, and each is indeed the
+indispensable complement of the other. There can be no real freedom for
+the individual in the things that concern that individual alone unless
+there is a coherent order in the things that concern him as a social unit.
+Marriage in one of its aspects only concerns the two individuals involved;
+in another of its aspects it chiefly concerns society. The two forces
+cannot combine to act destructively on marriage, for the one counteracts
+the other. They combine to support monogamy, in all essentials, on its
+immemorial basis.
+
+It must be added that in the circumstances of monogamy that are not
+essential there always has been, and always must be, perpetual
+transformation. All traditional institutions, however firmly founded on
+natural impulses, are always growing dead and rigid at some points and
+putting forth vitally new growths at other points. It is the effort to
+maintain their vitality, and to preserve their elastic adjustment to the
+environment, which involves this process of transformation in
+non-essentials.
+
+The only way in which we can fruitfully approach the question of the value
+of the transformations now taking place in our marriage-system is by
+considering the history of that system in the past. In that way we learn
+the real significance of the marriage-system, and we understand what
+transformations are, or are not, associated with a fine civilization. When
+we are acquainted with the changes of the past we are enabled to face more
+confidently the changes of the present.
+
+The history of the marriage-system of modern civilized peoples begins in
+the later days of the Roman Empire at the time when the foundations were
+being laid of that Roman law which has exerted so large an influence in
+Christendom. Reference has already been made[315] to the significant fact
+that in late Rome women had acquired a position of nearly complete
+independence in relation to their husbands, while the patriarchal
+authority still exerted over them by their fathers had become, for the
+most part, almost nominal. This high status of women was associated, as it
+naturally tends to be, with a high degree of freedom in the marriage
+system. Roman law had no power of intervening in the formation of
+marriages and there were no legal forms of marriage. The Romans recognized
+that marriage is a fact and not a mere legal form; in marriage by _usus_
+there was no ceremony at all; it was constituted by the mere fact of
+living together for a whole year; yet such marriage was regarded as just
+as legal and complete as if it had been inaugurated by the sacred rite of
+_confarreatio_. Marriage was a matter of simple private agreement in which
+the man and the woman approached each other on a footing of equality. The
+wife retained full control of her own property; the barbarity of admitting
+an action for restitution of conjugal rights was impossible, divorce was a
+private transaction to which the wife was as fully entitled as the
+husband, and it required no inquisitorial intervention of magistrate or
+court; Augustus ordained, indeed, that a public declaration was necessary,
+but the divorce itself was a private legal act of the two persons
+concerned.[316] It is interesting to note this enlightened conception of
+marriage prevailing in the greatest and most masterful Empire which has
+ever dominated the world, at the period not indeed of its greatest
+force,--for the maximum of force and the maximum of expansion, the bud and
+the full flower, are necessarily incompatible,--but at the period of its
+fullest development. In the chaos that followed the dissolution of the
+Empire Roman law remained as a precious legacy to the new developing
+nations, but its influence was inextricably mingled with that of
+Christianity, which, though not at the first anxious to set up marriage
+laws of its own, gradually revealed a growing ascetic feeling hostile
+alike to the dignity of the married woman and the freedom of marriage and
+divorce.[317] With that influence was combined the influence, introduced
+through the Bible, of the barbaric Jewish marriage-system conferring on
+the husband rights in marriage and divorce which were totally denied to
+the wife; this was an influence which gained still greater force at the
+Reformation when the authority once accorded to the Church was largely
+transformed to the Bible. Finally, there was in a great part of Europe,
+including the most energetic and expansive parts, the influence of the
+Germans, an influence still more primitive than that of the Jews,
+involving the conception of the wife as almost her husband's chattel, and
+marriage as a purchase. All these influences clashed and often appeared
+side by side, though they could not be harmonized. The result was that the
+fifteen hundred years that followed the complete conquest of Christianity
+represent on the whole the most degraded condition to which the marriage
+system has ever been known to fall for so long a period during the whole
+course of human history.
+
+At first indeed the beneficent influence of Rome continued in some degree
+to prevail and even exhibited new developments. In the time of the
+Christian Emperors freedom of divorce by mutual consent was alternately
+maintained, and abolished.[318] We even find the wise and far-seeing
+provision of the law enacting that a contract of the two parties never to
+separate could have no legal validity. Justinian's prohibition of divorce
+by consent led to much domestic unhappiness, and even crime, which appears
+to be the reason why it was immediately abrogated by his successor,
+Theodosius, still maintaining the late Roman tradition of the moral
+equality of the sexes, allowed the wife equally with the husband to obtain
+a divorce for adultery; that is a point we have not yet attained in
+England to-day.
+
+It seems to be admitted on all sides that it was largely the fatal
+influence of the irruption of the barbarous Germans which degraded, when
+it failed to sweep away, the noble conception of the equality of women
+with men, and the dignity and freedom of marriage, slowly moulded by the
+organizing genius of the Roman into a great tradition which still retains
+a supreme value. The influence of Christianity had at the first no
+degrading influence of this kind; for the ascetic ideal was not yet
+predominant, priests married as a matter of course, and there was no
+difficulty in accepting the marriage order established in the secular
+world; it was even possible to add to it a new vitality and freedom. But
+the Germans, with all the primitively acquisitive and combative instincts
+of untamed savages, went far beyond even the early Romans in the
+subjection of their wives; they allowed indeed to their unmarried girls a
+large measure of indulgence and even sexual freedom,--just as the
+Christians also reverenced their virgins,[319]--but the German marriage
+system placed the wife, as compared to the wife of the Roman Empire, in a
+condition little better than that of a domestic slave. In one form or
+another, under one disguise or another, the system of wife-purchase
+prevailed among the Germans, and, whenever that system is influential,
+even when the wife is honored her privileges are diminished.[320] Among
+the Teutonic peoples generally, as among the early English, marriage was
+indeed a private transaction but it took the form of a sale of the bride
+by the father, or other legal guardian, to the bridegroom. The _beweddung_
+was a real contract of sale.[321] "Sale-marriage" was the most usual form
+of marriage. The ring, indeed, probably was not in origin, as some have
+supposed, a mark of servitude, but rather a form of bride-price, or
+_arrha_, that is to say, earnest money on the contract of marriage and so
+the symbol of it.[322] At first a sign of the bride's purchase, it was not
+till later that the ring acquired the significance of subjection to the
+bridegroom, and that significance, later in the Middle Ages, was further
+emphasized by other ceremonies. Thus in England the York and Sarum manuals
+in some of their forms direct the bride, after the delivery of the ring,
+to fall at her husband's feet, and sometimes to kiss his right foot. In
+Russia, also, the bride kissed her husband's feet. At a later period, in
+France, this custom was attenuated, and it became customary for the bride
+to let the ring fall in front of the altar and then stoop at her husband's
+feet to pick it up.[323] Feudalism carried on, and by its military
+character exaggerated, these Teutonic influences. A fief was land held on
+condition of military service, and the nature of its influence on marriage
+is implied in that fact. The woman was given with the fief and her own
+will counted for nothing.[324]
+
+The Christian Church in the beginning accepted the forms of marriage
+already existing in those countries in which it found itself, the Roman
+forms in the lands of Latin tradition and the German forms in Teutonic
+lands. It merely demanded (as it also demanded for other civil contracts,
+such as an ordinary sale) that they should be hallowed by priestly
+benediction. But the marriage was recognized by the Church even in the
+absence of such benediction. There was no special religious marriage
+service, either in the East or the West, earlier than the sixth century.
+It was simply the custom for the married couple, after the secular
+ceremonies were completed, to attend the church, listen to the ordinary
+service and take the sacrament. A special marriage service was developed
+slowly, and it was no part of the real marriage. During the tenth century
+(at all events in Italy and France) it was beginning to become customary
+to celebrate the first part of the real nuptials, still a purely temporal
+act, outside the church door. Soon this was followed by the regular
+bride-mass, directly applicable to the occasion, inside the church. By the
+twelfth century the priest directed the ceremony, now involving an
+imposing ritual, which began outside the church and ended with the bridal
+mass inside. By the thirteenth century, the priest, superseding the
+guardians of the young couple, himself officiated through the whole
+ceremony. Up to that time marriage had been a purely private business
+transaction. Thus, after more than a millennium of Christianity, not by
+law but by the slow growth of custom, ecclesiastical marriage was
+established.[325]
+
+It was undoubtedly an event of very great importance not merely for the
+Church but for the whole history of European marriage even down to to-day.
+The whole of our public method of celebrating marriage to-day is based on
+that of the Catholic Church as established in the twelfth century and
+formulated in the Canon law. Even the publication of banns has its origin
+here, and the fact that in our modern civil marriage the public ceremony
+takes place in an office and not in a Church may disguise but cannot
+alter the fact that it is the direct and unquestionable descendant of the
+public ecclesiastical ceremony which embodied the slow and subtle
+triumph--so slow and subtle that its history is difficult to trace--of
+Christian priests over the private affairs of men and women. Before they
+set themselves to this task marriage everywhere was the private business
+of the persons concerned; when they had completed their task,--and it was
+not absolutely complete until the Council of Trent,--a private marriage
+had become a sin and almost a crime.[326]
+
+It may seem a matter for surprise that the Church which, as we know, had
+shown an ever greater tendency to reverence virginity and to cast
+contumely on the sexual relationship, should yet, parallel with that
+movement and with the growing influence of asceticism, have shown so great
+an anxiety to capture marriage and to confer on it a public, dignified,
+and religious character. There was, however, no contradiction. The factors
+that were constituting European marriage, taken as a whole, were indeed of
+very diverse characters and often involved unreconciled contradictions.
+But so far as the central efforts of the ecclesiastical legislators were
+concerned, there was a definite and intelligible point of view. The very
+depreciation of the sexual instinct involved the necessity, since the
+instinct could not be uprooted, of constituting for it a legitimate
+channel, so that ecclesiastical matrimony was, it has been said,
+"analogous to a license to sell intoxicating liquors."[327] Moreover,
+matrimony exhibited the power of the Church to confer on the license a
+dignity and distinction which would clearly separate it from the general
+stream of lust. Sexual enjoyment is impure, the faithful cannot partake of
+it until it has been purified by the ministrations of the Church. The
+solemnization of marriage was the necessary result of the sanctification
+of virginity. It became necessary to sanctify marriage also, and hence
+was developed the indissoluble sacrament of matrimony. The conception of
+marriage as a religious sacrament, a conception of far-reaching influence,
+is the great contribution of the Catholic Church to the history of
+marriage.
+
+    It is important to remember that, while Christianity brought the
+    idea of marriage as a sacrament into the main stream of the
+    institutional history of Europe, that idea was merely developed,
+    not invented, by the Church. It is an ancient and even primitive
+    idea. The Jews believed that marriage is a magico-religious bond,
+    having in it something mystical resembling a sacrament, and that
+    idea, says Durkheim (_L'Annee Sociologique_, eighth year, 1905,
+    p. 419), is perhaps very archaic, and hangs on to the generally
+    magic character of sex relations. "The mere act of union,"
+    Crawley remarks (_The Mystic Rose_, p. 318) concerning savages,
+    "is potentially a marriage ceremony of the sacramental kind....
+    One may even credit the earliest animistic men with some such
+    vague conception before any ceremony became crystallized." The
+    essence of a marriage ceremony, the same writer continues, "is
+    the 'joining together' of a man and a woman; in the words of our
+    English service, 'for this cause shall a man leave his father and
+    mother and shall be joined unto his wife; and they two shall be
+    one flesh.' At the other side of the world, amongst the Orang
+    Benuas, these words are pronounced by an elder, when a marriage
+    is solemnized: 'Listen all ye that are present; those that were
+    distant are now brought together; those that were separated are
+    now united.' Marriage ceremonies in all stages of culture may be
+    called religious with as much propriety as any ceremony whatever.
+    Those who were separated are now joined together, those who were
+    mutually taboo now break the taboo." Thus marriage ceremonies
+    prevent sin and neutralize danger.
+
+    The Catholic conception of marriage was, it is clear, in
+    essentials precisely the primitive conception. Christianity drew
+    the sacramental idea from the archaic traditions in popular
+    consciousness, and its own ecclesiastical contribution lay in
+    slowly giving that idea a formal and rigid shape, and in
+    declaring it indissoluble. As among savages, it was in the act of
+    consent that the essence of the sacrament lay; the intervention
+    of the priest was not, in principle, necessary to give marriage
+    its religiously binding character. The essence of the sacrament
+    was mutual acceptance of each other by the man and the woman, as
+    husband and wife, and technically the priest who presided at the
+    ceremony was simply a witness of the sacrament. The essential
+    fact being thus the mental act of consent, the sacrament of
+    matrimony had the peculiar character of being without any outward
+    and visible sign. Perhaps it was this fact, instinctively felt
+    as a weakness, which led to the immense emphasis on the
+    indissolubility of the sacrament of matrimony, already
+    established by St. Augustine. The Canonists brought forward
+    various arguments to account for that indissolubility, and a
+    frequent argument has always been the Scriptural application of
+    the term "one flesh" to married couples; but the favorite
+    argument of the Canonists was that matrimony represents the union
+    of Christ with the Church; that is indissoluble, and therefore
+    its image must be indissoluble (Esmein, op. cit., vol. i, p. 64).
+    In part, also, one may well believe, the idea of the
+    indissolubility of marriage suggested itself to the
+    ecclesiastical mind by a natural association of ideas: the vow of
+    virginity in monasticism was indissoluble; ought not the vow of
+    sexual relationship in matrimony to be similarly indissoluble? It
+    appears that it was not until 1164, in Peter Lombard's
+    _Sentences_, that clear and formal recognition is found of
+    matrimony as one of the seven sacraments (Howard, op. cit., vol.
+    i, p. 333).
+
+The Church, however, had not only made marriage a religious act; it had
+also made it a public act. The officiating priest, who had now become the
+arbiter of marriage, was bound by all the injunctions and prohibitions of
+the Church, and he could not allow himself to bend to the inclinations and
+interests of individual couples or their guardians. It was inevitable that
+in this matter, as in other similar matters, a code of ecclesiastical
+regulations should be gradually developed for his guidance. This need of
+the Church, due to its growing control of the world's affairs, was the
+origin of Canon law. With the development of Canon law the whole field of
+the regulation of the sexual relationships, and the control of its
+aberrations, became an exclusively ecclesiastical matter. The secular law
+could take no more direct cognizance of adultery than of fornication or
+masturbation; bigamy, incest, and sodomy were not temporal crimes; the
+Church was supreme in the whole sphere of sex.
+
+It was during the twelfth century that Canon law developed, and Gratian
+was the master mind who first moulded it. He belonged to the Bolognese
+school of jurisprudence which had inherited the sane traditions of Roman
+law. The Canons which Gratian compiled were, however, no more the mere
+result of legal traditions than they were the outcome of cloistered
+theological speculation. They were the result of a response to the
+practical needs of the day before those needs had had time to form a
+foundation for fine-spun subtleties. At a somewhat later period, before
+the close of the century, the Italian jurists were vanquished by the
+Gallic theologians of Paris as represented by Peter Lombard. The result
+was the introduction of mischievous complexities which went far to rob
+Canon law alike of its certainty and its adaptation to human necessities.
+
+Notwithstanding, however, all the parasitic accretions which swiftly began
+to form around the Canon law and to entangle its practical activity, that
+legislation embodied--predominantly at the outset and more obscurely
+throughout its whole period of vital activity--a sound core of real value.
+The Canon law recognized at the outset that the essential fact of marriage
+is the actual sexual union, accomplished with the intention of
+inaugurating a permanent relationship. The _copula carnalis_, the making
+of two "one flesh," according to the Scriptural phrase, a mystic symbol of
+the union of the Church to Christ, was the essence of marriage, and the
+mutual consent of the couple alone sufficed to constitute marriage, even
+without any religious benediction, or without any ceremony at all. The
+formless and unblessed union was still a real and binding marriage if the
+two parties had willed it so to be.[328]
+
+    Whatever hard things may be said about the Canon law, it must
+    never be forgotten that it carried through the Middle Ages until
+    the middle of the sixteenth century the great truth that the
+    essence of marriage lies not in rites and forms, but in the
+    mutual consent of the two persons who marry each other. When the
+    Catholic Church, in its growing rigidity, lost that conception,
+    it was taken up by the Protestants and Puritans in their first
+    stage of ardent vital activity, though it was more or less
+    dropped as they fell back into a state of subservience to forms.
+    It continued to be maintained by moralists and poets. Thus George
+    Chapman, the dramatist, who was both moralist and poet, in _The
+    Gentleman Usher_ (1606), represents the riteless marriage of his
+    hero and heroine, which the latter thus  introduces:--
+
+                "May not we now
+        Our contract make and marry before Heaven?
+        Are not the laws of God and Nature more
+        Than formal laws of men? Are outward rites
+        More virtuous than the very substance is
+        Of holy nuptials solemnized within?
+        .... The eternal acts of our pure souls
+        Knit us with God, the soul of all the world,
+        He shall be priest to us; and with such rites
+        As we can here devise we will express
+        And strongly ratify our hearts' true vows,
+        Which no external violence shall dissolve."
+
+    And to-day, Ellen Key, the distinguished prophet of marriage
+    reform, declares at the end of her _Liebe und Ehe_ that the true
+    marriage law contains only the paragraph: "They who love each
+    other are husband and wife."
+
+The establishment of marriage on this sound and naturalistic basis had the
+further excellent result that it placed the man and the woman, who could
+thus constitute marriage by their consent in entire disregard of the
+wishes of their parents or families, on the same moral level. Here the
+Church was following alike the later Romans and the early Christians like
+Lactantius and Jerome who had declared that what was licit for a man was
+licit for a woman. The Penitentials also attempted to set up this same
+moral law for both sexes. The Canonists finally allowed a certain
+supremacy to the husband, though, on the other hand, they sometimes seemed
+to assign even the chief part in marriage to the wife, and the attempt was
+made to derive the word _matrimonium_ from _matris munium_, thereby
+declaring the maternal function to be the essential fact of marriage.[329]
+
+The sound elements in the Canon law conception of marriage were, however,
+from a very early period largely if not altogether neutralized by the
+verbal subtleties by which they were overlaid, and even by its own
+fundamental original defects. Even in the thirteenth century it began to
+be possible to attach a superior force to marriage verbally formed _per
+verba de praesenti_ than to one constituted by sexual union, while so many
+impediments to marriage were set up that it became difficult to know what
+marriages were valid, an important point since a marriage even innocently
+contracted within the prohibited degrees was only a putative marriage. The
+most serious and the most profoundly unnatural feature of this
+ecclesiastical conception of marriage was the flagrant contradiction
+between the extreme facility with which the gate of marriage was flung
+open to the young couple, even if they were little more than children, and
+the extreme rigor with which it was locked and bolted when they were
+inside. That is still the defect of the marriage system we have inherited
+from the Church, but in the hands of the Canonists it was emphasized both
+on the side of its facility for entrance and of its difficulty for
+exit.[330] Alike from the standpoint of reason and of humanity the gate
+that is easy of ingress must be easy of egress; or if the exit is
+necessarily difficult then extreme care must be taken in admission. But
+neither of these necessary precautions was possible to the Canonists.
+Matrimony was a sacrament and all must be welcome to a sacrament, the more
+so since otherwise they may be thrust into the mortal sin of fornication.
+On the other side, since matrimony was a sacrament, when once truly
+formed, beyond the permissible power of verbal quibbles to invalidate, it
+could never be abrogated. The very institution that, in the view of the
+Church, had been set up as a bulwark against license became itself an
+instrument for artificially creating license. So that the net result of
+the Canon law in the long run was the production of a state of things
+which--in the eyes of a large part of Christendom--more than neutralized
+the soundness of its original conception.[331]
+
+    In England, where from the ninth century, marriage was generally
+    accepted by the ecclesiastical and temporal powers as
+    indissoluble, Canon law was, in the main, established as in the
+    rest of Christendom. There were, however, certain points in which
+    Canon law was not accepted by the law of England. By English law
+    a ceremony before a priest was necessary to the validity of a
+    marriage, though in Scotland the Canon law doctrine was accepted
+    that simple consent of the parties, even exchanged secretly,
+    sufficed to constitute marriage. Again, the issue of a void
+    marriage contracted in innocence, and the issue of persons who
+    subsequently marry each other, are legitimate by Canon law, but
+    not by the common law of England (Geary, _Marriage and Family
+    Relations_, p. 3; Pollock and Maitland, loc. cit.). The Canonists
+    regarded the disabilities attaching to bastardy as a punishment
+    inflicted on the offending parents, and considered, therefore,
+    that no burden should fall on the children when there had been a
+    ceremony in good faith on the part of one at least of the
+    parents. In this respect the English law is less reasonable and
+    humane. It was at the Council of Merton, in 1236, that the barons
+    of England rejected the proposal to make the laws of England
+    harmonize with the Canon law, that is, with the ecclesiastical
+    law of Christendom generally, in allowing children born before
+    wedlock to be legitimated by subsequent marriage. Grosseteste
+    poured forth his eloquence and his arguments in favor of the
+    change, but in vain, and the law of England has ever since stood
+    alone in this respect (Freeman, "Merton Priory," _English Towns
+    and Districts_). The proposal was rejected in the famous formula,
+    "Nolumus leges Angliae mutare," a formula which merely stood for
+    an unreasonable and inhumane obstinacy.
+
+    In the United States, while by common law subsequent marriage
+    fails to legitimate children born before marriage, in many of the
+    States the subsequent marriage of the parents effects by statute
+    the legitimacy of the child, sometimes (as in Maine)
+    automatically, more usually (as in Massachusetts) through special
+    acknowledgment by the father.
+
+The appearance of Luther and the Reformation involved the decay of the
+Canon law system so far as Europe as a whole was concerned. It was for
+many reasons impossible for the Protestant reformers to retain formally
+either the Catholic conception of matrimony or the precariously elaborate
+legal structure which the Church had built up on that conception. It can
+scarcely be said, indeed, that the Protestant attitude towards the
+Catholic idea of matrimony was altogether a clear, logical, or consistent
+attitude. It was a revolt, an emotional impulse, rather than a matter of
+reasoned principle. In its inevitable necessity, under the circumstances
+of the rise of Protestantism, lies its justification, and, on the whole,
+its wholesome soundness. It took the form, which may seem strange in a
+religious movement, of proclaiming that marriage is not a religious but a
+secular matter. Marriage is, said Luther, "a worldly thing," and Calvin
+put it on the same level as house-building, farming, or shoe-making. But
+while this secularization of marriage represents the general and final
+drift of Protestantism, the leaders of Protestantism were themselves not
+altogether confident and clear-sighted in the matter. Even Luther was a
+little confused on this point; sometimes he seems to call marriage "a
+sacrament," sometimes "a temporal business," to be left to the state.[332]
+It was the latter view which tended to prevail. But at first there was a
+period of confusion, if not of chaos, in the minds of the Reformers; not
+only were they not always convinced in their own minds; they were at
+variance with each other, especially on the very practical question of
+divorce. Luther on the whole belonged to the more rigid party, including
+Calvin and Beza, which would grant divorce only for adultery and malicious
+desertion; some, including many of the early English Protestants, were in
+favor of allowing the husband to divorce for adultery but not the wife.
+Another party, including Zwingli, were influenced by Erasmus in a more
+liberal direction, and--moving towards the standpoint of Roman Imperial
+legislation--admitted various causes of divorce. Some, like Bucer,
+anticipating Milton, would even allow divorce when the husband was unable
+to love his wife. At the beginning some of the Reformers adopted the
+principle of self-divorce, as it prevailed among the Jews and was accepted
+by some early Church Councils. In this way Luther held that the cause for
+the divorce itself effected the divorce without any judicial decree,
+though a magisterial permission was needed for remarriage. This question
+of remarriage, and the treatment of the adulterer, were also matters of
+dispute. The remarriage of the innocent party was generally accepted; in
+England it began in the middle of the sixteenth century, was pronounced
+valid by the Archbishop of Canterbury, and confirmed by Parliament. Many
+Reformers were opposed, however, to the remarriage of the adulterous
+party. Beust, Beza, and Melancthon would have him hanged and so settle the
+question of remarriage; Luther and Calvin would like to kill him, but
+since the civil rulers were slack in adopting that measure they allowed
+him to remarry, if possible in some other part of the country.[333]
+
+The final outcome was that Protestantism framed a conception of marriage
+mainly on the legal and economic factor--a factor not ignored but strictly
+subordinated by the Canonists--and regarded it as essentially a contract.
+In so doing they were on the negative side effecting a real progress, for
+they broke the power of an antiquated and artificial system, but on the
+positive side they were merely returning to a conception which prevails in
+barbarous societies, and is most pronounced when marriage is most
+assimilable to purchase. The steps taken by Protestantism involved a
+considerable change in the nature of marriage, but not necessarily any
+great changes in its form. Marriage was no longer a sacrament, but it was
+still a public and not a private function and was still, however
+inconsistently, solemnized in Church. And as Protestantism had no rival
+code to set up, both in Germany and England it fell back on the general
+principles of Canon law, modifying them to suit its own special attitude
+and needs.[334] It was the later Puritanic movement, first in the
+Netherlands (1580), then in England (1653), and afterwards in New England,
+which introduced a serious and coherent conception of Protestant marriage,
+and began to establish it on a civil base.
+
+    The English Reformers under Edward VI and his enlightened
+    advisers, including Archbishop Cranmer, took liberal views of
+    marriage, and were prepared to carry through many admirable
+    reforms. The early death of that King exerted a profound
+    influence on the legal history of English marriage. The Catholic
+    reaction under Queen Mary killed off the more radical Reformers,
+    while the subsequent accession of Queen Elizabeth, whose attitude
+    towards marriage was grudging, illiberal, and old-fashioned,
+    approximating to that of her father, Henry VIII (as witnessed,
+    for instance, in her decided opposition to the marriage of the
+    clergy), permanently affected English marriage law. It became
+    less liberal than that of other Protestant countries, and closer
+    to that of Catholic countries.
+
+    The reform of marriage attempted by the Puritans began in England
+    in 1644, when an Act was passed asserting "marriage to be no
+    sacrament, nor peculiar to the Church of God, but common to
+    mankind and of public interest to every Commonwealth." The Act
+    added, notwithstanding, that it was expedient marriage should be
+    solemnized by "a lawful minister of the Word." The more radical
+    Act of 1653 swept away this provision, and made marriage purely
+    secular. The banns were to be published (by registrars specially
+    appointed) in the Church, or (if the parties desired) the
+    market-place. The marriage was to be performed by a Justice of
+    the Peace; the age of consent to marriage for a man was made
+    sixteen, for a woman fourteen (Scobell's _Acts and Ordinances_,
+    pp. 86, 236). The Restoration abolished this sensible Act, and
+    reintroduced Canon-law traditions, but the Puritan conception of
+    marriage was carried over to America, where it took root and
+    flourished.
+
+It was out of Puritanism, moreover, as represented by Milton, that the
+first genuinely modern though as yet still imperfect conception of the
+marriage relationship was destined to emerge. The early Reformers in this
+matter acted mainly from an obscure instinct of natural revolt in an
+environment of plebeian materialism. The Puritans were moved by their
+feeling for simplicity and civil order as the conditions for religious
+freedom. Milton, in his _Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce_, published in
+1643, when he was thirty-five years of age, proclaimed the supremacy of
+the substance of marriage over the form of it, and the spiritual autonomy
+of the individual in the regulation of that form. He had grasped the
+meaning of that conception of personal responsibility which is the
+foundation of sexual relationships as they are beginning to appear to men
+to-day. If Milton had left behind him only his writings on marriage and
+divorce they would have sufficed to stamp him with the seal of genius.
+Christendom had to wait a century and a half before another man of genius
+of the first rank, Wilhelm von Humboldt, spoke out with equal authority
+and clearness in favor of free marriage and free divorce.
+
+    It is to the honor of Milton, and one of his chief claims on our
+    gratitude, that he is the first great protagonist in Christendom
+    of the doctrine that marriage is a private matter, and that,
+    therefore, it should be freely dissoluble by mutual consent, or
+    even at the desire of one of the parties. We owe to him, says
+    Howard, "the boldest defence of the liberty of divorce which had
+    yet appeared. If taken in the abstract, and applied to both sexes
+    alike, it is perhaps the strongest defence which can be made
+    through an appeal to mere authority;" though his arguments, being
+    based on reason and experience, are often ill sustained by his
+    authority; he is really speaking the language of the modern
+    social reformer, and Milton's writings on this subject are now
+    sometimes ranked in importance above all his other work (Masson,
+    _Life of Milton_, vol. iii; Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 86,
+    vol. iii, p. 251; C.B. Wheeler, "Milton's Doctrine and Discipline
+    of Divorce," _Nineteenth Century_, Jan., 1907).
+
+    Marriage, said Milton, "is not a mere carnal coition, but a human
+    society; where that cannot be had there can be no true marriage"
+    (_Doctrine of Divorce_, Bk. i, Ch. XIII); it is "a covenant, the
+    very being whereof consists not in a forced cohabitation, and
+    counterfeit performance of duties, but in unfeigned love and
+    peace" (Ib., Ch. VI). Any marriage that is less than this is "an
+    idol, nothing in the world." The weak point in Milton's
+    presentation of the matter is that he never explicitly accords to
+    the wife the same power of initiative in marriage and divorce as
+    to the husband. There is, however, nothing in his argument to
+    prevent its equal application to the wife, an application which,
+    while never asserting he never denies; and it has been pointed
+    out that he assumes that women are the equals of men and demands
+    from them intellectual and spiritual companionship; however ready
+    Milton may have been to grant complete equality of divorce to the
+    wife, it would have been impossible for a seventeenth century
+    Puritan to have obtained any hearing for such a doctrine; his
+    arguments would have been received with, if that were possible,
+    even more neglect than they actually met. (Milton's scornful
+    sonnet concerning the reception of his book is well known.)
+
+    Milton insists that in the conventional Christian marriage
+    exclusive importance is attached to carnal connection. So long as
+    that connection is possible, no matter what antipathy may exist
+    between the couple, no matter how mistaken they may have been
+    "through any error, concealment, or misadventure," no matter if
+    it is impossible for them to "live in any union or contentment
+    all their days," yet the marriage still holds good, the two must
+    "fadge together" (op. cit., Bk. i). It is the Canon law, he says,
+    which is at fault, "doubtless by the policy of the devil," for
+    the Canon law leads to licentiousness (op. cit.). It is, he
+    argues, the absence of reasonable liberty which causes license,
+    and it is the men who desire to retain the privileges of license
+    who oppose the introduction of reasonable liberty.
+
+    The just ground for divorce is "indisposition, unfitness, or
+    contrariety of mind, arising from a cause in nature unchangeable,
+    hindering, and ever likely to hinder, the main benefits of
+    conjugal society, which are solace and peace." Without the "deep
+    and serious verity" of mutual love, wedlock is "nothing but the
+    empty husks of a mere outside matrimony," a mere hypocrisy, and
+    must be dissolved (op. cit.).
+
+    Milton goes beyond the usual Puritan standpoint, and not only
+    rejects courts and magistrates, but approves of self-divorce; for
+    divorce cannot rightly belong to any civil or earthly power,
+    since "ofttimes the causes of seeking divorce reside so deeply in
+    the radical and innocent affections of nature, as is not within
+    the diocese of law to tamper with." He adds that, for the
+    prevention of injustice, special points may be referred to the
+    magistrate, who should not, however, in any case, be able to
+    forbid divorce (op. cit., Bk. ii, Ch. XXI). Speaking from a
+    standpoint which we have not even yet attained, he protests
+    against the absurdity of "authorizing a judicial court to toss
+    about and divulge the unaccountable and secret reason of
+    disaffection between man and wife."
+
+    In modern times Hinton was accustomed to compare the marriage law
+    to the law of the Sabbath as broken by Jesus. We find exactly the
+    same comparison in Milton. The Sabbath, he believes, was made for
+    God. "Yet when the good of man comes into the scales, we have
+    that voice of infinite goodness and benignity, that 'Sabbath was
+    made for man and not man for Sabbath.' What thing ever was made
+    more for man alone, and less for God, than marriage?" (_op.
+    cit._, Bk. i, Ch. XI). "If man be lord of the Sabbath, can he be
+    less than lord of marriage?"
+
+Milton, in this matter as in others, stood outside the currents of his
+age. His conception of marriage made no more impression on contemporary
+life than his _Paradise Lost_. Even his own Puritan party who had passed
+the Act of 1653 had strangely failed to transfer divorce and nullity cases
+to the temporal courts, which would at least have been a step on the right
+road. The Puritan influence was transferred to America and constituted the
+leaven which still works in producing the liberal though too minutely
+detailed divorce laws of many States. The American secular marriage
+procedure followed that set up by the English Commonwealth, and the dictum
+of the great Quaker, George Fox, "We marry none, but are witnesses of
+it,"[335] (which was really the sound kernel in the Canon law) is regarded
+as the spirit of the marriage law of the conservative but liberal State of
+Pennsylvania, where, as recently as 1885, a statute was passed expressly
+authorizing a man and woman to solemnize their own marriage.[336]
+
+In England itself the reforms in marriage law effected by the Puritans
+were at the Restoration largely submerged. For two and a half centuries
+longer the English spiritual courts administered what was substantially
+the old Canon law. Divorce had, indeed, become more difficult than before
+the Reformation, and the married woman's lot was in consequence harder.
+From the sixteenth century to the second half of the nineteenth, English
+marriage law was peculiarly harsh and rigid, much less liberal than that
+of any other Protestant country. Divorce was unknown to the ordinary
+English law, and a special act of Parliament, at enormous expense, was
+necessary to procure it in individual cases.[337] There was even an
+attitude of self-righteousness in the maintenance of this system. It was
+regarded as moral. There was complete failure to realize that nothing is
+more immoral than the existence of unreal sexual unions, not only from
+the point of view of theoretical but also of practical morality, for no
+community could tolerate a majority of such unions.[338] In 1857 an act
+for reforming the system was at last passed with great difficulty. It was
+a somewhat incoherent and make-shift measure, and was avowedly put forward
+only as a step towards further reform; but it still substantially governs
+English procedure, and in the eyes of many has set a permanent standard of
+morality. The spirit of blind conservatism,--_Nolumus leges Angliae
+mutare_,--which in this sphere had reasserted itself after the vital
+movement of Reform and Puritanism, still persists. In questions of
+marriage and divorce English legislation and English public feeling are
+behind alike both the Latin land of France and the Puritanically moulded
+land of the United States.
+
+    The author of an able and temperate essay on _The Question of
+    English Divorce_, summing up the characteristics of the English
+    divorce law, concludes that it is: (1) unequal, (2) immoral, (3)
+    contradictory, (4) illogical, (5) uncertain, and (6) unsuited to
+    present requirements. It was only grudgingly introduced in a
+    bill, presented to Parliament in 1857, which was stubbornly
+    resisted during a whole session, not only on religious grounds by
+    the opponents of divorce, but also by the friends of divorce, who
+    desired a more liberal measure. It dealt with the sexes
+    unequally, granting the husband but not the wife divorce for
+    adultery alone. In introducing the bill the Attorney-General
+    apologized for this defect, stating that the measure was not
+    intended to be final, but merely as a step towards further
+    legislation. That was more than half a century ago, but the
+    further step has not yet been taken. Incomplete and
+    unsatisfactory as the measure was, it seems to have been regarded
+    by many as revolutionary and dangerous in the highest degree. The
+    author of an article on "Modern Divorce" in the _Universal
+    Review_ for July, 1859, while approving in principle of the
+    establishment of a special Divorce Court, yet declared that the
+    new court was "tending to destroy marriage as a social
+    institution and to sap female chastity," and that "everyone now
+    is a husband and wife at will." "No one," he adds, "can now
+    justly quibble at a deficiency of matrimonial vomitories."
+
+    Yet, according to this law, it is not even possible for a wife to
+    obtain a divorce for her husband's adultery, unless he is also
+    cruel or deserts her. At first "cruelty" meant physical cruelty
+    and of a serious kind. But in course of time the meaning of the
+    word was extended to pain inflicted on the mind, and now coldness
+    and neglect may almost of themselves constitute cruelty, though
+    the English court has sometimes had the greatest hesitation in
+    accepting the most atrocious forms of refined cruelty, because it
+    involved no "physical" element. "The time may very reasonably be
+    looked forward to, however," a legal writer has stated
+    (Montmorency, "The Changing Status of a Married Woman," _Law
+    Quarterly Review_, April, 1897), "when almost any act of
+    misconduct will, in itself, be considered to convey such mental
+    agony to the innocent party as to constitute the cruelty
+    requisite under the Act of 1857." (The question of cruelty is
+    fully discussed in J.R. Bishop's _Commentaries on Marriage,
+    Divorce and Separation_, 1891, vol. i, Ch. XLIX; cf. Howard, op.
+    cit., vol. ii, p. 111).
+
+    There can be little doubt, however, that cruelty alone is a
+    reasonable cause for divorce. In many American States, where the
+    facilities for divorce are much greater than in England, cruelty
+    is recognized as itself sufficient cause, whether the wife or the
+    husband is the complainant. The acts of cruelty alleged have
+    sometimes been seemingly very trivial. Thus divorces have been
+    pronounced in America on the ground of the "cruel and inhuman
+    conduct" of a wife who failed to sew her husband's buttons on, or
+    because a wife "struck plaintiff a violent blow with her bustle,"
+    or because a husband does not cut his toe-nails, or because
+    "during our whole married life my husband has never offered to
+    take me out riding. This has been a source of great mental
+    suffering and injury." In many other cases, it must be added, the
+    cruelty inflicted by the husband, even by the wife--for though
+    usually, it is not always, the husband who is the brute--is of an
+    atrocious and heart-rending character (_Report on Marriage and
+    Divorce in the United States_, issued by Hon. Carroll D. Wright,
+    Commissioner of Labor, 1889). But even in many of the apparently
+    trivial cases--as of a husband who will not wash, and a wife who
+    is constantly evincing a hasty temper--it must be admitted that
+    circumstances which, in the more ordinary relationships of life
+    may be tolerated, become intolerable in the intimate relationship
+    of sexual union. As a matter of fact, it has been found by
+    careful investigation that the American courts weigh well the
+    cases that come before them, and are not careless in the granting
+    of decrees of divorce.
+
+    In 1859 an exaggerated importance was attached to the gross
+    reasons for divorce, to the neglect of subtle but equally fatal
+    impediments to the continuance of marriage. This was pointed out
+    by Gladstone, who was opposed to making adultery a cause of
+    divorce at all. "We have many causes," he said, "more fatal to
+    the great obligation of marriage, as disease, idiocy, crime
+    involving punishment for life." Nowadays we are beginning to
+    recognize not only such causes as these, but others of a far more
+    intimate character which, as Milton long ago realized, cannot be
+    embodied in statutes, or pleaded in law courts. The matrimonial
+    bond is not merely a physical union, and we have to learn that,
+    as the author of _The Question of English Divorce_ (p. 49)
+    remarks, "other than physical divergencies are, in fact, by far
+    the most important of the originating causes of matrimonial
+    disaster."
+
+    In England and Wales more husbands than wives petition for
+    divorce, the wives who petition being about 40 per cent, of the
+    whole. Divorces are increasing, though the number is not large,
+    in 1907 about 1,300, of whom less than half remarried. The
+    inadequacy of the divorce law is shown by the fact that during
+    the same year about 7,000 orders for judicial separation were
+    issued by magistrates. These separation orders not only do not
+    give the right to remarry, but they make it impossible to obtain
+    divorce. They are, in effect, an official permission to form
+    relationships outside State marriage.
+
+    In the United States during the years 1887-1906 nearly 40 per
+    cent, of the divorces granted were for "desertion," which is
+    variously interpreted in different States, and must often mean a
+    separation by mutual consent. Of the remainder, 19 per cent, were
+    for unfaithfulness, and the same proportion for cruelty; but
+    while the divorces granted to husbands for the infidelity of
+    their wives are nearly three times as great proportionately as
+    those granted to wives for their husband's adultery, with regard
+    to cruelty it is the reverse, wives obtaining 27 per cent, of
+    their divorces on that ground and husbands only 10 per cent.
+
+    In Prussia divorce is increasing. In 1907 there were eight
+    thousand divorces, the cause in half the cases being adultery,
+    and in about a thousand cases malicious desertion. In cases of
+    desertion the husbands were the guilty parties nearly twice as
+    often as the wives, in cases of adultery only a fifth to an
+    eighth part.
+
+There cannot be the slightest doubt that the difficulty, the confusion,
+the inconsistency, and the flagrant indecency which surround divorce and
+the methods of securing it are due solely and entirely to the subtle
+persistence of traditions based, on the one hand, on the Canon law
+doctrines of the indissolubility of marriage and the sin of sexual
+intercourse outside marriage, and, on the other hand, on the primitive
+idea of marriage as a contract which economically subordinates the wife to
+the husband and renders her person, or at all events her guardianship, his
+property. It is only when we realize how deeply these traditions have
+become embedded in the religious, legal, social and sentimental life of
+Europe that we can understand how it is that barbaric notions of marriage
+and divorce can to-day subsist in a stage of civilization which has, in
+many respects, advanced beyond such notions.
+
+The Canon law conception of the abstract religious sanctity of matrimony,
+when transferred to the moral sphere, makes a breach of the marriage
+relationship seem a public wrong; the conception of the contractive
+subordination of the wife makes such a breach on her part, and even, by
+transference of ideas, on his part, seem a private wrong. These two ideas
+of wrong incoherently flourish side by side in the vulgar mind, even
+to-day.
+
+The economic subordination of the wife as a species of property
+significantly comes into view when we find that a husband can claim, and
+often secure, large sums of money from the man who sexually approaches his
+property, by such trespass damaging it in its master's eyes.[339] To a
+psychologist it would be obvious that a husband who has lacked the skill
+so to gain and to hold his wife's love and respect that it is not
+perfectly easy and natural to her to reject the advances of any other man
+owes at least as much damages to her as she or her partner owes to him;
+while if the failure is really on her side, if she is so incapable of
+responding to love and trust and so easy a prey to an outsider, then
+surely the husband, far from wishing for any money compensation, should
+consider himself more than fully compensated by being delivered from the
+necessity of supporting such a woman. In the absence of any false
+traditions that would be obvious. It might not, indeed, be unreasonable
+that a husband should pay heavily in order to free himself from a wife
+whom, evidently, he has made a serious mistake in choosing. But to ordain
+that a man should actually be indemnified because he has shown himself
+incapable of winning a woman's love is an idea that could not occur in a
+civilized society that was not twisted by inherited prejudice.[340] Yet as
+matters are to-day there are civilized countries in which it is legally
+possible for a husband to enter a prayer for damages against his wife's
+paramour in combination with either a petition for judicial separation or
+for dissolution of wedlock. In this way adultery is not a crime but a
+private injury.[341]
+
+At the same time, however, the influence of Canon law comes inconsistently
+to the surface and asserts that a breach of matrimony is a public wrong, a
+sin transformed by the State into something almost or quite like a crime.
+This is clearly indicated by the fact that in some countries the adulterer
+is liable to imprisonment, a liability scarcely nowadays carried into
+practice. But exactly the same idea is beautifully illustrated by the
+doctrine of "collusion," which, in theory, is still strictly observed in
+many countries. According to the doctrine of "collusion" the conditions
+necessary to make the divorce possible must on no account be secured by
+mutual agreement. In practice it is impossible to prevent more or less
+collusion, but if proved in court it constitutes an absolute impediment to
+the granting of a divorce, however just and imperative the demand for
+divorce may be.
+
+    The English Divorce Act of 1857 refused divorce when there was
+    collusion, as well as when there was any countercharge against
+    the petitioner, and the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1860 provided
+    the machinery for guaranteeing these bars to divorce. This
+    question of collusion is discussed by G.P. Bishop (op. cit.,
+    vol. ii, Ch. IX). "However just a cause may be," Bishop remarks,
+    "if parties collude in its management, so that in real fact both
+    parties are plaintiffs, while by the record the one appears as
+    plaintiff and the other as defendant, it cannot go forward. All
+    conduct of this sort, disturbing to the course of justice, falls
+    within the general idea of fraud on the court. Such is the
+    doctrine in principle everywhere."
+
+It is quite evident that from the social or the moral point of view, it is
+best that when a husband and wife can no longer live together, they should
+part amicably, and in harmonious agreement effect all the arrangements
+rendered necessary by their separation. The law ridiculously forbids them
+to do so, and declares that they must not part at all unless they are
+willing to part as enemies. In order to reach a still lower depth of
+absurdity and immorality the law goes on to say that if as a matter of
+fact they have succeeded in becoming enemies to each other to such an
+extent that each has wrongs to plead against the other party they cannot
+be divorced at all![342] That is to say that when a married couple have
+reached a degree of separation which makes it imperatively necessary, not
+merely in their own interests but in the moral interests of society, that
+they should be separated and their relations to other parties concerned
+regularized, then they must on no account be separated.
+
+It is clear how these provisions of the law are totally opposed to the
+demands of reason and morality. Yet at the same time it is equally clear
+how no efforts of the lawyers, however skilful or humane those efforts may
+be, can bring the present law into harmony with the demands of modern
+civilization. It is not the lawyers who are at fault; they have done
+their best, and, in England, it is entirely owing to the skilful and
+cautious way in which the judges have so far as possible pressed the law
+into harmony with modern needs, that our antiquated divorce laws have
+survived at all. It is the system which is wrong. That system is the
+illegitimate outgrowth of the Canon law which grew up around conceptions
+long since dead. It involves the placing of the person who imperils the
+theoretical indissolubility of the matrimonial bond in the position of a
+criminal, now that he can no longer be publicly condemned as a sinner. To
+aid and abet that criminal is itself an offence, and the aider and abettor
+of the criminal must, therefore, be inconsequently punished by the curious
+method of refraining from punishing the criminal. We do not openly assert
+that the defendant in a divorce case is a criminal; that would be to
+render the absurdity of it too obvious, and, moreover, would be hardly
+consistent with the permission to claim damages which is based on a
+different idea. We hover uncertainly between two conceptions of divorce,
+both of them bad, each inconsistent with the other, and neither of them
+capable of being pushed to its logical conclusions.
+
+The result is that if a perfectly virtuous married couple comes forward to
+claim divorce, they are told that it is out of the question, for in such a
+case there must be a "defendant." They are to be punished for their
+virtue. If each commits adultery and they again come forward to claim
+divorce, they are told that it is still out of the question, for there
+must be a "plaintiff." Before they were punished for their virtue; now
+they are to be punished in exactly the same way for their lack of it. The
+couple must humor the law by adopting a course of action which may be
+utterly repugnant to both. If only the wife alone will commit adultery, if
+only the husband will commit adultery and also inflict some act of cruelty
+upon his wife, if the innocent party will descend to the degradation of
+employing detectives and hunting up witnesses, the law is at their feet
+and hastens to accord to both parties the permission to remarry. Provided,
+of course, that the parties have arranged this without "collusion." That
+is to say that our law, with its ecclesiastical traditions behind it,
+says to the wife: Be a sinner, or to the husband: Be a sinner and a
+criminal--then we will do all you wish. The law puts a premium on sin and
+on crime. In order to pile absurdity on absurdity it claims that this is
+done in the cause of "public morality." To those who accept this point of
+view it seems that the sweeping away of divorce laws would undermine the
+bases of morality. Yet there can be little doubt that the sooner such
+"morality" is undermined, and indeed utterly destroyed, the better it will
+be for true morality.
+
+    There is an influential movement in England for the reform of
+    divorce, on the grounds that the present law is unjust,
+    illogical, and immoral, represented by the Divorce Law Reform
+    Union. Even the former president of the Divorce Court, Lord
+    Gorell, declared from the bench in 1906 that the English law
+    produces deplorable results, and is "full of inconsistencies,
+    anomalies and inequalities, amounting almost to absurdities." The
+    points in the law which have aroused most protest, as being most
+    behind the law of other nations, are the great expense of
+    divorce, the inequality of the sexes, the failure to grant
+    divorces for desertion and in cases of hopeless insanity, and the
+    failure of separation orders to enable the separated parties to
+    marry again. Separation orders are granted by magistrates for
+    cruelty, adultery, and desertion. This "separation" is really the
+    direct descendant of the Canon law divorce _a mensa et thoro_,
+    and the inability to marry which it involves is merely a survival
+    of the Canon law tradition. At the present time
+    magistrates--exercising their discretion, it is admitted, in a
+    careful and prudent manner--issue some 7,000 separation orders
+    annually, so that every year the population is increased by
+    14,000 individuals mostly in the age of sexual vigor, and some
+    little more than children, who are forbidden by law to form legal
+    marriages. They contribute powerfully to the great forward
+    movement which, as was shown in the previous chapter, marks the
+    morality of our age. But it is highly undesirable that free
+    marriages should be formed, helplessly, by couples who have no
+    choice in the matter, for it is unlikely that under such
+    circumstances any high level of personal responsibility can be
+    reached. The matter could be easily remedied by dropping
+    altogether a Canon law tradition which no longer has any vitality
+    or meaning, and giving to the magistrate's separation order the
+    force of a decree of divorce.
+
+    New Zealand and the Australian colonies, led by Victoria in 1889,
+    have passed divorce laws which, while more or less framed on the
+    English model, represent a distinct advance. Thus in New Zealand
+    the grounds for divorce are adultery on either side, wilful
+    desertion, habitual drunkenness, and conviction to imprisonment
+    for a term of years.
+
+It is natural that an Englishman should feel acutely sensitive to this
+blot in the law of England and desire the speedy disappearance of a system
+so open to scathing sarcasm. It is natural that every humane person should
+grow impatient of the spectacle of so many blighted lives, of so much
+misery inflicted on innocent persons--and on persons who even when
+technically guilty are often the victims of unnatural circumstances--by
+the persistence of a mediaeval system of ecclesiastical tyranny and
+inquisitorial insolence into an age when sexual relationships are becoming
+regarded as the sacred secret of the persons intimately concerned, and
+when more and more we rely on the responsibility of the individual in
+making and maintaining such relationships.
+
+When, however, we refrain from concentrating our attention on particular
+countries and embrace the general movement of civilization in the matter
+of divorce during recent times, there cannot be the slightest doubt as to
+the direction of that movement. England was a pioneer in the movement half
+a century ago, and to-day every civilized country is moving in the same
+direction. France broke with the old ecclesiastical tradition of the
+indissolubility of matrimony in 1885 by a divorce law in some respects
+very reasonable. The wife may obtain a divorce on an equality with the
+husband (though she is liable to imprisonment for adultery), the
+co-respondent occupies a very subordinate position in adultery charges,
+and facility is offered for divorce on the ground of simple _injures
+graves_ (excluding as far as possible mere incompatibility of temper),
+while the judge has the power, which he often successfully exerts, to
+effect a reconciliation in private or to grant a decree without public
+trial. The influence of France has doubtless been influential in moulding
+the divorce laws of the other Latin countries.
+
+In Prussia an enlightened divorce law formerly prevailed by which it was
+possible for a couple to separate without scandal when it was clearly
+shown that they could not live together in agreement. But the German Code
+of 1900 introduced provisions as regards divorce which--while in some
+respects more liberal than those of the English law, especially by
+permitting divorce for desertion and insanity--are, on the whole,
+retrograde as compared with the earlier Prussian law and place the matter
+on a cruder and more brutal basis. For two years after the Code came into
+operations the number of divorces sank; after that the public and the
+courts adapted themselves to the new provisions (more especially one which
+allowed divorce for serious neglect of conjugal duties) and the number of
+divorces began to increase with great rapidity. "But," remarks Hirschfeld,
+"how painful it has now become to read divorce cases! One side abuses the
+other, makes accusations of the grossest character, employs detectives to
+obtain the necessary proofs of 'dishonorable and immoral conduct,'
+whereas, before, both parties realized that they had been deceived in each
+other, that they failed to suit each other, and that they could no longer
+live together. Thus we see that the narrowing of individual responsibility
+in sexual matters has not only had no practical effect, but leads to
+injurious results of a serious kind."[343] In England a similar state of
+things has prevailed ever since divorce was established, but it seems to
+have become too familiar to excite either pain or disgust. Yet, as Adner
+has pointed out,[344] it has moved in a direction contrary to the general
+tendency of civilization, not only by increasing the inquisitorial
+authority of public courts but by emphasizing merely external causes of
+divorce and abolishing the more subtle internal causes which constantly
+grow in importance with the refinement of civilization.
+
+In Austria until recent years, Canon law ruled absolutely, and matrimony
+was indissoluble, as it still remains for the Catholic population. The
+results as regards matrimonial happiness were in the highest degree
+deplorable. Half a century ago Gross-Hoffinger investigated the marital
+happiness of 100 Viennese couples of all social classes, without choice of
+cases, and presented the results in detail. He found that 48 couples were
+positively unhappy, only 16 were undoubtedly happy, and even among these
+there was only one case in which happiness resulted from mutual
+faithfulness, happiness in the other cases being only attained by setting
+aside the question of fidelity.[345] This picture, it is to be hoped, no
+longer remains true. There is an influential Austrian Marriage Reform
+Association, publishing a journal called _Die Fessel_, or The Fetter. "One
+was chained to another," we are told. "In certain circumstances this must
+have been the worst and most torturing penalty of all. The most bizarre
+and repulsive couplings took place. There were, it is true, many
+affectionate companionships of the chain. But there were many more which
+inflicted an eternity of suffering upon one of the pair." This quotation,
+it must be added, has nothing to do with what the Canonists, borrowing the
+technical term for a prisoner's shackles, suggestively termed the
+_vinculum matrimonii_; it was written many years ago concerning the
+galleys of the old French convict system. It is, however, recalled to
+one's mind by the title which the Austrian Marriage Reform Association has
+given to its official organ.
+
+Russia, where the marriage laws are arranged by the Holy Synod aided by
+jurists, stands almost alone among the great countries in the reasonable
+simplicity of its divorce provisions. Before 1907 divorce was very
+difficult to obtain in Russia, but in that year it became possible for a
+married couple to separate by mutual consent and after living apart for a
+year to become thereby entitled to a divorce enabling them to remarry.
+This provision is in accordance with the humane conception of the sexual
+relationship which has always tended to prevail in Russia, whither, it
+must be remembered, the stern and unnatural ideals of compulsory celibacy
+cherished by the Western Church never completely penetrated; the clergy of
+the Eastern Church are married, though the marriage must take place before
+they enter the priesthood, and they could not sympathize with the
+anti-sexual tone of the marriage regulations laid down by the celibate
+clergy of the west.
+
+Switzerland, again, which has been regarded as the political laboratory
+of Europe, also stands apart in the liberality of its divorce legislation.
+A renewable divorce for two years may be obtained in Switzerland when
+there are "circumstances which seriously affect the maintenance of the
+conjugal tie." To the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, finally, belongs the
+honor of having firmly maintained throughout the great principle of
+divorce by mutual consent under legal conditions, as established by
+Napoleon in his Code of 1803. The smaller countries generally are in
+advance of the large in matters of divorce law. The Norwegian law is
+liberal. The new Roumanian Code permits divorce by mutual consent,
+provided both parents grant equal shares of their property to the
+children. The little principality of Monaco has recently introduced the
+reasonable provision of granting divorce for, among other causes,
+alcoholism, syphilis, and epilepsy, so protecting the future race.
+
+Outside Europe the most instructive example of the tendency of divorce is
+undoubtedly furnished by the United States of America. The divorce laws of
+the States are mainly on a Puritanic basis, and they retain not only the
+Puritanic love of individual freedom but the Puritanic precisianism.[346]
+In some States, notably Iowa, the statute-makers have been constantly
+engaged in adopting, changing, abrogating and re-enacting the provisions
+of their divorce laws, and Howard has shown how much confusion and
+awkwardness arise by such perpetual legislative fiddling over small
+details.
+
+This restless precisianism has somewhat disguised the generally broad and
+liberal tendency of marriage law in America, and has encouraged foreign
+criticism of American social institutions. As a matter of fact the
+prevalence of divorce in America is enormously exaggerated. The proportion
+of divorced persons in the population appears to be less than one per
+cent., and, contrary to a frequent assertion, it is by no means the rule
+for divorced persons to remarry immediately. Taking into account the
+special conditions of life in the United States the prevalence of divorce
+is small and its character by no means reveals a low grade morality. An
+impartial and competent critic of the American people, Professor
+Muensterberg, remarks that the real ground which mainly leads to divorce in
+the United States--not the mere legal pretexts made compulsory by the
+precisianism of the law--is the highly ethical objection to continuing
+externally in a marriage which has ceased to be spiritually congenial. "It
+is the women especially," he says, "and generally the very best women, who
+prefer to take the step, with all the hardships which it involves, to
+prolonging a marriage which is spiritually hypocritical and immoral."[347]
+
+The people of the United States, above all others, cherish ideals of
+individualism; they are also the people among whom, above all others,
+there is the greatest amount of what Reibmayr calls "blood-chaos." Under
+such circumstances the difficulties of conjugal life are necessarily at a
+maximum, and marriage union is liable to subtle impediments which must
+forever elude the statute-book.[348] There can be little doubt that the
+practical sagacity of the American people will enable them sooner or later
+to recognize this fact, and that finally fulfilling the Puritanic drift of
+their divorce legislation--as foreshadowed in its outcome by Milton--they
+will agree to trust their own citizens with the responsibility of deciding
+so private a matter as their conjugal relationships, with, of course,
+authority in the courts to see that no injustice is committed. It is,
+indeed, surprising that the American people, usually intolerant of State
+interference, should in this matter so long have tolerated such
+interference in so private a matter.
+
+The movement of divorce is not confined to Christendom; it is a mark of
+modern civilization. In Japan the proportion of divorces is higher than in
+any other country, not excluding the United States.[349] The most vigorous
+and progressive countries are those that insist most firmly on the purity
+of sexual unions. In the United States it was pointed out many years ago
+that divorce is most prevalent where the standard of education and
+morality is highest. It was the New England States, with strong Puritanic
+traditions of moral freedom, which took the lead in granting facility to
+divorce. The divorce movement is not, as some have foolishly supposed, a
+movement making for immorality.[350] Immorality is the inevitable
+accompaniment of indissoluble marriage; the emphasis on the sanctity of a
+merely formal union discourages the growth of moral responsibility as
+regards the hypothetically unholy unions which grow up beneath its shadow.
+To insist, on the other hand, by establishing facility of divorce, that
+sexual unions shall be real, is to work in the cause of morality. The
+lands in which divorce by mutual consent has prevailed longest are
+probably among the most, and not the least, moral of lands.
+
+Surprise has been expressed that although divorce by mutual consent
+commended itself as an obviously just and reasonable measure two thousand
+years ago to the legally-minded Romans that solution has even yet been so
+rarely attained by modern states.[351] Wherever society is established on
+a solidly organized basis and the claims of reason and humanity receive
+due consideration--even when the general level of civilization is not in
+every respect high--there we find a tendency to divorce by mutual consent.
+
+    In Japan, according to the new Civil Code, much as in ancient
+    Rome, marriage is effected by giving notice of the fact to the
+    registrar in the presence of two witnesses, and with the consent
+    (in the case of young couples) of the heads of their families.
+    There may be a ceremony, but it is not demanded by the law.
+    Divorce is effected in exactly the same way, by simply having the
+    registration cancelled, provided both husband and wife are over
+    twenty-five years of age. For younger couples unhappily married,
+    and for cases in which mutual consent cannot be obtained,
+    judicial divorce exists. This is granted for various specific
+    causes, of which the most important is "grave insult, such as to
+    render living together unbearable" (Ernest W. Clement, "The New
+    Woman in Japan," _American Journal Sociology_, March, 1903). Such
+    a system, like so much else achieved by Japanese organization,
+    seems reasonable, guarded, and effective.
+
+    In the very different and far more ancient marriage system of
+    China, divorce by mutual consent is equally well-established.
+    Such divorce by mutual consent takes place for incompatibility of
+    temperament, or when both husband and wife desire it. There are,
+    however, various antiquated and peculiar provisions in the
+    Chinese marriage laws, and divorce is compulsory for the wife's
+    adultery or serious physical injuries inflicted by either party
+    on the other. (The marriage laws of China are fully set forth by
+    Paul d'Enjoy, _La Revue_, Sept. 1, 1905.)
+
+    Among the Eskimo (who, as readers of Nansen's fascinating books
+    on their morals will know, are in some respects a highly
+    socialized people) the sexes are absolutely equal, marriages are
+    perfectly free, and separation is equally free. The result is
+    that there are no uncongenial unions, and that no unpleasant word
+    is heard between man and wife (Stefansson, _Harper's Magazine_,
+    Nov., 1908).
+
+    Among the ancient Welsh, women, both before and after marriage,
+    enjoyed great freedom, far more than was afforded either by
+    Christianity or the English Common law. "Practically either
+    husband or wife could separate when either one or both chose"
+    (Rhys and Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_, p. 214). It was so
+    also in ancient Ireland. Women held a very high position, and the
+    marriage tie was very free, so as to be practically, it would
+    appear, dissoluble by mutual consent. So far as the Brehon laws
+    show, says Ginnell (_The Brehon Laws_, p. 212), "the marriage
+    relation was extremely loose, and divorce was as easy, and could
+    be obtained on as slight ground, as is now the case in some of
+    the States of the American Union. It appears to have been
+    obtained more easily by the wife than by the husband. When
+    obtained on her petition, she took away with her all the property
+    she had brought her husband, all her husband had settled upon
+    her on their marriage, and in addition so much of her husband's
+    property as her industry appeared to have entitled her to."
+
+    Even in early French history we find that divorce by mutual
+    consent was very common. It was sufficient to prepare in
+    duplicate a formal document to this effect: "Since between N. and
+    his wife there is discord instead of charity according to God,
+    and that in consequence it is impossible for them to live
+    together, it has pleased both to separate, and they have
+    accordingly done so." Each of the parties was thus free either to
+    retire into a cloister or to contract another union (E. de la
+    Bedolliere, _Histoire des Moeurs des Francais_, vol. i, p. 317).
+    Such a practice, however it might accord with the germinal
+    principle of consent embodied in the Canon law, was far too
+    opposed to the ecclesiastical doctrine of the sacramental
+    indissolubility of matrimony to be permanently allowed, and it
+    was completely crushed out.
+
+The fact that we so rarely find divorce by mutual consent in Christendom
+until the beginning of the nineteenth century, that then it required a man
+of stupendous and revolutionary genius like Napoleon to reintroduce it,
+and that even he was unable to do so effectually, is clearly due to the
+immense victory which the ascetic spirit of Christianity, as firmly
+embodied in the Canon law, had gained over the souls and bodies of men. So
+subjugated were European traditions and institutions by this spirit that
+even the volcanic emotional uprising of the Reformation, as we have seen,
+could not shake it off. When Protestant States naturally resumed the
+control of secular affairs which had been absorbed by the Church, and
+rescued from ecclesiastical hands those things which belonged to the
+sphere of the individual conscience, it might have seemed that marriage
+and divorce would have been among the first concerns to be thus
+transferred. Yet, as we know, England was about as much enslaved to the
+spirit and even the letter of Canon law in the nineteenth as in the
+fourteenth century, and even to-day English law, though no longer
+supported by the feeling of the masses, clings to the same traditions.
+
+There seems to be little doubt, however, that the modern movement for
+divorce must inevitably tend to reach the goal of separation by the will
+of both parties, or, under proper conditions and restrictions, by the
+will of one party. It now requires the will of two persons to form a
+marriage; law insists on that condition.[352] It is logical as well as
+just that law should take the next step involved by the historical
+evolution of marriage, and equally insist that it requires the will of two
+persons to maintain a marriage. This solution is, without doubt, the only
+way of deliverance from the crudities, the indecencies, the inextricable
+complexities which are introduced into law by the vain attempt to foresee
+in detail all the possibilities of conjugal disharmony which may arise
+under the conditions of modern civilization. It is, moreover, we may rest
+assured, the only solution which the growing modern sense of personal
+responsibility in sexual matters traced in the previous chapter--the
+responsibility of women as well as of men--will be content to accept.
