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diff --git a/13620-0.txt b/13620-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8749646 --- /dev/null +++ b/13620-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12728 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13620 *** + +THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS + +JOINT EDITORS + +ARTHUR MEE + +J.A. HAMMERTON + + + +VOL. XIII RELIGION PHILOSOPHY + + +Copyright, MCMX MCKINLAY, STOKE & MACKEKZU + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + RELIGION + + APOCRYPHA + + AUGUSTINE, ST. + City of God + + BAXTER, RICHARD + Saints' Everlasting Rest + + BOOK OF THE DEAD + + BRAHMANISM, BOOKS OF + + BROWNE, SIR THOMAS + Religio Medici + + CALVIN, JOHN + Institution of the Christian Religion + + COLERIDGE, S.T. + Aids to Reflection + + CONFUCIANISM + + FÉNELON + Existence of God + + GALILEO GALILEI + Authority of Scripture + + HEGEL, G.W.F. + Philosophy of Religion + + HINDUISM, BOOKS OF + + KEMPIS, THOMAS À + Imitation of Christ + + KORAN + + NEWMAN, CARDINAL + Apologia pro Vitâ Sua + + PAINE, THOMAS + Age of Reason + + PASCAL, BLAISE + Letters to a Provincial + + PENN, WILLIAM + Some Fruits of Solitude + + RENAN, ERNEST + Life of Jesus + + SWEDENBORG, EMANUEL + Heaven and Hell + + TALMUD + + ZOROASTRIANISM + + + PHILOSOPHY + + + ARISTOTLE + Ethics + + AURELIUS, MARCUS + Discourses with Himself + + BACON, FRANCIS + Advancement of Learning + + BERKELEY, GEORGE + Principles of Human Knowledge + + DESCARTES + Discourse on Method + + EMERSON, RALPH WALDO + Nature + + EPICTETUS + Discourses and Encheiridion + + +A COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS WILL BE FOUND AT THE END +OF VOLUME XX. + + * * * * * + + + +RELIGION + + +THE APOCRYPHA + + + Apocrypha is a Greek word, signifying "secret" or "hidden," + but in the sixteenth century it came to be applied to a list + of books contained in the Septuagint, or Greek translation of + the Old Testament, but not in the Palestinian, or Hebrew + Canon. Hence, by theological or bibliographic purists, these + books were not regarded as genuine Scripture. That view was + adopted by the early Greek Church, though the Western Church + was divided in opinion. They appeared as a separate section in + Coverdale's English Bible in 1538, and in Luther's German + Bible in 1537. The Council of Trent in 1546 admitted them as + canonical, except the First and Second Esdras and the Prayer + of Manasses--a view rejected after the Reformation by + Protestants, who recognised only the Palestinian Record as + canonical. The Westminster Confession declared that they were + only to be made use of as "human writings," and the Sixth + Article of the Church of England states that they are "to be + read for example of life and instruction of manners, but not + to establish doctrine." As the result of a violent controversy + in Scotland and America between 1825 and 1827, the Apocrypha + was deleted from the copies of the Holy Scriptures issued by + the British and Foreign Bible Society. The controversy was + revived in 1862 when a quotation was engraved on the Prince + Consort's Memorial in Kensington Gardens from the Wisdom of + Solomon: "He, being made perfect in a short time, fulfilled a + long time. For his soul pleased the Lord: Therefore hasted He + to take him away from among the wicked." All the books bear + evidence of having been written long after the date to which + they are ascribed. + + +FIRST ESDRAS + + +And Josias held the feast of the Passover in Jerusalem unto his Lord, +the 14th day of the first month of the 18th year of his reign, and +ordered the Levites, the holy ministers of Israel, to hallow themselves +unto the Lord, and set the Holy Ark of the Lord in the house that King +Solomon had built. And there were offered in sacrifices to the Lord on +the altar 37,600 lambs and kids, and 4,300 calves. And they roasted the +Passover with fire: as for the sacrifices, they sod them in brass pots +and pans with a good savour, and set them before all the people. And +such a Passover was not kept in Israel since the time of the Prophet +Samuel. And the works of Josias were upright before his Lord with an +heart full of godliness. + +Now, after all these acts of Josias, it came to pass that Pharaoh, the +King of Egypt, came to raise war at Carchamis upon Euphrates; and +Josias, not regarding the words of the Prophet Jeremy, spoken by the +mouth of the Lord, went out against him and joined battle with him in +the plain of Magiddo. Then said the king unto his servants: Carry me +away out of the battle; for I am very weak. And being brought back to +Jerusalem he died and was buried in his father's sepulchre. And in all +Jewry the chief men, with the women, yea Jeremy the prophet, made +lamentation for him unto this day. + +And the people took Joachaz, the son of Josias, and made him king; but +the King of Egypt deposed him, and made Joacim, his brother, King of +Judea and Jerusalem, who did evil before the Lord. Wherefore, against +him, Nabuchodonosor, King of Babylon, came up and bound him with a chain +of brass, and carried him into Babylon. Nabuchodonosor also took of the +holy vessels of the Lord and carried them away, and set them in his own +temple at Babylon, and made Zedechias king. Zedechias reigned eleven +years, but did evil also in the sight of the Lord. + +The governors of the people and of the priests did likewise many things +against the Lord, and defiled the Temple of the Lord, who, being wrath +with his people for their great ungodliness, commanded the Kings of the +Chaldees to come up against them. This they did, and slew and spared +neither young man nor maid, old man nor child, among them. And they took +all the holy vessels of the Lord, both great and small, with the vessels +of the Ark of God and the king's treasures, and carried them away into +Babylon. As for the House of the Lord, they burnt it, and broke down the +walls of Jerusalem and set fire upon her towers. And the people that +were not slain with the sword were carried unto Babylon, who became +servants to Nabuchodonosor, till the Persians reigned, to fulfil the +word of the Lord spoken by the mouth of Jeremy. + +In the first year of Cyrus, King of the Persians, the Lord raised up his +spirit, and he made proclamation through all his kingdom, saying: The +Lord of Israel, the most high Lord, hath made me king of the whole +world, and commanded me to build him an house at Jerusalem in Jewry. If +there be any of you that are of his people, let the Lord, even his Lord, +be with him; let him go up to Jerusalem and build the house of the Lord +of Israel. + +Then the chief of the families of Judea and of the tribe of Benjamin, +the priests also, and the Levites moved up to Jerusalem to build an +house for the Lord there. And they were helped in all things with silver +and gold, with horses and cattle, and with very many free gifts. King +Cyrus also brought forth the holy vessels which Nabuchodonosor had +carried away from Jerusalem and had set up in his temple of idols. The +vessels of gold and of silver which were brought back by Sanabassar, +together with them of the captivity from Babylon to Jerusalem, were, in +number, five thousand four hundred three score and nine. + +But in the time of Artaxerxes, the building of the Temple ceased. Now, +when Darius reigned, he made a great feast unto all the governors and +captains that were under him from India unto Ethiopia, of an hundred and +twenty-seven provinces. And when they had eaten and drunken, three young +men that were of the guard that kept the king's body strove to excel +each other in wise speeches. Every one wrote his sentence and referred +the writings to the judgment of the king. The first declareth the +strength of wine; the second declareth the power of a king; the third +the force of women and of truth. The third, who was Zorobabel, was +judged to be wisest; and all the people then shouted: Great is Truth, +and mighty above all things. + +Then said the king unto him: Ask what thou wilt, and we will give it to +thee, because thou art found wisest. Then Zorobabel said unto the king: +Remember thy vow which thou hast vowed to build Jerusalem in the day +when thou camest into thy kingdom, and to build up the Temple, which the +Edomites burned when Judea was made desolate by the Chaldees. + +Then Darius the king stood up and kissed him, and wrote letters for him +unto all the treasurers and governors that they should safely convey on +their way both him and all those that went with him to build Jerusalem. +He also wrote letters unto the lieutenants in Celosyria, Phenice, and +Libanus, that they should bring cedar wood from Libanus to Jerusalem; +and that they should build the city. Then the families and tribes with +their men-servants and maid-servants and singing men and women, escorted +by a thousand horsemen which Darius sent with them, were brought back to +Jerusalem. + +On the first day of the second month, in the second year after they were +come back to Jerusalem, the foundation of the House of God was laid; and +the Temple was finished in the three and twentieth day of the month of +Adar, in the sixth year of Darius, and dedicated with a great feast and +sacrifices. + +After these things, when Artaxerxes, the King of the Persians, reigned, +came Esdras of the family of Aaron, the chief priest, from Babylon, and +with him certain priests, Levites, holy singers and ministers of the +Temple unto Jerusalem. He brought commission from the king to look into +the affairs of Judea and Jerusalem, agreeably to that which is in the +Law of the Lord, and gifts of vessels of gold and silver for the use of +the Temple of the Lord. + +Then Esdras made proclamation in all Jewry and Jerusalem to all them who +were of the captivity, that they should be gathered together at +Jerusalem. Three days after all the multitude gathered in the broad +court of the Temple, and they gave their hands to put away their heathen +wives and children, and to offer rams to make reconcilement for the +errors they had committed. And Esdras stood up upon a pulpit of wood, +which was made for that purpose, and opened the Law of Moses to the +people. + +So Esdras blessed the Lord God, most High, the God of Hosts, Almighty. +And all the people answered: Amen; and, lifting up their hands, they +fell to the ground and worshipped the Lord, saying: This day is holy +unto the Lord; for they all wept when they heard the Law. So the Levites +published all things to the people, saying: This day is holy to the +Lord; be not sorrowful. Then went they their way every one to eat and +drink, and make merry and to give to them that have nothing, and to make +great cheer. + + +SECOND ESDRAS + + +The word of the Lord came unto the prophet Esdras, saying: Go thy way, +and show my people their sinful deeds which they have done against me, +for they have forgotten me, and have offered unto strange gods. I +gathered you together, as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings: +But now I will cast you out from my face. Then Esdras willed to comfort +Israel, but they refused, and despised the commandments of the Lord; +therefore he announced that the heathen were called to the heavenly +kingdom. After that, Esdras saw upon the Mount Sion a great people who +praised the Lord with songs; and the angel said unto him: These be they +that have put off the mortal clothing, and put on the immortal, and have +confessed the name of God. Now are they crowned, and receive palms in +their hands from the Son of God in their midst. + +In the thirtieth year after the ruin of the city, Esdras was in Babylon +and troubled because of the desolation of Sion. He acknowledged to God +the sins of the people, yet complained that the heathen who were lords +over them were more wicked than they. Uriel, the angel, then said that +when Adam transgressed God's statutes the way was made narrow, and the +days few and evil; but, behold, the time shall come when my son Jesus +shall be revealed and shall die, and all men that have life. And after +seven days of silence, the earth shall restore those that are asleep, +and the most High shall appear upon the seat of judgment; and misery +shall pass away but judgment shall remain; truth shall stand; and faith +wax strong. + +Then Esdras said: I know the most High is called merciful, and he +pardoneth; for if he did not so that they which have committed +iniquities might be eased of them, the ten thousandth part of men should +not remain living; there should be very few left, peradventure, in an +innumerable multitude. And the angel answered: There be many created, +but few shall be saved. Every one that shall be saved shall be able to +escape by his works and by faith, and then they shall be shown great +wonders. And it came to pass that a voice out of a bush called Esdras, +which prophesied that God would take vengeance upon Egypt, Syria, +Babylon, and Asia; that the servants of the Lord must look for troubles, +and not hide their sins but depart from evil, and they would be +delivered because God is their guide. + + +TOBIT + + +This is the Book of Tobit, of the tribe of Nephthali, who in the time of +Enemessar, King of the Assyrians, was led captive to Nineve. Tobit in +captivity still remembered God with all his heart, and was deprived of +his goods under King Sennacherib for privily burying fellow-captives who +had been killed. Then Tobit, who became blind, remembered that he had in +the days of his prosperity committed to Gabael in Rages of Media the sum +of ten talents; and he called his son Tobias to go forth and seek +Gabael, giving him handwriting. Tobias sought a guide and found Raphael, +who was an angel though Tobias knew it not, and who said he knew and had +lodged with Gabael. So they went forth both. + +When Tobias and Raphael came to the River Tigris, a fish leaped out of +the water and would have devoured him, but the young man laid hold of +it, and drew it to land. The Angel bade Tobias open the fish, and take +the heart and the liver and the gall, and put them up safely. The young +man said to the Angel: To what use are these? And the Angel said: +Touching the heart and the liver, if an evil spirit trouble any, we must +make a smoke thereof, and the party shall be no more vexed. As for the +gall: it is good to anoint a man that a whiteness in his eyes shall be +healed. + +When they came near to Rages, the Angel said: To-day we shall lodge with +Raguel, who is thy cousin and hath an only daughter named Sara. The maid +is fair and wise, and I will speak that she may be given thee as a wife. +Then the young man answered the Angel, that he had heard that this maid +had been given to seven men who all died in the marriage chamber, and he +feared lest he should also die. But the Angel said: Fear not, for she is +appointed unto thee from the beginning. + +Now they came to the house of Raguel, and Sara met them and brought them +therein. Raguel and Edna his wife recognised Tobias as a kinsman, and +kissed and blessed him. Tobias and Raphael were entertained cheerfully; +and after Raphael had communicated with Raguel, Edna, his wife, was +called and an instrument of covenants of marriage between Sara and +Tobias were written and sealed. And a chamber was prepared for them by +Edna, who blessed Sara and asked the Lord of Heaven and Earth to give +her joy. And when they had all supped, Tobias was brought in unto Sara. +And, as he went he remembered the words of Raphael, and put the heart +and liver of the fish upon the ashes of the perfume, and made a smoke +therewith. When the evil spirit had smelled the smoke he fled into the +utmost parts of Egypt, where an angel bound him. Then Tobias and Sara +arose and prayed that God would have pity upon them, and bless them, and +mercifully ordain that they might become aged together. So they slept +both that night. + +Raguel praised God because the Lord had had mercy upon two that were the +only begotten children of their fathers, and prayed that they might +finish their life in health and joy. Raphael then went to Rages to +Gabael for the money, and the two returned to Raguel's house with the +bags sealed up. + +Now Tobit and his wife longed for their son, and Tobias said to Raguel: +Let me go, for my father and mother look no more to see me. Then Raguel +gave him Sara, his wife, and half his goods, servants, cattle and money. +And he and Edna blessed them and sent them away. + +After a prosperous journey, they drew near unto Nineve. Then Raphael +told Tobias to make haste before his wife to prepare the house, and to +take in his hand the gall of the fish. Now Anna sat looking about toward +the way for her son, and when she espied him coming, she said to his +father: Behold, thy son cometh and the man that went with him. And Anna +ran forth, and fell upon the neck of her son and said: From henceforth I +am content to die. Tobias met his father at the door, and strake of the +gall on his father's eyes, saying: Be of good hope, my father. And Tobit +recovered his sight. When he saw his son, he fell upon his neck and +wept, and blessed God. Then Tobit went out to meet his daughter-in-law +at the gate of Nineve, and welcomed and blessed her; and there was joy +among all his brethren which were at Nineve. + +Tobit offered to Raphael half of all that had been brought from Rages; +but Raphael called him and Tobias apart and exhorted them to praise and +magnify the Lord for all the things which he had done unto them; and +told them that he, Raphael, was one of the seven holy angels which +present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the +glory of the Holy One. Then they were both troubled and fell upon their +faces; but he said: Fear not, for it shall go well with you. I go up to +him that sent me; but write all the things which were done in a book. +And when they arose they saw him no more. + +Tobit wrote a prayer of rejoicing, saying: In the land of my captivity +do I praise thee, O Lord, and declare thy might and majesty to a sinful +nation. For Jerusalem shall be built up, her walls and towers and +battlements restored. And all her streets shall say: Alleluia. + +And when he was very aged, Tobit called his son and the six sons of his +son, and bade them go into Media, for he was ready to depart out of this +life, and he surely believed that which Jonas the prophet spake of +Nineve, that it should be overthrown. When he had said these things he +gave up the ghost. Tobias departed with his wife to Media, and died +there; but before he died he heard of the destruction of Nineve, which +was taken by Nabuchodonosor. + + +JUDITH + + +In the days of Arphaxad, which reigned over the Medes in Ecbatane, he +fortified Ecbatane with great stone walls, and towers and gates, for the +going forth of his mighty armies. Nabuchodonosor, who reigned in Nineve, +made war with King Arphaxad, and sent ambassadors to Cilicia, Damascus +and Syria, and the land of Moab and Ammon and Judea and all Egypt asking +aid; but the inhabitants thereof made light of the commandment, and sent +away his ambassadors with disgrace. Therefore, Nabuchodonosor was very +angry, and sware by his throne that he would be avenged upon all the +inhabitants of these countries, and would slay them with the sword. +Nabuchodonosor, in the seventeenth year of his reign, marched in battle +array against Arphaxad and overthrew his power and, all his horsemen and +chariots, and took his cities even unto Ecbatane, and spoiled the +streets thereof, and turned the beauty of the city into shame. He also +took Arphaxad in the mountains of Ragau and smote him. So he returned to +Nineve with all his company of sundry nations and feasted. In the +eighteenth year, Nabuchodonosor called the chief captain of his army, +Holofernes, and commanded him to take one hundred and twenty thousand +footmen and twelve thousand horsemen and go against all the west country +because they had disobeyed his commandment. He charged also Holofernes +to spare none that would not yield, and put them to the slaughter, and +spoil them. And the army went forth with a great number of allies like +locusts into Cilicia, and destroyed Phud and Lud, and all the children +of Rasses and Ishmael. Then the army went over Euphrates and went +through Mesopotamia, and destroyed all the high cities on the river +Arbonai to the sea, and then to Japheth over against Arabia, and Media +and Damascus, and burned up their tabernacles, destroyed their flocks +and herds, utterly wasted their countries, and smote all their young men +with the edge of the sword. Then fear fell upon the inhabitants of Tyrus +and Sidon, on the sea coasts, who sent ambassadors unto Holofernes, and +made submission. He received them, yet he cast down their frontiers, cut +down their groves, destroyed all the gods of the land, and decreed that +all the nations should worship Nabuchodonosor only, and call upon him as +God. + +Now, the children of Israel that dwelt in Judea, who were newly returned +from captivity, were exceedingly afraid for Jerusalem and for the Temple +of the Lord their God. Therefore, they possessed themselves of all tops +of the high mountains, and fortified the villages, and laid up victuals +for the provision of war. And Joacim and all the priests ministered unto +the Lord in the Temple, and offered sacrifices and prayed that he would +not give the children of Israel for a prey, their wives for a spoil, the +cities of their inheritance to destruction, and the sanctuary to +profanation. + +Holofernes was very angry when he heard this. And Achior, captain of the +sons of Ammon, told Holofernes what the Jews were, their history, and +what their God had done for them; and advised Holofernes not to meddle +with them. There was then tumult in the council of the Assyrian host, +and Holofernes despised the God of the people of Israel, and sent Achior +to the children of Israel that were in Bethulia, in the hill country. +Then Holofernes with all his army besieged Bethulia, and took possession +of the fountains of water, so that the inhabitants fainted for thirst, +and there was no longer any strength in them. They murmured against the +governors, and called upon them to deliver the city to Holofernes and +his army. Ozias, the chief of the city, said: Brethren, be of good +courage; let us yet endure five days, in which space the Lord our God +may turn his mercy towards us; for he will not forsake us utterly. + +Now Judith heard thereof. She was a widow and was of a goodly +countenance and very beautiful to behold, and she feared God greatly. +Judith sent for the ancients of the city, and blamed them for provoking +the Lord to anger by their lack of trust, and she promised that she +would do a thing within the days before the city was to be delivered to +their enemies which should go throughout all generations to the children +of the nation. Then Judith went to the House of the Lord and fell upon +her face and called upon the Lord who breakest the battles to bless her +purpose. She went thereafter to her house, put off the garments of +widowhood and of sackcloth, and bathed, and anointed herself with +precious ointment, and put on the garments of gladness, with bracelets +and chains and rings and ornaments to lure the eyes of all the men that +should see her. Then she went forth with her maid out of the city of +Bethulia into the camp of the Assyrians, and was taken by the guard to +the tent of Holofernes, who marvelled at her beauty. Holofernes asked +Judith the cause of her coming, and she declared that if he would follow +her words, he and his army would be led by her through the midst of +Judea unto Jerusalem wherein he would set op his throne. + +Holofernes and all his servants were pleased, and said there was not +such a woman in all the earth for beauty of face and wisdom of words. +Judith would not eat of the meats and wine which Holofernes offered her, +but partook only of the provisions which her maid had brought with her +in a bag. Then she was brought into a tent and abode in the camp three +days, going out every night into the valley of Bethulia to pray. In the +fourth day Holofernes made a feast, and said to Bagoas, the eunuch, to +go and persuade the Hebrew woman to come and eat and drink with him and +his officers. Judith arose and decked herself, and went in and sat on +the ground on soft skins over against Holofernes, whose heart was +ravished with her, and his mind moved, and he desired greatly her +company. + +Now Judith took and ate and drank what her maid had prepared, and +Holofernes was greatly delighted with her, and drank much more wine than +he had drunk at any time in one day since he was born. Judith, when the +evening was come, was left alone with Holofernes, and the servants were +dismissed. Then she came to the pillar of the bed, which was at +Holofernes's head, took down his fauchion, seized hold of the hair of +his head, and said: Strengthen me, O Lord God of Israel, this day. And +she smote twice upon his neck with all her might, and took away his head +from him. + +She put the head in her bag of meat and gave it to her maid, and the +twain went forth together, according to their custom, as unto prayer, +and passed the camp. Then came they to Bethulia, and were admitted into +the city; and the people were astonished wonderfully and worshipped God, +and said: Blessed be thou, O our God, which hast this day brought to +nought the enemies of thy people. The head of Holofernes was hanged up +on the highest place of the city walls, and the men of Israel went forth +by bands into the passes of the mountain. When the Assyrians saw this, +they sent to Holofernes's tent, and said that the slaves of Israelites +had come forth against them in battle. Then Bagoas went into the tent +and found the body of Holofernes cast upon the ground and his head taken +away. When also he found not Judith, he leaped out to the people and +told them; and great fear and trembling fell upon them, and they fled, +being chased until past Damascus and the borders thereof by the children +of Israel, who gat many spoils. Then Judith sang a song of thanksgiving +in all Israel, and the people sang after her. She dedicated the spoil of +Holofernes, which the people had given her, for a gift unto the Lord; +and when she died in Bethulia, a widow of great honour, all Israel did +lament. + + +THE BOOK OF ESTHER + + + These are the chapters of the Book of Esther, which are found + neither in the Hebrew nor in the Chaldee. + + +In the second year of the reign of Artaxerxes the Great, Mardocheus, who +was a Jew and dwelt in the city of Susa, had a dream. And the same night +he overheard two eunuchs plotting to lay hands on Artaxerxes, and he, +being a servitor in the king's court, told the king; and the eunuchs, +after examination, were strangled. Aman, because of this, induced +Artaxerxes to write to all the princes and governors from India unto +Ethiopia to destroy all the Jews, with their wives and children, without +pity, on the fourteenth day of the twelfth month of Adar. Mardocheus and +Queen Esther, being in the fear of death, resorted unto the Lord, and +prayed for deliverance, and for the preservation of the children of +Israel. On the third day, Queen Esther cometh unto the king's presence; +and she was ruddy through the perfection of her beauty, but her heart +was in anguish for fear. The king looketh angrily at her as she stood +before his royal throne, and she fainteth. Then God changed the spirit +of the king, who leaped from his throne, took her in his arms, saying: +Be of good cheer, thou shalt not die, though our commandment be general. +As he was speaking, she fell a second time for faintness, and the king +was troubled and all his servants comforted her. + +Artaxerxes then wrote a letter to all the princes wherein he taxed Aman, +the Macedonian, with having by manifold and cunning deceits sought the +destruction of Mardocheus, who had saved the king's life, and also of +the blameless Esther, partaker of his kingdom, with their whole nation. +The king revoked the decree procured by Aman, who, with all his family, +was hanged at the gates of Susa. And the king commanded the day of their +deliverance to be kept holy. + + +THE WISDOM OF SOLOMON + + +Love righteousness, ye that be judges of the earth, for into a malicious +soul wisdom shall not enter. The spirit of the Lord filleth the world: +therefore he that speaketh unrighteous things cannot be hid. Seek not +death in the error of your life: for God made not death, and +righteousness is immortal. The ungodly reason, but not aright: life is +short and tedious, which, being extinguished, our bodies shall be turned +into ashes, and our spirit vanish as the soft air. Come, therefore, let +us enjoy the good things that are present. Their own wickedness hath +blinded them, for God created man to be immortal. + +Nevertheless, through envy of the devil came death into the world. The +souls of the righteous are in the hands of God, and there shall no +torments touch them. Having been a little chastised they shall be +greatly rewarded. Better to have no children and to have virtue; for +children begotten of unlawful beds are witnesses against their parents. +Honourable age is not measured by number of years. He, being made +perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time. For his soul pleased the +Lord: Therefore, hasted he to take him away from among the wicked. This +the people saw and understood it not, neither laid they up this in their +minds. That his grace and mercy are with his saints, and that he hath +respect unto his chosen. The wicked wonder at the godly, and say: What +hath pride profited us? And what good hath riches, with our vaunting, +brought us? All those things are passed away like a shadow. The hope of +the ungodly is like dust that is blown away: but the righteous live for +evermore: their reward is a beautiful crown from the Lord's hand. Wisdom +is easily found of such as seek her, therefore princes must desire her; +for a wise prince is the stay of his people. He that hath Wisdom hath +every good thing. Moreover, by her means man shall obtain immortality, +and leave behind him an everlasting memorial. + + +THE WISDOM OF JESUS THE SON OF SIRACH; OR ECCLESIASTICUS. + + + There are two prologues to this book. The first is by an + uncertain author, stating that the book is the compilation of + three hands and is in imitation of the Book of Solomon. The + second prologue is by Jesus, the son of Sirach and grandchild + to Jesus of the same name, who had read the law and the + prophets and other books of the fathers, and had been drawn + himself to write something pertaining to wisdom and learning. + Coming into Egypt when Euergetes was king, Jesus, son of + Sirach, found a book of no small learning and bestowed + diligence and travail to interpret it, and to bring it to an + end. The following are among the precepts given: + + +All wisdom cometh from the Lord: she is with all flesh according to his +gift. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and driveth away +sins. My son, if thou come to serve the Lord, prepare thy soul for +temptation. Set thy heart aright, and constantly endure. Woe be to +fearful hearts; but they that fear the Lord shall be filled with the +law. Whoso honoureth his father maketh an atonement for his sins. He +that honoureth his mother layeth up treasure. Seek not out the things +that are too hard for thee: profess not the knowledge that thou hast +not. Defraud not the poor of his living: and be not fainthearted when +thou sittest in judgment. Set not thy heart upon thy goods, for the Lord +will surely revenge thy pride. Winnow not with every wind, and let thy +life be sincere. Do not extol thy own conceit: if thou wouldst get a +friend, prove him first. A faithful friend is a strong defence. Seek not +of the Lord preeminence: humble thy soul greatly. Fear the Lord, and +reverence his priests. Stretch thine hand unto the poor, and mourn with +them that mourn. Strive not with a mighty man: kindle not the coals of a +sinner. Lend not unto him that is mightier than thyself: be not surety +above thy power. Go not to law with a judge: consult not with a fool. +Judge none blessed before his death. He that toucheth pitch shall be +denied therewith: like will to like. Say not thou: it is through the +Lord that I fell away: He has caused me to err. The Lord made man from +the beginning and left him in the hand of his counsel. He has commanded +no man to do wickedly, neither has he given any man licence to sin. The +knowledge of wickedness is not wisdom: neither at any time the counsel +of sinners prudence. Whoso discovereth secrets loseth his credit and +shall never find friend to his mind. Health and good estate of body are +above all gold. There is no joy above the joy of the heart. Give not +over thy mind to heaviness: the joyfulness of a man prolongeth his days. +Envy and wrath shorten life: carefulness bringeth age before the time. + +[Then follow praises of a good householder, a good physician, a wise +interpreter of the law, and injunctions as to how a man should bear the +miseries of life, and face the approach of death. And the book concludes +with praises of the Patriarchs and the Prophets.] + + +BARUCH + + +Baruch, the son of Nerias, wrote a book in Babylon what time the +Chaldeans took Jerusalem and burnt it with fire. Baruch read the words +of his book in the hearing of Jechonias, the son of the King of Juda, +and in the ears of all the people. The Jews wept at the reading of it, +by the river Sud, and made a collection of money to send to Jerusalem, +unto the High Priest Joachim, to buy burnt offerings and sin offerings +and incense, and to prepare manna to be offered upon the altar of the +Lord. The people at Jerusalem are asked also to pray for the life of +Nabuchodonosor, King of Babylon, and his son Balthasar, and for those +who sent the gifts and the book. The book begins with a prayer and +confession which the Jews at Babylon make, acknowledging that they are +yet this day in captivity for a reproach and a curse, and to be subject +to payments according to all the iniquities of their fathers which +departed from the Lord our God. Then beginneth the book: + +Hear, Israel, the commandments of life: give ear to understand wisdom. +Let them that dwell about Sion come, and remember the captivity of my +sons and daughters, which the Everlasting hath brought upon them. Be of +good cheer, O my children, crying unto the Lord, and He shall deliver +you from the power and hand of the enemies. I sent you out with mourning +and weeping: but God will give you to me again with joy and gladness for +ever. Put off, O Jerusalem, the garment of thy mourning and affliction, +and put on the comeliness of the glory that cometh from God for ever; +for behold, thy children gathereth from the west and from the east and +return out of captivity with glory. + +[With this book of Baruch there is an Epistle of Jeremy, which he sent +unto them that were to be led captive into Babylon because of their +sins. The prophet describes the idols and the conduct of the priests and +those who attend the heathen temples and warns the captives not to +worship the false gods in Babylon.] + + +SONG OF THE THREE HOLY CHILDREN + + +[This Song is not in the Hebrew of the Book of Daniel.] + +They walked in the midst of the fire praising God and blessing the Lord. +Azarias opened his mouth in the midst of the flame and made confession +of sins, and prayer for deliverance to the confusion of their enemies. +Whereupon, the king's servants that put them in ceased not to make the +oven hot with rosin, pitch, tow, and small wood, so that the flame +passed through and burned those Chaldeans it found about the furnace. +But the Angel of the Lord came down into the oven and made the midst of +the furnace as it had been a moist whistling wind, so that the fire +touched Azarias and his fellows not at all, neither hurt nor troubled +them. Then the three, as out of one mouth, praised, glorified, and +blessed God in the furnace, saying: The Lord hath delivered us from +hell, and saved us from the hand of death: for his mercy endureth for +ever. + + +THE HISTORY OF SUSANNA + + +There dwelt a man in Babylon called Joacim. And he took a wife whose +name was Susanna, a very fair woman, and one that feared the Lord. The +same year were appointed two of the ancients of the people to be judges; +and they saw Susanna walking in her husband's garden, and their lust was +inflamed towards her. Now, Susanna went into the garden to bathe, for it +was hot, and dismissed her maids. The two elders, who had hidden in the +garden, rose up and said: Consent and lie with us. If thou wilt not, we +will bear witness against thee that a young man was with thee, and +therefore thou didst send thy maids away. Then Susanna cried with a loud +voice, and the two elders cried out against her, and declared their +matter. The servants rushed in at the privy door and were greatly +ashamed, for there was never such a report made of Susanna. It came to +pass the next day when the people were assembled to her husband Joacim, +with the two elders full of mischievous imagination against Susanna, +these wicked men commanded Susanna to uncover her face that they might +be filled with her beauty, and her friends and all that saw her wept. +Then the elders made their charge which they had agreed upon against +Susanna, and the assembled people believed them: so they condemned her +to death. Then Susanna cried to the Everlasting God, saying: Thou +knowest that they have borne false witness against me, and that I never +did such things as these men have maliciously invented against me. And +the Lord heard her voice. + +When she was led to be put to death, the Lord raised up the holy spirit +of a youth named Daniel, who said: Are ye such fools, ye sons of Israel, +that without examination or knowledge of the truth ye have condemned a +daughter of Israel? Then Daniel put the two elders aside, one far from +the other, to examine them. To the first he said: If thou hast seen her, +under what tree sawest thou them companying together? He answered: Under +a mastic tree. Daniel said: Very well; and he put him aside and +commanded the other to be brought. Tell me, he said, under what tree +didst thou take them companying together? He answered: Under an holm +tree. Then Daniel said: These men have lied against their own heads, for +even now the Angel of God waiteth with the sword that he may destroy +them. Then all the assembly arose against the two elders, for Daniel had +convicted them of false witness by their own mouth; and they put them to +death. Thus the innocent blood was saved the same day; and from that +time forth was Daniel had in great reputation in the sight of the +people. + + +THE HISTORY OF THE DESTRUCTION OF BEL AND THE DRAGON + + +When Cyrus of Persia received his kingdom, Daniel conversed with him, +and was honoured above all his friends. Now, the Babylonians had an idol +called Bel, which the king worshipped, but Daniel worshipped his own +God. The king said unto him: Why dost thou not worship Bel? Daniel +answered: Because I may not worship idols made with hands, but the +living God. Then the king said: Thinkest thou not that Bel is a living +god? Seest thou not how much he eateth and drinketh every day? Then +Daniel smiled and said: O king, be not deceived; for this is but clay +within and brass without, and it never eateth or drinketh anything. Then +trial was made by order of the king, and meat and wine were set in the +temple, the door made fast, and sealed with the king's signet. The +priests of Bel were three score and ten, besides their wives and +children, and they little regarded the trial, for under the table they +had made a privy entrance, whereby they entered the temple continually +and consumed the meat and the wine. But Daniel had commanded his +servants to strew the temple floor with ashes, before the door was shut +and sealed. Now, in the night came the priests with their wives and +children, as they were wont, and did eat and drink up all. + +In the morning betimes the king arose, and Daniel with him. As soon as +the door was opened, the king looked upon the table, and cried with a +loud voice: Great art thou, O Bel, and with thee is no deceit at all. +Then laughed Daniel, and said: Behold the pavement, and mark well whose +footsteps are these. And the king saw the footsteps of men, women, and +children, and was angry when he was shown the privy doors where they +came in and consumed such things as were upon the table. Therefore the +king slew them, and delivered Bel into Daniel's power, who destroyed the +idol and the temple. + +In the same place there was a great dragon, which they of Babylon +worshipped. The king said to Daniel: Lo! this dragon liveth, eateth, +drinketh; thou canst not say that he is no living god; therefore worship +him. Then said Daniel: I will worship the Lord, for he is the living +God. But give me leave, O king, and I shall slay this dragon without +sword or staff. + +The king gave him leave, and Daniel took pitch, and fat, and hair, and +did seethe them together, and made lumps thereof. These he put in the +dragon's mouth, and the dragon burst in sunder. Then Daniel said: Lo, +these are the gods ye worship! + +When they of Babylon heard that, they conspired against the king, +saying: The king is become a Jew. So they came to the king, and said: +Deliver us Daniel, or else we will destroy thee and thine house. Being +sore constrained, the king delivered Daniel unto them, and they cast him +into the lions' den, where he was six days, during which the seven lions +were given no carcases, to the intent that they might devour Daniel. + +Now, there was in Jewry a prophet called Habakkuk who made pottage and +broken bread to take to the reapers in the field. An Angel of the Lord +said unto Habakkuk: Go, carry the dinner that thou hast into Babylon +unto Daniel, who is in the lions' den. And Habakkuk said: Lord, I never +saw Babylon; neither do I know where the den is. Then the Angel of the +Lord took Habakkuk by the crown, and bare him by the hair of his head, +and through the vehemency of his spirit set him in Babylon over the den. +And Habakkuk cried: O Daniel, take the dinner which God has sent thee. +And Daniel said: Thou hast remembered me, O God: neither hast thou +forsaken them that seek thee and love thee. So Daniel arose, and did +eat: And the Angel of the Lord set Habakkuk in his own place +immediately. Upon the seventh day the king went to bewail Daniel; and +when he came to the den, behold, Daniel was sitting. Then cried the king +with a loud voice, saying: Great art thou, O Lord God of Daniel, and +there is none other besides thee. And he drew Daniel out, and cast those +that were the cause of his suffering into the den; and they were +devoured by the lions in a moment before his face. + + +THE PRAYER OF MANASSES + + +The Prayer of Manasses, King of Juda, when he was holden captive in +Babylon, is an enumeration of the attributes of the Almighty God of +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and of their righteous seed; a general +confession of sins; and an entreaty that God would show him great mercy +and goodness, forgive him, and condemn him not into the lower parts of +the earth. Therefore, he would praise the Lord for ever, all the days of +his life. + + +THE FIRST BOOK OF THE MACCABEES + + +Antiochus, surnamed Epiphanes, reigned in the hundred and thirty-seventh +year of the kingdom of the Greeks. In those days certain wicked men of +Israel went to the king, who gave them licence to do after the +ordinances of the heathen. Whereupon, they built a place of exercise at +Jerusalem according to the custom of the heathen. Now, Antiochus made +war against Egypt, and when he had smitten the strong cities, and taken +the spoils thereof, he returned in the hundred forty and third year and +went up against Israel and Jerusalem, and captured the city with great +massacre and spoiled the Temple, and took away the vessels of gold and +silver and hidden treasures which he found therein. Therefore, there was +great mourning in Israel. Two years after, the king sent his chief +collector of tribute unto the cities of Juda, and he fell suddenly upon +Jerusalem, set fire to it, and pulled down the houses and walls thereof. +And the women and children he took away captive, and defiled the +sanctuary. + +But the enemy builded the city of David, with a great and strong wall +and mighty towers, and stored it with armour and victuals and the spoils +of Jerusalem, so that it became a sore snare against the sanctuary and +an evil adversary to Israel. Moreover, King Antiochus wrote to his whole +kingdom that all should be one people, and sent letters unto Jerusalem +and the cities of Juda commanding that the Israelites should abandon +their own worship, cease to circumcise their children, and adore his +idols. Then was the abomination of desolation set up in the Temple, and +idol altars were builded throughout the cities of Juda, and the books of +the law were burned. Howbeit many in Israel chose rather to die that +they might not be defiled with meats and profane the Holy Covenant. In +those days arose Mattathias, a priest of the sons of Joarib. He dwelt in +Modin, and had five sons--Joannan, Simon, Judas who was called +Maccabeus, Eleazar, and Jonathan. The king's officers came to Modin and +asked Mattathias to fulfil the king's commandment; but Mattathias said: +Though all the nations consent, yet will I and my sons walk in the +covenant of our fathers. And he slew a Jew that did sacrifice to idols +in his presence, and the king's messenger also. So he and his sons fled +into the mountains, and, being joined by a company of mighty men of +Israel, went round about, and pulled down idol altars and circumcised +the children valiantly. And the work prospered in their hands, and they +recovered the law out of the hands of the Gentiles. When Mattathias came +to die he appointed Simon as a man of counsel, and Judas Maccabeus, who +had been mighty and strong in battle even from his youth up, to be their +captain to avenge the wrongs of their people. So he died in his hundred +forty and sixth year, and was buried in the sepulchre of his fathers at +Modin, and all Israel made great lamentation for him. + +Now, Judas Maccabeus fought the battles of his people with great +valiance, captured the cities of Juda, drove Apollonius and a great host +out of Samaria, slew Apollonius, took their spoils, and Apollonius's +sword also, and therewith he fought all his life long. Judas also +overthrew Seron and the great army of Syria. Then Judas was renowned +unto the utmost parts of the earth, and an exceeding great dread fell +upon the nations round about. Now, when King Antiochus heard these +things he was full of indignation; wherefore he sent and gathered +together all the forces of his realm. And the king sent Lysias, one of +the blood royal, with a great army to go into the land of Juda and +destroy it. Judas and his brethren, when he heard this, assembled the +Israelites at Maspha, over against Jerusalem, where they fasted; and +Judas organised and armed them to battle, and camped at Emmaus. Gorgias, +the lieutenant of Lysias, attempted to surprise Judas, but Judas joined +him in battle and discomfited him, putting his host to flight and +gaining great spoil. Next year Lysias gathered another army, that he +might subdue the Israelites, and came into Idumea, and pitched tents at +Bethsura. But Judas joined him in battle, and put Lysias and his army to +flight. After this, Judas and his brethren came to Jerusalem, pulled +down the altar which the heathen had profaned, and set up a new altar. +He also builded up Mount Sion with strong towers and high walls. After +that Judas smote the children of Esau, Bean, and Ammon, and sent Simon +into Galilee, while he, with his brother Jonathan, went over Jordan, and +captured the cities of Galaad. About that time Antiochus was in Persia, +and heard of the doings of Judas. He was astonished and sore moved, and +fell sick of grief and died. Lysias set up Antiochus, his son, as king, +and called him Eupator, and brought a great army into Juda. The number +of his army was an hundred thousand footmen, twenty thousand horsemen, +and two and thirty elephants. Judas went out from Jerusalem and pitched +in Bathzacharias over against the king's camp. Then a great battle was +fought, when Judas was defeated. There being a famine in the city, he +made peace with Eupator, who, however, ordered the wall round about Sion +to be pulled down. + +Demetrius came from Rome and attacked Eupator in Antioch, captured the +city, and slew Eupator and Lysias. Alsimus, who wished to be high +priest, complained to Demetrius of Judas, and the king sent Nicanor, a +man that bare deadly hate unto Israel, to destroy the people; but he was +defeated by Judas at Capharsalama with great slaughter, and in a second +battle Nicanor's host was discomfited and he himself was slain, and his +head and right hand were hanged up on the tower at Jerusalem. This was a +day of great gladness to Israel, and the victory was kept holy every +year after. + +Now, Judas, being informed of the power and policy of the Romans, made a +league with them of mutual help. Notwithstanding, Demetrius sent +Bacchides and Alcimus a second time into Judea with a great host, and +camped at Berea. Now, Judas had pitched his tent at Eleasa, where, +seeing the multitude of the other army to be so great, his men began to +desert him, whereupon Judas said: God forbid that I should flee away +from the enemy; if our time be come, let us die manfully for our +brethren, and let us not stain our honour. + +The armies came to battle, and the earth shook at the noise thereof, and +the fight continued from morning to night. Judas discomfited the right +wing of the enemy under Bacchides and pursued them to Mount Azotus, but +the left wing followed upon Judas and a sore battle took place, insomuch +that many were slain on both sides. Judas was killed also, and the rest +of his army fled. The body of Judas was taken to the sepulchre of his +fathers at Modin by Jonathan and Simon, his brothers, and all Israel +made lamentation for him, and mourned many days, saying: How is the +valiant man fallen that delivered Israel! + +Jonathan took command of the Israelites in the room of Judas, and made +peace with Bacchides. Thereafter, Demetrius made large offers to have +peace with Jonathan, including freedom of worship and release of +tribute, together with the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem and the +towers thereof, and the repairs of the sanctuary; but Jonathan and the +people gave no credit to these words because they remembered the great +evil Demetrius had done in Israel. Jonathan made peace with Alexander, +and joined him in battle against Demetrius, whose host fled, and he +himself was slain. + +After that Demetrius the younger came out of Crete, and sent a great +host to Azotus. Here Jonathan attacked him, and with the help of Simon, +his brother, defeated the enemy and set fire to Azotus, and the temple +of Dagon therein. There were burned and slain with the sword eight +thousand men. Now, King Alexander honoured Jonathan and sent him a +buckle of gold such as is given to those of the king's blood. After +these days, Jonathan did many wonderful exploits in Galilee and +Damascus, and then returned to Jerusalem. Now, when Jonathan saw that +the time served him, he renewed his league with the Romans and +Lacedemonians, and pursued the Arabians unto Damascus. He strengthened +the cities of Juda, but he was captured by fraud by Tryphon at +Ptolemais. Simon was made captain in his brother Jonathan's room, and +prepared to attack Tryphon and, rescue his brother, but Tryphon slew +Jonathan, and returned into his own country. + +The land of Juda was quiet all the days of Simon, and every man sat +under his own vine and fig-tree. When Simon was visiting the cities that +were in the country, Ptolemeus, son of Abubus, the captain of Jerico, +invited Simon and his two sons into his castle, called Docus. There a +great banquet was given, at which Simon and his sons drank largely, and +Ptolemeus and his men came into the banqueting place and slew them. + + +THE SECOND BOOK OF THE MACCABEES + + +The brethren, the Jews that were at Jerusalem and in the land of Judea, +wrote a letter to the Jews that were throughout Egypt to thank God for +the death of Antiochus. In his letter are recounted all the sayings of +Jeremy, and the great deeds of Judas Maccabeus and his brother Simon, as +recorded in the books of Jason, until Nicanor the blasphemer was killed, +and his head hanged upon the tower at Jerusalem, from which time forth +the Hebrews had the city in their power. + + * * * * * + + + +ST. AUGUSTINE + + +THE CITY OF GOD + + + A French critic has said of Augustine's "City of God" that it + is the earliest serious attempt to write a philosophy of + history, and another has spoken of it as the encyclopaedia of + the fifth century. These two remarks together characterise the + work excellently. It is a huge treatise in twenty-two books, + begun in the year 413, and finished in 426, and was given to + the public in sections as these were completed. Augustine (see + LIVES AND LETTERS) himself explains the origin of the work. + The fall of Rome by Alaric's invasion in 410 had been ascribed + to the desertion of the old gods of Rome and to the wide + extension of Christianity, or the City of God, throughout the + empire. It was to refute this calumny that the learned African + bishop elaborated his great defense of Christ's kingdom, the + "Catholic Church, which should include all nations and speak + in all tongues." In Books 1-5 St. Augustine shows that the + catastrophe of Rome was not due to the neglect of the old + mythological superstitions; and in Books 6-10 that the heathen + cult was helpless for the life after death. Books 11-14 deal + with the origin of the two cities, namely, of God and the + World; Books 15-18 with their respective histories, and Books + 19-22 with their respective ultimate destinies. + + +_I.--THE ORIGIN OF THE TWO CITIES_ + + +I write, dear Marcellinus, of that most glorious City of God, both in +her present pilgrimage and life by faith, and in that fixed and +everlasting seat which she awaits in patience. I write to defend her +against those who place their gods above her Founder--a great and +arduous work, but God is my aid. I well know what power a writer needs +who would show the proud how great is the virtue of humility. For the +law of our King and Founder is this: "God is against the proud but gives +grace to the humble"; but the swollen and insolent soul loves herein to +usurp the divine Majesty, and itself "to spare the subject and subdue +the proud." Wherefore I may not pass over in silence that earthly city +also, enslaved by its lust of empire. + +For it is from this City of the World that those enemies have arisen, +against whom we have to defend the City of God; Romans, spared by the +barbarians on Christ's account, are haters of the name of Christ. The +shrines of the martyrs and the basilicas of the apostles received, in +the devastation of the city, not their own people only, but every +fugitive; and the fury and greed of the invaders were quenched at these +holy thresholds. Yet with thankless arrogance and impious frenzy these +men, who took refuge under that Name in order that they might enjoy the +light of fugitive years, perversely oppose it now, that they may +languish in sempiternal gloom. + +Never has it been known, in so many wars as are recorded from before the +foundation of Rome to the present day, that an enemy, having reduced any +city, should have spared those who had fled to the temples of their +gods; not even the Romans themselves, whose moderation in victory has so +often been justly praised, have respected the sanctuary of vanquished +deities. The devastation and massacre and pillage and conflagrations of +the sack of Rome were nothing new. But this one thing was new and +unheard of--these savages became suddenly so mild as to set apart +spacious basilicas and to fill them with people on whom they had mercy; +no one might be killed therein nor any dragged from thence. Who does not +see that this is due to the name of Christ and to a Christian age? Who +can deny that these sanguinary hordes were bridled by Him Who had said: +"I will visit their sins with the rod, but will not take my mercy from +them"? + +All natures, because they exist and therefore have their manner and +species and a certain peace with themselves, are good; and when they are +in the places belonging to the order of nature, they preserve the being +which they have received. + +The truest cause of the felicity of the good angels is to be found in +this, that they adhere to Him Who supremely is; and the cause of the +misery of bad angels lies in this, that they have turned away from Him +Who supremely is, to themselves, who have not supreme being. This vice +has no other name but pride, which is the beginning of every sin. They +refused to preserve their strength for Him, and so threw away that in +which all their greatness consisted. It is vain to seek for an efficient +cause for the bad will; we have to do, not with anything efficient, but +with a deficiency. The mere defection from that which supremely is to +things which are on a lower grade of being is to begin to have a bad +will. + +Now God founded mankind, not as the angels, so that even did they sin +they should not die; but in such a way that did they obey, they should +enter, without death, on a blessed eternity; but, did they disobey, they +should suffer the most just penalty, both of body and of soul. For +though the human soul is truly said to be immortal, yet is there a sense +in which it dies when God forsakes it. + +Only because they had begun inwardly to be evil did the first of mankind +fall into overt disobedience. A bad will had preceded the bad action, +and of that bad will the beginning was pride, or the appetite for an +inordinate rank. To lift oneself up is in itself to be cast down and to +fall. Wherefore humility is most highly of all things commended in and +to the City of God, and in Christ her King; but the contrary vice of +arrogance especially rules her adversary, the devil, and this is +unquestionably the great difference by which the two cities are divided, +and the society of the pious from the society of the impious. Thus two +loves have founded two cities, the love of Self extending to contempt of +God has made the City of the World; the love of God extending to +contempt of Self has made the Heavenly City. + + +_II.--THE GROWTH OF THE CITIES_ + + +This whole universal time or age, in which the dying give way and the +newborn succeed them, is the scene and history of those two cities which +are our theme. The City of the World, which lasts not for ever, has its +good here below, and rejoices in it with such joy as is possible. The +objects of its desire are not otherwise than good, and itself is the +best of the good things of earth. It desires an earthly peace for lower +ends, makes wars to gain this peace, wins glorious victories, and when +victory crowns a just cause, who shall not acclaim the wished-for peace? +These things are good indeed, and unquestionably are the gifts of God. +But if, neglecting the better things, which belong to the supernal city, +they covet these lower ends as if there were none higher, misery must +inevitably follow. + +All men, indeed, desire peace; but while the society which does not live +by faith seeks its peace in the temporal advantages of the present life, +that which lives by faith awaits the promised blessings, and makes use +of earthly and temporal things only as pilgrims do. The earthly city +seeks its peace in a harmony of the wills of men with respect to the +things of this life. And the heavenly city also, or, rather, that part +of it which travels in this mortality, must use that earthly peace while +mortality remains. Living a captive life in the midst of the earthly +city, it does not hesitate to respect its laws. Since this mortality is +common to both cities, there is a concord between them in the things +that belong to it. Only, the heavenly city cannot have common laws of +religion with the earthly city, but has been forced to dissent, and to +suffer hatred and the storms of persecution. + +Therefore, this heavenly city, a pilgrim upon earth, calls out citizens +from all peoples and collects a pilgrim society of all tongues, careless +what differences there may be in manners, laws and institutions by which +earthly peace is achieved and maintained, destroying none of these, but +rather serving and fulfilling them. Even the celestial city, therefore, +uses the earthly peace, and uses it as a means to the heavenly peace; +for that alone can be called the peace of a rational creature which +consists in a harmonious society devoted to the enjoyment of God and one +another in God. + +As for that uncertainty with regard to everything, which characterises +the New Academy, the City of God detests all such doubting as a form of +madness, since she has the most certain knowledge of those things which +she understands by mind and reason, however that knowledge may be +limited by our corruptible body. She believes also the evidence of the +senses, which the mind uses through the body, for he is miserably +deceived who regards them as untrustworthy. She believes also the holy +Scriptures, which we call canonical. + +It is no matter to the City of God what dress the citizen wears, or what +manner of life he follows, so long as it is not contrary to the Divine +commands; so that she does not compel the philosophers, who become +Christians, to change their habit or their means of life, which are no +hindrance to religion, but only their false opinions. As for these three +kinds of life, the contemplative, the active, and that which partakes of +both qualities, although a man living in faith may adopt any of them, +and therein reach eternal reward, yet the love of truth and the duties +of charity alike must have their place. One may not so give himself to +contemplation as to neglect the good of his neighbour, nor be so deeply +immersed in action as to neglect the contemplation of God. In leisure we +ought to delight, not in an empty inertia, but in the inquisition or +discovery of truth, in such a way that each may make progress without +envying the attainments of another. In action we ought to seek neither +the honours of this life nor power, since all that is under the sun is +vanity; but only the work itself, which our situation enables us to do, +and to do it rightly and serviceably. + +According to the definitions which Scipio used in Cicero's "Republic," +there never really existed a Roman republic. For he briefly defines a +republic as the estate of the people--"res publica" as "res populi," and +defines the people as a multitudinous assemblage, united by consent to +law and by community of advantage. So, then, where justice is not, there +can be no people; and if no people, then no estate of the people, but +only of a confused multitude unworthy of the name of a people. Where no +justice is, there is no commonwealth. Now, justice is a virtue +distributing unto everyone his due. Where, then, is the justice of the +man who deserts the true God and gives himself over to unclean demons? +Is this giving everyone his due? + +But if we define a people in another way, and consider it as an +assemblage of rational beings united by unanimity as to the objects of +their love, then, in order to ascertain the character of a people, we +must ascertain what things they love. Whatever it loves, so long as it +is an assemblage of rational creatures and not a herd of cattle, and is +agreed as to the objects of its love, it is truly a people, though so +much the better as its concord lies in better things, and so much the +worse as its concord lies in inferior things. According to this +definition, then, the Roman people is indeed a people, and its estate is +a commonwealth. But what things that people has loved in its earlier and +later times, and how it fell into bloody seditions and into social and +civil wars, breaking and corrupting that concord which is the health of +a people--of these things history is witness. Yet I would not on that +account deny it the name of a people, nor its estate the name of a +republic, so long as there remains some assemblage of rational persons +associated by unanimity with regard to the objects of love. But in +general, whatever be the nation in question, whether Athens, Egypt, +Babylon, or Rome, the city of the ungodly--refusing obedience to the +commandment of God that no sacrifice should be offered but to Him +alone--is without true justice. + +For though there may be an apparent mastery of the soul over the body, +and of reason over vices, yet if soul and reason do not serve God as He +has commanded, they can have no true dominion over the body and its +passions. How can the mind which is ignorant of the true God, and +instead of obeying Him is prostituted to impure demons, be true mistress +of the body and the vices? Nay, the very virtues which it appears to +itself to possess, by which it rules the body and the vices in order +that it may obtain and guard the objects which it desires, being +undirected to God, are rather vices than virtues. For as that which +makes flesh to live is not flesh but above it, so that which enables man +to live in blessedness is not of man, but above him. + + +_III.--THE DESTINY OF THE JUST_ + + +Who is able to tell of the creation, with its beauty and utility, which +God has set before the eyes of man, though here condemned to labour and +sorrow? The innumerable loveliness of sky, earth and sea, the abundance +and wonder of light, the sun, moon and stars, the shade of trees, the +colours and fragrance of flowers, the multitude of birds of varied hue +and song, the many forms of animals, of which the smallest are more +wonderful than the greatest, the works of bees more amazing than the +vast bodies of whales--who shall describe them? + +What shall those rewards, then, be? What will God give them whom He has +predestined to life, having given such great things to those whom He has +predestined to death? What in that blessed life will He lavish upon +those for whom He gave His Son to death? What will the state of man's +spirit be when it has become wholly free from vice; yielding to none, +enslaved by none, warring against none, but perfectly and wholly at +peace with itself? + +Who can say, or even imagine, what degrees of glory shall there be given +to the degrees of merit? Yet we cannot doubt that there will be degrees; +and that in that blessed city no one in lower place shall envy his +superior; for no one will wish to be that which he has not received, +though bound in closest concord with him who has received. Together with +his reward, each shall have the gift of contentment, so as to desire no +more than he has. There we shall rest and see, we shall see and love, we +shall love and praise. For what other end have we, but to reach the +kingdom of which there is no end? + + * * * * * + + + +RICHARD BAXTER + + +THE SAINTS' EVERLASTING REST + + + Richard Baxter, the Puritan author of one hundred and + sixty-eight volumes, of which "The Saints Everlasting Rest" + was, and is, the most popular, was born in 1615 during the + reign of James I., and died in 1691, soon after the accession + of William III. His lifetime, therefore, was coincident with + the troubles of the Stuart House. For fifty years Baxter was + one of the best known divines in England. Throughout, his was + a moderating influence in politics, the Church, and theology. + His best known pastorate, one of extraordinary success, was at + Kidderminster, between his twenty-sixth and forty-fifth years, + and there, in an interlude of ill-health of more than + customary severity--for all his life he was ailing--he wrote, + anticipatory of death, "The Saints Everlasting Rest." The + book, which was dedicated to his "dearly beloved friends the + inhabitants of the Borrough and Forreign of Kederminster," was + published in 1650 and had an immediate and almost + unparallelled success. Twenty thousand copies were sold in the + year after publication, and various editions are now in + circulation. The saintliness of this broad-minded divine's + character emerges unsullied from an age of contentious + bigotry. + + +_I.--THE NATURE OF REST_ + + "There remaineth therefore a rest to the people of God." + --Heb. iv, 9. + + +It was not only our interest in God and actual fruition of Him which was +lost in Adam's covenant-breaking fall, but all spiritual knowledge of +Him, and true disposition towards such a felicity. Man hath now a heart +too suitable to his low estate--a low state, and a low spirit. And when +the Son of God comes with tenders of a spiritual and eternal happiness +and glory, He finds not faith in man to believe it; but, as the poor man +would not believe that any one man had such a sum as a hundred +pounds--it was so far above what he possessed--so no man will hardly now +believe that there is such a happiness as once he had, much less as +Christ hath now procured. + +The Apostle bestows most of his epistle against this distemper, and +clearly and largely proves that the rest of Sabbaths and Canaan should +teach men to look for further rest, which indeed is their happiness. +What more welcome to men under personal afflictions, tiring duty, +successions of sufferings, than rest? What more welcome news to men +under public calamities, unpleasing employment, plundering losses, sad +tidings, than this of rest? + +Now let us see what this rest is. Though the sense of the text includes +in the word "rest" all that ease and safety which a soul hath with +Christ in _this life_--the rest of grace--yet because it chiefly intends +the rest of eternal glory I shall confine my discourse to this last. + +Rest is the end and perfection of motion. The saints' rest, here in +question, is _the most happy estate of a Christian having obtained the +end of his course_. + +May we show what this rest containeth. Alas! how little know I of that +whereof I am about to speak. Shall I speak before I know? If I stay till +I clearly know I shall not come again to speak. Therefore will I speak +that little which I do know of it rather than be wholly silent. + +There is contained in this rest a cessation from motion or action. When +we have obtained the haven we have done with sailing; when we are at our +journey's end we have done with the way. There shall be no more prayer +because no more necessity, but the full enjoyment of what we prayed for. +Neither shall we need to fast and weep and watch any more, being out of +the reach of sin and temptations. Nor will there be use for instructions +and exhortations; preaching is done; the ministry of man ceaseth; +sacraments useless; the labourer called in because the harvest is +gathered, the tares burned, the work done. + +This rest containeth a perfect freedom from all the evils that accompany +us through our course, and which necessarily follow our absence from the +chief good. Doubtless there is not such a thing as grief and sorrow +known there; nor is there such a thing as a pale face, a languid body, +feeble joints, unable infancy, decrepit age, peccant humours, dolorous +sickness, griping fears, consuming care, nor whatsoever deserveth the +name of evil. Indeed, a gale of groans and sighs, a stream of tears +accompanied us to the very gates, and there bid us farewell for ever. + +This rest containeth the highest degree of the saints' personal +perfection, both of soul and body. This necessarily qualifies them to +enjoy the glory and thoroughly to partake the sweetness of it. This is +one thing that makes the saints' joy there so great. Here eye hath not +seen, nor ear heard, nor heart conceived what God hath laid up for them +that wait for Him; but there the eye and ear and heart are made capable, +else how do they enjoy it? The more perfect the appetite the sweeter the +food; the more musical the ear the more pleasant the melody; the more +perfect the soul the more joyous those joys, and the more glorious to us +is that glory. + +This rest containeth, as the principal part, our nearest fruition of +God, the chiefest good. And here, wonder not if I be at a loss. When I +know so little of God, I cannot know how much it is to enjoy Him. When +it is so little I know of mine own soul--either its quiddity or quality, +while it is here in this tabernacle--how little must I needs know of the +infinite majesty, or the state of this soul when it is advanced to that +enjoyment. Nay, if I never saw that creature which contains not +something unsearchable, nor the worm so small which afforded not matter +for questions to puzzle the greatest philosopher that ever I met with, +no wonder if mine eye fail when I look at God, my tongue fail me in +speaking of Him, and my heart in conceiving. What strange conceivings +hath a man born blind of the sun of its light; or a man born deaf of the +nature of music; so do we want that sense by which God must be clearly +known. But this we know, the chief good is for us to be near to God. + + +_II.--HOW THE SAINTS WILL BE EMPLOYED_ + + +This rest containeth a sweet and constant action of all the powers of +the soul and body in this fruition of God. It is not the rest of a stone +which ceaseth from motion when it attains the centre. Whether the +external senses, such as now we have, shall be continued and employed in +this work is a great doubt. For some of them, it is usually +acknowledged, they shall cease, because their being importeth their use, +and their use implieth our state of imperfection--as there is no use for +eating and drinking, so neither for taste. But do not all senses imply +our imperfection? As the ore is cast into the fire a stone, but comes +forth so pure a metal that it deserves another name, so far greater will +the change of our body and senses be--even so great as now we cannot +conceive. And, doubtless, as God advanceth our sense and enlargeth our +capacity, so will He advance the happiness of those senses, and fill up +with Himself all that capacity. + +And if the body shall be thus employed, oh, how shall the soul be taken +up! As the bodily senses have their proper aptitude and action, so doth +the soul in its own action enjoy its own object--by knowing, by +thinking, by remembering, by loving. This is the soul's enjoying. + +Knowledge of itself is very desirable, even the knowledge of some evil, +though not the evil itself. As far as a rational soul exceeds the +sensitive, so far the delights of a philosopher in discovering the +secrets of Nature, and knowing the mysteries of science, exceed the +delights of the glutton, the drunkard, the unclean, and of all +voluptuous sensualists whatsoever--so excellent is all truth. What, +then, is their delight who know the God of truth! What would I not give +so that all the uncertain, questionable principles in logic, natural +philosophy, metaphysics, and medicine were but certain in themselves and +to me, that my dull, obscure notions of them were but quick and clear. +Oh, what then should I not either perform or part with to enjoy a clear +and true apprehension of the most true God! + +How noble a faculty of the soul is this understanding! It can compass +the earth; it can measure the sun, moon, stars, and heaven; it can +foreknow each eclipse to a minute many years before; yea, but the top of +all its excellency is that it can know God, who is infinite, who made +all these--a little here, and more, much more, hereafter. Oh, the wisdom +and goodness of our blessed Lord! He hath created the understanding with +a natural bias and inclination to truth as its object, and to the prime +truth as its prime object; and lest we should turn aside to any +creature, He hath kept this as His own divine prerogative, not +communicable to any creature, namely, to _be_ the prime truth. + +And, doubtless, memory will not be idle or useless in this blessed work, +if it be but by looking back to help the soul to value its enjoyment. +Our knowledge will be enlarged, not diminished; therefore the knowledge +of things past shall not be taken away. And what is that knowledge but a +remembrance? Doubtless, from that height the saint can look behind him +and before him; and to compare past with present things must needs raise +in the blessed soul an unconceivable esteem and sense of its condition. +To stand on that mount whence we can see the wilderness and Canaan both +at once; to stand in heaven and look back on earth, and weigh them +together in the balance of a comparing sense and judgment, how must it +needs transport the soul and make it cry out: Have the gales of grace +blown me into such a harbour! O, blessed way, and thrice blessed end! + +And now if there be such a thing as indignation left how will it here +let fly: O vile nature that resisted so much and so long such a +blessing! Unworthy soul, is this the place thou camest so unwillingly +towards? Was duty wearisome? Was the world too good to lose? Didst thou +stick at leaving all, denying all, and suffering anything for this? Wast +thou loth to die to come to this? O false heart, that had almost +betrayed me and lost me this glory! + +But oh, the full, the near, the sweet enjoyment is that of the +affections--love and joy! It is near, for love is of the essence of the +soul; love is the essence of God, for God is love. Oh, the high delights +of this love! The content that the heart findeth in it! Surely love is +both work and wages. + +But, alas! my fearful heart scarce dares proceed. Methinks I hear the +Almighty's voice saying to me, as to Job, "Who is this that darkeneth +counsel by words without knowledge?" But pardon, O Lord, Thy servant's +sin. I have not pried into unrevealed things, nor with audacious wits +curiously searched into Thy counsels; but, indeed, I have dishonoured +Thy Holiness, wronged Thine Excellency, disgraced Thy saints' glory by +my own exceeding disproportionate pourtraying. I bewail that my +conceivings fall so short, my apprehensions are so dull, my thoughts so +mean, my affections so stupid, expressions so low, and unbeseeming such +a glory. But I have only heard by the hearing of the ear. Oh, let Thy +servant see Thee and possess these joys, and then I shall have more +suitable conceivings, and shall give Thee fuller glory! + + +_III.--HOW THE ETERNAL REST IS REACHED_ + + +Having thus opened to you a window towards the temple, and showed you a +small glimpse of the back parts of that resemblance of the saints' rest +which I had seen in the Gospel-glass, it follows that we proceed to view +a little the adjuncts and blessed properties of this rest, and first +consider the eminent antecedents, the great preparations, the notable +introduction to this rest; for the porch of this temple is exceeding +glorious, and the gate of it is called beautiful. And here offer +themselves to our observation as the four corners of this porch the most +glorious coming and appearing of the Son of God; His wonderful raising +of our bodies from the dust, and uniting them again with the soul; His +public and solemn proceedings in their judgment; His solemn celebration +of their coronation, and His enthronising of them in their glory. + +Well may the coming of Christ be reckoned into His people's glory and +enumerated with those ingredients that compound this precious antidote +of rest, for to this end it is intended, and to this end it is of +apparent necessity. Alas, fellow Christians, what should we do if our +Lord should not return? What a case are we here left in! It cannot be; +never fear it, it cannot be. And O, fellow-Christians, what a day will +that be when we, who have been kept prisoners by sin and the grave, +shall be fetched out by the Lord Himself! It will not be such a coming +as His first was--in meanness and poverty and contempt. He will not +come, O careless world, to be slighted and neglected by you any more. To +think and speak of that day with horror doth well beseem the impenitent +sinner, but ill the believing saint. How full of joy was that blessed +martyr Mr. Glover, with the discovery of Christ to his soul, after long +doubting and waiting in sorrow, so that he cries out: "He is come! He is +come!" If thou have but a dear friend returned, that hath been far and +long absent, how do all run out to meet him with joy! "Oh," said the +child, "My father is come!" Saith the wife, "My husband is come!" And +shall not we, when we behold our Lord in His majesty returning, cry out: +"He is come! He is come!" + +The second stream that leadeth to Paradise is that great work of Jesus +Christ in raising our bodies from the dust and uniting them again unto +the soul. A wonderful effect of infinite power and love. "Yea, wonderful +indeed," saith unbelief, "if it be true." "What," saith the Atheist and +Sadducee, "shall all these scattered bones and dust become a man? A man +drowned in the sea is eaten by fishes, and they by men again, and these +men by worms. What is to become of the body of that first man? Shall it +rise again?" Thou fool--for so Paul calls thee--dost thou dispute +against the power of the Almighty? Wilt thou pose him with thy +sophistry? Dost thou object difficulties to infinite strength? Thou +blind mole, thou silly worm; thou little piece of creeping, breathing +clay; thou dust, thou nothing, knowest thou who it is whose power thou +dost question? If thou shouldst see Him, thou wouldst presently die. If +He should come and dispute His cause with thee, couldst thou bear it? If +thou shouldst hear His voice, couldst thou endure? + +Come then, fellow-Christians, let us contentedly commit these carcasses +to the dust, knowing that prison shall not long contain them. Let us lie +down in peace and take our rest; it will not be an everlasting night or +endless sleep. As sure as we awake in the morning when we have slept out +the night, so sure shall we then awake. What if our carcasses become as +vile as those of the beasts that perish, what if our bones are digged up +and scattered about the pit brink, and worms consume our flesh, yet we +know that our Redeemer liveth, and shall stand at the last on earth, and +we shall see Him with these eyes. + +The third part of this prologue to the saints' rest is the public and +solemn process at their judgment. O terrible, O joyful day! Then shall +the world behold the goodness and the severity of the Lord--on them who +perish, severity; but to His chosen, goodness. Then, fellow-Christians, +let the terror of that day be never so great, surely our Lord can mean +no ill to us. + +The fourth antecedent and highest step to the saints' advancement is +their solemn coronation, enthronising and receiving into the kingdom. +They that have been faithful unto death shall receive the crown of life, +and according to the improvement of their talents here so shall their +rule and dignity be enlarged. + + +_IV.