+
+    The subtle and complex character of the sexual relationships in a
+    high civilization and the unhappy results of their State
+    regulation were well expressed by Wilhelm von Humboldt in his
+    _Ideen zu einen Versuch die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates
+    zu bestimmen_, so long ago as 1792. "A union so closely allied
+    with the very nature of the respective individuals must be
+    attended with the most hurtful consequences when the State
+    attempts to regulate it by law, or, through the force of its
+    institutions, to make it repose on anything save simple
+    inclination. When we remember, moreover, that the State can only
+    contemplate the final results of such regulations on the race, we
+    shall be still more ready to admit the justice of this
+    conclusion. It may reasonably be argued that a solicitude for the
+    race only conducts to the same results as the highest solicitude
+    for the most beautiful development of the inner man. For, after
+    careful observation, it has been found that the uninterrupted
+    union of one man with one woman is most beneficial to the race,
+    and it is likewise undeniable that no other union springs from
+    true, natural, harmonious love. And further, it may be observed,
+    that such love leads to the same results as those very relations
+    which law and custom tend to establish. The radical error seems
+    to be that the law commands; whereas such a relation cannot mould
+    itself according to external arrangements, but depends wholly on
+    inclination; and wherever coercion or guidance comes into
+    collision with inclination, they divert it still farther from the
+    proper path. Wherefore it appears to me that the State should not
+    only loosen the bonds in this instance and leave ampler freedom
+    to the citizen, but that it should entirely withdraw its active
+    solicitude from the institution of marriage, and, both generally
+    and in its particular modifications, should rather leave it
+    wholly to the free choice of the individuals, and the various
+    contracts they may enter into with respect to it. I should not be
+    deterred from the adoption of this principle by the fear that all
+    family relations might be disturbed, for, although such a fear
+    might be justified by considerations of particular circumstances
+    and localities, it could not fairly be entertained in an inquiry
+    into the nature of men and States in general. For experience
+    frequently convinces us that just where law has imposed no
+    fetters, morality most surely binds; the idea of external
+    coercion is one entirely foreign to an institution which, like
+    marriage, reposes only on inclination and an inward sense of
+    duty; and the results of such coercive institutions do not at all
+    correspond to the intentions in which they originate."
+
+    A long succession of distinguished thinkers--moralists,
+    sociologists, political reformers--have maintained the social
+    advantages of divorce by mutual consent, or, under guarded
+    circumstances, at the wish of one party. Mutual consent was the
+    corner-stone of Milton's conception of marriage. Montesquieu said
+    that true divorce must be the result of mutual consent and based
+    on the impossibility of living together. Senancour seems to agree
+    with Montesquieu. Lord Morley (_Diderot_, vol. ii, Ch. I),
+    echoing and approving the conclusions of Diderot's _Supplement au
+    Voyage de Bougainville_ (1772), adds that the separation of
+    husband and wife is "a transaction in itself perfectly natural
+    and blameless, and often not only laudable, but a duty." Bloch
+    (_Sexual Life of Our Time_, p. 240), with many other writers,
+    emphasizes the truth of Shelley's saying, that the freedom of
+    marriage is the guarantee of its durability. (That the facts of
+    life point in the same direction has been shown in the previous
+    chapter.) The learned Caspari (_Die Soziale Frage ueber die
+    Freiheit der Ehe_), while disclaiming any prevision of the
+    future, declares that if sexual relationships are to remain or to
+    become moral, there must be an easier dissolution of marriage.
+    Howard, at the conclusion of his exhaustive history of
+    matrimonial institutions (vol. iii p. 220), though he himself
+    believes that marriage is peculiarly in need of regulation by
+    law, is yet constrained to admit that it is perfectly clear to
+    the student of history that the modern divorce movement is "but a
+    part of the mighty movement for social liberation which has been
+    gaining in volume and strength since the Reformation." Similarly
+    the cautious and judicial Westermarck concludes the chapter on
+    marriage of his _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_ (vol.
+    ii, p. 398) with the statement that "when both husband and wife
+    desire to separate, it seems to many enlightened minds that the
+    State has no right to prevent them from dissolving the marriage
+    contract, provided the children are properly cared for; and that,
+    for the children, also, it is better to have the supervision of
+    one parent only than of two who cannot agree."
+
+    In France the leaders of the movement of social reform seem to be
+    almost, or quite, unanimous in believing that the next step in
+    regard to divorce is the establishment of divorce by mutual
+    consent. This was, for instance, the result reached in a
+    symposium to which thirty-one distinguished men and women
+    contributed. All were in favor of divorce by mutual consent; the
+    only exception was Madame Adam, who said she had reached a state
+    of skepticism with regard to political and social forms, but
+    admitted that for nearly half a century she had been a strong
+    advocate of divorce. A large number of the contributors were in
+    favor of divorce at the desire of one party only (_La Revue_,
+    March 1, 1901). In other countries, also, there is a growing
+    recognition that this solution of the question, with due
+    precautions to avoid any abuses to which it might otherwise be
+    liable, is the proper and inevitable solution.
+
+    As to the exact method by which divorce by mutual consent should
+    be effected, opinions differ, and the matter is likely to be
+    differently arranged in different countries. The Japanese plan
+    seems simple and judicious (see _ante_, p. 461). Paul and Victor
+    Margueritte (_Quelques Idees_, pp. 3 et seq.), while realizing
+    that the conflict of feeling in the matter of personal
+    associations involves decisions which are entirely outside the
+    competence of legal tribunals, recognize that such tribunals are
+    necessary in order to deal with the property of divorced persons,
+    and also, in the last resort, with the question of the care of
+    the children. They should not act in public. These writers
+    propose that each party should choose a representative, and that
+    these two should choose a third; and that this tribunal should
+    privately investigate, and if they agreed should register the
+    divorce, which should take place six or twelve months later, or
+    three years later, if only desired by one of the parties. Dr.
+    Shufeldt ("Psychopathia Sexualis and Divorce") proposes that a
+    divorce-court judge should conduct, alone, the hearing of any
+    cases of marital discord, the husband and wife appearing directly
+    before him, without counsel, though with their witnesses, if
+    necessary; should medical experts be required the judge alone
+    would be empowered to call them.
+
+When we realize that the long delay in the acceptance of so just and
+natural a basis of divorce is due to an artificial tension created by the
+pressure of the dead hand of Canon law--a tension confined exclusively to
+Christendom--we may also realize that with the final disappearance of that
+tension the just and natural order in this relationship will spring back
+the more swiftly because that relief has been so long delayed. "Nature
+abhors a vacuum nowhere more than in a marriage," Ellen Key remarks in the
+language of antiquated physical metaphor; the vacuum will somehow be
+filled, and if it cannot be filled in a natural and orderly manner it will
+be filled in an unnatural and disorderly manner. It is the business of
+society to see that no laws stand in the way of the establishment of
+natural order.
+
+Reform upon a reasonable basis has been made difficult by the unfortunate
+retention of the idea of delinquency. With the traditions of the Canonists
+at the back of our heads we have somehow persuaded ourselves that there
+cannot be a divorce unless there is a delinquent, a real serious
+delinquent who, if he had his deserts, would be imprisoned and consigned
+to infamy. But in the marriage relationship, as in all other
+relationships, it is only in a very small number of cases that one party
+stands towards the other as a criminal, even a defendant. This is often
+obvious in the early stages of conjugal alienation. But it remains true in
+the end. The wife commits adultery and the husband as a matter of course
+assumes the position of plaintiff. But we do not inquire how it is that he
+has not so won her love that her adultery is out of the question; such
+inquiry might lead to the conclusion that the real defendant is the
+husband. And similarly when the husband is accused of brutal cruelty the
+law takes no heed to inquire whether in the infliction of less brutal but
+not less poignant wounds, the wife also should not be made defendant.
+There are a few cases, but only a few, in which the relationship of
+plaintiff and defendant is not a totally false and artificial
+relationship, an immoral legal fiction. In most cases, if the truth were
+fully known, husband and wife should come side by side to the divorce
+court and declare: "We are both in the wrong: we have not been able to
+fulfil our engagements to each other; we have erred in choosing each
+other." The long reports of the case in open court, the mutual
+recriminations, the detectives, the servant girls and other witnesses, the
+infamous inquisition into intimate secrets--all these things, which no
+necessity could ever justify, are altogether unnecessary.
+
+It is said by some that if there were no impediments to divorce a man
+might be married in succession to half a dozen women. These simple-minded
+or ignorant persons do not seem to be aware that even when marriage is
+absolutely indissoluble a man can, and frequently does, carry on sexual
+relationships not merely successively, but, if he chooses, even
+simultaneously, with half a dozen women. There is, however, this important
+difference that, in the one case, the man is encouraged by the law to
+believe that he need only treat at most one of the six women with anything
+approaching to justice and humanity; in the other case the law insists
+that he shall fairly and openly fulfil his obligations towards all the six
+women. It is a very important difference, and there ought to be no
+question as to which state of things is moral and which immoral. It is no
+concern of the State to inquire into the number of persons with whom a man
+or a woman chooses to have sexual relationships; it is a private matter
+which may indeed affect their own finer spiritual development but which it
+is impertinent for the State to pry into. It is, however, the concern of
+the State, in its own collective interest and that of its members, to see
+that no injustice is done.
+
+But what about the children? That is necessarily a very important
+question. The question of the arrangements made for the children in cases
+of divorce is always one to which the State must give its regulative
+attention, for it is only when there are children that the State has any
+real concern in the matter.
+
+At one time it was even supposed by some that the existence of children
+was a serious argument against facility of divorce. A more reasonable view
+is now generally taken. It is, in the first place, recognized that a very
+large proportion of couples seeking divorce have no children. In England
+the proportion is about forty per cent.; in some other countries it is
+doubtless larger still. But even when there are children no one who
+realizes what the conditions are in families where the parents ought to be
+but are not divorced can have any doubt that usually those conditions are
+extremely bad for the children. The tension between the parents absorbs
+energy which should be devoted to the children. The spectacle of the
+grievances or quarrels of their parents is demoralizing for the children,
+and usually fatal to any respect towards them. At the best it is
+injuriously distressing to the children. One effective parent, there
+cannot be the slightest doubt, is far better for a child than two
+ineffective parents. There is a further point, often overlooked, for
+consideration here. Two people when living together at variance--one of
+them perhaps, it is not rarely the case, nervously abnormal or
+diseased--are not fitted to become parents, nor in the best condition for
+procreation. It is, therefore, not merely an act of justice to the
+individual, but a measure called for in the interests of the State, that
+new citizens should not be brought into the community through such
+defective channels.[353] From this point of view all the interests of the
+State are on the side of facility of divorce.
+
+There is a final argument which is often brought forward against facility
+of divorce. Marriage, it is said, is for the protection of women;
+facilitate divorce and women are robbed of that protection. It is obvious
+that this argument has little application as against divorce by mutual
+consent. Certainly it is necessary that divorce should only be arranged
+under conditions which in each individual case have received the approval
+of the law as just. But it must always be remembered that the essential
+fact of marriage is not naturally, and should never artificially be made,
+an economic question. It is possible--that is a question which society
+will have to consider--that a woman should be paid for being a mother on
+the ground that she is rearing new citizens for the State. But neither the
+State nor her husband nor anyone else ought to pay her for exercising
+conjugal rights. The fact that such an argument can be brought forward
+shows how far we are from the sound biological attitude towards sexual
+relationships. Equally unsound is the notion that the virgin bride brings
+her husband at marriage an important capital which is consumed in the
+first act of intercourse and can never be recovered. That is a notion
+which has survived into civilization, but it belongs to barbarism and not
+to civilization. So far as it has any validity it lies within a sphere of
+erotic perversity which cannot be taken into consideration in an
+estimation of moral values. For most men, however, in any case, whether
+they realize it or not, the woman who has been initiated into the
+mysteries of love has a higher erotic value than the virgin, and there
+need be no anxiety on this ground concerning the wife who has lost her
+virginity. It is probably a significant fact that this anxiety for the
+protection of women by the limitation of divorce is chiefly brought
+forward by men and not by women themselves. A woman at marriage is
+deprived by society and the law of her own name. She has been deprived
+until recently of the right to her own earnings. She is deprived of the
+most intimate rights in her own person. She is deprived under some
+circumstances of her own child, against whom she may have committed no
+offence whatever. It is perhaps scarcely surprising that she is not
+greatly appreciative of the protection afforded her by the withholding of
+the right to divorce her husband. "Ah, no, no protection!" a brilliant
+French woman has written. "We have been protected long enough. The only
+protection to grant women is to cease protecting them."[354] As a matter
+of fact the divorce movement appears to develop, on the whole, with that
+development of woman's moral responsibility traced in the previous
+chapter, and where divorce is freest women occupy the highest position.
+
+We cannot fail to realize as we grasp the nature and direction of the
+modern movement of divorce that the final tendency of that movement is to
+efface itself. Necessary as the Divorce Court has been as the inevitable
+corollary of an impossible ecclesiastical conception of marriage, no
+institution is now more hideous, more alien to the instinctive feelings
+generated by a fine civilization, and more opposed to the dignity of
+womanhood.[355] Its disappearance and its substitution by private
+arrangements, effected on their contractive sides, especially if there are
+children to provide for, under legal and if necessary judicial
+supervision, is, and always has been, the natural result of the attainment
+of a reasonably high stage of civilization. The Divorce Court has merely
+been a phase in the history of modern marriage, and a phase that has
+really been repugnant to all concerned in it. There is no need to view the
+project of its ultimate disappearance with anything but satisfaction. It
+was merely the outcome of an artificial conception of marriage. It is time
+to return to the consideration of that conception.
+
+We have seen that when the Catholic development of the archaic conception
+of marriage as a sacrament, slowly elaborated and fossilized by the
+ingenuity of the Canonists, was at last nominally dethroned, though not
+destroyed, by the movement associated with the Reformation, it was
+replaced by the conception of marriage as a contract. This conception of
+marriage as a contract still enjoys a considerable amount of credit
+amongst us.
+
+There must always be contractive elements, implicit or explicit, in a
+marriage; that was well recognized even by the Canonists. But when we
+treat marriage as all contract, and nothing but contract, we have to
+realize that we have set up a very peculiar form of contract, not
+voidable, like other contracts, by the agreement of the parties to it, but
+dissoluble as a sort of punishment of delinquency rather than by the
+voluntary annulment of a bond.[356] When the Protestant Reformers seized
+on the idea of marriage as a contract they were not influenced by any
+reasoned analysis of the special characteristics of a contract; they were
+merely anxious to secure a plausible ground, already admitted even by the
+Canonists to cover certain aspects of the matrimonial union, on which they
+could declare that marriage is a secular and not an ecclesiastical matter,
+a civil bond and not a sacramental process.[357]
+
+Like so much else in the Protestant revolt, the strength of this attitude
+lay in the fact that it was a protest, based on its negative side on
+reasonable and natural grounds. But while Protestantism was right in its
+attempt--for it was only an attempt--to deny the authority of Canon law,
+that attempt was altogether unsatisfactory on the positive side. As a
+matter of fact marriage is not a true contract and no attempt has ever
+been made to convert it into a true contract.
+
+    Various writers have treated marriage as an actual contract or
+    argued that it ought to be converted into a true contract. Mrs.
+    Mona Caird, for instance ("The Morality of Marriage,"
+    _Fortnightly Review_, 1890), believes that when marriage becomes
+    really a contract "a couple would draw up their agreement, or
+    depute the task to their friends, as is now generally done as
+    regards marriage settlements. They agree to live together on such
+    and such terms, making certain stipulations within the limits of
+    the code." The State, she holds, should, however, demand an
+    interval of time between notice of divorce and the divorce
+    itself, if still desired when that interval has passed.
+    Similarly, in the United States Dr. Shufeldt ("Needed Revision of
+    the Laws of Marriage and Divorce," _Medico-Legal Journal_, Dec.,
+    1897) insists that marriage must be entirely put into the hands
+    of the legal profession and "made a civil contract, explicit in
+    detail, and defining terms of divorce, in the event that a
+    dissolution of the contract is subsequently desired." He adds
+    that medical certificates of freedom from hereditary and acquired
+    disease should be required, and properly regulated probationary
+    marriages also be instituted.
+
+    In France, a deputy of the Chamber was, in 1891, so convinced
+    that marriage is a contract, like any other contract, that he
+    declared that "to perform music at the celebration of a marriage
+    is as ridiculous as it would be to send for a tenor to a notary's
+    to celebrate a sale of timber." He was of quite different mind
+    from Pepys, who, a couple of centuries earlier, had been equally
+    indignant at the absence of music from a wedding, which, he said,
+    made it like a coupling of dog and bitch.
+
+    A frequent demand of those who insist that marriage must be
+    regarded as a contract is marriage contracted for a term of
+    years. Marriages could be contracted for a term of five years or
+    less in old Japan, and it is said that they were rarely or never
+    dissolved at the end of the term. Goethe, in his
+    _Wahlverwandtschaften_ (Part I, Ch. X) incidentally introduced a
+    proposal for marriages for a term of five years and attached much
+    moral significance to the prolongation of the marriage beyond
+    that term without external compulsion. (Bloch considers that
+    Goethe had probably heard of the Japanese custom, _Sexual Life of
+    Our Time_, p. 241.) Professor E.D. Cope ("The Marriage Problem,"
+    _Open Court_, Nov. 15 and 22, 1888), likewise, in order to remove
+    matrimony from the domain of caprice and to permit full and fair
+    trial, advocated "a system of civil marriage contracts which
+    shall run for a definite time. These contracts should be of the
+    same value and effect as the existing marriage contract. The time
+    limits should be increased rapidly, so as to prevent women of
+    mature years being deprived of support. The first contract ought
+    not to run for less than five years, so as to give ample
+    opportunity for acquaintance, and for the recovery from temporary
+    disagreements." This first contract, Cope held, should be
+    terminable at the wish of either party; the second contract, for
+    ten or fifteen years, should only be terminable at the wish of
+    both parties, and the third should be permanent and indissoluble.
+    George Meredith, the distinguished novelist, also, more recently,
+    threw out the suggestion that marriages should be contracted for
+    a term of years.
+
+    It can scarcely be said that marriages for a term of years
+    constitute a very satisfactory solution of the difficulties at
+    present encountered. They would not commend themselves to young
+    lovers, who believe that their love is eternal, nor, so long as
+    the union proves satisfactory, is there any need to introduce the
+    disturbing idea of a legal termination of the contract. On the
+    other hand, if the union proves unhappy, it is not reasonable to
+    insist on the continuation for ten or even five years of an empty
+    form which corresponds to no real marriage union. Even if
+    marriage is placed on the most prosaic contractive basis it is a
+    mistake, and indeed an impossibility, to pre-ordain the length of
+    its duration. The system of fixing the duration of marriage
+    beforehand for a term of years involves exactly the same
+    principle as the system of fixing it beforehand for life. It is
+    open to the same objection that it is incompatible with any
+    vital relationship. As the demand for vital reality and
+    effectiveness in social relationships grows, this fact is
+    increasingly felt. We see exactly the same change among us in
+    regard to the system of inflicting fixed sentences of
+    imprisonment on criminals. To send a man to prison for five years
+    or for life, without any regard to the unknown problem of the
+    vital reaction of imprisonment on the man--a reaction which will
+    be different in every individual case--is slowly coming to be
+    regarded as an absurdity.
+
+If marriage were really placed on the basis of a contract, not only would
+that contract be voidable at the will of the two parties concerned,
+without any question of delinquency coming into the question, but those
+parties would at the outset themselves determine the conditions regulating
+the contract. But nothing could be more unlike our actual marriage. The
+two parties are bidden to accept each other as husband and wife; they are
+not invited to make a contract; they are not even told that, little as
+they may know it, they have in fact made a very complicated and elaborate
+contract that was framed on lines laid down, for a large part, thousands
+of years before they were born. Unless they have studied law they are
+totally ignorant, also, that this contract contains clauses which under
+some circumstances may be fatal to either of them. All that happens is
+that a young couple, perhaps little more than children, momentarily dazed
+by emotion, are hurried before the clergyman or the civil registrar of
+marriages, to bind themselves together for life, knowing nothing of the
+world and scarcely more of each other, knowing nothing also of the
+marriage laws, not even perhaps so much as that there are any marriage
+laws, never realizing that--as has been truly said--from the place they
+are entering beneath a garland of flowers there is, on this side of death,
+no exit except through the trapdoor of a sewer.[358]
+
+    When a woman marries she gives up the right to her own person.
+    Thus, according to the law of England, a man "cannot be guilty of
+    a rape upon his lawful wife." Stephen, who, in the first edition
+    of his _Digest of Criminal Law_, thought that under some
+    circumstances a man might be indicted for rape upon his wife, in
+    the last edition withdrew that opinion. A man may rape a
+    prostitute, but he cannot rape his wife. Having once given her
+    consent to sexual intercourse by the act of marrying a man, she
+    has given it forever, whatever new circumstances may arise, and
+    he has no need to ask her consent to sexual intercourse, not even
+    if he is knowingly suffering at the time from a venereal disease
+    (see, e.g., an article on "Sex Bias," _Westminster Review_,
+    March, 1888).
+
+    The duty of the wife to allow "conjugal rights" to her husband is
+    another aspect of her legal subjection to him. Even in the
+    nineteenth century a Suffolk lady of good family was imprisoned
+    in Ipswich Goal for many years and fed on bread and water, though
+    suffering from various diseases, till she died, simply because
+    she continued to disregard the decree requiring her to render
+    conjugal rights to her husband. This state of things was partly
+    reformed by the Matrimonial Causes Bill of 1884, and that bill
+    was passed, not to protect women, but men, against punishment for
+    refusal to restore conjugal rights. Undoubtedly, the modern
+    tendency, although it has progressed very slowly, is against
+    applying compulsion to either husband or wife to yield "conjugal
+    rights;" and since the Jackson case it is not possible in England
+    for a husband to use force in attempting to compel his wife to
+    live with him. This tendency is still more marked in the United
+    States; thus the Iowa Supreme Court, a few years ago, decided
+    that excessive demands for coitus constituted cruelty of a degree
+    justifying divorce (J.G. Kiernan, _Alienist and Neurologist_,
+    Nov. 1906, p. 466).
+
+    The slender tenure of the wife over her person is not confined to
+    the sexual sphere, but even extends to her right to life. In
+    England, if a wife kills her husband, it was formerly the very
+    serious offence of "petit treason," and it is still murder. But,
+    if a husband kills his wife and is able to plead her adultery and
+    his jealousy, it is only manslaughter. (In France, where jealousy
+    is regarded with extreme indulgence, even a wife who kills her
+    husband is often acquitted.)
+
+    It must not, however, be supposed that all the legal inequalities
+    involved by marriage are in favor of the husband. A large number
+    of injustices are also inflicted on the husband. The husband, for
+    instance, is legally responsible for the libels uttered by his
+    wife, and he is equally responsible civilly for the frauds she
+    commits, even if she is living apart from him. (This was, for
+    instance, held by an English judge in 1908; "he could only say he
+    regretted it, for it seems a hard case. But it was the law.")
+    Belfort Bax has, in recent years, especially insisted on the
+    hardships inflicted by English law in such ways as these. There
+    can be no doubt that marriage, as at present constituted,
+    inflicts serious wrongs on the husband as well as on the wife.
+
+Marriage is, therefore, not only not a contract in the true sense,[359]
+but in the only sense in which it is a contract it is a contract of an
+exceedingly bad kind. When the Canonists superseded the old conception of
+marriage as a contract of purchase by their sacramental marriage, they
+were in many respects effecting a real progress, and the return to the
+idea of a contract, as soon as its temporary value as a protest has
+ceased, proves altogether out of harmony with any advanced stage of
+civilization. It was revived in days before the revolt against slavery had
+been inaugurated. Personal contracts are out of harmony with our modern
+civilization and our ideas of individual liberty. A man can no longer
+contract himself as a slave nor sell his wife. Yet marriage, regarded as a
+contract, is of precisely the same class as those transactions.[360] In
+every high stage of civilization this fact is clearly recognized, and
+young couples are not even allowed to contract themselves out in marriage
+unconditionally. We see this, for instance, in the wise legislation of the
+Romans. Even under the Christian Emperors that sound principle was
+maintained and the lawyer Paulus wrote:[361] "Marriage was so free,
+according to ancient opinion, that even agreements between the parties not
+to separate from one another could have no validity." In so far as the
+essence and not any accidental circumstance of the marital relationships
+is made a contract, it is a contract of a nature which the two parties
+concerned are not competent to make. Biologically and psychologically it
+cannot be valid, and with the growth of a humane civilization it is
+explicitly declared to be legally invalid.
+
+For, there can be no doubt about it, the intimate and essential fact of
+marriage--the relationship of sexual intercourse--is not and cannot be a
+contract. It is not a contract but a fact; it cannot be effected by any
+mere act of will on the part of the parties concerned; it cannot be
+maintained by any mere act of will. To will such a contract is merely to
+perform a worse than indecorous farce. Certainly many of the circumstances
+of marriage are properly the subject of contract, to be voluntarily and
+deliberately made by the parties to the contract. But the essential fact
+of marriage--a love strong enough to render the most intimate of
+relationships possible and desirable through an indefinite number of
+years--cannot be made a matter for contract. Alike from the physical point
+of view, and the psychical point of view, no binding contract--and a
+contract is worthless if it is not binding--can possibly be made. And the
+making of such pseudo-contracts concerning the future of a marriage,
+before it has even been ascertained that the marriage can ever become a
+fact at all, is not only impossible but absurd.
+
+It is of course true that this impossibility, this absurdity, are never
+visible to the contracting parties. They have applied to the question all
+the very restricted tests that are conventionally permitted to them, and
+the satisfactory results of these tests, together with the consciousness
+of possessing an immense and apparently inexhaustible fund of loving
+emotion, seem to them adequate to the fulfilment of the contract
+throughout life, if not indeed eternity.
+
+As a child of seven I chanced to be in a semi-tropical island of the
+Pacific supplied with fruit, especially grapes, from the mainland, and a
+dusky market woman always presented a large bunch of grapes to the little
+English stranger. But a day came when the proffered bunch was firmly
+refused; the superabundance of grapes had produced a reaction of disgust.
+A space of nearly forty years was needed to overcome the repugnance to
+grapes thus acquired. Yet there can be no doubt that if at the age of six
+that little boy had been asked to sign a contract binding him to accept
+grapes every day, to keep them always near him, to eat them and to enjoy
+them every day, he would have signed that contract as joyously as any
+radiant bridegroom or demure bride signs the register in the vestry. But
+is a complex man or woman, with unknown capacities for changing or
+deteriorating, and with incalculable aptitudes for inflicting torture and
+arousing loathing, is such a creature more easy to be bound to than an
+exquisite fruit? All the countries of the world in which the subtle
+influence of the Canon law of Christendom still makes itself felt, have
+not yet grasped a general truth which is well within the practical
+experience of a child of seven.[362]
+
+    The notion that such a relationship as that of marriage can rest
+    on so fragile a basis as a pre-ordained contract has naturally
+    never prevailed widely in its extreme form, and has been unknown
+    altogether in many parts of the world. The Romans, as we know,
+    explicitly rejected it, and even at a comparatively early period
+    recognized the legality of marriage by _usus_, thus declaring in
+    effect that marriage must be a fact, and not a mere undertaking.
+    There has been a widespread legal tendency, especially where the
+    traditions of Roman law have retained any influence, to regard
+    the cohabitation of marriage as the essential fact of the
+    relationship. It was an old rule even under the Catholic Church
+    that marriage may be presumed from cohabitation (see, e.g.,
+    Zacchia, _Questionum Medico-legalium Opus_, edition of 1688, vol.
+    iii, p. 234). Even in England cohabitation is already one of the
+    presumptions in favor of the existence of marriage (though not
+    necessarily by itself regarded as sufficient), provided the woman
+    is of unblemished character, and does not appear to be a common
+    prostitute (Nevill Geary, _The Law of Marriage_, Ch. III). If,
+    however, according to Lord Watson's judicial statement in the
+    Dysart Peerage case, a man takes his mistress to a hotel or goes
+    with her to a baby-linen shop and speaks of her as his wife, it
+    is to be presumed that he is acting for the sake of decency, and
+    this furnishes no evidence of marriage. In Scotland the
+    presumption of marriage arises on much slighter grounds than in
+    England. This may be connected with the ancient and deep-rooted
+    custom in Scotland of marriage by exchange of consent (Geary, op.
+    cit. Ch. XVIII; cf., Howard, _Matrimonial Institutions_, vol. i,
+    p. 316).
+
+    In the Bredalbane case (Campbell _v._ Campbell, 1867), which was
+    of great importance because it involved the succession to the
+    vast estates of the Marquis of Bredalbane, the House of Lords
+    decided than even an adulterous connection may, on ceasing to be
+    adulterous, become matrimonial by the simple consent of the
+    parties, as evidenced by habit and repute, without any need for
+    the matrimonial character of the connection to be indicated by
+    any public act, nor any necessity to prove the specific period
+    when the consent was interchanged. This decision has been
+    confirmed in the Dysart case (Geary, loc. cit.; cf. C.G.
+    Garrison, "Limits of Divorce," _Contemporary Review_, Feb.,
+    1894). Similarly, as decided by Justice Kekewich in the Wagstaff
+    case in 1907, if a man leaves money to his "widow," on condition
+    that she never marries again, although he has never been married
+    to her, and though she has been legally married to another man,
+    the testator's intentions must be upheld. Garrison, in his
+    valuable discussion of this aspect of legal marriage (_loc.
+    cit._), forcibly insists that by English law marriage is a fact
+    and not a contract, and that where "conduct characterized by
+    connubial purpose and constancy" exists, there marriage legally
+    exists, marriage being simply "a name for an existing fact."
+
+    In the United States, marriage "by habit and repute" similarly
+    exists, and in some States has even been confirmed and extended
+    by statute (J.P. Bishop, _Commentaries_, vol. i, Ch. XV).
+    "Whatever the form of the ceremony, and even if all ceremony was
+    dispensed with," said Judge Cooley, of Michigan, in 1875 (in an
+    opinion accepted as authoritative by the Federal courts), "if the
+    parties agreed presently to take each other for husband and wife,
+    and from that time lived together professedly in that relation,
+    proof of these facts would be sufficient.... This has been the
+    settled doctrine of the American courts." (Howard, op. cit., vol.
+    iii, pp. 177 et seq. Twenty-three States sanction common-law
+    marriage, while eighteen repudiate, or are inclined to repudiate,
+    any informal agreement.)
+
+    This legal recognition by the highest judicial authorities, alike
+    in Great Britain and the United States, that marriage is
+    essentially a fact, and that no evidence of any form or ceremony
+    of marriage is required for the most complete legal recognition
+    of marriage, undoubtedly carries with it highly important
+    implications. It became clear that the reform of marriage is
+    possible even without change in the law, and that honorable
+    sexual relationships, even when entered into without any legal
+    forms, are already entitled to full legal recognition and
+    protection. There are, however, it need scarcely be added here,
+    other considerations which render reform along these lines
+    incomplete.
+
+It thus tends to come about that with the growth of civilization the
+conception of marriage as a contract falls more and more into discredit.
+It is realized, on the one hand, that personal contracts are out of
+harmony with our general and social attitude, for if we reject the idea of
+a human being contracting himself as a slave, how much more we should
+reject the idea of entering by contract into the still more intimate
+relationship of a husband or a wife; on the other hand it is felt that the
+idea of pre-ordained contracts on a matter over which the individual
+himself has no control is quite unreal and when any strict rules of equity
+prevail, necessarily invalid. It is true that we still constantly find
+writers sententiously asserting their notions of the duties or the
+privileges involved by the "contract" of marriage, with no more attempt to
+analyze the meaning of the term "contract" in this connection than the
+Protestant Reformers made, but it can scarcely be said that these writers
+have yet reached the alphabet of the subject they dogmatize about.
+
+The transference of marriage from the Church to the State which, in the
+lands where it first occurred, we owe to Protestantism and, in the
+English-speaking lands, especially to Puritanism, while a necessary stage,
+had the unfortunate result of secularizing the sexual relationships. That
+is to say, it ignored the transcendent element in love which is really the
+essential part of such relationships, and it concentrated attention on
+those formal and accidental parts of marriage which can alone be dealt
+with in a rigid and precise manner, and can alone properly form the
+subject of contracts. The Canon law, fantastic and impossible as it became
+in many of its developments, at least insisted on the natural and actual
+fact of marriage as, above all, a bodily union, while, at the same time,
+it regarded that union as no mere secular business contract but a sacred
+and exalted function, a divine fact, and the symbol of the most divine
+fact in the world. We are returning to-day to the Canonist's conception of
+marriage on a higher and freer plane, bringing back the exalted conception
+of the Canon law, yet retaining the individualism which the Puritan
+wrongly thought he could secure on the basis of mere secularization,
+while, further, we recognize that the whole process belongs to the private
+sphere of moral responsibility. As Hobhouse has well said, in tracing the
+evolutionary history of the modern conception of marriage, the sacramental
+idea of marriage has again emerged but on a higher plane; "from being a
+sacrament in the magical, it has become one in the ethical, sense." We are
+thus tending towards, though we have not yet legally achieved, marriage
+made and maintained by consent, "a union between two free and responsible
+persons in which the equal rights of both are maintained."[363]
+
+    It is supposed by some that to look upon sexual union as a
+    sacrament is necessarily to accept the ancient Catholic view,
+    embodied in the Canon law, that matrimony is indissoluble. That
+    is, however, a mistake. Even the Canonists themselves were never
+    able to put forward any coherent and consistent ground for the
+    indissolubility of matrimony which could commend itself
+    rationally, while Luther and Milton and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who
+    maintained the religious and sacred nature of sexual
+    union--though they were cautious about using the term sacrament
+    on account of its ecclesiastical implications--so far from
+    believing that its sanctity involved indissolubility, argued in
+    the reverse sense. This point of view may be defended even from a
+    strictly Protestant standpoint. "I take it," Mr. G.C. Maberly
+    says, "that the Prayer Book definition of a sacrament, 'the
+    outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace,' is
+    generally accepted. In marriage the legal and physical unions are
+    the outward and visible signs, while the inward and spiritual
+    grace is the God-given love that makes the union of heart and
+    soul: and it is precisely because I take this view of marriage
+    that I consider the legal and physical union should be dissolved
+    whenever the spiritual union of unselfish, divine love and
+    affection has ceased. It seems to me that the sacramental view of
+    marriage compels us to say that those who continue the legal or
+    physical union when the spiritual union has ceased, are--to quote
+    again from the Prayer Book words applied to those who take the
+    outward sign of another sacrament when the inward and spiritual
+    grace is not present--'eating and drinking their own damnation.'"
+
+If from the point we have now reached we look back at the question of
+divorce we see that, as the modern aspects of the marriage relationship
+becomes more clearly realized by the community, that question will be
+immensely simplified. Since marriage is not a mere contract but a fact of
+conduct, and even a sacred fact, the free participation of both parties is
+needed to maintain it. To introduce the idea of delinquency and punishment
+into divorce, to foster mutual recrimination, to publish to the world the
+secrets of the heart or the senses, is not only immoral, it is altogether
+out of place. In the question as to when a marriage has ceased to be a
+marriage the two parties concerned can alone be the supreme judges; the
+State, if the State is called in, can but register the sentence they
+pronounce, merely seeing to it that no injustice is involved in the
+carrying out of that sentence.[364]
+
+In discussing in the previous chapter the direction in which sexual
+morality tends to develop with the development of civilization we came to
+the conclusion that in its main lines it involved, above all, personal
+responsibility. A relationship fixed among savage peoples by social custom
+which none dare break, and in a higher stage of culture by formal laws
+which must be observed in the letter even if broken in the spirit, becomes
+gradually transferred to the sphere of individual moral responsibility.
+Such a transference is necessarily meaningless, and indeed impossible,
+unless the increasing stringency of the moral bond is accompanied by the
+decreasing stringency of the formal bond. It is only by the process of
+loosening the artificial restraints that the natural restraints can exert
+their full control. That process takes place in two ways, in part on the
+basis of the indifference to formal marriage which has marked the masses
+of the population everywhere and doubtless stretches back to the tenth
+century before the domination of ecclesiastical matrimony began, and
+partly by the progressive modification of marriage laws which were made
+necessary by the needs of the propertied classes anxious to secure the
+State recognition of their unions. The whole process is necessarily a
+gradual and indeed imperceptible process. It is impossible to fix
+definitely the dates of the stages by which the Church effected the
+immense revolution by which it grasped, and eventually transferred to the
+State, the complete control of marriage, for that revolution was effected
+without the intervention of any law. It will be equally difficult to
+perceive the transference of the control of marriage from the State to
+the individuals concerned, and the more difficult because, as we shall
+see, although the essential and intimately personal fact of marriage is
+not a proper matter for State control, there are certain aspects of
+marriage which touch the interests of the community so closely that the
+State is bound to insist on their registration and to take an interest in
+their settlement.
+
+The result of dissolving the formal stringency of the marriage
+relationship, it is sometimes said, would be a tendency to an immoral
+laxity. Those who make this statement overlook the fact that laxity tends
+to reach a maximum as a result of stringency, and that where the merely
+external authority of a rigid marriage law prevails, there the extreme
+excesses of license most flourish. It is also undoubtedly true, and for
+the same reason, that any sudden removal of restraints necessarily
+involves a reaction to the opposite extreme of license; a slave is not
+changed at a stroke into an autonomous freeman. Yet we have to remember
+that the marriage order existed for millenniums before any attempt was
+made to mould it into arbitrary shapes by human legislation. Such
+legislation, we have seen, was indeed the effort of the human spirit to
+affirm more emphatically the demands of its own instincts.[365] But its
+final result is to choke and impede rather than to further the instincts
+which inspired it. Its gradual disappearance allows the natural order free
+and proper scope.
+
+    The great truth that compulsion is not really a force on the side
+    of virtue, but on the side of vice, had been clearly realized by
+    the genius of Rabelais, when he said of his ideal social state,
+    the Abbey of Thelema, that there was but one clause in its rule:
+    Fay ce que vouldras. "Because," said Rabelais (Bk. i, Ch. VII),
+    "men that are free, well-born, well-bred, and conversant in
+    honest companies, have naturally an instinct and spur that
+    prompts them unto virtuous actions and withdraws them from vice.
+    These same men, when by base subjection and constraint they are
+    brought under and kept down, turn aside from that noble
+    disposition by which they freely were inclined to virtue, to
+    shake off and break that bond of servitude." So that when a man
+    and a woman who had lived under the rule of Thelema married each
+    other, Rabelais tells us, their mutual love lasted undiminished
+    to the day of their death.
+
+    When the loss of autonomous freedom fails to lead to licentious
+    rebellion it incurs the opposite risk and tends to become a
+    flabby reliance on an external support. The artificial support of
+    marriage by State regulation then resembles the artificial
+    support of the body furnished by corset-wearing. The reasons for
+    and against adopting artificial support are the same in one case
+    as the other. Corsets really give a feeling of support; they
+    really furnish without trouble a fairly satisfactory appearance
+    of decorum; they are a real protection against various accidents.
+    But the price at which they furnish these advantages is serious,
+    and the advantages themselves only exist under unnatural
+    conditions. The corset cramps the form and the healthy
+    development of the organs; it enfeebles the voluntary muscular
+    system; it is incompatible with perfect grace and beauty; it
+    diminishes the sum of active energy. It exerts, in short, the
+    same kind of influence on physical responsibility as formal
+    marriage on moral responsibility.
+
+    It is too often forgotten, and must therefore be repeated, that
+    married people do not remain together because of any religious or
+    legal tie; that tie is merely the historical outcome of their
+    natural tendency to remain together, a tendency which is itself
+    far older than history. "Love would exist in the world to-day,
+    just as pure and just as enduring," says Shufeldt (_Medico-Legal
+    Journal_, Dec., 1897), "had man never invented 'marriage.' Truly
+    affined mates would have remained faithful to each other as long
+    as life lasted. It is only when men attempt to improve upon
+    nature that crime, disease, and unhappiness step in." "The
+    abolition of marriage in the form now practiced," wrote Godwin
+    more than a century ago (_Political Justice_, second edition,
+    1796, vol. i, p. 248), "will be attended with no evils. We are
+    apt to represent it to ourselves as the harbinger of brutal lust
+    and depravity. But it really happens in this, as in other cases,
+    that the positive laws which are made to restrain our vices
+    irritate and multiply them." And Professor Lester Ward, in
+    insisting on the strength of the monogamic sentiment in modern
+    society, truly remarks (_International Journal of Ethics_, Oct.,
+    1896) that the rebellion against rigid marriage bonds "is, in
+    reality, due to the very strengthening of the true bonds of
+    conjugal affection, coupled with a rational and altogether proper
+    determination on the part of individuals to accept, in so
+    important a matter, nothing less than the genuine article." "If
+    by a single stroke," says Professor Woods Hutchinson
+    (_Contemporary Review_, Sept., 1905), "all marriage ties now in
+    existence were struck off or declared illegal, eight-tenths of
+    all couples would be remarried within forty eight hours, and
+    seven-tenths could not be kept asunder with bayonets." An
+    experiment of this kind on a small scale was witnessed in 1909 in
+    an English village in Buckinghamshire. It was found that the
+    parish church had never been licensed for marriages, and that in
+    consequence all the people who had gone through the ceremony of
+    marriage in that church during the previous half century had
+    never been legally married. Yet, so far as could be ascertained,
+    not a single couple thus released from the legal compulsion of
+    marriage took advantage of the freedom bestowed. In the face of
+    such a fact it is obviously impossible to attach any moral value
+    to the form of marriage.
+
+It is certainly inevitable that during a period of transition the natural
+order is to some extent disturbed by the persistence, even though in a
+weakened form, of external bonds which are beginning to be consciously
+realized as inimical to the authoritative control of individual moral
+responsibility. We can clearly trace this at the present time. A sensitive
+anxiety to escape from external constraint induces an under-valuation of
+the significance of personal constraint in the relationship of marriage.
+Everyone is probably familiar with cases in which a couple will live
+together through long years without entering the legal bond of marriage,
+notwithstanding difficulties in their mutual relationship which would have
+long since caused a separation or a divorce had they been legally married.
+When the inherent difficulties of the marital relationship are complicated
+by the difficulties due to external constraint, the development of
+individual moral responsibility cuts two ways, and leads to results that
+are not entirely satisfactory. This has been seen in the United States of
+America and attention has often been called to it by thoughtful American
+observers. It is, naturally, noted especially in women because it is in
+women that the new growth of personal freedom and moral responsibility has
+chiefly made itself felt. The first stirring of these new impulses,
+especially when associated, as it often is, with inexperience and
+ignorance, leads to impatience with the natural order, to a demand for
+impossible conditions of existence, and to an inaptitude not only for the
+arbitrary bondage of law but even for the wholesome and necessary bonds of
+human social life. It is always a hard lesson for the young and idealistic
+that in order to command Nature we must obey her; it can only be learnt
+through contact with life and by the attainment of full human growth.
+
+    Dr. Felix Adler (in an address before the Society of Ethical
+    Culture of New York, Nov. 17, 1889) called attention to what he
+    regarded as the most deep-rooted cause of an undue prevalence of
+    divorce in America. "The false idea of individual liberty is
+    largely held in America," and when applied to family life it
+    often leads to an impatience with these duties which the
+    individual is either born into or has voluntarily accepted. "I am
+    constrained to think that the prevalence of divorce is to be
+    ascribed in no small degree to the influence of democratic
+    ideas--that is, of false democratic ideas--and our hope lies in
+    advancing towards a higher and truer democracy." A more recent
+    American writer, this time a woman, Anna A. Rogers ("Why American
+    Marriages Fail," _Atlantic Monthly_, Sept., 1907) speaks in the
+    same sense, though perhaps in too unqualified a manner. She
+    states that the frequency of divorce in America is due to three
+    causes: (1) woman's failure to realize that marriage is her work
+    in the world; (2) her growing individualism; (3) her lost art of
+    giving, replaced by a highly developed receptive faculty. The
+    American woman, this writer states, in discovering her own
+    individuality has not yet learnt how to manage it; it is still
+    "largely a useless, uneasy factor, vouchsafing her very little
+    more peace than it does those in her immediate surcharged
+    vicinity." Her circumstances tend to make of her "a curious
+    anomalous hybrid; a cross between a magnificent, rather
+    unmannerly boy, and a spoiled, exacting _demi-mondaine_, who
+    sincerely loves in this world herself alone." She has not yet
+    learnt that woman's supreme work in the world can only be
+    attained through the voluntary acceptance of the restraints of
+    marriage. The same writer points out that the fault is not alone
+    with American women, but also with American men. Their idolatry
+    of their women is largely responsible for that intolerance and
+    selfishness which causes so many divorces; "American women are,
+    as a whole, pampered and worshipped out of all reason." But the
+    men, who lend themselves to this, do not feel that they can treat
+    their wives with the same comradeship as the French treat their
+    wives, nor seek their advice with the same reliance; the American
+    woman is placed on an unreal pedestal. Yet another American
+    writer, Rafford Pyke ("Husbands and Wives," _Cosmopolitan_,
+    1902), points out that only a small proportion of American
+    marriages are really unhappy, these being chiefly among the more
+    cultured classes, in which the movement of expansion in women's
+    interests and lives is taking place; it is more often the wife
+    than the husband who is disappointed in marriage, and this is
+    largely due to her inability to merge, not necessarily
+    subordinate, her individuality in an equal union with his.
+    "Marriage to-day is becoming more and more dependent for its
+    success upon the adjustment of conditions that are psychical.
+    Whereas in former generations it was sufficient that the union
+    should involve physical reciprocity, in this age of ours the
+    union must involve a psychic reciprocity as well. And whereas,
+    heretofore, the community of interest was attained with ease, it
+    is now becoming far more difficult because of the tendency to
+    discourage a woman who marries from merging her separate
+    individuality in her husband's. Yet, unless she does this, how
+    can she have a complete and perfect interest in the life
+    together, and, for that matter, how can he have such an interest
+    either?"
+
+    Professor Muensterberg, the distinguished psychologist, in his
+    frank but appreciative study of American institutions, _The
+    Americans_, taking a broader outlook, points out that the
+    influence of women on morals in America has not been in every
+    respect satisfactory, in so far as it has tended to encourage
+    shallowness and superficiality. "The American woman who has
+    scarcely a shred of education," he remarks (p. 587), "looks in
+    vain for any subject on which she has not firm convictions
+    already at hand.... The arrogance of this feminine lack of
+    knowledge is the symptom of a profound trait in the feminine
+    soul, and points to dangers springing from the domination of
+    women in the intellectual life.... And in no other civilized land
+    are ethical conceptions so worm-eaten by superstitions."
+
+We have seen that the modern tendency as regards marriage is towards its
+recognition as a voluntary union entered into by two free, equal, and
+morally responsible persons, and that that union is rather of the nature
+of an ethical sacrament than of a contract, so that in its essence as a
+physical and spiritual bond it is outside the sphere of the State's
+action. It has been necessary to labor that point before we approach what
+may seem to many not only a different but even a totally opposed aspect of
+marriage. If the marriage union itself cannot be a matter for contract, it
+naturally leads to a fact which must necessarily be a matter for implicit
+or explicit contract, a matter, moreover, in which the community at large
+has a real and proper interest: that is the fact of procreation.[366]
+
+The ancient Egyptians--among whom matrimonial institutions were so elastic
+and the position of woman so high--recognized a provisional and slight
+marriage bond for the purpose of testing fecundity.[367] Among ourselves
+the law makes no such paternal provision, leaving to young couples
+themselves the responsibility of making any tests, a permission, we know,
+they largely avail themselves of, usually entering the legal bonds of
+marriage, however, before the birth of their child. That legal bond is a
+recognition that the introduction of a new individual into the community
+is not, like sexual union, a mere personal fact, but a social fact, a fact
+in which the State cannot fail to be concerned. And the more we
+investigate the tendency of the modern marriage movement the more we shall
+realize that its attitude of freedom, of individual moral responsibility,
+in the formation of sexual relationships, is compensated by an attitude of
+stringency, of strict social oversight, in the matter of procreation. Two
+people who form an erotic relationship are bound, when they reach the
+conviction that their relationship is a real marriage, having its natural
+end in procreation, to subscribe to a contract which, though it may leave
+themselves personally free, must yet bind them both to their duties
+towards their children.[368]
+
+The necessity for such an undertaking is double, even apart from the fact
+that it is in the highest interests of the parents themselves. It is
+required in the interests of the child. It is required in the interests of
+the State. A child can be bred, and well-bred, by one effective parent.
+But to equip a child adequately for its entrance into life both parents
+are usually needed. The State on its side--that is to say, the community
+of which parents and child alike form part--is bound to know who these
+persons are who have become sponsors for a new individual now introduced
+into its midst. The most Individualistic State, the most Socialistic
+State, are alike bound, if faithful to the interests, both biological and
+economic, of their constituent members generally, to insist on the full
+legal and recognized parentage of the father and mother of every child.
+That is clearly demanded in the interests of the child; it is clearly
+demanded also in the interests of the State.
+
+The barrier which in Christendom has opposed itself to the natural
+recognition of this fact, so injuring alike the child and the State, has
+clearly been the rigidity of the marriage system, more especially as
+moulded by the Canon law. The Canonists attributed a truly immense
+importance to the _copula carnalis_, as they technically termed it. They
+centred marriage strictly in the vagina; they were not greatly concerned
+about either the presence or the absence of the child. The vagina, as we
+know, has not always proved a very firm centre for the support of
+marriage, and that centre is now being gradually transferred to the child.
+If we turn from the Canonists to the writings of a modern like Ellen Key,
+who so accurately represents much that is most characteristic and
+essential in the late tendencies of marriage development, we seem to have
+entered a new world, even a newly illuminated world. For "in the new
+sexual morality, as in Corregio's _Notte_, the light emanates from the
+child."[369]
+
+No doubt this change is largely a matter of sentiment, of, as we sometimes
+say, mere sentiment, although there is nothing so powerful in human
+affairs as sentiment, and the revolution effected by Jesus, the later
+revolution effected by Rousseau, were mainly revolutions in sentiment. But
+the change is also a matter of the growing recognition of interests and
+rights, and as such it manifests itself in law. We can scarcely doubt that
+we are approaching a time when it will be generally understood that the
+entrance into the world of every child, without exception, should be
+preceded by the formation of a marriage contract which, while in no way
+binding the father and mother to any duties, or any privileges, towards
+each other, binds them both towards their child and at the same time
+ensures their responsibility towards the State. It is impossible for the
+State to obtain more than this, but it should be impossible for it to
+demand less. A contract of such a kind "marries" the father and mother so
+far as the parentage of the individual child is concerned, and in no other
+respect; it is a contract which leaves entirely unaffected their past,
+present, or future relations towards other persons, otherwise it would be
+impossible to enforce it. In all parts of the world this elementary demand
+of social morality is slowly beginning to be recognized, and as it affects
+hundreds of thousands of infants[370] who are yearly branded as
+"illegitimate" through no act of their own, no one can say that the
+recognition has come too soon. As yet, indeed, it seems nowhere to be
+complete.
+
+    Most attempts or proposals for the avoidance of illegitimate
+    births are concerned with the legalizing of unions of a less
+    binding degree than the present legal marriage. Such unions would
+    serve to counteract other evils. Thus an English writer, who has
+    devoted much study to sex questions, writes in a private letter:
+    "The best remedy for the licentiousness of celibate men and the
+    mental and physical troubles of continence in woman would be
+    found in a recognized honorable system of free unions and
+    trial-marriages, in which preventive intercourse is practiced
+    until the lovers were old enough to become parents, and possessed
+    of sufficient means to support a family. The prospect of a
+    loveless existence for young men and women of ardent natures is
+    intolerable and as terrible as the prospect of painful illness
+    and death. But I think the old order must change ere long."
+
+    In Teutonic countries there is a strongly marked current of
+    feeling in the direction of establishing legal unions of a lower
+    degree than marriage. They exist in Sweden, as also in Norway
+    where by a recent law the illegitimate child is entitled to the
+    same rights in relation to both parents as the legitimate child,
+    bearing the father's name and inheriting his property (_Die Neue
+    Generation_, July, 1909, p. 303). In France the well-known judge,
+    Magnard, so honorably distinguished for his attitude towards
+    cases of infanticide by young mothers, has said: "I heartily wish
+    that alongside the institution of marriage as it now exists we
+    had a free union constituted by simple declaration before a
+    magistrate and conferring almost the same family rights as
+    ordinary marriage." This wish has been widely echoed.
+
+    In China, although polygamy in the strict sense cannot properly
+    be said to exist, the interests of the child, the woman, and the
+    State are alike safeguarded by enabling a man to enter into a
+    kind of secondary marriage with the mother of his child. "Thanks
+    to this system," Paul d'Enjoy states (_La Revue_, Sept., 1905),
+    "which allows the husband to marry the woman he desires, without
+    being prevented by previous and undissolved unions, it is only
+    right to remark that there are no seduced and abandoned girls,
+    except such as no law could save from what is really innate
+    depravity; and that there are no illegitimate children except
+    those whose mothers are unhappily nearer to animals by their
+    senses than to human beings by their reason and dignity."
+
+    The new civil code of Japan, which is in many respects so
+    advanced, allows an illegitimate child to be "recognized" by
+    giving notice to the registrar; when a married man so recognizes
+    a child, it appears, the child may be adopted by the wife as her
+    own, though not actually rendered legitimate. This state of
+    things represents a transition stage; it can scarcely be said to
+    recognize the rights of the "recognized" child's mother. Japan,
+    it may be added, has adopted the principle of the automatic
+    legitimation by marriage of the children born to the couple
+    before marriage.
+
+    In Australia, where women possess a larger share than elsewhere
+    in making and administering the laws, some attention is beginning
+    to be given to the rights of illegitimate children. Thus in South
+    Australia, paternity may be proved before birth, and the father
+    (by magistrate's order) provides lodging for one month before and
+    after birth, as well as nurse, doctor, and clothing, furnishing
+    security that he will do so; after birth, at the magistrate's
+    decision, he pays a weekly sum for the child's maintenance. An
+    "illegitimate" mother may also be kept in a public institution at
+    the public expense for six months to enable her to become
+    attached to her child.
+
+    Such provisions are developed from the widely recognized right of
+    the unmarried woman to claim support for her child from its
+    father. In France, indeed, and in the legal codes which follow
+    the French example, it is not legally permitted to inquire into
+    the paternity of an illegitimate child. Such a law is, needless
+    to say, alike unjust to the mother, to the child, and to the
+    State. In Austria, the law goes to the opposite, though certainly
+    more reasonable, extreme, and permits even the mother who has had
+    several lovers to select for herself which she chooses to make
+    responsible for her child. The German code adopts an intermediate
+    course, and comes only to the aid of the unmarried mother who has
+    one lover. In all such cases, however, the aid given is
+    pecuniary only; it insures the mother no recognition or respect,
+    and (as Wahrmund has truly said in his _Ehe und Eherecht_) it is
+    still necessary to insist on "the unconditional sanctity of
+    motherhood, which is entitled, under whatever circumstances it
+    arises, to the respect and protection of society."
+
+    It must be added that, from the social point of view, it is not
+    the sexual union which requires legal recognition, but the child
+    which is the product of that union. It would, moreover, be
+    hopeless to attempt to legalize all sexual connection, but it is
+    comparatively easy to legalize all children.
+
+There has been much discussion in the past concerning the particular form
+which marriage ought to take. Many theorists have exercised their
+ingenuity in inventing and preaching new and unusual marriage-arrangements
+as panaceas for social ills; while others have exerted even greater energy
+in denouncing all such proposals as subversive of the foundations of human
+society. We may regard all such discussions, on the one side or the other,
+as idle.
+
+In the first place marriage customs are far too fundamental, far too
+intimately blended with the primary substance of human and indeed animal
+society, to be in the slightest degree shaken by the theories or the
+practices of mere individuals, or even groups of individuals.
+Monogamy--the more or less prolonged cohabitation of two individuals of
+opposite sex--has been the prevailing type of sexual relationship among
+the higher vertebrates and through the greater part of human history. This
+is admitted even by those who believe (without any sound evidence) that
+man has passed through a stage of sexual promiscuity. There have been
+tendencies to variation in one direction or another, but at the lowest
+stages and the highest stages, so far as can be seen, monogamy represents
+the prevailing rule.
+
+It must be said also, in the second place, that the natural prevalence of
+monogamy as the normal type of sexual relationship by no means excludes
+variations. Indeed it assumes them. "There is nothing precise in Nature,"
+according to Diderot's saying. The line of Nature is a curve that
+oscillates from side to side of the norm. Such oscillations inevitably
+occur in harmony with changes in environmental conditions, and, no doubt,
+with peculiarities of personal disposition. So long as no arbitrary and
+merely external attempt is made to force Nature, the vital order is
+harmoniously maintained. Among certain species of ducks when males are in
+excess polyandric families are constituted, the two males attending their
+female partner without jealousy, but when the sexes again become equal in
+number the monogamic order is restored. The natural human deviations from
+the monogamic order seem to be generally of this character, and largely
+conditioned by the social and economic environment. The most common
+variation, and that which most clearly possesses a biological foundation,
+is the tendency to polygyny, which is found at all stages of culture,
+even, in an unrecognized and more or less promiscuous shape, in the
+highest civilization.[371] It must be remembered, however, that recognized
+polygyny is not the rule even where it prevails; it is merely permissive;
+there is never a sufficient excess of women to allow more than a few of
+the richer and more influential persons to have more than one wife.[372]
+
+It has further to be borne in mind that a certain elasticity of the formal
+side of marriage while, on the one side, it permits variations from the
+general monogamic order, where such are healthful or needed to restore a
+balance in natural conditions, on the other hand restrains such variations
+in so far as they are due to the disturbing influence of artificial
+constraint. Much of the polygyny, and polyandry also, which prevails among
+us to-day is an altogether artificial and unnatural form of polygamy.
+Marriages which on a more natural basis would be dissolved cannot legally
+be dissolved, and consequently the parties to them, instead of changing
+their partners and so preserving the natural monogamic order, take on
+other additional partners and so introduce an unnatural polygamy. There
+will always be variations from the monogamic order and civilization is
+certainly not hostile to sexual variation. Whether we reckon these
+variations as legitimate or illegitimate, they will still take place; of
+that we may be certain. The path of social wisdom seems to lie on the one
+hand in making the marriage relationship flexible enough to reduce to a
+minimum these deviations--not because such deviations are intrinsically
+bad but because they ought not to be forced into existence--and on the
+other hand in according to these deviations when they occur such a measure
+of recognition as will deprive them of injurious influence and enable
+justice to be done to all the parties concerned. We too often forget that
+our failure to recognize such variations merely means that we accord in
+such cases an illegitimate permission to perpetrate injustice. In those
+parts of the world in which polygyny is recognized as a permissible
+variation a man is legally held to his natural obligations towards all his
+sexual mates and towards the children he has by those mates. In no part of
+the world is polygyny so prevalent as in Christendom; in no part of the
+world is it so easy for a man to escape the obligations incurred by
+polygyny. We imagine that if we refuse to recognize the fact of polygyny,
+we may refuse to recognize any obligations incurred by polygyny. By
+enabling a man to escape so easily from the obligations of his polygamous
+relationships we encourage him, if he is unscrupulous, to enter into them;
+we place a premium on the immorality we loftily condemn.[373] Our polygyny
+has no legal existence, and therefore its obligations can have no legal
+existence. The ostrich, it was once imagined, hides its head in the sand
+and attempts to annihilate facts by refusing to look at them; but there is
+only one known animal which adopts this course of action, and it is called
+Man.
+
+Monogamy, in the fundamental biological sense, represents the natural
+order into which the majority of sexual facts will always naturally fall
+because it is the relationship which most adequately corresponds to all
+the physical and spiritual facts involved. But if we realize that sexual
+relationships primarily concern only the persons who enter into those
+relationships, and if we further realize that the interest of society in
+such relationships is confined to the children which they produce, we
+shall also realize that to fix by law the number of women with whom a man
+shall have sexual relationships, and the number of men with whom a woman
+shall unite herself, is more unreasonable than it would be to fix by law
+the number of children they shall produce. The State has a right to
+declare whether it needs few citizens or many; but in attempting to
+regulate the sexual relationships of its members the State attempts an
+impossible task and is at the same time guilty of an impertinence.
+
+    There is always a tendency, at certain stages of civilization, to
+    insist on a merely formal and external uniformity, and a
+    corresponding failure to see not only that such uniformity is
+    unreal, but also that it has an injurious effect, in so far as it
+    checks beneficial variations. The tendency is by no means
+    confined to the sexual sphere. In England there is, for instance,
+    a tendency to make building laws which enjoin, in regard to
+    places of human habitation, all sorts of provisions that on the
+    whole are fairly beneficial, but which in practice act
+    injuriously, because they render many simple and excellent human
+    habitations absolutely illegal, merely because such habitations
+    fail to conform to regulations which, under some circumstances,
+    are not only unnecessary, but mischievous.
+
+    Variation is a fact that will exist whether we will or no; it can
+    only become healthful if we recognize and allow for it. We may
+    even have to recognize that it is a more marked tendency in
+    civilization than in more primitive social stages. Thus Gerson
+    argues (_Sexual-Probleme_, Sept., 1908, p. 538) that just as the
+    civilized man cannot be content with the coarse and monotonous
+    food which satisfies the peasant, so it is in sexual matters; the
+    peasant youth and girl in their sexual relationships are nearly
+    always monogamous, but civilized people, with their more
+    versatile and sensitive tastes, are apt to crave for variety.
+    Senancour (_De l'Amour_, vol. ii, "Du Partage," p. 127) seems to
+    admit the possibility of marriage variations, as of sharing a
+    wife, provided nothing is done to cause rivalry, or to impair the
+    soul's candor. Lecky, near the end of his _History of European
+    Morals_, declared his belief that, while the permanent union of
+    two persons is the normal and prevailing type of marriage, it by
+    no means follows that, in the interests of society, it should be
+    the only form. Remy de Gourmont similarly (_Physique de l'Amour_,
+    p. 186), while stating that the couple is the natural form of
+    marriage and its prolonged continuance a condition of human
+    superiority, adds that the permanence of the union can only be
+    achieved with difficulty. So, also, Professor W. Thomas (_Sex and
+    Society_, 1907, p. 193), while regarding monogamy as subserving
+    social needs, adds: "Speaking from the biological standpoint
+    monogamy does not, as a rule, answer to the conditions of highest
+    stimulation, since here the problematical and elusive elements
+    disappear to some extent, and the object of attention has grown
+    so familiar in consciousness that the emotional reactions are
+    qualified. This is the fundamental explanation of the fact that
+    married men and women frequently become interested in others than
+    their partners in matrimony."
+
+    Pepys, whose unconscious self-dissection admirably illustrates so
+    many psychological tendencies, clearly shows how--by a logic of
+    feeling deeper than any intellectual logic--the devotion to
+    monogamy subsists side by side with an irresistible passion for
+    sexual variety. With his constantly recurring wayward attraction
+    to a long series of women he retains throughout a deep and
+    unchanging affection for his charming young wife. In the privacy
+    of his _Diary_ he frequently refers to her in terms of endearment
+    which cannot be feigned; he enjoys her society; he is very
+    particular about her dress; he delights in her progress in music,
+    and spends much money on her training; he is absurdly jealous
+    when he finds her in the society of a man. His subsidiary
+    relationships with other women recur irresistibly, but he has no
+    wish either to make them very permanent or to allow them to
+    engross him unduly. Pepys represents a common type of civilized
+    "monogamist" who is perfectly sincere and extremely convinced in
+    his advocacy of monogamy, as he understands it, but at the same
+    time believes and acts on the belief that monogamy by no means
+    excludes the need for sexual variation. Lord Morley's statement
+    (_Diderot_, vol. ii, p. 20) that "man is instinctively
+    polygamous," can by no means be accepted, but if we interpret it
+    as meaning that man is an instinctively monogamous animal with a
+    concomitant desire for sexual variation, there is much evidence
+    in its favor.