--EXCELLENCES OF THE ETERNAL REST_ + + +A comfortable adjunct of this rest is the fellowship of the blessed +saints and angels of God. Oh, when I look in the faces of the precious +people of God, and believing, think of this day, what a refreshing +thought is it! Shall we not there remember, think you, the pikes which +we passed through here; our fellowship in duty and in sufferings; how +oft our groans made as it were one sound, our conjunct tears but one +stream, and our conjunct desires but one prayer. And now all our praises +shall make up one melody, and all our churches one church; and all +ourselves but one body; for we shall be one in Christ, even as He and +the Father are one. + +It is a question with some whether we shall know each other in heaven or +no. Surely there shall no knowledge cease which we now have, but only +that which implieth imperfection! And what imperfection can this imply? +Nay, our present knowledge shall be increased beyond belief. It shall be +done away, but as the light of candles and stars is done away by the +rising of the sun, which is more properly a doing away of our ignorance +than of our knowledge. Indeed, we shall not know each other after the +flesh; nor by stature, voice, colour, complexion, visage, or outward +shape, but by the image of Christ and spiritual relation, and former +faithfulness in improving our talents we shall know and be known. + +Again, a further excellence is this--it will be unto us a _seasonable_ +rest. When we have passed a long and tedious journey, and that through +no small dangers, is not home then seasonable? When we have had a long +and perilous war, and have lived in the midst of furious enemies, and +have been forced to stand on a perpetual watch, and received from them +many a wound, would not a peace with victory be now seasonable? Some are +complaining under the pressure of the times--weary of their taxes, weary +of their quarterings, weary of plunderings, weary of their fears and +dangers, weary of their poverty and wants, and is not rest yet +seasonable? Some of us languish under continual weakness, and groan +under most grievous pains, weary of going, weary of sitting, weary of +standing, weary of lying, weary of eating, weary of speaking, weary of +waking, weary of our very friends, weary of ourselves. Oh, how oft hath +this been mine own case--and is not rest yet seasonable? + +A further excellence is that this is a _suitable_ rest. Gold and earthly +glory, temporal crowns and kingdoms could not make rest for saints. Such +as their nature and desire such will be their rest. + +It will, too, be absolutely _perfect and complete_--as there is no +mixture of our corruption with our graces, so there will be no mixture +of our sufferings with our solace. We shall know which was the right +side and which the wrong. Then shall our understandings receive their +light from the face of God, as the full moon from the open sun when +there is no earth to interpose betwixt them. It is a perfect rest from +perplexing doubts and fear, from all sense of God's displeasure, from +all the temptations of Satan, the world, and the flesh. And it is an +_eternal_ rest. This is the crown of our crown. Mortality is the +disgrace of all sublunary delights. But, O blessed eternity, where our +lives are perplexed by no such thoughts, nor our joys interrupted by any +such fears! Our first paradise in Eden had a way out, but none in again; +but this eternal paradise hath a way in, but no way out again. The Lord +heal our carnal hearts lest we enter not into His eternal rest because +of our unbelief. + + * * * * * + + + +BOOK OF THE DEAD + + + This is probably the oldest religious book in the world. + Properly speaking, indeed, it is no book at all, but rather a + collection of hymns and litanies which have no more connection + with each other than the Psalms. Like the Psalter, too, this + so-called book has grown by degrees to the magnitude which it + now usually assumes in European and other libraries--175 + chapters of varying sizes. Its Egyptian name is "The Book of + the Coming Forth by Day" (Renouf), or "The Coming Out of the + Day" (Naville); the latter being probably more correct, "day" + in this connection denoting man's life with its morning and + evening. The hymns in this collection are supposed to be + recited by the deceased person with whose body they were + commonly buried, and by the recital of these and other sacred + texts the departed was believed to be protected against injury + in his journey to the underworld, and also to have secured for + him a safe return in the form of a resurrection. It was + Lepsius, the great German Egyptologist, who gave this + compilation the name "Book of the Dead." Even this name, + however, though more correct than any other, gives by no means + an adequate account of that for which it stands. This, and + other summaries of the sacred books of the East appearing in + THE WORLD'S GREATEST BOOKS present in quite original ways the + systems and philosophies of the great non-Christian religions. + + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +The Book of the Dead may be described as the soul's _vade mecum_ in the +journey from this world. It prescribes the forms the soul must have at +command in order to ward off the dangers on the way to the underworld, +during residence in the world, and on the journey back. + +The ancient Egyptians considered this book as inspired by the gods, who +caused their scribe, Thoth, to write it down. Every chapter is supposed +to exist for the sake of persons who have died. Sometimes chapters had +to be recited before the body was put down out of sight. Often a +chapter, or more than one, was inscribed on the coffin, or sarcophagus, +or mummy wrappings, this being thought a sure protection against foes of +every kind. + +This collection has been chiefly found written on papyrus in +hieroglyphic or hieratic characters on coffins, mummies, sepulchral +wrappings, statues, and on the walls of tombs. Complete copies have been +found written on tombs of the time of the 26th Dynasty (about 800 B.C.). + +There are many recensions, or editions, in the various libraries of +Europe and also in the East, and no two of them are identical in the +text. Lepsius translated from the Turin papyrus; Budge bases his +translations on what is called the Theban recension. But in all the text +is exceedingly corrupt, and translation is often no more than a guess. +Owing to the number of proper names and technical terms which we have no +means of understanding, it is often quite impossible to know the drift +of large paragraphs, and even of whole chapters. Since many of the +chapters were treated merely as having a magical efficacy either when +recited or when inscribed on something buried with the body, it was of +small consequence whether or not the words were understood. The bare +recital or writing of names of gods, etc., had a magical efficacy +according to the people who counted the Book of the Dead their sacred +scriptures. + +As regards date, the greater number of the hymns and prayers were +recited by the people of Egypt on behalf of their deceased friends +before the first dynasty had begun to reign. Birch says before 3000 B.C. +The hymns and prayers were first of all preserved in the memory only, +and their number was at an early time but small. They were written down +when the priests had doubts with regard to the meaning of certain terms, +and wished to hand them on unimpaired to posterity, being influenced by +the belief that the words of this sacred book were, as such, magically +potent. The oldest extant papyrus containing the Book of the Dead +belongs to the 18th Dynasty, _i.e._, about 1500 B.C.; but we do not come +across a complete copy, with the chapters collected and set in order +much as they are to-day, until the 26th Dynasty (about the 7th century +B.C.). Previous to this the chapters seem to have been put together with +no regard to order; probably they existed on different papyri, which +were used as occasion required. Commonly they would be sold, and for +that purpose stored up. + +The translations which can be recommended to students are those by +Renouf, with text and notes; Budge, with text and notes; and that by +C.H.S. Davis, U.S.A. (based on Pièrre). All these editions include the +vignettes, which are very helpful in understanding the text. + + +_I.--THE SCRIBE ANI PLEADS WITH OSIRIS THROUGH THOTH FOR ADMISSION TO +THE UNDERWORLD AND FOR A SAFE EVIT (RESURRECTION)_ + + +(Osiris)[1] Ani the Scribe says: Praise be to thee, Osiris Bull [so he +was often represented]. O Amentet [the lower world] the eternal king is +here to put words into my mouth. I am Thoth, the great god in the sacred +book, who fought for thee. I am one of the great gods that fought on +behalf of Osiris. Ra, the sun-God, commanded me--Thoth--to do battle on +the earth for the wronged Osiris, and I obeyed. I am among them moreover +who wait over Osiris, now king of the underworld. + +I am with Horus, son of Osiris, on the day when the great feast of +Osiris is kept. I am the priest pouring forth libations at Tattu, I am +the prophet in Abydos. I am here, O ye that bring perfected souls into +the abode of Osiris, bring ye the perfected soul of (Osiris) the Scribe +Ani, into the blissful home of Osiris. Let him see, hear, stand, and sit +as ye do in the home of Osiris. + +O ye who give cakes and ale to perfected souls, give ye at morn and at +eve cakes and ale to the soul of Ani the Scribe. + +O ye who open the way and prepare the paths to the abode of Osiris, open +the way and prepare the path that the soul of (Osiris) Ani the Scribe +may enter in confidence and come forth [on the resurrection] +victoriously. May he not be turned back, may he enter and come forth; +for he has been weighed in the scale and is "not lacking."[2] + + +_II.--THE PRAYER OF ANI THE SCRIBE_ + + +_The chapter about coming forth by day and living after death._ + +Says (Osiris) Ani: O thou, only shining one of the moon; let me, +departing from the crowd on earth, find entrance into the abode of +shades. Open then for me the door to the underworld, and at length let +me come back to earth and perform my part among men. + +_A chapter whereby the funeral statuettes (Shabti) may be made to work +for a man in the underworld._[3] + +O thou statuette there! If in the underworld I shall be called upon to +perform any tasks, be thou my representative and act for me--planting +and sowing fields, watering the soil and carrying the sands of East and +West. + +_A chapter concerning the piercing of the back of Apepi._[4] + +Tur, the overseer of the houses, says through his god Tmu: O thou wax +one[5] who takest thy victims captive and destroyest them, who preyest +upon the weak and helpless, may I never be thy victim; may I never +suffer collapse before thee. May the venom never enter my limbs, which +are as those of the god Tmu. O let not the pains of death, which have +reached thee; come upon me. I am the god Tmu, living in the foremost +part of Tur [the sky]. I am the only one in the primordial water. I have +many mysterious names, and provide myself a dwelling to endure millions +of years. I was born of Tmu, and I am safe and sound. + +_About contending against fever with the shield of truth and good +conduct._ + +Says (Osiris) Ani: I go forth against my foes endowed with the defence +of truth and good conduct. I cross the heavens, and traverse the earth. +Though a denizen of the underworld, I tread the earth like one alive, +following in the footsteps of the blessed spirits. I have the gift of +living a million years. I eat with my mouth and chew with my jaw, +because I worship him who is master of the lower world. + + +_III.--NU PRAISES RA (THE SUN-GOD) FOR HIS ABILITY TO GO DOWN INTO THE +GRAVE AND RETURN TO EARTH THROUGH THE MAGIC USE OF THE SACRED TEXTS_ + + +_About entering the underworld and coming forth therefrom._ + +Nu says: I cry aloud to thee, O Ra, thou guardian of the secret portals +of Seb [the grave], which leads to where Ra in the underworld holds the +balance which weighs every man's righteousness every day. I have burst +the earth [returned to earth]; grant that I may remain on to a good old +age. + + +_IV.--THE SPIRIT OF THE SCRIBE MESEMNETER PRAYS THAT SOME OFFENDED GOD +MAY BE CONCILIATED_ + + +_About removing the anger of the god towards the departed one._ + +The scribe Mesemneter, chief deputy of Amon, says: Praise be to thee, O +God, who makest the moments to glide by, who guardest the secrets of the +life beyond that of the earth, and guidest me when I utter words. The +god is angered against me. But let my faults be wasted away, and let the +god of Right and Truth bear them upon me. Remove them wholly from me, O +god of Right and Truth. Let the offended one be at peace with me. Remove +the wall of separation from before us. + +_A hymn to Ra at his rising and setting_. + +(Osiris) the scribe says: Praise to thee, O Ra, when thou risest. Shine +thou upon my face. Let me arise with thee into the heavens, and travel +with thee in the boat wherein thou sailest on the clouds. + +Thou passest in peace across the heavens, and art victorious over all +thy foes. + +Praise to thee who art Ra when thou risest, and Tmu when in beauty thou +settest. The dwellers in the land of night come forth to see thee ascend +the sky. I, too, would join the throng; O let me not be held back. + +_Hymn of praise to Osiris._ + +Praise be unto thee, Osiris, lord of eternity, who appearest in many +guises, and whose attributes are glorious. + +Thou lookest towards the underworld and causest the earth to shine as +with gold. + +The dead rise up to gaze on thy face; their hearts are at peace if they +but look on thee. + + +_V.--LITANY TO OSIRIS_ + + +_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O lord of the starry gods of Annu, more +glorious than the gods hidden in Annu. + +_Answer (repeated after each prayer)._ Grant thou me a peaceful life, +for I am truthful and just. I have uttered no falsehoods nor acted +deceitfully. + +_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O Ani; with thy long strides movest thou +across the heavens. + +_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O thou who art mighty in thy hour, great and +mighty prince, lord and creator of eternity. + +_Prayer_. Praise to those whose throne is Right and Truth, who hatest +fraud and deceit. + +_Prayer_. Praise to thee who bringest Hapi [the Nile]; in thy boat from +his source. + +_Prayer_. Praise to thee, O creator of the gods, thou king of the North +and the South. O Osiris, the all-conquering one, ruler of the world, +lord of the heavens. + + +_VI.--HYMN OF PRAISE TO THE SETTING SUN_ + + +_About the mystery of the underworld and about travelling through the +underworld._ + +When he sets on the underworld the gods adore him. The great god Ra +rises with two eyes [sun and moon]; all the seven gods (Kuas) welcome +him in the evening into the underworld. They sing his praises, calling +him Tmu. The deceased one says, "Praise be to thee, O Ra, praise be to +thee, O Tmu. Thou hast risen and put on strength, and thou settest in +glorious splendour into the underworld. Thou sailest in thy boat across +the heavens, and thou establisheth the earth. East and West adore thee, +bowing and doing homage to thee day and night." + + +_VII.--ABOUT THE RESURRECTION, OR THE COMING BACK TO LIFE (DAY), OF +DEPARTED SHADES._ + + +[This is one of the oldest (cir. B.C. 2700) and most remarkable +chapters, though also one of the hardest to follow in its details. The +vignettes reproduced in the editions of Davis, Renouf, and Budge help +considerably in following the line of thought. An exact copy of this +chapter has been found on the tomb of Horhotep. + +The soul of the deceased encounters all manner of obstacles and +opponents in the attempt to pass to the upper air, and he seeks +constantly the help of Ra, etc., that he may be victorious]. + +_Of the praises of entering the lower world and of coming out_. + +(Osiris) the scribe Ani says it is a good and profitable thing on earth +for a man to recite this text, since all the words written herein shall +come to pass. + +I am Ra, who at my rising rule all things. I am the great self-made god. + +I am yesterday and to-morrow. I gave the command, and a scene of strife +among the gods arose [_i.e.,_ the sun awakened all the forces of Nature +into action]. What is this? It is Amentet, the underworld. + +What is this? The horizon of my father Tmu [the setting sun]. All of my +failings are now supplied, my sins cleansed as I pass through the two +lakes which purify the offences which men offer the gods. + +I advance on the path, descending to the realm of Osiris, passing +through the gate Teser. O all ye who have passed this way in safety, let +me grasp your hands and be brought to your abode. + +O ye divine powers of Maert, the sworn foes of falsehood, may I come to +you. + +I am the great Cat [_i.e.,_ Ra] himself, and therefore in his name which +I bear, I can tread on all my enemies. O great Ra, who climbest the +heavenly vaults and who sailest in thy boat across the firmament with +undisputed authority, do thou save me from that austere god whose +eyebrows are as menacing as the balance that weighs the deeds of men. +Save me, I pray thee, from these guardians of the passages who will, if +they-may, impede my progress. O Tmu, who livest in the august abode, god +of gods, who thrivest upon damned souls, thou dog-faced, human-skinned +one, devourer of shades, digester of human hearts, O fearful one, save +me from the great soul-foe who gnaws and destroys shades of men. + +O Chepera in thy bark, save me from the testing guardians into whose +charge the glorious inviolate god has committed his foes; deliver thou +me. May these never undo me, may I never fall helpless into the chambers +of torture. O ye gods, in the presence of Osiris, reach, forth your +arms, for I am one of the gods in your midst. + +The (Osiris) Ani flies away like a hawk, he clucks like a goose, he is +safe from destruction as the serpent Nehebkau. Avaunt, ye lions that +obstruct my path. O Ra, thou ascending one, let me rise with thee, and +have a triumphant arrival to my old earthly abode. + + +_VIII.--A LITANY ADDRESSED TO THOTH_ + + +_The speech of Ammautef, the priest_: + +I have come to you, ye gods of heaven, earth, and the underworld, +bringing with me Ani, the scribe, who has done no wrong against any +gods, so that ye may protect him and give him good-speed to the +underworld. + +_The speech of Ani himself_: + +Praise be to thee, O thou ruler of Amenta, Unneferu, who presides in +Abydos. I have come to thee with a pure heart, free from sin. I have +told no falsehoods nor acted deceitfully. Give thou me in the tomb the +food I need for the journey, so let me have a safe entrance to the +underworld and a sure exit. + +_The speech of the priest Samerif:_ + +I come to the gods residing at Restau. I have brought you (Osiris) Ani; +grant him bread, water, and air, and also an abode in the Sechithotepu +[Field of Peace]. + +_The speech of Ani himself:_ + +Praise be to Osiris, everlasting lord, and to the gods of Restau. I come +to thee knowing thy goodwill and having learned those rites which thou +requirest for entrance into the lower world. May I have a safe arrival, +and find food in thy presence. + +_Litany to Thoth:_ + +O thou who makest Osiris triumphant over his foes, make thou this scribe +Nebenseri victorious over his foes. + +O Thoth, make Ani triumphant over his enemies, etc., etc. + +[If this chapter is recited over the deceased he shall come forth into +the day and pass through the transformations which the departed one +desires.] + + +_IX.--A MAGICAL CHAPTER_ + + +_Chapter of the Crown of Triumph_. + +Thy father Tmu has made thee this beautiful crown as a magical charm so +that thou mayest live for ever. Thy father Seb gives thee his +inheritance. Osiris, the prince of Amenta, makes thee victorious over +thy foes. Go thou as Horus, son of Isis and Osiris, and triumph ever on +thy way to the underworld. + +Yea (Osiris) Aufankh shall, through this recited text, live and triumph +for ever and ever. Horus repeated these words four times, and his +enemies fell headlong. And (Osiris) Aufankh has repeated these words +four times, so let him be victorious. + +This chapter is to be recited over a consecrated crown placed over the +face of the deceased, and thou shalt cast incense into the flame on +behalf of (Osiris) Aufankh, so securing triumph over all his foes. And +food and drink shall in the underworld be reached him in the presence of +Osiris its king. + +_Chapter about making the deceased remember his name in the underworld_. + +Nu triumphant, son of Amen-hotep, says: Let me remember my name in the +great House below on the night when years are counted and months are +reckoned up. If any god come to me, let me at once be able to utter his +name[6] and thus disarm him. + +_A chapter about not letting the heart of the deceased act against him +in the underworld_. + +My heart, received from my mother, my heart, without which life on earth +was not possible, rise then not up against me in the presence of the +gods in the great day of judgment when human thoughts, words, and acts +shall all be weighed in a balance. + +These words are to be inscribed on a hard green, gold-coated scarab, +which is to be inserted through the mouth into the bosom of the +deceased. + +_Chapter about repelling the ass-eater_[7]. + +Avaunt! serpent Hai, impure one, hater of Osiris. Get thee back, for +Thoth has cut off thy head. Let alone the ass, that I may have clear +skies when I cross to the underworld in the Neshmet boat. I am guiltless +before the gods, and have wronged none. So avaunt! thou sun-beclouding +one, and let me have a prosperous voyage. + +_Chapter about reserving for the deceased his seat in the underworld_. + +Nu says: My seat, my throne, come ye to me, surround me, divine ones. I +am a mummy-shaped person. O grant that I may become like the great god, +successful, having seat and throne. + +_A chapter about coming forth by day from the underworld_ (i.e., _the +resurrection_). + +[One of the very oldest chapters in the Book of the Dead, as old at +least as the first dynasty, say 4500 B.C. No chapter was regarded with +greater reverence, or recited or copied with more confidence in its +efficacy, probably because it is a summing up of the important chapters +on the coming forth by day from the underworld. He who knows this +chapter by heart is safe against danger in this world and in all other +abodes.] + +Nebseni, lord of reverence, says: I am yesterday and know to-morrow. I +am able to be born again. Here is the invisible force which creates gods +and gives food to denizens of the underworld. I go as a messenger to +Osiris. + +O goddess Aucherit, grant that I may come forth from the underworld to +see Ra's blazing orb. O thou conductor of shades, let me have a fair +path to the underworld and a sure arrival. May I be defended against all +opposing powers. May the cycle of gods listen to me and grant my request + + * * * * * + + + + +BOOKS OF BRAHMANISM + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + + The religion of the ancient Persians and of the ancient Aryan + Indians was at one time the same, and it is easy now to see + the common basis of the beliefs and practices embodied in the + Hindu Vedas and the Zend Avesta (see ZOROASTRIANISM), and + their general resemblance. The religion of the ancient Aryan + Indians has passed through three outstanding phases, + designated by modern scholars: Vedism, or that taught by the + Vedas; Brahmanism, based on the Brahmans, or ritual additions + to the Vedas; and Hinduism (_q.v._), the form which revived + Brahmanism took after the expulsion of Buddhism. Though the + latter is strictly an Indian religion, judged by its origin + and characteristic features, it has for centuries almost + ceased to exist in India proper. It will be found generally + true that in Brahmanism there is, as compared with Vedism, an + increase of the ritual, and a corresponding decrease of the + moral element. The gods become more material, and the means of + conciliating them ceremonial and magical. So also there is a + growth in the power of the priesthood. One may compare this + with the course of development among the Hebrews--the ritual + and ceremonial bulking more and more, and the ethical + receding, according to most modern scholars. It has to be + remembered carefully, however, that the distinction between + Vedism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism is more logical than actual. + The seeds of Hinduism, even the doctrine of caste, may be + traced in the Rig Veda, and a modern orthodox. Hindu will tell + you that his principal scriptures are the Vedas, and that his + creed and practice have their source in these scriptures. + Brahmanism may be represented as a system of law and custom in + the Laws of Manu; as a philosophy in the Upanishads; and as a + mythology in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. + + +MAHABHARATA + + +The word "Mahabharata" means "The Great Bharata," the name of a +well-known people in ancient India. The epic so called is a very long +one, containing at least 220,000 lengthy lines. It is really an +encyclopaedia of Hindu history, legend, mythology, and philosophy. +Four-fifths of the poem consist of episodes, some of them very +beautiful, as the tale of Nala and his wife Damayanti. These have no +primary connection with the original, though they are worked in so +deftly as to make the whole appear a splendid unity. For pathos, +sublimity, and matchless language, no poem in the world exceeds this +one. + +It is arranged in eighteen books, all of which claim to have been +composed by Vyasa--another name for the god Krishna--who is said also in +the course of the epic to have composed the Vedas and the Puranas. This +is, of course, mythology, and not literary history. + +The historical nucleus underlying this poem is the conflict which raged +in ancient India between two neighbouring tribes, the Kurus (or +Kauravas) and the Pandavas. But this is worked up into another long tale +into which and around which Brahman teachers and philosophers have woven +a very network of religious, theosophic, and philosophic speculation. +The tale is, in fact, made a vehicle for teaching Brahman ism as it +existed in India in the first five centuries of our era, though much of +the Mahabharata goes back to a thousand years or so B.C. + + +_OUTLINE OF THE EPIC_ + + +The descendants of Bharata, the king of Hastinapura, about sixty miles +north of Delhi, were divided into two branches, the Kauravas and the +Pandavas, each of which occupied the territory which had come down to it +by inheritance. They lived together in peace and prosperity, worshipping +the gods, studying the Vedas, and spending much time in meditation about +higher things. But there came a change for the worse. The Kauravas, not +content with their own territory, looked with jealous eyes upon that of +their kinsmen, the Pandavas. Soon their covetousness realised itself in +action, for gathering their armed men together, they sprang suddenly +upon the land of their neighbours, whom they disarmed previously by +professions of friendship and goodwill The Pandavas were conquered and +driven into a far country, where they wandered homelessly and yet filled +with undying love for the old home of their fathers and with a resolve +to regain at the first opportunity their ancestral territory. + +With the help of as many princes and generals as they could win to their +side they marched towards the land which they had lost, taking back by +force what had been wrested from them by force. The two armies met face +to face on the field of Kurukshetra (land of the Kurus), and the battle, +which lasted eighteen days, was about to begin. The father and king of +the Kauravas, called Dhritarashtra, aged and blind, felt that he could +not stand to witness the bloody affray. He accordingly accepted the +offer of Vyasa (Krishna), a relative of both the contending parties, to +have the entire course of events described to him when all was over, one +Sangara, being deputed to perform the task. The battle began and +proceeded for ten long days when Bhrisma, the chief general of the +Kauravas, fell. + +At this point Sangara advanced to the old King Dhritarashtra to acquaint +him with the course things had taken, and among the rest to recite to +him a conversation which had taken place between Krishna and Arguna, the +Pandavan prince and general. It is this dialogue which constitutes the +Holy Song, known as the Bhagavad-Gita, or Krishna Song, the Krishna of +this philosophic poem being, of course, the eighth avatara; or +incarnation, of Vishnu. + +The remaining books of the Mahabharata recount the subsequent incidents +of the war, which, in all, lasted for eighteen days. The Kauravas were +destroyed, the only survivors being the Pandavas and Krishna with his +charioteer. The many dead that were left on the field were buried with +the rites of religion, and amid many signs of touching affection and +grief. + +Bhrisma, leader of the Kauravas, instructs Yudhishthira on the duties of +kings and other topics. The poem then ends. + + +THE BHAGAVAD-GITA, OR HOLY SONG OF BRAHMANISM + + +This poem forms one of the finest episodes in the great Iliad of India, +and, in fact, is hardly surpassed for profound thought, deep feeling, +and exquisite phrasing, in the whole literature of India. Telang holds +that the song is at least as old as the 4th century, and is inclined to +regard it as an original part of the epic. According to most scholars, +however, the "Divine Song" was added at a later period, and, in fact, in +its present form it is scarcely older than 500 A.D. It is so thoroughly +Brahmanic in its teaching that there can be little doubt but that this +song was introduced in order to convey the teaching of Brahmanism +prevalent at the time. The German scholar, Dr. Lorinser, has tried to +prove that the author of this song had a knowledge of the New Testament +and used it. The following passages are pointed out by him as dependent +on New Testament passages. + + +BHAGAVAD-GITA + + I am exceedingly dear to the + wise man; he also is dear + to me. + + I am the way, supporter, + lord, witness, abode, refuge, + friend. + + I never depart from him (the + true Yogis); he never departs + from me. + + They who worship me with + true devotion, are in me + and I in them. + + Be assured that he who worships + me perishes not. + + I am the beginning and the + middle and the end of existent + things. + + I will deliver thee from all + sin; do not grieve. + + He who knows me as unborn + and without beginning, the + mighty Lord of the World, + he among mortals is undeluded, + he is delivered from + all sins. + + What sacrifice, almsgiving, or + austerity is done without + faith is evil. + + That man obtains the perfect + state who honours by his + proper work him from + whom all things have issued, + and by whom this All + was spread out. + + +NEW TESTAMENT + + He that loveth Me shall be + loved of My Father, and I + will love him (John xiv. + 21). + + I am the way, the truth, and + the life (John xiv. 6) I am + the first and the last (Rev. + i. 17). + + He that dwelleth in Me and I + in Him (John vi. 56). + + I in them and thou in Me, + that they may be made perfect + in one (John xvii. 23). + + Whosoever believeth in Him + shall not perish, but have + everlasting life (John iii. + 16). + + I am Alpha and Omega, the + beginning and ending (Rev. + i. 8). + + Son, be of good cheer; thy + sins be forgiven thee (Matt. + ix. 2). + + This is life eternal, that they + might know Thee, the only + true God, and Jesus Christ, + Whom Thou hast sent (John + xvii, 3). + + Whatsover is not of faith is + sin (Rom. xiv. 23). + + Whether therefore ye eat or + drink, or whatsoever ye do, + do all to the glory of God + (1 Cor. x. 31). + + +_OUTLINE OF THE BHAGAVAD-GITA_ + + +The blind old father of the Kauravas asked Sangara to tell him how the +battle had gone. He replied that, just as the fighting began, Krishna, +the Heaven-Born One, stationed his glorious chariot between the armies +and entered into a long conversation, with Arguna, the prince-general of +the Pandavas. Said Arguna, "My grief at seeing these kindred peoples at +war is beyond bearing, and the omens are unfavourable. I long not for +victory, but for peace and for the prosperity of all. Behold, in battle +array grandfathers, fathers, sons, friends, and allies. We have resolved +to commit a great sin, to slay our kindred and associates, and all for +lust of wealth and power." + +The Holy One (Krishna) said in reply, "Thou grievest for those who need +no grief of thine; yet are thy words words of wisdom. The wise have no +grief for dead or living; know thou, O Arguna, that the man who has +knowledge of the Eternal and Absolute One will never more be born, nor +will he know death. As one puts away an old used garment, putting on a +new one, so the self in a man puts away the old body and assumes one +that is new. He, the Everlasting One, is unchanging and inconceivable. +Be not thou grieved and have no fear. If slain in the battle, thou shalt +reach endless bliss in heaven. If victorious, thou shalt have happiness +on the earth; get thee, therefore, honoured one, to the fight and have +no care for pleasure or pain. + +"Some obtain comfort from what the Vedas promise with reference to +eternal bliss. But these very Vedas teach that a man should strive at +self-mortification and advancement in virtue with no regard to any +reward. The final good after which men are chiefly to aim is a state of +supreme indifference and contempt." + +"But," asked Arguna, "what, pray, is that state of equipoise of spirit +which thou urgest?" + +Said the Holy One, "There is a twofold law: that of Sankhyas, or +intellectual devotion, and that of Yogis, or practical devotion. Men +must strive after the highest knowledge, that of Brahma, and also seek +after right conduct." "What," asked Arguna, "is the cause of sin?" To +which the Holy One replied, "Love and hatred, for hatred is begotten of +love, and ignorance of moral distinctions and of anger; from all this +comes unreasonableness and resulting ruin. A man's knowledge carries +always with it desire, as the fire smoke. The senses are great, the mind +is greater, and the intellect still greater, but the greatest of all is +the Eternal Essence, Brahma. + +"Many," said the Holy One, "are my births, and I know them; many too, +are thine, but thou knowest them not. I am born from age to age for the +defence of the virtuous and the undoing of the wicked. He who believes +in my divine birth and work has no second birth, but enters me and +abides with me for ever. Know me as the creator of the cates, know me +also as the Eternal one that creates nothing. Faith brings with it +knowledge, and knowledge contentment. Without knowledge and faith the +soul is lost." + +Arguna asked, "How fares it with the man who is not able to suppress his +lower instincts and to undergo the discipline of Yogis? Is he for this, +to be undone for ever?" + +"No," replied the Holy One, "neither in this world nor in the next is he +lost. The virtuous man does not enter an evil state. He reaches that +heaven provided for all the good, and is born thereafter with higher +moral capacities, with which, and by means of the knowledge gained in +his previous existence, he rises to greater perfection; so that after +many births he reaches absolute perfection and is united for ever with +Brahma. But learn thou my higher nature; what thou seest is my lower, +for I am divine and human. All the world came forth from me, and I will +at the last destroy it. Higher than I does not exist. I am taste, light, +moon, sun; I am the mystic OM; I am the mystic seed from which all +things grow. He that offers sacrifice to inferior gods goes after death +to those gods, but they that worship me come to me." + +"What," asked Arguna, "is Brahma, the supreme spirit, the supreme +sacrifice?" + +The Holy One answered, "He is the Supreme, the Indestructible One; I am +the Supreme Sacrifice in my present body. + +"Hear now, Son of Pritha," said the Holy One. "If thy heart be fixed on +me, and thou seekest refuge in me, thou shalt know me fully, and I shall +reveal to thee the perfect knowledge of God and man. There are countless +myriads of men in this world, but few there are who seek after +perfection, and fewer still there are who obtain it." + + +_OTHER PARTS OF THE MAHABHARATA_ + + +Though the husband die unhappy on account of his wife's ill-treatment +and disobedience, yet if she consign herself to the flames after his +death she is deserving of great praise. How much more should a woman be +venerated who flings herself of her own accord into the flames after the +death of a husband whom she has treated with affection and submission! + +Let gifts be avoided; for receiving them is a sin. The silkworm dies of +its riches. + +It is not proper to rebuke or even blame wrong acts of gods or priests +or seers; though no one is justified in following them in these acts. + +Virtue is better than everlasting life; kingdom, sons, renown, and +wealth all put together do not make up one-sixteenth part of the value +of virtue. + +The greatest sin that a king can commit is atoned for by sacrifices +accompanied with large gifts [cows, etc.] to the priests. + + * * * * * + + + +SIR THOMAS BROWNE + + +RELIGIO MEDICI + + + Sir Thomas Browne, English essayist, came of a Cheshire + family, but was born in London on October 19, 1605. Educated + at Oxford, where he graduated in 1626, he next studied + medicine at the great universities of Montpelier, Padua, and + Leyden, and in 1637 went to live at Norwich, where he remained + until his death on October 19, 1682. He was happily married in + 1641, and was knighted by Charles II. in 1671. Sir Thomas + Browne is one of the greatest figures in English literary + history. He had extraordinary learning, a magnificent style, a + certain dry humour, and, above all, great power and nobility + of mind. In his two most valued works, "Religio Medici," or + "Religion of a Physician," published in 1643, and "Urn + Burial," in 1658, he deals with the greatest of all themes, + the mysteries of faith and of human destiny. The "Religio + Medici," written about 1635, was not at first intended for + publication; but the manuscript had been handed about and + copied, and the appearance, in 1642, of private editions, + forced the author to issue it himself. + + +_I.