+
+    Women must be as free as men to mould their own amatory life.
+    Many consider, however, that such freedom on the part of women
+    will be, and ought to be, exercised within narrower limits (see,
+    e.g., Bloch, _Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. X). In part this
+    limitation is considered due to the greater absorption of a woman
+    in the task of breeding and rearing her child, and in part to a
+    less range of psychic activities. A man, as G. Hirth puts it,
+    expressing this view of the matter (_Wege zur Liebe_, p. 342),
+    "has not only room in his intellectual horizon for very various
+    interests, but his power of erotic expansion is much greater and
+    more differentiated than that of women, although he may lack the
+    intimacy and depth of a woman's devotion."
+
+    It may be argued that, since variations in the sexual order will
+    inevitably take place, whether or not they are recognized or
+    authorized, no harm is likely to be done by using the weight of
+    social and legal authority on the side of that form which is
+    generally regarded as the best, and, so far as possible, covering
+    the other forms with infamy. There are many obvious defects in
+    such an attitude, apart from the supremely important fact that to
+    cast infamy on sexual relationships is to exert a despicable
+    cruelty on women, who are inevitably the chief sufferers. Not the
+    least is the injustice and the hampering of vital energy which it
+    inflicts on the better and more scrupulous people to the
+    advantage of the worse and less scrupulous. This always happens
+    when authority exerts its power in favor of a form. When, in the
+    thirteenth century, Alexander III--one of the greatest and most
+    effective potentates who ever ruled Christendom--was consulted by
+    the Bishop of Exeter concerning subdeacons who persisted in
+    marrying, the Pope directed him to inquire into the lives and
+    characters of the offenders; if they were of regular habits and
+    staid morality, they were to be forcibly separated and the wives
+    driven out; if they were men of notoriously disorderly character,
+    they were to be permitted to retain their wives, if they so
+    desired (Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_, third edition,
+    vol. i, p. 396). It was an astute policy, and was carried out by
+    the same Pope elsewhere, but it is easy to see that it was
+    altogether opposed to morality in every sense of the term. It
+    destroyed the happiness and the efficiency of the best men; it
+    left the worst men absolutely free. To-day we are quite willing
+    to recognize the evil result of this policy; it was dictated by a
+    Pope and carried out seven hundred years ago. Yet in England we
+    carry out exactly the same policy to-day by means of our
+    separation orders, which are scattered broadcast among the
+    population. None of the couples thus separated--and never
+    disciplined to celibacy as are the Catholic clergy of to-day--may
+    marry again; we, in effect, bid the more scrupulous among them to
+    become celibates, and to the less scrupulous we grant permission
+    to do as they like. This process is carried on by virtue of the
+    collective inertia of the community, and when it is supported by
+    arguments, if that ever happens, they are of an antiquarian
+    character which can only call forth a pitying smile.
+
+    It may be added that there is a further reason why the custom of
+    branding sexual variations from the norm as "immoral" is not so
+    harmless as some affect to believe: such variations appear to be
+    not uncommon among men and women of superlative ability whose
+    powers are needed unimpeded in the service of mankind. To attempt
+    to fit such persons into the narrow moulds which suit the
+    majority is not only an injustice to them as individuals, but it
+    is an offence against society, which may fairly claim that its
+    best members shall not be hampered in its service. The notion
+    that the person whose sexual needs differ from those of the
+    average is necessarily a socially bad person, is a notion
+    unsupported by facts. Every case must be judged on its own
+    merits.
+
+Undoubtedly the most common variation from normal monogamy has in all
+stages of human culture been polygyny or the sexual union of one man with
+more than one woman. It has sometimes been socially and legally
+recognized, and sometimes unrecognized, but in either case it has not
+failed to occur. Polyandry, or the union of a woman with more than one
+man, has been comparatively rare and for intelligible reasons: men have
+most usually been in a better position, economically and legally, to
+organize a household with themselves as the centre; a woman is, unlike a
+man, by nature and often by custom unfitted for intercourse for
+considerable periods at a time; a woman, moreover, has her thoughts and
+affections more concentrated on her children. Apart from this the
+biological masculine traditions point to polygyny much more than the
+feminine traditions point to polyandry. Although it is true that a woman
+can undergo a much greater amount of sexual intercourse than a man, it
+also remains true that the phenomena of courtship in nature have made it
+the duty of the male to be alert in offering his sexual attention to the
+female, whose part it has been to suspend her choice coyly until she is
+sure of her preference. Polygynic conditions have also proved
+advantageous, as they have permitted the most vigorous and successful
+members of a community to have the largest number of mates and so to
+transmit their own superior qualities.
+
+    "Polygamy," writes Woods Hutchinson (_Contemporary Review_, Oct.,
+    1904), though he recognizes the advantages of monogamy, "as a
+    racial institution, among animals as among men, has many solid
+    and weighty considerations in its favor, and has resulted in
+    both human and pre-human times, in the production of a very high
+    type of both individual and social development." He points out
+    that it promotes intelligence, cooeperation, and division of
+    labor, while the keen competition for women weeds out the weaker
+    and less attractive males.
+
+    Among our European ancestors, alike among Germans and Celts,
+    polygyny and other sexual forms existed as occasional variations.
+    Tacitus noted polygyny in Germany, and Caesar found in Britain
+    that brothers would hold their wives in common, the children
+    being reckoned to the man to whom the woman had been first given
+    in marriage (see, e.g., Traill's _Social England_, vol. i, p.
+    103, for a discussion of this point). The husband's assistant,
+    also, who might be called in to impregnate the wife when the
+    husband was impotent, existed in Germany, and was indeed a
+    general Indo-Germanic institution (Schrader, _Reallexicon_, art.
+    "Zeugungshelfer"). The corresponding institution of the concubine
+    has been still more deeply rooted and widespread. Up to
+    comparatively modern times, indeed, in accordance with the
+    traditions of Roman law, the concubine held a recognized and
+    honorable position, below that of a wife but with definite legal
+    rights, though it was not always, or indeed usually, legal for a
+    married man to have a concubine. In ancient Wales, as well as in
+    Rome, the concubine was accepted and never despised (R.B. Holt,
+    "Marriage Laws of the Cymri," _Journal Anthropological
+    Institute_, Aug. and Nov., 1898, p. 155). The fact that when a
+    concubine entered the house of a married man her dignity and
+    legal position were less than those of the wife preserved
+    domestic peace and safeguarded the wife's interests. (A Korean
+    husband cannot take a concubine under his roof without his wife's
+    permission, but she rarely objects, and seems to enjoy the
+    companionship, says Louise Jordan Miln, _Quaint Korea_, 1895, p.
+    92.) In old Europe, we must remember, as Dufour points out in
+    speaking of the time of Charlemagne (_Histoire de la
+    Prostitution_, vol. iii, p. 226), "concubine" was an honorable
+    term; the concubine was by no means a mistress, and she could be
+    accused of adultery just the same as a wife. In England, late in
+    the thirteenth century, Bracton speaks of the _concubina
+    legitima_ as entitled to certain rights and considerations, and
+    it was the same in other parts of Europe, sometimes for several
+    centuries later (see Lea, _History of Sacerdotal Celibacy_, vol.
+    i, p. 230). The early Christian Church was frequently inclined to
+    recognize the concubine, at all events if attached to an
+    unmarried man, for we may trace in the Church "the wish to look
+    upon every permanent union of man or woman as possessing the
+    character of a marriage in the eyes of God, and, therefore, in
+    the judgment of the Church" (art. "Concubinage," Smith and
+    Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_). This was the
+    feeling of St. Augustine (who had himself, before his conversion,
+    had a concubine who was apparently a Christian), and the Council
+    of Toledo admitted an unmarried man who was faithful to a
+    concubine. As the law of the Catholic Church grew more and more
+    rigid, it necessarily lost touch with human needs. It was not so
+    in the early Church during the great ages of its vital growth. In
+    those ages even the strenuous general rule of monogamy was
+    relaxed when such relaxation seemed reasonable. This was so, for
+    instance, in the case of sexual impotency. Thus early in the
+    eighth century Gregory II, writing to Boniface, the apostle of
+    Germany, in answer to a question by the latter, replies that when
+    a wife is incapable from physical infirmity from fulfilling her
+    marital duties it is permissible for the husband to take a second
+    wife, though he must not withdraw maintenance from the first. A
+    little later Archbishop Egbert of York, in his _Dialogus de
+    Institutione Ecclesiastica_, though more cautiously, admits that
+    when one of two married persons is infirm the other, with the
+    permission of the infirm one, may marry again, but the infirm one
+    is not allowed to marry again during the other's life. Impotency
+    at the time of marriage, of course, made the marriage void
+    without the intervention of any ecclesiastical law. But Aquinas,
+    and later theologians, allow that an excessive disgust for a wife
+    justifies a man in regarding himself as impotent in relation to
+    her. These rules are, of course, quite distinct from the
+    permissions to break the marriage laws granted to kings and
+    princes; such permissions do not count as evidence of the
+    Church's rules, for, as the Council of Constantinople prudently
+    decided in 809, "Divine law can do nothing against Kings" (art.
+    "Bigamy," _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_). The law of
+    monogamy was also relaxed in cases of enforced or voluntary
+    desertion. Thus the Council of Vermerie (752) enacted that if a
+    wife will not accompany her husband when he is compelled to
+    follow his lord into another land, he may marry again, provided
+    he sees no hope of returning. Theodore of Canterbury (688),
+    again, pronounces that if a wife is carried away by the enemy and
+    her husband cannot redeem her, he may marry again after an
+    interval of a year, or, if there is a chance of redeeming her,
+    after an interval of five years; the wife may do the same. Such
+    rules, though not general, show, as Meyrick points out (art.
+    "Marriage," _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_), a willingness
+    "to meet particular cases as they arise."
+
+    As the Canon law grew rigid and the Catholic Church lost its
+    vital adaptibility, sexual variations ceased to be recognized
+    within its sphere. We have to wait for the Reformation for any
+    further movement. Many of the early Protestant Reformers,
+    especially in Germany, were prepared to admit a considerable
+    degree of vital flexibility in sexual relationships. Thus Luther
+    advised married women with impotent husbands, in cases where
+    there was no wish or opportunity for divorce, to have sexual
+    relations with another man, by preference the husband's brother;
+    the children were to be reckoned to the husband ("Die Sexuelle
+    Frage bei Luther," _Mutterschutz_, Sept., 1908).
+
+    In England the Puritan spirit, which so largely occupied itself
+    with the reform of marriage, could not fail to be concerned with
+    the question of sexual variations, and from time to time we find
+    the proposal to legalize polygyny. Thus, in 1658, "A Person of
+    Quality" published in London a small pamphlet dedicated to the
+    Lord Protector, entitled _A Remedy for Uncleanness_. It was in
+    the form of a number of queries, asking why we should not admit
+    polygamy for the avoidance of adultery and infanticide. The
+    writer inquires whether it may not "stand with a gracious spirit,
+    and be every way consistent with the principles of a man fearing
+    God and loving holiness, to have more women than one to his
+    proper use.... He that takes another man's ox or ass is doubtless
+    a transgressor; but he that puts himself out of the occasion of
+    that temptation by keeping of his own seems to be a right honest
+    and well-meaning man."
+
+    More than a century later (1780), an able, learned, and
+    distinguished London clergyman of high character (who had been a
+    lawyer before entering the Church), the Rev. Martin Madan, also
+    advocated polygamy in a book called _Thelyphthora; or, a Treatise
+    on Female Ruin_. Madan had been brought into close contact with
+    prostitution through a chaplaincy at the Lock Hospital, and, like
+    the Puritan advocate of polygamy, he came to the conclusion that
+    only by the reform of marriage is it possible to work against
+    prostitution and the evils of sexual intercourse outside
+    marriage. His remarkable book aroused much controversy and strong
+    feeling against the author, so that he found it desirable to
+    leave London and settle in the country. Projects of marriage
+    reform have never since come from the Church, but from
+    philosophers and moralists, though not rarely from writers of
+    definitely religious character. Senancour, who was so delicate
+    and sensitive a moralist in the sexual sphere, introduced a
+    temperate discussion of polygamy into his _De l'Amour_ (vol. ii,
+    pp. 117-126). It seemed to him to be neither positively contrary
+    nor positively conformed to the general tendency of our present
+    conventions, and he concluded that "the method of conciliation,
+    in part, would be no longer to require that the union of a man
+    and a woman should only cease with the death of one of them."
+    Cope, the biologist, expressed a somewhat more decided opinion.
+    Under some circumstances, if all three parties agreed, he saw no
+    objection to polygyny or polyandry. "There are some cases of
+    hardship," he said, "which such permission would remedy. Such,
+    for instance, would be the case where the man or woman had become
+    the victim of a chronic disease; or, when either party should be
+    childless, and in other contingencies that could be imagined."
+    There would be no compulsion in any direction, and full
+    responsibility as at present. Such cases could only arise
+    exceptionally, and would not call for social antagonism. For the
+    most part, Cope remarks, "the best way to deal with polygamy is
+    to let it alone" (E.D. Cope, "The Marriage Problem," _Open
+    Court_, Nov. 15 and 22, 1888). In England, Dr. John Chapman, the
+    editor of the _Westminster Review_, and a close associate of the
+    leaders of the Radical movement in the Victorian period, was
+    opposed to State dictation as regards the form of marriage, and
+    believed that a certain amount of sexual variation would be
+    socially beneficial. Thus he wrote in 1884 (in a private letter):
+    "I think that as human beings become less selfish polygamy [i.e.,
+    polygyny], and even polyandry, in an ennobled form, will become
+    increasingly frequent."
+
+    James Hinton, who, a few years earlier, had devoted much thought
+    and attention to the sexual question, and regarded it as indeed
+    the greatest of moral problems, was strongly in favor of a more
+    vital flexibility of marriage regulations, an adaptation to human
+    needs such as the early Christian Church admitted. Marriage, he
+    declared, must be "subordinated to service," since marriage, like
+    the Sabbath, is made for man and not man for marriage. Thus in
+    case of one partner becoming insane he would permit the other
+    partner to marry again, the claim of the insane partner, in case
+    of recovery, still remaining valid. That would be a form of
+    polygamy, but Hinton was careful to point out that by "polygamy"
+    he meant "less a particular marriage-order than such an order as
+    best serves good, and which therefore must be essentially
+    variable. Monogamy may be good, even the only good order, if of
+    free choice; but a _law_ for it is another thing. The sexual
+    relationship must be a _natural_ thing. The true social life will
+    not be any fixed and definite relationship, as of monogamy,
+    polygamy, or anything else, but a perfect subordination of every
+    sexual relationship whatever to reason and human good."
+
+    Ellen Key, who is an enthusiastic advocate of monogamy, and who
+    believes that the civilized development of personal love removes
+    all danger of the growth of polygamy, still admits the existence
+    of variations. She has in mind such solutions of difficult
+    problems as Goethe had before him when he proposed at first in
+    his _Stella_ to represent the force of affection and tender
+    memories as too strong to admit of the rupture of an old bond in
+    the presence of a new bond. The problem of sexual variation, she
+    remarks, however (_Liebe und Ethik_, p. 12), has changed its form
+    under modern conditions; it is no longer a struggle between the
+    demand of society for a rigid marriage-order and the demand of
+    the individual for sexual satisfaction, but it has become the
+    problem of harmonizing the ennoblement of the race with
+    heightened requirements of erotic happiness. She also points out
+    that the existence of a partner who requires the other partner's
+    care as a nurse or as an intellectual companion by no means
+    deprives that other partner of the right to fatherhood or
+    motherhood, and that such rights must be safeguarded (Ellen Key,
+    _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, pp. 166-168).
+
+    A prominent and extreme advocate of polygyny, not as a simple
+    rare variation, but as a marriage order superior to monogamy, is
+    to be found at the present day in Professor Christian von
+    Ehrenfels of Prague (see, e.g., his _Sexualethik_, 1908; "Die
+    Postulate des Lebens," _Sexual-Probleme_, Oct., 1908; and letter
+    to Ellen Key in her _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 466). Ehrenfels
+    believes that the number of men inapt for satisfactory
+    reproduction is much larger than that of women, and that
+    therefore when these are left out of account, a polygynic
+    marriage order becomes necessary. He calls this
+    "reproduction-marriage" (Zeugungsehe), and considers that it will
+    entirely replace the present marriage order, to which it is
+    morally superior. It would be based on private contracts.
+    Ehrenfels holds that women would offer no objection, as a woman,
+    he believes, attaches less importance to a man as a wooer than as
+    the father of her child. Ehrenfels's doctrine has been seriously
+    attacked from many sides, and his proposals are not in the line
+    of our progress. Any radical modification of the existing
+    monogamic order is not to be expected, even if it were generally
+    recognized, which cannot be said to be the case, that it is
+    desirable. The question of sexual variations, it must be
+    remembered, is not a question of introducing an entirely new form
+    of marriage, but only of recognizing the rights of individuals,
+    in exceptional cases, to adopt such aberrant forms, and of
+    recognizing the corresponding duties of such individuals to
+    accept the responsibilities of any aberrant marriage forms they
+    may find it best to adopt. So far as the question of sexual
+    variations is more than this, it is, as Hinton argued, a
+    dynamical method of working towards the abolition of the perilous
+    and dangerous promiscuity of prostitution. A rigid marriage order
+    involves prostitution; a flexible marriage order largely--though
+    not, it may be, entirely--renders prostitution unnecessary. The
+    democratic morality of the present day, so far as the indications
+    at present go, is opposed to the encouragement of a _quasi_-slave
+    class, with diminished social rights, such as prostitutes always
+    constitute in a more or less marked degree. It is fairly evident,
+    also, that the rapidly growing influence of medical hygiene is on
+    the same side. We may, therefore, reasonably expect in the future
+    a slow though steady increase in the recognition, and even the
+    extension, of those variations of the monogamic order which have,
+    in reality, never ceased to exist.
+
+It is lamentable that at this period of the world's history, nearly two
+thousand years after the wise legislators of Rome had completed their
+work, it should still be necessary to conclude that we are to-day only
+beginning to place marriage on a reasonable and humane basis. I have
+repeatedly pointed out how largely the Canon law has been responsible for
+this arrest of development. One may say, indeed, that the whole attitude
+of the Church, after it had once acquired complete worldly dominance,
+must be held responsible. In the earlier centuries the attitude of
+Christianity was, on the whole, admirable. It held aloft great ideals but
+it refrained from enforcing those ideals at all costs; thus its ideals
+remained genuine and could not degenerate into mere hypocritical empty
+forms; much flexibility was allowed when it seemed to be for human good
+and made for the avoidance of evil and injustice. But when the Church
+attained temporal power, and when that power was concentrated in the hands
+of Popes who subordinated moral and religious interests to political
+interests, all the claims of reason and humanity were flung to the winds.
+The ideal was no more a fact than it was before, but it was now treated as
+a fact. Human relationships remained what they were before, as complicated
+and as various, but henceforth one rigid pattern, admirable as an ideal
+but worse than empty as a form, was arbitrarily set up, and all deviations
+from it treated either as non-existent or damnable. The vitality was
+crushed out of the most central human institutions, and they are only
+to-day beginning to lift their heads afresh.
+
+If--to sum up--we consider the course which the regulation of marriage has
+run during the Christian era, the only period which immediately concerns
+us, it is not difficult to trace the main outlines. Marriage began as a
+private arrangement, which the Church, without being able to control, was
+willing to bless, as it also blessed many other secular affairs of men,
+making no undue attempt to limit its natural flexibility to human needs.
+Gradually and imperceptibly, however, without the medium of any law,
+Christianity gained the complete control of marriage, cooerdinated it with
+its already evolved conceptions of the evil of lust, of the virtue of
+chastity, of the mortal sin of fornication, and, having through the
+influence of these dominating conceptions limited the flexibility of
+marriage in every possible direction, it placed it on a lofty but narrow
+pedestal as the sacrament of matrimony. For reasons which by no means lay
+in the nature of the sexual relationships, but which probably seemed
+cogent to sacerdotal legislators who assimilated it to ordination,
+matrimony was declared indissoluble. Nothing was so easy to enter as the
+gate of matrimony, but, after the manner of a mouse-trap, it opened
+inwards and not outwards; once in there was no way out alive. The Church's
+regulation of marriage while, like the celibacy of the clergy, it was a
+success from the point of view of ecclesiastical politics, and even at
+first from the point of view of civilization, for it at least introduced
+order into a chaotic society, was in the long run a failure from the point
+of view of society and morals. On the one hand it drifted into absurd
+subtleties and quibbles; on the other, not being based on either reason or
+humanity, it had none of that vital adaptability to the needs of life,
+which early Christianity, while holding aloft austere ideals, still
+largely retained. On the side of tradition this code of marriage law
+became awkward and impracticable; on the biological side it was hopelessly
+false. The way was thus prepared for the Protestant reintroduction of the
+conception of marriage as a contract, that conception being, however,
+brought forward less on its merits than as a protest against the
+difficulties and absurdities of the Catholic Canon law. The contractive
+view, which still largely persists even to-day, speedily took over much of
+the Canon law doctrines of marriage, becoming in practice a kind of
+reformed and secularized Canon law. It was somewhat more adapted to modern
+needs, but it retained much of the rigidity of the Catholic marriage
+without its sacramental character, and it never made any attempt to become
+more than nominally contractive. It has been of the nature of an
+incongruous compromise and has represented a transitional phase towards
+free private marriage. We can recognize that phase in the tendency, well
+marked in all civilized lands, to an ever increasing flexibility of
+marriage. The idea, and even the fact, of marriage by consent and divorce
+by failure of that consent, which we are now approaching, has never indeed
+been quite extinct. In the Latin countries it has survived with the
+tradition of Roman law; in the English-speaking countries it is bound up
+with the spirit of Puritanism which insists that in the things that
+concern the individual alone the individual himself shall be the supreme
+judge. That doctrine as applied to marriage was in England magnificently
+asserted by the genius of Milton, and in America it has been a leaven
+which is still working in marriage legislation towards an inevitable goal
+which is scarcely yet in sight. The marriage system of the future, as it
+moves along its present course, will resemble the old Christian system in
+that it will recognize the sacred and sacramental character of the sexual
+relationship, and it will resemble the civil conception in that it will
+insist that marriage, so far as it involves procreation, shall be publicly
+registered by the State. But in opposition to the Church it will recognize
+that marriage, in so far as it is purely a sexual relationship, is a
+private matter the conditions of which must be left to the persons who
+alone are concerned in it; and in opposition to the civil theory it will
+recognize that marriage is in its essence a fact and not a contract,
+though it may give rise to contracts, so long as such contracts do not
+touch that essential fact. And in one respect it will go beyond either the
+ecclesiastical conception or the civil conception. Man has in recent times
+gained control of his own procreative powers, and that control involves a
+shifting of the centre of gravity of marriage, in so far as marriage is an
+affair of the State, from the vagina to the child which is the fruit of
+the womb. Marriage as a state institution will centre, not around the
+sexual relationship, but around the child which is the outcome of that
+relationship. In so far as marriage is an inviolable public contract it
+will be of such a nature that it will be capable of automatically covering
+with its protection every child that is born into the world, so that every
+child may possess a legal mother and a legal father. On the one side,
+therefore, marriage is tending to become less stringent; on the other side
+it is tending to become more stringent. On the personal side it is a
+sacred and intimate relationship with which the State has no concern; on
+the social side it is the assumption of the responsible public sponsorship
+of a new member of the State. Some among us are working to further one of
+these aspects of marriage, some to further the other aspect. Both are
+indispensable to establish a perfect harmony. It is necessary to hold the
+two aspects of marriage apart, in order to do equal justice to the
+individual and to society, but in so far as marriage approaches its ideal
+state those two aspects become one.
+
+We have now completed the discussion of marriage as it presents itself to
+the modern man born in what in mediaeval days was called Christendom. It is
+not an easy subject to discuss. It is indeed a very difficult subject, and
+only after many years is it possible to detect the main drift of its
+apparently opposing and confused currents when one is oneself in the midst
+of them. To an Englishman it is, perhaps, peculiarly difficult, for the
+Englishman is nothing if not insular; in that fact lie whatever virtues he
+possesses, as well as their reverse sides.[374]
+
+Yet it is worth while to attempt to climb to a height from which we can
+view the stream of social tendency in its true proportions and estimate
+its direction. It is necessary to do so if we value our mental peace in an
+age when men's minds are agitated by many petty movements which have
+nothing to do with their great temporal interests, to say nothing of their
+eternal interests. When we have attained a wide vision of the solid
+biological facts of life, when we have grasped the great historical
+streams of tradition,--which together make up the map of human
+affairs,--we can face serenely the little social transitions which take
+place in our own age, as they have taken place in every age.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[312] Rosenthal, of Breslau, from the legal side, goes so far as to argue
+("Grundfragen des Eheproblems," _Die Neue Generation_, Dec., 1908), that
+the intention of procreation is essential to the conception of legal
+marriage.
+
+[313] J.A. Godfrey, _Science of Sex_, p. 119.
+
+[314] E.D. Cope, "The Marriage Problem," _Open Court_, Nov., 1888.
+
+[315] See _ante_, p. 395.
+
+[316] Waechter, _Eheschiedungen_, pp. 95 et seq.; Esmein, _Marriage en
+Droit Canonique_, vol. i, p. 6; Howard, _History of Matrimonial
+Institutions_, vol. ii, p. 15. Howard (in agreement with Lecky) considers
+that the freedom of divorce was only abused by a small section of the
+Roman population, and that such abuse, so far as it existed, was not the
+cause of any decline of Roman morals.
+
+[317] The opinions of the Christian Fathers were very varied, and they
+were sometimes doubtful about them; see, e.g., the opinions collected by
+Cranmer and enumerated by Burnet, _History of Reformation_ (ed. Nares),
+vol. ii, p. 91.
+
+[318] Constantine, the first Christian Emperor, enacted a strict and
+peculiar divorce law (allowing a wife to divorce her husband only when he
+was a homicide, a poisoner, or a violator of sepulchres), which could not
+be maintained. In 497, therefore, Anastasius decreed divorce by mutual
+consent. This was abolished by Justinian, who only allowed divorce for
+various specified causes, among them, however, including the husband's
+adultery. These restrictions proved unworkable, and Justinian's successor
+and nephew, Justin, restored divorce by mutual consent. Finally, in 870,
+Leo the Philosopher returned to Justinian's enactment (see, e.g., Smith
+and Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, arts. "Adultery" and
+"Marriage").
+
+[319] The element of reverence in the early German attitude towards women
+and the privileges which even the married woman enjoyed, so far as Tacitus
+can be considered a reliable guide, seem to have been the surviving
+vestiges of an earlier social state on a more matriarchal basis. They are
+most distinct at the dawn of German history. From the first, however,
+though divorce by mutual consent seems to have been possible, German
+custom was pitiless to the married woman who was unfaithful, sterile, or
+otherwise offended, though for some time after the introduction of
+Christianity it was no offence for the German husband to commit adultery
+(Westermarck, _Origin of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 453).
+
+[320] "This form of marriage," says Hobhouse (op. cit., vol. i, p. 156),
+"is intimately associated with the extension of marital power." Cf.
+Howard, op. cit., vol. i, p. 231. The very subordinate position of the
+mediaeval German woman is set forth by Hagelstange, _Sueddeutsches
+Bauernleben in Mittelalter_, 1898, pp. 70 et seq.
+
+[321] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, p. 259; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of
+Christian Antiquities_, art. _Arrhae_. It would appear, however, that the
+"bride-sale," of which Tacitus speaks, was not strictly the sale of a
+chattel nor of a slave-girl, but the sale of the _mund_ or protectorship
+over the girl. It is true the distinction may not always have been clear
+to those who took part in the transaction. Similarly the Anglo-Saxon
+betrothal was not so much a payment of the bride's price to her kinsmen,
+although as a matter of fact, they might make a profit out of the
+transaction, as a covenant stipulating for the bride's honorable treatment
+as wife and widow. Reminiscences of this, remark Pollock and Maitland (op.
+cit., vol. ii, p. 364), may be found in "that curious cabinet of
+antiquities, the marriage ritual of the English Church."
+
+[322] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 278-281, 386. The _Arrha_ crept into
+Roman and Byzantine law during the sixth century.
+
+[323] J. Wickham Legg, _Ecclesiological Essays_, p. 189. It may be added
+that the idea of the subordination of the wife to the husband appeared in
+the Christian Church at a somewhat early period, and no doubt
+independently of Germanic influences; St. Augustine said (Sermo XXXVII,
+cap. vi) that a good _materfamilias_ must not be ashamed to call herself
+her husband's servant (_ancilla_).
+
+[324] See, e.g., L. Gautier, _La Chevalerie_, Ch. IX.
+
+[325] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 293 et seq.; Esmein, _op. cit._, vol.
+i, pp. 25 et seq.; Smith and Cheetham, _Dictionary of Christian
+Antiquities_ art. "Contract of Marriage."
+
+[326] Any later changes in Catholic Canon law have merely been in the
+direction of making matrimony still narrower and still more remote from
+the practice of the world. By a papal decree of 1907, civil marriages and
+marriages in non-Catholic places of worship are declared to be not only
+sinful and unlawful (which they were before), but actually null and void.
+
+[327] E.S.P. Haynes, _Our Divorce Law_, p. 3.
+
+[328] It was the Council of Trent, in the sixteenth century, which made
+ecclesiastical rites essential to binding marriage; but even then
+fifty-six prelates voted against that decision.
+
+[329] Esmein, op. cit., vol. i, p. 91.
+
+[330] It is sometimes said that the Catholic Church is able to diminish
+the evils of its doctrine of the indissolubility of marriage by the number
+of impediments to marriage it admits, thus affording free scope for
+dispensations from marriage. This scarcely seems to be the case. Dr. P.J.
+Hayes, who speaks with authority as Chancellor of the Catholic Archdiocese
+of New York, states ("Impediments to Marriage in the Catholic Church,"
+_North American Review_, May, 1905) that even in so modern and so mixed a
+community as this there are few applications for dispensations on account
+of impediments; there are 15,000 Catholic marriages per annum in New York
+City, but scarcely five per annum are questioned as to validity, and these
+chiefly on the ground of bigamy.
+
+[331] The Canonists, say Pollock and Maitland (loc. cit.), "made a
+capricious mess of the marriage law." "Seldom," says Howard (_op. cit._,
+vol i, p. 340), "have mere theory and subtle quibbling had more disastrous
+consequences in practical life than in the case of the distinction between
+_sponsalia de praesenti_ and _de futuro_."
+
+[332] Howard, op. cit., vol. i, pp. 386 et seq. On the whole, however,
+Luther's opinion was that marriage, though a sacred and mysterious thing,
+is not a sacrament; his various statements on the matter are brought
+together by Strampff, _Luther ueber die Ehe_, pp. 204-214.
+
+[333] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, pp. 61 et seq.
+
+[334] Probably as a result of the somewhat confused and incoherent
+attitude of the Reformers, the Canon law of marriage, in a modified form,
+really persisted in Protestant countries to a greater extent than in
+Catholic countries; in France, especially, it has been much more
+profoundly modified (Esmein, op. cit., vol. i, p. 33).
+
+[335] The Quaker conception of marriage is still vitally influential.
+"Why," says Mrs. Besant (_Marriage_, p. 19), "should not we take a leaf
+out of the Quaker's book, and substitute for the present legal forms of
+marriage a simple declaration publicly made?"
+
+[336] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 456. The actual practice in
+Pennsylvania appears, however, to differ little from that usual in the
+other States.
+
+[337] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 109. "It is, indeed, wonderful,"
+Howard remarks, "that a great nation, priding herself on a love of equity
+and social liberty, should thus for five generations tolerate an invidious
+indulgence, rather than frankly and courageously to free herself from the
+shackles of an ecclesiastical tradition."
+
+[338] "The enforced continuance of an unsuccessful union is perhaps the
+most immoral thing which a civilized society ever countenanced, far less
+encouraged," says Godfrey (_Science of Sex_, p. 123). "The morality of a
+union is dependent upon mutual desire, and a union dictated by any other
+cause is outside the moral pale, however custom may sanction it, or
+religion and law condone it."
+
+[339] Adultery in most savage and barbarous societies is regarded, in the
+words of Westermarck, as "an illegitimate appropriation of the exclusive
+claims which the husband has acquired by the purchase of his wife, as an
+offence against property;" the seducer is, therefore, punished as a thief,
+by fine, mutilation, even death (_Origin of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, pp.
+447 et seq.; id., _History of Human Marriage_, p. 121). Among some peoples
+it is the seducer who alone suffers, and not the wife.
+
+[340] It is sometimes said in defence of the claim for damages for
+seducing a wife that women are often weak and unable to resist masculine
+advances, so that the law ought to press heavily on the man who takes
+advantage of that weakness. This argument seems a little antiquated. The
+law is beginning to accept the responsibility even of married women in
+other respects, and can scarcely refuse to accept it for the control of
+her own person. Moreover, if it is so natural for the woman to yield, it
+is scarcely legitimate to punish the man with whom she has performed that
+natural act. It must further be said that if a wife's adultery is only an
+irresponsible feminine weakness, a most undue brutality is inflicted on
+her by publicly demanding her pecuniary price from her lover. If, indeed,
+we accept this argument, we ought to reintroduce the mediaeval girdle of
+chastity.
+
+[341] Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 114.
+
+[342] This rule is, in England, by no means a dead letter. Thus, in 1907,
+a wife who had left her home, leaving a letter stating that her husband
+was not the father of her child, subsequently brought an action for
+divorce, which, as the husband made no defence, she obtained. But, the
+King's Proctor having learnt the facts, the decree was rescinded. Then the
+husband brought an action for divorce, but could not obtain it, having
+already admitted his own adultery by leaving the previous case undefended.
+He took the matter up to the Court of Appeal, but his petition was
+dismissed, the Court being of opinion that "to grant relief in such a case
+was not in the interest of public morality." The safest way in England to
+render what is legally termed marriage absolutely indissoluble is for both
+parties to commit adultery.
+
+[343] Magnus Hirschfeld, _Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Oct., 1908.
+
+[344] H. Adner, "Die Richterliche Beurteilung der 'Zerruetteten' Ehe,"
+_Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. ii, Teil 8.
+
+[345] Gross-Hoffinger, _Die Schichsale der Frauen und die Prostitution_,
+1847; Bloch presents a full summary of the results of this inquiry in an
+_Appendix_ to Ch. X of his _Sexual Life of Our Times_.
+
+[346] Divorce in the United States is fully discussed by Howard, op. cit.,
+vol. iii.
+
+[347] H. Muensterberg, _The Americans_, p. 575. Similarly, Dr. Felix Adler,
+in a study of "The Ethics of Divorce" (_The Ethical Record_, 1890, p.
+200), although not himself an admirer of divorce, believes that the first
+cause of the frequency of divorce in the United States is the high
+position of women.
+
+[348] In an important article, with illustrative cases, on "The
+Neuro-psychical Element in Conjugal Aversion" (_Journal of Nervous and
+Mental Diseases_, Sept., 1892) Smith Baker refers to the cases in which "a
+man may find himself progressively becoming antipathetic, through
+recognition of the comparatively less developed personality of the one to
+whom he happens to be married. Marrying, perhaps, before he has learned to
+accurately judge of character and its tendencies, he awakens to the fact
+that he is honorably bound to live all his physiological life with, not a
+real companion, but a mere counterfeit." The cases are still more
+numerous, the same writer observes, in which the sexual appetite of the
+wife fails to reveal itself except as the result of education and
+practice. "This sort of natural-unnatural condition is the source of much
+disappointment, and of intense suffering on the part of the woman as well
+as of family dissatisfaction." Yet such causes for divorce are far too
+complex to be stated in statute-books, and far too intimate to be pleaded
+in courts of justice.
+
+[349] Ten years ago, if not still, the United States came fourth in order
+of frequency of divorce, after Japan, Denmark, and Switzerland.
+
+[350] Lecky, the historian of European morals, has pointed out (_Democracy
+and Liberty_, vol. ii, p. 172) the close connection generally between
+facility of divorce and a high standard of sexual morality.
+
+[351] So, e.g., Hobhouse, _Morals in Evolution_, vol. i, p. 237.
+
+[352] In England this step was taken in the reign of Henry VII, when the
+forcible marriage of women against their will was forbidden by statute (3
+Henry VII, c. 2). Even in the middle of the seventeenth century, however,
+the question of forcible marriage had again to be dealt with (_Inderwick_,
+Interregnum, pp. 40 et seq.).
+
+[353] Woods Hutchinson (_Contemporary Review_, Sept., 1905) argues that
+when there is epilepsy, insanity, moral perversion, habitual drunkenness,
+or criminal conduct of any kind, divorce, for the sake of the next
+generation, should be not permissive but compulsory. Mere divorce,
+however, would not suffice to attain the ends desired.
+
+[354] Similarly in Germany, Wanda von Sacher-Masoch, who had suffered much
+from marriage, whatever her own defects of character may have been, writes
+at the end of _Meine Lebensbeichte_ that "as long as women have not the
+courage to regulate, without State-interference or Church-interference,
+relationships which concern themselves alone, they will not be free." In
+place of this old decayed system of marriage so opposed to our modern
+thoughts and feelings, she would have private contracts made by a lawyer.
+In England, at a much earlier period, Charles Kingsley, who was an ardent
+friend to women's movements, and whose feeling for womanhood amounted
+almost to worship, wrote to J.S. Mill: "There will never be a good world
+for women until the last remnant of the Canon law is civilized off the
+earth."
+
+[355] "No fouler institution was ever invented," declared Auberon Herbert
+many years ago, expressing, before its time, a feeling which has since
+become more common; "and its existence drags on, to our deep shame,
+because we have not the courage frankly to say that the sexual relations
+of husband and wife, or those who live together, concern their own selves,
+and do not concern the prying, gloating, self-righteous, and intensely
+untruthful world outside."
+
+[356] Hobhouse, op. cit. vol. i, p. 237.
+
+[357] The same conception of marriage as a contract still persists to some
+extent also in the United States, whither it was carried by the early
+Protestants and Puritans. No definition of marriage is indeed usually laid
+down by the States, but, Howard says (op. cit., vol. ii, p. 395), "in
+effect matrimony is treated as a relation partaking of the nature of both
+status and contract."
+
+[358] This point of view has been vigorously set forth by Paul and Victor
+Margueritte, _Quelques Idees_.
+
+[359] I may remark that this was pointed out, and its consequences
+vigorously argued, many years ago by C.G. Garrison, "Limits of Divorce,"
+_Contemporary Review_, Feb., 1894. "It may safely be asserted," he
+concludes, "that marriage presents not one attribute or incident of
+anything remotely resembling a contract, either in form, remedy,
+procedure, or result; but that in all these aspects, on the contrary, it
+is fatally hostile to the principles and practices of that division of the
+rights of persons." Marriage is not contract, but conduct.
+
+[360] See, e.g., P. and V. Margueritte, op. cit.
+
+[361] As quoted by Howard, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 29.
+
+[362] Ellen Key similarly (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 343) remarks that to
+talk of "the duty of life-long fidelity" is much the same as to talk of
+"the duty of life-long health." A man may promise, she adds, to do his
+best to preserve his life, or his love; he cannot unconditionally
+undertake to preserve them.
+
+[363] Hobhouse, op. cit., vol. 1, pp. 159, 237-9; cf. P. and V.
+Margueritte, _Quelques Idees_.
+
+[364] "Divorce," as Garrison puts it ("Limits of Divorce," _Contemporary
+Review_, Feb., 1894), "is the judicial announcement that conduct once
+connubial in character and purpose, has lost these qualities.... Divorce
+is a question of fact, and not a license to break a promise."
+
+[365] See, _ante_, p. 425.
+
+[366] It has been necessary to discuss reproduction in the first chapter
+of the present volume, and it will again be necessary in the concluding
+chapter. Here we are only concerned with procreation as an element of
+marriage.
+
+[367] Nietzold, _Die Ehe in AEgypten zur Ptolemaeisch-roemischen Zeit_, 1903,
+p. 3. This bond also accorded rights to any children that might be born
+during its existence.
+
+[368] See, e.g., Ellen Key, _Mutter und Kind_, p. 21. The necessity for
+the combination of greater freedom of sexual relationships with greater
+stringency of parental relationships was clearly realized at an earlier
+period by another able woman writer, Miss J.H. Clapperton, in her notable
+book, _Scientific Meliorism_, published in 1885. "Legal changes," she
+wrote (p. 320), "are required in two directions, viz., towards greater
+freedom as to marriage and greater strictness as to parentage. The
+marriage union is essentially a private matter with which society has no
+call and no right to interfere. Childbirth, on the contrary, is a public
+event. It touches the interests of the whole nation."
+
+[369] Ellen Key, _Liebe und Ehe_, p. 168; cf. the same author's _Century
+of the Child_.
+
+[370] In Germany alone 180,000 "illegitimate" children are born every
+year, and the number is rapidly increasing; in England it is only 40,000
+per annum, the strong feeling which often exists against such births in
+England (as also in France) leading to the wide adoption of methods for
+preventing conception.
+
+[371] "Where are real monogamists to be found?" asked Schopenhauer in his
+essay, "Ueber die Weibe." And James Hinton was wont to ask: "What is the
+meaning of maintaining monogamy? Is there any chance of getting it, I
+should like to know? Do you call English life monogamous?"
+
+[372] "Almost everywhere," says Westermarck of polygyny (which he
+discusses fully in Chs. XX-XXII of his _History of Human Marriage_) "it is
+confined to the smaller part of the people, the vast majority being
+monogamous." Maurice Gregory (_Contemporary Review_, Sept., 1906) gives
+statistics showing that nearly everywhere the tendency is towards equality
+in number of the sexes.
+
+[373] In a polygamous land a man is of course as much bound by his
+obligations to his second wife as to his first. Among ourselves the man's
+"second wife" is degraded with the name of "mistress," and the worse he
+treats her and her children the more his "morality" is approved, just as
+the Catholic Church, when struggling to establish sacerdotal celibacy,
+approved more highly the priest who had illegitimate relations with women
+than the priest who decently and openly married. If his neglect induces a
+married man's mistress to make known her relationship to him the man is
+justified in prosecuting her, and his counsel, assured of general
+sympathy, will state in court that "this woman has even been so wicked as
+to write to the prosecutor's wife!"
+
+[374] Howard, in his judicial _History of Matrimonial Institutions_ (vol.
+ii. pp. 96 et seq.), cannot refrain from drawing attention to the almost
+insanely wild character of the language used in England not so many years
+ago by those who opposed marriage with a deceased wife's sister, and he
+contrasts it with the much more reasonable attitude of the Catholic
+Church. "Pictures have been drawn," he remarks, "of the moral anarchy such
+marriages must produce, which are read by American, Colonial, and
+Continental observers with a bewilderment that is not unmixed with
+disgust, and are, indeed, a curious illustration of the extreme insularity
+of the English mind." So recently as A.D. 1908 a bill was brought into the
+British House of Lords proposing that desertion without cause for two
+years shall be a ground for divorce, a reasonable and humane measure which
+is law in most parts of the civilized world. The Lord Chancellor (Lord
+Loreburn), a Liberal, and in the sphere of politics an enlightened and
+sagacious leader, declared that such a proposal was "absolutely
+impossible." The House rejected the proposal by 61 votes to 2. Even the
+marriage decrees of the Council of Trent were not affirmed by such an
+overwhelming majority. In matters of marriage legislation England has
+scarcely yet emerged from the Middle Ages.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE ART OF LOVE.
+
+Marriage Not Only for Procreation--Theologians on the _Sacramentum
+Solationis_--Importance of the _Art of Love_--The Basis of Stability in
+Marriage and the Condition for Right Procreation--The Art of Love the
+Bulwark Against Divorce--The Unity of Love and Marriage a Principle of
+Modern Morality--Christianity and the Art of Love--Ovid--The Art of Love
+Among Primitive Peoples--Sexual Initiation in Africa and Elsewhere--The
+Tendency to Spontaneous Development of the Art of Love in Early
+Life--Flirtation--Sexual Ignorance in Women--The Husband's Place in Sexual
+Initiation--Sexual Ignorance in Men--The Husband's Education for
+Marriage--The Injury Done by the Ignorance of Husbands--The Physical and
+Mental Results of Unskilful Coitus--Women Understand the Art of Love
+Better Than Men--Ancient and Modern Opinions Concerning Frequency of
+Coitus--Variation in Sexual Capacity--The Sexual Appetite--The Art of Love
+Based on the Biological Facts of Courtship--The Art of Pleasing Women--The
+Lover Compared to the Musician--The Proposal as a Part of
+Courtship--Divination in the Art of Love--The Importance of the
+Preliminaries in Courtship--The Unskilful Husband Frequently the Cause of
+the Frigid Wife--The Difficulty of Courtship--Simultaneous Orgasm--The
+Evils of Incomplete Gratification in Women--Coitus Interruptus--Coitus
+Reservatus--The Human Method of Coitus--Variations in Coitus--Posture in
+Coitus--The Best Time for Coitus--The Influence of Coitus in Marriage--The
+Advantages of Absence in Marriage--The Risks of Absence--Jealousy--The
+Primitive Function of Jealousy--Its Predominance Among Animals, Savages,
+etc., and in Pathological States--An Anti-Social Emotion--Jealousy
+Incompatible with the Progress of Civilization--The Possibility of Loving
+More Than One Person at a Time--Platonic Friendship--The Conditions Which
+Make It Possible--The Maternal Element in Woman's Love--The Final
+Development of Conjugal Love--The Problem of Love One of the Greatest of
+Social Questions.
+
+
+It will be clear from the preceding discussion that there are two elements
+in every marriage so far as that marriage is complete. On the one hand
+marriage is a union prompted by mutual love and only sustainable as a
+reality, apart from its mere formal side, by the cultivation of such love.
+On the other hand marriage is a method for propagating the race and
+having its end in offspring. In the first aspect its aim is erotic, in the
+second parental. Both these ends have long been generally recognized. We
+find them set forth, for instance, in the marriage service of the Church
+of England, where it is stated that marriage exists both for "the mutual
+society, help and comfort that the one ought to have of the other," and
+also for "the procreation of children." Without the factor of mutual love
+the proper conditions for procreation cannot exist; without the factor of
+procreation the sexual union, however beautiful and sacred a relationship
+it may in itself be, remains, in essence, a private relationship,
+incomplete as a marriage and without public significance. It becomes
+necessary, therefore, to supplement the preceding discussion of marriage
+in its general outlines by a final and more intimate consideration of
+marriage in its essence, as embracing the art of love and the science of
+procreation.
+
+    There has already been occasion from time to time to refer to
+    those who, starting from various points of view, have sought to
+    limit the scope of marriage and to suppress one or other of its
+    elements. (See e.g., _ante_, p. 135.)
+
+    In modern times the tendency has been to exclude the factor of
+    procreation, and to regard the relationship of marriage as
+    exclusively lying in the relationship of the two parties to each
+    other. Apart from the fact, which it is unnecessary again to call
+    attention to, that, from the public and social point of view, a
+    marriage without children, however important to the two persons
+    concerned, is a relationship without any public significance, it
+    must further be said that, in the absence of children, even the
+    personal erotic life itself is apt to suffer, for in the normal
+    erotic life, especially in women, sexual love tends to grow into
+    parental love. Moreover, the full development of mutual love and
+    dependence is with difficulty attained, and there is absence of
+    that closest of bonds, the mutual cooeperation of two persons in
+    producing a new person. The perfect and complete marriage in its
+    full development is a trinity.
+
+    Those who seek to eliminate the erotic factor from marriage as
+    unessential, or at all events as only permissible when strictly
+    subordinated to the end of procreation, have made themselves
+    heard from time to time at various periods. Even the ancients,
+    Greeks and Romans alike, in their more severe moments advocated
+    the elimination of the erotic element from marriage, and its
+    confinement to extra-marital relationships, that is so far as men
+    were concerned; for the erotic needs of married women they had no
+    provision to make. Montaigne, soaked in classic traditions, has
+    admirably set forth the reasons for eliminating the erotic
+    interest from marriage: "One does not marry for oneself, whatever
+    may be said; a man marries as much, or more, for his posterity,
+    for his family; the usage and interest of marriage touch our race
+    beyond ourselves.... Thus it is a kind of incest to employ, in
+    this venerable and sacred parentage, the efforts and the
+    extravagances of amorous license" (_Essais_, Bk. i, Ch. XXIX; Bk.
+    iii, Ch. V). This point of view easily commended itself to the
+    early Christians, who, however, deliberately overlooked its
+    reverse side, the establishment of erotic interests outside
+    marriage. "To have intercourse except for procreation," said
+    Clement of Alexandria (_Paedagogus_, Bk. ii, Ch. X), "is to do
+    injury to Nature." While, however, that statement is quite true
+    of the lower animals, it is not true of man, and especially not
+    true of civilized man, whose erotic needs are far more developed,
+    and far more intimately associated with the finest and highest
+    part of the organism, than is the case among animals generally.
+    For the animal, sexual desire, except when called forth by the
+    conditions involved by procreative necessities, has no existence.
+    It is far otherwise in man, for whom, even when the question of
+    procreation is altogether excluded, sexual love is still an
+    insistent need, and even a condition of the finest spiritual
+    development. The Catholic Church, therefore, while regarding with
+    admiration a continence in marriage which excluded sexual
+    relations except for the end of procreation, has followed St.
+    Augustine in treating intercourse apart from procreation with
+    considerable indulgence, as only a venial sin. Here, however, the
+    Church was inclined to draw the line, and it appears that in 1679
+    Innocent XI condemned the proposition that "the conjugal act,
+    practiced for pleasure alone, is exempt even from venial sin."
+
+    Protestant theologians have been inclined to go further, and
+    therein they found some authority even in Catholic writers. John
+    a Lasco, the Catholic Bishop who became a Protestant and settled
+    in England during Edward VI's reign, was following many mediaeval
+    theologians when he recognized the _sacramentum solationis_, in
+    addition to _proles_, as an element of marriage. Cranmer, in his
+    marriage service of 1549, stated that "mutual help and comfort,"
+    as well as procreation, enter into the object of marriage
+    (Wickham Legg, _Ecclesiological Essays_, p. 204; Howard,
+    _Matrimonial Institutions_, vol. i, p. 398). Modern theologians
+    speak still more distinctly. "The sexual act," says Northcote
+    (_Christianity and Sex Problems_, p. 55), "is a love act. Duly
+    regulated, it conduces to the ethical welfare of the individual
+    and promotes his efficiency as a social unit. The act itself and
+    its surrounding emotions stimulate within the organism the
+    powerful movements of a vast psychic life." At an earlier period
+    also, Schleiermacher, in his _Letters on Lucinde_, had pointed
+    out the great significance of love for the spiritual development
+    of the individual.
+
+    Edward Carpenter truly remarks, in _Love's Coming of Age_, that
+    sexual love is not only needed for physical creation, but also
+    for spiritual creation. Bloch, again, in discussing this question
+    (_The Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. VI) concludes that "love and
+    the sexual embrace have not only an end in procreation, they
+    constitute an end in themselves, and are necessary for the life,
+    development, and inner growth of the individual himself."
+
+It is argued by some, who admit mutual love as a constituent part of
+marriage, that such love, once recognized at the outset, may be taken for
+granted, and requires no further discussion; there is, they believe, no
+art of love to be either learnt or taught; it comes by nature. Nothing
+could be further from the truth, most of all as regards civilized man.
+Even the elementary fact of coitus needs to be taught. No one could take a
+more austerely Puritanic view of sexual affairs than Sir James Paget, and
+yet Paget (in his lecture on "Sexual Hypochondriasis") declared that
+"Ignorance about sexual affairs seems to be a notable characteristic of
+the more civilized part of the human race. Among ourselves it is certain
+that the method of copulating needs to be taught, and that they to whom it
+is not taught remain quite ignorant about it." Gallard, again, remarks
+similarly (in his _Clinique des Maladies des Femmes_) that young people,
+like Daphnis in Longus's pastoral, need a beautiful Lycenion to give them
+a solid education, practical as well as theoretical, in these matters, and
+he considers that mothers should instruct their daughters at marriage, and
+fathers their sons. Philosophers have from time to time recognized the
+gravity of these questions and have discoursed concerning them; thus
+Epicurus, as Plutarch tells us,[375] would discuss with his disciples
+various sexual matters, such as the proper time for coitus; but then, as
+now, there were obscurantists who would leave even the central facts of
+life to the hazards of chance or ignorance, and these presumed to blame
+the philosopher.
+
+There is, however, much more to be learnt in these matters than the mere
+elementary facts of sexual intercourse. The art of love certainly includes
+such primary facts of sexual hygiene, but it involves also the whole
+erotic discipline of marriage, and that is why its significance is so
+great, for the welfare and happiness of the individual, for the stability
+of sexual unions, and indirectly for the race, since the art of love is
+ultimately the art of attaining the right conditions for procreation.
+
+"It seems extremely probable," wrote Professor E.D. Cope,[376] "that if
+this subject could be properly understood, and become, in the details of
+its practical conduct, a part of a written social science, the monogamic
+marriage might attain a far more general success than is often found in
+actual life." There can be no doubt whatever that this is the case. In the
+great majority of marriages success depends exclusively upon the knowledge
+of the art of love possessed by the two persons who enter into it. A
+life-long monogamic union may, indeed, persist in the absence of the
+slightest inborn or acquired art of love, out of religious resignation or
+sheer stupidity. But that attitude is now becoming less common. As we have
+seen in the previous chapter, divorces are becoming more frequent and more
+easily obtainable in every civilized country. This is a tendency of
+civilization; it is the result of a demand that marriage should be a real
+relationship, and that when it ceases to be real as a relationship it
+should also cease as a form. That is an inevitable tendency, involved in
+our growing democratization, for the democracy seems to care more for
+realities than for forms, however venerable. We cannot fight against it;
+and we should be wrong to fight against it even if we could.
+
+Yet while we are bound to aid the tendency to divorce, and to insist that
+a valid marriage needs the wills of two persons to maintain it, it is
+difficult for anyone to argue that divorce is in itself desirable. It is
+always a confession of failure. Two persons, who, if they have been moved
+in the slightest degree by the normal and regular impulse of sexual
+selection, at the outset regarded each other as lovable, have, on one
+side or the other or on both, proved not lovable. There has been a failure
+in the fundamental art of love. If we are to counterbalance facility of
+divorce our only sound course is to increase the stability of marriage,
+and that is only possible by cultivating the art of love, the primal
+foundation of marriage.
+
+It is by no means unnecessary to emphasize this point. There are still
+many persons who have failed to realize it. There are even people who seem
+to imagine that it is unimportant whether or not pleasure is present in
+the sexual act. "I do not believe mutual pleasure in the sexual act has
+any particular bearing on the happiness of life," once remarked Dr. Howard
+A. Kelly.[377] Such a statement means--if indeed it means anything--that
+the marriage tie has no "particular bearing" on human happiness; it means
+that the way must be freely opened to adultery and divorce. Even the most
+perverse ascetic of the Middle Ages scarcely ventured to make a statement
+so flagrantly opposed to the experiences of humanity, and the fact that a
+distinguished gynecologist of the twentieth century can make it, with
+almost the air of stating a truism, is ample justification for the
+emphasis which it has nowadays become necessary to place on the art of
+love. "Uxor enim dignitatis nomen est, non voluptatis," was indeed an
+ancient Pagan dictum. But it is not in harmony with modern ideas. It was
+not even altogether in harmony with Christianity. For our modern morality,
+as Ellen Key well says, the unity of love and marriage is a fundamental
+principle.[378]
+
+The neglect of the art of love has not been a universal phenomenon; it is
+more especially characteristic of Christendom. The spirit of ancient Rome
+undoubtedly predisposed Europe to such a neglect, for with their rough
+cultivation of the military virtues and their inaptitude for the finer
+aspects of civilization the Romans were willing to regard love as a
+permissible indulgence, but they were not, as a people, prepared to
+cultivate it as an art. Their poets do not, in this matter, represent the
+moral feeling of their best people. It is indeed a highly significant
+fact that Ovid, the most distinguished Latin poet who concerned himself
+much with the art of love, associated that art not so much with morality
+as with immorality. As he viewed it, the art of love was less the art of
+retaining a woman in her home than the art of winning her away from it; it
+was the adulterer's art rather than the husband's art. Such a conception
+would be impossible out of Europe, but it proved very favorable to the
+growth of the Christian attitude towards the art of love.
+
+    Love as an art, as well as a passion, seems to have received
+    considerable study in antiquity, though the results of that study
+    have perished. Cadmus Milesius, says Suidas, wrote fourteen great
+    volumes on the passion of love, but they are not now to be found.
+    Rohde (_Das Griechische Roman_, p. 55) has a brief section on the
+    Greek philosophic writers on love. Bloch (_Beitraege zur
+    Psychopathia Sexualis_, Teil I, p. 191) enumerates the ancient
+    women writers who dealt with the art of love. Montaigne
+    (_Essais_, liv. ii, Ch. V) gives a list of ancient classical lost
+    books on love. Burton (_Anatomy of Melancholy_, Bell's edition,
+    vol. iii, p. 2) also gives a list of lost books on love. Burton
+    himself dealt at length with the manifold signs of love and its
+    grievous symptoms. Boissier de Sauvages, early in the eighteenth
+    century, published a Latin thesis, _De Amore_, discussing love
+    somewhat in the same spirit as Burton, as a psychic disease to be
+    treated and cured.
+
+    The breath of Christian asceticism had passed over love; it was
+    no longer, as in classic days, an art to be cultivated, but only
+    a malady to be cured. The true inheritor of the classic spirit in
+    this, as in many other matters, was not the Christian world, but
+    the world of Islam. _The Perfumed Garden_ of the Sheik Nefzaoui
+    was probably written in the city of Tunis early in the sixteenth
+    century by an author who belonged to the south of Tunis. Its
+    opening invocation clearly indicates that it departs widely from
+    the conception of love as a disease: "Praise be to God who has
+    placed man's greatest pleasures in the natural parts of woman,
+    and has destined the natural parts of man to afford the greatest
+    enjoyments to woman." The Arabic book, _El Ktab_, or "The Secret
+    Laws of Love," is a modern work, by Omer Haleby Abu Othman, who
+    was born in Algiers of a Moorish mother and a Turkish father.
+
+For Christianity the permission to yield to the sexual impulse at all was
+merely a concession to human weakness, an indulgence only possible when it
+was carefully hedged and guarded on every side. Almost from the first the
+Christians began to cultivate the art of virginity, and they could not so
+dislocate their point of view as to approve of the art of love. All their
+passionate adoration in the sphere of sex went out towards chastity.
+Possessed by such ideals, they could only tolerate human love at all by
+giving to one special form of it a religious sacramental character, and
+even that sacramental halo imparted to love a quasi-ascetic character
+which precluded the idea of regarding love as an art.[379] Love gained a
+religious element but it lost a moral element, since, outside
+Christianity, the art of love is part of the foundation of sexual
+morality, wherever such morality in any degree exists. In Christendom love
+in marriage was left to shift for itself as best it might; the art of love
+was a dubious art which was held to indicate a certain commerce with
+immorality and even indeed to be itself immoral. That feeling was
+doubtless strengthened by the fact that Ovid was the most conspicuous
+master in literature of the art of love. His literary reputation--far
+greater than it now seems to us[380]--gave distinction to his position as
+the author of the chief extant text-book of the art of love. With Humanism
+and the Renaissance and the consequent realization that Christianity had
+overlooked one side of life, Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ was placed on a
+pedestal it had not occupied before or since. It represented a step
+forward in civilization; it revealed love not as a mere animal instinct or
+a mere pledged duty, but as a complex, humane, and refined relationship
+which demanded cultivation; "_arte regendus amor_." Boccaccio made a wise
+teacher put Ovid's _Ars Amatoria_ into the hands of the young. In an age
+still oppressed by the mediaeval spirit, it was a much needed text-book,
+but it possessed the fatal defect, as a text-book, of presenting the
+erotic claims of the individual as divorced from the claims of good social
+order. It never succeeded in establishing itself as a generally accepted
+manual of love, and in the eyes of many it served to stamp the subject it
+dealt with as one that lies outside the limits of good morals.
+
+When, however, we take a wider survey, and inquire into the discipline for
+life that is imparted to the young in many parts of the world, we shall
+frequently find that the art of love, understood in varying ways, is an
+essential part of that discipline. Summary, though generally adequate, as
+are the educational methods of primitive peoples, they not seldom include
+a training in those arts which render a woman agreeable to a man and a man
+agreeable to a woman in the relationship of marriage, and it is often more
+or less dimly realized that courtship is not a mere preliminary to
+marriage, but a biologically essential part of the marriage relationship
+throughout.
+
+    Sexual initiation is carried out very thoroughly in Azimba land,
+    Central Africa. H. Crawford Angus, the first European to visit
+    the Azimba people, lived among them for a year, and has described
+    the Chensamwali, or initiation ceremony, of girls. "At the first
+    sign of menstruation in a young girl, she is taught the mysteries
+    of womanhood, and is shown the different positions for sexual
+    intercourse. The vagina is handled freely, and if not previously
+    enlarged (which may have taken place at the harvest festival when
+    a boy and girl are allowed to 'keep house' during the day-time by
+    themselves, and when quasi-intercourse takes place) it is now
+    enlarged by means of a horn or corn-cob, which is inserted and
+    secured in place by bands of bark cloth. When all signs [of
+    menstruation] have passed, a public announcement of a dance is
+    given to the women in the village. At this dance no men are
+    allowed to be present, and it was only with a great deal of
+    trouble that I managed to witness it. The girl to be 'danced' is
+    led back from the bush to her mother's hut where she is kept in
+    solitude to the morning of the dance. On that morning she is
+    placed on the ground in a sitting position, while the dancers
+    form a ring around her. Several songs are then sung with
+    reference to the genital organs. The girl is then stripped and
+    made to go through the mimic performance of sexual intercourse,
+    and if the movements are not enacted properly, as is often the
+    case when the girl is timid and bashful, one of the older women
+    will take her place and show her how she is to perform. Many
+    songs about the relation between men and women are sung, and the
+    girl is instructed as to all her duties when she becomes a wife.
+    She is also instructed that during the time of her menstruation
+    she is unclean, and that during her monthly period she must close
+    her vulva with a pad of fibre used for the purpose. The object of
+    the dance is to inculcate to the girl the knowledge of married
+    life. The girl is taught to be faithful to her husband and to try
+    to bear children, and she is also taught the various arts and
+    methods of making herself seductive and pleasing to her husband,
+    and of thus retaining him in her power." (H. Crawford Angus, "The
+    Chensamwali," _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1898, Heft 6, p.
+    479).
+
+    In Abyssinia, as well as on the Zanzibar coast, according to
+    Stecker (quoted by Ploss-Bartels, _Das Weib_, Section 119) young
+    girls are educated in buttock movements which increase their
+    charm in coitus. These movements, of a rotatory character, are
+    called Duk-Duk. To be ignorant of Duk-Duk is a great disgrace to
+    a girl. Among the Swahili women of Zanzibar, indeed, a complete
+    artistic system of hip-movements is cultivated, to be displayed
+    in coitus. It prevails more especially on the coast, and a
+    Swahili woman is not counted a "lady" (bibi) unless she is
+    acquainted with this art. From sixty to eighty young women
+    practice this buttock dance together for some eight hours a day,
+    laying aside all clothing, and singing the while. The public are
+    not admitted. The dance, which is a kind of imitation of coitus,
+    has been described by Zache ("Sitten und Gebraeuche der Suaheli,"
+    _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1899, Heft 2-3, p. 72). The more
+    accomplished dancers excite general admiration. During the latter
+    part of this initiation various feats are imposed, to test the
+    girl's skill and self-control. For instance, she must dance up to
+    a fire and remove from the midst of the fire a vessel full of
+    water to the brim, without spilling it. At the end of three
+    months the training is over, and the girl goes home in festival
+    attire. She is now eligible for marriage. Similar customs are
+    said to prevail in the Dutch East Indies and elsewhere.