--THE BROAD-MINDED CHRISTIAN_ + + +For my religion I dare, without usurpation, assume the honourable style +of a Christian. Not that I merely owe this title to the font, my +education, or the clime wherein I was born; but that having, in my riper +years and confirmed judgment, seen and examined all, I find myself +obliged, by the principles of grace and the law of mine own reason, to +embrace no other name but this. + +But, because the name of a Christian is become too general to express +our faith--there being a geography of religion as well as lands--I am of +that reformed new-cast religion, wherein I dislike nothing but the name: +of the same belief our Saviour taught, the apostles disseminated, the +fathers authorised, and the martyrs confirmed; but, by the sinister ends +of princes, the ambition and avarice of prelates, and the fatal +corruption of the times, so decayed, impaired, and fallen from its +native beauty, that it required the careful and charitable hands of +these times to restore it to its primitive integrity. + +Yet do I not stand at sword's point with those who had rather +promiscuously retain all than abridge any, and obstinately be what they +are than what they have been. We have reformed from them, not against +them, for there is between us one common name and appellation, one faith +and necessary body of principles common to us both; and therefore I am +not scrupulous to converse and live with them, to enter their churches +in defect of ours, and either pray with them or for them. + +I am naturally inclined to that which misguided zeal terms superstition; +at my devotion I love to use the civility of my knee, my hat, my hand, +with all those outward and sensible motions which may express or promote +my invisible devotion. At the sight of a crucifix I can dispense with my +hat, but scarce with the thought or memory of my Saviour. I could never +hear the Ave-Mary bell without an oraison, or think it a sufficient +warrant, because they erred in one circumstance, for me to err in +all--that is, in silence and dumb contempt. + +I could never divide myself from any man upon the difference of an +opinion; I have no genius to disputes in religion. A man may be in as +just possession of truth as of a city, and yet be forced to surrender; +'tis therefore far better to enjoy her with peace than to hazard her +upon a battle. If, therefore, there rise any doubts in my way, I do +forget them, or at least defer them, till my better settled judgment be +able to resolve them. In philosophy, where truth seems double-faced, +there is no man more paradoxical than myself; but in divinity I love to +keep the road, and, though not in an implicit, yet an humble, faith +follow the great wheel of the Church. + +Heads that are disposed unto schism, and complexionally propense to +innovation, are naturally indisposed for a community, nor will be ever +confined unto the order or economy of one body; and, therefore, when +they separate from others, they knit but loosely among themselves; nor +contented with a general breach or dichotomy with their church, do +subdivide and mince themselves almost into atoms. + +As for those wingy mysteries in divinity and airy subtleties in religion +which have unhinged the brains of better heads, they have never +stretched the membranes of mine. Methinks there be not impossibilities +enough in religion for an active faith; I love to lose myself in a +mystery, to pursue my reason to an _O altitudo!_ I can answer all the +objections of Satan and my rebellious reason with that odd resolution of +Tertullian: "It is certain because it is impossible." + + +_II.--THE DIVINE WISDOM_ + + +In my solitary and retired imagination I remember I am not alone; and +therefore forget not to contemplate Him and His attributes who is ever +with me, especially those two mighty ones, His wisdom and eternity. With +the one I recreate, with the other I confound, my understanding; for who +can speak of eternity without a solecism, or think thereof without an +ecstasy? + +In this mass of Nature there is a set of things that carry in their +front, though not in capital letters, yet in stenography and short +characters, something of divinity; which, to wiser reasons, serve as +luminaries in the abyss of knowledge, and to judicious beliefs as scales +to mount the pinnacles of divinity. + +That other attribute wherewith I recreate my devotion is His wisdom, in +which I am happy; and for the contemplation of this only, do not repent +me that I was bred in the way of study. The advantage I have of the +vulgar, with the content and happiness I conceive therein, is an ample +recompense for all my endeavours in what part of knowledge soever. +Wisdom is His most beauteous attribute; no man can attain unto it; yet +Solomon pleased God when he desired it. He is wise because He knows all +things; and He knows all things because He made them all; but His +greatest knowledge is in comprehending that He made not--that is, +Himself. The wisdom of God receives small honour from those heads that +rudely stare about, and with a gross rusticity admire His works. Those +highly magnify Him whose judicious inquiry into His acts, and a +deliberate research into His creatures, return the duty of a devout and +learned admiration. Every essence, created or uncreated, hath its final +cause and some positive end both of its essence and operation. This is +the cause I grope after in the works of Nature; on this hangs the +providence of God. + +That Nature does nothing in vain is the only indisputable axiom in +philosophy. There are no grotesques in Nature, nor anything framed to +fill up unnecessary spaces. I could never content my contemplation with +those general pieces of wonder, the flux and reflux of the sea, the +increase of the Nile, the conversion of the needle to the north; but +have studied to match and parallel those in the more obvious and +neglected pieces of Nature which, without further travel, I find in the +cosmography of myself. We carry with us the wonders we seek without us; +there is all Africa and her prodigies in us. + +Thus there are two books from whence I collect my divinity: besides that +written one of God, another of His servant, Nature, that universal and +public manuscript, that lies expansed unto the eyes of all. Surely the +heathens knew better how to join and read these mystical letters than we +Christians, who cast a more careless eye on these common hieroglyphics, +and disdain to suck divinity from the flowers of Nature. Now, Nature is +not at variance with art, nor art with Nature, they being both the +servants of His providence. Art is the perfection of Nature. Nature hath +made one world, and art another. In brief, all things are artificial, +for Nature is the art of God. + +This is the ordinary and open way of His providence, which art and +industry have in good part discovered, whose effects we may foretell +without an oracle. But there is another way, full of meanders and +labyrinths, and that is a more particular and obscure method of His +providence, directing the operations of individual and single essences. +This we call fortune, that serpentine and crooked line whereby He draws +those actions His wisdom intends in a more unknown and secret way. + +This cryptic and involved method of His providence have I ever admired; +nor can I relate the history of my life, the occurrences of my days, the +escapes, or dangers, and hits of chance, with a bare grammercy to my +good stars. Surely there are in every man's life certain rubs, +doublings, and wrenches, which pass a while under the effects of chance; +but at the last, well examined, prove the mere hand of God. 'Twas not +dumb chance that, to discover the fougade, or powder plot, contrived a +miscarriage in the letter. I like the victory of '88 the better for that +one occurrence which our enemies imputed to our dishonour and the +partiality of fortune: to wit, the tempests and contrariety of winds. + +There is no liberty for causes to operate in a loose and straggling way, +nor any effect whatever but hath its warrant from some universal or +superior cause. 'Tis not a ridiculous devotion to say a prayer before a +game at tables; for even in sortileges and matters of greatest +uncertainty there is a settled and pre-ordered course of effects. It is +we that are blind, not fortune. Because our eye is too dim to discover +the mystery of her effects, we foolishly paint her blind, and hoodwink +the providence of the Almighty. + +'Tis, I confess, the common fate of men of singular gifts of mind to be +destitute of those of fortune; which doth not any way deject the spirit +of wiser judgments, who thoroughly understand the justice of this +proceeding; and, being enriched with higher donatives, cast a more +careless eye on these vulgar parts of felicity. It is a most unjust +ambition to desire to engross the mercies of the Almighty. + +I have heard some with deep sighs lament the lost lines of Cicero; +others with as many groans deplore the combustion of the library of +Alexandria; for my own part, I think there be too many in the world, and +could with patience behold the urn and ashes of the Vatican, could I, +with a few others, recover the perished leaves of Solomon. Some men have +written more than others have spoken. Of those three great inventions in +Germany, there are two which are not without their incommodities. Tis +not a melancholy wish of my own, but the desires of better heads, that +there were a general synod--not to unite the incompatible difference of +religion, but for the benefit of learning, to reduce it, as it lay at +first, in a few and solid authors; and to condemn to the fire those +swarms and millions of rhapsodies, begotten only to distract and abuse +the weaker judgments of scholars and to maintain the trade and mystery +of typographers. + +As all that die in the war are not termed soldiers, so neither can I +properly term all those that suffer in matters of religion, martyrs. +There are many, questionless, canonised on earth that shall never be +saints in heaven, and have their names in histories and martyrologies +who, in the eyes of God, are not so perfect martyrs as was that wise +heathen Socrates, that suffered on a fundamental point of religion--the +unity of God. The leaven and ferment of all, not only civil but +religious actions, is wisdom; without which to commit ourselves to the +flames is homicide, and, I fear, but to pass through one fire into +another. + + +_III.--THE HOPE OF IMMORTALITY_ + + +I thank God I have not those strait ligaments or narrow obligations to +the world as to dote on life or tremble at the name of death. Not that I +am insensible of the horror thereof, or, by raking into the bowels of +the deceased and continual sight of anatomies, I have forgot the +apprehension of mortality; but that, marshalling all the horrors, I find +not anything therein able to daunt the courage of a man, much less a +well-resolved Christian. Were there not another life that I hope for, +all the vanities of this world should not entreat a moment's breath from +me. Those strange and mystical transmigrations that I have observed in +silkworms turned my philosophy into divinity. There is in these works of +Nature which seem to puzzle reason, something divine, that hath more in +it than the eye of a common spectator doth discover. + +Some, upon the courage of a fruitful issue, wherein, as in the truest +chronicle, they seem to outlive themselves, can with greater patience +away with death. This seems to me a mere fallacy, unworthy the desires +of a man that can but conceive a thought of the next world; who, in a +nobler ambition, should desire to live in his substance in heaven rather +than his name and shadow in the earth. Were there any hopes to outlive +vice, or a point to be superannuated from sin, it were worthy our knees +to implore the days of Methuselah. But age doth not rectify but brings +on incurable vices, and the number of our days doth but make our sins +innumerable. There is but one comfort left, that though it be in the +power of the weakest arm to take away life, it is not in the strongest +to deprive us of death. + +There is no happiness within this circle of flesh, nor is it in the +optics of these eyes to behold felicity. But besides this literal and +positive kind of death, there are others whereof divines make mention, +as mortification, dying unto sin and the world. In these moral +acceptations, the way to be immortal is to die daily; and I have +enlarged that common "Remember death" into a more Christian +memorandum--"Remember the four last things"--death, judgment, heaven, +and hell. I believe that the world grows near its end; but that general +opinion, that the world grows near its end, hath possessed all ages past +as nearly as ours. + +There is no road or ready way to virtue; it is not an easy point of art +to disentangle ourselves from this riddle or web of sin. To perfect +virtue, as to religion, there is required a panoplia, or complete +armour; that whilst we lie at close ward against one vice, we lie not +open to the assault of another. There go so many circumstances to piece +up one good action that it is a lesson to be good, and we are forced to +be virtuous by the book. + +Insolent zeals that do decry good works, and rely only upon faith, take +not away merit; for, depending upon the efficacy of their faith, they +enforce the condition of God, and in a more sophistical way do seem to +challenge heaven. I do not deny but that true faith is not only a mark +or token, but also a means, of our salvation; but, where to find this is +as obscure to me as my last end. If a faith to the quantity of a grain +of mustard seed is able to remove mountains, surely that which we boast +of is not anything, or, at the most, but a remove from nothing. + +For that other virtue of charity, without which faith is a mere notion +and of no existence, I have ever endeavoured to nourish the merciful +disposition and humane inclination I borrowed from my parents, and +regulate it to the written and prescribed laws of charity. I give no +alms to satisfy the hunger of my brother, but to fulfil the command of +my God; I draw not my purse for his sake that demands it, but His that +enjoined it. Again, it is no greater charity to clothe his body than to +apparel the nakedness of his soul; and to this, as calling myself a +scholar, I am obliged by the duty of my condition. + +Bless me in this life with but the peace of my conscience; command of my +affections the love of Thyself and my dearest friends; and I shall be +happy enough to pity Caesar! These are, O Lord, the humble desires of my +most reasonable ambition, and all I dare call happiness on earth: +wherein I set no limit to Thy hand or providence; dispose of me +according to the wisdom of Thy pleasure. Thy will be done, though in my +own undoing. + + * * * * * + + + +JOHN CALVIN + + +INSTITUTION OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION + + + John Calvin was born on July 10, 1509, at Noyon, in Picardy, + Northern France. Although the Calvins, his ancestors, had been + bargemen on the Oise, his father was notary apostolic, + procurator-fiscal of the county, clerk of the church court, + and diocesan secretary. Young Jean Calvin was eight years old + when Luther nailed his theses to the door of the castle church + in Wittenburg. The new religion gaining very quickly a footing + in France, the youth became influenced by it when studying in + Paris at the College de la Marche. He held meetings with + Protestants in a cave at Poitiers. His precocity was + remarkable. At the age of twenty-three he wrote his first + book, a commentary on Seneca's "Treatise on Clemency." At + twenty-five he revised a translation of the French Bible. At + twenty-seven he published the first edition of his mighty + work, "The Institution of the Christian Religion," a treatise + which has been styled "one of the landmarks of the history of + Christian doctrine." At twenty-eight Calvin was the foremost + man in Geneva, and was already one of the most remarkable + reformers in the world. His career has rarely been paralleled. + Calvin died on May 27, 1564. + + +_I.--THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD THE CREATOR_ + + +Our wisdom consists almost exclusively of two parts: the knowledge of +God, and of ourselves. But, as these are connected together by many +ties, it is not easy to determine which of the two precedes, and which +gives birth to the others. Our weakness, ignorance, and depravity remind +us that in the Lord, and in none but Him only, dwell the two lights of +wisdom, of virtue, and of piety. It is evident that man never attains to +a true self-knowledge until after he has contemplated the face of God, +and come down after such contemplation to look into himself. + +It is beyond dispute that there exists in the human mind, and indeed by +natural instinct, some sense of deity. As Cicero, though a pagan, tells +us, there is no nation so brutish as not to be imbued with the +conviction that there is a God. Even idolatry is an evidence of this +fact. But, though experience teaches that a seed of religion is divinely +sown in all, few cherish it in the heart. Some lose themselves in +superstitious observances; others, of set purpose, wickedly revolt from +God; and many think of God against their will, never approaching Him +without being dragged into His presence. + +But since the perfection of blessedness consists in the knowledge of +God, He has been pleased not only to deposit in our minds the seed of +religion, of which we have already spoken, but so to manifest His +perfections in the whole structure of the universe, and daily place +Himself in our view, that we cannot open our eyes without being +compelled to behold Him. His essence is, indeed, transcendent and +incomparable, but on each of His works His glory is engraven in +characters so bright that none, however dull and illiterate, can plead +ignorance as an excuse. + +Herein appears the shameful ingratitude of men, that, though they have +in their own persons a factory where countless operations of God are +carried on, instead of praising Him, they are the more inflated with +pride. How few are there among us who, in lifting our eyes to the +heavens, or looking abroad on the earth, ever think of the Creator! In +vain, because of our dulness, does creation exhibit so many bright lamps +lit up to show forth the glory of its Author. Therefore, another and +better help must be given to guide us properly to God as our Creator, +and He has added the light of His Word in order to make known His +salvation. + +Here it seems proper to make some observations on the authority of +Scripture. Nothing can be more absurd than the fiction that the power of +judging Scripture is in the Church. When the Church gives it the stamp +of her authority, she does not thus make it authentic, but shows her +reverence for it as the truth of God by her unhesitating assent. +Scripture bears, on the face of it, as clear evidence of its truth as +black and white do of their colour, sweet and bitter of their taste. It +is preposterous to attempt, by discussion, to rear up a full faith in +Scripture. Those who are inwardly taught by the Holy Spirit acquiesce in +it implicitly, for it carries with it its own testimony. + +It is foolish to attempt to prove to infidels that the Scripture is the +Word of God. For it cannot be known to be, except by faith. Justly does +Augustine remind us that every man who would have any understanding in +such high matters must previously possess piety and mental peace. In +order to direct us to the true God, the Scripture excludes all the gods +of the heathen. This exclusiveness annihilates every deity which men +frame for themselves, of their own accord. Whence had idols their +origin, but from the will of man? + +There was thus ground for the sarcasm of the heathen poet (Horace, +Satires, I.8). "I was once the trunk of a fig-tree, a useless log, when +the tradesman, uncertain whether he should make me a stool, etc., chose +rather that I should be a god." In regard to the origin of idols, the +statement of the Book of Wisdom has been received with almost universal +consent, that they originated with those who bestowed this honour on the +dead, from a superstitious regard to their memory. + + +_II.--THE GRACE OF CHRIST THE REDEEMER_ + + +Through the fall of Adam arose the need of a Redeemer, the whole human +race having by that event been made accursed and degenerate. Man thereby +became deprived of freedom of will and miserably enslaved. The dominion +of sin, ever since the first man was brought under it, not only extends +to the whole race, but has complete possession of every soul. Free will +does not enable any man to perform good works unless he is assisted by +grace. Yet, since man is by nature a social being, he is disposed, from +natural instinct, to cherish and preserve society; and, accordingly, we +see that the minds of all men have impressions of order and civil +honesty. So that, in regard to the constitution of the present life, no +man is devoid of the light of reason. And this gift ought justly to be +ascribed to the divine indulgence. Had God not so spared us, our revolt +would have carried with it the entire destruction of nature. But to the +great truth, what God is in Himself, and what He is in relation to us, +human reason makes not the least approach. The natural man has no +capacity for such sublime wisdom as to apprehend God, unless illumined +by His Spirit, and none can enter the kingdom of God save those whose +minds have been renewed by the power of the spirit. + +It is certain that after the fall of our first parent, no knowledge of +God without a Mediator was effectual to salvation. Hence it is that God +never showed Himself propitious to His ancient people, nor gave them any +hope of grace without a Mediator. The prosperous and happy state of the +Church was always founded in the person of Christ. The primary adoption +of the chosen people depended on the grace of the Mediator, and Christ +was always held forth to the holy fathers under the law as the object of +their faith. + +It deeply concerns us that He who was to become our Mediator should be +very God and very man. The work to be by Him performed was of no common +description, being to restore us to the divine favour so as to make us +sons of God and heirs of the heavenly kingdom. In Him the divinity was +so conjoined with the humanity that the entire properties of each nature +remained entire, and yet the two natures constitute only one Christ. +Everything needful for us exists in Christ. + +When we see that the whole sum of our salvation, and every single part +of it, are comprehended in Christ, we must beware of deriving even the +minutest part of it from any other quarter. If we seek salvation, we are +taught by the very name of Jesus that He possesses it; if we seek any +other gifts of the Spirit, we shall find them in His unction; strength +in His permanent government; purity in His conception; indulgence in His +nativity, in which He was made like us in all respects, in order that He +might learn to sympathise with us; if we seek redemption we shall find +it in His passion; acquittal in His condemnation; remission of the curse +in His cross; satisfaction in His sacrifice; purification in His blood; +reconciliation in His descent into hell; mortification of the flesh in +His sepulchre; newness of life in His resurrection; immortality also in +His resurrection; the inheritance of a celestial kingdom in His entrance +into heaven; protection, security, and the abundant supply of all +blessings, in His kingdom; secure anticipation of judgment in the power +of judging committed to Him. In fine, since in Him blessings are +treasured up, let us draw a full supply from Him, and none from another +quarter. + + +_III.--THE MERIT OF CHRIST AS OUR SAVIOUR_ + + +It may be proved both from reason and from Scripture that the grace of +God and the merit of Christ (the Prince and Author of our salvation) are +perfectly compatible. Christ is not only the minister, but also the +cause of our salvation, and divine grace is not obscured by this +expression. Christ, by His obedience, truly merited this divine grace +for us, which was obtained by the shedding of His blood, and His +obedience even unto death, whereby He paid our ransom. + +It is by the secret operation of the Holy Spirit that we enjoy Christ +and all His benefits. In Christ the Mediator the gifts of the Holy +Spirit are to be seen in all their fulness. As salvation is perfected in +the person of Christ, so, in order to make us partakers of it, He +"baptizes us with the Holy Spirit and with fire," enlightening us into +the faith of His Gospel, and so regenerating us to be new creatures. +Thus cleansed from all pollution, He dedicates us as holy temples to the +Lord. + +But here it is proper to consider the nature of faith. The true +knowledge of Christ consists in receiving Him as He is offered by the +Father, namely, as invested with His Gospel. There is an inseparable +relation between faith and the Word, and these can no more be +disconnected from each other than rays of light from the sun. John +points to this fountain of faith thus: "To-day, if ye will hear His +voice," to "hear" being uniformly taken for to "believe." Take away the +Word and no faith will remain. Hence Paul designates faith as the +obedience which is given to the Gospel. + +The mere assent of the intellect to the Word is, according to some, the +faith insisted on in Scripture, but this is a mere fiction. Such as thus +define faith do not duly ponder the saying of Paul, "With the heart man +believeth unto righteousness." Assent itself is more a matter of the +heart than the head, of the affection than the intellect. + + +_IV.--OF REPENTANCE_ + + +Repentance follows faith and is produced by it. In the conversion of the +life to God we require a transformation not only in external works, but +in the soul itself, which is able only after it has put off its old +habits to bring forth fruits conformable to its renovation. Repentance +proceeds from a sincere fear of God, and it consists of two parts, the +mortification of the flesh and the quickening of the spirit. Both of +these we obtain by union with Christ. If we are partakers in His +resurrection we are raised up by means of it to newness of life, which +conforms us to the righteousness of God. In one word, then, by +repentance I understand regeneration, the only aim of which is to form +us anew in the image of God, which was sullied and all but effaced by +the transgression of Adam. + +The apostle, in his description of repentance (2 Corinthians vii. 2), +enumerates seven causes, effects, or parts belonging to it. These are +carefulness, excuse, indignation, fear, desire, zeal, revenge. I stop +not to consider whether these are causes or effects; both views may be +maintained. The penitent will be careful not in future to offend God; in +his excuses he will trust, not to his own apologies, but to Christ's +intercession; his indignation will be directed against his own +iniquities; his fear will be lest he cause God displeasure; his desire +is equivalent to alacrity in duty; zeal will follow; and revenge will be +practised in the censure passed on his own sins. + + +_V.--OF JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH_ + + +A man is said to be justified in the sight of God when, in the judgment +of God, he is deemed righteous, and is accepted on account of his +righteousness. So we interpret justification as the acceptance with +which God receives us into His favour as if we were righteous; and we +say that this justification consists in the forgiveness of sins and the +imputation of the righteousness to Christ. Since many imagine a +righteousness compounded of faith and works, let it be noted that there +is so wide a difference between justification by faith and by works that +one necessarily overthrows the other. If we destroy the righteousness by +faith by establishing our own righteousness, then, in order to obtain +His righteousness, our own must be entirely abandoned. The Gospel +differs from the law in this, that it entirely places justification in +the mercy of God and does not confine it to works. It is entirely by the +intervention of Christ's righteousness that we obtain justification +before God. + +The doctrine of Christian liberty is founded on this justification by +faith. This liberty consists of three parts. First, believers renouncing +the righteousness of the law look only to Christ. Secondly, the +conscience, freed from the yoke of the law, voluntarily obeys the will +of God. This cannot be done under the dominion of the law. Thirdly, +under the Gospel we are free to use things indifferent. The consciences +of believers, while seeking the assurance of their justification before +God, must rise above the law, and think no more of obtaining +justification by it. Our consciences being free from the yoke of the law +itself, voluntarily obey the will of God. + + +_VI.--ON THE DOCTRINE OF ELECTION_ + + +Ignorance of the doctrine of election and predestination impairs the +glory of God and fosters pride. The covenant of life is not preached +equally to all, and among those to whom it is preached does not always +meet with the same reception. The reason of this discrimination belongs +to the secret thing of God. This doctrine is cavilled at; yet when we +see one nation preferred to another, shall we plead against God for +having chosen to give such a manifestation of His mercy? God has +displayed His grace in special forms. Thus of the family of Abraham He +rejected some, and kept others within His Church, showing that He +retained them among His sons. + +Although the election of God is secret, it is made manifest by effectual +calling. Both election and effectual calling are founded on the free +mercy of God Calling is proved to be according to the free grace of God +by the declarations of Scripture, by the mode in which it is dispensed, +by the instance of Abraham's vocation, by the testimony of John, and by +the example of all those who have been called. There are two species of +calling. There is a universal call by which God, through the preaching +of His Word, invites all men alike. Besides this, there is a special +call, which, for the most part, God bestows on believers only, when by +the internal illumination of His Spirit he causes the Gospel to take +deep root in their hearts. + + * * * * * + + + +SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE + + +AIDS TO REFLECTION + + + This famous book, of which the full title is "Aids to + Reflection in the Formation of a Manly Character on the + several Grounds of Prudence, Morality, and Religion," was + published in 1825, nine years before the author's death. Its + influence on thoughtful minds was very great, and many of the + first divines of that period owed to it their profoundest + religious ideas. It has been said that the fame of Coleridge + (see LIVES AND LETTERS) as a philosophic thinker is not so + great as it was during the twenty years immediately after his + death; but one imagines that this statement merely means that + not so many people now read Coleridge as did fifty years ago. + The book, at any rate, has not yet been written which exposes + a fallacy in his argument or demolishes his system. It should + be remembered that this poet and searching thinker, to whom + men like Wordsworth and Haslitt listened with reverence, was + for some time in his life a Unitarian, and won to faith in the + divinity of Christ by the use of his reason. + + +_I.--INTRODUCTORY APHORISMS_ + + +It is the most useful prerogative of genius to rescue truths from the +neglect caused by the very circumstance of their universal admission. +Truths, of all others the most awful and interesting, are too often +considered as so true that they lose the power of truth, and lie +bedridden in the dormitory of the soul. + +There is one sure way of giving freshness and importance to the most +commonplace maxims--that of _reflecting_ on them in direct reference to +our own state and conduct, to our own past and future being. A +reflecting mind, says an ancient writer, is the spring and source of +every good thing. As a man without forethought scarce deserves the name +of man, so forethought without reflection is but a metaphorical phrase +for the instinct of a beast. + +In order to learn, we must attend; in order to profit by what we have +learnt, we must think; he only thinks who reflects. + +To assign a feeling and a determination of their will as a satisfactory +reason for embracing or rejecting an opinion is the habit of many +educated people; to me, this seems little less irrational than to apply +the nose to a picture, and to decide on its genuineness by the sense of +smell. + +In attention we keep the mind passive; in thought we rouse it into +activity. + +An hour of solitude passed in sincere and earnest prayer, or the +conflict with and conquest over a single passion or "subtle bosom sin," +will teach us more of thought, will more effectually awaken the faculty, +and form the habit of reflection, than will a year's study in the +schools without them. + +Never yet did there exist a full faith in the Divine Word which did not +expand the intellect, while it purified the heart; which did not +multiply the aims and objects of the understanding, while it fixed and +simplified those of the desires and passions. "Give me understanding," +says David, "and I shall observe Thy laws with my whole heart." + +It is worthy of especial observation that the Scriptures are +distinguished from all other writings pretending to inspiration, by the +strong and frequent recommendations of knowledge and a spirit of +inquiry. The word "rational" has been strongly abused of late times. +This must not, however, disincline us to the weighty consideration that +thoughtfulness and a desire to rest all our convictions on grounds of +right reasoning, are inseparable from the character of a Christian. He +who begins by loving Christianity better than truth will proceed by +loving his own sect and church better than Christianity, and end in +loving himself best of all. + + +_II.--REFLECTIONS RESPECTING MORALITY_ + + +Sensibility, that is a constitutional quickness, of sympathy with pain +and pleasure, is not to be confounded with the moral principle. +Sensibility is not even a sure pledge of a good heart. How many are +prompted to remove those evils alone, which by hideous spectacle or +clamorous outcry are present to their senses and disturb their selfish +enjoyments? Provided the dunghill is not before their parlour window, +they are well contented to know that it exists, and perhaps is the +hotbed on which their own luxuries are reared. Sensibility is not +necessarily benevolence. + +All the evil of the materialists is inconsiderable besides the mischief +effected and occasioned by the sentimental philosophy of Sterne and his +numerous imitators. The vilest appetites and the most remorseless +inconstancy towards their objects, acquired the titles of the "heart," +"the irresistible feelings," "the too-tender sensibility"; and if the +frosts of prudence, the icy chain of human law, thawed and vanished at +the genial warmth of human nature, who could help it? It was an amiable +weakness! At this time the profanation of the word "love" rose to its +height; the muse of science condescended to seek admission at the +saloons of fashion and frivolity, rouged like a harlot and with the +harlot's wanton leer. I know not how the annals of guilt could be better +forced into the service of virtue than by such a comment on the present +paragraph as would be afforded by sentimental correspondence produced in +courts of justice, fairly translated into the true meaning of the words, +and the actual object and purpose of the infamous writers. + +Do you in good earnest aim at dignity of character? I conjure you, turn +away from those who live in the twilight between vice and virtue. Are +not reason, discrimination, law, and deliberate choice the +distinguishing characters of humanity? Can anything manly proceed from +those who for law and light would substitute shapeless feelings, +sentiments, impulses, which, as far as they differ from the vital +workings in the brute animals, owe the difference to their former +connection with the proper virtues of humanity? Remember that love +itself, in its highest earthly bearing, as the ground of the marriage +union, becomes love by an inward fiat of the will, by a completing and +sealing act of moral election, and lays claim to permanence only under +the form of duty. + +All things strive to ascend, and ascend in the striving. While you +labour for anything below your proper humanity, you seek a happy life in +the region of death. + + Unless above himself he can + Erect himself, how mean a thing is man! + + +_III.--PRUDENTIAL APHORISMS_ + + +With respect to any final aim or end, the greater part of mankind live +at hazard. They have no certain harbour in view, nor direct their course +by any fixed star. But to him that knoweth not the port to which he is +bound, no wind can be favourable; neither can he who has not yet +determined at what mark he is to shoot, direct his arrow aright. + +It is not, however, the less true that there is a proper object to aim +at; and if this object be meant by the term happiness, the perfection of +which consists in the exclusion of all hap [_i.e.,_ chance], I assert +that there is such a thing as _summum bonum_, or ultimate good. What +this is, the Bible alone shows certainly, and points out the way. "In +Cicero and Plato," says Augustine, "I meet with many things acutely +said, and things that excite a certain warmth of emotion, but in none of +them do I find these words, 'Come unto Me, all ye that labour and are +heavy laden, and I will give you rest!'" + +In the works of Christian and pagan moralists, it is declared that +virtue is the only happiness of this life. You cannot become better, but +you will become happier; you cannot become worse without an increase of +misery. Few men are so reprobate as not to have some lucid moments, and +in such moments few can stand up unshaken against the appeal of their +own experience. What have been the wages of sin? What has the devil done +for you? + +Though prudence in itself is neither virtue nor holiness, yet without +prudence neither virtue nor holiness can exist. + +Art thou under the tyranny of sin, a slave to vicious habits, at enmity +with God, a fugitive from thy own conscience? Oh, how idle the disputes +whether the listening to the dictates of prudence from self-interested +motives be virtue, when the _not_ listening is guilt, misery, madness, +and despair! The most Christian-like pity thou canst show is to take +pity on thy own soul. The best service thou canst render is to show +mercy to thyself. + + +_IV.