+
+    The Hebrews had erotic dances, which were doubtless related to
+    the art of love in marriage, and among the Greeks, and their
+    disciples the Romans, the conception of love as an art which
+    needs training, skill, and cultivation, was still extant. That
+    conception was crushed by Christianity which, although it
+    sanctified the institution of matrimony, degraded that sexual
+    love which is normally the content of marriage.
+
+    In 1176 the question was brought before a Court of Love by a
+    baron and lady of Champagne, whether love is compatible with
+    marriage. "No," said the baron, "I admire and respect the sweet
+    intimacy of married couples, but I cannot call it love. Love
+    desires obstacles, mystery, stolen favors. Now husbands and wives
+    boldly avow their relationship; they possess each other without
+    contradiction and without reserve. It cannot then be love that
+    they experience." And after mature deliberation the ladies of the
+    Court of Love adopted the baron's conclusions (E. de la
+    Bedolliere, _Histoire des Moeurs des Francais_, vol. iii, p.
+    334). There was undoubtedly an element of truth in the baron's
+    arguments. Yet it may well be doubted whether in any
+    non-Christian country it would ever have been possible to obtain
+    acceptance for the doctrine that love and marriage are
+    incompatible. This doctrine was, however, as Ribot points out in
+    his _Logique des Sentiments_, inevitable, when, as among the
+    medieval nobility, marriage was merely a political or domestic
+    treaty and could not, therefore, be a method of moral elevation.
+
+    "Why is it," asked Retif de la Bretonne, towards the end of the
+    eighteenth century, "that girls who have no morals are more
+    seductive and more loveable than honest women? It is because,
+    like the Greek courtesans to whom grace and voluptuousness were
+    taught, they have studied the art of pleasing. Among the foolish
+    detractors of my _Contemporaines_, not one guessed the
+    philosophic aim of nearly everyone of these tales, which is to
+    suggest to honest women the ways of making themselves loved. I
+    should like to see the institution of initiations, such as those
+    of the ancients.... To-day the happiness of the human species is
+    abandoned to chance; all the experience of women is individual,
+    like that of animals; it is lost with those women who, being
+    naturally amiable, might have taught others to become so.
+    Prostitutes alone make a superficial study of it, and the lessons
+    they receive are, for the most part, as harmful as those of
+    respectable Greek and Roman matrons were holy and honorable, only
+    tending to wantonness, to the exhaustion alike of the purse and
+    of the physical faculties, while the aim of the ancient matrons
+    was the union of husband and wife and their mutual attachment
+    through pleasure. The Christian religion annihilated the
+    Mysteries as infamous, but we may regard that annihilation as one
+    of the wrongs done by Christianity to humanity, as the work of
+    men with little enlightenment and bitter zeal, dangerous puritans
+    who were the natural enemies of marriage" (Retif de la Bretonne,
+    _Monsieur Nicolas_, reprint of 1883, vol. x, pp. 160-3). It may
+    be added that Duehren (Dr. Iwan Bloch) regards Retif as "a master
+    in the _Ars Amandi_," and discusses him from this point of view
+    in his _Retif de la Bretonne_ (pp. 362-371).
+
+Whether or not Christianity is to be held responsible, it cannot be
+doubted that throughout Christendom there has been a lamentable failure to
+recognize the supreme importance, not only erotically but morally, of the
+art of love. Even in the great revival of sexual enlightenment now taking
+place around us there is rarely even the faintest recognition that in
+sexual enlightenment the one thing essentially necessary is a knowledge of
+the art of love. For the most part, sexual instruction as at present
+understood, is purely negative, a mere string of thou-shalt-nots. If that
+failure were due to the conscious and deliberate recognition that while
+the art of love must be based on physiological and psychological
+knowledge, it is far too subtle, too complex, too personal, to be
+formulated in lectures and manuals, it would be reasonable and sound. But
+it seems to rest entirely on ignorance, indifference, or worse.
+
+Love-making is indeed, like other arts, an art that is partly natural--"an
+art that nature makes"--and therefore it is a natural subject for learning
+and exercising in play. Children left to themselves tend, both playfully
+and seriously, to practice love, alike on the physical and the psychic
+sides.[381] But this play is on its physical side sternly repressed by
+their elders, when discovered, and on its psychic side laughed at. Among
+the well-bred classes it is usually starved out at an early age.
+
+After puberty, if not before, there is another form in which the art of
+love is largely experimented and practised, especially in England and
+America, the form of flirtation. In its elementary manifestations flirting
+is entirely natural and normal; we may trace it even in animals; it is
+simply the beginning of courtship, at the early stage when courtship may
+yet, if desired, be broken off. Under modern civilized conditions,
+however, flirtation is often more than this. These conditions make
+marriage difficult; they make love and its engagements too serious a
+matter to be entered on lightly; they make actual sexual intercourse
+dangerous as well as disreputable. Flirtation adapts itself to these
+conditions. Instead of being merely the preliminary stage of normal
+courtship, it is developed into a form of sexual gratification as complete
+as due observation of the conditions already mentioned will allow. In
+Germany, and especially in France where it is held in great abhorrence,
+this is the only form of flirtation known; it is regarded as an
+exportation from the United States and is denominated "flirtage." Its
+practical outcome is held to be the "demi-vierge," who knows and has
+experienced the joys of sex while yet retaining her hymen intact.
+
+    This degenerate form of flirtation, cultivated not as a part of
+    courtship, but for its own sake, has been well described by Forel
+    (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, pp. 97-101). He defines it as including
+    "all those expressions of the sexual instinct of one individual
+    towards another individual which excite the other's sexual
+    instinct, coitus being always excepted." In the beginning it may
+    be merely a provocative look or a simple apparently unintentional
+    touch or contact; and by slight gradations it may pass on to
+    caresses, kisses, embraces, and even extend to pressure or
+    friction of the sexual parts, sometimes leading to orgasm. Thus,
+    Forel mentions, a sensuous woman by the pressure of her garments
+    in dancing can produce ejaculation in her partner. Most usually
+    the process is that voluptuous contact and revery which, in
+    English slang, is called "spooning." From first to last there
+    need not be any explicit explanations, proposals, or declarations
+    on either side, and neither party is committed to any
+    relationship with the other beyond the period devoted to
+    flirtage. In one form, however, flirtage consists entirely in the
+    excitement of a conversation devoted to erotic and indecorous
+    topics. Either the man or the woman may take the active part in
+    flirtage, but in a woman more refinement and skill is required to
+    play the active part without repelling the man or injuring her
+    reputation. Indeed, much the same is true of men also, for women,
+    while they often like flirting, usually prefer its more refined
+    forms. There are infinite forms of flirtage, and while as a
+    preliminary part of courtship, it has its normal place and
+    justification, Forel concludes that "as an end in itself, and
+    never passing beyond itself, it is a phenomenon of degeneration."
+
+    From the French point of view, flirtage and flirtation generally
+    have been discussed by Madame Bentzon ("Family Life in America,"
+    _Forum_, March, 1896) who, however, fails to realize the natural
+    basis of flirtation in courtship. She regards it as a sin against
+    the law "Thou shalt not play with love," for it ought to have the
+    excuse of an irresistible passion, but she thinks it is
+    comparatively inoffensive in America (though still a
+    deteriorating influence on the women) on account of the
+    temperament, education, and habits of the people. It must,
+    however, be remembered that play has a proper relationship to all
+    vital activities, and that a reasonable criticism of flirtation
+    is concerned rather with its normal limitations than with its
+    right to exist (see the observations on the natural basis of
+    coquetry and the ends it subserves in "The Evolution of Modesty"
+    in volume i of these _Studies_).
+
+While flirtation in its natural form--though not in the perverted form of
+"flirtage"--has sound justification, alike as a method of testing a lover
+and of acquiring some small part of the art of love, it remains an
+altogether inadequate preparation for love. This is sufficiently shown by
+the frequent inaptitude for the art of love, and even for the mere
+physical act of love, so frequently manifested both by men and women in
+the very countries where flirtation most flourishes.
+
+This ignorance, not merely of the art of love but even of the physical
+facts of sexual love, is marked not only in women, especially women of the
+middle class, but also in men, for the civilized man, as Fritsch long ago
+remarked, often knows less of the facts of the sexual life than a
+milkmaid. It shows itself differently, however, in the two sexes.
+
+Among women sexual ignorance ranges from complete innocence of the fact
+that it involves any intimate bodily relationship at all to
+misapprehensions of the most various kind; some think that the
+relationship consists in lying side by side, many that intercourse takes
+place at the navel, not a few that the act occupies the whole night. It
+has been necessary in a previous chapter to discuss the general evils of
+sexual ignorance; it is here necessary to refer to its more special evils
+as regards the relationship of marriage. Girls are educated with the vague
+idea that they will marry,--quite correctly, for the majority of them do
+marry,--but the idea that they must be educated for the career that will
+naturally fall to their lot is an idea which as yet has never seemed to
+occur to the teachers of girls. Their heads are crammed to stupidity with
+the knowledge of facts which it is no one's concern to know, but the
+supremely important training for life they are totally unable to teach.
+Women are trained for nearly every avocation under the sun; for the
+supreme avocation of wifehood and motherhood they are never trained at
+all!
+
+It may be said, and with truth, that the present incompetent training of
+girls is likely to continue so long as the mothers of girls are content to
+demand nothing better. It may also be said, with even greater truth, that
+there is much that concerns the knowledge of sexual relationships which
+the mother herself may most properly impart to her daughter. It may
+further be asserted, most unanswerably, that the art of love, with which
+we are here more especially concerned, can only be learnt by actual
+experience, an experience which our social traditions make it difficult
+for a virtuous girl to acquire with credit. Without here attempting to
+apportion the share of blame which falls to each cause, it remains
+unfortunate that a woman should so often enter marriage with the worst
+possible equipment of prejudices and misapprehensions, even when she
+believes, as often happens, that she knows all about it. Even with the
+best equipment, a woman, under present conditions, enters marriage at a
+disadvantage. She awakes to the full realization of love more slowly than
+a man, and, on the average, at a later age, so that her experiences of the
+life of sex before marriage have usually been of a much more restricted
+kind than her husband's.[382] So that even with the best preparation, it
+often happens that it is not until several years after marriage that a
+woman clearly realizes her own sexual needs and adequately estimates her
+husband's ability to satisfy those needs. We cannot over-estimate the
+personal and social importance of a complete preparation for marriage, and
+the greater the difficulties placed in the way of divorce the more weight
+necessarily attaches to that preparation.[383]
+
+    Everyone is probably acquainted with many cases of the extreme
+    ignorance of women on entering marriage. The following case
+    concerning a woman of twenty-seven, who had been asked in
+    marriage, is somewhat extreme, but not very exceptional. "She did
+    not feel sure of her affection and she asked a woman cousin
+    concerning the meaning of love. This cousin lent her Ellis
+    Ethelmer's pamphlet, _The Human Flower_. She learnt from this
+    that men desired the body of a woman, and this so appalled her
+    that she was quite ill for several days. The next time her lover
+    attempted a caress she told him that it was 'lust.' Since then
+    she has read George Moore's _Sister Teresa_, and the knowledge
+    that 'women can be as bad as men' has made her sad." The
+    "Histories" contained in the Appendices to previous volumes of
+    these _Studies_ reveal numerous instances of the deplorable
+    ignorance of young girls concerning the most central facts of the
+    sexual life. It is not surprising, under such circumstances, that
+    marriage leads to disillusionment or repulsion.
+
+    It is commonly said that the duty of initiating the wife into the
+    privileges and obligations of marriage properly belongs to the
+    husband. Apart, however, altogether from the fact that it is
+    unjust to a woman to compel her to bind herself in marriage
+    before she has fully realized what marriage means, it must also
+    be said that there are many things necessary for women to know
+    that it is unreasonable to expect a husband to explain. This is,
+    for instance, notably the case as regards the more fatiguing and
+    exhausting effects of coitus on a man as compared with a woman.
+    The inexperienced bride cannot know beforehand that the
+    frequently repeated orgasms which render her vigorous and radiant
+    exert a depressing effect on her husband, and his masculine pride
+    induces him to attempt to conceal that fact. The bride, in her
+    innocence, is unconscious that her pleasure is bought at her
+    husband's expense, and that what is not excess to her, may be a
+    serious excess to him. The woman who knows (notably, for
+    instance, a widow who remarries) is careful to guard her
+    husband's health in this respect, by restraining her own ardor,
+    for she realizes that a man is not willing to admit that he is
+    incapable of satisfying his wife's desires. (G. Hirth has also
+    pointed out how important it is that women should know before
+    marriage the natural limits of masculine potency, _Wege zur
+    Liebe_, p. 571.)
+
+The ignorance of women of all that concerns the art of love, and their
+total lack of preparation for the natural facts of the sexual life, would
+perhaps be of less evil augury for marriage if it were always compensated
+by the knowledge, skill, and considerateness of the husband. But that is
+by no means always the case. Within the ordinary range we find, at all
+events in England, the large group of men whose knowledge of women before
+marriage has been mainly confined to prostitutes, and the important and
+not inconsiderable group of men who have had no intimate intercourse with
+women, their sexual experiences having been confined to masturbation or
+other auto-erotic manifestations, and to flirtation. Certainly the man of
+sensitive and intelligent temperament, whatever his training or lack of
+training, may succeed with patience and consideration in overcoming all
+the difficulties placed in the way of love by the mixture of ignorances
+and prejudices which so often in woman takes the place of an education for
+the erotic part of her life. But it cannot be said that either of these
+two groups of men has been well equipped for the task. The training and
+experience which a man receives from a prostitute, even under fairly
+favorable conditions, scarcely form the right preparation for approaching
+a woman of his own class who has no intimate erotic experiences.[384] The
+frequent result is that he is liable to waver between two opposite courses
+of action, both of them mistaken. On the one hand, he may treat his bride
+as a prostitute, or as a novice to be speedily moulded into the sexual
+shape he is most accustomed to, thus running the risk either of perverting
+or of disgusting her. On the other hand, realizing that the purity and
+dignity of his bride place her in an altogether different class from the
+women he has previously known, he may go to the opposite extreme of
+treating her with an exaggerated respect, and so fail either to arouse or
+to gratify her erotic needs. It is difficult to say which of these two
+courses of action is the more unfortunate; the result of both, however, is
+frequently found to be that a nominal marriage never becomes a real
+marriage.[385]
+
+Yet there can be no doubt whatever that the other group of men, the men
+who enter marriage without any erotic experiences, run even greater risks.
+These are often the best of men, both as regards personal character and
+mental power. It is indeed astonishing to find how ignorant, both
+practically and theoretically, very able and highly educated men may be
+concerning sexual matters.
+
+    "Complete abstinence during youth," says Freud (_Sexual-Probleme_,
+    March, 1908), "is not the best preparation for marriage in
+    a young man. Women divine this and prefer those of their
+    wooers who have already proved themselves to be men with
+    other women." Ellen Key, referring to the demand sometimes made
+    by women for purity in men (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 96), asks
+    whether women realize the effect of their admiration of the
+    experienced and confident man who knows women, on the shy and
+    hesitating youth, "who perhaps has been struggling hard for his
+    erotic purity, in the hope that a woman's happy smile will be the
+    reward of his conquest, and who is condemned to see how that
+    woman looks down on him with lofty compassion and gazes with
+    admiration at the leopard's spots." When the lover, in Laura
+    Marholm's _Was war es_? says to the heroine, "I have never yet
+    touched a woman," the girl "turns from him with horror, and it
+    seemed to her that a cold shudder went through her, a chilling
+    deception." The same feeling is manifested in an exaggerated form
+    in the passion often experienced by vigorous girls of eighteen to
+    twenty-four for old roues. (This has been discussed by Forel,
+    _Die Sexuelle Frage_, pp. 217 et seq.)
+
+    Other factors may enter in a woman's preference for the man who
+    has conquered other women. Even the most religious and moral
+    young woman, Valera remarks (_Dona Luz_, p. 205), likes to marry
+    a man who has loved many women; it gives a greater value to his
+    choice of her; it also offers her an opportunity of converting
+    him to higher ideals. No doubt when the inexperienced man meets
+    in marriage the equally inexperienced woman they often succeed in
+    adapting themselves to each other and a permanent _modus vivendi_
+    is constituted. But it is by no means so always. If the wife is
+    taught by instinct or experience she is apt to resent the
+    awkwardness and helplessness of her husband in the art of love.
+    Even if she is ignorant she may be permanently alienated and
+    become chronically frigid, through the brutal inconsiderateness
+    of her ignorant husband in carrying out what he conceives to be
+    his marital duties. (It has already been necessary to touch on
+    this point in discussing "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in vol.
+    iii of these _Studies_.) Sometimes, indeed, serious physical
+    injury has been inflicted on the bride owing to this ignorance of
+    the husband.
+
+    "I take it that most men have had pre-matrimonial
+    sex-relationships," a correspondent writes. "But I have known one
+    man at least who, up till the age of twenty, had not even a
+    rudimentary idea of sex matters. At twenty-nine, a few months
+    before marriage, he came to ask me how coitus was performed, and
+    displayed an ignorance that I could not believe to exist in the
+    mind of an otherwise intelligent man. He had evidently no
+    instinct to guide him, as the brutes have, and his reason was
+    unable to supply the necessary knowledge. It is very curious that
+    man should lose this instinctive knowledge. I have known another
+    man almost equally ignorant. He also came to me for advice in
+    marital duties. Both of these men masturbated, and they were
+    normally passionate." Such cases are not so very rare. Usually,
+    however, a certain amount of information has been acquired from
+    some for the most part unsatisfactory source, and the ignorance
+    is only partial, though not on that account less dangerous.
+
+    Balzac has compared the average husband to an orang-utan trying
+    to play the violin. "Love, as we instinctively feel, is the most
+    melodious of harmonies. Woman is a delicious instrument of
+    pleasure, but it is necessary to know its quivering strings,
+    study the pose of it, its timid keyboard, the changing and
+    capricious fingering. How many orangs--men, I mean, marry without
+    knowing what a woman is!... Nearly all men marry in the most
+    profound ignorance of women and of love" (Balzac, _Physiologie du
+    Mariage_, Meditation VII).
+
+    Neugebauer (_Monatsschrift fuer Geburtshuelfe_, 1889, Bk. ix, pp.
+    221 et seq.) has collected over one hundred and fifty cases of
+    injury to women in coitus inflicted by the penis. The causes were
+    brutality, drunkenness of one or both parties, unusual position
+    in coitus, disproportion of the organs, pathological conditions
+    of the woman's organs (Cf. R.W. Taylor, _Practical Treatise on
+    Sexual Disorders_, Ch. XXXV). Blumreich also discusses the
+    injuries produced by violent coitus (Senator and Kaminer, _Health
+    and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, pp. 770-779). C.M.
+    Green (_Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, 13 Ap., 1893)
+    records two cases of rupture of vagina by sexual intercourse in
+    newly-married ladies, without evidence of any great violence.
+    Mylott (_British Medical Journal_, Sept. 16, 1899) records a
+    similar case occurring on the wedding night. The amount of force
+    sometimes exerted in coitus is evidenced by the cases, occurring
+    from time to time, in which intercourse takes place by the
+    urethra.
+
+    Eulenburg finds (_Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 69) that vaginismus, a
+    condition of spasmodic contraction of the vulva and exaggerated
+    sensibility on the attempt to effect coitus, is due to forcible
+    and unskilful attempts at the first coitus. Adler (_Die
+    Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, p. 160) also
+    believes that the scarred remains of the hymen, together with
+    painful memories of a violent first coitus, are the most frequent
+    cause of vaginismus.
+
+    The occasional cases, however, of physical injury or of
+    pathological condition produced by violent coitus at the
+    beginning of marriage constitute but a very small portion of the
+    evidence which witnesses to the evil results of the prevalent
+    ignorance regarding the art of love. As regards Germany,
+    Fuerbringer writes (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in
+    Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 215): "I am perfectly satisfied
+    that the number of young married women who have a lasting painful
+    recollection of their first sexual intercourse exceeds by far the
+    number of those who venture to consult a doctor." As regards
+    England, the following experience is instructive: A lady asked
+    six married women in succession, privately, on the same day
+    concerning their bridal experiences. To all, sexual intercourse
+    had come as a shock; two had been absolutely ignorant about
+    sexual matters; the others had thought they knew what coitus was,
+    but were none the less shocked. These women were of the middle
+    class, perhaps above the average in intelligence; one was a
+    doctor.
+
+    Breuer and Freud, in their _Studien ueber Hysterie_ (p. 216),
+    pointed out that the bridal night is practically often a rape,
+    and that it sometimes leads to hysteria, which is not cured until
+    satisfying sexual relationships are established. Even when there
+    is no violence, Kisch (_Sexual Life of Woman_, Part II) regards
+    awkward and inexperienced coitus, leading to incomplete
+    excitement of the wife, as the chief cause of dyspareunia, or
+    absence of sexual gratification, although gross disproportion in
+    the size of the male and female organs, or disease in either
+    party, may lead to the same result. Dyspareunia, Kisch adds, is
+    astonishingly frequent, though sometimes women complain of it
+    without justification in order to arouse sympathy for themselves
+    as sacrifices on the altar of marriage; the constant sign is
+    absence of ejaculation on the woman's part. Kisch also observes
+    that wedding night deflorations are often really rapes. One young
+    bride, known to him, was so ignorant of the physical side of
+    love, and so overwhelmed by her husband's first attempt at
+    intercourse, that she fled from the house in the night, and
+    nothing would ever persuade her to return to her husband. (It is
+    worth noting that by Canon law, under such circumstances, the
+    Church might hold the marriage invalid. See Thomas Slater's
+    _Moral Theology_, vol. ii, p. 318, and a case in point, both
+    quoted by Rev. C.J. Shebbeare, "Marriage Law in the Church of
+    England," _Nineteenth Century_, Aug., 1909, p. 263.) Kisch
+    considers, also, that wedding tours are a mistake; since the
+    fatigue, the excitement, the long journeys, sight-seeing, false
+    modesty, bad hotel arrangements, often combine to affect the
+    bride unfavorably and produce the germs of serious illness. This
+    is undoubtedly the case.
+
+    The extreme psychic importance of the manner in which the act of
+    defloration is accomplished is strongly emphasized by Adler. He
+    regards it as a frequent cause of permanent sexual anaesthesia.
+    "This first moment in which the man's individuality attains its
+    full rights often decides the whole of life. The unskilled,
+    over-excited husband can then implant the seed of feminine
+    insensibility, and by continued awkwardness and coarseness
+    develop it into permanent anaesthesia. The man who takes
+    possession of his rights with reckless brutal masculine force
+    merely causes his wife anxiety and pain, and with every
+    repetition of the act increases her repulsion.... A large
+    proportion of cold-natured women represent a sacrifice by men,
+    due either to unconscious awkwardness, or, occasionally, to
+    conscious brutality towards the tender plant which should have
+    been cherished with peculiar art and love, but has been robbed of
+    the splendor of its development. All her life long, a wistful and
+    trembling woman will preserve the recollection of a brutal
+    wedding night, and, often enough, it remains a perpetual source
+    of inhibition every time that the husband seeks anew to gratify
+    his desires without adapting himself to his wife's desires for
+    love" (O. Adler, _Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des
+    Weibes_, pp. 159 et seq., 181 et seq.). "I have seen an honest
+    woman shudder with horror at her husband's approach," wrote
+    Diderot long ago in his essay "Sur les Femmes"; "I have seen her
+    plunge in the bath and feel herself never sufficiently washed
+    from the stain of duty." The same may still be said of a vast
+    army of women, victims of a pernicious system of morality which
+    has taught them false ideas of "conjugal duty" and has failed to
+    teach their husbands the art of love.
+
+Women, when their fine natural instincts have not been hopelessly
+perverted by the pruderies and prejudices which are so diligently
+instilled into them, understand the art of love more readily than men.
+Even when little more than children they can often completely take the cue
+that is given to them. Much more than is the case with men, at all events
+under civilized conditions, the art of love is with them an art that
+Nature makes. They always know more of love, as Montaigne long since said,
+than men can teach them, for it is a discipline that is born in their
+blood.[386]
+
+    The extensive inquiries of Sanford Bell (loc. cit.) show that the
+    emotions of sex-love may appear as early as the third year. It
+    must also be remembered that, both physically and psychically,
+    girls are more precocious, more mature, than boys (see, e.g.,
+    Havelock Ellis, _Man and Woman_, fourth edition, pp. 34 _et
+    seq._, 200, etc.). Thus, by the time she has reached the age of
+    puberty a girl has had time to become an accomplished mistress of
+    the minor arts of love. That the age of puberty is for girls the
+    age of love seems to be widely recognized by the popular mind.
+    Thus in a popular song of Bresse a girl  sings:--
+
+        "J'ai calcule mon age,
+         J'ai quatorze a quinze ans.
+         Ne suis-je pas dans l'age
+         D'y avoir un amant?"
+
+    This matter of the sexual precocity of girls has an important
+    bearing on the question of the "age of consent," or the age at
+    which it should be legal for a girl to consent to sexual
+    intercourse. Until within the last twenty-five years there has
+    been a tendency to set a very low age (even as low as ten) as the
+    age above which a man commits no offence in having sexual
+    intercourse with a girl. In recent years there has been a
+    tendency to run to the opposite and equally unfortunate extreme
+    of raising it to a very late age. In England, by the Criminal Law
+    Amendment Act of 1885, the age of consent was raised to sixteen
+    (this clause of the bill being carried in the House of Commons by
+    a majority of 108). This seems to be the reasonable age at which
+    the limit should be set and its extreme high limit in temperate
+    climates. It is the age recognized by the Italian Criminal Code,
+    and in many other parts of the civilized world. Gladstone,
+    however, was in favor of raising it to eighteen, and Howard, in
+    discussing this question as regards the United States
+    (_Matrimonial Institutions_, vol. iii, pp. 195-203), thinks it
+    ought everywhere to be raised to twenty-one, so coinciding with
+    the age of legal majority at which a woman can enter into
+    business or political relations. There has been, during recent
+    years, a wide limit of variation in the legislation of the
+    different American States on this point, the differences of the
+    two limits being as much as eight years, and in some important
+    States the act of intercourse with a girl under eighteen is
+    declared to be "rape," and punishable with imprisonment for life.
+
+    Such enactments as these, however, it must be recognized, are
+    arbitrary, artificial, and unnatural. They do not rest on a sound
+    biological basis, and cannot be enforced by the common sense of
+    the community. There is no proper analogy between the age of
+    legal majority which is fixed, approximately, with reference to
+    the ability to comprehend abstract matters of intelligence, and
+    the age of sexual maturity which occurs much earlier, both
+    physically and psychically, and is determined in women by a very
+    precise biological event: the completion of puberty in the onset
+    of menstruation. Among peoples living under natural conditions in
+    all parts of the world it is recognized that a girl becomes
+    sexually a woman at puberty; at that epoch she receives her
+    initiation into adult life and becomes a wife and a mother. To
+    declare that the act of intercourse with a woman who, by the
+    natural instinct of mankind generally, is regarded as old enough
+    for all the duties of womanhood, is a criminal act of rape,
+    punishable by imprisonment for life, can only be considered an
+    abuse of language, and, what is worse, an abuse of law, even if
+    we leave all psychological and moral considerations out of the
+    question, for it deprives the conception of rape of all that
+    renders it naturally and properly revolting.
+
+    The sound view in this question is clearly the view that it is
+    the girl's puberty which constitutes the criterion of the man's
+    criminality in sexually approaching her. In the temperate regions
+    of Europe and North America the average age of the appearance of
+    menstruation, the critical moment in the establishment of
+    complete puberty, is fifteen (see, e.g., Havelock Ellis, _Man and
+    Woman_, Ch. XI; the facts are set forth at length in Kisch's
+    _Sexual Life of Woman_, 1909). Therefore it is reasonable that
+    the act of an adult man in having sexual connection with a girl
+    under sixteen, with or without her consent, should properly be a
+    criminal act, severely punishable. In those lands where the
+    average age of puberty is higher or lower, the age of consent
+    should be raised or lowered accordingly. (Bruno Meyer, arguing
+    against any attempt to raise the age of consent above sixteen,
+    considers that the proper age of consent is generally fourteen,
+    for, as he rightly insists, the line of division is between the
+    ripe and the unripe personality, and while the latter should be
+    strictly preserved from the sphere of sexuality, only voluntary,
+    not compulsory, influence should be brought to bear on the
+    former. _Sexual-Probleme_, Ap., 1909.)
+
+    If we take into our view the wider considerations of psychology,
+    morality, and law, we shall find ample justification for this
+    point of view. We have to remember that a girl, during all the
+    years of ordinary school life, is always more advanced, both
+    physically and psychically, than a boy of the same age, and we
+    have to recognize that this precocity covers her sexual
+    development; for even though it is true, on the average, that
+    active sexual desire is not usually aroused in women until a
+    somewhat later age, there is also truth in the observation of Mr.
+    Thomas Hardy (_New Review_, June, 1894): "It has never struck me
+    that the spider is invariably male and the fly invariably
+    female." Even, therefore, when sexual intercourse takes place
+    between a girl and a youth somewhat older than herself, she is
+    likely to be the more mature, the more self-possessed, and the
+    more responsible of the two, and often the one who has taken the
+    more active part in initiating the act. (This point has been
+    discussed in "The Sexual Impulse in Women" in vol. iii of these
+    _Studies_.) It must also be remembered that when a girl has once
+    reached the age of puberty, and put on all the manner and habits
+    as well as the physical development of a woman, it is no longer
+    possible for a man always to estimate her age. It is easy to see
+    that a girl has not yet reached the age of puberty; it is
+    impossible to tell whether a mature woman is under or over
+    eighteen; it is therefore, to say the least, unjust to make her
+    male partner's fate for life depend on the recognition of a
+    distinction which has no basis in nature. Such considerations
+    are, indeed, so obvious that there is no chance of carrying out
+    thoroughly in practice the doctrine that a man should be
+    imprisoned for life for having intercourse with a girl who is
+    over the age of sixteen. It is better, from the legal point of
+    view, to cast the net less widely and to be quite sure that it is
+    adapted to catch the real and conscious offender, who may be
+    punished without offending the common sense of the community.
+    (Cf. Bloch, _The Sexual Life of Our Time_, Ch. XXIV; he considers
+    that the "age of consent" should begin with the completion of the
+    sixteenth year.)
+
+    It may be necessary to add that the establishment of the "age of
+    consent" on this basis by no means implies that intercourse with
+    girls but little over sixteen should be encouraged, or even
+    socially and morally tolerated. Here, however, we are not in the
+    sphere of law. It is the natural tendency of the well-born and
+    well-nurtured girl under civilized conditions to hold herself in
+    reserve, and the pressure whereby that tendency is maintained and
+    furthered must be supplied by the whole of her environment,
+    primarily by the intelligent reflection of the girl herself when
+    she has reached the age of adolescence. To foster in a young
+    woman who has long passed the epoch of puberty the notion that
+    she has no responsibility in the guardianship of her own body and
+    soul is out of harmony with modern feeling, as well as
+    unfavorable to the training of women for the world. The States
+    which have been induced to adopt the high limit of the age of
+    consent have, indeed, thereby made an abject confession of their
+    inability to maintain a decent moral level by more legitimate
+    means; they may profitably serve as a warning rather than as an
+    example.
+
+The knowledge of women cannot, however, replace, the ignorance of men,
+but, on the contrary, merely serves to reveal it. For in the art of love
+the man must necessarily take the initiative. It is he who must first
+unseal the mystery of the intimacies and audacities which the woman's
+heart may hold. The risk of meeting with even the shadow of contempt or
+disgust is too serious to allow a woman, even a wife, to reveal the
+secrets of love to a man who has not shown himself to be an
+initiate.[387] Numberless are the jovial and contented husbands who have
+never suspected, and will never know, that their wives carry about with
+them, sometimes with silent resentment, the ache of mysterious _tabus_.
+The feeling that there are delicious privacies and privileges which she
+has never been asked to take, or forced to accept, often erotically
+divorces a wife from a husband who never realizes what he has missed.[388]
+The case of such husbands is all the harder because, for the most part,
+all that they have done is the result of the morality that has been
+preached to them. They have been taught from boyhood to be strenuous and
+manly and clean-minded, to seek by all means to put out of their minds the
+thought of women or the longing for sensuous indulgence. They have been
+told on all sides that only in marriage is it right or even safe to
+approach women. They have acquired the notion that sexual indulgence and
+all that appertains to it is something low and degrading, at the worst a
+mere natural necessity, at the best a duty to be accomplished in a direct,
+honorable and straight-forward manner. No one seems to have told them that
+love is an art, and that to gain real possession of a woman's soul and
+body is a task that requires the whole of a man's best skill and insight.
+It may well be that when a man learns his lesson too late he is inclined
+to turn ferociously on the society that by its conspiracy of
+pseudo-morality has done its best to ruin his life, and that of his wife.
+In some of these cases husband or wife or both are finally attracted to a
+third person, and a divorce enables them to start afresh with better
+experience under happier auspices. But as things are at present that is a
+sad and serious process, for many impossible. They are happier, as Milton
+pointed out, whose trials of love before marriage "have been so many
+divorces to teach them experience."
+
+The general ignorance concerning the art of love may be gauged by the fact
+that perhaps the question in this matter most frequently asked is the
+crude question how often sexual intercourse should take place. That is a
+question, indeed, which has occupied the founders of religion, the
+law-givers, and the philosophers of mankind, from the earliest times.[389]
+Zoroaster said it should be once in every nine days. The laws of Manes
+allowed intercourse during fourteen days of the month, but a famous
+ancient Hindu physician, Susruta, prescribed it six times a month, except
+during the heat of summer when it should be once a month, while other
+Hindu authorities say three or four times a month. Solon's requirement of
+the citizen that intercourse should take place three times a month fairly
+agrees with Zoroaster's. Mohammed, in the Koran, decrees intercourse once
+a week. The Jewish Talmud is more discriminating, and distinguishes
+between different classes of people; on the vigorous and healthy young
+man, not compelled to work hard, once a day is imposed, on the ordinary
+working man twice a week, on learned men once a week. Luther considered
+twice a week the proper frequency of intercourse.
+
+It will be observed that, as we might expect, these estimates tend to
+allow a greater interval in the earlier ages when erotic stimulation was
+probably less and erotic erethism probably rare, and to involve an
+increased frequency as we approach modern civilization. It will also be
+observed that variation occurs within fairly narrow limits. This is
+probably due to the fact that these law-givers were in all cases men.
+Women law-givers would certainly have shown a much greater tendency to
+variation, since the variations of the sexual impulse are greater in
+women.[390] Thus Zenobia required the approach of her husband once a
+month, provided that impregnation had not taken place the previous month,
+while another queen went very far to the other extreme, for we are told
+that the Queen of Aragon, after mature deliberation, ordained six times a
+day as the proper rule in a legitimate marriage.[391]
+
+    It may be remarked, in passing, that the estimates of the proper
+    frequency of sexual intercourse may always be taken to assume
+    that there is a cessation during the menstrual period. This is
+    especially the case as regards early periods of culture when
+    intercourse at this time is usually regarded as either dangerous
+    or sinful, or both. (This point has been discussed in the
+    "Phenomena of Periodicity" in volume i of these _Studies_.) Under
+    civilized conditions the inhibition is due to aesthetic reasons,
+    the wife, even if she desires intercourse, feeling a repugnance
+    to be approached at a time when she regards herself as
+    "disgusting," and the husband easily sharing this attitude. It
+    may, however, be pointed out that the aesthetic objection is very
+    largely the result of the superstitious horror of water which is
+    still widely felt at this time, and would, to some extent,
+    disappear if a more scrupulous cleanliness were observed. It
+    remains a good general rule to abstain from sexual intercourse
+    during the menstrual period, but in some cases there may be
+    adequate reason for breaking it. This is so when desire is
+    specially strong at this time, or when intercourse is physically
+    difficult at other times but easier during the relaxation of the
+    parts caused by menstruation. It must be remembered also that the
+    time when the menstrual flow is beginning to cease is probably,
+    more than any other period of the month, the biologically proper
+    time for sexual intercourse, since not only is intercourse
+    easiest then, and also most gratifying to the female, but it
+    affords the most favorable opportunity for securing
+    fertilization.
+
+    Schurig long since brought together evidence (_Parthenologia_,
+    pp. 302 et seq.) showing that coitus is most easy during
+    menstruation. Some of the Catholic theologians (like Sanchez, and
+    later, Liguori), going against the popular opinion, have
+    distinctly permitted intercourse during menstruation, though many
+    earlier theologians regarded it as a mortal sin. From the
+    medical side, Kossmann (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 249) advocates coitus not
+    only at the end of menstruation, but even during the latter part
+    of the period, as being the time when women most usually need it,
+    the marked disagreeableness of temper often shown by women at
+    this time, he says, being connected with the suppression,
+    demanded by custom, of a natural desire. "It is almost always
+    during menstruation that the first clouds appear on the
+    matrimonial horizon."
+
+In modern times the physiologists and physicians who have expressed any
+opinion on this subject have usually come very near to Luther's dictum.
+Haller said that intercourse should not be much more frequent than twice a
+week.[392] Acton said once a week, and so also Hammond, even for healthy
+men between the ages of twenty-five and forty.[393] Fuerbringer only
+slightly exceeds this estimate by advocating from fifty to one hundred
+single acts in the year.[394] Forel advises two or three times a week for
+a man in the prime of manhood, but he adds that for some healthy and
+vigorous men once a month appears to be excess.[395] Mantegazza, in his
+_Hygiene of Love_, also states that, for a man between twenty and thirty,
+two or three times a week represents the proper amount of intercourse, and
+between the ages of thirty and forty-five, twice a week. Guyot recommends
+every three days.[396]
+
+It seems, however, quite unnecessary to lay down any general rules
+regarding the frequency of coitus. Individual desire and individual
+aptitude, even within the limits of health, vary enormously. Moreover, if
+we recognize that the restraint of desire is sometimes desirable, and
+often necessary for prolonged periods, it is as well to refrain from any
+appearance of asserting the necessity of sexual intercourse at frequent
+and regular intervals. The question is chiefly of importance in order to
+guard against excess, or even against the attempt to live habitually close
+to the threshold of excess. Many authorities are, therefore, careful to
+point out that it is inadvisable to be too definite. Thus Erb, while
+remarking that, for some, Luther's dictum represents the extreme maximum,
+adds that others can go far beyond that amount with impunity, and he
+considers that such variations are congenital.[397] Ribbing, again, while
+expressing general agreement with Luther's rule, protests against any
+attempt to lay down laws for everyone, and is inclined to say that as
+often as one likes is a safe rule, so long as there are no bad
+after-effects.[398]
+
+    It seems to be generally agreed that bad effects from excess in
+    coitus, when they do occur, are rare in women (see, e.g.,
+    Hammond, _Sexual Impotence_, p. 127). Occasionally, however, evil
+    effects occur in women. (The case, possibly to be mentioned in
+    this connection, has been recorded of a man whose three wives all
+    became insane after marriage, _Journal of Mental Science_, Jan.,
+    1879, p. 611.) In cases of sexual excess great physical
+    exhaustion, with suspicion and delusions, is often observed.
+    Hutchinson has recorded three cases of temporary blindness, all
+    in men, the result of sexual excess after marriage (_Archives of
+    Surgery_, Jan., 1893). The old medical authors attributed many
+    evil results to excess in coitus. Thus Schurig (_Spermatologia_,
+    1720, pp. 260 et seq.) brings together cases of insanity,
+    apoplexy, syncope, epilepsy, loss of memory, blindness, baldness,
+    unilateral perspiration, gout, and death attributed to this
+    cause; of death many cases are given, some in women, but one may
+    easily perceive that _post_ was often mistaken for _propter_.
+
+There is, however, another consideration which can scarcely escape the
+reader of the present work. Nearly all the estimates of the desirable
+frequence of coitus are framed to suit the supposed physiological needs of
+the husband,[399] and they appear usually to be framed in the same spirit
+of exclusive attention to those needs as though the physiological needs of
+the evacuation of the bowels or the bladder were in question. But sexual
+needs are the needs of two persons, of the husband and of the wife. It is
+not enough to ascertain the needs of the husband; it is also necessary to
+ascertain the needs of the wife. The resultant must be a harmonious
+adjustment of these two groups of needs. That consideration alone, in
+conjunction with the wide variations of individual needs, suffices to
+render any definite rules of very trifling value.
+
+    It is important to remember the wide limits of variation in
+    sexual capacity, as well as the fact that such variations in
+    either direction may be healthy and normal, though undoubtedly
+    when they become extreme variations may have a pathological
+    significance. In one case, for instance, a man has intercourse
+    once a month and finds this sufficient; he has no nocturnal
+    emissions nor any strong desires in the interval; yet he leads an
+    idle and luxurious life and is not restrained by any moral or
+    religious scruples; if he much exceeds the frequency which suits
+    him he suffers from ill-health, though otherwise quite healthy
+    except for a weak digestion. At the other extreme, a happily
+    married couple, between forty-five and fifty, much attached to
+    each other, had engaged in sexual intercourse every night for
+    twenty years, except during the menstrual period and advanced
+    pregnancy, which had only occurred once; they are hearty,
+    full-blooded, intellectual people, fond of good living, and they
+    attribute their affection and constancy to this frequent
+    indulgence in coitus; the only child, a girl, is not strong,
+    though fairly healthy.
+
+    The cases are numerous in which, on special occasions, it is
+    possible for people who are passionately attached to each other
+    to repeat the act of coitus, or at all events the orgasm, an
+    inordinate number of times within a few hours. This usually
+    occurs at the beginning of an intimacy or after a long
+    separation. Thus in one case a newly-married woman experienced
+    the orgasm fourteen times in one night, her husband in the same
+    period experiencing it seven times. In another case a woman who
+    had lived a chaste life, when sexual relationships finally began,
+    once experienced orgasm fourteen or fifteen times to her
+    partner's three times. In a case which, I have been assured may
+    be accepted as authentic, a young wife of highly erotic, very
+    erethic, slightly abnormal temperament, after a month's absence
+    from her husband, was excited twenty-six times within an hour and
+    a quarter; her husband, a much older man, having two orgasms
+    during this period; the wife admitted that she felt a "complete
+    wreck" after this, but it is evident that if this case may be
+    regarded as authentic the orgasms were of extremely slight
+    intensity. A young woman, newly married to a physically robust
+    man, once had intercourse with him eight times in two hours,
+    orgasm occurring each time in both parties. Guttceit (_Dreissig
+    Jahre Praxis_, vol. ii. p. 311), in Russia, knew many cases in
+    which young men of twenty-two to twenty-eight had intercourse
+    more than ten times in one night, though after the fourth time
+    there is seldom any semen. He had known some men who had
+    masturbated in early boyhood, and began to consort with women at
+    fifteen, yet remained sexually vigorous in old age, while he knew
+    others who began intercourse late and were losing force at forty.
+    Mantegazza, who knew a man who had intercourse fourteen times in
+    one day, remarks that the stories of the old Italian novelists
+    show that twelve times was regarded as a rare exception.
+    Burchard, Alexander VI's secretary, states that the Florentine
+    Ambassador's son, in Rome in 1489, "knew a girl seven times in
+    one hour" (J. Burchard, _Diarium_, ed. Thuasne, vol. i, p. 329).
+    Olivier, Charlemagne's knight, boasted, according to legend, that
+    he could show his virile power one hundred times in one night, if
+    allowed to sleep with the Emperor of Constantinople's daughter;
+    he was allowed to try, it is said, and succeeded thirty times
+    (Schultz, _Das Hoefische Leben_, vol. i, p. 581).
+
+    It will be seen that whenever the sexual act is repeated
+    frequently within a short time it is very rarely indeed that the
+    husband can keep pace with the wife. It is true that the woman's
+    sexual energy is aroused more slowly and with more difficulty
+    than the man's, but as it becomes aroused its momentum increases.
+    The man, whose energy is easily aroused, is easily exhausted; the
+    woman has often scarcely attained her energy until after the
+    first orgasm is over. It is sometimes a surprise to a young
+    husband, happily married, to find that the act of sexual
+    intercourse which completely satisfies him has only served to
+    arouse his wife's ardor. Very many women feel that the repetition
+    of the act several times in succession is needed to, as they may
+    express it, "clear the system," and, far from producing
+    sleepiness and fatigue, it renders them bright and lively.
+
+    The young and vigorous woman, who has lived a chaste life,
+    sometimes feels when she commences sexual relationships as though
+    she really required several husbands, and needed intercourse at
+    least once a day, though later when she becomes adjusted to
+    married life she reaches the conclusion that her desires are not
+    abnormally excessive. The husband has to adjust himself to his
+    wife's needs, through his sexual force when he possesses it, and,
+    if not, through his skill and consideration. The rare men who
+    possess a genital potency which they can exert to the
+    gratification of women without injury to themselves have been, by
+    Professor Benedikt, termed "sexual athletes," and he remarks that
+    such men easily dominate women. He rightly regards Casanova as
+    the type of the sexual athlete (_Archives d'Anthropologie
+    Criminelle_, Jan., 1896). Naecke reports the case of a man whom he
+    regards as a sexual athlete, who throughout his life had
+    intercourse once or twice daily with his wife, or if she was
+    unwilling, with another woman, until he became insane at the age
+    of seventy-five (_Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, Aug.,
+    1908, p. 507). This should probably, however, be regarded rather
+    as a case of morbid hyperaesthesia than of sexual athleticism.
+
+At this stage we reach the fundamental elements of the art of love. We
+have seen that many moral practices and moral theories which have been
+widely current in Christendom have developed traditions, still by no means
+extinct among us, which were profoundly antagonistic to the art of love.
+The idea grew up of "marital duties," of "conjugal rights."[400] The
+husband had the right and the duty to perform sexual intercourse with his
+wife, whatever her wishes in the matter might be, while the wife had the
+duty and the right (the duty in her case being usually put first) to
+submit to such intercourse, which she was frequently taught to regard as
+something low and merely physical, an unpleasant and almost degrading
+necessity which she would do well to put out of her thoughts as speedily
+as possible. It is not surprising that such an attitude towards marriage
+has been highly favorable to conjugal unhappiness, more especially that of
+the wife,[401] and it has tended to promote adultery and divorce. We might
+have been more surprised had it been otherwise.
+
+The art of love is based on the fundamental natural fact of courtship; and
+courtship is the effort of the male to make himself acceptable to the
+female.[402] "The art of love," said Vatsyayana, one of the greatest of
+authorities, "is the art of pleasing women." "A man must never permit
+himself a pleasure with his wife," said Balzac in his _Physiologie du
+Mariage_, "which he has not the skill first to make her desire." The whole
+art of love is there. Women, naturally and instinctively, seek to make
+themselves desirable to men, even to men whom they are supremely
+indifferent to, and the woman who is in love with a man, by an equally
+natural instinct, seeks to shape herself to the measure which individually
+pleases him. This tendency is not really modified by the fundamental fact
+that in these matters it is only the arts that Nature makes which are
+truly effective. It is finally by what he is that a man arouses a woman's
+deepest emotions of sympathy or of antipathy, and he is often pleasing her
+more by displaying his fitness to play a great part in the world outside
+than by any acquired accomplishments in the arts of courtship. When,
+however, the serious and intimate play of physical love begins, the
+woman's part is, even biologically, on the surface the more passive
+part.[403] She is, on the physical side, inevitably the instrument in
+love; it must be his hand and his bow which evoke the music.
+
+In speaking of the art of love, however, it is impossible to disentangle
+completely the spiritual from the physical. The very attempt to do so is,
+indeed, a fatal mistake. The man who can only perceive the physical side
+of the sexual relationship is, as Hinton was accustomed to say, on a level
+with the man who, in listening to a sonata of Beethoven on the violin, is
+only conscious of the physical fact that a horse's tail is being scraped
+against a sheep's entrails.
+
+    The image of the musical instrument constantly recurs to those
+    who write of the art of love. Balzac's comparison of the
+    unskilful husband to the orang-utan attempting to play the violin
+    has already been quoted. Dr. Jules Guyot, in his serious and
+    admirable little book, _Breviaire de l'Amour Experimental_, falls
+    on to the same comparison: "There are an immense number of
+    ignorant, selfish, and brutal men who give themselves no trouble
+    to study the instrument which God has confided to them, and do
+    not so much as suspect that it is necessary to study it in order
+    to draw out its slightest chords.... Every direct contact, even
+    with the clitoris, every attempt at coitus [when the feminine
+    organism is not aroused], exercises a painful sensation, an
+    instinctive repulsion, a feeling of disgust and aversion. Any
+    man, any husband, who is ignorant of this fact, is ridiculous and
+    contemptible. Any man, any husband, who, knowing it, dares to
+    disregard it, has committed an outrage.... In the final
+    combination of man and woman, the positive element, the husband,
+    has the initiative and the responsibility for the conjugal life.
+    He is the minstrel who will produce harmony or cacophony by his
+    hand and his bow. The wife, from this point of view, is really
+    the many-stringed instrument who will give out harmonious or
+    discordant sounds, according as she is well or ill handled"
+    (Guyot, _Breviaire_, pp. 99, 115, 138).
+
+    That such love corresponds to the woman's need there cannot be
+    any doubt. All developed women desire to be loved, says Ellen
+    Key, not "en male" but "en artiste" (_Liebe und Ehe_, p. 92).
+    "Only a man of whom she feels that he has also the artist's joy
+    in her, and who shows this joy through his timid and delicate
+    touch on her soul as on her body, can keep the woman of to-day.
+    She will only belong to a man who continues to long for her even
+    when he holds her locked in his arms. And when such a woman
+    breaks out: 'You want me, but you cannot caress me, you cannot
+    tell what I want,' then that man is judged." Love is indeed, as
+    Remy de Gourmont remarks, a delicate art, for which, as for
+    painting or music, only some are apt.
+
+It must not be supposed that the demand on the lover and husband to
+approach a woman in the same spirit, with the same consideration and
+skilful touch, as a musician takes up his instrument is merely a demand
+made by modern women who are probably neurotic or hysterical. No reader of
+these _Studies_ who has followed the discussions of courtship and of
+sexual selection in previous volumes can fail to realize that--although we
+have sought to befool ourselves by giving an illegitimate connotation to
+the word "brutal"--consideration and respect for the female is all but
+universal in the sexual relationships of the animals below man; it is only
+at the furthest remove from the "brutes," among civilized men, that sexual
+"brutality" is at all common, and even there it is chiefly the result of
+ignorance. If we go as low as the insects, who have been disciplined by
+no family life, and are generally counted as careless and wanton, we may
+sometimes find this attitude towards the female fully developed, and the
+extreme consideration of the male for the female whom yet he holds firmly
+beneath him, the tender preliminaries, the extremely gradual approach to
+the supreme sexual act, may well furnish an admirable lesson.
+
+This greater difficulty and delay on the part of women in responding to
+the erotic excitation of courtship is really very fundamental and--as has
+so often been necessary to point out in previous volumes of these
+_Studies_--it covers the whole of woman's erotic life, from the earliest
+age when coyness and modesty develop. A woman's love develops much more
+slowly than a man's for a much longer period. There is real psychological
+significance in the fact that a man's desire for a woman tends to arise
+spontaneously, while a woman's desire for a man tends only to be aroused
+gradually, in the measure of her complexly developing relationship to him.
+Hence her sexual emotion is often less abstract, more intimately
+associated with the individual lover in whom it is centred. "The way to my
+senses is through my heart," wrote Mary Wollstonecraft to her lover Imlay,
+"but, forgive me! I think there is sometimes a shorter cut to yours." She
+spoke for the best, if not for the largest part, of her sex. A man often
+reaches the full limit of his physical capacity for love at a single step,
+and it would appear that his psychic limits are often not more difficult
+to reach. This is the solid fact underlying the more hazardous statement,
+so often made, that woman is monogamic and man polygamic.
+
+    On the more physical side, Guttceit states that a month after
+    marriage not more than two women out of ten have experienced the
+    full pleasure of sexual intercourse, and it may not be for six
+    months, a year, or even till after the birth of several children,
+    that a woman experiences the full enjoyment of the physical
+    relationship, and even then only with a man she completely loves,
+    so that the conditions of sexual gratification are much more
+    complex in women than in men. Similarly, on the psychic side,
+    Ellen Key remarks (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 111): "It is
+    certainly true that a woman desires sexual gratification from a
+    man. But while in her this desire not seldom only appears after
+    she has begun to love a man enough to give her life for him, a
+    man often desires to possess a woman physically before he loves
+    her enough to give even his little finger for her. The fact that
+    love in a woman mostly goes from the soul to the senses and often
+    fails to reach them, and that in a man it mostly goes from the
+    senses to the soul and frequently never reaches that goal--this
+    is of all the existing differences between men and women that
+    which causes most torture to both." It will, of course, be
+    apparent to the reader of the fourth volume of these _Studies_ on
+    "Sexual Selection in Man" that the method of stating the
+    difference which has commended itself to Mary Wollstonecraft,
+    Ellen Key, and others, is not strictly correct, and the chastest
+    woman, after, for example, taking too hot a bath, may find that
+    her heart is not the only path through which her senses may be
+    affected. The senses are the only channels to the external world
+    which we possess, and love must come through these channels or
+    not at all. The difference, however, seems to be a real one, if
+    we translate it to mean that, as we have seen reason to believe
+    in previous volumes of these _Studies_, there are in women (1)
+    preferential sensory paths of sexual stimuli, such as,
+    apparently, a predominence of tactile and auditory paths as
+    compared with men; (2) a more massive, complex, and delicately
+    poised sexual mechanism; and, as a result of this, (3) eventually
+    a greater amount of nervous and cerebral sexual irradiation.
+
+    It must be remembered, at the same time, that while this
+    distinction represents a real tendency in sexual differentiation,
+    with an organic and not merely traditional basis, it has about it
+    nothing whatever that is absolute. There are a vast number of
+    women whose sexual facility, again by natural tendency and not
+    merely by acquired habits, is as marked as that of any man, if
+    not more so. In the sexual field, as we have seen in a previous
+    volume (_Analysis of the Sexual Impulse_), the range of
+    variability is greater in women than in men.
+
+The fact that love is an art, a method of drawing music from an
+instrument, and not the mere commission of an act by mutual consent, makes
+any verbal agreement to love of little moment. If love were a matter of
+contract, of simple intellectual consent, of question and answer, it would
+never have come into the world at all. Love appeared as art from the
+first, and the subsequent developments of the summary methods of reason
+and speech cannot abolish that fundamental fact. This is scarcely realized
+by those ill-advised lovers who consider that the first step in
+courtship--and perhaps even the whole of courtship--is for a man to ask a
+woman to be his wife. That is so far from being the case that it
+constantly happens that the premature exhibition of so large a demand at
+once and for ever damns all the wooer's chances. It is lamentable, no
+doubt, that so grave and fateful a matter as that of marriage should so
+often be decided without calm deliberation and reasonable forethought. But
+sexual relationships can never, and should never, be merely a matter of
+cold calculation. When a woman is suddenly confronted by the demand that
+she should yield herself up as a wife to a man who has not yet succeeded
+in gaining her affections she will not fail to find--provided she is
+lifted above the cold-hearted motives of self-interest--that there are
+many sound reasons why she should not do so. And having thus squarely
+faced the question in cool blood and decided it, she will henceforth,
+probably, meet that wooer with a tunic of steel enclosing her breast.
+
+    "Love must be _revealed_ by acts and not _betrayed_ by words. I
+    regard as abnormal the extraordinary method of a hasty avowal
+    beforehand; for that represents not the direct but the reflex
+    path of transmission. However sweet and normal the avowal may be
+    when once reciprocity has been realized, as a method of conquest
+    I consider it dangerous and likely to produce the reverse of the
+    result desired." I take these wise words from a thoughtful "Essai
+    sur l'Amour" (_Archives de Psychologie_, 1904) by a
+    non-psychological Swiss writer who is recording his own
+    experiences, and who insists much on the predominance of the
+    spiritual and mental element in love.
+
+    It is worthy of note that this recognition that direct speech is
+    out of place in courtship must not be regarded as a refinement of
+    civilization. Among primitive peoples everywhere it is perfectly
+    well recognized that the offer of love, and its acceptance or its
+    refusal, must be made by actions symbolically, and not by the
+    crude method of question and answer. Among the Indians of
+    Paraguay, who allow much sexual freedom to their women, but never
+    buy or sell love, Mantegazza states (_Rio de la Plata e
+    Tenerife_, 1867, p. 225) that a girl of the people will come to
+    your door or window and timidly, with a confused air, ask you, in
+    the Guarani tongue, for a drink of water. But she will smile if
+    you innocently offer her water. Among the Tarahumari Indians of
+    Mexico, with whom the initiative in courting belongs to the
+    women, the girl takes the first step through her parents, then
+    she throws small pebbles at the young man; if he throws them back
+    the matter is concluded (Carl Lumholtz, _Scribner's Magazine_,
+    Sept., 1894, p. 299). In many parts of the world it is the woman
+    who chooses her husband (see, e.g., M.A. Potter, _Sohrab and
+    Rustem_, pp. 169 et seq.), and she very frequently adopts a
+    symbolical method of proposal. Except when the commercial element
+    predominates in marriage, a similar method is frequently adopted
+    by men also in making proposals of marriage.
+
+It is not only at the beginning of courtship that the act of love has
+little room for formal declarations, for the demands and the avowals that
+can be clearly defined in speech. The same rule holds even in the most
+intimate relationships of old lovers, throughout the married life. The
+permanent element in modesty, which survives every sexual initiation to
+become intertwined with all the exquisite impudicities of love, combines
+with a true erotic instinct to rebel against formal demands, against
+verbal affirmations or denials. Love's requests cannot be made in words,
+nor truthfully answered in words: a fine divination is still needed as
+long as love lasts.
+
+    The fact that the needs of love cannot be expressed but must be
+    divined has long been recognized by those who have written of the
+    art of love, alike by writers within and without the European
+    Christian traditions. Thus Zacchia, in his great medico-legal
+    treatise, points out that a husband must be attentive to the
+    signs of sexual desire in his wife. "Women," he says, "when
+    sexual desire arises within them are accustomed to ask their
+    husbands questions on matters of love; they flatter and caress
+    them; they allow some part of their body to be uncovered as if by
+    accident; their breasts appear to swell; they show unusual
+    alacrity; they blush; their eyes are bright; and if they
+    experience unusual ardor they stammer, talk beside the mark, and
+    are scarcely mistress of themselves. At the same time their
+    private parts become hot and swell. All these signs should
+    convince a husband, however inattentive he may be, that his wife
+    craves for satisfaction" (_Zacchiae Quaestionum Medico-legalium
+    Opus_, lib. vii, tit. iii, quaest. I; vol. ii, p. 624 in ed. of
+    1688).
+
+    The old Hindu erotic writers attributed great importance alike to
+    the man's attentiveness to the woman's erotic needs, and to his
+    skill and consideration in all the preliminaries of the sexual
+    act. He must do all that he can to procure her pleasure, says
+    Vatsyayana. When she is on her bed and perhaps absorbed in
+    conversation, he gently unfastens the knot of her lower garment.
+    If she protests he closes her mouth with kisses. Some authors,
+    Vatsyayana remarks, hold that the lover should begin by sucking
+    the nipples of her breasts. When erection occurs he touches her
+    with his hands, softly caressing the various parts of her body.
+    He should always press those parts of her body towards which she
+    turns her eyes. If she is shy, and it is the first time, he will
+    place his hands between her thighs which she will instinctively
+    press together. If she is young he will put his hands on her
+    breasts, and she will no doubt cover them with her own. If she is
+    mature he will do all that may seem fitting and agreeable to both
+    parties. Then he will take her hair and her chin between his
+    fingers and kiss them. If she is very young she will blush and
+    close her eyes. By the way in which she receives his caresses he
+    will divine what pleases her most in union. The signs of her
+    enjoyment are that her body becomes limp, her eyes close, she
+    loses all timidity, and takes part in the movements which bring
+    her most closely to him. If, on the other hand, she feels no
+    pleasure, she strikes the bed with her hands, will not allow the
+    man to continue, is sullen, even bites or kicks, and continues
+    the movements of coitus when the man has finished. In such cases,
+    Vatsyayana adds, it is his duty to rub the vulva with his hand
+    before union until it is moist, and he should perform the same
+    movements afterwards if his own orgasm has occurred first.
+
+    With regard to Indian erotic art generally, and more especially
+    Vatsyayana, who appears to have lived some sixteen hundred years
+    ago, information will be found in Valentino, "L'Hygiene conjugale
+    chez les Hindous," _Archives Generales de Medecine_, Ap. 25,
+    1905; Iwan Bloch, "Indische Medizin," Puschmann's _Handbuch der
+    Geschichte der Medizin_, vol. i; Heimann and Stephan, "Beitraege
+    zur Ehehygiene nach der Lehren des Kamasutram," _Zeitschaft fuer
+    Sexualwissenschaft_, Sept., 1908; also a review of Richard
+    Schmidt's German translation of the _Kamashastra_ of Vatsyayana
+    in _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1902, Heft 2. There has long
+    existed an English translation of this work. In the lengthy
+    preface to the French translation Lamairesse points out the
+    superiority of Indian erotic art to that of the Latin poets by
+    its loftier spirit, and greater purity and idealism. It is
+    throughout marked by respect for women, and its spirit is
+    expressed in the well-known proverb: "Thou shalt not strike a
+    woman even with a flower." See also Margaret Noble's _Web of
+    Indian Life_, especially Ch. III, "On the Hindu Woman as Wife,"
+    and Ch. IV, "Love Strong as Death."
+
+    The advice given to husbands by Guyot (_Breviaire de l'Amour
+    Experimental_, p. 422) closely conforms to that given, under very
+    different social conditions, by Zacchia and Vatsyayana. "In a
+    state of sexual need and desire the woman's lips are firm and
+    vibrant, the breasts are swollen, and the nipples erect. The
+    intelligent husband cannot be deceived by these signs. If they do
+    not exist, it is his part to provoke them by his kisses and
+    caresses, and if, in spite of his tender and delicate
+    excitations, the lips show no heat and the breasts no swelling,
+    and especially if the nipples are disagreeably irritated by
+    slight suction, he must arrest his transports and abstain from
+    all contact with the organs of generation, for he would certainly
+    find them in a state of exhaustion and disposed to repulsion. If,
+    on the contrary, the accessory organs are animated, or become
+    animated beneath his caresses, he must extend them to the
+    generative organs, and especially to the clitoris, which beneath
+    his touch will become full of appetite and ardor."
+
+    The importance of the preliminary titillation of the sexual
+    organs has been emphasized by a long succession alike of erotic
+    writers and physicians, from Ovid (_Ars Amatoria_ end of Bk. II)
+    onwards. Eulenburg (_Die Sexuale Neuropathie_, p. 79) considers
+    that titillation is sometimes necessary, and Adler, likewise
+    insisting on the preliminaries of psychic and physical courtship
+    (_Die Mangelhafte Geschlechtsempfindung des Weibes_, p. 188),
+    observes that the man who is gifted with insight and skill in
+    these matters possesses a charm which will draw sparks of
+    sensibility from the coldest feminine heart. The advice of the
+    physician is at one in this matter with the maxims of the erotic
+    artist and with the needs of the loving woman. In making love
+    there must be no haste, wrote  Ovid:--
+
+        "Crede mihi, non est Veneris properanda voluptas,
+         Sed sensim tarda prolicienda mora."
+
+    "Husbands, like spoiled children," a woman has written, "too
+    often miss the pleasure which might otherwise be theirs, by
+    clamoring for it at the wrong time. The man who thinks this
+    prolonged courtship previous to the act of sex union wearisome,
+    has never given it a trial. It is the approach to the marital
+    embrace, as well as the embrace itself, which constitutes the
+    charm of the relation between the sexes."