--APHORISMS ON SPIRITUAL RELIGION_ + + +If there be aught spiritual in man, the will must be such. If there be a +will, there must be spirituality in man. + +There is more in man than can be rationally referred to the life of +Nature and the mechanism of organisation. He has a will not included in +his mechanism; the will is, in an especial sense, the spiritual part of +our humanity. + +I assume a something, the proof of which no man can _give_ to another, +yet every man may find for himself. If any man say that he cannot find +it, I am bound to disbelieve him. I cannot do otherwise without +unsettling the foundations of my own moral nature. If he will not find +it, he excommunicates himself, forfeits his personal rights, and becomes +a thing--_i.e.,_ one who may be used against his will and without regard +to his interest. If the materialist use the words "right" and +"obligation," he does it deceptively, and means only compulsion and +power. To overthrow faith in aught higher than nature and physical +necessity is the very purpose of his argument. But he cannot be ignorant +that the best and greatest of men have devoted their lives to enforce +the contrary; and there is not a language in which he could argue for +ten minutes in support of his scheme without sliding into phrases that +imply the contrary. + +The Christian grounds his philosophy on assertions which have nothing in +them of theory or hypothesis; they are in immediate reference to three +ultimate facts--namely, the reality of the law of conscience; the +existence of a responsible will as the subject of the law; and lastly, +the existence of evil--of evil essentially such, not by accident of +circumstances, not derived from physical consequences, nor from any +cause out of itself. The first is a fact of consciousness, the second a +fact of reason necessarily concluded from the first, and the third a +fact of history interpreted by both. + +I maintain that a will conceived separately from intelligence is a +non-entity, and that a will the state of which does in no sense +originate in its own act is a contradiction. It might be an instinct, an +impulse, and, if accompanied with consciousness, a desire; but a will it +could not be. And this every human being knows with equal clearness, +though different minds may reflect on it with different degrees of +distinctness; for who would not smile at the notion of a rose willing to +put forth its buds and expand them into flowers? + +I deem it impious and absurd to hold that the Creator would have given +us the faculty of reason, or that the Redeemer would in so many varied +forms of argument and persuasion have appealed to it, if it had been +useless or impotent. I believe that the imperfect human understanding +can be effectually exerted only in subordination to, and in a dependent +alliance with, the means and aidances supplied by the supreme reason. + +Christianity is not a theory, or a speculation, but a life. Not a +philosophy of life, but life, and a living process. It has been eighteen +hundred years in existence. + +The practical inquirer has his foot on the rock when he knows that +whoever needs not a Redeemer is more than human. Remove from him the +difficulties that perplex his belief in a crucified Saviour, convince +him of the reality of sin, and then satisfy him as to the fact +historically, and as to the truth spiritually, of a redemption therefrom +by Christ. Do this for him, and there is little fear that he will let +either logical quirks or metaphysical puzzles contravene the plain +dictate of his commonsense, that the Sinless One that redeemed mankind +from sin must have been more than man, and that He who brought light and +immortality into the world could not in His own nature have been an +inheritor of death and darkness. + +A moral evil is an evil that has its origin in a will. An evil common to +all must have a ground common to all. Now, this evil ground cannot +originate in the Divine will; it must, therefore, be referred to the +will of man. And this evil ground we call original sin. It is a +mystery--that is, a fact which we see, but cannot explain; and the +doctrine a truth which we apprehend, but can neither comprehend nor +communicate. + +The article on original sin is binding on the Christian only as showing +the antecedent ground and occasion of Christianity, which is the edifice +raised on this ground. The two great moments of the Christian religion +are, original sin and redemption; _that_ the ground, _this_ the +superstructure of our faith. Christianity and redemption are equivalent +terms. + +The agent and personal cause of the redemption of mankind is--the +co-eternal word and only begotten Son of the living God. The causation +act is--a spiritual and transcendent mystery, "that passeth all +understanding." The effect caused is--the being born anew, as before in +the flesh to the world, so now born in the spirit to Christ. + +Now, albeit the causative act is a transcendent mystery, the fact, or +actual truth, of it having been assured to us by revelation, it is not +impossible, by steadfast meditation on the idea and supernatural +character of a personal will, for a mind spiritually disciplined to +satisfy itself that the redemptive act supposes an agent who can at once +act on the will as an exciting cause, and in the will, as the condition +of its potential, and the ground of its actual, being. + +The frequent, not to say ordinary, disproportion between moral worth and +worldly prosperity has at all times led the observant and reflecting few +to a nicer consideration of the current belief, whether instinctive or +traditional. By forcing the soul in upon herself, this enigma of saint +and sage, from Job, David, and Solomon to Claudian and Boëtius, this +perplexing disparity of success and desert, has been the occasion of a +steadier and more distinct consciousness of a something in man, +different in kind, which distinguishes and contra-distinguishes him from +animals--at the same time that it has brought into closer view an enigma +of yet harder solution--the fact, I mean, of a contradiction in the +human being, of which no traces are observable elsewhere, in animated or +inanimate nature. + +A struggle of jarring impulses; a mysterious division between the +injunctions of the mind and the elections of the will; and the utter +incommensurateness and the unsatisfying qualities of the things around +us, that yet are the only objects which our senses discover or our +appetites require us to pursue; these facts suggest that the riddle of +fortune and circumstance is but a form of the riddle of man, and that +the solution of both problems lies in the acknowledgement that the soul +of man, as the subject of mind and will, possesses a principle of +permanence and is destined to endure. + +Evidences of Christianity! I am weary of the word. Make a man feel the +want of it; rouse him, if you can, to the self-knowledge of his need of +it; and you may safely trust it to its own evidence--remembering only +the express declaration of Christ himself, "No man cometh to Me, unless +the Father leadeth him." + +Christ's awful recalling of the drowsed soul from the dreams and phantom +world of sensuality to actual reality--how has it been evaded! His word, +that was spirit! His mysteries, which even the apostles must wait for +the parable in order to comprehend! These spiritual things, which can +only be spiritually discerned, were--say some--mere metaphors! Figures +of speech! Oriental hyperboles! "All this means only morality!" Ah! how +far nearer the truth to say that morality means all this! + + + * * * * * + + + +CONFUCIANISM + + +THE LUN YU, OR SAYINGS OF CONFUCIUS + + + The so-called "Four Books" of Chinese literature are held in + less esteem than the "Five Kings," or "Primary Classics," but + they are still studied first by every Chinaman as a + preparation for what is regarded as the higher and more + important literature. It should be borne in mind that the four + "Shus," as these books are called, tell us much more about the + actual teaching and history of Confucius. The four books are: + (i) The "Lun Yu," or the "Analects of Confucius," which + contain chiefly the sayings and conversations of Confucius, + and give, ostensibly in his own words, his teaching, and, in a + subordinate degree, that of his principal disciples; (2) the + "Ta-Hsio," or "Teaching for Adults," rendered also the "Great + Learning," a treatise dealing with ethical and especially with + political matters, forming Book 39 of the "Li-Ki," or "Book of + Rites," the "Fourth Classic," (3) the "Chung Yung," or + "Doctrine of the Mean," more correctly the State of + Equilibrium or harmony, forming Book 28 of the "Li-Ki"; and + (4) "Meng-tse," Latinised "Mencius," that is, the + conversations and opinions of Mencius. The first, the "Lun + Yu," or "Analects," is the most important of these, the next + in importance being the teaching of Mencius. The book to which + we are most indebted in the preparation of the following + epitomes is "The Chinese Classics," edited by Dr. J. Legge. + Other books are "The Sayings of Confucius," translated by S.A. + Lyall; "Chinese Literature," by H.A. Giles; and "The Wisdom of + Confucius," by G. Dimsdale Stacker. + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +The original of the Chinese title of the "Lun Yu" is literally +"Discourses and Dialogues." By Legge and most British Chinese scholars +this work is called "The Confucian Analects," the word "analect" +denoting things chosen, in the present case from the utterances of the +master. + +The "Lun Yu" is arranged in twenty chapters or books, and gives, +ostensibly in his own words, the teaching of Confucius and that of his +leading disciples. It is here that we learn nearly all that we know +about Confucius. Since the work was composed, as we have it, within a +century of the master's death, there seems good reason for believing +that we have here a _bona-fide_ record of what he thought and said. We +may compare with the "Lun Yu" the Christian Gospels which profess to +give the doctrines and sayings of Jesus, and also the traditional +utterances of Mohammed edited by Al-Bokhari, who died in 870 A.D. The +utterances which follow are by the master (Confucius) himself, unless it +is otherwise stated. Other speakers are generally disciples of +Confucius. + + +_GENERAL MAXIMS_ + + +I care little who makes a nation's laws if I have the making of its +ballads. + +The young child ought to be obedient at home, modest from home, +attentive, faithful, full of benevolence, spending spare time mostly +upon poetry, music, and deportment. + +A son ought to study his father's wishes as long as the father lives; +and after the father is dead he should study his life, and respect his +memory. + +A man who is fond of learning is not a glutton, nor is he indolent; he +is earnest and sincere in what he says and does, seeks the company of +the good, and profits by it. + +At fifteen my whole mind was on study. At thirty I was able to stand +alone. At forty my speculative doubts came to an end. At fifty I +understood Heaven's laws. At sixty my passions responded to higher +instincts. At seventy my better nature ruled me altogether. + +Mere study without thought is useless, but thought without study is +dangerous. + +Fine words and attractive appearances are seldom associated with true +goodness. + +If a man keeps cultivating his old knowledge and be ever adding to it +new, that man is fit to be a teacher of others. + +The superior man is broad-minded, and no partisan. The mean man is +biased and narrow. + +Tze-chang studied with a view to official promotion. The master said, +"This is wrong," adding, "Thou shouldest listen much, keep silent when +there is doubt, and guard thy tongue. See much, beware of dangers, and +walk warily. Then shalt thou have little cause for repentance." + +I do not know how a man can get on without truth. It is easier for a +waggon to go without a cross-pole, or a carriage to be drawn without +harness. + +Neither courtesy nor music avail a man if he has not virtue and love. + +Worship the dead as though they stood alive before you. Sacrifice to the +spirits as if they were in your immediate presence. + +If I am not personally present when the sacrifice is being made, then I +do not sacrifice. There can be no proxy in this matter. + +Tze-kung wanted to do away with the offering of a sheep at the new moon. +The master said, "Thou lovest the sheep, but I love the ceremony." + +These things are not to be tolerated: Rank without generosity, ritual +without reverence, and mourning without genuine sorrow. + +It is better to have virtue with want and ignominy, than wealth and +honour without virtue. + +If a man in the morning learns the right way of life he may die at night +without regret. + +A scholar's mind should be set on the search for truth, and he should +not be ashamed of poor clothes or of plain or even of insufficient food. + +The superior man loves the good and pursues it; besides this, he has no +likes or dislikes. + +The good man considers what is right; the bad man what will pay. + +As long as thy parents live thou must not go far from them. But if +through necessity thou leavest them, let them know where thou art, and +be ready to come to them when needed. + +The man who governs himself, restraining his passions, seldom goes +wrong. + +The good man desires to be slow of speech, but active in conduct. + +Virtue stands never alone. It will always make neighbours. + +In my first dealings with men I listened to their words, and gave them +credit for good conduct. Experience has taught me not to listen to their +words but to watch their conduct. It was from Yu that I learned this +lesson. + +I have met no man of strong and unbending will; even Chang is +passionate. + +On being asked why Kung-wan was said to be cultured, the master replied, +"Because he was quick to learn, fond of learning, and especially because +he was not ashamed to ask questions of those below him." Of Tze-chang +the master said that he had four characteristics of the gentleman: he +was humble in his own life, respectful towards seniors, generous in +supplying the needs of the people, and just in all his demands of them. + +Yen Yuan and Chi Lu were once sitting by the master, who turned to them +and said, "Come, I want each of you to tell me his wishes." Chi Lu said, +"I should like to have carriages and horses and light fur robes to share +with my friends that they, and I, may carelessly wear them out." Yen +Yuan said, "My wish is to make no boast of moral or intellectual +excellence." The master said, "My wish is this: to make the aged happy, +to show sincerity towards friends, and to treat young people with +tenderness and sympathy." + +Nature preponderating over art begets coarseness; art preponderating +over nature begets pedantry; art and nature united make a proper +gentleman. + +To men whose talents are above mediocrity we speak of superior things. +To men whose talents are below the common we must speak things suited to +their culture. + +On being asked, "What is wisdom," the master replied, "To promote right +thoughts and feelings among men; to honour the spirits of the dead." In +reply to the question, "What is love?" the master answered, "Making most +of self-sacrificing efforts but of success only in a subordinate +degree." + +Perfect virtue consists in keeping to the Golden Mean. He who has +offended against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray. + +Men should not murmur against Heaven, for all that Heaven does is good. + +The master paid great attention to three things--piety, peace, and +health. + +If I have coarse rice to eat and pure water to drink, and my bent arm +for a pillow, I am content and happy. But ill-gotten riches and honour +are to me as a floating cloud. + +If my life could be lengthened out by a few years, I would devote at +least fifty years to the study of the "Yi King" [Book of Changes], then +might I be purified from my sin. + + +_ON POETRY, HISTORY, AND PROPRIETY_ + + +The master constantly talked about poetry, history, and the rules of +propriety. + +Tze-lu, on being asked about Confucius, gave no answer. The master asked +about being present, said, "Why didst thou not say to him, 'Confucius is +a man so eager in the pursuit of knowledge that he forgets his food, so +jubilant in its attainment that he forgets his grief and grows old +without knowing it'?" + +I was not born in the possession of knowledge, but I am fond of the past +and study it closely, and hence knowledge is coming to me. + +My pupils, do not think that I hide anything from you. Whatever I think +and do I tell you frankly and truly. I keep no secrets from my +disciples. + +The master used to teach four things: culture, morals, and manners, +piety, and faithfulness. + +In knowledge and in culture I am perhaps the equal of other men. I have +not yet attained to perfection, nor are my knowledge and living +consistent. + +The master once being very ill, Tze-lu asked permission to pray for him. +The master asked, "Is that customary?" "It is," replied the disciple, +"for the memorials have it, 'Pray to the spirits in heaven above and on +earth below.'" The master replied, "I have for long prayed for myself, +and that is best." + +The master was dignified, yet gentle. He was majestic, but inspired no +fear. He was gentlemanly, but always at ease. + +Poetry rouses the mind, the rules of propriety establish the character, +music crowns a man's education. + +It would be hard to meet a man who has studied for three years without +learning something good. + +Learn as though you felt you could never learn enough, and as though you +feared you could not learn in your short life what is needful for +conduct. + +A man from a certain village once said, "Confucius is, no doubt, a very +learned man, but he has not made himself a name in any special thing." +When the master heard this, he said to his disciples, "What shall I +undertake: charioteering, archery, or what? I think I shall become a +charioteer, and thus get me a name." + +A high officer asked Tze-kung, "May we not say that the master is a sage +because he can do so many things?" To which Tze-kung replied, "Heaven +has indeed highly endowed him, and he is almost a sage; and he is very +many-sided." + +On hearing this the master said, "Does the officer know me? Being of +lowly birth when I was young, I learnt many a trade, but there was +nothing great in that. The superior man may excel in one thing only, and +not in many things." + +Wishing to go and live among the nine wild tribes of the East, one of +his friends remonstrated with the master and said, "They are low. How +can you go and live among them?" To which he gave for answer, "Nothing +that is low can survive where the virtuous and the good-mannered man +is." + +After I returned from Wei to Lu I found the music had been reformed, and +that each song was given its proper place. + +The master said, "To serve ministers and nobles when abroad, fathers and +elder brothers when at home, to avoid neglect in offerings of the dead, +and to be no slave to wine: to which of these have I attained?" + + +_CONFUCIUS AT HOME AND AT COURT_ + + +In his own village Confucius looked homely and sincere, as if he had no +word to say; but in the ancestral temple and in the court he was full of +words, though careful in using them. + +When waiting at court he talked with the lower officers frankly, but to +the higher officers more blandly and precisely. When the sovereign was +present he used to be respectful but easy, solemn yet self-possessed. +When the sovereign bade him receive visitors his countenance changed, +and his legs appeared to bend. Bowing to those beside him, he +straightened his robes in front and behind, hastening forward with his +elbows extended like a bird's wings. When the guest had retired he used +to report to the prince, saying, "The guest does not any more look +back." When he entered the palace gate he seemed to stoop as though it +were not high enough for him. Ascending the dais, lifting up his robes +with both hands, he held his breath as if he would cease breathing. As +he came down his face relaxed after the first step, and looked more at +ease. At the bottom of the steps he would hurry on, spreading out his +elbows like wings, and on gaining his seat he would sit intent as +previously. + +He was never arrayed in deep purple or in puce-coloured garments. Even +at home he wore nothing of a red or reddish colour. In hot weather he +used to wear a single garment of fine texture, but always over an inner +garment. Over lambs' fur he wore a garment of black, over fawns' fur one +of white, and over foxes' fur one of yellow. His sleeping-dress was half +as long again as his body. On the first day of the month he always went +to court in court robes. On fast days he wore pale-hued garments, +changed his food, and made a change in his apartment. + +He liked to have his rice carefully cleaned and his minced meat chopped +small. He did not eat rice that had been injured by heat or damp or that +had turned sour, nor could he eat fish or meat which had gone. He did +not eat anything that was discoloured or that had a bad flavour, or that +was not in season. He would not eat meat badly cut, or that was served +with the wrong sauce. No choice of meats could induce him to eat more +than he thought right. + +After sacrificing at the ancestral temple he would never keep the meat +there overnight, nor would he keep it more than three days at home. If +by any mishap it were kept longer, it was not eaten. + +He never talked at meals, nor would he speak a word in bed. Though there +were on the table nothing but coarse rice and vegetable soup, he would +always reverently offer some of it to his ancestors. If his mat was not +straight he would not sit on it. + + +_ON LEARNING AND VIRTUE_ + + +Chung-kung asked about virtue. The master said: "It consists in these +things: To treat those outside thine own home as if thou wert welcoming +a great guest; to treat the people as if thou wert assisting at a high +sacrifice; not to do to others what thou wouldest not have them do to +thee; to encourage no wrongs in the state nor any in the home." + +The master being once asked "Who is the virtuous man?" answered, "One +that has neither anxiety nor fear, for he finds no evil in his heart. +What, then, is there to cause anxiety or fear?" + +The master, on being once asked by one of his disciples "On what does +the art of government depend?" answered, "Sufficient food, troops, and a +loyal people." "If, however," the same disciple asked, "one of them had +to be dispensed with, which of the three could we best spare?" "Troops," +said the master. "And which," the disciple then asked, "of the other two +could be better spared?" "Food," said the master. + +Tze-chang asked the master, "When may a scholar or an officer be called +eminent?" The master asked, "What dost thou mean by being eminent?" To +which the other answered, "To be famous throughout the state and +throughout his clan." "But that," said the master, "is fame, not +eminence. The truly eminent man is genuine and straightforward; he loves +righteousness, weighs people's words, and looks at their countenances. +He humbles himself to others, and is sincerely desirous of helping all. +That is the, eminent man, though he may not be a famous one." + +If a ruler can govern himself, he is likely to be able to govern his +people. But how can a man who has not control of himself keep his people +in subjection? + +Tze-kung asked, "Is it proper that a man should be liked by all his +neighbours?" "Certainly not," said the master. "Is it then proper," +asked the same, "that a man should be hated by all his neighbours?" +"Decidedly not," said the master. "The good man is loved by his good +neighbours, and hated by his bad ones." + +The virtuous man is hard to satisfy, but easy to serve. Nothing that +thou doest to please him satisfies him unless it is strictly according +to right. But in all his demands upon his servants he expects according +to capacity, and is satisfied if the servant does his best, though it be +little. The bad man is easy to satisfy, but hard to serve. He is +satisfied with whatever pleases him, though it be not right; and he +demands of his servants whatever he requires, making no allowance for +capacity. + +A scholar whose mind is set upon comfort is not worthy of the name. + +"Where there's a will," said the master, "there's a way." + +To refrain from speaking to a man who is disposed to hear is to wrong +the man; to speak to a man not disposed to listen is to waste words. + +"How can one in brief express man's whole duty?" + +"Is not reciprocity such a word?" said the master; "that is, what thou +dost not want others to do to thee, do thou not to others." + +There are three things which the virtuous man has to guard against. In +youth, lust; in full manhood, strife; and in old age, covetousness. + +The highest class of men are those who are born wise; the next those who +become wise by study; next and third, those who learn much, without +having much natural ability. The lowest class of people are those who +have neither natural ability nor perseverance. Men are very similar at +birth; it is afterwards the great differences arise. + +It is only the wisest and the silliest of men who never alter their +opinions. + +"My children," said the master once to his disciples, "Why do you not +study the Book of Poetry [the Shih King]? It would stimulate your mind, +encourage introspection, teach you to love your fellows, and to forbear +with all. It would show you your duty to your fathers and your king; and +you would also learn from it the names of many birds and beasts and +plants and trees." + + +TA-HSIO, OR TEACHING FOR ADULTS + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +The "Ta-Hsio," or "Teaching for Adults," rendered also "The Great +Learning," is really a treatise dealing with ethical, and especially +with political, matters, the duties of rulers, ministers, etc. It is +usually ascribed in part to "the master" himself, and in part to Tseng +Tsan, one of the most illustrious of his disciples. This forms Book 39 +of the "Li Ki," or "Book of Rites," and it is admitted by the best +scholars to be a genuine specimen of the teaching of Confucius, though +no one believes that "the master" is the author of the book as it now +stands. The likeliest suggestion as to authorship is that which ascribes +the present treatise, and also the "Chung Yung" (No. 28 of the "Li Ki") +to Khung Chi, the grandson of Confucius. + +The great Chinese philosopher Chang said of this book: "'The teaching +for Adults' is a book belonging to the Confucian school, forming the +gate through which youthful students enter the great temple of virtue. +We should not have been able to ascertain the methods of learning +pursued by the ancients if this book and the works of Mencius had not +been preserved. Beginners ought to start their studies with this book, +and then pass on to the harder books, after which the Five Classics +should be read and pondered over." + +The object of the "Ta-Hsio" is to illustrate outstanding virtue, to +promote love of the people and their improvement in morals and manners. +In order that these results may be obtained, this treatise must be +patiently calmly, and thoughtfully studied. + + +_HOW THE EMPIRE IS TO BE IMPROVED_ + + +The ancients, wishing to make their empire perfect, first endeavoured to +make their states perfect. For this last purpose they exerted themselves +to improve their famines, and to this end they took great pains to +improve their personal character. In order to improve their personal +character, they endeavoured to purify their hearts and to make their +thoughts sincere. + +From the Son of Heaven [the Emperor] to the masses of the people, the +cultivation of personal character was regarded as the root of all +amelioration. To know this has been called knowing the "root," which is +the perfection of knowledge. + +On Thang's bathing-tub these words were inscribed: + +"Renovate thyself day by day, yea, every day renovate thyself." At the +opening of his reign, Thang was exhorted to renovate his people. + +In the Book of Poetry it is said that although Kau was an ancient state, +yet it regarded Heaven's commands as ever new. In the same book we read +that the thoughts of the Emperor Wan were deep, and his conduct firm. In +all his relationships he was reverent and true. As a sovereign he was +benevolent; as a minister respectful; as a son he exhibited filial +piety; as a father he was kind and considerate; towards his subjects he +was steadfastly faithful. This virtuous and accomplished sovereign, Wan, +took great pains to sharpen his intellect and to make his heart more +sensitive to all obligations. How majestic, how glorious was he; he +shall ever be remembered by his grateful people at the ancestral shrine. + +"The cultivation of personal character depends upon the regulation of +the mind." What does this mean? If a man's passions are not kept under +control, he will form wrong judgments about actions and never have a +well-balanced mind. Therefore must man regulate his mind in order to +cultivate himself. "The government of the family depends upon the +cultivation of personal character." What does this mean? Where there is +affection, judgment is distorted. We see the good qualities of those we +love, but are blind to the bad ones. We see the bad qualities of those +we hate, but are blind to the good ones. In order to be able to govern a +family rightly, we must train our minds to judge fairly and impartially +of those nearest to us--_i.e.,_ it requires careful self-training to be +able to train a family. + +"We must be able to govern the family before we can rule a state." What +means this? If a man fails to teach the members of his own family to be +obedient and loyal to their head, how can he train a nation to be +united, obedient, and loyal? + +Yas and Shun ruled with love, and the people became loving. Kieh and Kau +ruled with violence, and the people became violent. The sovereign must +have and exhibit the same qualities that he wishes his subjects to +cultivate. Nor has he the right to expect his people to be free from bad +qualities which are in himself. The ruler must himself be what he wants +his people to be. Thus it is that the government of the state rests upon +the proper government of the family. + +"That the empire should have peace and prosperity depends upon the +government of the constituting states." What does this mean? + +When ruler and ministers treat their aged ones as they ought to, the +inhabitants in general become filial. Similarly, the inhabitants learn +to show respect towards their seniors and sympathy towards the young +when their superiors set them the right example in these matters. No man +should treat his inferiors as he would not like his superiors to treat +him. What he disapproves of in his inferiors, let him not exhibit in his +dealings towards his superiors. + +In the Book of Poetry it is written, "The parents of the people are much +to be congratulated. A sovereign whose loves and hates correspond with +those of his people is his people's father." To gain the people is to +gain the state; therefore a ruler's primary concern should be his own +integrity, for thereby he wins his people's loyalty, and through that +loyalty he obtains the state, and therewith the wealth of the whole +country. + +Virtue is the root, wealth but the branches. See first, therefore, to +the root. + +In the Records of Khu one reads, "The State of Khu values men, not gems +nor robes." + +A country is wealthy if it consumes less than it produces, and that man +is rich whose income exceeds his expenditure. + +The virtuous ruler gathers wealth on account of the reputation it can +bring him. The wicked ruler seeks wealth for its own sake, sacrificing +even virtue to obtain it. + +A benevolent sovereign makes a just people. When the people are just the +affairs of the sovereign prosper. The state's prosperity consists in +righteousness, not in riches. + + +CHUNG YUNG, OR DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +The "Chung Yung" is more correctly rendered "The state of equilibrium +and harmony" (Legge, etc.) than by "The Doctrine of the Mean," its usual +appellation. Other titles suggested have been "The Just Mean," "The True +Mean," "The Golden Mean," and "The Constant Mean." The word "chung" +means "middle," "yung" denoting "course" or "way." Hence, "Chung Yung" +means literally, "The middle way." Compare Aristotle's doctrine of The +Mean ("Ethics" Book II.). + +This treatise occurs as Book 28 of the "Li-Ki" and by Chinese scholars +has been declared to be the most valuable part of the Book of Rites. We +have here the fullest account existing of the philosophy and ethics of +the master. Apart from its value as such, the "Chung Yung" is +exceedingly interesting as a monument of the teaching of the ancient +Chinese. In its existing form the "Chung Yung" is arranged in five +divisions, containing, in all, thirty-three chapters. No attempt is made +in the epitomes that follow to retain these divisions and chapters. For +the authorship and date of this third book see what is said in the +introduction to the "Ta-Hsio." + + +_THE GOOD MAN'S PATH_ + + +The sense of obligation has been implanted in man by Heaven. The path of +duty is a life in accordance with this heaven-implanted intuition. Every +man ought always to tread this path; the true doctrine teaches how this +is to be accomplished. The good man will ever be on his guard lest he +depart a hair's breadth from the right way. + +The mental state of equilibrium is reached when a man is free from the +distracting influences of anger and goodwill, joy and sorrow. When these +emotions exist in due proportion and extent the state of harmony is +attained. From the first proceed all great human enterprises. The state +of harmony is the path along which all good men will go. When the states +of equilibrium and harmony exist in their fulness gods and men receive +their dues, and there is prosperity and happiness. + +Kung-ni[8] said, "The virtuous man embodies in himself the states of +equilibrium and harmony, but the low man knows neither of these states." +This perfect condition of human character in which there is complete +equilibrium and harmony is reached but by few. Why is this so? It is +because those who are wise consider these ideal states too commonplace, +and they aim at things which the world values more highly. The low man, +on the other hand, grovels in the dust and never rises to higher +thoughts or nobler aims. Men could, if they would, distinguish the +worthy from the unworthy, just as with a healthy palate they can tell +good food from bad. But men's moral discernment has been blunted by a +life of sensuality and sin, just as the physical palate loses its power +of tasting when in a diseased condition. + +In order to find out the Mean, our Father Shun, of blessed memory, used +to question the people[9] and study their answers, even the shallow +ones. He used to encourage them to speak out by seeming to value the +poorest answers. He would take the extremest sayings he heard, and from +them deduce the Mean. + +It is hard to keep in the middle way: men rule kingdoms and accept +honours and emoluments who have yet signally failed to govern themselves +by the rules of the Mean. + +The good man's ambition is not to perform feats which startle the world +and give him fame, but rather to live the life of the moderate and +harmonious one; yet how often for lack of true discernment he fails! +This middle path is not, however, hidden from the sincere and pure; even +common men and women may know it, though in its highest reaches it +baffles the wisest. The greatest and the wisest and the best find lodged +within them unrealised ideals. Whoever strenuously aims at realising +these ideals, though he fails, is near the right path. + +"The good man has four difficulties," said the master, "and I have not +myself been able to overcome them. (1) To serve my father as I should +like my son to serve me. (2) To serve my ruler as I should like him to +serve me were I his ruler. (3) To serve an elder brother as I should +like him to serve me were he my younger brother. (4) To act towards a +friend as I should like him to act towards me were our relations +reversed."[10] + +The good man suits his conduct to his station in life. If he has wealth +and high office he acts becomingly, never treating his inferiors with +harshness or contempt. If he be poor and unrecognised, he never murmurs +against heaven, or pines over his lot, or cringes before superiors, or +does anything immoral for applause or gain. The virtuous man accepts +heaven's allotments thankfully and uncomplainingly. + +In order to attain to the middle path we must carefully perform the +duties which lie nearest to us, not waiting to do great things. In the +Book of Poetry we read of the love of wife, of children, and brothers. +Cultivate this love on the home hearth, and thy charity will expand and +take in mankind. [Note how charity, though beginning at home, travels +far afield.] + +Shun displayed his filial piety on a huge scale, and brought great +honour to his parents and to himself. No wonder that such filial piety +as his was rewarded with dominion, wealth, and fame. It is well said in +the Book of Poetry, "The good man receives Heaven's benediction." + +The Emperor Wan was the only man with no cause for grief, his father +being the admirable Ki, and his son the equally admirable Wu. The father +laid the foundation of all this excellence, the son transmitting it to +his own son. The Emperor Wu retained the honour and distinction of his +forebears Thai, Kai, and Wan. He had the dignity of the true Son of +Heaven, and owned all within the Four Seas.[11] He sacrificed regularly +in the ancestral temple, and after death his successors sacrificed to +him. The Duke of Kau continued the glorious traditions handed on by Wu. +Both these great rulers realised the aspirations and wishes of their +forefathers, restoring and improving the ancestral temple, renovating +the sacred vessels and offering sacrifices suited to each year. In other +ways also they perpetuated the good deeds of their ancestors, observed +their religious rites, encouraged the study of music and poetry, +honoured the honourable, and loved the lovable. They showed due respect +to their departed ones, and thus discharged their duty to the living and +the dead. + + +THE WORKS OF MENCIUS + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +Mencius is the Latinised form of "Mengtse," which means "the philosopher +Meng," Meng (or Meng-sun) being the name of one of the three great +Houses of Lu, whose usurpations gave so much offence to Confucius. His +personal name was Ko, though this does not occur in his own works. He +was born in B.C. 372, and died in B.C. 289 at the age of 83, in the +twenty-sixth year of the Emperor Nan, with whom ended the long +sovereignty of Kau (Chow) dynasty. He was thus a contemporary of Plato +(whose last twenty-three years synchronised with his first +twenty-three), Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurus, and Demosthenes, and he is +well worthy of being ranked with these illustrious men. + +Mencius was reared by his widowed mother, whose virtue and wisdom are +still proverbial in China. The first forty years of his life are +virtually a blank to us, so that we know very little of his early +education. He is said, however, to have studied under Khung Chi, the +grandson of Confucius. + +In the hundred and six years between the death of Confucius (B.C. 478) +and the birth of Mencius (B.C. 372), the political and moral state of +China had altered greatly for the worse. The smaller feudal states had +been swallowed up by larger ones, the princes were constantly at war +with one another, and there was but little loyalty to the occupant of +the imperial throne; moreover, the moral standard of things had lowered +very much. At about the age of forty-five Mencius became Minister under +Prince Hsuan, of the Chi state. But as his master refused to carry out +the reforms he urged, he resigned his post and travelled through many +lands, advising rulers and ministers with whom he came in contact. In +the year B.C. 319 he resumed his former position in the state of Chi, +resigning once more eight years later. He now gave himself up to a life +of study and teaching, preparing the works presently to be noticed. His +main purpose was to expound and enforce the teaching of Confucius. But +his own doctrine stands on a lower level than that of the master, for he +views man's well-being rather from the point of view of political +economy. He was justly named by Chao Chi "The Second Holy One or +Prophet"--the name by which China still knows him. + +The treatise called "The Works of Mencius" is a compilation of the +conversation and opinions of Mencius, having a similar relation to that +great philosopher that the Analects (or "Lun Yu") have to Confucius. It +is arranged in seven books. According to tradition the work, in its +existing form, is as it came from the philosopher himself. + + +_VIRTUE, NOT PROFIT, TO BE THE CHIEF QUEST_ + + +When Mencius visited King Hui, of Liang, the latter asked him what +counsel he could give to profit his kingdom. The philosopher replied, +"Why does your majesty use the word profit? The only things which I have +to counsel are righteousness and goodwill. If the king seeks mainly the +_profit_ of his kingdom, the great officers will seek the profit of +their families and the common people that of theirs. The chief things to +be aimed at by king and people are virtue and benevolence. All else is +as nothing. No benevolent man has neglected his parents, nor has any +virtuous man slighted his sovereign." + +"How comes it," asked the king, "that my state Tsin has deteriorated +since I became its ruler, and that calamities many and great have fallen +on it?" Mencius answered, "With so great an extent of territory as thine +prosperity ought to be within easy reach; but in order to procure it +your majesty must govern thy subjects justly and kindly, moderating +penalties, lightening taxes, promoting thus and otherwise their +industries, increasing their comforts as well as lessening their +burdens, deepening the faithfulness of the people to one another and to +the throne. Then will thy people be loyal to thee and formidable towards +thy foes. Thou shalt make thy subjects loyal friends, for the benevolent +one has no enemy." + + +_A PROSPEROUS RULER THE FRIEND AND FATHER OF HIS PEOPLE_ + + +On one occasion the Emperor Hsuan of Chi visited Mencius in the Snow +Palace, and asked him, "Do the people find enjoyment in music and in the +chase?" "Certainly," answered Mencius; "it is when ruler and people +share each other's joys and sorrows that the sovereign attains to his +highest dignity. Moreover, a ruler, when moving amongst his people ought +to copy the ancient sovereigns. In the good old days, when the ruler +made a tour of inspection among his people he was received with great +acclamation everywhere, for joy and gladness came in his train. In the +spring he inspected the ploughing and supplied all that was lacking in +the way of seed. In the autumn he examined the reaping and made up for +any deficiency in the yield. It was a common saying during the Hsia +dynasty, 'If the Emperor visiteth not, what will become of us?' But now, +may your majesty permit me to say, matters are very different, for, when +in these days a ruler visits his people he is accompanied by a huge +army, who with himself and suite have to be maintained by the people +visited. And so it comes to be that the hungry are robbed of their food, +and the toilers are wearied with the extra tasks imposed upon them. If a +ruler wishes to have the hearts of his people, and to' be regarded as +their father, he must consider their needs and endeavour to supply +them." + + +_MENCIUS USES STRATAGEM TO BRING HOME TO THE EMPEROR HIS GUILT_ + + +Mencius said on one occasion to Hsuan, King of Chi, "Suppose one of thy +ministers were to entrust his family during his absence to a +subordinate, and that the latter neglected his duty so that the wife and +children were exposed to great suffering and danger. What should that +minister do?" + +"Dismiss him at once," was the royal reply. + +"But," continued the philosopher, "suppose that the government of your +own kingdom were bad, the people suffering and disunited and disloyal on +account of their king's bad rule. What then should be done?" The king, +looking this way and that, turned the conversation to other themes. + + +_IT MAY BE RIGHT TO KILL A SOVEREIGN_ + + +King Hsuan asked Mencius, "Is it true that Thang banished his own +sovereign, Kieh [the last king of the Hsia dynasty], and that Wu +attacked the tyrant Emperor Kau-hsin and slew him?" "It is true," said +Mencius, "for it is so written in the 'Shu King.' But if a sovereign +acts as Kieh did he is no longer a sovereign but a robber, and to be +dealt with as such. And if a ruler is, like Kau-hsin, the enemy of his +people, he is no longer their ruler, and therefore to be put out of the +way, and how better than by death?" + + +_THE GIFTS THAT MAY AND THOSE THAT MAY NOT BE ACCEPTED_ + + +Chan Tsin spoke to Mencius as follows: + +"The King of Chi once offered thee a present and thou declinedst it, but +didst accept gifts offered at Sung and at Hsieh. Why this inconsistency? +If it were right to refuse in the first case it was equally right to +refuse in the other two. If it were right to accept in the latter two +cases, it was equally right to accept in the first case." The +philosopher answered, "I acted rightly and consistently. The gifts at +Sung were to provide me with what was needed for a long journey which I +was about to undertake. Why should I refuse such gifts when needed? At +Hsieh I was in some personal danger and needed help to procure the means +of self-defence. The gifts were to enable me to procure arms. Why should +I have refused such needed help? But at Chi I needed no money, and +therefore refused it when offered, for to accept money when it is not +needed is to accept a bribe. Why should I take such money?" + + +_WRONG CONDUCT SHOULD BE ENDED AT ONCE_ + + +A distinguished officer of Sung, called Tai Ying-chib, called upon +Mencius and said, "I am unable as yet to dispense with the tax on goods +and the duties charged at the frontier passes and in the markets, though +this is a right and proper thing to do. But it is my intention, until +the next year, to lighten the tax and the duties, and then next year I +shall remove them altogether." The philosopher replied, "Here is a man +who daily steals a score of his neighbour's fowls. Someone remonstrates, +and, feeling that he is guilty of acting dishonestly, he says, 'I know +that this stealing is wrong, but in the future I shall be content with +stealing one fowl a month. But next year I will stop stealing fowls +altogether.' If," continued Mencius, "this task and these duties are, as +you admit, wrong, end them at once. Why should you wait a year?" + + +_THE INHERENT GOODNESS OF HUMAN NATURE_ + + +Kao Tzu said to Mencius, "Human nature resembles running water, which +flows east or west according as it can find an outlet. So human nature +is inclined equally to what is good and to what is bad." "It is true," +answered Mencius, "that water will flow indifferently to the east or to +the west. But it will not flow indifferently up or down; it can only +flow down. The tendency of human nature is towards what is good, as that +of water is to flow downwards. One may, indeed, by splashing water, make +it spurt upwards, but that is forcing it against its true character. +Even so, when a man becomes prone to what is evil it is because his +Heaven-implanted nature has been diverted from its true bent." + + +_PEOPLE FIRST, KINGS LAST_ + + +"The people," said Mencius, "are first in importance; next come the +gods. The kings are last and least." + + +_EVERY MAN SHOULD ACCEPT HIS LOT_ + + +Mencius said, "Every man's lot is fixed for him, and it is a proof of +wisdom to accept it uncomplainingly. He who does this faces misfortune +and even death unmoved." + + +_WHAT THE GOOD KING DELIGHTS IN MOST_ + + +"The virtuous king," said Mencius, "is glad to have a large extent of +territory and a numerous people to rule over; but his heart is not on +these things. To be at the head of a great kingdom and to see his people +loyal, united, and flourishing, gives the good king joy; but his heart +is not on these things. It is on benevolence, justice, propriety, and +knowledge that the good king's heart is set." + + +_THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMPLE_ + + +Mencius said, "In the good days of old, men of virtue and talent +abounded in the land, and their influence for good was great upon their +fellows. But now, alas, the masses of the people are ignorant, and +depraved, and their dominant influence is bad." + + +_COUNSELLORS SHOULD LOVE RIGHTEOUSNESS RATHER THAN RICHES_ + + +Mencius said, "Those who counsel men in high places should feel contempt +for their pomp and display. I have no wish for huge and gorgeous halls, +for luxurious food with hundreds of attendants, or for sparkling wine or +bewitching women. These things I esteem not; what I esteem are the rules +of propriety handed down by the ancients." + + * * * * * + + + +FÉNELON + + +THE EXISTENCE OF GOD + + + François de Salignac de la Mothe Fénelon was born at the + château of Fénelon, in the ancient territorial division of + Périgord, France, August 6, 1651. At twenty-four he became a + priest. He was for many years a friend of his celebrated + contemporary Bossuet, but later Bossuet attacked a spiritual + and unworldly work of Fénelon, who was condemned by the Pope. + He died on January 17, 1715, leaving behind him many books, of + which the "Treatise on the Existence of God," first published + in 1713, is the masterpiece. This noble and profound work, + though it accepts the "argument from design," which the + discovery of universal evolution necessarily modifies, does so + with such rare philosophical insight as to stand for ever far + above any other works of the kind. Fénelon can scarcely be + called a mystic, for his reason was of the finest, and never + surrendered its claims; but, though a strictly rational + thinker, he had the insight of the mystic or the idealist who + sees in external nature, and in the mind of man alike, what + Goethe called "the living garment of God." + + +_I.--THE HAND THAT MAKES EVERYTHING_ + + +I cannot open my eyes without admiring the art that shines throughout +all nature; the least cast suffices to make me perceive the Hand that +makes everything. + +Men the least exercised in reasoning, and the most tenacious of the +prejudices of the senses, may yet with one look discover Him who has +drawn Himself in all His works. The wisdom and power He has stamped upon +everything He has made are seen, as it were, in a glass by those that +cannot contemplate Him in His own idea. This is a sensible and popular +philosophy, of which any man free from passion and prejudice is capable. + +If a great number of men of subtle and penetrating wit have not +discovered God with one cast of the eye upon nature, it is not matter of +wonder, for either the passions they have been tossed by have still +rendered them incapable of any fixed reflection, or the false prejudices +that result from passions have, like a thick cloud, interposed between +their eyes and that noble spectacle. + +A man deeply concerned in an affair of great importance, that should +take up all the attention of his mind, might pass several days in a room +treating about his concerns without taking notice of the proportions of +the chamber, the ornaments of the chimney, and the pictures about him, +all of which objects would continually be before his eyes, and yet none +of them make any impression upon him. In this manner it is that men +spend their lives. Everything offers God to their sight, and yet they +see Him nowhere. + +They pass away their lives without perceiving that sensible +representation of the Deity. Such is the fascination of worldly trifles +that obscure their eyes. Nay, oftentimes they will not so much as open +them, but rather affect to keep them shut, lest they should find Him +they do not look for. In short, what ought to help most to open their +eyes serves only to close them faster. I mean the constant duration and +regularity of the motions which the Supreme Wisdom has put in the +universe. + +But, after all, whole nature shows the infinite art of its Maker. When I +speak of an art, I mean a collection of proper means chosen on purpose +to arrive at a certain end; or, if you please, it is an order, a method, +an industry, or a set design. Chance, on the contrary, is a blind and +necessary cause, which neither sets in order nor chooses anything, and +has neither will nor understanding. Now, I maintain that the universe +bears the character and stamp of a cause infinitely powerful and +industrious; and, at the same time, that chance--that is, the fortuitous +concourse of causes void of reason--cannot have formed this universe. + +Who will believe that so perfect a poem as Homer's "Iliad" was not the +product of the genius of a great poet, but that the letters of the +alphabet, being confusedly jumbled and mixed, were by chance, as it were +by the cast of a pair of dice, brought together in such an order as is +necessary to describe, in verses full of harmony and variety, so many +great events; to place and connect them so well together; to paint every +object with all its most graceful, most noble, and most affecting +attendants; in short, to make every person speak according to his +character in so natural and so forcible a manner? Let people subtilise +upon the matter as much as they please, yet they never will persuade a +man of sense that the "Iliad" was the mere result of chance. How, then, +can a man of sense be induced to believe, with respect to the universe, +what his reason will never suffer him to believe in relation to the +"Iliad"? + + +_II.--EARTH, THE MOTHER OF ALL LIVING_ + + +After these comparisons, about which I only desire the reader to consult +himself, without any argumentation, I think it is high time to enter +into a detail of nature. I do not pretend to penetrate through the +whole. Who is able to do it? Neither do I pretend to enter into any +physical discussion. Such way of reasoning requires a certain deep +knowledge, which abundance of men of wit and sense never acquire; and +therefore I will offer nothing to them but the simple prospect of the +face of nature. I will entertain them with nothing but what everybody +knows, which requires only a little calm and serious attention. + +Let us, in the first place, stop at the great object that first strikes +our sight--I mean the general structure of the universe. Let us cast our +eyes on this earth that bears us. + +Who is it that hung and poised this motionless globe of the earth? Who +laid its foundation? Nothing seems more vile and contemptible, for the +meanest wretches tread it under foot; but yet it is in order to possess +it that we part with the greatest treasures. If it were harder than it +is, men could not open its bosom to cultivate it; and if it were less +hard it could not bear them, and they would sink everywhere as they do +in sand, or in a bog. It is from the inexhaustible bosom of the earth we +draw what is most precious. That shapeless, vile, and rude mass assumes +the most various forms, and yields alone, by turns, all the goods we can +desire. That dirty soil transforms itself into a thousand fine objects +that charm the eye. In the compass of one year it turns into branches, +twigs, buds, leaves, blossoms, fruits, and seeds, in order, by those +various shapes, to multiply its liberalities to mankind. + +Nothing exhausts the earth; the more we tear her bowels the more she is +liberal. After so many ages, during which she has produced everything, +she is not yet worn out. She feels no decay from old age, and her +entrails still contain the same treasures. A thousand generations have +passed away, and returned into her bosom. + +Everything grows old, she alone excepted; for she grows young again +every year in the spring. She is never wanting to men; but foolish men +are wanting to themselves in neglecting to cultivate her. It is through +their laziness and extravagance they suffer brambles and briars to grow +instead of grapes and corn. They contend for a good they let perish. The +conquerors leave uncultivated the ground for the possession of which +they have sacrificed the lives of so many thousand men, and have spent +their own in hurry and trouble. Men have before them vast tracts of land +uninhabited and uncultivated, and they turn mankind topsy-turvy for one +nook of that neglected ground in dispute. The earth, if well cultivated, +would feed a hundred times more men than she does now. Even the +unevenness of ground, which at first seems to be a defect, turns either +into ornament or profit. The mountains arose and the valleys descended +to the place the Lord had appointed for them. Those different grounds +have their particular advantages, according to the divers aspects of the +sun. In those deep valleys grow fresh and tender grass to feed cattle. +Next to them opens a vast champaign covered with a rich harvest. Here, +hills rise like an amphitheatre, and are crowned with vineyards and +fruit-trees. There, high mountains carry aloft their frozen brows to the +very clouds, and the torrents that run down from them become the springs +of rivers. The rocks that show their craggy tops bear up the earth of +mountains just as the bones bear up the flesh in human bodies. + +There is scarce any spot of ground absolutely barren if a man do not +grow weary of digging, and turning it to the enlivening sun, and if he +require no more from it than it is proper to bear. Amidst stone and +rocks there is sometimes excellent pasture, and their cavities have +veins which, being penetrated by the piercing rays of the sun, furnish +plants with most savoury juices for the feeding of herds and flocks. +Even sea-coasts that seem to be the most sterile and wild yield +sometimes either delicious fruits or most wholesome medicines that are +wanting in the most fertile countries. Besides, it is the effect of a +wise over-ruling Providence that no land yields all that is useful to +human life. For want invites men to commerce, in order to supply one +another's necessities. It is therefore that want which is the natural +tie of society between nations; otherwise, all the people of the earth +would be reduced to one sort of food and clothing, and nothing would +invite them to know and visit one another. + +All that the earth produces, being corrupted, returns into her bosom, +and becomes the source of a new production. Thus she resumes all she has +given in order to give again. Thus the corruption of plants, and of the +animals she feeds, feed her, and improve her fertility. Thus, the more +she gives the more she resumes; and she is never exhausted, provided +they who cultivate her restore to her what she has given. Everything +comes from her bosom, everything returns to it, and nothing is lost in +it. Nay, all seeds multiply there. + +Admire the plants that spring from the earth; they yield food for the +healthy, and remedies for the sick. Their species and virtues are +innumerable. They deck the earth, yield verdure, fragrant flowers, and +delicious fruits. Do you see those vast forests that seem as old as the +world? Those trees sink into the earth by their roots, as deep as their +branches shoot up to the sky. Their roots defend them against the winds, +and fetch up, as it were by subterranean pipes, all the juices destined +to feed the trunk. The trunk itself is covered with a tough bark that +shelters the tender wood from the injuries of the air. The branches +distribute, by several pipes, the sap which the roots had gathered up in +the trunk. In summer the boughs protect us with their shadow against the +scorching rays of the sun. + +The farther we seek through the universe the more sure is her teaching. +That which we learnt from the earth and from plants is taught us again +by water, by the air, and by fire. It is the lesson of the skies, and of +the sun and the stars. The whole animal world teaches us the same. If we +turn from things that are large, we shall find wonders no less in the +infinitely little; if we turn from the bodies of animals to the study of +their instincts, their sleep, their food, the persistence of their races +from age to age--though all individuals are mortal--again we find +evidence of the skill and power of the Author of all things. + +Still more wonderful is the body of man, his skin and veins, his bones +and joints, his senses, tongue and teeth, the proportions of his body, +and, above all things, his soul, which alone among all creatures thinks +and knows and is sovereign master over the body. + +It is this reason that is in man which, above all, demonstrates the +residence of God in us. + + +_III.--GOD IN THE MIND OF MAN_ + + +It cannot be said that man gives himself the thoughts he had not before; +much less can it be said that he receives them from other men, since it +is certain he neither does nor can admit anything from without, unless +he finds it in his own foundation, by consulting within him the +principles of reason, in order to examine whether what he is told is +agreeable or repugnant to them. Therefore, there is an inward school +wherein man receives what he neither can give himself, nor expect from +other men who live upon trust as well as himself. + +Here, then, are two reasons I find within me, one of which is myself, +the other is above me. That which is myself is very imperfect, +prejudiced, liable to error, changeable, headstrong, ignorant, and +limited; in short, it possesses nothing but what is borrowed. The other +is common to all men, and superior to them. It is perfect, eternal, +immutable, ever ready to communicate itself in all places, and to +rectify all minds that err and mistake; in short, incapable of ever +being either exhausted or divided, although it communicates itself to +all who desire it. + +Where is that perfect reason which is so near me, and yet so different +from me? Surely it must be something real, for nothing cannot either be +perfect or make perfect imperfect natures. Where is that supreme reason? +Is it not the very God I look for? + +We have seen the prints of the Deity, or, to speak more properly, the +seal and stamp of God Himself, in all that is called the works of +nature. When a man does not enter into philosophical subtleties, he +observes with the first cast of the eye a hand, that was the first +mover, in all the parts of the universe, and set all the wheels of the +great machine agoing. Everything shows and proclaims an order, an exact +measure, an art, a wisdom, a mind superior to us, which is, as it were, +the soul of the whole world, and which leads and directs everything to +His ends, with a gentle and insensible, though ever an omnipotent force. + +We have seen, as it were, the architecture and frame of the universe; +the just proportion of all its parts; and the bare cast of the eye has +sufficed us to find and discover even in an ant, more than in the sun, a +wisdom and power that delights to exert itself in polishing and adorning +its vilest works. + +This is obvious, without any speculative discussion, to the most +ignorant of men; but what a world of other wonders should we discover +should we penetrate into the secrets of physics, and dissect the inward +parts of animals, which are framed according to the most perfect +mechanics. + +Let a man study the world as much as he pleases; let him descend into +the minutest details; dissect the vilest of animals; narrowly consider +the least grain of corn sown in the ground, and the manner in which it +germinates and multiplies; attentively observe with what precautions a +rose-bud blows and opens in the sun, and closes again at night; and he +will find in all these more design, conduct, and industry than in all +the works of art. Nay, what is called the art of men is but a faint +imitation of the great art called the laws of nature, which the impious +did not blush to call blind chance. Is it, therefore, a wonder that +poets animated the whole universe, bestowed wings upon the winds, and +arrows on the sun, and described great rivers impetuously running to +precipitate themselves into the sea and trees shooting up to heaven to +repel the rays of the sun by their thick shades? These images and +figures have also been received in the language of the vulgar, so +natural it is for men to be sensible of the wonderful art that fills all +nature. + +Poetry did only ascribe to inanimate creatures the art and design of the +Creator, who does everything in them. From the figurative language of +the poets those notions passed into the theology of the heathens, whose +divines were the poets. They supposed an art, a power, or a wisdom, +which they called _numen_ [divinity], in creatures the most destitute of +understanding. With them great rivers were gods, and spring naiads. +Woods and mountains had their particular deities; flowers had their +Flora; and fruits, Pomona. After all, the more a man contemplates +nature, the more he discovers in it an inexhaustible stock of wisdom, +which is, as it were, the soul of the universe. + +What must we infer from thence? The consequence flows of itself. "If so +much wisdom and penetration," says Minutius Felix, "are required to +observe the wonderful order and design of the structure of the world, +how much more were necessary to form it!" + +If men so much admire philosophers because they discover a small part of +the wisdom that made all things, they must be stark blind not to admire +that wisdom itself. + + +_IV.--A PRAYER TO GOD_ + + +O my God, if so many men do not discover Thee in this great spectacle +Thou givest them of all nature, it is not because Thou art far from any +of us. Every one of us feels Thee, as it were, with his hand; but the +senses, and the passions they raise, take up all the attention of our +minds. Thus, O Lord, Thy light shines in darkness; but darkness is so +thick and gloomy that it does not admit the beams of Thy light. + +Thou appearest everywhere; and everywhere inattentive mortals neglect to +perceive Thee. All nature speaks of Thee, and resounds with Thy holy +name; but she speaks to deaf men, whose deafness proceeds from the noise +and clatter they make to stun themselves. Thou art near and within them; +but they are fugitive, and wandering, as it were, out of themselves. +They would find Thee, O Sweet Light, O Eternal Beauty, ever old and ever +young, O Fountain of Chaste Delights, O Pure and Happy Life of all who +live truly, should they look for Thee within themselves. But the impious +lose Thee only by losing themselves. Alas! Thy very gifts, which should +show them the hand from whence they flow, amuse them to such a degree as +to hinder them from perceiving it. They live by Thee, and yet they live +without thinking on Thee or, rather, they die by the Fountain of Life +for want of quenching their drought in that vivifying stream; for what +greater death can there be than not to know Thee, O Lord? They fall +asleep in Thy soft and paternal bosom, and, full of the deceitful dreams +by which they are tossed in their sleep, they are insensible of the +powerful hand that supports them. + +If Thou wert a barren, impotent, and inanimate body, like a flower that +fades away, a river that runs, a house that decays and falls to ruin, a +picture that is but a collection of colours to strike the imagination, +or a useless metal that glistens, they would perceive Thee, and fondly +ascribe to Thee the power of giving them some pleasure, although in +reality pleasure cannot proceed from inanimate beings, which are +themselves void and incapable of it, but from Thee alone, the true +spring of all joy. If, therefore, Thou wert but a lumpish, frail, and +inanimate being, a mass without any virtue or power, a shadow of a +being, Thy vain fantastic nature would busy their vanity, and be a +proper object to entertain their mean and brutish thoughts. But because +Thou art too intimately within them, and they never at home, Thou art to +them an unknown God; for while they rise and wander abroad, the intimate +part of themselves is most remote from their sight. The order and beauty +Thou scatterest over the face of Thy creatures are like a glaring light +that hides Thee from them and dazzles their sore eyes. In fine, because +Thou art too elevated and too pure a truth to affect gross senses, men +who are become like beasts cannot conceive Thee, though man has daily +convincing instances of wisdom and virtue without the testimony of any +of his senses; for those virtues have not sound, colour, odour, taste, +figure, nor any sensible quality. + +Why, then, O my God, do men call Thy existence, wisdom, and power more +in question than they do those other things most real and manifest, the +truth of which they suppose as certain, in all the serious affairs of +life, and which, nevertheless, as well as Thou, escape our feeble +senses? O misery! O dismal night that surrounds the children of Adam! O +monstrous stupidity! O confusion of the whole man! Man has eyes only to +see shadows, and truth appears a phantom to him. What is nothing is all; +and what is all is nothing to him. What do I behold in all nature? God. +God everywhere, and still God alone. + +When I think, O Lord, that all being is in Thee, Thou exhaustest and +swallowest up, O Abyss of Truth, all my thoughts. I know not what +becomes of me. Whatever is not Thou disappears; and scarce so much of +myself remains wherewithal to find myself again. Who sees Thee not never +saw anything; and who is not sensible of Thee, never was sensible of +anything. He is as if he were not. His whole life is but a dream. Arise, +O Lord, arise, Let Thy enemies melt like wax and vanish like smoke +before Thy face. How unhappy is the impious soul who, far from Thee, is +without God, without hope, without eternal comfort! How happy he who +searches, sighs, and thirsts after Thee. But fully happy he on whom are +reflected the beams of Thy countenance, whose tears Thy hand has wiped +off, and whose desires Thy love has already completed. + +When will that time be, O Lord? O fair day, without either cloud or end, +of which Thyself shalt be the sun, and wherein Thou shalt run through my +soul like a torrent of delight! Upon this pleasing hope I cry out: "Who +is like Thee, O Lord? My heart melts and my flesh faints, O God of my +soul, and my eternal wealth." + + * * * * * + + + +GALILEO + + +THE AUTHORITY OF SCRIPTURE + + + Galileo's treatise on "The Authority of Scripture in + Philosophical Controversies" was written at a time when the + Copernican theory of the constitution of the universe was + engaging the attention of the world. A Benedictine monk, + Benedetto Castelli, called upon to defend the theory at the + grand-ducal table of Tuscany, asked Galileo's assistance in + reconciling it with orthodoxy. His answer was an exposition of + a formal theory as to the relations of physical science to + Holy Writ. This answer was further amplified in the "Authority + of the Scripture," addressed in 1614 to Christina of Lorraine, + Dowager Grand-Duchess of Tuscany, an able and acute defence of + his position. A year later another monk laid Galileo's letter + to Castelli before the Inquisition, whereupon the philosopher + was summoned by Pope Paul V. to the palace of Cardinal + Bellarmine, and there warned against henceforth holding, + teaching, or defending the condemned doctrine. Nevertheless, + in a few years Galileo (see SCIENCE, vol. XV) had to suffer + trial and condemnation by the Inquisition for publishing his + "Dialogues on the System of the World," which gave the + Ptolemaic theory its death-blow. + + +_I.--THE DEFENDERS OF FALLACY_ + + +Some years ago I discovered many astronomical facts till then unknown. +Their novelty and their antagonism to some physical propositions +commonly received by the schools did stir up against me many who +professed the vulgar philosophy, as if, forsooth, I had with my own hand +placed these things in the heavens to obscure and disturb nature and +science. These opponents, more affectionate to their own opinion than to +truth, tried to deny and disprove my discoveries, which they might have +discerned with their own eyes; and they published vain discourses, +interwoven with irrelevant passages, not rightly understood, of the +sacred Scriptures. From this folly they might have been saved had they +remembered the advice of St. Augustine, who, dealing with celestial +bodies, writes: "We ought to believe nothing unadvisedly in a doubtful +point, lest in favour of our error we conceive a prejudice against that +which truth hereafter may discover to be nowise contrary to the sacred +books." + +Time has proved every one of my statements, and proving them has also +proved that my opponents were of two kinds. Those who had doubted simply +because the discoveries were new and strange have been gradually +converted, while those whose incredulity was based on personal ill-will +to me have shut their eyes to the facts and have endeavoured to asperse +my moral character and to ruin me. + +Knowing that I have confuted the Ptolemaic and Aristotelian arguments, +and distrusting their defence in the field of philosophy, they have +tried to shield their fallacies under the mantle of a feigned religion +and of scriptural authority, and have endeavoured to spread the opinion +that my propositions are contrary to the Scriptures, and therefore +heretical. To this end they have found accomplices in the pulpits, and +have scattered rumours that my theory of the world-system would ere long +be condemned by supreme authority. + +Further, they have endeavoured to make the theory peculiar to myself, +ignoring the fact that the author, or rather restorer, of the doctrine +was Nicholas Copernicus, a Catholic, and a much-esteemed priest, who was +summoned to Rome to correct the ecclesiastic calendar, and in the course +of his inquiries reached this view of the universe. + +The calendar has since been regulated by his doctrine, and on his +principles the motions of the planets have been calculated. Having +reduced his doctrine to six books, he published them under the title of +"De Revolutionibus Coelestibus," at the instance of the Cardinal of +Capua, and of the Bishop of Culma; and, since he undertook the task at +the order of Pope Leo X., he dedicated the work to his successor Paul +III., and it was received by the Holy Church and studied by all the +world. + +In the end of his dedicatory epistle Copernicus writes: "If there should +chance to be any mateologists who, ignorant in mathematics yet +pretending to skill in that science, should dare, upon the authority of +some passage of Scripture wrested to their purpose, to condemn and +censure my hypothesis, I value them not, and scorn their inconsiderate +judgment. For it is not unknown that Lactantius (a famous author though +poor mathematician) writes very childishly concerning the form of the +earth when he scoffs at those who affirm the earth to be in form of a +globe. So that it ought not to seem strange to the intelligent if any +such should likewise now deride us. The mathematics are written for +mathematicians, to whom (if I deceive not myself) these labours of mine +shall seem to add something, as also to the commonweal of the Church +whose government is now in the hands of Your Holiness." + +It is such as Lactantius who would now condemn Copernicus unread, and +produce authorities of the Scripture, of divines, and of councils in +support of their condemnation. I hold these authorities in reverence, +but I hold that in this instance they are used for personal ends in a +manner very different from the most sacred intention of the Holy Church. +I am ready to renounce any religious errors into which I may run in this +discourse, and if my book be not beneficial to the Holy Church may it be +torn and burnt; but I hold that I have a right to defend myself against +the attacks of ignorant opponents. + +The doctrine of the movement of the earth and the fixity of the sun is +condemned on the ground that the Scriptures speak in many places of the +sun moving and the earth standing still. The Scriptures not being +capable of lying or erring, it followeth that the position of those is +erroneous and heretical who maintain that the sun is fixed and the earth +in motion. + +It is piously spoken that the Scriptures cannot lie. But none will deny +that they are frequently abstruse and their true meaning difficult to +discover, and more than the bare words signify. One taking the sense too +literally might pervert the truth and conceive blasphemies, and give God +feet, and hands, and eyes, and human affections, such as anger, +repentance, forgetfulness, ignorance, whereas these expressions are +employed merely to accommodate the truth to the mental capacity of the +unlearned. + +This being granted, I think that in the discussion of natural problems +we ought to begin not with the Scriptures, but with experiments and +demonstrations. Nor does God less admirably discover Himself to us in +nature than in Scripture, and having found the truth in nature we may +use it as an aid to the true exposition of the Scriptures. The +Scriptures were intended to teach men those things which cannot be +learned otherwise than by the mouth of the Holy Spirit; but we are meant +to use our senses and reason in discovering for ourselves things within +their scope and capacity, and hence certain sciences are neglected in +the Holy Writ. + +Astronomy, for instance, is hardly mentioned, and only the sun, and the +moon, and Lucifer are named. Surely, if the holy writers had intended us +to derive our astronomical knowledge from the Sacred Books, they would +not have left us so uninformed. That they intentionally forbore to speak +of the movements and constitution of the stars is the opinion of the +most holy and most learned fathers. And if the Holy Spirit has omitted +to teach us those matters as not pertinent to our salvation, how can it +be said that one view is _de Fide_ and the other heretical? I might here +insert the opinion of an ecclesiastic raised to the degree of +Eminentissimo: That the intention of the Holy Ghost is to teach us how +we shall go to Heaven, and not how the heavens go. + + +_II.--SCRIPTURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL TRUTH_ + + +Since the Holy Writ is true, and all truth agrees with truth, the truth +of Holy Writ cannot be contrary to the truth obtained by reason and +experiment. This being true, it is the business of the judicious +expositor to find the true meaning of scriptural passages which must +accord with the conclusions of observation and experiment, and care must +be taken that the work of exposition do not fall into foolish and +ignorant hands. It must be remembered that there are very few men +capable of understanding both the sacred Scriptures and science, and +that there are many with a superficial knowledge of the Scriptures and +with no knowledge of science who would fain arrogate to themselves the +power of decreeing upon all questions of nature. As St. Jerome writes: +"The talking old woman, the dotard, the garrulous sophist, all venture +upon, lacerate, teach, before they have learnt. Others, induced by +pride, dive into hard words, and philosophate among women touching the +Holy Scriptures. Others (oh, shameful!) learn of women what they teach +to men." + +I will not rank among these same secular writers any theologists whom I +repute to be men of profound learning and sober manners, and therefore +hold in great esteem and veneration; yet it vexes me when they would +constrain science by the authority of the Scriptures, and yet do not +consider themselves bound to answer reason and experiment. It is true +that theology is the queen of all the sciences, but queen only in the +sense that she deals with high matters revealed in noble ways, and if +she condescends not to study the more humble matters of the inferior +sciences she ought not to arrogate to herself the right to judge them; +for this would be as if an autocratic prince, being neither physician +nor architect, should undertake to administer medicines and erect +buildings to the danger of the lives of his subjects. + +Again, to command the professors of astronomy to confute their own +observations is to enjoin an impossibility, for it is to command them +not to see what they do see, and not to understand what they do +understand, and to find what they do not discover. I would entreat the +wise and prudent fathers to consider the difference between matters of +opinion and matters of demonstration, for demonstrated conclusions +touching the things of nature and of the heavens cannot be changed with +the same facility as opinions touching what is lawful in a contract, +bargain, or bill of exchange. Your highness knows what happened to the +late professor of mathematics in the University of Pisa--how, believing +that the Copernican doctrine was false, he started to confute it, but in +his study became convinced of its truth. + +In order to suppress the Copernican doctrine, it would be necessary not +only to prohibit the book of Copernicus and the writings of authors who +agree with him, but to interdict the whole science of astronomy, and +even to forbid men to look at the sky lest they might see Mars and Venus +at very varying distances from the earth, and discover Venus at one time +crescent, at another time round, or make other observations +irreconcilable with the Ptolemaic system. + +It is surely harmful to souls to make it a heresy to believe what is +proved. The prohibition of astronomy would be an open contempt of a +hundred texts of the Holy Scriptures, which teach us that the glory and +the greatness of Almighty God are admirably discerned in all His works, +and divinely read in the open book of the heavens. + + +_III.