+
+    It not seldom happens, remarks Adler (op. cit., p. 186), that the
+    insensibility of the wife must be treated--in the husband. And
+    Guyot, bringing forward the same point, writes (op. cit., p.
+    130): "If by a delay of tender study the husband has understood
+    his young bride, if he is able to realize for her the ineffable
+    happiness and dreams of youth, he will be beloved forever; he
+    will be her master and sovereign lord. If he has failed to
+    understand her he will fatigue and exhaust himself in vain
+    efforts, and finally class her among the indifferent and cold
+    women. She will be his wife by duty, the mother of his children.
+    He will take his pleasure elsewhere, for man is ever in pursuit
+    of the woman who experiences the genesic spasm. Thus the vague
+    and unintelligent search for a half who can unite in that
+    delirious finale is the chief cause of all conjugal dissolutions.
+    In such a case a man resembles a bad musician who changes his
+    violin in the hope that a new instrument will bring the melody he
+    is unable to play."
+
+The fact that there is thus an art in love, and that sexual intercourse is
+not a mere physical act to be executed by force of muscles, may help to
+explain why it is that in so many parts of the world defloration is not
+immediately effected on marriage.[404] No doubt religious or magic reasons
+may also intervene here, but, as so often happens, they harmonize with the
+biological process. This is the case even among uncivilized peoples who
+marry early. The need for delay and considerate skill is far greater when,
+as among ourselves, a woman's marriage is delayed long past the
+establishment of puberty to a period when it is more difficult to break
+down the psychic and perhaps even physical barriers of personality.
+
+It has to be added that the art of love in the act of courtship is not
+confined to the preliminaries to the single act of coitus. In a sense the
+life of love is a continuous courtship with a constant progression. The
+establishment of physical intercourse is but the beginning of it. This is
+especially true of women. "The consummation of love," says Senancour,[405]
+"which is often the end of love with man is only the beginning of love
+with woman, a test of trust, a gage of future pleasure, a sort of
+engagement for an intimacy to come." "A woman's soul and body," says
+another writer,[406] "are not given at one stroke at a given moment; but
+only slowly, little by little, through many stages, are both delivered to
+the beloved. Instead of abandoning the young woman to the bridegroom on
+the wedding night, as an entrapped mouse is flung to the cat to be
+devoured, it would be better to let the young bridal couple live side by
+side, like two friends and comrades, until they gradually learn how to
+develop and use their sexual consciousness." The conventional wedding is
+out of place as a preliminary to the consummation of marriage, if only on
+the ground that it is impossible to say at what stage in the endless
+process of courtship it ought to take place.
+
+A woman, unlike a man, is prepared by Nature, to play a skilful part in
+the art of love. The man's part in courtship, which is that of the male
+throughout the zooelogical series, may be difficult and hazardous, but it
+is in a straight line, fairly simple and direct. The woman's part, having
+to follow at the same moment two quite different impulses, is necessarily
+always in a zigzag or a curve. That is to say that at every erotic moment
+her action is the resultant of the combined force of her desire (conscious
+or unconscious) and her modesty. She must sail through a tortuous channel
+with Scylla on the one side and Charybdis on the other, and to avoid
+either danger too anxiously may mean risking shipwreck on the other side.
+She must be impenetrable to all the world, but it must be an
+impenetrability not too obscure for the divination of the right man. Her
+speech must be honest, but yet on no account tell everything; her actions
+must be the outcome of her impulses, and on that very account be capable
+of two interpretations. It is only in the last resort of complete intimacy
+that she can become the perfect woman,
+
+        "Whose speech Truth knows not from her thought,
+            Nor Love her body from her soul."
+
+For many a woman the conditions for that final erotic avatar--"that
+splendid shamelessness which," as Rafford Pyke says, "is the finest thing
+in perfect love"--never present themselves at all. She is compelled to be
+to the end of her erotic life, what she must always be at the beginning, a
+complex and duplex personality, naturally artful. Therewith she is better
+prepared than man to play her part in the art of love.
+
+The man's part in the art of love is, however, by no means easy. That is
+not always realized by the women who complain of his lack of skill in
+playing it. Although a man has not to cultivate the same natural duplicity
+as a woman, it is necessary that he should possess a considerable power of
+divination. He is not well prepared for that, because the traditional
+masculine virtue is force rather than insight. The male's work in the
+world, we are told, is domination, and it is by such domination that the
+female is attracted. There is an element of truth in that doctrine, an
+element of truth which may well lead astray the man who too exclusively
+relies upon it in the art of love. Violence is bad in every art, and in
+the erotic art the female desires to be won to love and not to be ordered
+to love. That is fundamental. We sometimes see the matter so stated as if
+the objection to force and domination in love constituted some quite new
+and revolutionary demand of the "modern woman." That is, it need scarcely
+be said, the result of ignorance. The art of love, being an art that
+Nature makes, is the same now as in essentials it has always been,[407]
+and it was well established before woman came into existence. That it has
+not always been very skilfully played is another matter. And, so far as
+the man is concerned, it is this very tradition of masculine predominance
+which has contributed to the difficulty of playing it skilfully. The woman
+admires the male's force; she even wishes herself to be forced to the
+things that she altogether desires; and yet she revolts from any exertion
+of force outside that narrow circle, either before the boundary of it is
+reached or after the boundary is passed. Thus the man's position is really
+more difficult than the women who complain of his awkwardness in love are
+always ready to admit. He must cultivate force, not only in the world but
+even for display in the erotic field; he must be able to divine the
+moments when, in love, force is no longer force because his own will is
+his partner's will; he must, at the same time, hold himself in complete
+restraint lest he should fall into the fatal error of yielding to his own
+impulse of domination; and all this at the very moment when his emotions
+are least under control. We need scarcely be surprised that of the myriads
+who embark on the sea of love, so few women, so very few men, come safely
+into port.
+
+It may still seem to some that in dwelling on the laws that guide the
+erotic life, if that life is to be healthy and complete, we have wandered
+away from the consideration of the sexual instinct in its relationship to
+society. It may therefore be desirable to return to first principles and
+to point out that we are still clinging to the fundamental facts of the
+personal and social life. Marriage, as we have seen reason to believe, is
+a great social institution; procreation, which is, on the public side, its
+supreme function, is a great social end. But marriage and procreation are
+both based on the erotic life. If the erotic life is not sound, then
+marriage is broken up, practically if not always formally, and the process
+of procreation is carried out under unfavorable conditions or not at all.
+
+This social and personal importance of the erotic life, though, under the
+influence of a false morality and an equally false modesty, it has
+sometimes been allowed to fall into the background in stages of artificial
+civilization, has always been clearly realized by those peoples who have
+vitally grasped the relationships of life. Among most uncivilized races
+there appear to be few or no "sexually frigid" women. It is little to the
+credit of our own "civilization" that it should be possible for physicians
+to-day to assert, even with the faintest plausibility, that there are some
+25 per cent. of women who may thus be described.
+
+The whole sexual structure of the world is built up on the general fact
+that the intimate contact of the male and female who have chosen each
+other is mutually pleasurable. Below this general fact is the more
+specific fact that in the normal accomplishment of the act of sexual
+consummation the two partners experience the acute gratification of
+simultaneous orgasm. Herein, it has been said, lies the secret of love. It
+is the very basis of love, the condition of the healthy exercise of the
+sexual functions, and, in many cases, it seems probable, the condition
+also of fertilization.
+
+    Even savages in a very low degree of culture are sometimes
+    patient and considerate in evoking and waiting for the signs of
+    sexual desire in their females. (I may refer to the significant
+    case of the Caroline Islanders, as described by Kubary in his
+    ethnographic study of that people and quoted in volume iv of
+    these _Studies_, "Sexual Selection in Man," Sect. III.) In
+    Catholic days theological influence worked wholesomely in the
+    same direction, although the theologians were so keen to detect
+    the mortal sin of lust. It is true that the Catholic insistence
+    on the desirability of simultaneous orgasm was largely due to the
+    mistaken notion that to secure conception it was necessary that
+    there should be "insemination" on the part of the wife as well as
+    of the husband, but that was not the sole source of the
+    theological view. Thus Zacchia discusses whether a man ought to
+    continue with his wife until she has the orgasm and feels
+    satisfied, and he decides that that is the husband's duty;
+    otherwise the wife falls into danger either of experiencing the
+    orgasm during sleep, or, more probably, by self-excitation, "for
+    many women, when their desires have not been satisfied by coitus,
+    place one thigh on the other, pressing and rubbing them together
+    until the orgasm occurs, in the belief that if they abstain from
+    using the hands they have committed no sin." Some theologians, he
+    adds, favor that belief, notably Hurtado de Mendoza and Sanchez,
+    and he further quotes the opinion of the latter that women who
+    have not been satisfied in coitus are liable to become hysterical
+    or melancholic (_Zacchiae Quaestionum Medico-legalium Opus_, lib.
+    vii, tit. iii, quaest. VI). In the same spirit some theologians
+    seem to have permitted _irrumatio_ (without ejaculation), so long
+    as it is only the preliminary to the normal sexual act.
+
+    Nowadays physicians have fully confirmed the belief of Sanchez.
+    It is well recognized that women in whom, from whatever cause,
+    acute sexual excitement occurs with frequency without being
+    followed by the due natural relief of orgasm are liable to
+    various nervous and congestive symptoms which diminish their
+    vital effectiveness, and very possibly lead to a breakdown in
+    health. Kisch has described, as a cardiac neurosis of sexual
+    origin, a pathological tachycardia which is an exaggeration of
+    the physiological quick heart of sexual excitement. J. Inglis
+    Parsons (_British Medical Journal_, Oct. 22, 1904, p. 1062)
+    refers to the ovarian pain produced by strong unsatisfied sexual
+    excitement, often in vigorous unmarried women, and sometimes a
+    cause of great distress. An experienced Austrian gynaecologist
+    told Hirth (_Wege zur Heimat_, p. 613) that of every hundred
+    women who come to him with uterine troubles seventy suffered from
+    congestion of the womb, which he regarded as due to incomplete
+    coitus.
+
+    It is frequently stated that the evil of incomplete gratification
+    and absence of orgasm in women is chiefly due to male withdrawal,
+    that is to say _coitus interruptus_, in which the penis is
+    hastily withdrawn as soon as involuntary ejaculation is
+    impending; and it is sometimes said that the same widely
+    prevalent practice is also productive of slight or serious
+    results in the male (see, e.g., L.B. Bangs, _Transactions New
+    York Academy of Medicine_, vol. ix, 1893; D.S. Booth, "Coitus
+    Interruptus and Coitus Reservatus as Causes of Profound Neurosis
+    and Psychosis," _Alienist and Neurologist_, Nov., 1906; also,
+    _Alienist and Neurologist_, Oct., 1897, p. 588).
+
+    It is undoubtedly true that coitus interruptus, since it involves
+    sudden withdrawal on the part of the man without reference to the
+    stage of sexual excitation which his partner may have reached,
+    cannot fail to produce frequently an injurious nervous effect on
+    the woman, though the injurious effect on the man, who obtains
+    ejaculation, is little or none. But the practice is so widespread
+    that it cannot be regarded as necessarily involving this evil
+    result. There can, I am assured, be no doubt whatever that
+    Blumreich is justified in his statement (Senator and Kaminer,
+    _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. ii, p. 783)
+    that "interrupted coitus is injurious to the genital system of
+    those women only who are disturbed in their sensation of delight
+    by this form of cohabitation, in whom the orgasm is not produced,
+    and who continue for hours subsequently to be tormented by
+    feelings of an unsatisfied desire." Equally injurious effects
+    follow in normal coitus when the man's orgasm occurs too soon.
+    "These phenomena, therefore," he concludes, "are not
+    characteristic of interrupted coitus, but consequences of an
+    imperfectly concluded sexual cohabitation as such." Kisch,
+    likewise, in his elaborate and authoritative work on _The Sexual
+    Life of Woman_, also states that the question of the evil results
+    of _coitus interruptus_ in women is simply a question of whether
+    or not they receive sexual satisfaction. (Cf. also Fuerbringer,
+    _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 232 _et
+    seq._) This is clearly the most reasonable view to take
+    concerning what is the simplest, the most widespread, and
+    certainly the most ancient of the methods of preventing
+    conception. In the Book of Genesis we find it practiced by Onan,
+    and to come down to modern times, in the sixteenth century it
+    seems to have been familiar to French ladies, who, according to
+    Brantome, enjoined it on their lovers.
+
+    Coitus reservatus,--in which intercourse is maintained even for
+    very long periods, during which the woman may have orgasm several
+    times while the man succeeds in holding back orgasm,--so far from
+    being injurious to the woman, is probably the form of coitus
+    which gives her the maximum of gratification and relief. For most
+    men, however, it seems probable that this self-control over the
+    processes leading to the involuntary act of detumescence is
+    difficult to acquire, while in weak, nervous, and erethic persons
+    it is impossible. It is, however, a desirable condition for
+    completely adequate coitus, and in the East this is fully
+    recognized, and the aptitude carefully cultivated. Thus W.D.
+    Sutherland states ("Einiges ueber das Alltagsleben und die
+    Volksmedizin unter den Bauern Britischostindiens," _Muenchener
+    Medizinische Wochenschrift_, No. 12, 1906) that the Hindu smokes
+    and talks during intercourse in order to delay orgasm, and
+    sometimes applies an opium paste to the glans of the penis for
+    the same purpose. (See also vol. iii of these _Studies_, "The
+    Sexual Impulse in Women.") Some authorities have, indeed, stated
+    that the prolongation of the act of coitus is injurious in its
+    effect on the male. Thus R.W. Taylor (_Practical Treatise on
+    Sexual Disorders_, third ed., p. 121) states that it tends to
+    cause atonic impotence, and Loewenfeld (_Sexualleben und
+    Nervenleiden_, p. 74) thinks that the swift and unimpeded
+    culmination of the sexual act is necessary in order to preserve
+    the vigor of the reflex reactions. This is probably true of
+    extreme and often repeated cases of indefinite prolongation of
+    pronounced erection without detumescence, but it is not true
+    within fairly wide limits in the case of healthy persons.
+    Prolonged _coitus reservatus_ was a practice of the complex
+    marriage system of the Oneida community, and I was assured by the
+    late Noyes Miller, who had spent the greater part of his life in
+    the community, that the practice had no sort of evil result.
+    _Coitus reservatus_ was erected into a principle in the Oneida
+    community. Every man in the community was theoretically the
+    husband of every woman, but every man was not free to have
+    children with every woman. Sexual initiation took place soon
+    after puberty in the case of boys, some years later in the case
+    of girls, by a much older person of the opposite sex. In
+    intercourse the male inserted his penis into the vagina and
+    retained it there for even an hour without emission, though
+    orgasm took place in the woman. There was usually no emission in
+    the case of the man, even after withdrawal, and he felt no need
+    of emission. The social feeling of the community was a force on
+    the side of this practice, the careless, unskilful men being
+    avoided by women, while the general romantic sentiment of
+    affection for all the women in the community was also a force.
+    Masturbation was unknown, and no irregular relations took place
+    with persons outside the community. The practice was maintained
+    for thirty years, and was finally abandoned, not on its demerits,
+    but in deference to the opinions of the outside world. Mr. Miller
+    admitted that the practice became more difficult in ordinary
+    marriage, which favors a more mechanical habit of intercourse.
+    The information received from Mr. Miller is supplemented in a
+    pamphlet entitled _Male Continence_ (the name given to _coitus
+    reservatus_ in the community), written in 1872 by the founder,
+    John Humphrey Noyes. The practice is based, he says, on the fact
+    that sexual intercourse consists of two acts, a social and a
+    propagative, and that if propagation is to be scientific there
+    must be no confusion of these two acts, and procreation must
+    never be involuntary. It was in 1844, he states, that this idea
+    occurred to him as a result of a resolve to abstain from sexual
+    intercourse in consequence of his wife's delicate health and
+    inability to bear healthy children, and in his own case he found
+    the practice "a great deliverance. It made a happy household." He
+    points out that the chief members of the Oneida community
+    "belonged to the most respectable families in Vermont, had been
+    educated in the best schools of New England morality and
+    refinement, and were, by the ordinary standards, irreproachable
+    in their conduct so far as sexual matters are concerned, till
+    they deliberately commenced, in 1846, the experiment of a new
+    state of society, on principles which they had been long maturing
+    and were prepared to defend before the World." In relation to
+    male continence, therefore, Noyes thought the community might
+    fairly be considered "the Committee of Providence to test its
+    value in actual life." He states that a careful medical
+    comparison of the statistics of the community had shown that the
+    rate of nervous disease in the community was considerably below
+    the average outside, and that only two cases of nervous disorder
+    had occurred which could be traced with any probability to a
+    misuse of male continence. This has been confirmed by Van de
+    Warker, who studied forty-two women of the community without
+    finding any undue prevalence of reproductive diseases, nor could
+    he find any diseased condition attributable to the sexual habits
+    of the community (cf. C. Reed, _Text-Book of Gynecology_, 1901,
+    p. 9).
+
+    Noyes believed that "male continence" had never previously been a
+    definitely recognized practice based on theory, though there
+    might have been occasional approximation to it. This is probably
+    true if the coitus is _reservatus_ in the full sense, with
+    complete absence of emission. Prolonged coitus, however,
+    permitting the woman to have orgasm more than once, while the man
+    has none, has long been recognized. Thus in the seventeenth
+    century Zacchia discussed whether such a practice is legitimate
+    (_Zacchiae Quaestionum Opus_, ed. of 1688, lib. vii, tit. iii,
+    quaest. VI). In modern times it is occasionally practiced, without
+    any theory, and is always appreciated by the woman, while it
+    appears to have no bad effect on the man. In such a case it will
+    happen that the act of coitus may last for an hour and a quarter
+    or even longer, the maximum of the woman's pleasure not being
+    reached until three-quarters of an hour have passed; during this
+    period the woman will experience orgasm some four or five times,
+    the man only at the end. It may occasionally happen that a little
+    later the woman again experiences desire, and intercourse begins
+    afresh in the same way. But after that she is satisfied, and
+    there is no recurrence of desire.
+
+    It may be desirable at this point to refer briefly to the chief
+    variations in the method of effecting coitus in their
+    relationship to the art of love and the attainment of adequate
+    and satisfying detumescence.
+
+    The primary and essential characteristic of the specifically
+    human method of coitus is the fact that it takes place face to
+    face. The fact that in what is usually considered the typically
+    normal method of coitus the woman lies supine and the man above
+    her is secondary. Psychically, this front-to-front attitude
+    represents a great advance over the quadrupedal method. The two
+    partners reveal to each other the most important, the most
+    beautiful, the most expressive sides of themselves, and thus
+    multiply the mutual pleasure and harmony of the intimate act of
+    union. Moreover, this face-to-face attitude possesses a great
+    significance, in the fact that it is the outward sign that the
+    human couple has outgrown the animal sexual attitude of the
+    hunter seizing his prey in the act of flight, and content to
+    enjoy it in that attitude, from behind. The human male may be
+    said to retain the same attitude, but the female has turned
+    round; she has faced her partner and approached him, and so
+    symbolizes her deliberate consent to the act of union.
+
+    The human variations in the exercise of coitus, both individual
+    and national, are, however, extremely numerous. "To be quite
+    frank," says Fuerbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease
+    in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 213), "I can hardly think of
+    any combination which does not figure among my case-notes as
+    having been practiced by my patients." We must not too hastily
+    conclude that such variations are due to vicious training. That
+    is far from being the case. They often occur naturally and
+    spontaneously. Freud has properly pointed out (in the second
+    series of his _Beitraege zur Neurosenlehre_, "Bruchstueck" etc.)
+    that we must not be too shocked even when the idea of _fellatio_
+    spontaneously presents itself to a woman, for that idea has a
+    harmless origin in the resemblance between the penis and the
+    nipple. Similarly, it may be added, the desire for
+    _cunnilinctus_, which seems to be much more often latently
+    present in women than is the desire for its performance in men,
+    has a natural analogy in the pleasure of suckling, a pleasure
+    which is itself indeed often erotically tinged (see vol. iv of
+    these _Studies_, "Sexual Selection in Man," Touch, Sect. III).
+
+    Every variation in this matter, remarks Remy de Gourmont
+    (_Physique de l'Amour_, p. 264) partakes of the sin of luxury,
+    and some of the theologians have indeed considered any position
+    in coitus but that which is usually called normal in Europe as a
+    mortal sin. Other theologians, however, regarded such variations
+    as only venial sins, provided ejaculation took place in the
+    vagina, just as some theologians would permit _irrumatio_ as a
+    preliminary to coitus, provided there was no ejaculation. Aquinas
+    took a serious view of the deviations from normal intercourse;
+    Sanchez was more indulgent, especially in view of his doctrine,
+    derived from the Greek and Arabic natural philosophers, that the
+    womb can attract the sperm, so that the natural end may be
+    attained even in unusual positions.
+
+    Whatever difference of opinion there may have been among ancient
+    theologians, it is well recognized by modern physicians that
+    variations from the ordinary method of coitus are desirable in
+    special cases. Thus Kisch points out (_Sterilitaet des Weibes_, p.
+    107) that in some cases it is only possible for the woman to
+    experience sexual excitement when coitus takes place in the
+    lateral position, or in the _a posteriori_ position, or when the
+    usual position is reversed; and in his _Sexual Life of Woman_,
+    also, Kisch recommends several variations of position for coitus.
+    Adler points out (op. cit., pp. 151, 186) the value of the same
+    positions in some cases, and remarks that such variations often
+    call forth latent sexual feelings as by a charm. Such cases are
+    indeed, by no means infrequent, the advantage of the unusual
+    position being due either to physical or psychic causes, and the
+    discovery of the right variation is sometimes found in a merely
+    playful attempt. It has occasionally happened, also, that when
+    intercourse has habitually taken place in an abnormal position,
+    no satisfaction is experienced by the woman until the normal
+    position is adopted. The only fairly common variation of coitus
+    which meets with unqualified disapproval is that in the erect
+    posture. (See e.g., Hammond, op. cit. pp. 257 et seq.)
+
+    Lucretius specially recommended the quadrupedal variation of
+    coitus (Bk. iv, 1258), and Ovid describes (end of Bk. iii of the
+    _Ars Amatoria_) what he regards as agreeable variations, giving
+    the preference, as the easiest and simplest method, to that in
+    which the woman lies half supine on her side. Perhaps, however,
+    the variation which is nearest to the normal attitude and which
+    has most often and most completely commended itself is that
+    apparently known to Arabic erotic writers as _dok el arz_, in
+    which the man is seated and his partner is astride his thighs,
+    embracing his body with her legs and his neck with her arms,
+    while he embraces her waist; this is stated in the Arabic
+    _Perfumed Garden_ to be the method preferred by most women.
+
+    The other most usual variation is the inverse normal position in
+    which the man is supine, and the woman adapts herself to this
+    position, which permits of several modifications obviously
+    advantageous, especially when the man is much larger than his
+    partner. The Christian as well as the Mahommedan theologians
+    appear, indeed, to have been generally opposed to this superior
+    position of the female, apparently, it would seem, because they
+    regarded the literal subjection of the male which it involves as
+    symbolic of a moral subjection. The testimony of many people
+    to-day, however, is decidedly in favor of this position, more
+    especially as regards the woman, since it enables her to obtain a
+    better adjustment and greater control of the process, and so
+    frequently to secure sexual satisfaction which she may find
+    difficult or impossible in the normal position.
+
+    The theologians seem to have been less unfavorably disposed to
+    the position normal among quadrupeds, _a posteriori_, though the
+    old Penitentials were inclined to treat it severely, the
+    Penitential of Angers prescribing forty days penance, and
+    Egbert's three years, if practiced habitually. (It is discussed
+    by J. Petermann, "Venus Aversa," _Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1909).
+    There are good reasons why in many cases this position should be
+    desirable, more especially from the point of view of women, who
+    indeed not infrequently prefer it. It must be always remembered,
+    as has already been pointed out, that in the progress from
+    anthropoid to man it is the female, not the male, whose method of
+    coitus has been revolutionized. While, however, the obverse human
+    position represents a psychic advance, there has never been a
+    complete physical readjustment of the female organs to the
+    obverse method. More especially, in Adler's opinion (op. cit.,
+    pp. 117-119), the position of the clitoris is such that, as a
+    rule, it is more easily excited by coitus from behind than from
+    in front. A more recent writer, Klotz, in his book, _Der Mensch
+    ein Vierfuessler_ (1908), even takes the too extreme position that
+    the quadrupedal method of coitus, being the only method that
+    insures due contact with the clitoris, is the natural human
+    method. It must, however, be admitted that the posterior mode of
+    coitus is not only a widespread, but a very important variation,
+    in either of its two most important forms: the Pompeiian method,
+    in which the woman bends forwards and the man approaches behind,
+    or the method described by Boccaccio, in which the man is supine
+    and the woman astride.
+
+    _Fellatio_ and _cunnilinctus_, while they are not strictly
+    methods of coitus, in so far as they do not involve the
+    penetration of the penis into the vagina, are very widespread as
+    preliminaries, or as vicarious forms of coitus, alike among
+    civilized and uncivilized peoples. Thus, in India, I am told that
+    _fellatio_ is almost universal in households, and regarded as a
+    natural duty towards the paterfamilias. As regards _cunnilinctus_
+    Max Dessoir has stated (_Allgemeine Zeitschrift fuer Psychiatrie_,
+    1894, Heft 5) that the superior Berlin prostitutes say that about
+    a quarter of their clients desire to exercise this, and that in
+    France and Italy the proportion is higher; the number of women
+    who find _cunnilinctus_ agreeable is without doubt much greater.
+    Intercourse _per anum_ must also be regarded as a vicarious form
+    of coitus. It appears to be not uncommon, especially among the
+    lower social classes, and while most often due to the wish to
+    avoid conception, it is also sometimes practiced as a sexual
+    aberration, at the wish either of the man or the woman, the anus
+    being to some extent an erogenous zone.
+
+    The ethnic variations in method of coitus were briefly discussed
+    in volume v of these _Studies_, "The Mechanism of Detumescence,"
+    Section II. In all civilized countries, from the earliest times,
+    writers on the erotic art have formally and systematically set
+    forth the different positions for coitus. The earliest writing of
+    this kind now extant seems to be an Egyptian papyrus preserved at
+    Turin of the date B.C. 1300; in this, fourteen different
+    positions are represented. The Indians, according to Iwan Bloch,
+    recognize altogether forty-eight different positions; the _Ananga
+    Ranga_ describes thirty-two main forms. The Mohammedan _Perfumed
+    Garden_ describes forty forms, as well as six different kinds of
+    movement during coitus. The Eastern books of this kind are, on
+    the whole, superior to those that have been produced by the
+    Western world, not only by their greater thoroughness, but by the
+    higher spirit by which they have often been inspired.
+
+    The ancient Greek erotic writings, now all lost, in which the
+    modes of coitus were described, were nearly all attributed to
+    women. According to a legend recorded by Suidas, the earliest
+    writer of this kind was Astyanassa, the maid of Helen of Troy.
+    Elephantis, the poetess, is supposed to have enumerated nine
+    different postures. Numerous women of later date wrote on these
+    subjects, and one book is attributed to Polycrates, the sophist.
+
+    Aretino--who wrote after the influence of Christianity had
+    degraded erotic matters perilously near to that region of
+    pornography from which they are only to-day beginning to be
+    rescued--in his _Sonnetti Lussuriosi_ described twenty-six
+    different methods of coitus, each one accompanied by an
+    illustrative design by Giulio Romano, the chief among Raphael's
+    pupils. Veniero, in his _Puttana Errante_, described thirty-two
+    positions. More recently Forberg, the chief modern authority, has
+    enumerated ninety positions, but, it is said, only forty-eight
+    can, even on the most liberal estimate, be regarded as coming
+    within the range of normal variation.
+
+    The disgrace which has overtaken the sexual act, and rendered it
+    a deed of darkness, is doubtless largely responsible for the fact
+    that the chief time for its consummation among modern civilized
+    peoples is the darkness of the early night in stuffy bedrooms
+    when the fatigue of the day's labors is struggling with the
+    artificial stimulation produced by heavy meals and alcoholic
+    drinks. This habit is partly responsible for the indifference or
+    even disgust with which women sometimes view coitus.
+
+    Many more primitive peoples are wiser. The New Guinea Papuans of
+    Astrolabe Bay, according to Vahness (_Zeitschrift fuer
+    Ethnologie_, 1900, Heft 5, p. 414), though it must be remembered
+    that the association of the sexual act with darkness is much
+    older than Christianity, and connected with early religious
+    notions (cf. Hesiod, _Works and Days_, Bk. II), always have
+    sexual intercourse in the open air. The hard-working women of the
+    Gebvuka and Buru Islands, again, are too tired for coitus at
+    night; it is carried out in the day time under the trees, and the
+    Serang Islanders also have coitus in the woods (Ploss and
+    Bartels, Das _Weib_, Bk. i, Ch. XVII).
+
+    It is obviously impracticable to follow these examples in modern
+    cities, even if avocation and climate permitted. It is also
+    agreed that sexual intercourse should be followed by repose.
+    There seems to be little doubt, however, that the early morning
+    and the daylight are a more favorable time than the early night.
+    Conception should take place in the light, said Michelet
+    (_L'Amour_, p. 153); sexual intercourse in the darkness of night
+    is an act committed with a mere female animal; in the day-time it
+    is union with a loving and beloved individual person.
+
+    This has been widely recognized. The Greeks, as we gather from
+    Aristophanes in the _Archarnians_, regarded sunrise as the
+    appropriate time for coitus. The South Slavs also say that dawn
+    is the time for coitus. Many modern authorities have urged the
+    advantages of early morning coitus. Morning, said Roubaud
+    (_Traite de l'Impuissance_, pp. 151-3) is the time for coitus,
+    and even if desire is greater in the evening, pleasure is greater
+    in the morning. Osiander also advised early morning coitus, and
+    Venette, in an earlier century, discussing "at what hour a man
+    should amorously embrace his wife" (_La Generation de l'Homme_,
+    Part II, Ch. V), while thinking it is best to follow inclination,
+    remarks that "a beautiful woman looks better by sunlight than by
+    candlelight." A few authorities, like Burdach, have been content
+    to accept the custom of night coitus, and Busch (_Das
+    Geschlechtsleben des Weibes_, vol. i, p. 214) was inclined to
+    think the darkness of night the most "natural" time, while
+    Fuerbringer (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+    to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 217) thinks that early morning is
+    "occasionally" the best time.
+
+    To some, on the other hand, the exercise of sexual intercourse in
+    the sunlight and the open air seems so important that they are
+    inclined to elevate it to the rank of a religious exercise. I
+    quote from a communication on this point received from Australia:
+    "This shameful thing that must not be spoken of or done (except
+    in the dark) will some day, I believe, become the one religious
+    ceremony of the human race, in the spring. (Oh, what springs!)
+    People will have become very sane, well-bred, aristocratic (all
+    of them aristocrats), and on the whole opposed to rites and
+    superstitions, for they will have a perfect knowledge of the
+    past. The coition of lovers in the springtime will be the one
+    religious ceremony they will allow themselves. I have a vision
+    sometimes of the holy scene, but I am afraid it is too beautiful
+    to describe. 'The intercourse of the sexes, I have dreamed, is
+    ineffably beautiful, too fair to be remembered,' wrote the chaste
+    Thoreau. Verily human beauty, joy, and love will reach their
+    divinest height during those inaugural days of springtide
+    coupling. When the world is one Paradise, the consummation of the
+    lovers, the youngest and most beautiful, will take place in
+    certain sacred valleys in sight of thousands assembled to witness
+    it. For days it will take place in these valleys where the sun
+    will rise on a dream of passionate voices, of clinging human
+    forms, of flowers and waters, and the purple and gold of the
+    sunrise are reflected on hills illumined with pansies. [I know
+    not if the writer recalled George Chapman's "Enamelled pansies
+    used at nuptials still"], and repeated on golden human flesh and
+    human hair. In these sacred valleys the subtle perfume of the
+    pansies will mingle with the divine fragrance of healthy naked
+    young women and men in the spring coupling. You and I shall not
+    see that, but we may help to make it possible." This rhapsody (an
+    unconscious repetition of Saint-Lambert's at Mlle. Quinault's
+    table in the eighteenth century) serves to illustrate the revolt
+    which tends to take place against the unnatural and artificial
+    degradation of the sexual act.
+
+    In some parts of the world it has seemed perfectly natural and
+    reasonable that so great and significant an act as that of coitus
+    should be consecrated to the divinity, and hence arose the custom
+    of prayer before sexual intercourse. Thus Zoroaster ordained that
+    a married couple should pray before coitus, and after the act
+    they should say together: "O, Sapondomad, I trust this seed to
+    thee, preserve it for me, for it is a man." In the Gorong
+    Archipelago it is customary also for husband and wife to pray
+    together before the sexual act (Ploss and Bartels, _Das Weib_,
+    Bd. i, Ch. XVII). The civilized man, however, has come to regard
+    his stomach as the most important of his organs, and he utters
+    his conventional grace, not before love, but only before food.
+    Even the degraded ritual vestiges of the religious recognition of
+    coitus are difficult to find in Europe. We may perhaps detect it
+    among the Spaniards, with their tenacious instinct for ritual, in
+    the solemn etiquette with which, in the seventeenth century, it
+    was customary, according to Madame d'Aulnoy, for the King to
+    enter the bedchamber of the Queen: "He has on his slippers, his
+    black mantle over his shoulder, his shield on one arm, a bottle
+    hanging by a cord over the other arm (this bottle is not to drink
+    from, but for a quite opposite purpose, which you will guess).
+    With all this the King must also have his great sword in one hand
+    and a dark lantern in the other. In this way he must enter,
+    alone, the Queen's chamber" (Madame d'Aulnoy, _Relation du Voyage
+    d'Espagne_, 1692, vol. iii, p. 221).
+
+In discussing the art of love it is necessary to give a primary place to
+the central fact of coitus, on account of the ignorance that widely
+prevails concerning it, and the unfortunate prejudices which in their
+fungous broods flourish in the noisome obscurity around it. The traditions
+of the Christian Church, which overspread the whole of Europe, and set up
+for worship a Divine Virgin and her Divine Son, both of whom it
+elaborately disengaged from personal contact with sexuality effectually
+crushed any attempt to find a sacred and avowable ideal in married love.
+Even the Church's own efforts to elevate matrimony were negatived by its
+own ideals. That influence depresses our civilization even to-day. When
+Walt Whitman wrote his "Children of Adam" he was giving imperfect
+expression to conceptions of the religious nature of sexual love which
+have existed wholesomely and naturally in all parts of the world, but had
+not yet penetrated the darkness of Christendom where they still seemed
+strange and new, if not terrible. And the refusal to recognize the
+solemnity of sex had involved the placing of a pall of blackness and
+disrepute on the supreme sexual act itself. It was shut out from the
+sunshine and excluded from the sphere of worship.
+
+The sexual act is important from the point of view of erotic art, not only
+from the ignorance and prejudices which surround it, but also because it
+has a real value even in regard to the psychic side of married life.
+"These organs," according to the oft-quoted saying of the old French
+physician, Ambrose Pare, "make peace in the household." How this comes
+about we see illustrated from time to time in Pepys's Diary. At the same
+time, it is scarcely necessary to say, after all that has gone before,
+that this ancient source of domestic peace tends to be indefinitely
+complicated by the infinite variety in erotic needs, which become ever
+more pronounced with the growth of civilization.[408]
+
+The art of love is, indeed, only beginning with the establishment of
+sexual intercourse. In the adjustment of that relationship all the forces
+of nature are so strongly engaged that under completely favorable
+conditions--which indeed very rarely occur in our civilization--the
+knowledge of the art and a possible skill in its exercise come almost of
+themselves. The real test of the artist in love is in the skill to carry
+it beyond the period when the interests of nature, having been really or
+seemingly secured, begin to slacken. The whole art of love, it has been
+well said, lies in forever finding something new in the same person. The
+art of love is even more the art of retaining love than of arousing it.
+Otherwise it tends to degenerate towards the Shakespearian lust,
+
+        "Past reason hunted, and no sooner had,
+            Past reason hated,"
+
+though it must be remembered that even from the most strictly natural
+point of view the transitions of passion are not normally towards
+repulsion but towards affection.[409]
+
+The young man and woman who are brought into the complete unrestraint of
+marriage after a prolonged and unnatural separation, during which desire
+and the satisfactions of desire have been artificially disconnected, are
+certainly not under the best conditions for learning the art of love. They
+are tempted by reckless and promiscuous indulgence in the intimacies of
+marriage to fling carelessly aside all the reasons that make that art
+worth learning. "There are married people," as Ellen Key remarks, "who
+might have loved each other all their lives if they had not been
+compelled, every day and all the year, to direct their habits, wills, and
+inclinations towards each other."
+
+All the tendencies of our civilized life are, in personal matters, towards
+individualism; they involve the specialization, and they ensure the
+sacredness, of personal habits and even peculiarities. This individualism
+cannot be broken down suddenly at the arbitrary dictation of a tradition,
+or even by the force of passion from which the restraints have been
+removed. Out of deference to the conventions and prejudices of their
+friends, or out of the reckless abandonment of young love, or merely out
+of a fear of hurting each other's feelings, young couples have often
+plunged prematurely into an unbroken intimacy which is even more
+disastrous to the permanency of marriage than the failure ever to reach a
+complete intimacy at all. That is one of the chief reasons why most
+writers on the moral hygiene of marriage nowadays recommend separate beds
+for the married couple, if possible separate bedrooms, and even sometimes,
+with Ellen Key, see no objection to their living in separate houses.
+Certainly the happiest marriages have often involved the closest and most
+unbroken intimacy, in persons peculiarly fitted for such intimacy. It is
+far from true that, as Bloch has affirmed, familiarity is fatal to love.
+It is deadly to a love that has no roots, but it is the nourishment of the
+deeply-rooted love. Yet it remains true that absence is needed to maintain
+the keen freshness and fine idealism of love. "Absence," as Landor said,
+"is the invisible and incorporeal mother of ideal beauty." The married
+lovers who are only able to meet for comparatively brief periods between
+long absences have often experienced in these meetings a life-long
+succession of honeymoons.[410]
+
+There can be no question that as presence has its risks for love, so also
+has absence. Absence like presence, in the end, if too prolonged, effaces
+the memory of love, and absence, further, by the multiplied points of
+contact with the world which it frequently involves, introduces the
+problem of jealousy, although, it must be added, it is difficult indeed to
+secure a degree of association which excludes jealousy or even the
+opportunities for motives of jealousy. The problem of jealousy is so
+fundamental in the art of love that it is necessary at this point to
+devote to it a brief discussion.
+
+Jealousy is based on fundamental instincts which are visible at the
+beginning of animal life. Descartes defined jealousy as "a kind of fear
+related to a desire to preserve a possession." Every impulse of
+acquisition in the animal world is stimulated into greater activity by the
+presence of a rival who may snatch beforehand the coveted object. This
+seems to be a fundamental fact in the animal world; it has been a
+life-conserving tendency, for, it has been said, an animal that stood
+aside while its fellows were gorging themselves with food, and experienced
+nothing but pure satisfaction in the spectacle, would speedily perish. But
+in this fact we have the natural basis of jealousy.[411]
+
+It is in reference to food that this impulse appears first and most
+conspicuously among animals. It is a well-known fact that association
+with other animals induces an animal to eat much more than when kept by
+himself. He ceases to eat from hunger but eats, as it has been put, in
+order to preserve his food from rivals in the only strong box he knows.
+The same feeling is transferred among animals to the field of sex. And
+further in the relations of dogs and other domesticated animals to their
+masters the emotion of jealousy is often very keenly marked.[412]
+
+Jealousy is an emotion which is at its maximum among animals, among
+savages,[413] among children,[414] in the senile, in the degenerate, and
+very specially in chronic alcoholics.[415] It is worthy of note that the
+supreme artists and masters of the human heart who have most consummately
+represented the tragedy of jealousy clearly recognized that it is either
+atavistic or pathological; Shakespeare made his Othello a barbarian, and
+Tolstoy made the Pozdnischeff of his _Kreutzer Sonata_ a lunatic. It is an
+anti-social emotion, though it has been maintained by some that it has
+been the cause of chastity and fidelity. Gesell, for instance, while
+admitting its anti-social character and accumulating quotations in
+evidence of the torture and disaster it occasions, seems to think that it
+still ought to be encouraged in order to foster sexual virtues. Very
+decided opinions have been expressed in the opposite sense. Jealousy, like
+other shadows, says Ellen Key, belongs only to the dawn and the setting of
+love, and a man should feel that it is a miracle, and not his right, if
+the sun stands still at the zenith.[416]
+
+Even therefore if jealousy has been a beneficial influence at the
+beginning of civilization, as well as among animals,--as may probably be
+admitted, though on the whole it seems rather to be the by-product of a
+beneficial influence than such an influence itself,--it is still by no
+means clear that it therefore becomes a desirable emotion in more advanced
+stages of civilization. There are many primitive emotions, like anger and
+fear, which we do not think it desirable to encourage in complex civilized
+societies but rather seek to restrain and control, and even if we are
+inclined to attribute an original value to jealousy, it seems to be among
+these emotions that it ought to be placed.
+
+    Miss Clapperton, in discussing this problem (_Scientific
+    Meliorism_, pp. 129-137), follows Darwin (_Descent of Man_, Part
+    I, Ch. IV) in thinking that jealousy led to "the inculcation of
+    female virtue," but she adds that it has also been a cause of
+    woman's subjection, and now needs to be eliminated. "To rid
+    ourselves as rapidly as may be of jealousy is essential;
+    otherwise the great movement in favor of equality of sex will
+    necessarily meet with checks and grave obstruction."
+
+    Ribot (_La Logique des Sentiments_, pp. 75 et seq.; _Essai sur
+    les Passions_, pp. 91, 175), while stating that subjectively the
+    estimate of jealousy must differ in accordance with the ideal of
+    life held, considers that objectively we must incline to an
+    unfavorable estimate "Even a brief passion is a rupture in the
+    normal life; it is an abnormal, if not a pathological state, an
+    excrescence, a parasitism."
+
+    Forel (_Die Sexuelle Frage_, Ch. V) speaks very strongly in the
+    same sense, and considers that it is necessary to eliminate
+    jealousy by non-procreation of the jealous. Jealousy is, he
+    declares, "the worst and unfortunately the most deeply-rooted of
+    the 'irradiations,' or, better, the 'contrast-reactions,' of
+    sexual love inherited from our animal ancestors. An old German
+    saying, 'Eifersucht ist eine Leidenschaft die mit Eifer sucht was
+    Leider schafft,' says by no means too much.... Jealousy is a
+    heritage of animality and barbarism; I would recall this to those
+    who, under the name of 'injured honor,' attempt to justify it and
+    place it on a high pedestal. An unfaithful husband is ten times
+    more to be wished for a woman than a jealous husband.... We often
+    hear of 'justifiable jealousy.' I believe, however, that there is
+    no justifiable jealousy; it is always atavistic or else
+    pathological; at the best it is nothing more than a brutal
+    animal stupidity. A man who, by nature, that is by his hereditary
+    constitution, is jealous is certain to poison his own life and
+    that of his wife. Such men ought on no account to marry. Both
+    education and selection should work together to eliminate
+    jealousy as far as possible from the human brain."
+
+    Eric Gillard in an article on "Jealousy" (_Free Review_, Sept.,
+    1896), in opposition to those who believe that jealousy "makes
+    the home," declares that, on the contrary, it is the chief force
+    that unmakes the home. "So long as egotism waters it with the
+    tears of sentiment and shields it from the cold blasts of
+    scientific inquiry, so long will it thrive. But the time will
+    come when it will be burned in the Garden of Love as a noxious
+    weed. Its mephitic influence in society is too palpable to be
+    overlooked. It turns homes that might be sanctuaries of love into
+    hells of discord and hate; it causes suicides, and it drives
+    thousands to drink, reckless excesses, and madness. Makes the
+    home! One of your married men friends sees a probable seducer in
+    every man who smiles at his wife; another is jealous of his
+    wife's women acquaintances; a third is wounded because his wife
+    shows so much attention to the children. Some of the women you
+    know display jealousy of every other woman, of their husband's
+    acquaintances, and some, of his very dog. You must be completely
+    monopolized or you do not thoroughly love. You must admire no one
+    but the person with whom you have immured yourself for life. Old
+    friendships must be dissolved, new friendships must not be
+    formed, for fear of invoking the beautiful emotion that 'makes
+    the home.'"
+
+Even if jealousy in matters of sex could be admitted to be an emotion
+working on the side of civilized progress, it must still be pointed out
+that it merely acts externally; it can have little or no real influence;
+the jealous person seldom makes himself more lovable by his jealousy and
+frequently much less lovable. The main effect of his jealousy is to
+increase, and not seldom to excite, the causes for jealousy, and at the
+same time to encourage hypocrisy.
+
+    All the circumstances, accompaniments, and results of domestic
+    jealousy in their completely typical form, are well illustrated
+    by a very serious episode in the history of the Pepys household,
+    and have been fully and faithfully set down by the great diarist.
+    The offence--an embrace of his wife's lady-help, as she might now
+    be termed--was a slight one, but, as Pepys himself admits, quite
+    inexcusable. He is writing, being in his thirty-sixth year, on
+    the 25th of Oct., 1668 (Lord's Day). "After supper, to have my
+    hair combed by Deb, which occasioned the greatest sorrow to me
+    that ever I knew in this world, for my wife, coming up suddenly,
+    did find me embracing the girl.... I was at a wonderful loss upon
+    it, and the girl also, and I endeavored to put it off, but my
+    wife was struck mute and grew angry.... Heartily afflicted for
+    this folly of mine.... So ends this month," he writes a few days
+    later, "with some quiet to my mind, though not perfect, after the
+    greatest falling out with my poor wife, and through my folly with
+    the girl, that ever I had, and I have reason to be sorry and
+    ashamed of it, and more to be troubled for the poor girl's sake.
+    Sixth November. Up, and presently my wife up with me, which she
+    professedly now do every day to dress me, that I may not see
+    Willet [Deb], and do eye me, whether I cast my eye upon her, or
+    no, and do keep me from going into the room where she is. Ninth
+    November. Up, and I did, by a little note which I flung to Deb,
+    advise her that I did continue to deny that ever I kissed her,
+    and so she might govern herself. The truth is that I did
+    adventure upon God's pardoning me this lie, knowing how heavy a
+    thing it would be for me, to the ruin of the poor girl, and next
+    knowing that if my wife should know all it would be impossible
+    for her ever to be at peace with me again, and so our whole lives
+    would be uncomfortable. The girl read, and as I bid her returned
+    me the note, flinging it to me in passing by." Next day, however,
+    he is "mightily troubled," for his wife has obtained a confession
+    from the girl of the kissing. For some nights Mr. and Mrs. Pepys
+    are both sleepless, with much weeping on either side. Deb gets
+    another place, leaving on the 14th of November, and Pepys is
+    never able to see her before she leaves the house, his wife
+    keeping him always under her eye. It is evident that Pepys now
+    feels strongly attracted to Deb, though there is no evidence of
+    this before she became the subject of the quarrel. On the 13th of
+    November, hearing she was to leave next day, he writes: "The
+    truth is I have a good mind to have the maidenhead of this girl."
+    He was, however, the "more troubled to see how my wife is by this
+    means likely forever to have her hand over me, and that I shall
+    forever be a slave to her--that is to say, only in matters of
+    pleasure." At the same time his love for his wife was by no means
+    diminished, nor hers for him. "I must here remark," he says,
+    "that I have lain with my moher [i.e., _muger_, wife] as a
+    husband more times since this falling out than in, I believe,
+    twelve months before. And with more pleasure to her than in all
+    the time of our marriage before." The next day was Sunday. On
+    Monday Pepys at once begins to make inquiries which will put him
+    on the track of Deb. On the 18th he finds her. She gets up into
+    the coach with him, and he kisses her and takes liberties with
+    her, at the same time advising her "to have a care of her honor
+    and to fear God," allowing no one else to do what he has done; he
+    also tells her how she can find him if she desires. Pepys now
+    feels that everything is settled satisfactorily, and his heart
+    is full of joy. But his joy is short-lived, for Mrs. Pepys
+    discovers this interview with Deb on the following day. Pepys
+    denies it at first, then confesses, and there is a more furious
+    scene than ever. Pepys is now really alarmed, for his wife
+    threatens to leave him; he definitely abandons Deb, and with
+    prayers to God resolves never to do the like again. Mrs. Pepys is
+    not satisfied, however, till she makes her husband write a letter
+    to Deb, telling her that she is little better than a whore, and
+    that he hates her, though Deb is spared this, not by any
+    stratagem of Pepys, but by the considerateness of the friend to
+    whom the letter was entrusted for delivery. Moreover, Mrs. Pepys
+    arranges with her husband that, in future, whenever he goes
+    abroad he shall be accompanied everywhere by his clerk. We see
+    that Mrs. Pepys plays with what appears to be triumphant skill
+    and success the part of the jealous and avenging wife, and digs
+    her little French heels remorselessly into her prostrate husband
+    and her rival. Unfortunately, we do not know what the final
+    outcome was, for a little later, owing to trouble with his
+    eyesight, Pepys was compelled to bring his Diary to an end. It is
+    evident, however, when we survey the whole of this perhaps
+    typical episode, that neither husband nor wife were in the
+    slightest degree prepared for the commonplace position into which
+    they were thrown; that each of them appears in a painful,
+    undignified, and humiliating light; that as a result of it the
+    husband acquires almost a genuine and strong affection for the
+    girl who is the cause of the quarrel; and finally that, even
+    though he is compelled, for the time at all events, to yield to
+    his wife, he remains at the end exactly what he was at the
+    beginning. Nor had husband or wife the very slightest wish to
+    leave each other; the bond of marriage remained firm, but it had
+    been degraded by insincerity on one side and the jealous endeavor
+    on the other to secure fidelity by compulsion.
+
+Apart altogether, however, from the question of its effectiveness, or even
+of the misery that it causes to all concerned, it is evident that jealousy
+is incompatible with all the tendencies of civilization. We have seen that
+a certain degree of variation is involved in the sexual relationship, as
+in all other relationships, and unless we are to continue to perpetuate
+many evils and injustices, that fact has to be faced and recognized. We
+have also seen that the line of our advance involves a constant increase
+in moral responsibility and self-government, and that, in its turn,
+implies not only a high degree of sincerity but also the recognition that
+no person has any right, or indeed any power, to control the emotions and
+actions of another person. If our sun of love stands still at midday,
+according to Ellen Key's phrase, that is a miracle to be greeted with awe
+and gratitude, and by no means a right to be demanded. The claim of
+jealousy falls with the claim of conjugal rights.
+
+    It is quite possible, Bloch remarks (_The Sexual Life of Our
+    Time_, Ch. X), to love more than one person at the same time,
+    with nearly equal tenderness, and to be honestly able to assure
+    each of the passion felt for her or him. Bloch adds that the vast
+    psychic differentiation involved by modern civilization increases
+    the possibility of this double love, for it is difficult for
+    anyone to find his complement in a single person, and that this
+    applies to women as well as to men.
+
+    Georg Hirth likewise points out (_Wege zur Heimat_, pp. 543-552)
+    that it is important to remember that women, as well as men, can
+    love two persons at the same time. Men flatter themselves, he
+    remarks, with the prejudice that the female heart, or rather
+    brain, can only hold one man at a time, and that if there is a
+    second man it is by a kind of prostitution. Nearly all erotic
+    writers, poets, and novelists, even physicians and psychologists,
+    belong to this class, he says; they look on a woman as property,
+    and of course two men cannot "possess" a woman. (Regarding
+    novelists, however, the remark may be interpolated that there are
+    many exceptions, and Thomas Hardy, for instance, frequently
+    represents a woman as more or less in love with two men at the
+    same time.) As against this desire to depreciate women's psychic
+    capacity, Hirth maintains that a woman is not necessarily obliged
+    to be untrue to one man because she has conceived a passion for
+    another man. "Today," Hirth truly declares, "only love and
+    justice can count as honorable motives in marriage. The modern
+    man accords to the beloved wife and life-companion the same
+    freedom which he himself took before marriage, and perhaps still
+    takes in marriage. If she makes no use of it, as is to be
+    hoped--so much the better! But let there be no lies, no
+    deception; the indispensable foundation of modern marriage is
+    boundless sincerity and friendship, the deepest trust,
+    affectionate devotion, and consideration. This is the best
+    safeguard against adultery.... Let him, however, who is,
+    nevertheless, overtaken by the outbreak of it console himself
+    with the undoubted fact that of two real lovers the most
+    noble-minded and deep-seeing _friend_ will always have the
+    preference." These wise words cannot be too deeply meditated. The
+    policy of jealousy is only successful--when it is successful--in
+    the hands of the man who counts the external husk of love more
+    precious than the kernel.
+
+It seems to some that the recognition of variations in sexual
+relationships, of the tendency of the monogamic to overpass its
+self-imposed bounds, is at best a sad necessity, and a lamentable fall
+from a high ideal. That, however, is the reverse of the truth. The great
+evil of monogamy, and its most seriously weak point, is its tendency to
+self-concentration at the expense of the outer world. The devil always
+comes to a man in the shape of his wife and children, said Hinton. The
+family is a great social influence in so far as it is the best instrument
+for creating children who will make the future citizens; but in a certain
+sense the family is an anti-social influence, for it tends to absorb
+unduly the energy that is needed for the invigoration of society. It is
+possible, indeed, that that fact led to the modification of the monogamic
+system in early developing periods of human history, when social expansion
+and cohesion were the primary necessities. The family too often tends to
+resemble, as someone has said, the secluded collection of grubs sometimes
+revealed in their narrow home when we casually raise a flat stone in our
+gardens. Great as are the problems of love, and great as should be our
+attention to them, it must always be remembered that love is not a little
+circle that is complete in itself. It is the nature of love to irradiate.
+Just as family life exists mainly for the social end of breeding the
+future race, so family love has its social ends in the extension of
+sympathy and affection to those outside it, and even in ends that go
+beyond love altogether.[417]
+
+The question is debated from time to time as to how far it is possible for
+men and women to have intimate friendships with each other outside the
+erotic sphere.[418] There can be no doubt whatever that it is perfectly
+possible for a man and a woman to experience for each other a friendship
+which never intrudes into the sexual sphere. As a rule, however, this only
+happens under special conditions, and those are generally conditions which
+exclude the closest and most intimate friendship. If, as we have seen,
+love may be defined as a synthesis of lust and friendship, friendship
+inevitably enters into the erotic sphere. Just as sexual emotion tends to
+merge into friendship, so friendship between persons of opposite sex, if
+young, healthy, and attractive, tends to involve sexual emotion. The two
+feelings are too closely allied for an artificial barrier to be
+permanently placed between them without protest. Men who offer a woman
+friendship usually find that it is not received with much satisfaction
+except as the first installment of a warmer emotion, and women who offer
+friendship to a man usually find that he responds with an offer of love;
+very often the "friendship" is from the first simply love or flirtation
+masquerading under another name.
+
+    "In the long run," a woman writes (in a letter published in
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. i, Heft 7), "the senses become
+    discontented at their complete exclusion. And I believe that a
+    man can only come into the closest mutual association with a
+    woman by whom, consciously or unconsciously, he is physically
+    attracted. He cannot enter into the closest psychic intercourse
+    with a woman with whom he could not imagine himself in physical
+    intercourse. His prevailing wish is for the possession of a
+    woman, of the whole woman, her soul as well as her body. And a
+    woman also cannot imagine an intimate relation to a man in which
+    the heart and the body, as well as the mind, are not involved.
+    (Naturally I am thinking of people with sound nerves and healthy
+    blood.) Can a woman carry on a Platonic relation with a man from
+    year to year without the thought sometimes coming to her: 'Why
+    does he never kiss me? Have I no charm for him?' And in the most
+    concealed corner of her heart will it not happen that she uses
+    that word 'kiss' in the more comprehensive sense in which the
+    French sometimes employ it?" There is undoubtedly an element of
+    truth in this statement. The frontier between erotic love and
+    friendship is vague, and an intimate psychic intercourse that is
+    sternly debarred from ever manifesting itself in a caress, or
+    other physical manifestation of tender intimacy, tends to be
+    constrained, and arouses unspoken and unspeakable thoughts and
+    desires which are fatal to any complete friendship.
+
+Undoubtedly the only perfect "Platonic friendships" are those which have
+been reached through the portal of a preliminary erotic intimacy. In such
+a case bad lovers, when they have resolutely traversed the erotic stage,
+may become exceedingly good friends. A satisfactory friendship is
+possible between brother and sister because they have been physically
+intimate in childhood, and all erotic curiosities are absent. The most
+admirable "Platonic friendship" may often be attained by husband and wife
+in whom sympathy and affection and common interests have outlived passion.
+In nearly all the most famous friendships of distinguished men and
+women--as we know in some cases and divine in others--an hour's passion,
+in Sainte-Beuve's words, has served as the golden key to unlock the most
+precious and intimate secrets of friendship.[419]
+
+The friendships that have been entered through the erotic portal possess
+an intimacy and retain a spiritually erotic character which could not be
+attained on the basis of a normal friendship between persons of the same
+sex. This is true in a far higher degree of the ultimate relationship,
+under fortunate circumstances, of husband and wife in the years after
+passion has become impossible. They have ceased to be passionate lovers
+but they have not become mere friends and comrades. More especially their
+relationship takes on elements borrowed from the attitude of child to
+parent, of parent to child. Everyone from his first years retains
+something of the child which cannot be revealed to all the world; everyone
+acquires something of the guardian paternal or maternal spirit. Husband
+and wife are each child to the other, and are indeed parent and child by
+turn. And here still the woman retains a certain erotic supremacy, for she
+is to the last more of a child than it is ever easy for the man to be, and
+much more essentially a mother than he is a father.
+
+    Groos (_Der AEsthetische Genuss_, p. 249) has pointed out that
+    "love" is really made up of both sexual instinct and parental
+    instinct.
+
+    "So-called happy marriages," says Professor W. Thomas (_Sex and
+    Society_, p. 246), "represent an equilibrium reached through an
+    extension of the maternal interest of the woman to the man,
+    whereby she looks after his personal needs as she does after
+    those of the children--cherishing him, in fact, as a child--or
+    in an extension to woman on the part of man of the nurture and
+    affection which is in his nature to give to pets and all helpless
+    (and preferably dumb) creatures."
+
+    "When the devotion in the tie between mother and son," a woman
+    writes, "is added to the relation of husband and wife, the union
+    of marriage is raised to the high and beautiful dignity it
+    deserves, and can attain in this world. It comprehends sympathy,
+    love, and perfect understanding, even of the faults and
+    weaknesses of both sides." "The foundation of every true woman's
+    love," another woman writes, "is a mother's tenderness. He whom
+    she loves is a child of larger growth, although she may at the
+    same time have a deep respect for him." (See also, for similar
+    opinion of another woman of distinguished intellectual ability,
+    footnote at beginning of "The Psychic State in Pregnancy" in
+    volume v of these _Studies_.)
+
+    It is on the basis of these elemental human facts that the
+    permanently seductive and inspiring relationships of sex are
+    developed, and not by the emergence of personalities who combine
+    impossibly exalted characteristics. "The task is extremely
+    difficult," says Kisch in his _Sexual Life of Woman_, "but a
+    clever and virtuous modern wife must endeavor to combine in her
+    single personality the sensuous attractiveness of an Aspasia, the
+    chastity of a Lucrece, and the intellectual greatness of a
+    Cornelia." And in an earlier century we are told in the novel of
+    _La Tia Fingida_, which has sometimes been attributed to
+    Cervantes, that "a woman should be an angel in the street, a
+    saint in church, beautiful at the window, honest in the house,
+    and a demon in bed." The demands made of men by women, on the
+    other hand, have been almost too lofty to bear definite
+    formulation at all. "Ninety-nine out of a hundred loving women,"
+    says Helene Stoecker, "certainly believe that if a thousand other
+    men have behaved ignobly, and forsaken, ill-used, and deceived
+    the woman they love, the man they love is an exception, marked
+    out from all other men; that is the reason they love him." It may
+    be doubted, however, if the great lovers have ever stood very far
+    above the ordinary level of humanity by their possession of
+    perfection. They have been human, and their art of love has not
+    always excluded the possession of human frailties; perfection,
+    indeed, even if it could be found, would furnish a bad soil for
+    love to strike deep roots in.
+
+It is only when we realize the highly complex nature of the elements which
+make up erotic love that we can understand how it is that that love can
+constitute so tremendous a revelation and exert so profound an influence
+even in men of the greatest genius and intellect and in the sphere of
+their most spiritual activity. It is not merely passion, nor any conscious
+skill in the erotic art,--important as these may be,--that would serve to
+account for Goethe's relationship to Frau von Stein, or Wagner's to
+Mathilde Wesendonck, or that of Robert and Elizabeth Browning to each
+other.[420]
+
+It may now be clear to the reader why it has been necessary in a
+discussion of the sexual impulse in its relationship to society to deal
+with the art of love. It is true that there is nothing so intimately
+private and personal as the erotic affairs of the individual. Yet it is
+equally true that these affairs lie at the basis of the social life, and
+furnish the conditions--good or bad as the case may be--of that
+procreative act which is a supreme concern of the State. It is because the
+question of love is of such purely private interest that it tends to be
+submerged in the question of breed. We have to realize, not only that the
+question of love subserves the question of breed, but also that love has a
+proper, a necessary, even a socially wholesome claim, to stand by itself
+and to be regarded for its own worth.
+
+    In the profoundly suggestive study of love which the
+    distinguished sociologist Tarde left behind at his death
+    (_Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, loc. cit.), there are
+    some interesting remarks on this point: "Society," he says, "has
+    been far more, and more intelligently, preoccupied with the
+    problem of answering the 'question of breed' than the 'question
+    of love.' The first problem fills all our civil and commercial
+    codes. The second problem has never been clearly stated, or
+    looked in the face, not even in antiquity, still less since the
+    coming of Christianity, for merely to offer the solutions of
+    marriage and prostitution is manifestly inadequate. Statesmen
+    have only seen the side on which it touches population. Hence
+    the marriage laws. Sterile love they profess to disdain. Yet it
+    is evident that, though born as the serf of generation, love
+    tends by civilization to be freed from it. In place of a simple
+    method of procreation it has become an end, it has created itself
+    a title, a royal title. Our gardens cultivate flowers that are
+    all the more charming because they are sterile; why is the double
+    corolla of love held more infamous than the sterilized flowers of
+    our gardens?" Tarde replies that the reason is that our
+    politicians are merely ambitious persons thirsting for power and
+    wealth, and even when they are lovers they are Don Juans rather
+    than Virgils. "The future," he continues, "is to the Virgilians,
+    because if the ambition of power, the regal wealth of American or
+    European millionarism, once seemed nobler, love now more and more
+    attracts to itself the best and highest parts of the soul, where
+    lies the hidden ferment of all that is greatest in science and
+    art, and more and more those studious and artist souls multiply
+    who, intent on their peaceful activities, hold in horror the
+    business men and the politicians, and will one day succeed in
+    driving them back. That assuredly will be the great and capital
+    revolution of humanity, an active psychological revolution: the
+    recognized preponderance of the meditative and contemplative, the
+    lover's side of the human soul, over the feverish, expansive,
+    rapacious, and ambitious side. And then it will be understood
+    that one of the greatest of social problems, perhaps the most
+    arduous of all, has been the problem of love."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[375] _Quaestionum Convivalium_, lib. iii, quaestio 6.
+
+[376] E.D. Cope, "The Marriage Problem," _Open Court_, Nov. 1888.
+
+[377] Columbus meeting of the American Medical Association, 1900.
+
+[378] Ellen Key, _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 24.
+
+[379] In an admirable article on Friedrich Schlegel's _Lucinde_
+(_Mutterschutz_, 1906, Heft 5), Heinrich Meyer-Benfey, in pointing out
+that the Catholic sacramental conception of marriage licensed love, but
+failed to elevate it, regards _Lucinde_, with all its defects, as the
+first expression of the unity of the senses and the soul, and, as such,
+the basis of the new ethics of love. It must, however, be said that four
+hundred years earlier Pontano had expressed this same erotic unity far
+more robustly and wholesomely than Schlegel, though the Latin verse in
+which he wrote, fresh and vital as it is, remained without influence.
+Pontano's _Carmina_, including the "De Amore Conjugali," have at length
+been reprinted in a scholarly edition by Soldati.
+
+[380] From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries Ovid was, in
+reality, the most popular and influential classic poet. His works played a
+large part in moulding Renaissance literature, not least in England, where
+Marlowe translated his _Amores_, and Shakespeare, during the early years
+of his literary activity, was greatly indebted to him (see, e.g., Sidney
+Lee, "Ovid and Shakespeare's Sonnets," _Quarterly Review_, Ap., 1909).
+
+[381] This has already been discussed in Chapter II.
+
+[382] By the age of twenty-five, as G. Hirth remarks (_Wege zur Heimat_,
+p. 541), an energetic and sexually disposed man in a large city has, for
+the most part, already had relations with some twenty-five women, perhaps
+even as many as fifty, while a well-bred and cultivated woman at that age
+is still only beginning to realize the slowly summating excitations of
+sex.
+
+[383] In his study of "Conjugal Aversion" (_Journal Nervous and Mental
+Disease_, Sept., 1892) Smith Baker points out the value of adequate sexual
+knowledge before marriage in lessening the risks of such aversion.
+
+[384] "It may be said to the honor of men," Adler truly remarks (op. cit.,
+p. 182), "that it is perhaps not often their conscious brutality that is
+at fault in this matter, but merely lack of skill and lack of
+understanding. The husband who is not specially endowed by nature and
+experience for psychic intercourse with women, is not likely, through his
+earlier intercourse with Venus vulgivaga, to bring into marriage any
+useful knowledge, psychic or physical."
+
+[385] "The first night," writes a correspondent concerning his marriage,
+"she found the act very painful and was frightened and surprised at the
+size of my penis, and at my suddenly getting on her. We had talked very
+openly about sex things before marriage, and it never occurred to me that
+she was ignorant of the details of the act. I imagined it would disgust
+her to talk about these things; but I now see I should have explained
+things to her. Before marrying I had come to the conclusion that the
+respect owed to one's wife was incompatible with any talk that might seem
+indecent, and also I had made a resolve not to subject her to what I
+thought then were dirty tricks, even to be naked and to have her naked. In
+fact, I was the victim of mock modesty; it was an artificial reaction from
+the life I had been living before marriage. Now it seems to me to be
+natural, if you love a woman, to do whatever occurs to you and to her. If
+I had not felt it wrong to encourage such acts between us, there might
+have been established a sexual sympathy which would have bound me more
+closely to her."
+
+[386] Montaigne, _Essais_, Bk. iii, Ch. V. It is a significant fact that,
+even in the matter of information, women, notwithstanding much ignorance
+and inexperience, are often better equipped for marriage than men. As
+Fuerbringer remarks (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 212), although the wife is usually more chaste at
+marriage than the husband, yet "she is generally the better informed
+partner in matters pertaining to the married state, in spite of occasional
+astonishing confessions."
+
+[387] "She never loses her self-respect nor my respect for her," a man
+writes in a letter, "simply because we are desperately in love with one
+another, and everything we do--some of which the lowest prostitute might
+refuse to do--seems but one attempt after another to translate our passion
+into action. I never realized before, not that to the pure all things are
+pure, indeed, but that to the lover nothing is indecent. Yes, I have
+always felt it, to love her is a liberal education." It is obviously only
+the existence of such an attitude as this that can enable a pure woman to
+be passionate.
+
+[388] "To be really understood," as Rafford Pyke well says, "to say what
+she likes, to utter her innermost thoughts in her own way, to cast aside
+the traditional conventions that gall her and repress her, to have someone
+near her with whom she can be quite frank, and yet to know that not a
+syllable of what she says will be misinterpreted or mistaken, but rather
+felt just as she feels it all--how wonderfully sweet is this to every
+woman, and how few men are there who can give it to her!"
+
+[389] In more recent times it has been discussed in relation to the
+frequency of spontaneous nocturnal emissions. See "The Phenomena of Sexual
+Periodicity," Sect. II, in volume i of these _Studies_, and cf. Mr.
+Perry-Coste's remarks on "The Annual Rhythm," in Appendix B of the same
+volume.
+
+[390] See "The Sexual Impulse in Women," vol. iii of these _Studies_.
+
+[391] Zenobia's practice is referred to by Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ed.
+Bury, vol. i, p. 302. The Queen of Aragon's decision is recorded by the
+Montpellier jurist, Nicolas Bohier (Boerius) in his _Decisiones_, etc.,
+ed. of 1579, p. 563; it is referred to by Montaigne, _Essais_, Bk. iii,
+Ch. V.
+
+[392] Haller, _Elementa Physiologiae_, 1778, vol. vii, p. 57.
+
+[393] Hammond, _Sexual Impotence_, p. 129.
+
+[394] Fuerbringer, Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to
+Marriage_, vol. i, p. 221.
+
+[395] Forel, _Die Sexuelle Frage_, p. 80.
+
+[396] Guyot, _Breviaire de l'Amour Experimental_, p. 144.
+
+[397] Erb, Ziemssen's _Handbuch_, Bd. xi, ii, p. 148. Guttceit also
+considered that the very wide variations found are congenital and natural.
+It may be added that some believe that there are racial variations. Thus
+it has been stated that the genital force of the Englishman is low, and
+that of the Frenchman (especially Provencal, Languedocian, and Gascon)
+high, while Loewenfeld believes that the Germanic race excels the French in
+aptitude to repeat the sex act frequently. It is probable that little
+weight attaches to these opinions, and that the chief differences are
+individual rather than racial.
+
+[398] Ribbing, _L'Hygiene Sexualle_, p. 75. Kisch, in his _Sexual Life of
+Woman_, expresses the same opinion.
+
+[399] Mohammed, who often displayed a consideration for women very rare in
+the founders of religions, is an exception. His prescription of once a
+week represented the right of the wife, quite independently of the number
+of wives a man might possess.
+
+[400] How fragile the claim of "conjugal rights" is, may be sufficiently
+proved by the fact that it is now considered by many that the very term
+"conjugal rights" arose merely by a mistake for "conjugal rites." Before
+1733, when legal proceedings were in Latin, the term used was _obsequies_,
+and "rights," instead of "rites," seems to have been merely a typesetter's
+error (see _Notes and Queries_, May 16, 1891; May 6, 1899). This
+explanation, it should be added, only applies to the consecrated term, for
+there can be no doubt that the underlying idea has an existence quite
+independent of the term.
+
+[401] "In most marriages that are not happy," it is said in Rafford Pyke's
+thoughtful paper on "Husbands and Wives" (_Cosmopolitan_, 1902), "it is
+the wife rather than the husband who is oftenest disappointed."
+
+[402] See "Analysis of the Sexual Impulse," in vol. iii of these
+_Studies_.
+
+[403] It is well recognized by erotic writers, however, that women may
+sometimes take a comparatively active part. Thus Vatsyayana says that
+sometimes the woman may take the man's position, and with flowers in her
+hair and smiles mixed with sighs and bent head, caressing him and pressing
+her breasts against him, say: "You have been my conqueror; it is my turn
+to make you cry for mercy."
+
+[404] Thus among the Swahili it is on the third day after marriage that
+the bridegroom is allowed, by custom, to complete defloration, according
+to Zache, _Zeitschrift fuer Ethnologie_, 1899, II-III, p. 84.
+
+[405] _De l'Amour_, vol. ii, p. 57.
+
+[406] Robert Michels, "Brautstandsmoral," _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_,
+Jahrgang I, Heft 12.
+
+[407] I may refer once more to the facts brought together in volume iii of
+these _Studies_, "The Analysis of the Sexual Impulse."
+
+[408] This has been pointed out, for instance, by Rutgers, "Sexuelle
+Differenzierung," _Die Neue Generation_, Dec., 1908.
+
+[409] Thus, among the Eskimo, who practice temporary wife-exchange,
+Rasmussen states that "a man generally discovers that his own wife is, in
+spite of all, the best."
+
+[410] "I have always held with the late Professor Laycock," remarks
+Clouston (_Hygiene of Mind_, p. 214), "who was a very subtle student of
+human nature, that a married couple need not be always together to be
+happy, and that in fact reasonable absences and partings tend towards
+ultimate and closer union." That the prolongation of passion is only
+compatible with absence scarcely needs pointing out; as Mary
+Wollstonecraft long since said (_Rights of Woman_, original ed., p. 61),
+it is only in absence or in misfortune that passion is durable. It may be
+added, however, that in her love-letters to Imlay she wrote: "I have ever
+declared that two people who mean to live together ought not to be long
+separated."
+
+[411] "Viewed broadly," says Arnold L. Gesell, in his interesting study of
+"Jealousy" (_American Journal of Psychology_, Oct., 1906), "jealousy seems
+such a necessary psychological accompaniment to biological behavior,
+amidst competitive struggle, that one is tempted to consider it
+genetically among the oldest of the emotions, synonymous almost with the
+will to live, and to make it scarcely less fundamental than fear or anger.
+In fact, jealousy readily passes into anger, and is itself a brand of
+fear.... In sociability and mutual aid we see the other side of the
+shield; but jealousy, however anti-social it may be, retains a function in
+zooelogical economy: viz., to conserve the individual as against the group.
+It is Nature's great corrective for the purely social emotions."
+
+[412] Many illustrations are brought together in Gesell's study of
+"Jealousy."
+
+[413] Jealousy among lower races may be disguised or modified by tribal
+customs. Thus Rasmussen (_People of the Polar North_, p. 65) says in
+reference to the Eskimo custom of wife-exchange: "A man once told me that
+he only beat his wife when she would not receive other men. She would have
+nothing to do with anyone but him--and that was her only failing!"
+Rasmussen elsewhere shows that the Eskimo are capable of extreme jealousy.
+
+[414] See, e.g., Moll, _Sexualleben des Kindes_, p. 158; cf., Gesell's
+"Study of Jealousy."
+
+[415] Jealousy is notoriously common among drunkards. As K. Birnbaum
+points out ("Das Sexualleben der Alkokolisten," _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan.,
+1909), this jealousy is, in most cases, more or less well-founded, for the
+wife, disgusted with her husband, naturally seeks sympathy and
+companionship elsewhere. Alcoholic jealousy, however, goes far beyond its
+basis of support in fact, and is entangled with delusions and
+hallucinations. (See e.g., G. Dumas, "La Logique d'un Dement," _Revue
+Philosophique_, Feb., 1908; also Stefanowski, "Morbid Jealousy," _Alienist
+and Neurologist_, July, 1893.)
+
+[416] Ellen Key, _Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 335.
+
+[417] Schrempf points out ("Von Stella zu Klaerchen," _Mutterschutz_, 1906,
+Heft 7, p. 264) that Goethe strove to show in _Egmont_ that a woman is
+repelled by the love of a man who knows nothing beyond his love to her,
+and that it is easy for her to devote herself to the man whose aims lie in
+the larger world beyond herself. There is profound truth in this view.
+
+[418] A discussion on "Platonic friendship" of this kind by several
+writers, mostly women, whose opinions were nearly equally divided, may be
+found, for instance, in the _Lady's Realm_, March, 1900.
+
+[419] There are no doubt important exceptions. Thus Merimee's famous
+friendship with Mlle. Jenny Dacquin, enshrined in the _Lettres a une
+Inconnue_, was perhaps Platonic throughout on Merimee's side, Mlle.
+Dacquin adapting herself to his attitude. Cf. A. Lefebvre, _La Celebre
+Inconnue de Merimee_, 1908.
+
+[420] The love-letters of all these distinguished persons have been
+published. Rosa Mayreder (_Zur Kritik der Weiblichkeit_, pp. 229 _et
+seq._) discusses the question of the humble and absolute manner in which
+even men of the most masculine and impetuous genius abandon themselves to
+the inspiration of the beloved woman. The case of the Brownings, who have
+been termed "the hero and heroine of the most wonderful love-story that
+the world knows of," is specially notable; (Ellen Key has written of the
+Brownings from this point of view in _Menschen_, and reference may be made
+to an article on the Brownings' love-letters in the _Edinburgh Review_,
+April, 1899). It is scarcely necessary to add that an erotic relationship
+may mean very much to persons of high intellectual ability, even when its
+issue is not happy; of Mary Wollstonecraft, one of the most intellectually
+distinguished of women, it may be said that the letters which enshrine her
+love to the worthless Imlay are among the most passionate and pathetic
+love-letters in English.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+THE SCIENCE OF PROCREATION.
+
+The Relationship of the Science of Procreation to the Art of Love--Sexual
+Desire and Sexual Pleasure as the Conditions of Conception--Reproduction
+Formerly Left to Caprice and Lust--The Question of Procreation as a
+Religious Question--The Creed of Eugenics--Ellen Key and Sir Francis
+Galton--Our Debt to Posterity--The Problem of Replacing Natural
+Selection--The Origin and Development of Eugenics--The General Acceptance
+of Eugenical Principles To-day--The Two Channels by Which Eugenical
+Principles are Becoming Embodied in Practice--The Sense of Sexual
+Responsibility in Women--The Rejection of Compulsory Motherhood--The
+Privilege of Voluntary Motherhood--Causes of the Degradation of
+Motherhood--The Control of Conception--Now Practiced by the Majority of
+the Population in Civilized Countries--The Fallacy of "Racial
+Suicide"--Are Large Families a Stigma of Degeneration?--Procreative
+Control the Outcome of Natural and Civilized Progress--The Growth of
+Neo-Malthusian Beliefs and Practices--Facultative Sterility as Distinct
+from Neo-Malthusianism--The Medical and Hygienic Necessity of Control of
+Conception--Preventive Methods--Abortion--The New Doctrine of the Duty to
+Practice Abortion--How Far is this Justifiable?--Castration as a Method of
+Controlling Procreation--Negative Eugenics and Positive Eugenics--The
+Question of Certificates for Marriage--The Inadequacy of Eugenics by Act
+of Parliament--The Quickening of the Social Conscience in Regard to
+Heredity--Limitations to the Endowment of Motherhood--The Conditions
+Favorable to Procreation--Sterility--The Question of Artificial
+Fecundation--The Best Age of Procreation--The Question of Early
+Motherhood--The Best Time for Procreation--The Completion of the Divine
+Cycle of Life.
+
+
+We have seen that the art of love has an independent and amply justifiable
+right to existence apart, altogether, from procreation. Even if we still
+believed--as all men must once have believed and some Central Australians
+yet believe[421]--that sexual intercourse has no essential connection with
+the propagation of the race it would have full right to existence. In its
+finer manifestations as an art it is required in civilization for the full
+development of the individual, and it is equally required for that
+stability of relationships which is nearly everywhere regarded as a demand
+of social morality.
+
+When we now turn to the second great constitutional factor of marriage,
+procreation, the first point we encounter is that the art of love here
+also has its place. In ancient times the sexual congruence of any man with
+any woman was supposed to be so much a matter of course that all questions
+of love and of the art of love could be left out of consideration. The
+propagative act might, it was thought, be performed as impersonally, as
+perfunctorily, as the early Christian Fathers imagined it had been
+performed in Paradise. That view is no longer acceptable. It fails to
+commend itself to men, and still less to women. We know that in
+civilization at all events--and it is often indeed the same among
+savages--erethism is not always easy between two persons selected at
+random, nor even when they are more specially selected. And we also know,
+on the authority of very distinguished gynaecologists, that it is not in
+very many cases sufficient even to effect coitus, it is also necessary to
+excite orgasm, if conception is to be achieved.
+
+    Many primitive peoples, as well as the theologians of the Middle
+    Ages, have believed that sexual excitement on the woman's part is
+    necessary to conception, though they have sometimes mixed up that
+    belief with false science and mere superstition. The belief
+    itself is supported by some of the most cautious and experienced
+    modern gynaecologists. Thus, Matthews Duncan (in his lectures on
+    _Sterility in Women_) argued that the absence of sexual desire in
+    women, and the absence of pleasure in the sexual act, are
+    powerful influences making for sterility. He brought forward a
+    table based on his case-books, showing that of nearly four
+    hundred sterile women, only about one-fourth experienced sexual
+    desire, while less than half experienced pleasure in the sexual
+    act. In the absence, however, of a corresponding table concerning
+    fertile women, nothing is hereby absolutely proved, and, at most,
+    only a probability established.
+
+    Kisch, more recently (in his _Sexual Life of Woman_), has dealt
+    fully with this question, and reaches the conclusion that it is
+    "extremely probable" that the active erotic participation of the
+    woman in coitus is an important link in the chain of conditions
+    producing conception. It acts, he remarks, in either or both of
+    two ways, by causing reflex changes in the cervical secretions,
+    and so facilitating the passage of the spermatozoa, and by
+    causing reflex erectile changes in the cervix itself, with slight
+    descent of the uterus, so rendering the entrance of the semen
+    easier. Kisch refers to the analogous fact that the first
+    occurrence of menstruation is favored by sexual excitement.
+
+    Some authorities go so far as to assert that, until voluptuous
+    excitement occurs in women, no impregnation is possible. This
+    statement seems too extreme. It is true that the occurrence of
+    impregnation during sleep, or in anaesthesia, cannot be opposed to
+    it, for we know that the unconsciousness of these states by no
+    means prevents the occurrence of complete sexual excitement. We
+    cannot fail, however, to connect the fact that impregnation
+    frequently fails to occur for months and even years after
+    marriage, with the fact that sexual pleasure in coitus on the
+    wife's part also frequently fails to occur for a similar period.
+
+"Of all human instincts," Pinard has said,[422] "that of reproduction is
+the only one which remains in the primitive condition and has received no
+education. We procreate to-day as they procreated in the Stone Age. The
+most important act in the life of man, the sublimest of all acts since it
+is that of his reproduction, man accomplishes to-day with as much
+carelessness as in the age of the cave-man." And though Pinard himself, as
+the founder of puericulture, has greatly contributed to call attention to
+the vast destinies that hang on the act of procreation, there still
+remains a lamentable amount of truth in this statement. "Future
+generations," writes Westermarck in his great history of moral ideas,[423]
+"will probably with a kind of horror look back at a period when the most
+important, and in its consequences the most far-reaching, function which
+has fallen to the lot of man was entirely left to individual caprice and
+lust."
+
+We are told in his _Table Talk_, that the great Luther was accustomed to
+say that God's way of making man was very foolish ("sehr naerrisch"), and
+that if God had deigned to take him into His counsel he would have
+strongly advised Him to make the whole human race, as He made Adam, "out
+of earth." And certainly if applied to the careless and reckless manner in
+which procreation in Luther's day, as still for the most part in our own,
+was usually carried out there was sound common sense in the Reformer's
+remarks. If that is the way procreation is to be carried on, it would be
+better to create and mould every human being afresh out of the earth; in
+that way we could at all events eliminate evil heredity. It was, however,
+unjust to place the responsibility on God. It is men and women who breed
+the people that make the world good or bad. They seek to put the evils of
+society on to something outside themselves. They see how large a
+proportion of human beings are defective, ill-conditioned, anti-social,
+incapable of leading a whole and beautiful human life. In old theological
+language it was often said that such were "children of the Devil," and
+Luther himself was often ready enough to attribute the evil of the world
+to the direct interposition of the Devil. Yet these ill-conditioned people
+who clog the wheels of society are, after all, in reality the children of
+Man. The only Devil whom we can justly invoke in this matter is Man.
+
+The command "Be fruitful and multiply," which the ancient Hebrews put into
+the mouth of their tribal God, was, as Crackanthorpe points out,[424] a
+command supposed to have been uttered when there were only eight persons
+in the world. If the time should ever again occur when the inhabitants of
+the world could be counted on one's fingers, such an injunction, as
+Crackanthorpe truly observes, would again be reasonable. But we have to
+remember that to-day humanity has spawned itself over the world in
+hundreds and even thousands of millions of creatures, a large proportion
+of whom, as is but too obvious, ought never to have been born at all, and
+the voice of Jehovah is now making itself heard through the leaders of
+mankind in a very different sense.
+
+It is not surprising that as this fact tends to become generally
+recognized, the question of the procreation of the race should gain a new
+significance, and even tend to take on the character of a new religious
+movement. Mere morality can never lead us to concern ourselves with the
+future of the race, and in the days of old, men used to protest against
+the tendency to subordinate the interests of religion to the claims of
+"mere morality." There was a sound natural instinct underlying that
+protest, so often and so vigorously made by Christianity, and again
+revived to-day in a more intelligent form. The claim of the race is the
+claim of religion. We have to beware lest we subordinate that claim to our
+moralities. Moralities are, indeed, an inevitable part of our social order
+from which we cannot escape; every community must have its _mores_. But we
+are not entitled to make a fetich of our morality, sacrificing to it the
+highest interests entrusted to us. The nations which have done so have
+already signed their own death-warrant.[425] From this point of view, the
+whole of Christianity, rightly considered, with its profound conviction of
+the necessity for forethought and preparation for the life hereafter, has
+been a preparation for eugenics, a schoolmaster to discipline within us a
+higher ideal than itself taught, and we cannot therefore be surprised at
+the solidity of the basis on which eugenical conceptions of life are
+developing.
+
+    The most distinguished pioneers of the new movement of devotion
+    to the creation of the race seem independently to have realized
+    its religious character. This attitude is equally marked in Ellen
+    Key and Francis Galton. In her _Century of the Child_ (English
+    translation, 1909), Ellen Key entirely identifies herself with
+    the eugenic movement. "It is only a question of time," she
+    elsewhere writes (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, p. 445), "when the
+    attitude of society towards a sexual union will depend not on the
+    form of the union, but on the value of the children created. Men
+    and women will then devote the same religious earnestness to the
+    psychic and physical perfectioning of this sexual task as
+    Christians have devoted to the salvation of their souls."
+
+    Sir Francis Galton, writing a few years later, but without doubt
+    independently, in 1905, on "Restrictions in Marriage," and
+    "Eugenics as a Factor in Religion" (_Sociological Papers_ of the
+    Sociological Society, vol. ii, pp. 13, 53), remarks: "Religious
+    precepts, founded on the ethics and practice of older days,
+    require to be reinterpreted, to make them conform to the needs of
+    progressive nations. Ours are already so far behind modern
+    requirements that much of our practice and our profession cannot
+    be reconciled without illegitimate casuistry. It seems to me
+    that few things are more needed by us in England than a revision
+    of our religion, to adapt it to the intelligence and needs of
+    this present time.... Evolution is a grand phantasmagoria, but it
+    assumes an infinitely more interesting aspect under the knowledge
+    that the intelligent action of the human will is, in some small
+    measure, capable of guiding its course. Man has the power of
+    doing this largely, so far as the evolution of humanity is
+    concerned; he has already affected the quality and distribution
+    of organic life so widely that the changes on the surface of the
+    earth, merely through his disforestings and agriculture, would be
+    recognizable from a distance as great as that of the moon.
+    Eugenics is a virile creed, full of hopefulness, and appealing to
+    many of the noblest feelings of our nature."
+
+    As will always happen in every great movement, a few fanatics
+    have carried into absurdity the belief in the supreme religious
+    importance of procreation. Love, apart from procreation, writes
+    one of these fanatics, Vacher de Lapouge, in the spirit of some
+    of the early Christian Fathers (see _ante_ p. 509), is an
+    aberration comparable to sadism and sodomy. Procreation is the
+    only thing that matters, and it must become "a legally prescribed
+    social duty" only to be exercised by carefully selected persons,
+    and forbidden to others, who must, by necessity, be deprived of
+    the power of procreation, while abortion and infanticide must,
+    under some circumstances, become compulsory. Romantic love will
+    disappear by a process of selection, as also will all religion
+    except a new form of phallic worship (G. Vacher de Lapouge, "Die
+    Crisis der Sexuellen Moral," _Politisch Anthropologische Revue_,
+    No. 8, 1908). It is sufficient to point out that love is, and
+    always must be, the natural portal to generation. Such excesses
+    of procreative fanaticism cannot fail to occur, and they render
+    the more necessary the emphasis which has here been placed on the
+    art of love.
+
+"What has posterity done for me that I should do anything for posterity?"
+a cynic is said to have asked. The answer is very simple. The human race
+has done everything for him. All that he is, and can be, is its creation;
+all that he can do is the result of its laboriously accumulated
+traditions. It is only by working towards the creation of a still better
+posterity, that he can repay the good gifts which the human race has
+brought him.[426] Just as, within the limits of this present life, many
+who have received benefits and kindnesses they can never repay to the
+actual givers, find a pleasure in vicariously repaying the like to
+others, so the heritage we have received from our ascendents we can never
+repay, save by handing it on in a better form to our descendants.
+
+It is undoubtedly true that the growth of eugenical ideals has not been,
+for the most part, due to religious feeling. It has been chiefly the
+outcome of a very gradual, but very comprehensive, movement towards social
+amelioration, which has been going on for more than a century, and which
+has involved a progressive effort towards the betterment of all the
+conditions of life. The ideals of this movement were proclaimed in the
+eighteenth century, they began to find expression early in the nineteenth
+century, in the initiation of the modern system of sanitation, in the
+growth of factory legislation, in all the movements which have been borne
+onwards by socialism hand in hand with individualism. The inevitable
+tendency has been slowly towards the root of the matter; it began to be
+seen that comparatively little can be effected by improving the conditions
+of life of adults; attention began to be concentrated on the child, on the
+infant, on the embryo in its mother's womb, and this resulted in the
+fruitful movement of puericulture inspired by Pinard, and finally the
+problem is brought to its source at the point of procreation, and the
+regulation of sexual selection between stocks and between individuals as
+the prime condition of life. Here we have the science of eugenics which
+Sir Francis Galton has done so much to make a definite, vital, and
+practical study, and which in its wider bearings he defines as "the
+science which deals with those social eugenics that influence, mentally or
+physically, the racial qualities of future generations." In its largest
+aspect, eugenics is, as Galton has elsewhere said, man's attempt "to
+replace Natural Selection by other processes that are more merciful and
+not less effective."
+
+    In the last chapter of his _Memories of My Life_ (1908), on "Race
+    Improvement," Sir Francis Galton sets forth the origin and
+    development of his conception of the science of eugenics. The
+    term, "eugenics," he first used in 1884, in his _Human Faculty_,
+    but the conception dates from 1865, and even earlier. Galton has
+    more recently discussed the problems of eugenics in papers read
+    before the Sociological Society (_Sociological Papers_, vols. i
+    and ii, 1905), in the Herbert Spencer Lecture on "Probability the
+    Foundation of Eugenics," (1907), and elsewhere. Galton's numerous
+    memoirs on this subject have now been published in a collected
+    form by the Eugenics Education Society, which was established in
+    1907, to further and to popularize the eugenical attitude towards
+    social questions; _The Eugenics Review_ is published by this
+    Society. On the more strictly scientific side, eugenic studies
+    are carried on in the Eugenics Laboratory of the University of
+    London, established by Sir Francis Galton, and now working in
+    connection with Professor Karl Pearson's biometric laboratory, in
+    University College. Much of Professor Pearson's statistical work
+    in this and allied directions, is the elaboration of ideas and
+    suggestions thrown out by Galton. See, e.g., Karl Pearson's
+    Robert Boyle Lecture, "The Scope and Importance to the State of
+    the Science of National Eugenics" (1907). _Biometrika_, edited by
+    Karl Pearson in association with other workers, contains numerous
+    statistical memoirs on eugenics. In Germany, the _Archiv fuer
+    Rassen und Gesellschafts-biologie_, and the
+    _Politisch-Anthropologische Revue_, are largely occupied with
+    various aspects of such subjects, and in America, _The Popular
+    Science Monthly_ from time to time, publishes articles which have
+    a bearing on eugenics.
+
+At one time there was a tendency to scoff, or to laugh, at the eugenic
+movement. It was regarded as an attempt to breed men as men breed animals,
+and it was thought a sufficiently easy task to sweep away this new
+movement with the remark that love laughs at bolts and bars. It is now
+beginning to be better understood. None but fanatics dream of abolishing
+love in order to effect pairing by rule. It is merely a question of
+limiting the possible number of mates from whom each may select a partner,
+and that, we must remember, has always been done even by savages, for, as
+it has been said, "eugenics is the oldest of the sciences." The question
+has merely been transformed. Instead of being limited mechanically by
+caste, we begin to see that the choice of sexual mates must be limited
+intelligently by actual fitness. Promiscuous marriages have never been the
+rule; the possibility of choice has always been narrow, and the most
+primitive peoples have exerted the most marked self-restraint. It is not
+so merely among remote races but among our own European ancestors.
+Throughout the whole period of Catholic supremacy the Canon law
+multiplied the impediments to matrimony, as by ordaining that
+consanguinity to the fourth degree (third cousins), as well as spiritual
+relationship, is an impediment, and by such arbitrary prohibitions limited
+the range of possible mates at least as much as it would be limited by the
+more reasonable dictates of eugenic considerations.
+
+At the present day it may be said that the principle of the voluntary
+control of procreation, not for the selfish ends of the individual, but in
+order to extinguish disease, to limit human misery, and to raise the
+general level of humanity by substituting the ideal of quality for the
+vulgar ideal of mere quantity, is now generally accepted, alike by medical
+pathologists, embryologists and neurologists, and by sociologists and
+moralists.
+
+    It would be easy to multiply quotations from distinguished
+    authorities on this point. Thus, Metchnikoff points out (_Essais
+    Optimistes_, p. 419) that orthobiosis seems to involve the
+    limitation of offspring in the fight against disease. Ballantyne
+    concludes his great treatise on _Antenanal Pathology_ with the
+    statement that "Eugenics" or well-begetting, is one of the
+    world's most pressing problems. Dr. Louise Robinovitch, the
+    editor of the _Journal of Mental Pathology_, in a brilliant and
+    thoughtful paper, read before the Rome Congress of Psychology in
+    1905, well spoke in the same sense: "Nations have not yet
+    elevated the energy of genesic function to the dignity of an
+    energy. Other energies known to us, even of the meanest grade,
+    have long since been wisely utilized, and their activities based
+    on the principle of the strictest possible economy. This economic
+    utilization has been brought about, not through any enforcement
+    of legislative restrictions, but through steadily progressive
+    human intelligence. Economic handling of genesic function will,
+    like the economic function of other energies, come about through
+    a steady and progressive intellectual development of nations."
+    "There are circumstances," says C.H. Hughes, ("Restricted
+    Procreation," _Alienist and Neurologist_, May, 1908), "under
+    which the propagation of a human life may be as gravely criminal
+    as the taking of a life already begun."
+
+    From the general biological, as well as from the sociological
+    side, the acceptance of the same standpoint is constantly
+    becoming more general, for it is recognized as the inevitable
+    outcome of movements which have long been in progress.
+
+    "Already," wrote Haycraft (_Darwinism and Race Progress_, p.
+    160), referring to the law for the prevention of cruelty to
+    children, "public opinion has expressed itself in the public
+    rule that a man and woman, in begetting a child, must take upon
+    themselves the obligation and responsibility of seeing that that
+    child is not subjected to cruelty and hardship. It is but one
+    step more to say that a man and a woman shall be under obligation
+    not to produce children, when it is certain that, from their want
+    of physique, they will have to undergo suffering, and will keep
+    up but an unequal struggle with their fellows." Professor J.
+    Arthur Thomson, in his volume on _Heredity_ (1908), vigorously
+    and temperately pleads (p. 528) for rational methods of eugenics,
+    as specially demanded in an age like our own, when the unfit have
+    been given a better chance of reproduction than they have ever
+    been given in any other age. Bateson, again, referring to the
+    growing knowledge of heredity, remarks (_Mendel's Principles of
+    Heredity_, 1909, p. 305): "Genetic knowledge must certainly lead
+    to new conceptions of justice, and it is by no means impossible
+    that, in the light of such knowledge, public opinion will welcome
+    measures likely to do more for the extinction of the criminal and
+    the degenerate than has been accomplished by ages of penal
+    enactment." Adolescent youths and girls, said Anton von Menger,
+    in his last book, the pregnant _Neue Sittenlehre_ (1905), must be
+    taught that the production of children, under certain
+    circumstances, is a crime; they must also be taught the voluntary
+    restraint of conception, even in health; such teaching, Menger
+    rightly added, is a necessary preliminary to any legislation in
+    this direction.
+
+    Of recent years, many books and articles have been devoted to the
+    advocacy of eugenic methods. Mention may be made, for instance,
+    of _Population and Progress_ (1907), by Montague Crackanthorpe,
+    President of the Eugenics Education Society. See also, Havelock
+    Ellis, "Eugenics and St. Valentine," _Nineteenth Century and
+    After_, May, 1906. It may be mentioned that nearly thirty years
+    ago, Miss J.H. Clapperton, in her _Scientific Meliorism_ (1885,
+    Ch. XVII), pointed out that the voluntary restraint of
+    procreation by Neo-Malthusian methods, apart from merely
+    prudential motives, there clearly recognized, is "a new key to
+    the social position," and a necessary condition for "national
+    regeneration." Professor Karl Pearson's _Groundwork of Eugenics_,
+    (1909) is, perhaps, the best brief introduction to the subject.
+    Mention may also be made of Dr. Saleeby's _Parenthood and Race
+    Culture_ (1909), written in a popular and enthusiastic manner.
+
+    How widely the general principles of eugenics are now accepted as
+    the sound method of raising the level of the human race, was well
+    shown at a meeting of the Sociological Society, in 1905, when,
+    after Sir Francis Galton had read papers on the question, the
+    meeting heard the opinions of numerous sociologists, economists,
+    biologists, and well-known thinkers in various lands, who were
+    present, or who had sent communications. Some twenty-one
+    expressed more or less unqualified approval, and only three or
+    four had objections to offer, mostly on matters of detail
+    (_Sociological Papers_, published by the Sociological Society,
+    vol. ii, 1905).
+
+If we ask by what channels this impulse towards the control of procreation
+for the elevation of the race is expressing itself in practical life, we
+shall scarcely fail to find that there are at least two such channels: (1)
+the growing sense of sexual responsibility among women as well as men, and
+(2) the conquest of procreative control which has been achieved in recent
+years, by the general adoption of methods for the prevention of
+conception.
+
+It has already been necessary in a previous chapter to discuss the
+far-reaching significance of woman's personal responsibility as an element
+in the modification of the sexual life of modern communities. Here it need
+only be pointed out that the autonomous authority of a woman over her own
+person, in the sexual sphere, involves on her part a consent to the act of
+procreation which must be deliberate. We are apt to think that this is a
+new and almost revolutionary demand; it is, however, undoubtedly a
+natural, ancient, and recognized privilege of women that they should not
+be mothers without their own consent. Even in the Islamic world of the
+_Arabian Nights_, we find that high praise is accorded to the "virtue and
+courage" of the woman who, having been ravished in her sleep, exposed, and
+abandoned on the highway, the infant that was the fruit of this
+involuntary union, "not wishing," she said, "to take the responsibility
+before Allah of a child that had been born without my consent."[427] The
+approval with which this story is narrated clearly shows that to the
+public of Islam it seemed entirely just and humane that a woman should not
+have a child, except by her own deliberate will. We have been accustomed
+to say in later days that the State needs children, and that it is the
+business and the duty of women to supply them. But the State has no more
+right than the individual to ravish a woman against her will. We are
+beginning to realize that if the State wants children it must make it
+agreeable to women to produce them, as under natural and equitable
+conditions it cannot fail to be. "The women will solve the question of
+mankind," said Ibsen in one of his rare and pregnant private utterances,
+"and they will do it as mothers." But it is unthinkable that any question
+should ever be solved by a helpless, unwilling, and involuntary act which
+has not even attained to the dignity of animal joy.
+
+    It is sometimes supposed, and even assumed, that the demand of
+    women that motherhood must never be compulsory, means that they
+    are unwilling to be mothers on any terms. In a few cases that may
+    be so, but it is certainly not the case as regards the majority
+    of sane and healthy women in any country. On the contrary, this
+    demand is usually associated with the desire to glorify
+    motherhood, if not, indeed, even with the thought of extending
+    motherhood to many who are to-day shut out from it. "It seems to
+    me," wrote Lady Henry Somerset, some years ago ("The Welcome
+    Child," _Arena_, April, 1895), "that life will be dearer and
+    nobler the more we recognize that there is no indelicacy in the
+    climax and crown of creative power, but, rather, that it is the
+    highest glory of the race. But if voluntary motherhood is the
+    crown of the race, involuntary compulsory motherhood is the very
+    opposite.... Only when both man and woman have learned that the
+    most sacred of all functions given to women must be exercised by
+    the free will alone, can children be born into the world who have
+    in them the joyous desire to live, who claim that sweetest
+    privilege of childhood, the certainty that they can expand in the
+    sunshine of the love which is their due." Ellen Key, similarly,
+    while pointing out (_Ueber Liebe und Ehe_, pp. 14, 265) that the
+    tyranny of the old Protestant religious spirit which enjoined on
+    women unlimited submission to joyless motherhood within "the
+    whited sepulchre of marriage" is now being broken, exalts the
+    privileges of voluntary motherhood, while admitting that there
+    may be a few exceptional cases in which women may withdraw
+    themselves from motherhood for the sake of the other demands of
+    their personality, though, "as a general rule, the woman who
+    refuses motherhood in order to serve humanity, is like a soldier
+    who prepares himself on the eve of battle for the forthcoming
+    struggle by opening his veins." Helene Stoecker, likewise, reckons
+    motherhood as one of the demands, one of the growing demands
+    indeed, which women now make. "If, to-day," she says (in the
+    Preface to _Liebe und die Frauen_, 1906), "all the good things of
+    life are claimed even for women--intellectual training, pecuniary
+    independence, a happy vocation in life, a respected social
+    position--and at the same time, as equally matter-of-course, and
+    equally necessary, marriage and child, that demand no longer
+    sounds, as it sounded a few years ago, the voice of a preacher in
+    the wilderness."
+
+    The degradation to which motherhood has, in the eyes of many,
+    fallen, is due partly to the tendency to deprive women of any
+    voice in the question, and partly to what H.G. Wells calls
+    (_Socialism and the Family_, 1906) "the monstrous absurdity of
+    women discharging their supreme social function, bearing and
+    rearing children, in their spare time, as it were, while they
+    'earn their living' by contributing some half mechanical element
+    to some trivial industrial product." It would be impracticable,
+    and even undesirable, to insist that married women should not be
+    allowed to work, for a work in the world is good for all. It is
+    estimated that over thirty per cent. of the women workers in
+    England are married or widows (James Haslam, _Englishwoman_,
+    June, 1909), and in Lancashire factories alone, in 1901, there
+    were 120,000 married women employed. But it would be easily
+    possible for the State to arrange, in its own interests, that a
+    woman's work at a trade should always give way to her work as a
+    mother. It is the more undesirable that married women should be
+    prohibited from working at a profession, since there are some
+    professions for which a married woman, or, rather, a mother, is
+    better equipped than an unmarried woman. This is notably the case
+    as regards teaching, and it would be a good policy to allow
+    married women teachers special privileges in the shape of
+    increased free time and leave of absence. While in many fields of
+    knowledge an unmarried woman may be a most excellent teacher, it
+    is highly undesirable that children, and especially girls, should
+    be brought exclusively under the educational influence of
+    unmarried teachers.
+
+The second great channel through which the impulse towards the control of
+procreation for the elevation of the race is entering into practical life
+is by the general adoption, by the educated classes of all countries--and
+it must be remembered that, in this matter at all events, all classes are
+gradually beginning to become educated--of methods for the prevention of
+conception except when conception is deliberately desired. It is no longer
+permissible to discuss the validity of this control, for it is an
+accomplished fact and has become a part of our modern morality. "If a
+course of conduct is habitually and deliberately pursued by vast
+multitudes of otherwise well-conducted people, forming probably a majority
+of the whole educated class of the nation," as Sidney Webb rightly puts
+it, "we must assume that it does not conflict with their actual code of
+morality."[428]
+
+    There cannot be any doubt that, so far as England is concerned,
+    the prevention of conception is practiced, from prudential or
+    other motives, by the vast majority of the educated classes. This
+    fact is well within the knowledge of all who are intimately
+    acquainted with the facts of English family life. Thus, Dr. A.W.
+    Thomas writes (_British Medical Journal_, Oct. 20, 1906, p.
+    1066): "From my experience as a general practitioner, I have no
+    hesitation in saying that ninety per cent. of young married
+    couples of the comfortably-off classes use preventives." As a
+    matter of fact, this rough estimate appears to be rather under
+    than over the mark. In the very able paper already quoted, in
+    which Sidney Webb shows that "the decline in the birthrate
+    appears to be much greater in those sections of the population
+    which give proofs of thrift and foresight," that this decline is
+    "principally, if not entirely, the result of deliberate
+    volition," and that "a volitional regulation of the marriage
+    state is now ubiquitous throughout England and Wales, among,
+    apparently, a large majority of the population," the results are
+    brought forward of a detailed inquiry carried out by the Fabian
+    Society. This inquiry covered 316 families, selected at random
+    from all parts of Great Britain, and belonging to all sections of
+    the middle class. The results are carefully analyzed, and it is
+    found that seventy-four families were unlimited, and two hundred
+    and forty-two voluntarily limited. When, however, the decade
+    1890-99 is taken by itself as the typical period, it is found
+    that of 120 marriages, 107 were limited, and only thirteen
+    unlimited, while of these thirteen, five were childless at the
+    date of the return. In this decade, therefore, only seven
+    unlimited fertile marriages are reported, out of a total of 120.
+
+    What is true of Great Britain is true of all other civilized
+    countries, in the highest degree true of the most civilized
+    countries, and it finds expression in the well-known phenomenon
+    of the decline of the birthrate. In modern times, this movement
+    of decline began in France, producing a slow but steady
+    diminution in the annual number of births, and in France the
+    movement seems now to be almost, or quite, arrested. But it has
+    since taken place in all other progressive countries, notably in
+    the United States, in Canada, in Australia, and in New Zealand,
+    as well as in Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy, Spain, Switzerland,
+    Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. In England, it has
+    been continuous since 1877. Of the great countries, Russia is
+    the only one in which it has not yet taken place, and among the
+    masses of the Russian population we find less education, more
+    poverty, a higher deathrate, and a greater amount of disease,
+    than in any other great, or even small, civilized country.
+
+    It is sometimes said, indeed, that the decline of the birthrate
+    is not entirely due to the voluntary control of procreation. It
+    is undoubtedly true that certain other elements, common under
+    civilized conditions, such as the postponement of marriage in
+    women to a comparatively late age, tend to diminish the size of
+    the family. But when all such allowances have been made, the
+    decline is still found to be real and large. This has been shown,
+    for instance, by the statistical analyses made by Arthur
+    Newsholme and T.H.C. Stevenson, and by G. Yule, both published in
+    _Journal Royal Statistical Society_, April, 1906.
+
+    Some have supposed that, since the Catholic Church forbids
+    incomplete sexual intercourse, this movement for the control of
+    procreation will involve a relatively much greater increase among
+    Catholic than among non-Catholic populations. This, however, is
+    only correct under certain conditions. It is quite true that in
+    Ireland there has been no fall in the birthrate, and that the
+    fall is but little marked in those Lancashire towns which possess
+    a large Irish element. But in Belgium, Italy, Spain, and other
+    mainly Catholic countries, the decline in the birthrate is duly
+    taking place. What has happened is that the Church--always alive
+    to sexual questions--has realized the importance of the modern
+    movement, and has adapted herself to it, by proclaiming to her
+    more ignorant and uneducated children that incomplete intercourse
+    is a deadly sin, while at the same time refraining from making
+    inquiries into this matter among her more educated members. The
+    question was definitely brought up for Papal judgment, in 1842,
+    by Bishop Bouvier of Le Mans, who stated the matter very clearly,
+    representing to the Pope (Gregory XVI) that the prevention of
+    conception was becoming very common, and that to treat it as a
+    deadly sin merely resulted in driving the penitent away from
+    confession. After mature consideration, the Curia Sacra
+    Poenitentiaria replied by pointing out, as regards the common
+    method of withdrawal before emission, that since it was due to
+    the wrong act of the man, the woman who has been forced by her
+    husband to consent to it, has committed no sin. Further, the
+    Bishop was reminded of the wise dictum of Liguori, "the most
+    learned and experienced man in these matters," that the confessor
+    is not usually called upon to make inquiry upon so delicate a
+    matter as the _debitum conjugale_, and, if his opinion is not
+    asked, he should be silent (Bouvier, _Dissertatio in sextum
+    Decalogi praeceptum; supplementum ad Tractatum de Matrimonio_.
+    1849, pp. 179-182; quoted by Hans Ferdy, _Sexual-Probleme_, Aug.,
+    1908, p. 498). We see, therefore, that, among Catholic as well as
+    among non-Catholic populations, the adoption of preventive
+    methods of conception follows progress and civilization, and
+    that the general practice of such methods by Catholics (with the
+    tacit consent of the Church) is merely a matter of time.
+
+From time to time many energetic persons have noisily demanded that a stop
+should be put to the decline of the birthrate, for, they argue, it means
+"race suicide." It is now beginning to be realized, however, that this
+outcry was a foolish and mischievous mistake. It is impossible to walk
+through the streets of any great city, full of vast numbers of persons
+who, obviously, ought never to have been born, without recognizing that
+the birthrate is as yet very far above its normal and healthy limit. The
+greatest States have often been the smallest so far as mere number of
+citizens is concerned, for it is quality not quantity that counts. And
+while it is true that the increase of the best types of citizens can only
+enrich a State, it is now becoming intolerable that a nation should
+increase by the mere dumping down of procreative refuse in its midst. It
+is beginning to be realized that this process not only depreciates the
+quality of a people but imposes on a State an inordinate financial burden.
+
+    It is now well recognized that large families are associated with
+    degeneracy, and, in the widest sense, with abnormality of every
+    kind. Thus, it is undoubtedly true that men of genius tend to
+    belong to very large families, though it may be pointed out to
+    those who fear an alarming decrease of genius from the tendency
+    to the limitation of the family, that the position in the family
+    most often occupied by the child of genius is the firstborn. (See
+    Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_, pp. 115-120). The
+    insane, the idiotic, imbecile, and weak-minded, the criminal, the
+    epileptic, the hysterical, the neurasthenic, the tubercular, all,
+    it would appear, tend to belong to large families (see e.g.,
+    Havelock Ellis, op. cit., p. 110; Toulouse, _Les Causes de la
+    Folie_, p. 91; Harriet Alexander, "Malthusianism and Degeneracy,"
+    _Alienist and Neurologist_, Jan., 1901). It has, indeed, been
+    shown by Heron, Pearson, and Goring, that not only the
+    eldest-born, but also the second-born, are specially liable to
+    suffer from pathological defect (insanity, criminality,
+    tuberculosis). There is, however, it would seem, a fallacy in the
+    common interpretation of this fact. According to Van den Velden
+    (as quoted in _Sexual-Probleme_, May, 1909, p. 381), this
+    tendency is fully counterbalanced by the rising mortality of
+    children from the firstborn onward. The greater pathological
+    tendency of the earlier children is thus simply the result of a
+    less stringent selection by death. So far as they show any really
+    greater pathological tendency, apart from this fallacy, it is
+    perhaps due to premature marriage. There is another fallacy in
+    the frequent statement that the children in small families are
+    more feeble than those in large families. We have to distinguish
+    between a naturally small family, and an artificially small
+    family. A family which is small merely as the result of the
+    feeble procreative energy of the parents, is likely to be a
+    feeble family; a family which is small as the result of the
+    deliberate control of the parents, shows, of course, no such
+    tendency.
+
+    These considerations, it will be seen, do not modify the tendency
+    of the large family to be degenerate. We may connect this
+    phenomenon with the disposition, often shown by nervously unsound
+    and abnormal persons, to believe that they have a special
+    aptitude to procreate fine children. "I believe that everyone has
+    a special vocation," said a man to Marro (_La Puberta_, p. 459);
+    "I find that it is my vocation to beget superior children." He
+    begat four,--an epileptic, a lunatic, a dipsomaniac, and a
+    valetudinarian,--and himself died insane. Most people have come
+    across somewhat similar, though perhaps less marked, cases of
+    this delusion. In a matter of such fateful gravity to other human
+    beings, no one can safely rely on his own unsupported
+    impressions.
+
+The demand of national efficiency thus corresponds with the demand of
+developing humanitarianism, which, having begun by attempting to
+ameliorate the conditions of life, has gradually begun to realize that it
+is necessary to go deeper and to ameliorate life itself. For while it is
+undoubtedly true that much may be done by acting systematically on the
+conditions of life, the more searching analysis of evil environmental
+conditions only serves to show that in large parts they are based in the
+human organism itself and were not only pre-natal, but pre-conceptional,
+being involved in the quality of the parental or ancestral organisms.
+
+Putting aside, however, all humanitarian considerations, the serious error
+of attempting to stem the progress of civilization in the direction of
+procreative control could never have occurred if the general tendencies of
+zooelogical evolution had been understood, even in their elements. All
+zooelogical progress is from the more prolific to the less prolific; the
+higher the species the less fruitful are its individual members. The same
+tendency is found within the limits of the human species, though not in an
+invariable straight line; the growth of civilization involves a
+diminution in fertility. This is by no means a new phenomenon; ancient
+Rome and later Geneva, "the Protestant Rome," bear witness to it; no doubt
+it has occurred in every high centre of moral and intellectual culture,
+although the data for measuring the tendency no longer exist. When we take
+a sufficiently wide and intelligent survey, we realize that the tendency
+of a community to slacken its natural rate of increase is an essential
+phenomenon of all advanced civilization. The more intelligent nations have
+manifested the tendency first, and in each nation the more educated
+classes have taken the lead, but it is only a matter of time to bring all
+civilized nations, and all social classes in each nation, into line.[429]
+This movement, we have to remember--in opposition to the ignorant outcry
+of certain would-be moralists and politicians--is a beneficent movement.
+It means a greater regard to the quality than to the quantity of the
+increase; it involves the possibility of combating successfully the evils
+of high mortality, disease, overcrowding, and all the manifold misfortunes
+which inevitably accompany a too exuberant birthrate. For it is only in a
+community which increases slowly that it is possible to secure the
+adequate economic adjustment and environmental modifications necessary for
+a sane and wholesome civic and personal life.[430] If those persons who
+raise the cry of "race suicide" in face of the decline of the birthrate
+really had the knowledge and intelligence to realize the manifold evils
+which they are invoking they would deserve to be treated as criminals.
+
+On the practical side a knowledge of the possibility of preventing
+conception has, doubtless, never been quite extinct in civilization and
+even in lower stages of culture, though it has mostly been utilized for
+ends of personal convenience or practiced in obedience to conventional
+social rules which demanded chastity, and has only of recent times been
+made subservient to the larger interests of society and the elevation of
+the race. The theoretical basis of the control of procreation, on its
+social and economic, as distinct from its eugenic, aspects, may be said to
+date from Malthus's famous _Essay on Population_, first published in 1798,
+an epoch-marking book,--though its central thesis is not susceptible of
+actual demonstration,--since it not only served as the starting-point of
+the modern humanitarian movement for the control of procreation, but also
+furnished to Darwin (and independently to Wallace also) the fruitful idea
+which was finally developed into the great evolutionary theory of natural
+selection.
+
+Malthus, however, was very far from suggesting that the control of
+procreation, which he advocated for the benefit of mankind, should be
+exercised by the introduction of preventive methods into sexual
+intercourse. He believed that civilization involved an increased power of
+self-control, which would make it possible to refrain altogether from
+sexual intercourse, when such self-restraint was demanded in the interests
+of humanity. Later thinkers realized, however, that, while it is
+undoubtedly true that civilization involves greater forethought and
+greater self-control, we cannot anticipate that those qualities should be
+developed to the extent demanded by Malthus, especially when the impulse
+to be controlled is of so powerful and explosive a nature.
+
+James Mill was the pioneer in advocating Neo-Malthusian methods, though he
+spoke cautiously. In 1818, in the article "Colony" in the supplement to
+the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, after remarking that the means of checking
+the unrestricted increase of the population constitutes "the most
+important practical problem to which the wisdom of the politician and
+moralist can be applied," he continued: "If the superstitions of the
+nursery were discarded, and the principle of utility kept steadily in
+view, a solution might not be very difficult to be found." Four years
+later, James Mill's friend, the Radical reformer, Francis Place, more
+distinctly expressed the thought that was evidently in Mill's mind. After
+enumerating the facts concerning the necessity of self-control in
+procreation and the evils of early marriage, which he thinks ought to be
+clearly taught, Place continues: "If a hundredth, perhaps a thousandth
+part of the pains were taken to teach these truths, that are taken to
+teach dogmas, a great change for the better might, in no considerable
+space of time, be expected to take place in the appearance and the habits
+of the people. If, above all, it were once clearly understood that it was
+not disreputable for married persons to avail themselves of such
+precautionary means as would, without being injurious to health, or
+destructive of female delicacy, prevent conception, a sufficient check
+might at once be given to the increase of population beyond the means of
+subsistence; vice and misery, to a prodigious extent, might be removed
+from society, and the object of Mr. Malthus, Mr. Godwin, and of every
+philanthropic person, be promoted, by the increase of comfort, of
+intelligence, and of moral conduct, in the mass of the population. The
+course recommended will, I am fully persuaded, at some period be pursued
+by the people even if left to themselves."[431]
+
+It was not long before Place's prophetic words began to be realized, and
+in another half century the movement was affecting the birthrate of all
+civilized lands, though it can scarcely yet be said that justice has been
+done to the pioneers who promoted it in the face of much persecution from
+the ignorant and superstitious public whom they sought to benefit. In
+1831, Robert Dale Owen, the son of Robert Owen, published his _Moral
+Physiology_, setting forth the methods of preventing conception. A little
+later the brothers George and Charles Drysdale (born 1825 and 1829), two
+ardent and unwearying philanthropists, devoted much of their energy to the
+propagation of Neo-Malthusian principles. George Drysdale, in 1854,
+published his _Elements of Social Science_, which during many years had
+an enormous circulation all over Europe in eight different languages. It
+was by no means in every respect a scientific or sound work, but it
+certainly had great influence, and it came into the hands of many who
+never saw any other work on sexual topics. Although the Neo-Malthusian
+propagandists of those days often met with much obloquy, their cause was
+triumphantly vindicated in 1876, when Charles Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant,
+having been prosecuted for disseminating Neo-Malthusian pamphlets, the
+charge was dismissed, the Lord Chief Justice declaring that so ill-advised
+and injudicious a charge had probably never before been made in a court of
+justice. This trial, even by its mere publicity and apart from its issue,
+gave an enormous impetus to the Neo-Malthusian movement. It is well known
+that the steady decline in the English birthrate begun in 1877, the year
+following the trial. There could be no more brilliant illustration of the
+fact, that what used to be called "the instruments of Providence" are
+indeed unconscious instruments in bringing about great ends which they
+themselves were far from either intending or desiring.
+
+    In 1877, Dr. C.R. Drysdale founded the Malthusian League, and
+    edited a periodical, _The Malthusian_, aided throughout by his
+    wife, Dr. Alice Drysdale Vickery. He died in 1907. (The noble and
+    pioneering work of the Drysdales has not yet been adequately
+    recognized in their own country; an appreciative and
+    well-informed article by Dr. Hermann Rohleder, "Dr. C.R.
+    Drysdale, Der Hauptvortreter der Neumalthusianische Lehre,"
+    appeared in the _Zeitschrift fuer Sexualwissenschaft_, March,
+    1908). There are now societies and periodicals in all civilized
+    countries for the propagation of Neo-Malthusian principles, as
+    they are still commonly called, though it would be desirable to
+    avoid the use of Malthus's name in this connection. In the
+    medical profession, the advocacy of preventive methods of sexual
+    intercourse, not on social, but on medical and hygienic grounds,
+    began same thirty years ago, though in France, at an earlier
+    date, Raciborski advocated the method of avoiding the
+    neighborhood of menstruation. In Germany, Dr. Mensinga, the
+    gynaecologist, is the most prominent advocate, on medical and
+    hygienic grounds, of what he terms "facultative sterility," which
+    he first put forward about 1889. In Russia, about the same time,
+    artificial sterility was first openly advocated by the
+    distinguished gynaecologist, Professor Ott, at the St. Petersburg
+    Obstetric and Gynaecological Society. Such medical
+    recommendations, in particular cases, are now becoming common.
+
+    There are certain cases in which a person ought not to marry at
+    all; this is so, for instance, when there has been an attack of
+    insanity; it can never be said with certainty that a person who
+    has had one attack of insanity will not have another, and persons
+    who have had such attacks ought not, as Blandford says (Lumleian
+    Lectures on Insanity, _British Medical Journal_, April 20, 1895),
+    "to inflict on their partner for life, the anxiety, and even
+    danger, of another attack." There are other and numerous cases in
+    which marriage may be permitted, or may have already taken place,
+    under more favorable circumstances, but where it is, or has
+    become, highly desirable that there should be no children. This
+    is the case when a first attack of insanity occurs after
+    marriage, the more urgently if the affected party is the wife,
+    and especially if the disease takes the form of puerperal mania.
+    "What can be more lamentable," asks Blandford (loc. cit.), "than
+    to see a woman break down in childbed, recover, break down again
+    with the next child, and so on, for six, seven, or eight
+    children, the recovery between each being less and less, until
+    she is almost a chronic maniac?" It has been found, moreover, by
+    Tredgold (_Lancet_, May 17, 1902), that among children born to
+    insane mothers, the mortality is twice as great as the ordinary
+    infantile mortality, in even the poorest districts. In cases of
+    unions between persons with tuberculous antecedents, also, it is
+    held by many (e.g., by Massalongo, in discussing tuberculosis and
+    marriage at the Tuberculosis Congress, at Naples, in 1900) that
+    every precaution should be taken to make the marriage childless.
+    In a third class of cases, it is necessary to limit the children
+    to one or two; this happens in some forms of heart disease, in
+    which pregnancy has a progressively deteriorating effect on the
+    heart (Kisch, _Therapeutische Monatsheft_, Feb., 1898, and
+    _Sexual Life of Woman_; Vinay, _Lyon Medical_, Jan. 8, 1889); in
+    some cases of heart disease, however, it is possible that, though
+    there is no reason for prohibiting marriage, it is desirable for
+    a woman not to have any children (J.F. Blacker, "Heart Disease in
+    Relation to Pregnancy," _British Medical Journal_, May 25, 1907).
+
+    In all such cases, the recommendation of preventive methods of
+    intercourse is obviously an indispensable aid to the physician in
+    emphasizing the supremacy of hygienic precautions. In the absence
+    of such methods, he can never be sure that his warnings will be
+    heard, and even the observance of his advice would be attended
+    with various undesirable results. It sometimes happens that a
+    married couple agree, even before marriage, to live together
+    without sexual relations, but, for various reasons, it is seldom
+    found possible or convenient to maintain this resolution for a
+    long period.
+
+It is the recognition of these and similar considerations which has
+led--though only within recent years--on the one hand, as we have seen, to
+the embodiment of the control of procreation into the practical morality
+of all civilized nations, and, on the other hand, to the assertion, now
+perhaps without exception, by all medical authorities on matters of sex
+that the use of the methods of preventing conception is under certain
+circumstances urgently necessary and quite harmless.[432] It arouses a
+smile to-day when we find that less than a century ago it was possible for
+an able and esteemed medical author to declare that the use of "various
+abominable means" to prevent conception is "based upon a most presumptuous
+doubt in the conservative power of the Creator."[433]
+
+The adaptation of theory to practice is not yet complete, and we could not
+expect that it should be so, for, as we have seen, there is always an
+antagonism between practical morality and traditional morality. From time
+to time flagrant illustrations of this antagonism occur.[434] Even in
+England, which played a pioneering part in the control of procreation,
+attempts are still made--sometimes in quarters where we have a right to
+expect a better knowledge--to cast discredit on a movement which, since
+it has conquered alike scientific approval and popular practice, it is now
+idle to call in question.
+
+It would be out of place to discuss here the various methods which are
+used for the control of procreation, or their respective merits and
+defects. It is sufficient to say that the condom or protective sheath,
+which seems to be the most ancient of all methods of preventing
+conception, after withdrawal, is now regarded by nearly all authorities
+as, when properly used, the safest, the most convenient, and the most
+harmless method.[435] This is the opinion of Krafft-Ebing, of Moll, of
+Schrenck-Notzing, of Loewenfeld, of Forel, of Kisch, of Fuerbringer, to
+mention only a few of the most distinguished medical authorities.[436]
+
+    There is some interest in attempting to trace the origin and
+    history of the condom, though it seems impossible to do so with
+    any precision. It is probable that, in a rudimentary form, such
+    an appliance is of great antiquity. In China and Japan, it would
+    appear, rounds of oiled silk paper are used to cover the mouth of
+    the womb, at all events, by prostitutes. This seems the simplest
+    and most obvious mechanical method of preventing conception, and
+    may have suggested the application of a sheath to the penis as a
+    more effectual method. In Europe, it is in the middle of the
+    sixteenth century, in Italy, that we first seem to hear of such
+    appliances, in the shape of linen sheaths, adapted to the shape
+    of the penis; Fallopius recommended the use of such an appliance.
+    Improvements in the manufacture were gradually devised; the caecum
+    of the lamb was employed, and afterwards, isinglass. It appears
+    that a considerable improvement in the manufacture took place in
+    the seventeenth or eighteenth century, and this improvement was
+    generally associated with England. The appliance thus became
+    known as the English cape or mantle, the "capote anglaise," or
+    the "redingote anglaise," and, under the latter name, is referred
+    to by Casanova, in the middle of the eighteenth century
+    (Casanova, _Memoires_, ed. Garnier, vol. iv, p. 464); Casanova
+    never seems, however, to have used these redingotes himself, not
+    caring, he said, "to shut myself up in a piece of dead skin in
+    order to prove that I am perfectly alive." These capotes--then
+    made of goldbeaters' skin--were, also, it appears, known at an
+    earlier period to Mme. de Sevigne, who did not regard them with
+    favor, for, in one of her letters, she refers to them as
+    "cuirasses contre la volupte et toiles d'arraignee contre le
+    mal." The name, "condom," dates from the eighteenth century,
+    first appearing in France, and is generally considered to be that
+    of an English physician, or surgeon, who invented, or, rather,
+    improved the appliance. Condom is not, however, an English name,
+    but there is an English name, Condon, of which "condom" may well
+    be a corruption. This supposition is strengthened by the fact
+    that the word sometimes actually was written "condon." Thus, in
+    lines quoted by Bachaumont, in his _Diary_ (Dec. 15, 1773), and
+    supposed to be addressed to a former ballet dancer who had become
+    a prostitute, I  find:--
+
+        "Du _condon_ cependant, vous connaissez l'usage,
+                    *       *       *       *       *
+        "Le _condon_, c'est la loi, ma fille, et les prophetes!"
+
+    The difficulty remains, however, of discovering any Englishman of
+    the name of Condon, who can plausibly be associated with the
+    condom; doubtless he took no care to put the matter on record,
+    never suspecting the fame that would accrue to his invention, or
+    the immortality that awaited his name. I find no mention of any
+    Condon in the records of the College of Physicians, and at the
+    College of Surgeons, also, where, indeed, the old lists are very
+    imperfect, Mr. Victor Plarr, the librarian, after kindly making a
+    search, has assured me that there is no record of the name. Other
+    varying explanations of the name have been offered, with more or
+    less assurance, though usually without any proofs. Thus, Hyrtl
+    (_Handbuch der Topographischen Anatomic_, 7th ed., vol. ii, p.