--FACT AND FAITH_ + + +It may be said that the doctrine of the movement of the sun and the +fixity of the earth must _de Fide_ be held for true since the Scriptures +affirm it, and all the fathers unanimously accept the scriptural words +in their naked and literal sense. But it was necessary to assign motion +to the sun and rest to the earth lest the shallow minds of the vulgar +should be confounded, amused, and rendered obstinate and contumacious +with regard to doctrines of faith. St. Jerome writes: "It is the custom +for the pen-men of Scripture to deliver their judgments in many things +according to the common received opinion that their times had of them." +Even Copernicus himself, knowing the power of custom, and unwilling to +create confusion in our comprehension, continues to talk of the rising +and setting of the sun and stars and of variations in the obliquity of +the zodiac. Whence it is to be noted how necessary it is to accommodate +our discourse to our accustomed manner of understanding. + +In the next place, the common consent of the fathers to a natural +proposition should authorise it only if it have been discussed and +debated with all possible diligence, and this question was in those +times totally buried. + +Besides, it is not enough to say that the fathers accept the Ptolemaic +doctrine; it is necessary to prove that they condemned the Copernican. +Was the Copernican doctrine ever formally condemned as contrary to the +Scriptures? And Didacus, discoursing on the Copernican hypothesis, +concludes that the motion of the earth is not contrary to the +Scriptures. + +Let my opponents, therefore, apply themselves to examine the arguments +of Copernicus and others; and let them not hope to find such rash and +impetuous decisions in the wary and holy fathers, or in the absolute +wisdom of him that cannot err, as those into which they have suffered +themselves to be hurried by prejudice or personal feeling. His holiness +has certainly an absolute power of admitting or condemning propositions +not directly _de Fide_, but it is not in the power of any creature to +make them true or false otherwise than of their own nature and _de +facto_ they are. + +In my judgment it would be well first to examine the truth of the fact +(over which none hath power) before invoking supreme authority; for if +it be not possible that a conclusion should be declared heretical while +we are not certain but that it may be true, their pains are vain who +pretend to condemn the doctrine of the mobility of the earth and the +fixity of the sun, unless they have first demonstrated the doctrine to +be impossible and false. + +Let us now consider how we may interpret the command of Joshua that the +sun should stand still. + +According to the Ptolemaic system, the sun moves from east to west +through the ecliptic, and therefore the standing still of the sun would +shorten and not lengthen the day. Indeed, in order to lengthen the day +on this system it would be necessary not to hold the sun, but to +accelerate its pace about three hundred and sixty times. Possibly Joshua +used the words to suit the comprehension of the ignorant people; +possibly--as St. Augustine says--he commanded the whole system of the +celestial spheres to stand still, and his command to the moon rather +confirms this conjecture. + +On the Copernican system interpretation is simplified; for if we +consider the mobility of the sun and how it is in a certain sense the +soul and heart of the universe, it is not illogical to say that it gives +not only light, but also motion to the bodies round it. In this manner, +by the standing still of the sun at Joshua's command, the day might be +lengthened without disturbing the order of the universe or the mutual +positions of the stars. This interpretation also explains the statement +that the sun stood still _in medio coeli_. Had the sun been in the +middle of the heavens in the sense of rising and setting, it had hardly +been necessary to check its course; but _in medio coeli_ probably +signifies in the middle or centre of the universe where it resides. + +I have no doubt that other passages of the Scriptures could be likewise +interpreted in accordance with the Copernican system by divines with +knowledge of astronomy. They might say that the word "firmament" very +well agrees, _ad literam_, with the starry sphere. _Ad literam_, if they +admit the rotation of the earth, they might understand its poles, when +it is said _Nec dum terram fecerat, et flumina, et cardines orbis +terrae_. [Nor yet had He created the earth, or the rivers, or the hinges +for the globe of the earth.] Surely _cardines_, or "hinges," are +ascribed to the earth in vain if it be not to turn upon them. + + * * * * * + + + +GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL + + +THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION + + + Hegel's "Philosophy of Religion" was published the year + following the philosopher's death, at Berlin, in 1832; and the + rugged shape and uneven construction of some of it may fairly + be attributed to the fact that, as it stands, it is largely an + editorial compilation. Such faults, however, as Dr. Edward + Caird has remarked, "if they take from the lectures as + expressions of their author's mind, and from their value as + scientific treatises, have some compensating advantages if we + regard them as a means of education in philosophy; for in this + point of view their very artlessness gives them something of + the same stimulating, suggestive power which is attained by + the consummate art of the Platonic dialogues." The importance + of the work is evidenced by the influence it has exercised + over the mind of a later generation; and many readers, to whom + Hegel (see Vol. XIV) is little more than a name, will + certainly find here the sources of much that has become + familiar as an essential part of the religious atmosphere of a + later day, and of the apologies of modern speculative + theology. + + +_I. THE RELATION OF PHILOSOPHY TO RELIGION_ + + +The object of religion is the same as that of philosophy; it is the +external verity itself in its objective existence; it is God--nothing +but God and the unfolding of God. Philosophy is not the wisdom of the +world, but the knowledge of things which are not of this world. It is +not the knowledge of external mass, of empirical life and existence, but +of the eternal, of the nature of God, and of all which flows from His +nature. For this nature ought to manifest and develop itself. +Consequently, philosophy in unfolding religion merely unfolds itself, +and in unfolding itself it unfolds religion. In so far as philosophy is +occupied with the eternal truth, the truth which is in and for itself; +in so far as it is occupied with this as thinking spirit, rather than in +an arbitrary fashion and in view of a particular interest, philosophy +has the same sphere of activity as has religion. And if the religious +consciousness aspires to abolish all that is peculiar to itself and to +be absorbed in its object, the philosophic spirit likewise plunges with +the same energy into its object and renounces all particularity. + +Religion and philosophy are thus at one in having one and the same +object. Philosophy, in fact, also is the adoration of God, it is +religion; for, seeing that God is its object, it involves the same +renunciation of every opinion and every thought that is arbitrary and +subjective. Philosophy is, in consequence, identical with religion. Only +it is religion in a peculiar manner, and this it is which distinguishes +it from religion commonly so called. So philosophy and religion are both +religion, and that which distinguishes one from the other is no more +than the characteristic mode in which respectively they consider their +object, God. + +Here is the difficulty of understanding how philosophy can make but one +with religion, a difficulty which has even been mistaken for +impossibility. Thence also arise the fears which philosophy inspires in +theology and the hostile attitudes which they assume towards each other. +What brings about this attitude is, on the side of theology, that for +her philosophy does nothing but corrupt, pull down, and profane the +content of religion, and that she understands God in a totally different +manner from that after which religion understands Him. It is the same +opposition which long ago among the Greeks caused a free and democratic +people like the Athenians to burn books and to condemn Socrates. In our +own day, however, this opposition is considered a thing which it is +natural to admit--more natural indeed than the other opinion concerning +the unity of religion and philosophy. + +Diverse religions offer us, it is true, only too often the most bizarre +and monstrous representations of the divine essence. But we must not +confine ourselves to a superficial consideration and consequent +rejection of these representations and the religious practices which +follow upon them as being engendered by superstition, by error, or by +imposture, or even by a simple piety, and so neglect their essential +value. There is need to discover in these representations and in these +practices their relation with truth. + + +_II.--GOD THE UNIVERSAL_ + + +For us, who have religion, God is a familiar being, a substantial truth +existing in our subjective consciousness. But, scientifically +considered, God is a general and abstract term. The philosophy of +religion it is which develops and grasps the divine nature and which +teaches us what God is. God is a familiar idea, but an idea which has +still to be scientifically developed. + +The result of philosophic examination is that God is the absolute truth, +the universal in and for itself, embracing all things and in which all +things subsist. And in regard to this assertion, we may appeal in the +first place to the religious consciousness, and to its conviction that +God is the absolute truth whence all things proceed, whither they all +return, upon which all things depend, and in respect of which nothing +can possess a true and absolute independence. + +The heart may very well be full of this representation of God, but +science is not built up of what is in the heart. The object of science +is that which has arisen to the level of consciousness, and of thinking +consciousness that is, in other words, that which has attained to the +form of thought. + +In so much as He is the universal, God is, for us, in relation to +development, Being enclosed in itself, Being at unity with itself. When +we say God is Being enclosed in itself, we enunciate a proposition which +is bound to a development which we await. But this envelopment of God in +Himself which we have called His universality we must not conceive, +relatively to God Himself and His content, as an abstract universality, +outside of which, and as opposed to which, the particular has an +independent existence. + +So we must consider this universal as an absolutely concrete universal. +This sense of fulness is the sense in which God is one, and there is but +one God--that is to say, God is not one merely by contrast with other +gods, but because it is He that is the One, that is, God. + +The things which are, the developments of the worlds of nature and of +mind, show a multiplicity of forms and an infinite variety of +existences. But whatever may be their difference of degree, of force, of +content, these things have no true independence; their being is +consequent, and, so to speak, contingent. When we predicate being of +particular things, it is not of Being which is absolute that we +speak--Being of and from itself; that is, God--but a borrowed being, a +semblance of being. + +God in His universality--that is, this universal Being which has no +limit, no bounds, no particularity--is a Being which subsists +absolutely, and which subsists alone; all else which subsists has its +root in this unity, and by this alone subsists. In thus representing to +ourselves this first content we may say that God is absolute substance, +the only veritable reality. For not everything which has a reality has a +reality of its own, or subsists by itself. God is the only absolute +reality, and thereby the absolute substance. + +If we stop at this abstract thought we have Spinozism, for in Spinozism +subjectivity is not yet differentiated from substantiality, from +substance as such. But in the presupposition just made there is also +this thought--God is spirit, absolute and eternal; spirit which comes +not forth from itself in differentiation. This ideality, this +subjectivity of spirit, which is transparency, ideality excluding all +particular determination, is precisely the universal, pure relation to +self, Being which remains absolutely within itself. + +If we halt at substance, we fail to grasp this universal under its +concrete form. In its concrete determination spirit always preserves its +unity, this unity of its reality which we call substance. But one should +add that this substantiality, the unity of the absolute reality with +itself, is but the foundation, but a moment in the determination of God +as spirit. Hence, principally, arises the reproach which is directed +against philosophy--to wit, that philosophy, to be consistent with +itself, is necessarily Spinozism, and consequently atheism and fatalism. +But at the beginning we have not yet determinations distinguished one +from another as aye and nay. We have the one but not the other. + +Consequently, what we have here is, to start with, content under the +form of substance. Even when we say, "God," "spirit," we have only +words, indeterminate representations. The essential point is to know +what has been produced in the consciousness. And that is, first, the +simple, the abstract. Here, in this first simple determination, we have +God only under the form of universality. Only we do not halt at this +moment. + +Nevertheless, this content remains the foundation of all further +developments, for in these developments God comes not forth from His +unity. When God creates the world--to use the expression of every +day--there comes not into existence an evil, a contrary, existing in +itself independently of God. + + +_III.--GOD EXISTS FOR THOUGHT_ + + +This Beginning is an object for us or a content in us. We possess this +object. Immediately the question arises, Who are we? We, I, spirit--here +also is a complex being, a multiplied being. I have perceptions; I see, +I hear, etc. Seeing, hearing; all this is I. Consequently, the precise +sense of this question is, Which among these determinations is it in +accordance with which this content exists for our minds? Idea, will, +imagination, feeling--which is the seat, the proper domain of this +content, of this object? + +If we accept the common answers to this question, God will abide in us +as the object of faith, of feeling, of representation, of knowledge. + +We shall have to examine more closely later on in a special fashion with +respect to this point, these forms, faculties, aspects of ourselves. In +this place we shall not seek a reply to this question; nor shall we say, +basing our answer on experience and observation, that God is in our +feeling, etc. But, to begin with, we will confine ourselves to what we +have actually before us, to this One, to this universal, to this +concrete Being. + +If we take this One, and ask for what power, for what activity of our +mind does this One, this absolutely universal Being, exist, we cannot +but name the one activity of mind which corresponds to it as +constituting its proper natural domain. This activity, which corresponds +to the universal, is thought. + +Thought is the field in which this content moves; it is the energising +of the universal, or the universal in the reality of its activity. Or, +if we say that thought embraces the universal, that for which the +universal is will still be thought. + +This universal which can be produced by thought, and which is for +thought, may be a quite abstract universal. In this sense it is the +unlimited, the infinite, the being without bounds, without particular +determination. This universal, negative to begin with, has its seat not +elsewhere than in thought. + +To think of God is to rise above the things of sense, exterior and +individual, above simple feeling into the region of pure being; being at +unity with itself--that is to say, into the pure region of the +universal. And this region is thought. + +Such is the substratum for this content considered on the subjective +side. Here the content is that Being in which is no difference, no +schism; Being which abides in itself, the universal; and thought is the +form for which this universal is. + +Thus we have a difference between thought and the universal which we +have called God. It is a difference which in the first place belongs +only to our reflection, and is by no means to be found in the content on +its own account. There is the result to which philosophy comes--a result +already comprised in religion as under the form of faith--to wit, that +God is the sole veritable reality, the Being without which no other +reality would exist. + +In the unity of this reality, in this cloudless shining, the reality and +the distinction which we call thinking-being have as yet no place. + +What we have before us is this absolute unity. This content, this +determination we cannot yet call religion because to religion belongs +subjective spirit consciousness. Thought is the seat of this universal, +but this seat is, to begin with, absorbed in this being which is one, +eternal, in and for itself. + +This universal constitutes the beginning and the point of departure, but +only as unity which so abides. It is not a mere substratum whence +differences are born; rather, all differences are included in this +universal. No more is it an abstract and inert universal, but the +absolute principle of all activity, the matrix, the infinite source +whence all things proceed, whither all things return, and in which they +are eternally preserved. + +Thus the universal is never separated from this ethereal element, from +this Unity with itself, this concentration within itself. + + +_IV.--WHAT IS EVIL?_ + + +As the universal, God could not find Himself faced by a contrary whereof +the reality should pretend to rise above the phantasmal level. For this +pure unity and this perfect transparency matter is nothing impenetrable, +and spirit, the ego, is not so independent as to possess a true, +individual, substantiality of its own. + +There has been a tendency to label this idea pantheism. It would be more +exact to call it the conception of substantiality. God is first +determined as substance only. The absolute subject spirit is also +substance; but it is determined rather as subject. This is the +difference generally ignored by those who assert that speculative +philosophy is pantheism. As usual, they miss the essential point and +disparage philosophy by falsifying it. + +Pantheism is commonly taken to mean that God is all things--the whole, +the universe, the collection of all existences, of things infinite and +infinitely diverse. From which notion the charge is brought against +philosophy that it teaches that all things are God; that is to say, that +God is, not the universal which is in and for itself, but the infinite +multiplicity of individual things in their empirical and immediate +existence. + +If you say God is all that is here, this paper, etc., you have indeed +committed yourself to the pantheism with which philosophy is reproached; +that is, the whole is understood as equivalent to all individual things. +But there is also the genus, which is equally the universal, yet is +wholly different from this totality in which the universal is but the +collection of individual things, and the basis, the content, is +constituted by these things themselves. To say that there has ever been +a religion which has taught this pantheism is to say what is absolutely +untrue. It has never entered any man's mind that everything is God; that +is to say, that God is things in their individual and contingent +existence. Far less has philosophy ever taught this doctrine. + +Spinozism itself, as such, as well as Oriental pantheism, contains this +doctrine: that the divine in all things is no more than that which is +universal in their content, their essence; and in such sense that this +essence is conceived of as a determinate essence. + +When Brahma says, "In the metal I am the brightness of its shining; +among the rivers I am the Ganges; I am the life of all that lives," he +thereby suppresses the individual. He says not, "I am the metal, the +rivers, the individual things of various kinds as such, nor in the +fashion of their immediate existence." + +Here, at this stage, what is expressed is no longer pantheism; but +rather that of the essence in individual things. + +In the living being are time and space. But in this individual being it +is only the changeless element that is made to stand out. "The life of +being that lives" is in this latter sphere of life the unlimited, the +universal. But if it be said "God is all things," here we understand +individuality with all its limitations, its finity, its passing +existence. This notion of pantheism arises out of the conception of +unity, not as spiritual unity but abstract unity; and then, when the +idea takes its religious form, where only the substance, the One, is +possessed of true reality, there is a tendency to forget that it is +precisely in presence of this unity that individual and finite things +are effaced, and to continue to place these in a material fashion side +by side with this unity. They will not admit the teaching of the +Eleatics, who, when they say "There is only One," add expressly that +non-entity is not. All that is finite would be limitation, a negation of +the One, but non-entity, the boundary, term, limit, and that which is +limited, exist not at all. + +Spinozism has been accused of atheism. But Spinozism does not teach that +God is the world, that He is _all things_. Things have indeed a +phenomenal existence--that is, an existence as appearances. We speak of +our existence, and our life is indeed comprised in this existence, but +to speak philosophically the world has no reality, it has no existence. +Individual things are finite things to which no reality can be +attributed; it may be said of them that they have no existence. + +Spinozism--this is the accusation directed against it--involves by way +of consequence that, if all things make but one, good and evil make but +one; there is no difference between them; and thereby all religion is +destroyed. In themselves, it is said there is no difference between good +and evil; consequently it is a matter of indifference whether one be +righteous or wicked. It may be granted that in themselves--that is, in +God, who is the sole veritable reality--the difference between good and +evil disappears. In God there is no evil. But the difference between +good and evil can exist only on condition that God is the evil. But it +cannot be allowed that evil is an affirmative thing, and that this +affirmation is in God. God is good, and nothing else than good; the +distinction between good and evil is not present in this unity, in this +substance, and comes into existence only with differentiation. + +God is unity abiding absolutely in itself. In the substance there is no +differentiation. The distinction of good and evil begins with the +distinction of God from the world, and particularly from man. It is the +fundamental principle of Spinozism with regard to this distinction of +God and the world that man must have no other end than God. The love of +God, therefore, it is that Spinozism marks out for man as the law to be +followed in order to bring about the healing of this breach. + +And it is the loftiest morality that teaches that evil has no existence +and that man is not bound to permit the substantial existence of this +distinction, this negation. Yet it is possible for him to desire to +maintain the difference and even to push it to the point of sheer +opposition to God, who is the universal, self-contained and +self-sufficing. In this case man is evil. But, alternatively, he may +annul this distinction and place his true existence in God alone and in +his aspiration towards Him; and in this case he is good. + +In Spinozism there is indeed the difference between good and evil, +opposition between God and man; but side by side with it we have also +the principle that evil is to be deemed a non-entity. In God as God, in +God as substance, there is no distinction. It is for man that the +distinction exists, as also for him exists the distinction of good and +evil. + + +_V.--THE DETERMINATION OF UNITY_ + + +The superficial method of appraising philosophy is exemplified also in +those who assert that it is a "system of identity." It is perfectly true +that substance is this unity at one with itself, but spirit no less is +this self-identity. Ultimately, all is identity, unity with itself. But +when they speak of the philosophy of identity they have in view abstract +identity or unity in general; and they neglect the essential point, to +wit, the determination of this unity in itself; in other words, they +omit to consider whether this unity is determined as substance or as +spirit. Philosophy from beginning to end is nothing else than the study +of determinations of unity. + +In the sphere of the Notion many unities are comprised. The combination +of water and earth is a unity, but this unity is mixture. If we bring +together a base and an acid, we have as the result a crystal; also +water; but water which cannot be discerned and which gives no trace of +humidity. Here the unity of the water and of this matter is a unity +different from the mixture of water and earth. The essential point is +the difference of these determinations. The unity of God is always +unity, but what is of primary importance is to know the modes and forms +of the determination of this unity. + +Manifestation, development, determination do not go on to infinity, nor +yet do they stop accidentally. But in the course of its true development +the Notion completes its course by a return upon itself, whereby it has +attained the reality adequate to it. So it is that the manifestation is +infinite in nature, that the content is adequate to the Notion of +spirit, and that the phenomenal world exists, like spirit, in and for +itself. In religion, the Notion of religion has become its own object. +Spirit which is in and for itself has now no longer in its development +individual forms and determinations, it knows itself no longer as spirit +in such determinability or such a limited moment; but it has triumphed +over these limitations and this finiteness, and is for itself that which +also it is in itself. This cognisance in which spirit is for itself what +it is in itself constitutes the in-and-for of spirit which is in +possession of knowledge, the perfect and absolute religion, in which is +revealed what spirit is, what God is. That is the Christian religion. + + * * * * * + + + +THE BOOKS OF HINDUISM + + +THE VEDANTA SUTRAS + + + Hinduism, though usually understood to include Brahmanism + (q.v.), is, in fact, a later development of it. Its central + doctrine is the trinity, or Trimurti, which embraces the + three-fold manifestation of the god-head as Brahma, the one + supreme being, the Creator; Vishnu the Preserver; and Siva the + Destroyer. The three principal books of Hinduism are the + "Vedanta Sutras," the "Puranas," and the "Tantras," of which + only the first is epitomised here. The "Sutras" are the + earliest. The "Vedanta" (literally "goal" or "issue of the + Veda") is a purely pantheistic and monastic philosophical + system, and by far the most prevalent in Modern India. It is + ascribed to Badarayana, sometimes called Vyasa, though this + last is really a generic name denoting "a collector." The word + "sutra" denotes literally "threads," and is used by Brahmanic + writers for short, dry sentences, brief expositions. "Vedanta + Sutras" means literally "compendious expressions of the + Vedantic (not Vedic) doctrine." The second great division of + Hindu sacred literature is the "Puranas," the last and most + modern of the books of Hinduism. The word "Purana" means + "old," and in ancient Sanscrit writings it has the same + meaning as our "cosmology." The "Puranas," however, are + ill-arranged collections of theological and philosophical + reflections, myths and legends, ritual, and ascetic rules. + They depend very much on the two great epics, especially the + Mahabharata. The Sanscrit writings called "Tantras" are really + manuals of religion, of magic, and of counter-charms, with + songs in praise of Sakti, the female side of Siva. + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +The Vedanta is sometimes called the Mimamsa (= philosophical +reflections). The aphorisms of which the Vedanta Sutras consist are in +themselves almost as unintelligible as the Confucian "Book of Changes," +the compiler having been only too successful in aiding the memory of the +Hindu student by a system of _multum in parvo_. + +It is usual to accept the interpretation put on the Sutras by the +Sanscrit commentator Sankara, commonly called Sankara Karya, who +flourished about A.D. 700. There are, however, many other commentaries, +notably that of Ramanuga. George Thibaut, in the "Sacred Books of the +East" (vols. 34, 38, and 48), gives the interpretation of Sankara, and +also that of Ramanuga when it differs essentially. On the whole it may +be said that Sankara is a thorough-going Vedantist and pantheist. +Ramanuga, on the other hand, has leanings towards the dualism of the +Sankhya philosophy, and endeavours to make the Vedanta Sutras support +his opinions. + +The Vedanta Sutras embrace five hundred and fifty-five aphorisms, or +Sutras, arranged in four books (_Adhyay_), each having four-chapters +(_Pada_), the chapters being severally divided into sections +(_Adhikarana_). These Sutras are of the utmost importance, as nearly all +Hindu sects base their belief and practices on them. It should be +remembered that these Sutras form a collection, and that they are the +work of many hands, and belong to different periods. + + +_BOOK I.--BRAHMAN, THE SUM AND SUBSTANCE OF EVERYTHING_ + + +The ego and the non-ego differ in themselves and in their attributes. It +will be found, however, that the non-ego depends on the ego, and is its +product. Individual souls, on the other hand, representing so many egos, +are themselves but manifestations of the supreme universal +soul--Brahman; that is, Brahman and the Atman [the individual soul] are +identical, the latter being the product of the self-revealing of the +former. [With this one may compare the "ontological ideas" of Plato, the +"absolute substance" of Spinoza, and the "absolute idea" of Hegel; all +of them standing for the One only existing Being which manifests itself +to thought and to sense in various forms.] + +"What, then," asks the Vedantist, "is Brahman"? + +The word comes from _brih_, "to be great." Hence Brahman is something, +or someone, transcendently great. The word may be defined as connoting +that whence all things proceed. This implies absolute, unoriginated +origin, absolute subsistence, and also reabsorption, for as all things +go forth from Brahman, so shall all things return to that whence they +started forth. + +The Scriptures [Vedas] lay most stress on Brahman as the source and +origin of all things. What qualities there are in the world inhere in +Brahman, or they could not be in the world which has sprung from him. +There could be no intelligent souls without a previously existing +intelligent Brahman. That Brahman, the Supreme Being, is all-knowing is +proved from the fact that the Veda itself, the source and centre of what +is knowable, proceeds from Him as its one, only author. + +This Brahman, as set forth in the Vedanta texts as the cause of the +world, is therefore intelligent, and by no means to be identified with +the non-intelligent Pradhâna (_Prakriti_) which the Sankhya [atheistic] +philosophy makes to be the world's cause. What looks like a separate, +conscious, individual soul or mind is really but the outworking of +Brahman, the highest and first of beings. + +The difference is apparent, but not real. So teaches Sankara; but his +rival commentator, Ramanuga, endeavours to show that Brahman, the +supreme self of the universe, is absolutely free from the effects of +conduct. But the individual selves, which we call souls, are not, for it +is the effect of conduct in a previous state of existence [Karma] that +decides the character and form of the new life to be lived, or whether +there is to be a new life lived at all, since conduct sufficiently good +entitles to absorption in the one all--Brahman. + +It may be objected that Brahman cannot be the creator of this actual +world, for there is in it suffering, injustice, and cruelty. He could +not be the author of these. To which the commentator Sankara answers: +"Brahman is himself, with all his greatness, subject to the operation of +the great moral laws according to which virtue is rewarded and vice +punished. All men are free, and it is their self-chosen conduct that +determines their destiny. This is a law that pervades all existence, +conditions existence, and without which there could be no existence." + +It may be again asked: "How can a being with perfect life produce a +world that is lifeless?" In other words, "How can the effect differ from +its cause?" The same commentator replies: "Just as lifeless hair can +grow out of a living man." + +Again, it is said, "In the universe Brahman is at once he who enjoys and +he who is enjoyed. How can he be both one and the other--agent and +object?" To which Sankara replies: "It is as possible for these two to +go together as for the ocean to be itself and to be at the same time +foam, waves, billows, and bubbles. The same earth produces diamonds, +rock crystal, and vermilion. Do they differ from the earth? + +"The same sun causes plants of various kinds to grow, and the very same +nourishment taken into the body is changed to flesh, hair, nails, etc. +The spider spins its web from its own substance, and spirits assume many +forms when they appear on the earth. All these are but images of the +eternal world-process by which Brahman reveals Himself in souls and in +material objects." + + THE HIGHEST KNOWLEDGE INACCESSIBLE TO LOW + CASTE MEN + +No Sudra [or lowest caste man] is capable of such knowledge as leads to +Brahmanhood [the state of being absorbed in Brahman]. Only the +twice-born[12] are allowed to study the Vedic Scriptures, a knowledge of +which is essential to salvation. The twice-born are likewise alone +permitted to offer sacrifice, for how can a man sacrifice aright who is +ignorant of the sacred scriptures, which are alone adequate for a man's +guidance? If the Sudras, or fourth-caste men, are excluded from the +_summum bonum_ of humanity--absorption in the one great all--how much +more are Pariahs, or non-caste men, deprived of this great boon! Brahman +is the material, as well as the efficient, cause of the world, which +springs from him by way of modification, but is his manifested self and +nothing more. + + +_BOOK II.--OBJECTIONS TO VEDANTIC DOCTRINES STATED AND REFUTED_ + + +The Vedanta texts, the Vedas and the Upanishads, teach that Brahman is +the one only source of whatever exists outside himself; that his nature +is not only mighty, but also intelligent. The evidence for this supplied +in Book I. is, for the most part, the authority of the above texts; that +which they say must be accepted as "gospel," whatever human reason may +see or say to the contrary. + +Book II. begins by stating and answering speculative objections on the +part of Sankhyaists. Though himself intelligence (not merely +intelligent) Brahman may give birth to a non-intelligent world, seeing +that like does not always spring from like [see above]. + +Atomists hold that there is apparent difference and separateness in +things. "Where, then," they ask, "is the oneness, the monism, for which +the Vedantists argue?" It is replied that it is only superficial thought +that fixes itself upon the manifoldness of things, losing sight of their +oneness. Deeper thought sees underneath the many a oneness which binds +them, and of which they are only the outward expressions. The great +ocean is one, but its waves and ripples are many. All at bottom is but +one: the Universal Being. + +A non-intelligent first cause (_Prakriti_), such as the Sankhyaists +postulate, could never call into being an orderly world, for how could +unreason produce reason? Nor could atoms set in motion produce a planned +or intelligent universe, as the Atomists falsely say. There must be an +intelligent power controlling the atoms and contemplating the result to +be attained. + +The view put forth by the Sankhya philosophers, that an external and +internal world exists in mutual independence, is contrary to thought and +experience--is, in fact, unthinkable. We know no external world: we have +never had any experience outside the region of our own consciousness; +yet what is regarded as external to the individual consciousness is not +_Maya_, as is taught in some of the Upanishads, and maintained by later +philosophers. This external world as a fact of consciousness is as real +as that consciousness and as the individual mind which makes mental +experience possible, and is the great All, of which the individual mind +is the working and manifestation. + + THE RELATION OF BRAHMAN TO ELEMENTS AND THE + SOUL + +Are the elementary substances (ether, air, etc) co-eternal, with +Brahman, or do they issue from him? It can be shown, and is shown, that +one elementary substance proceeds from another (_e.g._, air from ether), +and that in the last resort all such substances have come forth from +Brahman, who has not only produced them, but also guided and effected +their evolution. + +The individual soul is, according to the scriptures [Vedas and +Upanishads], eternal and permanent, and has not been produced by +Brahman; who is, however, as noted, the producer of the elementary +substances. Like Brahman himself, the individual soul is uncreated and +eternal. What is in time and belongs to time is the connection of the +soul with the conditions of space and time. This is the interpretation +given by Sankara. Ramanuga, however, holds that the soul is a creature +of Brahman, though an eternal one, it having existed ever as a mode of +the great All [compare the doctrine of the eternal procession of the +Son]. + + WHAT IS SOUL? + +What is soul? It is _gna_, or knowledge. [The etymology of both these +latter words is identical--compare Greek _gnosco_, etc.] This means, +according to Sankara, that knowledge is of the very essence of soul, and +not a mere attribute of it. The soul is not merely a knower (_gnatri_), +but it is knowledge. Ramanuga, on the other hand, explains that the +knowledge spoken of in this Sutra means "the knower"; that the soul is +not knowledge, but that which can and does know. + +Is the soul limited in size, and capable, therefore, of occupying but a +restricted space? Or is it, on the contrary, omnipresent? + +Sankara maintains that the Sutra in question teaches the latter; the +soul is everywhere. Ramanuga makes the same Sutra teach the very +contrary. As a matter of fact, the Sutra in question seems to teach both +these contradictory doctrines, perhaps because it registers different +traditions. Sankara, however, explains further on that as long as the +soul is passing through the changes involved in Samsara [= +transmigration] it is limited and local, but on reaching Brahmanhood it +becomes omnipresent. In this way the great commentator seeks to +reconcile teaching apparently contradictory in this Sutra. + +Is this soul an agent? Some of the Sutras say it is, others say it is +not. How are the conflicting statements to be reconciled? Sankara does +this in the following way. As long as the soul is tied down to material +conditions--that is, is passing through the processes of Samsara--it is +an agent. But as soon as it has escaped from this bondage of +transmigration it dwells in a state of perfect repose, inactive and +restful. In all its activities the soul is prompted by Brahman, without +whose inspiration and guidance the soul could perform nothing, and could +never, therefore, reach the true goal of all souls, absorption in the +one All, which can be obtained in no other way than by the performance +of good deeds, which means action. + + +_BOOK III.