+    212) states that the condom was originally called gondom, from
+    the name of the English discoverer, a Cavalier of Charles II's
+    Court, who first prepared it from the amnion of the sheep; Gondom
+    is, however, no more an English name than Condom. There happens
+    to be a French town, in Gascony, called Condom, and Bloch
+    suggests, without any evidence, that this furnished the name; if
+    so, however, it is improbable that it would have been unknown in
+    France. Finally, Hans Ferdy considers that it is derived from
+    "condus"--that which preserves--and, in accordance with his
+    theory, he terms the condom a condus.
+
+    The early history of the condom is briefly discussed by various
+    writers, as by Proksch, _Die Vorbauung der Venerischen
+    Krankheiten_, p. 48; Bloch, _Sexual Life of Our Time_, Chs. XV
+    and XXVIII; Cabanes, _Indiscretions de l'Histoire_, p. 121, etc.
+
+The control of procreation by the prevention of conception has, we have
+seen, become a part of the morality of civilized peoples. There is another
+method, not indeed for preventing conception, but for limiting offspring,
+which is of much more ancient appearance in the world, though it has at
+different times been very differently viewed and still arouses widely
+opposing opinions. This is the method of abortion.
+
+While the practice of abortion has by no means, like the practice of
+preventing conception, become accepted in civilization, it scarcely
+appears to excite profound repulsion in a large proportion of the
+population of civilized countries. The majority of women, not excluding
+educated and highly moral women, who become pregnant against their wish
+contemplate the possibility of procuring abortion without the slightest
+twinge of conscience, and often are not even aware of the usual
+professional attitude of the Church, the law, and medicine regarding
+abortion. Probably all doctors have encountered this fact, and even so
+distinguished and correct a medico-legist as Brouardel stated[437] that he
+had been not infrequently solicited to procure abortion, for themselves or
+their wet-nurses, by ladies who looked on it as a perfectly natural thing,
+and had not the least suspicion that the law regarded the deed as a crime.
+
+It is not, therefore, surprising that abortion is exceedingly common in
+all civilized and progressive countries. It cannot, indeed, unfortunately,
+be said that abortion has been conducted in accordance with eugenic
+considerations, nor has it often been so much as advocated from the
+eugenic standpoint. But in numerous classes of cases of undesired
+pregnancy, occurring in women of character and energy, not accustomed to
+submit tamely to conditions they may not have sought, and in any case
+consider undesirable, abortion is frequently resorted to. It is usual to
+regard the United States as a land in which the practice especially
+flourishes, and certainly a land in which the ideal of chastity for
+unmarried women, of freedom for married women, of independence for all, is
+actively followed cannot fail to be favorable to the practice of abortion.
+But the way in which the prevalence of abortion is proclaimed in the
+United States is probably in large part due to the honesty of the
+Americans in setting forth, and endeavoring to correct, what, rightly or
+wrongly, they regard as social defects, and may not indicate any real
+pre-eminence in the practice. Comparative statistics are difficult, and it
+is certainly true that abortion is extremely common in England, in France,
+and in Germany. It is probable that any national differences may be
+accounted for by differences in general social habits and ideals. Thus in
+Germany, where considerable sexual freedom is permitted to unmarried women
+and married women are very domesticated, abortion may be less frequent
+than in France where purity is stringently demanded from the young girl,
+while the married woman demands freedom for work and for pleasure. But
+such national differences, if they exist, are tending to be levelled down,
+and charges of criminal abortion are constantly becoming more common in
+Germany; though this increase, again, may be merely due to greater zeal in
+pursuing the offence.
+
+    Brouardel (op. cit., p. 39) quotes the opinion that, in New York,
+    only one in every thousand abortions is discovered. Dr. J.F.
+    Scott (_The Sexual Instinct_, Ch. VIII), who is himself strongly
+    opposed to the practice, considers that in America, the custom of
+    procuring abortion has to-day reached "such vast proportions as
+    to be almost beyond belief," while "countless thousands" of cases
+    are never reported. "It has increased so rapidly in our day and
+    generation," Scott states, "that it has created surprise and
+    alarm in the minds of all conscientious persons who are informed
+    of the extent to which it is carried." (The assumption that those
+    who approve of abortion are necessarily not "conscientious
+    persons" is, as we shall see, mistaken.) The change has taken
+    place since 1840. The Michigan Special Committee on Criminal
+    Abortion reported in 1881 that, from correspondence with nearly
+    one hundred physicians, it appeared that there came to the
+    knowledge of the profession seventeen abortions to every one
+    hundred pregnancies; to these, the committee believe, may be
+    added as many more that never came to the physician's knowledge.
+    The committee further quoted, though without endorsement, the
+    opinion of a physician who believed that a change is now coming
+    over public feeling in regard to the abortionist, who is
+    beginning to be regarded in America as a useful member of
+    society, and even a benefactor.
+
+    In England, also, there appears to have been a marked increase of
+    abortion during recent years, perhaps specially marked among the
+    poor and hard-working classes. A writer in the _British Medical
+    Journal_ (April 9, 1904, p. 865) finds that abortion is
+    "wholesale and systematic," and gives four cases occurring in his
+    practice during four months, in which women either attempted to
+    produce abortion, or requested him to do so; they were married
+    women, usually with large families, and in delicate health, and
+    were willing to endure any suffering, if they might be saved from
+    further child-bearing. Abortion is frequently effected, or
+    attempted, by taking "Female Pills," which contain small portions
+    of lead, and are thus liable to produce very serious symptoms,
+    whether or not they induce abortion. Professor Arthur Hall, of
+    Sheffield, who has especially studied this use of lead ("The
+    Increasing Use of Lead as an Abortifacient," _British Medical
+    Journal_, March 18, 1905), finds that the practice has lately
+    become very common in the English Midlands, and is gradually, it
+    appears, widening its circle. It occurs chiefly among married
+    women with families, belonging to the working class, and it tends
+    to become specially prevalent during periods of trade depression
+    (cf. G. Newman, _Infant Mortality_, p. 81). Women of better
+    social class resort to professional abortionists, and sometimes
+    go over to Paris.
+
+    In France, also, and especially in Paris, there has been a great
+    increase during recent years in the practice of abortion. (See
+    e.g., a discussion at the Paris Societe de Medecine Legale,
+    _Archives d'Anthropologie Criminelle_, May, 1907.) Doleris has
+    shown (_Bulletin de la Societe d'Obstetrique_, Feb., 1905) that
+    in the Paris Maternites the percentage of abortions in
+    pregnancies doubled between 1898 and 1904, and Doleris estimates
+    that about half of these abortions were artificially induced. In
+    France, abortion is mainly carried on by professional
+    abortionists. One of these, Mme. Thomas, who was condemned to
+    penal servitude, in 1891, acknowledged performing 10,000
+    abortions during eight years; her charge for the operation was
+    two francs and upwards. She was a peasant's daughter, brought up
+    in the home of her uncle, a doctor, whose medical and obstetrical
+    books she had devoured (A. Hamon, _La France en 1891_, pp.
+    629-631). French public opinion is lenient to abortion,
+    especially to women who perform the operation on themselves; not
+    many cases are brought into court, and of these, forty per cent.
+    are acquitted (Eugene Bausset, _L'Avortement Criminel_, These de
+    Paris, 1907). The professional abortionist is, however, usually
+    sent to prison.
+
+    In Germany, also, abortion appears to have greatly increased
+    during recent years, and the yearly number of cases of criminal
+    abortion brought into the courts was, in 1903, more than double
+    as many as in 1885. (See, also, Elisabeth Zanzinger, _Geschlecht
+    und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 5; and _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan.,
+    1908, p. 23.)
+
+In view of these facts it is not surprising that the induction of abortion
+has been permitted and even encouraged in many civilizations. Its
+unqualified condemnation is only found in Christendom, and is due to
+theoretical notions. In Turkey, under ordinary circumstances, there is no
+punishment for abortion. In the classic civilization of Greece and Rome,
+likewise, abortion was permitted though with certain qualifications and
+conditions. Plato admitted the mother's right to decide on abortion but
+said that the question should be settled as early as possible in
+pregnancy. Aristotle, who approved of abortion, was of the same opinion.
+Zeno and the Stoics regarded the foetus as the fruit of the womb, the soul
+being acquired at birth; this was in accordance with Roman law which
+decreed that the foetus only became a human being at birth.[438] Among the
+Romans abortion became very common, but, in accordance with the
+patriarchal basis of early Roman institutions, it was the father, not the
+mother, who had the right to exercise it. Christianity introduced a new
+circle of ideas based on the importance of the soul, on its immortality,
+and the necessity of baptism as a method of salvation from the results of
+inherited sin. We already see this new attitude in St. Augustine who,
+discussing whether embryos that died in the womb will rise at the
+resurrection, says "I make bold neither to affirm nor to deny, although I
+fail to see why, if they are not excluded from the number of the dead,
+they should not attain to the resurrection of the dead."[439] The
+criminality of abortion was, however, speedily established, and the early
+Christian Emperors, in agreement with the Church, edicted many fantastic
+and extreme penalties against abortion. This tendency continued under
+ecclesiastical influence, unrestrained, until the humanitarian movement of
+the eighteenth century, when Beccaria, Voltaire, Rousseau and other great
+reformers succeeded in turning the tide of public opinion against the
+barbarity of the laws, and the penalty of death for abortion was finally
+abolished.[440]
+
+Medical science and practice at the present day--although it can scarcely
+be said that it speaks with an absolutely unanimous voice--on the whole
+occupies a position midway between that of the classic lawyers and that of
+the later Christian ecclesiastics. It is, on the whole, in favor of
+sacrificing the foetus whenever the interests of the mother demand such a
+sacrifice. General medical opinion is not, however, prepared at present to
+go further, and is distinctly disinclined to aid the parents in exerting
+an unqualified control over the foetus in the womb, nor is it yet disposed
+to practice abortion on eugenic grounds. It is obvious, indeed, that
+medicine cannot in this matter take the initiative, for it is the primary
+duty of medicine to save life. Society itself must assume the
+responsibility of protecting the race.
+
+    Dr. S. Macvie ("Mother _versus_ Child," _Transactions Edinburgh
+    Obstetrical Society_, vol. xxiv, 1899) elaborately discusses the
+    respective values of the foetus and the adult on the basis of
+    life-expectancy, and concludes that the foetus is merely
+    "a parasite performing no function whatever," and that "unless
+    the life-expectancy of the child covers the years in which its
+    potentiality is converted into actuality, the relative values of
+    the maternal and foetal life will be that of actual as against
+    potential." This statement seems fairly sound. Ballantyne
+    (_Manual of Antenatal Pathology: The Foetus_, p. 459)
+    endeavors to make the statement more precise by saying that "the
+    mother's life has a value, because she is what she is, while the
+    foetus only has a possible value, on account of what it may
+    become."
+
+    Durlacher, among others, has discussed, in careful and cautious
+    detail, the various conditions in which the physician should, or
+    should not, induce abortion in the interests of the mother ("Der
+    Kuenstliche Abort," _Wiener Klinik_, Aug. and Sept., 1906); so
+    also, Eugen Wilhelm ("Die Abtreibung und das Recht des Arztes zur
+    Vernichtung der Leibesfrucht," _Sexual-Probleme_, May and June,
+    1909). Wilhelm further discusses whether it is desirable to alter
+    the laws in order to give the physician greater freedom in
+    deciding on abortion. He concludes that this is not necessary,
+    and might even act injuriously, by unduly hampering medical
+    freedom. Any change in the law should merely be, he considers, in
+    the direction of asserting that the destruction of the foetus is
+    not abortion in the legal sense, provided it is indicated by the
+    rules of medical science. With reference to the timidity of some
+    medical men in inducing abortion, Wilhelm remarks that, even in
+    the present state of the law, the physician who conscientiously
+    effects abortion, in accordance with his best knowledge, even if
+    mistakenly, may consider himself safe from all legal penalties,
+    and that he is much more likely to come in conflict with the law
+    if it can be proved that death followed as a result of his
+    neglect to induce abortion.
+
+    Pinard, who has discussed the right to control the foetal
+    life (_Annales de Gynecologie_, vols. lii and liii, 1899 and
+    1900), inspired by his enthusiastic propaganda for the salvation
+    of infant life, is led to the unwarranted conclusion that no one
+    has the rights of life and death over the foetus; "the infant's
+    right to his life is an imprescriptible and sacred right, which
+    no power can take from him." There is a mistake here, unless
+    Pinard deliberately desires to place himself, like Tolstoy, in
+    opposition to current civilized morality. So far from the infant
+    having any "imprescriptible right to life," even the adult has,
+    in human societies, no such inalienable right, and very much less
+    the foetus, which is not strictly a human being at all. We assume
+    the right of terminating the lives of those individuals whose
+    anti-social conduct makes them dangerous, and, in war, we
+    deliberately terminate, amid general applause and enthusiasm, the
+    lives of men who have been specially selected for this purpose on
+    account of their physical and general efficiency. It would be
+    absurdly inconsistent to say that we have no rights over the
+    lives of creatures that have, as yet, no part in human society at
+    all, and are not so much as born. We are here in presence of a
+    vestige of ancient theological dogma, and there can be little
+    doubt that, on the theoretical side at all events, the
+    "imprescriptible right" of the embryo will go the same way as the
+    "imprescriptible right" of the spermatozoeon. Both rights are
+    indeed "imprescriptible."
+
+Of recent years a new, and, it must be admitted, somewhat unexpected,
+aspect of this question of abortion has been revealed. Hitherto it has
+been a question entirely in the hands of men, first, following the Roman
+traditions, in the hands of Christian ecclesiastics, and later, in those
+of the professional castes. Yet the question is in reality very largely,
+and indeed mainly, a woman's question, and now, more especially in
+Germany, it has been actively taken up by women. The Graefin Gisela
+Streitberg occupies the pioneering place in this movement with her book
+_Das Recht zur Beiseitigung Keimenden Lebens_, and was speedily followed,
+from 1897 onwards, by a number of distinguished women who occupy a
+prominent place in the German woman's movement, among others Helene
+Stoecker, Oda Olberg, Elisabeth Zanzinger, Camilla Jellinek. All these
+writers insist that the foetus is not yet an independent human being, and
+that every woman, by virtue of the right over her own body, is entitled to
+decide whether it shall become an independent human being. At the Woman's
+Congress held in the autumn of 1905, a resolution was passed demanding
+that abortion should only be punishable when effected by another person
+against the wish of the pregnant women herself.[441] The acceptance of
+this resolution by a representative assembly is interesting proof of the
+interest now taken by women in the question, and of the strenuous attitude
+they are tending to assume.
+
+    Elisabeth Zanzinger ("Verbrechen gegen die Leibesfrucht,"
+    _Geschlecht und Gesellschaft_, Bd. II, Heft 5, 1907) ably and
+    energetically condemns the law which makes abortion a crime. "A
+    woman herself is the only legitimate possessor of her own body
+    and her own health.... Just as it is a woman's private right, and
+    most intimate concern, to present her virginity as her best gift
+    to the chosen of her heart, so it is certainly a pregnant woman's
+    own private concern if, for reasons which seem good to her, she
+    decides to destroy the results of her action." A woman who
+    destroys the embryo which might become a burden to the community,
+    or is likely to be an inferior member of society, this writer
+    urges, is doing a service to the community, which ought to reward
+    her, perhaps by granting her special privileges as regards the
+    upbringing of her other children. Oda Olberg, in a thoughtful
+    paper ("Ueber den Juristischen Schutz des Keimenden Lebens," _Die
+    Neue Generation_, June, 1908), endeavors to make clear all that
+    is involved in the effort to protect the developing embryo
+    against the organism that carries it, to protect a creature, that
+    is, against itself and its own instincts. She considers that most
+    of the women who terminate their pregnancies artificially would
+    only have produced undesirables, for the normal, healthy, robust
+    woman has no desire to effect abortion. "There are women who are
+    psychically sterile, without being physically so, and who possess
+    nothing of motherhood but the ability to bring forth. These, when
+    they abort, are simply correcting a failure of Nature." Some of
+    them, she remarks, by going on to term, become guilty of the far
+    worse offence of infanticide. As for the women who desire
+    abortion merely from motives of vanity, or convenience, Oda
+    Olberg points out that the circles in which these motives rule
+    are quite able to limit their children without having to resort
+    to abortion. She concludes that society must protect the young
+    life in every way, by social hygiene, by laws for the protection
+    of the workers, by spreading a new morality on the basis of the
+    laws of heredity. But we need no law to protect the young
+    creature against its own mother, for a thousand natural forces
+    are urging the mother to protect her own child, and we may be
+    sure that she will not disobey these forces without very good
+    reasons. Camilla Jellinek, again (_Die Strafrechtsreform_, etc.,
+    Heidelberg, 1909), in a powerful and well-informed address before
+    the Associated German Frauenvereine, at Breslau, argues in the
+    same sense.
+
+    The lawyers very speedily came to the assistance of the women in
+    this matter, the more readily, no doubt, since the traditions of
+    the greatest and most influential body of law already pointed, on
+    one side at all events, in the same direction. It may, indeed, be
+    claimed that it was from the side of law--and in Italy, the
+    classic land of legal reform--that this new movement first begun.
+    In 1888, Balestrini published, at Turin, his _Aborto,
+    Infanticidio ed Esposizione d'Infante_, in which he argued that
+    the penalty should be removed from abortion. It was a very able
+    and learned book, inspired by large ideas and a humanitarian
+    spirit, but though its importance is now recognized, it cannot be
+    said that it attracted much attention on publication.
+
+    It is especially in Germany that, during recent years, lawyers
+    have followed women reformers, by advocating, more or less
+    completely, the abolition of the punishment for abortion. So
+    distinguished an authority as Von Liszt, in a private letter to
+    Camilla Jellinek (op. cit.), states that he regards the
+    punishment of abortion as "very doubtful," though he considers
+    its complete abolition impracticable; he thinks abortion might be
+    permitted during the early months of pregnancy, thus bringing
+    about a return of the old view. Hans Gross states his opinion
+    (_Archiv fuer Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd. XII, p. 345) that the
+    time is not far distant when abortion will no longer be punished.
+    Radbruch and Von Lilienthal speak in the same sense. Weinberg has
+    advocated a change in the law (_Mutterschutz_, 1905, Heft 8),
+    and Kurt Hiller (_Die Neue Generation_, April, 1909), also from
+    the legal side, argues that abortion should only be punishable
+    when effected by a married woman, without the knowledge and
+    consent of her husband.
+
+The medical profession, which took the first step in modern times in the
+authorization of abortion, has not at present taken any further step. It
+has been content to lay down the principle that when the interests of the
+mother are opposed to those of the foetus, it is the latter which must be
+sacrificed. It has hesitated to take the further step of placing abortion
+on the eugenic basis, and of claiming the right to insist on abortion
+whenever the medical and hygienic interests of society demand such a step.
+This attitude is perfectly intelligible. Medicine has in the past been
+chiefly identified with the saving of lives, even of worthless and worse
+than worthless lives; "Keep everything alive! Keep everything alive!"
+nervously cried Sir James Paget. Medicine has confined itself to the
+humble task of attempting to cure evils, and is only to-day beginning to
+undertake the larger and nobler task of preventing them.
+
+    "The step from killing the child in the womb to murdering a
+    person when out of the womb, is a dangerously narrow one," sagely
+    remarks a recent medical author, probably speaking for many
+    others, who somehow succeed in blinding themselves to the fact
+    that this "dangerously narrow step" has been taken by mankind,
+    only too freely, for thousands of years past, long before
+    abortion was known in the world.
+
+    Here and there, however, medical authors of repute have advocated
+    the further extension of abortion, with precautions, and under
+    proper supervision, as an aid to eugenic progress. Thus,
+    Professor Max Flesch (_Die Neue Generation_, April, 1909) is in
+    favor of a change in the law permitting abortion (provided it is
+    carried out by the physician) in special cases, as when the
+    mother's pregnancy has been due to force, when she has been
+    abandoned, or when, in the interests of the community, it is
+    desirable to prevent the propagation of insane, criminal,
+    alcoholic, or tuberculous persons.
+
+    In France, a medical man, Dr. Jean Darricarrere, has written a
+    remarkable novel, _Le Droit d'Avortement_ (1906), which advocates
+    the thesis that a woman always possesses a complete right to
+    abortion, and is the supreme judge as to whether she will or not
+    undergo the pain and risks of childbirth. The question is, here,
+    however, obviously placed not on medical, but on humanitarian and
+    feminist grounds.
+
+We have seen that, alike on the side of practice and of theory, a great
+change has taken place during recent years in the attitude towards
+abortion. It must, however, clearly be recognized that, unlike the control
+of procreation by methods for preventing conception, facultative abortion
+has not yet been embodied in our current social morality. If it is
+permissible to interpolate a personal opinion, I may say that to me it
+seems that our morality is here fairly reasonable.[442] I am decidedly of
+opinion that an unrestricted permission for women to practice abortion in
+their own interests, or even for communities to practice it in the
+interests of the race, would be to reach beyond the stage of civilization
+we have at present attained. As Ellen Key very forcibly argues, a
+civilization which permits, without protest, the barbarous slaughter of
+its carefully selected adults in war has not yet won the right to destroy
+deliberately even its most inferior vital products in the womb. A
+civilization guilty of so reckless a waste of life cannot safely be
+entrusted with this judicial function. The blind and aimless anxiety to
+cherish the most hopeless and degraded forms of life, even of unborn life,
+may well be a weakness, and since it often leads to incalculable
+suffering, even a crime. But as yet there is an impenetrable barrier
+against progress in this direction. Before we are entitled to take life
+deliberately for the sake of purifying life, we must learn how to preserve
+it by abolishing such destructive influences--war, disease, bad industrial
+conditions--as are easily within our social power as civilized
+nations.[443]
+
+There is, further, another consideration which seems to me to carry
+weight. The progress of civilization is in the direction of greater
+foresight, of greater prevention, of a diminished need for struggling with
+the reckless lack of prevision. The necessity for abortion is precisely
+one of those results of reckless action which civilization tends to
+diminish. While we may admit that in a sounder state of civilization a few
+cases might still occur when the induction of abortion would be desirable,
+it seems probable that the number of such cases will decrease rather than
+increase. In order to do away with the need for abortion, and to
+counteract the propaganda in its favor, our main reliance must be placed,
+on the one hand, on increased foresight in the determination of conception
+and increased knowledge of the means for preventing conception,[444] and
+on the other hand, on a better provision by the State for the care of
+pregnant women, married and unmarried alike, and a practical recognition
+of the qualified mother's claim on society.[445] There can be little doubt
+that, in many a charge of criminal abortion, the real offence lies at the
+door of those who have failed to exercise their social and professional
+duty of making known the more natural and harmless methods for preventing
+conception, or else by their social attitude have made the pregnant
+woman's position intolerable. By active social reform in these two
+directions, the new movement in favor of abortion may be kept in check,
+and it may even be found that by stimulating such reform that movement has
+been beneficial.
+
+We have seen that the deliberate restraint of conception has become a part
+of our civilized morality, and that the practice and theory of facultative
+abortion has gained a footing among us. There remains a third and yet more
+radical method of controlling procreation, the method of preventing the
+possibility of procreation altogether by the performance of castration or
+other slighter operation having a like inhibitory effect on reproduction.
+The other two methods only effect a single act of union or its results,
+but castration affects all subsequent acts of sexual union and usually
+destroys the procreative power permanently.
+
+Castration for various social and other purposes is an ancient and
+widespread practice, carried out on men and on animals. There has,
+however, been on the whole a certain prejudice against it when applied to
+men. Many peoples have attached a very sacred value to the integrity of
+the sexual organs. Among some primitive peoples the removal of these
+organs has been regarded as a peculiarly ferocious insult, only to be
+carried out in moments of great excitement, as after a battle. Medicine
+has been opposed to any interference with the sexual organs. The oath
+taken by the Greek physicians appears to prohibit castration: "I will not
+cut."[446] In modern times a great change has taken place, the castration
+of both men and women is commonly performed in diseased conditions; the
+same operation is sometimes advocated and occasionally performed in the
+hope that it may remove strong and abnormal sexual impulses. And during
+recent years castration has been invoked in the cause of negative
+eugenics, to a greater extent, indeed, on account of its more radical
+character, than either the prevention of conception or abortion.
+
+The movement in favor of castration appears to have begun in the United
+States, where various experiments have been made in embodying it in law.
+It was first advocated merely as a punishment for criminals, and
+especially sexual offenders, by Hammond, Everts, Lydston and others. From
+this point of view, however, it seems to be unsatisfactory and perhaps
+illegitimate. In many cases castration is no punishment at all, and indeed
+a positive benefit. In other cases, when inflicted against the subject's
+will, it may produce very disturbing mental effects, leading in already
+degenerate or unbalanced persons to insanity, criminality, and anti-social
+tendencies generally, much more dangerous than the original state.
+Eugenic considerations, which were later brought forward, constitute a
+much sounder argument for castration; in this case the castration is
+carried out, by no means in order to inflict a barbarous and degrading
+punishment, but, with the subject's consent, in order to protect the
+community from the risk of useless or mischievous members.
+
+    The fact that castration can no longer be properly considered a
+    punishment, is shown by the possibility of deliberately seeking
+    the operation simply for the sake of convenience, as a preferable
+    and most effective substitute for the adoption of preventive
+    methods in sexual intercourse. I am only at present acquainted
+    with one case in which this course has been adopted. This subject
+    is a medical man (of Puritan New England ancestry) with whose
+    sexual history, which is quite normal, I have been acquainted for
+    a long time past. His present age is thirty-nine. A few years
+    since, having a sufficiently large family, he adopted preventive
+    methods of intercourse. The subsequent events I narrate in his
+    own words: "The trouble, forethought, etc., rendered necessary by
+    preventive measures, grew more and more irksome to me as the
+    years passed by, and finally, I laid the matter before another
+    physician, and on his assurances, and after mature deliberation
+    with my wife, was operated on some time since, and rendered
+    sterile by having the vas deferens on each side exposed through a
+    slit in the scrotum, then tied in two places with silk and
+    severed between the ligatures. This was done under cocaine
+    infiltrative anaesthesia, and was not so extremely painful, though
+    what pain there was (dragging the cord out through the slit,
+    etc.) seemed very hard to endure. I was not out of my office a
+    single day, nor seriously disturbed in any way. In six days all
+    stitches in the scrotum were removed, and in three weeks I
+    abandoned the suspensory bandage that had been rendered necessary
+    by the extreme sensitiveness of the testicles and cord.
+
+    "The operation has proved a most complete success in every way.
+    Sexual functions are _absolutely unaffected in any way
+    whatsoever_. There is no sense of discomfort or uneasiness in the
+    sexual tract, and what seems strangest of all to me, is the fact
+    that the semen, so far as one can judge by ordinary means of
+    observation, is undiminished in quantity and unchanged in
+    character. (Of course, the microscope would reveal its fatal
+    lack.)
+
+    "My wife is delighted at having fear banished from our love, and,
+    taken all in all, it certainly seems as if life would mean more
+    to us both. Incidentally, the health of both of us seems better
+    than usual, particularly so in my wife's case, and this she
+    attributes to a soothing influence that is attained by allowing
+    the seminal fluid to be deposited in a perfectly normal manner,
+    and remain in contact with the vaginal secretions until it
+    naturally passes off.
+
+    "This operation being comparatively new, and, as yet, not often
+    done on others than the insane, criminal, etc., I thought it
+    might be of interest to you. If I shed even the faintest ray of
+    light on this greatest of all human problems ... I shall be glad
+    indeed."
+
+    Such a case, with its so far satisfactory issue, certainly
+    deserves to be placed on record, though it may well be that at
+    present it will not be widely imitated.
+
+The earliest advocacy of castration, which I have met with as a part of
+negative eugenics, for the specific "purpose of prophylaxis as applied to
+race improvement and the protection of society," is by Dr. F.E. Daniel, of
+Texas, and dates from 1893.[447] Daniel mixed up, however, somewhat
+inextricably, castration as a method of purifying the race, a method which
+can be carried out with the concurrence of the individual operated on,
+with castration as a punishment, to be inflicted for rape, sodomy,
+bestiality, pederasty and even habitual masturbation, the method of its
+performance, moreover, to be the extremely barbarous and primitive method
+of total ablation of the sexual organs. In more recent years somewhat more
+equitable, practical, and scientific methods of castration have been
+advocated, not involving the removal of the sexual glands or organs, and
+not as a punishment, but simply for the sake of protecting the community
+and the race from the burden of probably unproductive and possibly
+dangerous members. Naecke has, from 1899 onwards, repeatedly urged the
+social advantages of this measure.[448] The propagation of the inferior
+elements of society, Naecke insists, brings unhappiness into the family and
+is a source of great expense to the State. He regards castration as the
+only effective method of prevention, and concludes that it is, therefore,
+our duty to adopt it, just as we have adopted vaccination, taking care to
+secure the consent of the subject himself or his guardian, of the civil
+authorities, and, if necessary, of a committee of experts. Professor
+Angelo Zuccarelli of Naples has also, from 1899 onwards, emphasized the
+importance of castration in the sterilization of the epileptic, the insane
+of various classes, the alcoholic, the tuberculous, and instinctive
+criminals, the choice of cases for operation to be made by a commission of
+experts who would examine school-children, candidates for public
+employments, or persons about to marry.[449] This movement rapidly gained
+ground, and in 1905 at the annual meeting of Swiss alienists it was
+unanimously agreed that the sterilization of the insane is desirable, and
+that it is necessary that the question should be legally regulated. It is
+in Switzerland, indeed, that the first steps have been taken in Europe to
+carry out castration as a measure of social prophylaxis. The sixteenth
+yearly report (1907) of the Cantonal asylum at Wil describes four cases of
+castration, two in men and two in women, performed--with the permission of
+the patients and the civil authorities--for social reasons; both women had
+previously had illegitimate children who were a burden on the community,
+and all four patients were sexually abnormal; the operation enabled the
+patients to be liberated and to work, and the results were considered in
+every respect satisfactory to all concerned.[450]
+
+    The introduction of castration as a method of negative eugenics
+    has been facilitated by the use of new methods of performing it
+    without risk, and without actual removal of the testes or
+    ovaries. For men, there is the simple method of vasectomy, as
+    recommended by Naecke and many others. For women, there is the
+    corresponding, and almost equally simple and harmless method of
+    Kehrer, by section and ligation of the Fallopian tubes through
+    the vagina, as recommended by Kisch, or Rose's very similar
+    procedure, easily carried out in a few minutes by an experienced
+    hand, as recommended by Zuccarelli.
+
+    It has been found that repeated exposure to the X-rays produces
+    sterility in both sexes, alike in animals and men, and X-ray
+    workers have to adopt various precautions to avoid suffering from
+    this effect. It has been suggested that the application of the
+    X-rays would be a good substitute for castration; it appears that
+    the effects of the application are only likely to last a few
+    years, which, in some doubtful cases, might be an advantage. (See
+    _British Medical Journal_, Aug. 13, 1904; ib., March 11, 1905;
+    ib., July 6, 1907.)
+
+It is scarcely possible, it seems to me, to view castration as a method of
+negative eugenics with great enthusiasm. The recklessness, moreover, with
+which it is sometimes proposed to apply it by law--owing no doubt to the
+fact that it is not so obviously repulsive as the less radical procedure
+of abortion--ought to render us very cautious. We must, too, dismiss the
+idea of castration as a punishment; as such it is not merely barbarous but
+degrading and is unlikely to have a beneficial effect. As a method of
+negative eugenics it should never be carried out except with the subject's
+consent. The fact that in some cases it might be necessary to enforce
+seclusion in the absence of castration would doubtless be a fact exerting
+influence in favor of such consent; but the consent is essential if the
+subject of the operation is to be safeguarded from degradation. A man who
+has been degraded and embittered by an enforced castration might not be
+dangerous to posterity, but might very easily become a dangerous member of
+the society in which he actually lived. With due precautions and
+safeguards, castration may doubtless play a certain part in the elevation
+and improvement of the race.[451]
+
+The methods we have been considering, in so far as they limit the
+procreative powers of the less healthy and efficient stocks in a
+community, are methods of eugenics. It must not, however, be supposed that
+they are the whole of eugenics, or indeed that they are in any way
+essential to a eugenic scheme. Eugenics is concerned with the whole of the
+agencies which elevate and improve the human breed; abortion and
+castration are methods which may be used to this end, but they are not
+methods of which everyone approves, nor is it always clear that the ends
+they effect would not better be attained by other methods; in any case
+they are methods of negative eugenics. There remains the field of positive
+eugenics, which is concerned, not with the elimination of the inferior
+stocks but with ascertaining which are the superior stocks and with
+furthering their procreative power.
+
+While the necessity of refraining from procreation is no longer a bar to
+marriage, the question of whether two persons ought to marry each other
+still remains in the majority of cases a serious question from the
+standpoint of positive as well as of negative eugenics, for the normal
+marriage cannot fail to involve children, as, indeed, its chief and most
+desirable end. We have to consider not merely what are the stocks or the
+individuals that are unfit to breed, but also what are these stocks or
+individuals that are most fit to breed, and under what conditions
+procreation may best be effected. The present imperfection of our
+knowledge on these questions emphasizes the need for care and caution in
+approaching their consideration.
+
+    It may be fitting, at this point, to refer to the experiment of
+    the Oneida Community in establishing a system of scientific
+    propagation, under the guidance of a man whose ability and
+    distinction as a pioneer are only to-day beginning to be
+    adequately recognized. John Humphrey Noyes was too far ahead of
+    his own day to be recognized at his true worth; at the most, he
+    was regarded as the sagacious and successful founder of a sect,
+    and his attempts to apply eugenics to life only aroused ridicule
+    and persecution, so that he was, unfortunately, compelled by
+    outside pressure to bring a most instructive experiment to a
+    premature end. His aim and principle are set forth in an _Essay
+    on Scientific Propagation_, printed some forty years ago, which
+    discusses problems that are only now beginning to attract the
+    attention of the practical man, as within the range of social
+    politics. When Noyes turned his vigorous and practical mind to
+    the question of eugenics, that question was exclusively in the
+    hands of scientific men, who felt all the natural timidity of the
+    scientific man towards the realization of his proposals, and who
+    were not prepared to depart a hair's breadth from the
+    conventional customs of their time. The experiment of Noyes, at
+    Oneida, marked a new stage in the history of eugenics; whatever
+    might be the value of the experiment--and a first experiment
+    cannot well be final--with Noyes the questions of eugenics passed
+    beyond the purely academic stage in which, from the time of
+    Plato, they had peacefully reposed. "It is becoming clear," Noyes
+    states at the outset, "that the foundations of scientific society
+    are to be laid in the scientific propagation of human beings." In
+    doing this, we must attend to two things: blood (or heredity) and
+    training; and he puts blood first. In that, he was at one with
+    the most recent biometrical eugenists of to-day ("the nation has
+    for years been putting its money on 'Environment,' when
+    'Heredity' wins in a canter," as Karl Pearson prefers to put it),
+    and at the same time revealed the breadth of his vision in
+    comparison with the ordinary social reformer, who, in that day,
+    was usually a fanatical believer in the influence of training and
+    surroundings. Noyes sets forth the position of Darwin on the
+    principles of breeding, and the step beyond Darwin, which had
+    been taken by Galton. He then remarks that, when Galton comes to
+    the point where it is necessary to advance from theory to the
+    duties the theory suggests, he "subsides into the meekest
+    conservatism." (It must be remembered that this was written at an
+    early stage in Galton's work.) This conclusion was entirely
+    opposed to Noyes' practical and religious temperament. "Duty is
+    plain; we say we ought to do it--we want to do it; but we cannot.
+    The law of God urges us on; but the law of society holds us back.
+    The boldest course is the safest. Let us take an honest and
+    steady look at the law. It is only in the timidity of ignorance
+    that the duty seems impracticable." Noyes anticipated Galton in
+    regarding eugenics as a matter of religion.
+
+    Noyes proposed to term the work of modern science in propagation
+    "Stirpiculture," in which he has sometimes been followed by
+    others. He considered that it is the business of the
+    stirpiculturist to keep in view both quantity and quality of
+    stocks, and he held that, without diminishing quantity, it was
+    possible to raise the quality by exercising a very stringent
+    discrimination in selecting males. At this point, Noyes has been
+    supported in recent years by Karl Pearson and others, who have
+    shown that only a relatively small portion of a population is
+    needed to produce the next generation, and that, in fact, twelve
+    per cent. of one generation in man produces fifty per cent. of
+    the next generation. What we need to ensure is that this small
+    reproducing section of the population shall be the best adapted
+    for the purpose. "The _quantity_ of production will be in direct
+    proportion to the number of fertile females," as Noyes saw the
+    question, "and the _value_ produced, so far as it depends on
+    selection, will be nearly in inverse proportion to the number of
+    fertilizing males." In this matter, Noyes anticipated Ehrenfels.
+    The two principles to be held in mind were, "Breed from the
+    best," and "Breed in-and-in," with a cautious and occasional
+    introduction of new strains. (It may be noted that Reibmayr, in
+    his recent _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Genics und Talentes_,
+    argues that the superior races, and superior individuals, in the
+    human species, have been produced by an unconscious adherence to
+    exactly these principles.) "By segregating superior families, and
+    by breeding these in-and-in, superior varieties of human beings
+    might be produced, which would be comparable to the thoroughbreds
+    in all the domestic races." He illustrates this by the early
+    history of the Jews.
+
+    Noyes finally criticises the present method, or lack of method,
+    in matters of propagation. Our marriage system, he states,
+    "leaves mating to be determined by a general scramble." By
+    ignoring, also, the great difference between the sexes in
+    reproductive power, it "restricts each man, whatever may be his
+    potency and his value, to the amount of production of which one
+    woman, chosen blindly, may be capable." Moreover, he continues,
+    "practically it discriminates against the best, and in favor of
+    the worst; for, while the good man will be limited by his
+    conscience to what the law allows, the bad man, free from moral
+    check, will distribute his seed beyond the legal limits, as
+    widely as he dares." "We are safe every way in saying that there
+    is no possibility of carrying the two precepts of scientific
+    propagation into an institution which pretends to no
+    discrimination, allows no suppression, gives no more liberty to
+    the best than to the worst, and which, in fact, must inevitably
+    discriminate the wrong way, so long as the inferior classes are
+    most prolific and least amenable to the admonitions of science
+    and morality." In modifying our sexual institutions, Noyes
+    insists there are two essential points to remember: the
+    preservation of liberty, and the preservation of the home. There
+    must be no compulsion about human scientific propagation; it must
+    be autonomous, directed by self-government, "by the free choice
+    of those who love science well enough to 'make themselves eunuchs
+    for the Kingdom of Heaven's sake.'" The home, also, must be
+    preserved, since "marriage is the best thing for man as he is;"
+    but it is necessary to enlarge the home, for, "if all could learn
+    to love other children than their own, there would be nothing to
+    hinder scientific propagation in the midst of homes far better
+    than any that now exist."
+
+    This memorable pamphlet contains no exposition of the precise
+    measures adopted by the Oneida Community to carry out these
+    principles. The two essential points were, as we know, "male
+    continence" (see _ante_ p. 553), and the enlarged family, in
+    which all the men were the actual or potential mates of all the
+    women, but no union for propagation took place, except as the
+    result of reason and deliberate resolve. "The community," says
+    H.J. Seymour, one of the original members (_The Oneida
+    Community_, 1894, p. 5), "was a _family_, as distinctly separated
+    from surrounding society as ordinary households. The tie that
+    bound it together was as permanent, and at least as sacred, as
+    that of marriage. Every man's care, and the whole of the common
+    property, was pledged for the maintenance and protection of the
+    women, and the support and education of the children." It is not
+    probable that the Oneida Community presented in detail the model
+    to which human society generally will conform. But even at the
+    lowest estimate, its success showed, as Lord Morely has pointed
+    out (_Diderot_, vol. ii, p. 19), "how modifiable are some of
+    these facts of existing human character which are vulgarly deemed
+    to be ultimate and ineradicable," and that "the discipline of the
+    appetites and affections of sex," on which the future of
+    civilization largely rests, is very far from an impossibility.
+
+    In many respects, the Oneida Community was ahead of its
+    time,--and even of ours,--but it is interesting to note that, in
+    the matter of the control of conception, our marriage system has
+    come into line with the theory and practice of Oneida; it cannot,
+    indeed, be said that we always control conception in accordance
+    with eugenic principles, but the fact that such control has now
+    become a generally accepted habit of civilization, to some extent
+    deprives Noyes' criticism of our marriage system of the force it
+    possessed half a century ago. Another change in our customs--the
+    advocacy, and even the practice, of abortion and
+    castration--would not have met with his approval; he was strongly
+    opposed to both, and with the high moral level that ruled his
+    community, neither was necessary to the maintenance of the
+    stirpiculture that prevailed.
+
+    The Oneida Community endured for the space of one generation, and
+    came to an end in 1879, by no means through a recognition of
+    failure, but by a wise deference to external pressure. Its
+    members, many of them highly educated, continued to cherish the
+    memory of the practices and ideals of the Community. Noyes Miller
+    (the author of _The Strike of a Sex_, and _Zugassant's
+    Discovery_) to the last, looked with quiet confidence to the time
+    when, as he anticipated, the great discovery of Noyes would be
+    accepted and adopted by the world at large. Another member of the
+    Community (Henry J. Seymour) wrote of the Community long
+    afterwards that "It was an anticipation and imperfect miniature
+    of the Kingdom of Heaven on earth."
+
+Perhaps the commonest type of proposal or attempt to improve the
+biological level of the race is by the exclusion of certain classes of
+degenerates from marriage, or by the encouragement of better classes of
+the community to marry. This seems to be, at present, the most popular
+form of eugenics, and in so far as it is not effected by compulsion but is
+the outcome of a voluntary resolve to treat the question of the creation
+of the race with the jealous care and guardianship which so tremendously
+serious, so godlike, a task involves, it has much to be said in its favor
+and nothing against it.
+
+But it is quite another matter when the attempt is made to regulate such
+an institution as marriage by law. In the first place we do not yet know
+enough about the principles of heredity and the transmissibility of
+pathological states to enable us to formulate sound legislative proposals
+on this basis. Even so comparatively simple a matter as the relationship
+of tuberculosis to heredity can scarcely be said to be a matter of common
+agreement, even if it can yet be claimed that we possess adequate material
+on which to attain a common agreement. Supposing, moreover, that our
+knowledge on all these questions were far more advanced than it is, we
+still should not have attained a position in which we could lay down
+general propositions regarding the desirability or the undesirability of
+certain classes of persons procreating. The question is necessarily an
+individual question, and it can only be decided when all the circumstances
+of the individual case have been fairly passed in review.
+
+The objection to any legislative and compulsory regulation of the right to
+marry is, however, much more fundamental than the consideration that our
+knowledge is at present inadequate. It lies in the extraordinary
+confusion, in the minds of those who advocate such legislation, between
+legal marriage and procreation. The persons who fall into such confusion
+have not yet learnt the alphabet of the subject they presume to dictate
+about, and are no more competent to legislate than a child who cannot tell
+A from B is competent to read.
+
+Marriage, in so far as it is the partnership for mutual help and
+consolation of two people who in such partnership are free, if they
+please, to exercise sexual union, is an elementary right of every person
+who is able to reason, who is guilty of no fraud or concealment, and who
+is not likely to injure the partner selected, for in that case society is
+entitled to interfere by virtue of its duty to protect its members. But
+the right to marry, thus understood, in no way involves the right to
+procreate. For while marriage _per se_ only affects the two individuals
+concerned, and in no way affects the State, procreation, on the other
+hand, primarily affects the community which is ultimately made up of
+procreated persons, and only secondarily affects the two individuals who
+are the instruments of procreation. So that just as the individual couple
+has the first right in the question of marriage, the State has the first
+right in the question of procreation. The State is just as incompetent to
+lay down the law about marriage as the individual is to lay down the law
+about procreation.
+
+That, however, is only one-half of the folly committed by those who would
+select the candidates for matrimony by statute. Let us suppose--as is not
+indeed easy to suppose--that a community will meekly accept the abstract
+prohibitions of the statute book and quietly go home again when the
+registrar of marriages informs them that they are shut out from legal
+matrimony by the new table of prohibited degrees. An explicit prohibition
+to procreate within marriage is an implicit permission to procreate
+outside marriage. Thus the undesirable procreation, instead of being
+carried out under the least dangerous conditions, is carried out under the
+most dangerous conditions, and the net result to the community is not a
+gain but a loss.
+
+What seems usually to happen, in the presence of a formal legislative
+prohibition against the marriage of a particular class, is a combination
+of various evils. In part the law becomes a dead letter, in part it is
+evaded by skill and fraud, in part it is obeyed to give rise to worse
+evils. This happened, for instance, in the Terek district of the Caucasus
+where, on the demand of a medical committee, priests were prohibited from
+marrying persons among whose relatives or ancestry any cases of leprosy
+had occurred. So much and such various mischief was caused by this order
+that it was speedily withdrawn.[452]
+
+If we remember that the Catholic Church was occupied for more than a
+thousand years in the attempt to impose the prohibition of marriage on its
+priesthood,--an educated and trained body of men, who had every spiritual
+and worldly motive to accept the prohibition, and were, moreover, brought
+up to regard asceticism as the best ideal in life,[453]--we may realize
+how absurd it is to attempt to gain the same end by mere casual
+prohibitions issued to untrained people with no motives to obey such
+prohibitions, and no ideals of celibacy.
+
+The hopelessness and even absurdity of effecting the eugenic improvement
+of the race by merely placing on the statute book prohibitions to certain
+classes of people to enter the legal bonds of matrimony as at present
+constituted, reveals the weakness of those who undervalue the eugenic
+importance of environment. Those who affirm that heredity is everything
+and environment nothing seem strangely to forget that it is precisely the
+lower classes--those who are most subjected to the influence of bad
+environment--who procreate most copiously, most recklessly, and most
+disastrously. The restraint of procreation, and a concomitant regard for
+heredity, increase _pari passu_ with improvement of the environment and
+rise in social well-being. If even already it can be said that probably
+fifty per cent. of sexual intercourse--perhaps the most procreatively
+productive moiety--takes place outside legal marriage, it becomes obvious
+that statutory prohibition to the unfit classes to refrain from legal
+marriage merely involves their joining the procreating classes outside
+legal matrimony. It is also clear that if we are to neglect the factor of
+environment, and leave the lower social classes to the ignorance and
+recklessness which are the result of such environment, the only practical
+method of eugenics left open is that by castration and abortion. But this
+method--if applied on a wholesale scale as it would need to be[454] and
+without reference to the consent of the individual--is entirely opposed
+to modern democratic feeling. Thus those short-sighted eugenists who
+overlook the importance of environment are overlooking the only practical
+channel through which their aims can be realized. Attention to procreation
+and attention to environment are not, as some have supposed, antagonistic,
+but they play harmoniously into each other's hands. The care for
+environment leads to a restraint on reckless procreation, and the
+restraint of procreation leads to improved environment.
+
+Legislation on marriage, to be effectual, must be enacted in the home, in
+the school, in the doctor's consulting room. Force is helpless here; it is
+education that is needed, not merely instruction, but the education of the
+conscience and will, and the training of the emotions.
+
+Legal action may come in to further this process of education, though it
+cannot replace it. Thus it is very desirable that when there has been a
+concealment of serious disease by a party to a marriage such concealment
+should be a ground for divorce. Epilepsy may be taken as typical of the
+diseases which should be a bar to procreation, and their concealment
+equivalent to an annulment of marriage.[455] In the United States the
+Supreme Court of Errors of Connecticut laid it down in 1906 that the
+Superior Court has the power to pass a decree of divorce when one of the
+parties has concealed the existence of epilepsy. This weighty deliverence,
+it has been well said,[456] marks a forward step in human progress. There
+are many other seriously pathological conditions in which divorce should
+be pronounced, or indeed, occur automatically, except when procreation has
+been renounced, for in that case the State is no longer concerned in the
+relationship, except to punish any fraud committed by concealment.
+
+    The demand that a medical certificate of health should be
+    compulsory on marriage, has been especially made in France. In
+    1858, Diday, of Lyons, proposed, indeed, that all persons,
+    without exception, should be compelled to possess a certificate
+    of health and disease, a kind of sanitary passport. In 1872,
+    Bertillon (Art. "Demographic," _Dictionnaire Encyclopedique des
+    Sciences Medicales_) advocated the registration, at marriage, of
+    the chief anthropological and pathological traits of the
+    contracting parties (height, weight, color of hair and eyes,
+    muscular force, size of head, condition of vision, hearing, etc.,
+    deformities and defects, etc.), not so much, however, for the end
+    of preventing undesirable marriages, as to facilitate the study
+    and comparison of human groups at particular periods. Subsequent
+    demands, of a more limited and partial character, for legal
+    medical certificates as a condition of marriage, have been made
+    by Fournier (_Syphilis et Mariage_, 1890), Cazalis (_Le Science
+    et le Mariage_, 1890), and Jullien (_Blenorrhagie et Mariage_,
+    1898). In Austria, Haskovec, of Prague ("Contrat Matrimonial et
+    L'Hygiene Publique," _Comptes-rendus Congres International de
+    Medecine_, Lisbon, 1906, Section VII, p. 600), argues that, on
+    marriage, a medical certificate should be presented, showing that
+    the subject is exempt from tuberculosis, alcoholism, syphilis,
+    gonorrhoea, severe mental, or nervous, or other degenerative
+    state, likely to be injurious to the other partner, or to the
+    offspring. In America, Rosenberg and Aronstam argue that every
+    candidate for marriage, male or female, should undergo a strict
+    examination by a competent board of medical examiners, concerning
+    (1) Family and Past History (syphilis, consumption, alcoholism,
+    nervous, and mental diseases), and (2) Status Presens (thorough
+    examination of all the organs); if satisfactory, a certificate of
+    matrimonial eligibility would then be granted. It is pointed out
+    that a measure of this kind would render unnecessary the acts
+    passed by some States for the punishment by fine, or
+    imprisonment, of the concealment of disease. Ellen Key also
+    considers (_Liebe und Ehe_, p. 436) that each party at marriage
+    should produce a certificate of health. "It seems to me just as
+    necessary," she remarks, elsewhere (_Century of the Child_, Ch.
+    I), "to demand medical testimony concerning capacity for
+    marriage, as concerning capacity for military service. In the one
+    case, it is a matter of giving life; in the other, of taking it,
+    although certainly the latter occasion has hitherto been
+    considered as much the more serious."
+
+    The certificate, as usually advocated, would be a private but
+    necessary legitimation of the marriage in the eyes of the civil
+    and religious authorities. Such a step, being required for the
+    protection alike of the conjugal partner and of posterity, would
+    involve a new legal organization of the matrimonial contract.
+    That such demands are so frequently made, is a significant sign
+    of the growth of moral consciousness in the community, and it is
+    good that the public should be made acquainted with the urgent
+    need for them. But it is highly undesirable that they should, at
+    present, or, perhaps, ever, be embodied in legal codes. What is
+    needed is the cultivation of the feeling of individual
+    responsibility, and the development of social antagonism towards
+    those individuals who fail to recognize their responsibility. It
+    is the reality of marriage, and not its mere legal forms, that it
+    is necessary to act upon.
+
+The voluntary method is the only sound way of approach in this matter.
+Duclaux considered that the candidate for marriage should possess a
+certificate of health in much the same way as the candidate for life
+assurance, the question of professional secrecy, as well as that of
+compulsion, no more coming into one question than into the other. There is
+no reason why such certificates, of an entirely voluntary character,
+should not become customary among those persons who are sufficiently
+enlightened to realize all the grave personal, family, and social issues
+involved in marriage. The system of eugenic certification, as originated
+and developed by Galton, will constitute a valuable instrument for raising
+the moral consciousness in this matter. Galton's eugenic certificates
+would deal mainly with the natural virtues of superior hereditary
+breed--"the public recognition of a natural nobility"--but they would
+include the question of personal health and personal aptitude.[457]
+
+To demand compulsory certificates of health at marriage is indeed to begin
+at the wrong end. It would not only lead to evasions and antagonisms but
+would probably call forth a reaction. It is first necessary to create an
+enthusiasm for health, a moral conscience in matters of procreation,
+together with, on the scientific side, a general habit of registering the
+anthropological, psychological, and pathological data concerning the
+individual, from birth onwards, altogether apart from marriage. The
+earlier demands of Diday and Bertillon were thus not only on a sounder but
+also a more practicable basis. If such records were kept from birth for
+every child, there would be no need for special examination at marriage,
+and many incidental ends would be gained. There is difficulty at present
+in obtaining such records from the moment of birth, and, so far as I am
+aware, no attempts have yet been made to establish their systematic
+registration. But it is quite possible to begin at the beginning of school
+life, and this is now done at many schools and colleges in England,
+America, and elsewhere, more especially as regards anthropological,
+physiological, and psychological data, each child being submitted to a
+thorough and searching anthropometric examination, and thus furnished with
+a systematic statement of his physical condition.[458] This examination
+needs to be standardized and generalized, and repeated at fixed intervals.
+"Every individual child," as is truly stated by Dr. Dukes, the Physician
+to Rugby School, "on his entrance to a public school should be as
+carefully and as thoroughly examined as if it were for life insurance." If
+this procedure were general from an early age, there would be no hardship
+in the production of the record at marriage, and no opportunity for fraud.
+The _dossier_ of each person might well be registered by the State, as
+wills already are, and, as in the case of wills, become freely open to
+students when a century had elapsed. Until this has been done during
+several centuries our knowledge of eugenics will remain rudimentary.
+
+    There can be little doubt that the eugenic attitude towards
+    marriage, and the responsibility of the individual for the future
+    of the race, is becoming more recognized. It is constantly
+    happening that persons, about to marry, approach the physician in
+    a state of serious anxiety on this point. Urquhart, indeed
+    (_Journal of Mental Science_, April, 1907, p. 277), believes that
+    marriages are seldom broken off on this ground; this seems,
+    however, too pessimistic a view, and even when the marriage is
+    not broken off the resolve is often made to avoid procreation.
+    Clouston, who emphasizes (_Hygiene of the Mind_, p. 74) the
+    importance of "inquiries by each of the parties to the
+    life-contract, by their parents and their doctors, as to
+    heredity, temperament, and health," is more hopeful of the
+    results than Urquhart. "I have been very much impressed, of late
+    years," he writes (_Journal of Mental Science_, Oct., 1907, p.
+    710), "with the way in which this subject is taking possession of
+    intelligent people, by the number of times one is consulted by
+    young men and young women, proposing to marry, or by their
+    fathers or mothers. I used to have the feeling in the back of my
+    mind, when I was consulted, that it did not matter what I said,
+    it would not make any difference. But it is making a difference;
+    and I, and others, could tell of scores of marriages which were
+    put off in consequence of psychiatric medical advice."
+
+    Ellen Key, also, refers to the growing tendency among both men
+    and women, to be influenced by eugenic consideration in forming
+    partnerships for life (_Century of the Child_, Ch. I). The
+    recognition of the eugenic attitude towards marriage, the
+    quickening of the social and individual conscience in matters of
+    heredity, as also the systematic introduction of certification
+    and registration, will be furthered by the growing tendency to
+    the socialization of medicine, and, indeed, in its absence would
+    be impossible. (See e.g., Havelock Ellis, _The Nationalization of
+    Health_.) The growth of the State Medical Organization of Health
+    is steady and continuous, and is constantly covering a larger
+    field. The day of the private practitioner of medicine--who was
+    treated, as Duclaux (_L'Hygiene Sociale_, p. 263) put it, "like a
+    grocer, whose shop the customer may enter and leave as he
+    pleases, and when he pleases"--will, doubtless, soon be over. It
+    is now beginning to be felt that health is far too serious a
+    matter, not only from the individual but also from the social
+    point of view, to be left to private caprice. There is, indeed, a
+    tendency, in some quarters, to fear that some day society may
+    rush to the opposite extreme, and bow before medicine with the
+    same unreasoning deference that it once bowed before theology.
+    That danger is still very remote, nor is it likely, indeed, that
+    medicine will ever claim any authority of this kind. The spirit
+    of medicine has, notoriously, been rather towards the assertion
+    of scepticism than of dogma, and the fanatics in this field will
+    always be in a hopelessly small minority.
+
+The general introduction of authentic personal records covering all
+essential data--hereditary, anthropometric and pathological--cannot fail
+to be a force on the side of positive as well as of negative eugenics, for
+it would tend to promote the procreation of the fit as well as restrict
+that of the unfit, without any legislative compulsion. With the growth of
+education a regard for such records as a preliminary to marriage would
+become as much a matter of course as once was the regard to the
+restrictions imposed by Canon law, and as still is a regard to money or to
+caste. A woman can usually refrain from marrying a man with no money and
+no prospects; a man may be passionately in love with a woman of lower
+class than himself but he seldom marries her. It needs but a clear general
+perception of all that is involved in heredity and health to make eugenic
+considerations equally influential.
+
+A discriminating regard to the quality of offspring will act beneficially
+on the side of positive eugenics by substituting the pernicious tendency
+to put a premium on excess of childbirth by the more rational method of
+putting a premium on the quality of the child. It has been one of the most
+unfortunate results of the mania for protesting against that decline of
+the birthrate which is always and everywhere the result of civilization,
+that there has been a tendency to offer special social or pecuniary
+advantages to the parents of large families. Since large families tend to
+be degenerate, and to become a tax on the community, since rapid
+pregnancies in succession are not only a serious drain on the strength of
+the mother but are now known to depreciate seriously the quality of the
+offspring, and since, moreover, it is in large families that disease and
+mortality chiefly prevail, all the interests of the community are against
+the placing of any premium on large families, even in the case of parents
+of good stock. The interests of the State are bound up not with the
+quantity but with the quality of its citizens, and the premium should be
+placed not on the families that reach a certain size but on the individual
+children that reach a certain standard; the attainment of this standard
+could well be based on observations made from birth to the fifth year. A
+premium on this basis would be as beneficial to a State as that on the
+merely numerical basis is pernicious.
+
+This consideration applies with still greater force to the proposals for
+the "systematic endowment of motherhood" of which we hear more and more.
+So moderate and judicious a social reformer as Mr. Sidney Webb writes: "We
+shall have to face the problem of the systematic endowment of motherhood,
+and place this most indispensable of all professions upon an honorable
+economic basis. At present it is ignored as an occupation, unremunerated,
+and in no way honored by the State."[459] True as this statement is, it
+must always be remembered that an indispensable preliminary to any
+proposal for the endowment of motherhood by the State is a clear
+conception of the kind of motherhood which the State requires. To endow
+the reckless and indiscriminate motherhood which we see around us, to
+encourage, that is, by State aid, the production of citizens a large
+proportion of whom the State, if it dared, would like to destroy as unfit,
+is too ridiculous a proposal to deserve discussion.[460] The only sound
+reason, indeed, for the endowment of motherhood is that it would enable
+the State, in its own interests, to further the natural selection of the
+fit.
+
+As to the positive qualities which the State is entitled to endow in its
+encouragement of motherhood, it is still too early to speak with complete
+assurance. Negative eugenics tends to be ahead of positive eugenics; it is
+easier to detect bad stocks than to be quite sure of good stocks. Both on
+the scientific side and on the social side, however, we are beginning to
+attain a clearer realization of the end to be attained and a more precise
+knowledge of the methods of attaining it.[461]
+
+Even when we have gained a fairly clear conception of the stocks and the
+individuals which we are justified in encouraging to undertake the task of
+producing fit citizens for the State, the problems of procreation are by
+no means at an end. Before we can so much as inquire what are the
+conditions under which selected individuals may best procreate, there is
+still the initial question to be decided whether those individuals are
+both fertile and potent, for this is not guaranteed by the fact that they
+belong to good stocks, nor is even the fact that a man and a woman are
+fertile with other persons any positive proof that they will be fertile
+with each other. Among the large masses of the population who do not seek
+to make their unions legal until those unions have proved fertile, this
+difficulty is settled in a simple and practical manner. The question is,
+however, a serious and hazardous one, in the present state of the marriage
+law in most countries, for those classes which are accustomed to bind
+themselves in legal marriage without any knowledge of their potency and
+fertility with each other. The matter is mostly left to chance, and as
+legal marriage cannot usually be dissolved on the ground that there are no
+offspring, even although procreation is commonly declared to be the chief
+end of marriage, the question assumes much gravity. The ordinary range of
+sterility is from seven to fifteen per cent. of all marriages, and in a
+very large proportion of these it is a source of great concern. This could
+be avoided, in some measure, by examination before marriage, and almost
+altogether by ordaining that, as it is only through offspring that a
+marriage has any concern for the State, a legal marriage could be
+dissolved, after a certain period, at the will of either of the parties,
+in the absence of such offspring.
+
+    It was formerly supposed that when a union proved infertile, it
+    was the wife who was at fault. That belief is long since
+    exploded, but, even yet, a man is generally far more concerned
+    about his potency, that is, his ability to perform the mechanical
+    act of coitus, than about his fertility, that is, his ability to
+    produce living spermatozoa, though the latter condition is a much
+    more common source of sterility. "Any man," says Arthur Cooper
+    (_British Medical Journal_, May 11, 1907), "who has any sexual
+    defect or malformation, or who has suffered from any disease or
+    injury of the genito-urinary organs, even though comparatively
+    trivial or one-sided, and although his copulative power may be
+    unimpaired, should be looked upon as possibly sterile, until some
+    sort of evidence to the contrary has been obtained." In case of a
+    sterile marriage, the possible cause should first be investigated
+    in the husband, for it is comparatively easy to examine the
+    semen, and to ascertain if it contains active spermatozoa.
+    Prinzing, in a comprehensive study of sterile marriages ("Die
+    Sterilen Ehen," _Zeitschrift fuer Sozialwissenschaft_, 1904, Heft
+    1 and 2), states that in two-fifths of sterile marriages the man
+    is at fault; one-third of such marriages are the result of
+    venereal diseases in the husband himself, or transmitted to the
+    wife. Gonorrhoea is not now considered so important a cause of
+    sterility as it was a few years ago; Schenk makes it responsible
+    for only about thirteen per cent. sterile marriages (cf. Kisch,
+    _The Sexual Life of Woman_). Pinkus (_Archiv fuer Gynaekologie_,
+    1907) found that of nearly five hundred cases in which he
+    examined both partners, in 24.4 per cent. cases, the sterility
+    was directly due to the husband, and in 15.8 per cent. cases,
+    indirectly due, because caused by gonorrhoea with which he had
+    infected his wife.
+
+    When sterility is due to a defect in the husband's spermatozoa,
+    and is not discovered, as it usually might be, before marriage,
+    the question of impregnating the wife by other methods has
+    occasionally arisen. Divorce on the ground of sterility is not
+    possible, and, even if it were, the couple, although they wish to
+    have a child, have not usually any wish to separate. Under these
+    circumstances, in order to secure the desired end, without
+    departing from widely accepted rules of morality, the attempt is
+    occasionally made to effect artificial fecundation by injecting
+    the semen from a healthy male. Attempts have been made to effect
+    artificial fecundation by various distinguished men, from John
+    Hunter to Schwalbe, but it is nearly always very difficult to
+    effect, and often impossible. This is easy to account for, if we
+    recall what has already been pointed out (_ante_ p. 577)
+    concerning the influence of erotic excitement in the woman in
+    securing conception; it is obviously a serious task for even the
+    most susceptible woman to evoke erotic enthusiasm _a propos_ of a
+    medical syringe. Schwalbe, for instance, records a case
+    (_Deutsche Medizinisches Wochenschrift_, Aug., 1908, p. 510) in
+    which,--in consequence of the husband's sterility and the wife's
+    anxiety, with her husband's consent, to be impregnated by the
+    semen of another man,--he made repeated careful attempts to
+    effect artificial fecundation; these attempts were, however,
+    fruitless, and the three parties concerned finally resigned
+    themselves to the natural method of intercourse, which was
+    successful. In another case, recorded by Schwalbe, in which the
+    husband was impotent but not sterile, six attempts were made to
+    effect artificial fecundation, and further efforts abandoned on
+    account of the disgust of all concerned.
+
+    Opinion, on the whole, has been opposed to the practice of
+    artificial fecundation, even apart from the question of the
+    probabilities of success. Thus, in France, where there is a
+    considerable literature on the subject, the Paris Medical
+    Faculty, in 1885, after some hesitation, refused Gerard's thesis
+    on the history of artificial fecundation, afterwards published
+    independently. In 1883, the Bordeaux legal tribunal declared that
+    artificial fecundation was illegitimate, and a social danger. In
+    1897, the Holy See also pronounced that the practice is unlawful
+    ("Artificial Fecundation before the Inquisition," _British
+    Medical Journal_, March 5, 1898). Apart, altogether, from this
+    attitude of medicine, law, and Church, it would certainly seem
+    that those who desire offspring would do well, as a rule, to
+    adopt the natural method, which is also the best, or else to
+    abandon to others the task of procreation, for which they are not
+    adequately equipped.
+
+When we have ascertained that two individuals both belong to sound and
+healthy stocks, and, further, that they are themselves both apt for
+procreation, it still remains to consider the conditions under which they
+may best effect procreation.[462] There arises, for instance, the
+question, often asked, What is the best age for procreation?
+
+The considerations which weigh in answering this question are of two
+different orders, physiological, and social or moral. That is to say, that
+it is necessary, on the one hand, that physical maturity should have been
+fully attained, and the sexual cells completely developed; while, on the
+other hand, it is necessary that the man shall have become able to support
+a family, and that both partners shall have received a training in life
+adequate to undertake the responsibilities and anxieties involved in the
+rearing of children. While there have been variations at different times,
+it scarcely appears that, on the whole, the general opinion as to the best
+age for procreation has greatly varied in Europe during many centuries.
+Hesiod indeed said that a woman should marry about fifteen and a man about
+thirty,[463] but obstetricians have usually concluded that, in the
+interests alike of the parents and their offspring, the procreative life
+should not begin in women before twenty and in men before
+twenty-five.[464] After thirty in women and after thirty-five or forty in
+men it seems probable that the best conditions for procreation begin to
+decline.[465] At the present time, in England and several other civilized
+countries, the tendency has been for the age of marriage to fall at an
+increasingly late age, on the average some years later than that usually
+fixed as the most favorable age for the commencement of the procreative
+life. But, on the whole, the average seldom departs widely from the
+accepted standard, and there seems no good reason why we should desire to
+modify this general tendency.
+
+    At the same time, it by no means follows that wide variations,
+    under special circumstances, may not only be permissible, but
+    desirable. The male is capable of procreating, in some cases,
+    from about the age of thirteen until far beyond eighty, and at
+    this advanced age, the offspring, even if not notable for great
+    physical robustness, may possess high intellectual qualities.
+    (See e.g., Havelock Ellis, _A Study of British Genius_, pp. 120
+    et seq.) The range of the procreative age in women begins earlier
+    (sometimes at eight), though it usually ceases by fifty, or
+    earlier, in only rare cases continuing to sixty or beyond. Cases
+    have been reported of pregnancy, or childbirth, at the age of
+    fifty-nine (e.g., _Lancet_, Aug. 5, 1905, p. 419). Lepage
+    (_Comptes-rendus Societe d'Obstetrique de Paris_, Oct., 1903)
+    reports a case of a primipara of fifty-seven; the child was
+    stillborn. Kisch (_Sexual Life of Woman_, Part II) refers to
+    cases of pregnancy in elderly women, and various references are
+    given in _British Medical Journal_, Aug. 8, 1903, p. 325.
+
+    Of more importance is the question of early pregnancy. Several
+    investigators have devoted their attention to this question.
+    Thus, Spitta (in a Marburg Inaugural Dissertation, 1895) reviewed
+    the clinical history of 260 labors in primiparae of 18 and under,
+    as observed at the Marburg Maternity. He found that the general
+    health during pregnancy was not below the average of pregnant
+    women, while the mortality of the child at birth and during the
+    following weeks was not high, and the mortality of the mother was
+    by no means high. Picard (in a Paris thesis, 1903) has studied
+    childbirth in thirty-eight mothers below the age of sixteen. He
+    found that, although the pelvis is certainly not yet fully
+    developed in very young girls, the joints and bones are much more
+    yielding than in the adult, so that parturition, far from being
+    more difficult, is usually rapid and easy. The process of labor
+    itself, is essentially normal in these cases, and, even when
+    abnormalities occur (low insertion of the placenta is a common
+    anomaly) it is remarkable that the patients do not suffer from
+    them in the way common among older women. The average weight of
+    the child was three kilogrammes, or about 6 pounds, 9 ounces; it
+    sometimes required special care during the first few days after
+    birth, perhaps because labor in these cases is sometimes slow.
+    The recovery of the mother was, in every case, absolutely normal,
+    and the fact that these young mothers become pregnant again more
+    readily than primiparae of a more mature age, further contributes
+    to show that childbirth below the age of sixteen is in no way
+    injurious to the mother. Gache (_Annales de Gynecologie et
+    d'Obstetrique_, Dec., 1904) has attended ninety-one labors of
+    mothers under seventeen, in the Rawson Hospital, Buenos Ayres;
+    they were of so-called Latin race, mostly Spanish or Italian.
+    Gache found that these young mothers were by no means more
+    exposed than others to abortion or to other complications of
+    pregnancy. Except in four cases of slightly contracted pelvis,
+    delivery was normal, though rather longer than in older
+    primiparae. Damage to the soft parts was, however, rare, and, when
+    it occurred, in every case rapidly healed. The average weight of
+    the child was 3,039 grammes, or nearly 63/4 pounds. It may be noted
+    that most observers find that very early pregnancies occur in
+    women who begin to menstruate at an unusually early age, that is,
+    some years before the early pregnancy occurs.
+
+    It is clear, however, that young mothers do remarkably well,
+    while there is no doubt whatever that they bear unusually fine
+    infants. Kleinwaechter, indeed, found that the younger the mother,
+    the bigger the child. It is not only physically that the children
+    of young mothers are superior. Marro has found (_Puberta_, p.
+    257) that the children of mothers under 21 are superior to those
+    of older mothers both in conduct and intelligence, provided the
+    fathers are not too old or too young. The detailed records of
+    individual cases confirm these results, both as regards mother
+    and child. Thus, Milner (_Lancet_, June 7, 1902) records a case
+    of pregnancy in a girl of fourteen; the labor pains were very
+    mild, and delivery was easy. E.B. Wales, of New Jersey, has
+    recorded the history (reproduced in _Medical Reprints_, Sept. 15,
+    1890) of a colored girl who became pregnant at the age of eleven.
+    She was of medium size, rather tall and slender, but well
+    developed, and began to menstruate at the age of ten. She was in
+    good health and spirits during pregnancy, and able to work.
+    Delivery was easy and natural, not notably prolonged, and
+    apparently not unduly painful, for there were no moans or
+    agitation. The child was a fine, healthy boy, weighing not less
+    than eleven pounds. Mother and child both did well, and there was
+    a great flow of milk. Whiteside Robertson (_British Medical
+    Journal_, Jan. 18, 1902) has recorded a case of pregnancy at the
+    age of thirteen, in a Colonial girl of British origin in Cape
+    Colony, which is notable from other points of view. During
+    pregnancy, she was anaemic, and appeared to be of poor development
+    and doubtfully normal pelvic conformation. Yet delivery took
+    place naturally, at full term, without difficulty or injury, and
+    the lying-in period was in every way satisfactory. The baby was
+    well-proportioned, and weighed 71/2 pounds. "I have rarely seen a
+    primipara enjoy easier labor," concluded Robertson, "and I have
+    never seen one look forward to the happy realization of
+    motherhood with greater satisfaction."
+
+    The facts brought forward by obstetricians concerning the good
+    results of early pregnancy, as regards both mother and child,
+    have not yet received the attention they deserve. They are,
+    however, confirmed by many general tendencies which are now
+    fairly well recognized. The significant fact is known, for
+    instance, that in mothers over thirty, the proportion of
+    abortions and miscarriages is twice as great as in mothers
+    between the ages of fifteen and twenty, who also are superior in
+    this respect to mothers between the ages of twenty and thirty
+    (_Statistischer Jahrbuch_, Budapest, 1905). It was, again, proved
+    by Matthews Duncan, in his Goulstonian lecture, that the chances
+    of sterility in a woman increase with increase of age. It has,
+    further, been shown (Kisch, _Sexual Life of Woman_, Part II) that
+    the older a woman at marriage, the greater the average interval
+    before the first delivery, a tendency which seems to indicate
+    that it is the very young woman who is in the condition most apt
+    for procreation; Kisch is not, indeed, inclined to think that
+    this applies to women below twenty, but the fact, observed by
+    other obstetricians, that mothers under eighteen tend to become
+    pregnant again at an unusually short interval, goes far to
+    neutralize the exception made by Kisch. It may also be pointed
+    out that, among children of very young mothers, the sexes are
+    more nearly equal in number than is the case with older mothers.
+    This would seem to indicate that we are here in presence of a
+    normal equilibrium which will decrease as the age of the mother
+    is progressively disturbed in an abnormal direction.
+
+    The facility of parturition at an early age, it may be noted,
+    corresponds to an equal facility in physical sexual intercourse,
+    a fact that is often overlooked. In Russia, where marriage still
+    takes place early, it was formerly common when the woman was only
+    twelve or thirteen, and Guttceit (_Dreissig Jahre Praxis_, vol.
+    i, p. 324) says that he was assured by women who married at this
+    age that the first coitus presented no especial difficulties.
+
+    There is undoubtedly, at the present time, a considerable amount
+    of prejudice against early motherhood. In part, this is due to a
+    failure to realize that women are sexually much more precocious
+    than men, physically as well as psychically (see _ante_ p. 35).
+    The difference is about five years. This difference has been
+    virtually recognized for thousands of years, in the ancient
+    belief that the age of election for procreation is about twenty,
+    or less, for women, but about twenty-five for men; and it has
+    more lately been affirmed by the discovery that, while the male
+    is never capable of generation before thirteen, the female may,
+    in occasional instances, become pregnant at eight. (Some of the
+    recorded examples are quoted by Kisch.) In part, also, there is
+    an objection to the assumption of responsibilities so serious as
+    those of motherhood by a young girl, and there is the very
+    reasonable feeling that the obligations of a permanent marriage
+    tie ought not to be undertaken at an early age. On the other
+    hand, apart from the physical advantages, as regards both mother
+    and infant, on the side of early pregnancies, it is an advantage
+    for the child to have a young mother, who can devote herself
+    sympathetically and unreservedly to its interests, instead of
+    presenting the pathetic spectacle we so often witness in the
+    middle-aged woman who turns to motherhood when her youth and
+    mental flexibility are gone, and her habits and tastes have
+    settled into other grooves; it has sometimes been a great
+    blessing even to the very greatest men, like Goethe, to have had
+    a youthful mother. It would also, in many cases, be a great
+    advantage for the woman herself if she could bring her
+    procreative life to an end well before the age of twenty-five, so
+    that she could then, unhampered by child-bearing and mature in
+    experience, be free to enter on such wider activities in the
+    world as she might be fitted for.
+
+    Such an arrangement of the procreative life of women would,
+    obviously, only be a variation, and would probably be unsuited
+    for the majority. Every case must be judged on its own merits.
+    The best age for procreation will probably continue to be
+    regarded as being, for most women, around the age of twenty. But
+    at a time like the present, when there is an unfortunate
+    tendency for motherhood to be unduly delayed, it becomes
+    necessary to insist on the advantages, in many cases, of early
+    motherhood.
+
+There are other conditions favorable or unfavorable to procreation which
+it is now unnecessary to discuss in detail, since they have already been
+incidentally dealt with in previous volumes of these _Studies_. There is,
+for instance, the question of the time of year and the time of the
+menstrual cycle which may most properly be selected for procreation.[466]
+The best period is probably that when sexual desire is strongest, which is
+the period when conception would appear, as a matter of fact, most often
+to occur. This would be in spring or early summer,[467] and immediately
+after (or shortly before) the menstrual period. The Chinese have observed
+that the last day of menstruation and the two following
+days--corresponding to the period of oestrus--constitute the most
+favorable time for fecundation, and Bossi, of Genoa, has found that the
+great majority of successes in both natural and artificial fecundation
+occur at this period.[468] Soranus, as well as the Talmud, assigned the
+period about menstruation as the best for impregnation, and Susruta, the
+Indian physician, said that at this time pregnancy most readily occurs
+because then the mouth of the womb is open, like the flower of the
+water-lily to the sunshine.
+
+We have now at last reached the point from which we started, the moment of
+conception, and the child again lies in its mother's womb. There remains
+no more to be said. The divine cycle of life is completed.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[421] Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, p. 330.
+
+[422] Academy of Medicine of Paris, March 31, 1908.
+
+[423] _The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_, vol. ii, p. 405.
+
+[424] _Population and Progress_, p. 41.
+
+[425] Cf. Reibmayr, _Entwicklungsgeschichte des Talentes und Genics_, Bd.
+II, p. 31.
+
+[426] "The debt that we owe to those who have gone before us," says
+Haycraft (_Darwinism and Race Progress_, p. 160), "we can only repay to
+those who come after us."
+
+[427] Mardrus, _Les Mille Nuits_, vol. xvi, p. 158.
+
+[428] Sidney Webb, _Popular Science Monthly_, 1906, p. 526 (previously
+published in the _London Times_, Oct. 11, 16, 1906). In Ch. IX of the
+present volume it has already been necessary to discuss the meaning of the
+term, "morality."
+
+[429] Thus, in Paris, in 1906, in the rich quarters, the birthrate per
+1,000 inhabitants was 19.09; in well-to-do quarters, 22.51; and in poor
+quarters, 29.70. Here we see that, while the birthrate falls and rises
+with social class, even among the poor and least restrained class the
+birthrate is still but little above the general average for England, where
+prevention is widespread, and very considerably lower than the average
+(now rapidly falling) in Germany. It is evident that even among the poor
+class there is a process of leveling up to the higher classes in this
+matter.
+
+[430] I have developed these points more in detail in two articles in the
+_Independent Review_, November, 1903, and April, 1904. See also, Bushee,
+"The Declining Birthrate and Its Causes," _Popular Science Monthly_, Aug.,
+1903.
+
+[431] Francis Place, _Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle of
+Population_, 1822, p. 165.
+
+[432] See, e.g., a weighty chapter in the _Sexualleben und Nervenleiden_
+of Loewenfeld, one of the most judicious authorities on sexual pathology.
+Twenty-five years ago, as many will remember, the medical student was
+usually taught that preventive methods of intercourse led to all sorts of
+serious results. At that time, however, reckless and undesirable methods
+of prevention seem to have been more prevalent than now.
+
+[433] Michael Ryan, _Philosophy of Marriage_, p. 9. To enable "the
+conservative power of the Creator" to exert itself on the myriads of
+germinal human beings secreted during his life-time by even one man, would
+require a world full of women, while the corresponding problem as regards
+a woman is altogether too difficult to cope with. The process by which
+life has been built up, far from being a process of universal
+conservation, has been a process of stringent selection and vast
+destruction; the progress effected by civilization merely lies in making
+this blind process intelligent.
+
+[434] Thus, in Belgium, in 1908 (_Sexual-Probleme_, Feb., 1909, p. 136), a
+physician (Dr. Mascaux) who had been prominent in promoting a knowledge of
+preventive methods of conception, was condemned to three months
+imprisonment for "offense against morality!" In such a case, Dr. Helene
+Stoecker comments (_Die Neue Generation_, Jan., 1909, p. 7), "morality" is
+another name for ignorance, timidity, hypocrisy, prudery, coarseness, and
+lack of conscience. It must be remembered, however, in explanation of this
+iniquitous judgment, that for some years past the clerical party has been
+politically predominant in Belgium.
+
+[435] It has been objected that the condom cannot be used by the very
+poorest, on account of its cost, but Hans Ferdy, in a detailed paper
+(_Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908), shows that the use of the condom can be
+brought within the means of the very poorest, if care is taken to preserve
+it under water when not in use. Nystroem (_Sexual Probleme_, Nov., 1908, p.
+736) has issued a leaflet for the benefit of his patients and others,
+recommending the condom, and explaining its use.
+
+[436] Thus, Kisch, in his _Sexual Life of Woman_, after discussing fully
+the various methods of prevention, decides in favor of the condom.
+Fuerbringer similarly (Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation
+to Marriage_, vol. i, pp. 232 et seq.) concludes that the condom is
+"relatively the most perfect anti-conceptual remedy." Forel (_Die Sexuelle
+Frage_, pp. 457 et seq.) also discusses the question at length; any
+aesthetic objection to the condom, Forel adds (p. 544), is due to the fact
+that we are not accustomed to it; "eye-glasses are not specially aesthetic,
+but the poetry of life does not suffer excessively from their use, which,
+in many cases, cannot be dispensed with."
+
+[437] _L'Avortement_, p. 43.
+
+[438] There are some disputed points in Roman law and practice concerning
+abortion; they are discussed in Balestrini's valuable book, _Aborto_, pp.
+30 et seq.
+
+[439] Augustine, _De Civitate Dei_, Bk. XXII, Ch. XIII.
+
+[440] The development of opinion and law concerning abortion has been
+traced by Eugene Bausset, _L'Avortement Criminel_, These de Paris, 1907.
+For a summary of the practices of different peoples regarding abortion,
+see W.G. Sumner, _Folkways_, Ch. VIII.
+
+[441] _Die Neue Generation_, May, 1908, p. 192. It may be added that in
+England the attachment of any penalty at all to abortion, practiced in the
+early months of pregnancy (before "quickening" has taken place), is merely
+a modern innovation.
+
+[442] Even Balestrini, who is opposed to the punishment of abortion, is no
+advocate of it. "Whenever abortion becomes a social custom," he remarks
+(op. cit., p. 191), "it is the external manifestation of a people's
+decadence, and far too deeply rooted to be cured by the mere attempt to
+suppress the external manifestation."
+
+[443] Cf. Ellen Key, _Century of the Child_, Ch. I. Hirth (_Wege zur
+Heimat_, p. 526) is likewise opposed to the encouragement of abortion,
+though he would not actually punish the pregnant woman who induces
+abortion. I would especially call attention to an able and cogent article
+by Anna Pappritz ("Die Vernichtung des Keimenden Lebens,"
+_Sexual-Probleme_, July, 1909) who argues that the woman is not the sole
+guardian of the embryo she bears, and that it is not in the interests of
+society, nor even in her own interests, that she should be free to destroy
+it at will. Anna Pappritz admits that the present barbarous laws in regard
+to abortion must be modified, but maintains that they should not be
+abolished. She proposes (1) a greatly reduced punishment for abortion; (2)
+this punishment to be extended to the father, whether married or unmarried
+(a provision already carried out in Norway, both for abortion and
+infanticide); (3) permission to the physician to effect abortion when
+there is good reason to suspect hereditary degeneration, as well as when
+the woman has been impregnated by force.
+
+[444] Cf. Dr. Max Hirsch, _Sexual-Probleme_, Jan., 1908, p. 23.
+
+[445] Bausset (op. cit.) sets forth various social measures for the care
+of pregnant and child-bearing women, which would tend to lessen criminal
+abortion.
+
+[446] Gomperz, _Greek Thinkers_, vol. i, p. 564.
+
+[447] F.E. Daniel, President of the State Medical Association of Texas,
+"Should Insane Criminals or Sexual Perverts be Allowed to Procreate?"
+_Medico-legal Journal_, Dec., 1893; id., "The Cause and Prevention of
+Rape," _Texas Medical Journal_, May, 1904.
+
+[448] P. Naecke, "Die Kastration bei gewissen Klassen von Degenerirten als
+ein Wirksamer Socialer Schutz," _Archiv fuer Kriminal-Anthropologie_, Bd.
+III, 1899, p. 58; id. "Kastration in Gewissen Faellen von
+Geisteskrankheit," _Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, 1905, No.
+29.
+
+[449] Angelo Zuccarelli, "Asessualizzazione o sterilizzazione dei
+Degenerati," _L'Anomalo_, 1898-99, No. 6; id., "Sur la necessite et sur
+les Moyens d'empecher la Reproduction des Hommes les plus Degeneres,"
+International Congress Criminal Anthropology, Amsterdam, 1901.
+
+[450] Naecke, _Neurologisches Centralblatt_, March 1, 1909. The
+original account of these operations is reproduced in the
+_Psychiatrisch-Neurologische Wochenschrift_, No. 2, 1909, with an
+approving comment by the editor, Dr. Bresler. As regards castration in
+America, see Flood, "Castration of Idiot Children," _American Journal
+Psychology_, Jan., 1899; also, _Alienist and Neurologist_, Aug., 1909, p.
+348.
+
+[451] It is probable that castration may prove especially advantageous in
+the case of the feeble-minded. "In Somersetshire," says Tredgold ("The
+Feeble-Mind as a Social Danger," _Eugenics Review_, July, 1909), "I found
+that out of a total number of 167 feeble-minded women, nearly two-fifths
+(61) had given birth to children, for the most part illegitimate.
+Moreover, it is not uncommon, but, rather the rule, for these poor girls
+to be admitted into the workhouse maternity wards again and again, and the
+average number of offspring to each one of them is probably three or four,
+although even six is not uncommon." In his work on _Mental Deficiency_
+(pp. 288-292) the same author shows that propagation by the mentally
+deficient is, in England, "both a terrible and extensive evil."
+
+[452] This example is brought forward by Ledermann, "Skin Diseases and
+Marriage," in Senator and Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to
+Marriage_.
+
+[453] I may here again refer to Lea's instructive _History of Sacerdotal
+Celibacy_.
+
+[454] In England, 35,000 applicants for admission to the navy are annually
+rejected, and although the physical requirements for enlistment in the
+army are nowadays extremely moderate, it is estimated by General Maurice
+that at least sixty per cent. of recruits and would-be recruits are
+dismissed as unfit. (See e.g., William Coates, "The Duty of the Medical
+Profession in the Prevention of National Deterioration," _British Medical
+Journal_, May 1, 1909.) It can scarcely be claimed that men who are not
+good enough for the army are good enough for the great task of creating
+the future race.
+
+[455] The recognition of epilepsy as a bar to procreation is not recent.
+There is said to be a record in the archives of the town of Lucon in which
+epilepsy was adjudged to be a valid reason for the cancellation of a
+betrothal (_British Medical Journal_, Feb. 14, 1903, p. 383).
+
+[456] _British Medical Journal_, April 14, 1906. In California and some
+other States, it appears that deceit regarding health is a ground for the
+annulment of marriage.
+
+[457] Sir F. Galton, _Inquiries Into Human Faculty_, Everyman's Library
+edition, pp. 211 et seq.; cf. Galton's collected _Essays in Eugenics_,
+recently published by the Eugenics Education Society.
+
+[458] For some account of the methods and results of the work in schools,
+see Bertram C.A. Windle, "Anthropometric Work in Schools," _Medical
+Magazine_, Feb., 1894.
+
+[459] The most notable steps in this direction have been taken in Germany.
+For an account of the experiment at Karlsruhe, see _Die Neue Generation_,
+Dec., 1908.
+
+[460] Wiethknudsen (as quoted in _Sexual-Probleme_, Dec., 1908, p. 837)
+speaks strongly, but not too strongly, concerning the folly of any
+indiscriminate endowment of procreation.
+
+[461] On the scientific side, in addition to the fruitful methods of
+statistical biometrics, which have already been mentioned, much promise
+attaches to work along the lines initiated by Mendel; see W. Bateson,
+_Mendel's Principles of Heredity_, 1909; also, W.H. Lock, _Recent Progress
+in the Study of Variation, Heredity, and Evolution_, and R.C. Punnett,
+_Mendelism_, 1907 (American edition, with interesting preface by Gaylord
+Wilshire, from the Socialistic point of view, 1909).
+
+[462] The study of the right conditions for procreation is very ancient.
+In modern times we find that even the very first French medical book in
+the vulgar tongue, the _Regime du Corps_, written by Alebrand of Florence
+(who was physician to the King of France), in 1256, is largely devoted to
+this matter, concerning which it gives much sound advice. See J.B.
+Soalhat, _Les Idees de Maistre Alebrand de Florence sur la Puericulture_,
+These de Paris, 1908.
+
+[463] Hesiod, _Works and Days_, II, 690-700.
+
+[464] This has long been the accepted opinion of medical authorities, as
+may be judged by the statements brought together two centuries ago by
+Schurig, _Parthenologia_, pp. 22-25.
+
+[465] The statement that, on the average, the best age for procreation in
+men is before, rather than after, forty, by no means assumes the existence
+of any "critical" age in men analogous to the menopause in women. This is
+sometimes asserted, but there is no agreement in regard to it. Restif de
+la Bretonne (_Monsieur Nicolas_, vol. x, p. 176) said that at the age of
+forty delicacy of sentiment begins to go. Fuerbringer believes (Senator and
+Kaminer, _Health and Disease in Relation to Marriage_, vol. i, p. 222)
+that there is a decisive turn in a man's life in the sixth decade, or the
+middle of the fifth, when desire and potency diminish. J.F. Sutherland
+also states (_Comptes-rendus Congres International de Medecine_, 1900,
+Section de Psychiatrie, p. 471) that there is, in men, about the
+fifty-fifth year, a change analogous to the menopause in women, but only
+in a certain proportion of men. It would appear that in most men the
+decline of sexual feeling and potency is very gradual, and at first
+manifests itself in increased power of control.
+
+[466] See, in vol. i, the study of "The Phenomena of Sexual Periodicity."
+
+[467] Among animals, also, spring litters are often said to be the best.
+
+[468] Bossi's results are summarized in _Archives d'Anthropologie
+Criminelle_, Sept., 1891. Alebrand of Florence, the French King's
+physician in the thirteenth century, also advised intercourse a day after
+the end of menstruation.
+
+
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+
+"The work that I was born to do is done," a great poet wrote when at last
+he had completed his task. And although I am not entitled to sing any
+_Nunc dimittis_, I am well aware that the task that has occupied the best
+part of my life can have left few years and little strength for any work
+that comes after. It is more than thirty years ago since the first resolve
+to write the work now here concluded began to shape itself, still dimly
+though insistently; the period of study and preparation occupied over
+fifteen years, ending with the publication of _Man and Woman_, put forward
+as a prolegomenon to the main work which, in the writing and publication,
+has occupied the fifteen subsequent years.
+
+It was perhaps fortunate for my peace that I failed at the outset to
+foresee all the perils that beset my path. I knew indeed that those who
+investigate severely and intimately any subject which men are accustomed
+to pass by on the other side lay themselves open to misunderstanding and
+even obloquy. But I supposed that a secluded student who approached vital
+social problems with precaution, making no direct appeal to the general
+public, but only to the public's teachers, and who wrapped up the results
+of his inquiries in technically written volumes open to few, I supposed
+that such a student was at all events secure from any gross form of attack
+on the part of the police or the government under whose protection he
+imagined that he lived. That proved to be a mistake. When only one volume
+of these _Studies_ had been written and published in England, a
+prosecution, instigated by the government, put an end to the sale of that
+volume in England, and led me to resolve that the subsequent volumes
+should not be published in my own country. I do not complain. I am
+grateful for the early and generous sympathy with which my work was
+received in Germany and the United States, and I recognize that it has had
+a wider circulation, both in English and the other chief languages of the
+world, than would have been possible by the modest method of issue which
+the government of my own country induced me to abandon. Nor has the effort
+to crush my work resulted in any change in that work by so much as a
+single word. With help, or without it, I have followed my own path to the
+end.
+
+For it so happens that I come on both sides of my house from stocks of
+Englishmen who, nearly three hundred years ago, had encountered just these
+same difficulties and dangers before. In the seventeenth century, indeed,
+the battle was around the problem of religion, as to-day it is around the
+problem of sex. Since I have of late years realized this analogy I have
+often thought of certain admirable and obscure men who were driven out,
+robbed, and persecuted, some by the Church because the spirit of
+Puritanism moved within them, some by the Puritans because they clung to
+the ideals of the Church, yet both alike quiet and unflinching, both alike
+fighting for causes of freedom or of order in a field which has now for
+ever been won. That victory has often seemed of good augury to the perhaps
+degenerate child of these men who has to-day sought to maintain the causes
+of freedom and of order in another field.
+
+It sometimes seems, indeed, a hopeless task to move the pressure of inert
+prejudices which are at no point so obstinate as this of sex. It may help
+to restore the serenity of our optimism if we would more clearly realize
+that in a very few generations all these prejudices will have perished and
+be forgotten. He who follows in the steps of Nature after a law that was
+not made by man, and is above and beyond man, has time as well as eternity
+on his side, and can afford to be both patient and fearless. Men die, but
+the ideas they seek to kill live. Our books may be thrown to the flames,
+but in the next generation those flames become human souls. The
+transformation is effected by the doctor in his consulting room, by the
+teacher in the school, the preacher in the pulpit, the journalist in the
+press. It is a transformation that is going on, slowly but surely, around
+us.
+
+I am well aware that many will not feel able to accept the estimate of the
+sexual situation as here set forth, more especially in the final volume.
+Some will consider that estimate too conservative, others too
+revolutionary. For there are always some who passionately seek to hold
+fast to the past; there are always others who passionately seek to snatch
+at what they imagine to be the future. But the wise man, standing midway
+between both parties and sympathizing with each, knows that we are ever in
+the stage of transition. The present is in every age merely the shifting
+point at which past and future meet, and we can have no quarrel with
+either. There can be no world without traditions; neither can there be any
+life without movement. As Heracleitus knew at the outset of modern
+philosophy, we cannot bathe twice in the same stream, though, as we know
+to-day, the stream still flows in an unending circle. There is never a
+moment when the new dawn is not breaking over the earth, and never a
+moment when the sunset ceases to die. It is well to greet serenely even
+the first glimmer of the dawn when we see it, not hastening towards it
+with undue speed, nor leaving the sunset without gratitude for the dying
+light that once was dawn.
+
+In the moral world we are ourselves the light-bearers, and the cosmic
+process is in us made flesh. For a brief space it is granted to us, if we
+will, to enlighten the darkness that surrounds our path. As in the ancient
+torch-race, which seemed to Lucretius to be the symbol of all life, we
+press forward torch in hand along the course. Soon from behind comes the
+runner who will outpace us. All our skill lies in giving into his hand the
+living torch, bright and unflickering, as we ourselves disappear in the
+darkness.
+
+HAVELOCK ELLIS.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF AUTHORS.
+
+Abdias
+Achery
+Acton
+Adam, Mme.
+Adler, Felix
+Adler, O.
+Adner
+Aguilaniedo
+Alebrand
+Alexander, Dr. H.
+Alexandre, Alcide
+Allee, A.
+Allen, L.M.
+Allen, Mary W.
+Ambrose, St.
+Amelineau
+Ammon
+Amram, D.W.
+Angela de Fulginio
+Angus, H.C.
+Anstie
+Aquinas
+Ardu
+Arendt, Henrietta
+Aretino
+Aristotle
+Aronstam
+Ascarilla
+Aschaffenburg
+Astengo
+Astor, Mary
+Astruc
+Athanasius
+Athenaeus
+Audry
+Augagneur
+Augustine, St.
+Aurientis
+Ayala
+
+Bacchimont
+Bachaumont
+Badley, J.H.
+Baelz
+Baer, K.M.
+Baker, Smith
+Balestrini
+Ballantyne, Dr.
+Ballantyne, Miss H.
+Balls-Headley
+Balzac
+Bangs, L.B.
+Bartels, Max
+Basedow
+Basil, St.
+Bateson
+Baumgarten
+Bausset
+Bax, Belfort
+Bazan, Emilia Pardo
+Beadnell, C.M.
+Beddoes
+Bedolliere
+Bell, Sanford
+Benecke
+Benedikt
+Bentzon, Mme.
+Berault, G.
+Berg, Leo
+Bernard, St.
+Berry, F.
+Bertherand
+Bertillon
+Besant, Mrs.
+Beza
+Bierhoff
+Birnbaum
+Bishop, G.P.
+Bishop, Mrs.
+Blacker
+Blake, William
+Blandford
+Blaschko
+Bloch, Iwan
+Bluhm, Agnes
+Blumreich
+Boccaccio
+Bohier
+Bois, Jules
+Boissier, de Sauvages
+Bollinger
+Boelsche
+Bonger
+Bongi, S.
+Bonhoeffer
+Boniface, St.
+Bonnifield
+Bonstetten
+Booth, C.
+Booth, D.S.
+Bossi
+Bouchacourt
+Bougainville
+Bourget
+Bouvier
+Boyle, F.
+Brachet
+Braun, Lily
+Brenier de Montmorand
+Brenot, H.
+Breuer
+Brieux
+Brinton
+Brouardel
+Brougham Lord
+Brown, Dr. Charlotte
+Bruns, Ivo
+Brynmor-Jones
+Bucer
+Budge, A.W.
+Buffon
+Bulkley, D.
+Bueller
+Bumm
+Bunge
+Burchard
+Burdach
+Buret
+Burnet
+Burton, Sir R.
+Burton, Robert
+Busch
+Bushee
+Butler, G.
+Butterfield
+Byers
+
+Cabanis
+Caird, Mona
+Callari
+Calvin
+Calza
+Canudo
+Capitaine
+Caron
+Carpenter, Edward
+Casanova
+Caspari
+Cataneus
+Cattell, J. McKeen
+Caufeynon
+Cazalis
+Chaignon
+Chambers, E.K.
+Chambers, W.G.
+Chapman, G.
+Chapman, J.
+Cheetham
+Cheng, Mme.
+Cheyne
+Child, May
+Chotzen, M.
+Chrysostom
+Cicero
+Ciuffo
+Clapperton, Miss
+Clappier
+Clarke
+Clement of Alexandria
+Clement E.
+Cleveland, C.
+Clouston
+Coates, W.
+Codrington, R.W.
+Coghlan
+Colombey
+Coltman
+Commenge
+Cook, G.W.
+Cook, Capt. J.
+Cooper, A.
+Cope, E.D.
+Correa, Roman
+Coryat
+Crackanthorpe
+Cranmer
+Crawley, A.E.
+Crocker
+Curr
+Gushing, W.
+Cyples
+
+Daniel, F.E.
+Dareste
+Dargun
+Darmesteter, J.
+Darricarrere
+Darwin
+Daudet, A.
+D'Aulnoy, Mme.
+Daya, W.
+Debreyne
+D'Enjoy, Paul
+Dens
+Deodhar, Mrs. Kashibai
+Descartes
+Despine
+Despres
+Dessoir, Max
+Diaz de Isla
+Diday
+Diderot
+Digby, Sir K.
+Dill
+Dluska, Mme.
+Dodd, Catherine
+Doleris
+Donaldson, Principal
+Donnay
+Drysdale, C.R.
+Drysdale, G.
+Duclaux
+Duehren, _see_ Bloch, Iwan.
+Dufour, P.
+Dukes
+Dulaure
+Dulberg
+Dumas, G.
+Duncan, Matthews
+Dunnett
+Dunning
+Dupouey
+Durkheim
+Durlacher
+Dyer, I.
+
+Edgar, J. Clifton
+Egbert, S.
+Ehrenfels, C. von
+Elliot, G.F.S.
+Ellis, Sir A.B.
+Ellis, Havelock
+Ellis, William
+Elmy, Ben., _see_ Ethelmer, Ellis.
+Enderlin, Max
+Engelmann
+Ennius
+Enzensberger
+Erb
+Erhard, F.
+Escherich
+Esmein
+Espy de Metz
+Ethelmer, Ellis
+Eulenburg
+Evans, Mrs. Grainger
+
+Farnell
+Farrer, R.T.
+Federow
+Ferdy, H.
+Fere
+Ferrand
+Ferrero, G.
+Ferriani
+Fiaschi
+Fiaux
+Fielding
+Finger
+Fischer, W.
+Fitchett
+Flesch, Max
+Flogel
+Flood
+Forberg
+Forel
+Fornasari
+Fothergill, J.M.
+Fouquet
+Fournier
+Fox, G.
+Fracastorus
+Fraser, Mrs.
+Frazer, J.G.
+Freeman
+French, H.C.
+Freud
+Friedjung
+Friedlaender
+Fuchs, N.
+Funk, W.
+Fuerbringer
+Fuerth, Henriette
+
+Gache
+Gaedeken
+Gallard
+Galton, Sir F.
+Gardiner, J.S.
+Garrison, C.G.
+Gaultier, J. de
+Gautier, L.
+Geary, N.
+Gennep, A. Van
+Gerard
+Gerhard, Adele
+Gerhard, W.
+Gerson, A.
+Gesell
+Gibb, W.T.
+Gibbon
+Giles, A.E.
+Giles, H.A.
+Gillard, E.
+Gillen
+Gilles de la Tourette
+Ginnell
+Giuffrida-Ruggeri
+Glueck, L.
+Godard
+Godfrey, J.A.
+Godwin, W.
+Goethe
+Gomperz
+Goncourt
+Goodchild, F.M.
+Goring
+Gottheil
+Gottschling
+Gourmont, Remy de
+Graef, R. de
+Graf, A.
+Grandin
+Green, C.M.
+Gregory the Great
+Gregory of Nazianzen
+Gregory of Nyssa
+Gregory of Tours
+Gregory M.
+Griesinger
+Gross
+Gross, H.
+Grosse
+Gulick, L.H.
+Gurlitt, L.
+Gury
+Guttceit
+Guyau
+Guyot
+Gyurkovechky
+
+Haddon, A.C.
+Hagelstange
+Hale
+Hall, A.
+Hall, Stanley
+Hall, W.
+Haller
+Hamilton, A.
+Hammer
+Hammond, W.A.
+Hamon, A.
+Hard, Hedwig
+Hardy, Thomas
+Harris, A.
+Harrison, F.
+Hartland, E.S.
+Harwood, W.L.
+Haskovec
+Haslam, J.
+Hausmeister, P.
+Havelburg
+Hawkesworth
+Haycraft
+Hayes, P.J.
+Haynes, E.S.P.
+Hegar
+Heidenhain, A.
+Heidingsfeld
+Heimann
+Hellmann
+Hellpach
+Helme, T.A.
+Helvetius
+Herbert, Auberon
+Herman, G.
+Hermant, A.
+Herodotus
+Heron
+Hesiod
+Hiller
+Hinton
+Hirsch, Max
+Hirschfeld, Magnus
+Hirth, G.
+Hobhouse, L.T.
+Hobson, J.A.
+Hoffmann, E.
+Holbach
+Holder, A.B.
+Holmes, T.
+Holt, R.B.
+Hopkins, Ellice
+Hort
+Houzel
+Howard, G.B.
+Howitt, A.W.
+Hudrey-Menos, J.
+Hughes, C.H.
+Humboldt, W. Von
+Hutchinson, Sir J.
+Hutchinson, Woods
+Hyde, J.N.
+Hyrtl
+
+Inderwick
+Ivens, F.
+
+Jacobi, Mary P.
+Jacobsohn, L.
+Janet
+Janke
+Jastrow, M.
+Jeannel
+Jellinek, C.
+Jentsch, K.
+Jerome, H.
+John of Salisbury
+Jones, Sir W.
+Jullien
+
+Kaan
+Kalbeck
+Karin, Karina
+Keller, G.
+Kelly, H.A.
+Kennedy, Helen
+Key, Ellen
+Keyes, E.L.
+Kiernan
+Kind, A.
+Kingsley, C.
+Kirk, E.B.
+Kisch
+Klotz
+Knott, J.
+Kossmann
+Kowalewsky, Sophie
+Krafft-Ebing
+Krauss, F.S.
+Krukenberg, Frau
+Kubary
+Kullberg
+Kurella
+
+Lacroix, P.
+Lafargue, Paul
+La Jeunesse, E.
+Lallemand
+Lambkin
+Lancaster
+Landor
+Landret
+Langsdorf
+Lapie
+Laplace
+Lasco, John a
+Lauvergne
+Laycock
+Lea
+Lecky
+Lederer
+Ledermann
+Lee, Sidney
+Lefebvre, A.
+Legg, J.W.
+Lemonnier, C.
+Lenkei
+Lepage
+Letourneux
+Levy-Bruhl
+Lewis, Denslow
+Lewitt
+Leyboff
+Lilienthal
+Lindsey, B.B.
+Lippert
+Lischnewska, Maria
+Liszt
+Livingstone, W.P.
+Lock, W.H.
+Logan
+Lombroso
+Loewenfeld
+Lowndes
+Lucas, Clement
+Lucretius
+Lumholtz
+Luther
+Lydston
+Lyttelton, E.
+
+Maberly, G.C.
+MacMurchy, Dr. Helen
+Macvie
+Madam, M.
+Maeterlinck
+Magruder, J.
+Maillard-Brune
+Maine
+Maitland
+Malthus
+Mandeville, B.
+Mannhardt
+Mantegazza, A.
+Mantegazza, P.
+Marcais
+Marchesini
+Marcuse, J.
+Marcuse, M.
+Margueritte, P.
+Margueritte, V.
+Marholm, L.
+Marro
+Martindale, Miss
+Martineau
+Marx, V.
+Massalongo
+Masson
+Mathews, A.
+Mathews, R.H.
+Matignon
+Maudsley
+Maurice, General
+Mayor
+Mayreder, Rosa
+McBride, G.H.
+McCleary, G.F.
+McIlquham
+Melancthon
+Menger, A. von
+Menjago
+Mensinga
+Meredith, G.
+Merimee
+Merrick
+Metchnikoff
+Meyer-Benfey, H.
+Meyer, Bruno
+Meyer, E.H.
+Meyrick
+Michelet
+Michels, R.
+Migne
+Mill, J.
+Mill, J.S.
+Millais, J.G.
+Miller, Noyes
+Miln, L.J.
+Milner
+Milton
+Moebius
+Molinari, G. de
+Moll
+Moenkemoeller
+Montaigne
+Montesquieu
+Montmorency
+Mookerji
+Moore, Samson
+Morasso
+More, Sir T.
+Moreau, Christophe
+Morley, Lord
+Morley, Margaret
+Morris, William
+Morrow
+Mortimer, G.
+Moryson, Fynes
+Mott, F.W.
+Multatuli
+Muensterberg
+Murray, Gilbert
+Mylott
+
+Naecke
+Naumann, F.
+Nefzaoui
+Neisser
+Neugebauer
+Newman, G.
+Newsholme, A.
+Niessen, Max von
+Nietzold
+Nietzsche
+Niven
+Noble, M.
+Noggerath
+Northcote, Rev. H.
+Notthaft
+Noyes, J.H.
+Nystroem
+
+Obersteiner
+Obici
+Odo of Cluny
+Oefele
+Okamura
+Olberg, Oda
+Omer, Haleby
+Ostwald, H.
+Ott
+Ovid
+Owen, R.D.
+
+Paget, Sir J.
+Palladius
+Pappritz, Anna
+Parent-Duchatelet
+Pare
+Parsons, E.C.
+Parsons, J.
+Patmore, C.
+Paton, Noel
+Paul, Dr. H.
+Paulucci de Calboli
+Paulus
+Pearson, K.
+Pechin
+Pepys
+Pernet
+Perruc
+Perry-Coste
+Petermann, J.
+Petrie, Flinders
+Picard
+Pike
+Pinard
+Pinkus
+Pinloche
+Place, Francis
+Plato
+Plarr, V.
+Plautus
+Playfair, Sir W.S.
+Ploss
+Plutarch
+Pole, M.T.
+Pollack, Flora
+Pollock, Sir F.
+Potter, M.A.
+Potton
+Power, D'Arcy
+Powys
+Prat
+Price, J.
+Prevost, M.
+Prinzing
+Probst-Biraben
+Proksch
+Pudor
+Punnett
+Pyke, Rafford
+
+Querlon, Meusnier de
+Quiros, C. Bernaldo de
+
+Rabelais
+Rabutaux
+Raciborski
+Radbruch
+Ramdohr
+Ramsay, Sir W.M.
+Rasmussen
+Ratramnus
+Redlich
+Reed, C.
+Regnier, H. de
+Reibmayr
+Reinhard
+Remo, P.
+Remondino
+Renan
+Renooz, Celine
+Renouf, C.
+Renouvier
+Restif de la Bretonne
+Reuss
+Reuther, F.
+Revillout
+Rhys, Sir J.
+Ribbing
+Ribot
+Rich, H.
+Richard, C.
+Richard, E.
+Richmond, Mrs. Ennis
+Ritter, Dr. Mary
+Robert, U.
+Robertson, W.
+Robinovitch, L.
+Rogers, Anna
+Rohde
+Rohleder
+Rolfincius
+Rosenberg
+Rosenthal
+Rousseau
+Routh
+Rudeck
+Rufinus Tyrannius
+Ruggles, W.
+Rueling, Anna
+Ruskin
+Russell, Mrs. Bertrand
+Rust, H.
+Rutgers
+Ryan, M.
+Ryckere, E. de
+
+Sabine, J.K.
+Sacher-Masoch, Wanda von
+Sainte-Beuve
+Saleeby
+Salimbene
+Salvat
+Sanborn, Lura
+Sanchez, T.
+Sandoz, F.
+Sanger
+Sarraute-Lourie, Mme.
+Schaefenacker
+Schaudinn
+Schlegel, F.
+Schmid, Marie von
+Schmidt, R.
+Schneider, C.K.
+Schopenhauer
+Schrader, O.
+Schrank
+Schreiber, Adele
+Schreiner, Olive
+Schrempf
+Schrenck-Notzing
+Schroeder, E.A.
+Schroeder, T.
+Schultz, Alwyn
+Schultze-Malkowsky, E.
+Schurig
+Schurtz, H.
+Schwalbe
+Scott, Colin
+Scott, J.F.
+Segur
+Seligmann
+Sellman, W.A.B.
+Senancour
+Seneca
+Seropian
+Sevigne, Mme. de
+Seymour, H.J.
+Shakespeare
+Shaw, G.B.
+Shebbeare, Rev. C.J.
+Shelley
+Sherwell
+Shufeldt
+Sidgwick, H.
+Sidis, Boris
+Sieroshevski
+Simmel
+Simon, Helene
+Sinclair, Sir W.
+Smith, Robertson
+Soalhat
+Somerset, Lady Henry
+Sommer, R.
+Soranus
+Spencer, Baldwin
+Spencer, Herbert
+Spitta
+Stanmore, Lord
+Stefanowski
+Stefansson
+Stevenson, R.L.
+Stevenson, T.H.C.
+Stoecker, Helene
+Strampff
+Stratz, C.H.
+Streitberg, Graefin
+Stroehmberg
+Sturge, Miss
+Suidas
+Sullivan, W.C.
+Sumner, W.G.
+Susruta
+Sutherland, J.F.
+Sutherland, W.D.
+Sykes, J.F.J.
+
+Tait, W.
+Talbot, E.S.
+Tammeo
+Tarde
+Tarnowsky, Pauline
+Taylor, R.W.
+Tenney
+Tennyson
+Terman, L.M.
+Tertullian
+Theresa, W.
+Thomas, A.W.
+Thomas, N.W.
+Thomas, Prof. W.
+Thomson, J.A.
+Thoreau
+Thuasne
+Tilt
+Tobler
+Todhunter
+Tolstoy
+Tout, C. Hill
+Traill
+Tredgold
+Trewby
+Troll-Borostyani I. von
+Trollope, A.
+Turnbull
+
+Ulpian
+Ungewitter
+Unna
+Urquhart
+
+Vacher de Lapouge
+Valentino
+Valera
+Vanderkiste
+Varendonck
+Vatsyayana
+Vaux, Rev. J.E.
+Velden, Van den
+Velten
+Venette
+Veniero
+Vickery, A. Drysdale
+Vinay
+Vinci, L. de
+Vines, Miss
+Virchow
+Vitrey
+Voltaire
+Vries, de
+
+Waechter
+Wagner, C.
+Wahrmund
+Wales, E.B.
+Walter, J. von
+Ward, Lester
+Wardlaw, R.
+Warker, Van de
+Warren, M.A.
+Wasserschleben
+Watkins
+Webb, Sidney
+Weinberg
+Weininger
+Welander
+Welch, F.H.
+Wells, H.G.
+Werthauer
+Wessmann
+Westermarck
+Wharton
+Wheeler, C.B.
+Wheeler, Mrs.
+Whitaker, Nellie C.
+Whitman, Walt
+Wiedow
+Wilcox, Ella W.
+Wilhelm
+William of Malmsbury
+Williams, Dawson
+Williams, Hugh
+Williams, W. Roger
+Windle, C.A.
+Wollstonecraft, M.
+
+Yule, G. Adney
+
+Zacchia
+Zache
+Zanzinger, E.
+Zeno
+Zoroaster
+Zuccarelli
+
+
+
+
+INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
+
+Abortion,
+  arguments against
+  modern advocates of
+  the practice of
+Abstinence,
+  alleged evil results of
+  alleged good results of
+  as a preparation for marriage
+  criticism of conception of
+  intermediate views of
+  moral results of
+  sexual, in relation to chastity
+  the problems of
+Abyssinia,
+  prostitution in
+  sexual initiation in
+Achilleus and Nereus,
+  legend of
+Adultery
+Africa,
+  chastity on West Coast of
+Alcohol,
+  as a sexual stimulant
+  in pregnancy
+  in relation to the orgy
+Alexander VI and courtesans
+Ambil anak Marriage
+America,
+  divorce in
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+American Indians,
+  appreciate asceticism
+  sexual initiation among
+  their Sabbath orgies
+  words for love among
+Aphrodite Pandemos
+Art in relation to sexual impulse
+Asceticism among early Christians
+  appreciated by savages
+  definition of
+  in religion
+  later degeneracy of
+  value of
+Ascetics,
+  attitude towards sex of mediaeval
+Aspasia
+Athletics for women
+Aucassin et Nicolette
+Australia,
+  marriage system in
+  saturnalian festivals in
+  sexual initiation in
+Auvergne,
+  story of the Two Lovers of
+Azimba Land,
+  sexual initiation in
+
+Babies,
+  children's theories on the origin of
+Babylonia,
+  high status of women in
+  religious prostitution in
+Bawenda,
+  sexual initiation among
+Beena marriage
+Beethoven
+Behn, Aphra
+Belgium,
+  prostitution in
+Bestial,
+  human sexual impulse not
+Bible in relation to sexual education
+Biometrics
+Birth,
+  civilized tendency to premature
+Birthrate,
+  decline of
+Blindness in relation to gonorrhoea
+Botany in sexual education
+Bredalbane case
+Breed _versus_ nurture
+Bride-price
+Brothel,
+  decay of
+  in ancient Rome
+  in the East
+  mediaeval
+  modern defence of
+  modern regulation of
+  origin of
+Bundling
+Burmah,
+  prostitution in
+
+Canon law,
+  defects of
+  its importance
+  origin of
+  persistence of its traditions
+  sound kernel of
+Carlyle
+Carnival,
+  origin of
+Castration,
+  modern developments of
+  the practice of
+Chastity among early Christians
+  definition of
+  girdle of
+  in modern Fiji
+  in what sense a virtue
+  modern attitude towards
+  Protestant attitude towards
+  romantic literature of
+  the function of
+Child,
+  as foundation of marriage
+  characteristics of eldest born
+  its need of two parents
+Childhood,
+  sexual activity in
+  sexual teaching in
+China,
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Chivalry on position of women,
+  influence of
+Christianity,
+  attitude towards chastity
+  attitude towards lust
+  attitude towards nakedness
+  failed to recognize importance of art of love
+  its influence on position of women
+  on marriage
+  mixed attitude towards sexual impulse
+  towards prostitution
+  towards seduction
+Civilization and prostitution
+  and the sexual impulse
+Coitus,
+  _a posteriori_
+  best time for
+  during pregnancy
+  ethnic variations in
+  excess in
+  injuries due to unskilful
+  _interruptus_
+  morbid horror of
+  needs to be taught
+  prayer before
+  proper frequency of
+  religious significance of
+  _reservatus_
+Collusion,
+  doctrine of
+Conception,
+  conditions of
+  prevention of
+Concubine
+Condom
+Conjugal rights or rites
+Consent,
+  age of
+Consultation de Nourrisson
+Contract,
+  marriage as a
+Corinth,
+  prostitution at
+Country life and sexuality
+Courtesan,
+  origin of term
+Courtship,
+  the art of
+Criminality in relation to prostitution
+Cyprus,
+  prostitution at
+
+Dancing,
+  hygienic value of
+  as an orgy
+D'Aragona, Tullia
+Divorce,
+  by mutual consent
+  causes for
+  in ancient Rome
+  in ancient Wales
+  in China
+  in England
+  in France
+  in Germany
+  in Japan
+  in Russia
+  in Switzerland
+  in United States
+  Milton's views on
+  modern tendency of
+  Protestant attitude towards
+  question of damages for
+  reform of
+  tendency of legislation regarding
+  transmission of venereal disease as a cause for
+Drama,
+  modern function of the
+Dysmenorrhoea
+
+Economic factor,
+  of marriage
+  of prostitution
+Education in matters of sex
+  for women
+Egypt,
+  high status of women in
+Eldest born child,
+  characteristics of
+England,
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+Erotic element in marriage
+Eskimo,
+  divorce among
+  sexual initiation among
+Eugenics
+  false ideas of
+  foundation by Galton
+  importance of environment in relation to
+  in relation to castration
+  Noyes a pioneer in
+  positive
+  wide acceptance of principle of
+Excretory centers as affecting estimate of sexual impulse
+Exogamy,
+  origin of
+
+Families and degeneracy,
+  large
+Father in relation to family
+Fecundation,
+  artificial
+Festivals,
+  seasonal
+Fidus
+Fiji,
+  chastity in
+Flirtation
+Fools, Feast of
+Fornication,
+  theological doctrine of
+France,
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Franco, Veronica
+
+Gallantry,
+  the ancient conception of
+Geisha, the
+General paralysis and syphilis
+Genius,
+  in relation to chastity
+  in relation to love
+Germany,
+  divorce in
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+Gestation,
+  length of
+Girdle of chastity
+Girls,
+  interest in sex matters
+  masculine ideals of
+Girls,
+  sex education of
+  their need of sexual knowledge
+Gnostic elements in early Christian literature
+Goddesses in forefront of primitive pantheons
+Gonorrhoea,
+  nature and results of
+  _And see_ Venereal Diseases.
+Goutte de Lait
+Greeks,
+  origin of their drama
+  prudery among
+  rarity of ideal sexual love among
+  their attitude towards nakedness
+  their conception of the orgy
+  their erotic writings
+Group-marriage
+Gynaecocracy,
+  alleged primitive
+
+Hetairae
+Hindu attitude towards sex
+Holland,
+  prostitution in
+Homosexuality among prostitutes
+Huddersfield scheme
+Hysteria
+
+Ideals of girls,
+  masculine
+Illegitimacy
+  in Germany
+Imperia
+Impotency in popular estimation
+Impurity,
+  disastrous results of teaching feminine
+  early Christian views of
+India,
+  story of The Betrothed of
+  sacred prostitution in
+Individualism and Socialism
+Infantile mortality
+  in relation to suckling by mother
+  in relation to syphilis
+Infantile sexuality
+Insanity and prostitution
+Intellectual work in relation to sexual activity in men
+  in women
+Ireland,
+  divorce in
+  high status of women in ancient
+Italy,
+  prostitution in
+
+Jamaica,
+  results of free sexual unions in
+Japan,
+  attitude towards love in
+  automatic legitimation of children in
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Jealousy
+Jesus
+Jews,
+  as parents
+  prostitution among ancient
+  status of women among
+Judas Thomas's Acts
+
+Kadishtu
+Kant
+Korea,
+  prostitution in
+
+Lactation
+Lectures on sexual hygiene
+Lenclos, Ninon de
+Love an essential part of marriage
+  art of
+  definition of
+  difficulties of art of
+  for more than one person
+  future development of
+  how far an illusion
+  in childhood
+  in relation to chastity
+  inevitable mystery of
+  its value for life
+  testimonies to immense importance of
+Lust,
+  in relation to love
+  theological conception of
+Lydian prostitution
+
+Mahommedanism and prostitution
+  and sanctity of sex
+  its regard for chastity
+Male continence
+Malthus
+Mammary activity in infancy
+Manuals of sexual hygiene
+Maoris,
+  results of loss of old faith among
+Marriage,
+  advantages of early
+  ambil anak
+  and prostitution
+  as a contract
+  as a fact
+  as a sacrament
+  as an ethical sacrament
+  beena
+  by capture
+  certificates for
+  criticism of
+  evolution of
+  for a term of years
+  from legal point of view
+  in early Christian times
+  in old English law
+  in relation to eugenics
+  in relation to morals
+  in Rome
+  independent of forms
+  inferior forms of
+  love as a factor of
+  modern tendencies in regard to
+  objections to early
+  objects of
+  procreation as a factor of
+  Protestant attitude towards
+  trial
+  variations in order of
+Masturbation among prostitutes
+  anxiety of boys about
+  in relation to sexual abstinence
+Matriarchy,
+  alleged primitive
+Matrilineal descent
+Mendelism
+Mendes,
+  the rite at
+Menstruation,
+  brought on by sexual excitement
+  coitus during
+  hygiene of
+  instruction regarding
+Missionaries' attempt to impose European customs
+Modesty consistent with nakedness
+Monogamy
+Montanist element in early Christian literature
+Morality,
+  meaning of the term
+Motherhood,
+  early age of
+  endowment of
+Mothers,
+  duty to instruct daughters
+  duty to suckle infant
+  responsibility for their own procreative acts
+  schools for
+  the sexual teachers of children
+Mylitta,
+  prostitution at temple of
+Mystery in matters of sex, evil of
+
+Nakedness,
+  an alleged sexual stimulant
+  as a prime tonic of life
+  consistent with modesty
+  educational value of
+  hygienic value of
+  in literature and art
+  in mediaeval Europe
+  in relation to sexual education
+  its moral value
+  its spiritual value
+  modern attitude towards
+Neo-Malthusianism
+Neurasthenia,
+  sexual
+Newton
+New Zealand,
+  result of decay of _tapu_ in
+  sexual freedom in ancient
+Night-courtship customs
+Notification of Births Act
+  venereal diseases
+Nurture _versus_ breed
+Nutrition compared to reproduction
+
+Obscenity,
+  early Christian views of
+Orgy,
+  among savages
+  in classic times
+  in mediaeval Christianity
+  its religious origin
+  modern need of
+Oneida Community
+Ouled-Nail prostitution
+Ovarian irritation
+Ovid
+
+Penitentials, the
+Physician,
+  alleged duty to prescribe sexual intercourse
+  as a social reformer
+  his place in sexual hygiene
+Platonic friendship
+Poetry in relation to sexual impulse
+Polygamy
+Precocity,
+  sexual
+Pregnancy,
+  among primitive peoples
+  coitus during
+  early
+  hygiene of
+Premature birth
+Procreation,
+  best age for
+  best season for
+  control of
+  its place in marriage
+  methods of control of
+  the science of
+Promiscuity,
+  theory of primitive
+Prostitutes,
+  as artists
+  as guardians of the home
+  at the Renaissance
+  attitudes towards bully
+  in Austria
+  in classic times
+  in France
+  in Italy
+  injustice of social attitude towards
+  number of servants who become
+  psychic and physical characteristics
+  tendency to homosexuality
+  their motives for adopting avocation
+  their sexual temperament
+  under Christianity
+Prostitution,
+  among savages
+  as affected by Christianity
+  as an equivalent of criminality
+  causes of
+  civilizational value of
+  decay of State regulation of
+  definition of
+  economic factor of
+  essentially unsatisfactory nature of
+  in modern times
+  in relation to marriage
+  in the East
+  moral justification of
+  need for humanizing
+  on the stage
+  origin and development of
+  present social attitude towards
+  regulation of
+  religious
+  rise of secular
+  to acquire marriage portion
+Protestantism,
+  attitude towards prostitution
+Prudery in ancient times
+Puberty,
+  initiation at, among savages
+  sexual education at
+  sexual hygiene at
+Puericulture
+Puritans,
+  attitude towards unchastity
+  towards marriage
+
+Quaker conception of marriage
+
+Rape,
+  cannot be committed by husband on wife
+  wedding night often a
+Religious prostitution
+Renaissance,
+  prostitutes at the
+Reproduction compared to nutrition
+Responsibility in matters of sex,
+  personal
+Rest,
+  during pregnancy, importance of
+  during menstruation
+Ring,
+  origin of wedding
+Robert of Arbrissel
+Romantic literature of chastity
+  love, late origin of
+Rome,
+  attitude towards nakedness in ancient
+  conception of the orgy in
+  marriage in
+  prostitution in
+  status of women in
+Russia,
+  divorce in
+  sexual freedom in
+
+Sabbath orgy
+Sacrament,
+  marriage as a
+Sacred prostitution
+Sale-marriage
+Savages,
+  prostitution among
+  rarity of love among
+  sexual education among
+Scandinavian method of dealing with venereal diseases
+School,
+  its place in sexual education
+Schools for mothers
+Seduction,
+  early Church's attitude towards
+Servants frequently become prostitutes
+Sexual abstinence
+Sexual anaesthesia,
+  a cause of
+Sexual education
+  among savages
+  and coitus
+  and nakedness
+Sexual hygiene and art
+  and literature
+  and religion
+  at puberty
+  at school
+  in childhood
+  in relation to sexual abstinence
+Sexual innocence,
+  value of
+Sexual morality
+Sexual neurasthenia
+Sexual physiology in education
+Sexual precocity
+Shakespeare in relation to sexual education
+Slavs,
+  sexual freedom among
+Socialism and individualism
+Spain,
+  prostitution in
+Stage,
+  prostitution on the
+State,
+  its interest in children
+  nurseries
+Sterility in relation to gonorrhoea
+Stirpiculture
+  causes of
+Stork legend of origin of babies
+Suckling in relation to puericulture
+Swahili,
+  sexual education among
+Switzerland,
+  divorce in
+  prostitution in
+Syphilis,
+  its prevalence
+  nature and results of
+  of the innocent
+  questions of the origin of
+  _And see_ Venereal Diseases.
+
+Tahiti,
+  chastity and unchastity in old
+Teachers and sexual hygiene
+Teutonic custom,
+  influence on position of women
+  influence on marriage
+Theatre,
+  as a beneficial form of the orgy
+  early Christian attitude towards
+Thekla,
+  legend of
+Town life and sexuality
+Trappists,
+  regime of
+Trent, Council of
+Trial-marriage
+
+Urban life and sexuality
+Uterine fibroids
+
+Vaginismus
+Vasectomy
+Venereal diseases,
+  conquest of the
+  free treatment of
+  need of enlightenment concerning
+  notification of
+  personal responsibility for
+  punishment for transmission of
+Venice,
+  prostitution in
+Virgin,
+  intercourse with as a cure for syphilis
+  original meaning of the term
+Virginity,
+  why valued
+
+Wagner's music dramas
+Wales,
+  divorce in ancient
+White slavery
+Wife-purchase among ancient Germans
+  in modern times
+Woman movement
+Women,
+  alleged tendency to dissimulation
+  among the Jews
+  and sexual abstinence
+  erotic characteristics of
+  ignorance of art of love
+  in Arabia
+  in Babylonia
+  in Egypt
+  in modern Europe
+  in relation to divorce
+  in relation to free sexual unions
+  in Rome
+  inequality before the law
+  moral equality with men
+  must not be compulsory mothers
+  not attracted to innocent men
+  position as affected by Teutonic custom
+  procreative age of
+  their high status in ancient Ireland
+  their need of economic independence
+  their need of personal responsibility
+  their need of sexual knowledge
+  understand love better than men
+
+Yakuts,
+  attitude towards virginity
+Yuman Indians,
+  sexual initiation among
+
+Zooelogy and sexual education
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STUDIES IN THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SEX,
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