--OF THE SOUL AND ITS SUMMUM BONUM_ + + +When at death the soul passes from the body its subtle material elements +still cling to it. Good souls pass on to the moon, whence they +afterwards descend in a form and state determined by their former +actions [Karma]. If the previous life has been a moral failure, the new +life now entered upon will belong to a lower level of being, _i.e._, the +man may become an animal, the higher, animal may become a lower one. On +the other hand, there may be an ascent in the scale of being. + +When the soul is a-dreaming, what it thinks it sees and hears, etc., is +all illusion, for it does not see or hear, etc., what it thinks it does. +In a state of profound dreaminess the soul leaves the body and lives in +close fellowship with Brahman. + +How is the soul to obtain final release from the thraldom of material +conditions? By meditating on Brahman as he is set forth in the sacred +scriptures. Brahman must be thought about and meditated on in all his +attributes, and this produces identity with the one great self of +existence. + +Though Sankara makes this to be the teaching of the Sutras, in another +place he insists that Brahman is without attributes. He is not, +therefore, consistent. The meditation on Brahman which leads to +soul-freedom must have regard also to Brahman's negative qualities, +_i.e._, his not being gross, nor subtle, wise nor foolish, etc. + + THE RELATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND CONDUCT + +The knowledge of Brahman is independent of action, and not subordinate +to it. It is _vidya_ [compare _vision_, which has the same etymology], +or knowledge, that is alone prescribed in the holy writings, not +conduct. Where, however, there is right knowledge, there will be +rightness of life. But mere rightness of life is nothing; it is that +which leads to it and is the cause that is alone commanded and commended +[compare the controversy among Christian theologians about faith and +works]. The knowledge which saves and enfranchises may be reached by a +man in this present life, and will be, if the appropriate means are +employed. + + OF BRAHMANHOOD + +Meditation is a duty to be observed to the very close of life, and the +amount and intensity of it are the measure of a man's virtue and piety. +When he has reached the full knowledge of Brahman, a man is freed from +the consequences [karma] of all his evil deeds, past, present, and +future. [One would think that the state of Brahmanhood excluded the +possibility of sin, but this Sutra seems to imply the contrary. The +Sutras, however, make a distinction between a lower state of Brahmanhood +and a higher. See below.] + +What happens to the knowing one (_vidvan_) at death? The soul of him who +has at death the lower Brahman knowledge merges into the subtler +elements. But when the highest knowledge is attained there is complete +absorption in Brahman. Whoever dies in possession of this highest +knowledge is at once merged in Brahman, and rests eternally and +perfectly in him. + +The Upanishads describe the stations on the way which leads up to +Brahman. These stations are to be understood not merely as terminuses of +the various stages of the journey, but they denote also the divine +beings who direct the soul in its progress and enable it to move forward +and upward. According to some Sutras in this book the guardians of the +path conducting to the gods lead the departed soul, not to the highest +Brahman, but to the effected (_karya_), or qualified (_saguna_), +Brahman. But in other Sutras in this book the opposite view is stated +and defended, according to which the _vidvan_, or knower, goes direct to +the highest Brahman without halting anywhere short of that god. + +The Sutras teach, on the whole, the doctrine that the enfranchised soul, +being identical with Brahman, is inseparable from him just as a mode of +substance is incapable of existing apart from the substance of which it +is a mode. Ramanuga points out, however, that some of the Sutras in this +book give it clearly to be understood that the freed soul can exist in +isolation and in separation from the great All. + +The released soul can enter several bodies at the same time, since it is +not subject to space relations as other souls are. + + * * * * * + + + +THOMAS À KEMPIS + + +THE IMITATION OF CHRIST + + + Thomas à Kempis, whose family name was Haemmerlein, received + the name of Kempis from Kempen, in Holland, the place of his + birth. Either Thomas Haemmerlein or Thomas Kempensis would be + a more correct name than the form "à Kempis," by which he is + generally known; and "Musica Ecclesiastica" is the more + correct title of the "Imitatio Christi." It is not even + certain that Thomas was the author of it, for the names of + other authors have been put forward with more or less + probability; but he was certainly its copyist, and the balance + of evidence is in favour of his authorship. Thomas was born in + 1379, the son of a shoemaker; entered in 1400 a monastery at + Agnetenberg, near Zwolle, and died in the monastery on August + 8, 1471, with a great reputation for learning and for + sanctity. The "Imitation" was completed about 1420. Editions + and translations in all principal languages are innumerable; + but the definitive edition is the Latin text by Dr. Carl + Hirsche, of Hamburg (1874), from which the following epitome + has been made. The "Imitation" consists of four books of + meditations, which are among the most priceless treasures of + Christian literature. + + +_I.--ADMONITIONS USEFUL TO THE SPIRITUAL LIFE_ + + +"Whoever follows Me does not walk in darkness," says the Lord. These are +the words of Christ by which we are admonished how far we should imitate +His life and manners if we wish to be truly illumined and liberated from +all blindness of heart. Let it, therefore, be our supreme study to +meditate on the life of Jesus Christ. + +Vanity of vanities, all things are vanity, except to love God and to +serve Him only. The highest wisdom is to strive towards celestial +kingdoms, through contempt of the world. It is, therefore, vanity to +seek the riches that are about to perish, and to hope in them. It is +vanity also to solicit honours, and to exalt oneself to high place. It +is vanity to follow after the desires of the flesh, and to seek that for +which we must soon be heavily punished. It is vanity to wish a long +life, and to care little about a good life. It is vanity to attend only +to the present life, and not to provide for things which are to come. It +is vanity to love that which passes away so speedily, and not to hasten +thither where eternal joy remains. + +Remember often that proverb--"The eye is not satisfied with seeing nor +the ear with hearing." Study, therefore, to withdraw your heart from the +love of visible things, and turn yourself to the invisible. For those +who follow their sensuality stain their conscience, and lose the grace +of God. + +Every man naturally desires to know, but what does knowledge signify +without the fear of God? The humble peasant who serves God is far better +than the proud philosopher who neglects himself and considers the +courses of the stars. Whoever knows himself well contemns himself, and +takes no delight in human praise. If I should know all things in the +world, and yet not be in charity, what would it advantage me in the +presence of God, Who is about to judge me for my deeds? + +Desist from too much desire of knowing, because great distraction and +deception are found in it. Those who know, desire to seem and to be +called wise. There are many things of which the knowledge is of little +or no value to the soul, and the man is very foolish who turns to other +things than those which subserve his health. Many words do not satisfy +the soul; but a good life cools down the mind, and a good conscience +affords great confidence towards God. + +We might have great peace if we did not occupy ourselves with the words +and deeds which are no concern of ours. How can he remain long in peace +who meddles with cares which are foreign to him, who seeks opportunities +without, and recollects himself little or rarely? Blessed are the +simple, for they shall have much peace. + +Without charity, an outward work is of value; but whatever is done from +charity, however small and trivial it may be, becomes wholly fruitful. +For God weighs more the source from which an action comes than the work +which it does. He does much who loves much. He does much who does the +deed well. He does well who serves the community rather than his own +will. + +That often seems to be charity which is rather carnality; for natural +inclination, one's own will, the hope of reward, and the liking for +comfort are rarely absent. But whoever has true and perfect charity +seeks himself in nothing, but desires only the glory of God. He envies +no one, because he loves no joy of his own, nor cares to rejoice in +himself; but wishes, above all good things, to find felicity in God. +Whoever has a spark of true charity feels at once that all earthly +things are full Of vanity. + + +_II.--ADMONITIONS LEADING TO INWARD LIFE_ + + +"The kingdom of God is within you," says the Lord. Turn yourself with +your whole heart to the Lord, and leave this miserable world, and your +soul shall find rest. Learn to despise outward things, and to give +yourself to inward things, and you shall see the kingdom of God rise +within you. For the kingdom of God is peace and joy in the Holy Spirit, +and is not given to the impious. Christ shall come to you showing you +His consolation, if you prepare within you a home fit for Him. All His +glory and beauty are from within, and it is there that He delights +Himself. He often visits the man of inward mind, with sweet colloquy, +pleasant consolation, great peace, and most astounding familiarity. + +If you know not how to contemplate high and celestial things, rest in +the passion of Christ, and willingly dwell in His holy wounds. For if +you devoutly have recourse to the wounds of Jesus you will feel great +comfort in trouble, care little for human contempt, and easily bear +detracting words. For Christ, in the world, was despised by men, and in +His greatest need was deserted, among insults, by His friends. Christ +willed to suffer and to be despised, and shall you dare to complain of +anything? Christ had enemies and detractors, and do you wish to have all +friends and benefactors? Whence shall your patience be crowned if you +have suffered no adversity? If you desire to suffer nothing contrary to +you, how shall you be the friend of Christ? + +He to whom all things taste as they really are, and not as they are +spoken of or esteemed, is the truly wise man, taught by God rather than +by men. Whoever knows how to walk from within, and to put little value +on things without, needs not to find a place nor wait a time for his +devout prayers. The man of inward mind quickly recollects himself, +because he never spends himself wholly upon outward things. + +First hold yourself in peace, and then you will be able to pacify +others. The pacific man is of more service than the learned. But the +passionate man turns even good to evil, easily believing evil. The +peaceful man is good, and turns all things to good. The man who is well +at peace is suspicious of nothing, but the discontented and turbulent is +agitated by divers suspicions. He can neither himself be quiet, nor +leave others in quiet. He often says what he ought not to say, and +leaves undone what he ought to do. He thinks about what others ought to +do, and neglects his own duty. + +Man is raised from earthly matters by two wings--namely, simplicity and +purity. Simplicity should be in his intention, and purity in his +affection. Simplicity tends towards God, purity takes hold of Him. + +Always to do well, and to hold oneself in small esteem, is the mark of a +humble soul. To desire no consolation from any created thing is the sign +of great purity and inward confidence. The man who seeks no witness for +himself from without has plainly committed himself altogether to God. +For "not he who commends himself is approved," says blessed Paul, "but +he whom God commends." To walk with God within, and to be held by no +affection without, is the state of the inwardly-minded man. + +Jesus has now many lovers of His celestial kingdom, but few bearers of +His Cross. He has many who desire consolation, but few who desire +tribulation. He finds many companions of His table, but few of His +abstinence. All wish to rejoice with Him; few are willing to bear +anything for Him. + +In the Cross is safety; in the Cross is life; in the Cross is protection +from enemies; in the Cross is the sweetness of heaven; in the Cross is +strength of mind; in the Cross is the perfection of sanctity. There is +no health for the soul nor hope of eternal life except in the Cross. +Take up your cross, therefore, and follow Jesus. + +If anything were better and more useful for the welfare of men than to +suffer, Christ would have shown it both in His words and in His example. +For He calls to the disciples who follow Him, and to all who desire to +follow Him, and says: "If any will come after Me, let him deny himself, +and lift up his cross and follow Me." When all has been read and +studied, let this be our conclusion--"That through many tribulations we +must enter into the kingdom of God." + + +_III.--OF INWARD CONSOLATION_ + + +I will hear what the Lord God may say in me. It is a blessed soul which +hears the Lord speaking in it, and receives the word of consolation from +His lips. Speak, Lord, for your servant hears. + +"I have taught the prophets from the beginning," says the Lord, "and +until now I have not ceased to speak at all; but many are deaf and hard +to My voice. Many listen more willingly to the world than to God, and +more easily follow the appetite of the flesh than God's good pleasure. +The world promises small and temporary things, and is served with great +eagerness; I promise supreme and eternal things, but the hearts of +mortals are torpid. Who serves and obeys Me in everything with so great +care as the world and its lords are served? Men run a long way for a +trifling reward, but for eternal life many scarcely lift a foot once +from earth." + +Lord God, you are all my good. And who am I that I should dare to speak +to you? I am the poorest and least of your servants, a wretched little +worm, far more miserable and contemptible than I know or dare to say, +Yet remember me, Lord, because I am nothing, I have nothing, and am +worth nothing. Do not turn your face from me; do not defer your coming; +do not withdraw your consolation, lest my soul become like a waterless +land before you. Lord, teach me to do your will; teach me to walk +worthily and humbly in your presence; because you are my wisdom, who +truly know me, and knew me before the world was made and before I was +born in the world. + +"Son, walk in My presence in truth, and seek Me always in the simplicity +of your heart. Whoever walks in My presence in truth will be kept safe +from the assaults of evil, and truth will liberate him from those who +lead astray and from the detractions of unjust men. If truth shall have +liberated you, then you will be truly free, and you will not care for +the vain words of men." + +It is true, Lord, I pray that it may be done with me as you say. Let +your truth teach me and guard me, and keep me to a salutary end. Let it +liberate me from every evil affection and inordinate love, and I shall +walk with you in great liberty of heart. + +"I will teach you," says Truth, "what things are right and pleasing in +my Bight. Think on your sins with great displeasure and sorrow, and +never imagine yourself to be anything because of your good works. You +are really a sinner, liable to many passions and entangled in them. Of +yourself, you are always tending to nothingness; you quickly slip, you +are quickly overcome, you are quickly disturbed, you quickly pass away. +You have nothing in which you can glory, but much for which you ought to +hold yourself cheap; you are far more infirm than you are able to +understand. + +"Some do not sincerely walk before me, but, led by a certain curiosity +and arrogance, wish to know my secrets, and to understand the high +things of God, neglecting themselves and their welfare. These often fall +into great temptations and sins, when I resist them on account of their +pride and curiosity. Fear the judgments of God; be exceedingly afraid of +the anger of the Omnipotent. Do not discuss the works of the Highest, +but scrutinise your iniquities, and see how gravely you have offended +and how many good deeds you have neglected. + +"There are others, enlightened in their minds and purged in their +affections, who are always panting after eternal things and listen +unwillingly to earthly things; these perceive what the spirit of truth +says within them. + +"Love is a great thing, altogether a great good, which alone makes light +everything that is heavy, and carries evenly all that is uneven. For it +bears the burden without being burdened, and makes sweet and tasteful +everything that is bitter. The noble love of Jesus drives on to great +deeds, and always excites to the desire of more perfect things. Love +wills to rise upwards, and not to be held back by the lowest things. +Nothing is sweeter than love, nothing is stronger, nothing higher or +broader; nothing is more delightful or fuller in heaven or in earth; for +love is born of God, and cannot rest except in God, above all created +things." + + +_IV.--DEVOUT EXHORTATION TO HOLY COMMUNION_ + + +The voice of Christ, "Come to Me all who labour and are burdened, and I +will refresh you," says the Lord. "The bread which I will give you is My +flesh for the life of the world. Receive and consume it; this is My body +which will be delivered for you; do this in commemoration of Me. Whoever +eats My flesh and drinks My blood remains in Me, and I in him. The words +which I have spoken to you are spirit and life." + +These are your words, Christ, Eternal Truth, although not given at one +time nor written in one place. Because they are yours, and true, they +are all to be received gratefully by me. They are yours, and you +pronounced them; and they are mine also because you uttered them for my +welfare. I gladly accept them from your lips, that they may be more +closely buried in my heart. Words of such kindness, full of sweetness +and love, arouse me. But my own sins frighten me, and my impure +conscience repels me from taking hold of such great mysteries. + +You bid me come to you trustfully if I would have part with you; and to +receive the food of immortality if I wish to obtain eternal life and +glory. "Come to Me," you say, "all who labour and are burdened, and I +will refresh you." O sweet and friendly word in the ear of a sinner, +that you, my Lord God, invite the destitute and poor to the communion of +your most holy Body. + +Lord, all things in heaven and in earth are yours. I desire to offer +myself as a willing oblation, and to remain yours in perpetuity. Lord, +in the simplicity of my heart I offer myself to you to-day to be for +ever your servant--offer myself for obedience and for a sacrifice of +eternal praise. Receive me with this holy offering of your precious +Body, which I offer to you to-day in the presence of angels, assisting +though unseen, that it may be for my welfare and for the welfare of all +your people. + +The voice of the beloved: "God does not deceive you; he is deceived who +trusts too much to himself. God walks with the simple, reveals Himself +to the humble, gives understanding to the feeble, opens His meaning to +pure minds, and hides His grace from the inquisitive and proud. Human +reason is weak and may be deceived, but true faith cannot be deceived. + +"All reason and natural investigation ought to follow faith, and not +precede it nor impair it. For faith and love excel here most of all, and +work in hidden ways in, this most holy and transcendent sacrament. The +eternal and immeasurable God of infinite power does great and +inscrutable things in heaven and in earth, and there is no finding out +of His wonderful works. If the works of God were such that they could +easily be seized by human reason, they would not deserve to be called +wonderful or ineffable." + + * * * * * + + + +THE KORAN + + + The Koran, the sacred book of Islam, and of more than a + hundred millions of men, is the least original of all existing + sacred books. Muslims agree in believing that it is from + beginning to end, and word for word, inspired; and that it + existed before the Creation on what is called the "Preserved + Tablet." This tablet was brought by the Archangel Gabriel from + the highest to the lowest heaven, whence it was dictated sura + [chapter] by sura, verse by verse, and word by word, to the + Prophet Muhammad. Its matter is, however, taken for the most + part from the Old Testament, especially the narrative portions + of the Pentateuch; from the New Testament; from the traditions + of the ancient Arabs; and also from Zoroastrian and other + scriptures or traditions. It is not likely that Muhammad used + literary sources, except in a small measure. But there were + Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and others in and around + Arabia, and he must have learned from their lips the principal + doctrines of their respective religions. Nevertheless, + planless and fragmentary compilation though it be, the Koran, + particularly in the earlier suras written at Mekka, has much + of the grandeur and poetry of style and the passionate + exaltation of a true prophet, the sincerity of whose zeal is + unquestioned. + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +The word "Koran," or "Quran,"[13] from a root _qara_ = to read, means +literally "what is to be read," _i.e._, the written authority on all +matters, religions, etc. It is the exact equivalent of the Rabbinical +Hebrew word "Miqra" (from the Hebrew _qara_ = to read). The idea +involved in both the Arabic and Hebrew words is that what is so +designated is the ultimate authority deciding all questions. The Rabbis +of post-Biblical times (compare the Jewish Qabbalah) regarded the Old +Testament as an encyclopaedia of universal knowledge. In the best-known +Muslim universities of modern times philosophy, science, and everything +else are taught from the Koran, which is made in some way to contain +implicitly the latest words of modern thought, invention, and discovery. + +The Koran did not exist as a whole until after the Prophet +Muhammad's[14] death. It was then compiled by the order of Abu Bekr, the +first Sunnite Caliph. Its contents were found written on palm leaves +white stones, and other articles capable of being written on. The +compilers depended, to a large extent, upon the memory of the prophet's +first followers, but the Koran, as we now have it, existed without any +appreciable divergence by the end of the first year, after Muhammad's +death (A.D. 632). + +This Muslim Bible has no scheme or plan because it is an almost +haphazard compilation of unconnected discourses, uttered on various +unexplained occasions, and dealing with many incidents and themes. There +is practically no editing, and no attempt is made to explain when, or +how, or why the various speeches were delivered. + +The earliest native writers and commentators on the Koran arranged its +suras in two main classes: (1) Those uttered at Mekka before the flight +in A.D. 622; (2) those written at Medinah during the next ten years. + +Most recent scholars follow the chronological arrangement proposed by +the great Orientalist Nöldeke in 1860. Friedrich Schwally in his newly +revised edition of Nöldeke's great work on the Koran follows his master +in almost every detail. Rodwell's translation of the Koran, recently +issued in "Everyman's Library," arranges the suras chronologically +according to Nöldeke's scheme. In the summaries that follow, it is this +chronological order that is adopted. In the Arabic editions followed by +the well-known and valuable translations of Sale, E.H. Palmer (Clarendon +Press, "Sacred Books of the East," vols. 6 and 9), and others, the +principle adopted is to put the longest suras first and the shortest +last. + +The Mekkan suras are much more original than the Medinah ones, +especially those of the first period--_i.e._, those belonging to the +first four years of Muhammad's prophetic mission, _e.g._, suras 96, 74, +etc. In these suras the style is grander, more passionate, and fuller of +poetry. The prophet appears in a state of great mental exaltation, full +of a zeal which no words can adequately express, and of a sincerity +which few scholars have questioned. + +The suras of the second period, the following two years of the prophet's +mission (_e.g._, suras 54, 37, etc.), have the same general character, +but are less vehement. Still less vehement and more restrained are the +suras of the third Mekkan period--_i.e._, from the seventh year of the +prophet's mission to his flight in A.D. 622 (_e.g._, suras 32, 41, +etc.). The style of the Medinah suras resembles that of the Mekkan +revelations of the third period, only they are still more matter of fact +and restrained, and are largely made up of appeals to Jews, Christians, +and others to abandon their "unbelief," and to accept the prophet who +had come to them with the true religion, a religion as old as Abraham, +though forgotten for many ages. + +The Koran differs from the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, +including the Apocrypha, in that these latter are much-more varied, as +emanating from many minds, and belonging to very different occasions. +The Koran is, from beginning to end, the effusions (often very wild) of +one man. + +The present editor has kept before him the Arabic text of Maracci, +Fluegel, and Redslob, and also several Oriental editions (Cairo, +Constantinople, Calcutta, etc.). But, of course, the best known +translations, and also the native commentaries (Baidhawi, etc.), have +been consulted. + +In the summaries which follow, numerals following the paragraphs +indicate the number of the sura or suras in the Arabic text as well as +in Sale's translation. + + +MEKKAN SURAS + +I.--FIRST PERIOD (A.D. 613-617) + + +_MUHAMMAD'S FIRST CALL TO READ THE KORAN_ + + +In the name of the gracious and compassionate God.[15] + +Recite in the name of thy Lord, who created man and taught men to write, +recite what God has revealed to thee His Prophet, and be not afraid. +Consider not the opposition of Abu Gahl, who has threatened to put his +foot on thy neck if thou dost worship Allah. (96.) + + +_DENUNCIATION OF ABU LAHAB_[16] + + +Abu Lahab's two hands shall perish, and he himself shall perish. His +wealth shall not avail him, nor all that he has gained. He shall be +burnt in the fiery flames[17] of Hell, his wife carrying wood for fuel, +with a cord of palm-tree fibres twisted round her neck. (III.) + + +_MUHAMMAD COMMANDED TO OFFER SACRIFICES_ + + +We have given to thee, O Prophet, great wealth and abounding riches. +Pray thou to Allah, and offer Him suitable sacrifices out of what He has +bestowed upon thee. (108.) + +[Compare with this paragraph the following, from sura 22 of the Medinah +group: + +We have ordained that ye offer sacrifices unto Allah, and that ye +receive much benefit therefrom. When, therefore, ye slay your camels let +the name of Allah be pronounced over them. Then eat of them and give to +those who ask humbly, giving also to the poor and needy who ask not. +Flesh and blood can never reach unto Allah (God), but your obedience and +piety will reach unto Him.] + + +_BELIEVERS AND UNBELIEVERS_ + + +We will make the path to happiness easy and safe to all such as fear +Allah, and give alms, and believe the truth proclaimed by Allah's +messenger. But we will make easy the path to distress and misery for all +such as are niggardly, are bent on making riches, and deny the truth +when it is proclaimed to them. When these last fall headlong into Hell, +their wealth will avail them nothing. In the burning furnace they shall +burn and broil. (92.) + + +_THE DUTY OF EXERCISING CHARITY_ + + +Verily, We (God) have created some men in such poverty and distress as +to need the help of others. What does that braggart man mean when he +says, "None shall prevail over me; I have and have scattered riches +boundless"? Does he not know that there is a Divine eye that sees him? +Have not We created him with a capacity of distinguishing between the +two highways, that which descends towards evil, and that which ascends +towards the good? This niggardly man, however, makes no attempt to scale +the heights. What is it to ascend the upward road? It is to free the +prisoner, to feed the hungry, to defend the orphan who is akin, and the +down-trodden poor. Besides this, it is enjoined that men believe in +Allah and His Prophet; that they encourage each other to be steadfast in +the faith, exercising mutual consideration and sympathy. All such as do +these things shall be the people of the right hand. But all those who +disbelieve Our signs shall be the companions of the left hand, over whom +shall be a vault of fire. (90.) + + +_MUHAMMAD COMMANDED TO ARISE AND PREACH_ + + +O thou mantle-wrapped one, arise and warn the people, and magnify the +Lord. The Day of Judgment will be a sad day for unbelievers. Leave thou +thine enemy in Mine hands, and let Me visit upon him his well deserved +punishment. For he has ridiculed the Koran; he has said: "This is +nothing else than magic, they are the words of a man." I [God] will cast +him into Hell, where he shall burn in torment. The fires of this Hell +leave nothing unconsumed. It scorches men's flesh. We have appointed +nineteen angels as guardians over Hell fire. But why nineteen? That +believers may be sure of the veracity of this Book, and that unbelievers +may have occasion for denying the divinity of the Koran, saying: "What +means this number?" (74.) + + +_THE KORAN GIVEN TO MUHAMMAD_ + + +Verily, We have brought down to Muhammad the Koran on the Night of +Power.[18] This one Night of Power is better than a thousand months. On +that night did Gabriel and the angels descend and reveal to Our Prophet +all the words of the Koran. (97.) + + +_MUHAMMAD NOT MAD NOR AN IMPOSTOR_ + + +Believe thou not, O Messenger of Mine, when they say, "Thou art bereft +of thy senses," when they charge thee with imposture. Thy Lord knoweth +who are bereft of their senses, and who are the impostors. Warn thou +those maligners of the awful judgment which awaits them. (68.) + + +_GOD'S PROMISE TO HELP MUHAMMAD TO RECITE THE KORAN_ + + +We [Allah] shall enable thee to remember all the parts of the Koran, so +that thou mayest recite them for the encouragement of those who believe +and as a warning to all unbelievers. Nor shalt thou forget aught of this +Revelation except what We please.[19] All those who fear God will +receive the prophet's warning, but all those who disbelieve shall be +cast into terrible fire where they will neither live nor die. This +doctrine which We command thee to preach is that taught in the ancient +Books, the Books of Abraham and of Moses, who were faithful Muslims. +(87.) + + +_THE KORAN INSPIRED_ + + +By the falling star, your comrade Muhammad does not err, nor does he +speak his own mind. What he utters has been revealed to him. The Koran +is from God through Gabriel; it is not the work of man. Why worship ye +goddesses like Allat and Al'Uzza and Manah? There are no goddesses.[20] +(53.) + + +_THE TREATMENT OF WOMEN BELIEVERS_ + + +When believing women come to you as fugitives, leaving behind them +unbelieving husbands, send them not back to the infidels, but test their +faith, and if they are found true Muslims, pay back to their husbands +the dowries which they have expended. Then may ye marry them, provided +ye give them the accustomed dowries. (60.) + + +_GOD'S UNITY_[21] + + +Say "He is but one God, the everlasting God who begets not,[22] nor is +begotten, and there is none like unto Him." (10.) + + +_FORMULæ OF EXORCISM_ + + +I flee for refuge to the Lord, that He may protect me against the evil +things which He has created. Against night goblins when the night comes +on, and from witches who bind by their magic knots, and from such as +injure by the evil eye; I seek refuge with the Lord from charmers, from +jinns [demons], and from evil men. (113.) + + +_THE HEAVEN OF THE MUSLIMS_ + + +All who believe in Allah and His Prophet shall be admitted hereafter +into delightful gardens [Paradise]. They shall repose for ever on +couches decked with gold and precious stones, being supplied with +abundance of luscious wine, fruits of the choicest variety, and the +flesh of birds. They shall be accompanied by damsels of unsurpassed +beauty, with large black, pearl-like eyes. (56.) + + +II.--SECOND PERIOD (A.D. 617-619) + + +_WINDS AND DEMONS SUBJECT TO SOLOMON_ + + +And We made a strong wind subject to Solomon, so that it conveyed him +whither he would. We also gave him the power of commanding demons, so +that they dived into the sea to bring him pearls, and did everything +else that he wished.[23] (21.) + + +_THE MIRACULOUS BIRTH OF JESUS_ + + +Remember Mary, who preserved her virginity, and into whom We breathed +Our own spirit, so that when her son Isa [Jesus] was born, mother and +son became a sign unto all mankind. (21.) + + +_THE VIRGIN MARY_ + + +After Mary, the Virgin, had begotten her son Isa [Jesus] she was found +one day carrying the child in her arms when some pious men met her and +rebuked her, saying: "O Mary, thou sister of Aaron,[24] what is this +strange thing thou hast done? Thy father Amram was an upright man, and +thy mother was no harlot, as thou seemest to be." In answer to all this +the infant child, not having previously lisped a syllable, said, +"Verily, I am the servant of Allah, who has given me the Book of the +Gospel, and appointed me to be His Prophet. He has made me blessed, and +to be a blessing. Happy the day wherein I was born, and the day wherein +I shall die, and the day whereon I shall be raised again." (19.) + + +_DEVILS SENT BY GOD TO MAKE MEN SIN_ + + +De ye not know that We [God] send devils against the unbelievers to move +them, by their suggestions, to the sin of which these unbelievers become +guilty? (19.) + + +_SOLOMON'S ARMY OF MEN, BIRDS, AND JINNS (DEMONS)_ + + +Solomon was able to understand the speech of birds and to make them +understand his speech.[25] There gathered to him on a certain day his +entire army of men, birds, and jinns in the Valley of Ants. The crowd +was so great that one of the ants said to his fellows, "Get you at once +into your ant-homes, or you will be trampled to death by one of these +myriad feet." + + +_THE QUEEN OF SHEBA'S VISIT TO SOLOMON_ + + +Solomon, one day reviewing his varied troops, missed among the birds the +hoopoe, and asked whither this bird had gone, threatening all manner of +punishments for his absence. Soon the missing bird came flying to the +king, uttering the words, "I have just come from Sheba, where I have +looked upon the most wonderful queen, sitting upon the most magnificent +throne that I have ever set eyes on. But this queen and her subjects, +unfortunately, worshipped not Allah, the true God, but the sun." + +"I will test the truth of thy words!" replied the angry monarch. "Take +thou this note of mine to the queen thou laudest so highly, bidding her +come to my kingdom to acknowledge my authority." + +Almost in a twinkling the hoopoe was back with the queen's answer +consenting to visit Solomon and his dominions. Solomon, having received +this answer, asked the nobles of his kingdom, "Which of you will bring +me at once the Queen of Sheba's throne, to be here before she arrives?" + +"I will!" said one of the wickedest of the jinns. + +"And so will I, in a whiff!" answered a jinn that was well acquainted +with the Scriptures. + +In a very short time the throne was in Solomon's palace. "Alter ye it," +said the king, "as much as ye may, to see whether she has any +supernatural knowledge to identify it." + +When the queen arrived, she was asked, "What throne is this?" + +She replied, "It is mine--strangely mine." After she had witnessed the +glory and wisdom of Solomon, she gave up her idols, and became the +worshipper of Allah, the true God. (27.) + + +III.--THIRD PERIOD (A.D. 619-622) + + +_PUNISHMENT FOR VIOLATING THE SABBATH_ + + +Ye know how We tested and proved those wicked people who dwelt in Elath +on the Red Sea. On the Sabbath day We made the fish come right up to +them, as if asking to be caught; but not so on other days. Those who +yielded to the temptation, and thus violated the sanctity of the sacred +day, We turned into apes as a punishment for their wrong-doing. (7.) + + +_MOUNT SINAI SHAKEN ABOVE THE ISRAELITES_ + + +When the Israelites doubted the authority of the Law which We had given +them through Moses, Our servant, We caused Mount Sinai to rear itself +above them as a covering, so that the people feared it was going to fall +upon them. And We said to them, "Receive ye with reverence that Law +which We have given you, and remember what is contained therein, taking +heed thereto."[26] (7.) + + +MEDINAH SURAS + +_SALVATION FOR OTHERS THAN MUSLIMS_ + + +All such as believe in Allah and in the last day, and who do that which +is right, whether they are Jews, Christians, Sabeans, or Muslims, shall +have their reward from Allah, who will take away from them all fear and +grief. (3.) + + +_Muslims Only to be Saved_ + + +No one that follows any other religion than Islam will be accepted by +God or saved from perishing in the life that is to come. (2.) + + +_ABRAHAM, ISHMAEL, ISAAC, JACOB, AND THE TRIBES OF ISRAEL ALL MUSLIMS_ + + +Do ye Jews say that Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes of +Israel were Jews, or do ye Christians say that they were Christians? But +God knows better, and has revealed to you the truth that all these were +Muslims, followers of the religion of Islam. But God is cognisant of +your unbelief, and will bring you to account. (2.) + + +_THE QIBLAH CHANGED FROM JERUSALEM TO MEKKA_ + + +Foolish men will say, "Why have they changed the Qiblah[27] from +Jerusalem to the Kaabah[28] in Mekka?" Say to them, "God's is the east +and the west, and He has commanded us to turn our face, when we pray, to +the sacred mosque at Mekka." (2.) + + +_AGAINST JEWS AND CHRISTIANS, WHO CAPRICIOUSLY CHOOSE AND REJECT WHAT +DIVINE REVELATIONS THEY PLEASE_ + + +Why, then, do ye believe part only of the Book, and deny that part which +authenticates the mission of the Prophet of Allah? All those who are +guilty of this sin shall have shame in this life, and on the +Resurrection Day shall be driven into the most excrutiating torments. +(2.) + + +_THE MEKKA TEMPLE FOUNDED BY ABRAHAM_ + + +It was Abraham, our father, who first entered the Kaabah sanctuary at +Mekka, and it is our bounden duty, if at all able, to visit this sacred +house. (3.) + + +_JESUS PREDICTS THE COMING OF MUHAMMAD_ + + +Jesus, Mary's Son, said, "O Israelites, I am Allah's Apostle, sent to +confirm the Law of the Old Testament, and to bring you good tidings of a +great Apostle to come after me, whose name is Ahmad."[29] (61.) + + +_MUHAMMAD THE LAST AND GREATEST OF GOD'S MESSENGERS_ + + +In the former times We sent Our apostles with convincing arguments and +all decisive miracles, and We gave them the Scriptures. We sent to men +Noah, Abraham, and the prophets, but many believed not. Then We sent Our +apostles, after whom came Jesus, Son of Mary. Then, last of all, came +Our great apostle, Muhammad. O all ye believers, fear God and obey the +words of Allah's messenger. (57.) + + +_THE KORAN CONSISTENT THROUGHOUT_ + + +Why do they not carefully and impartially consider the Koran? If it had +not been wholly of God, unbelievers would have been able to find out +contradictions. (4.) + + +_MUHAMMAD CONTRADICTS THE FACT OF THE CRUCIFIXION OF CHRIST_ + + +Christians say that Christ Jesus, Son of Mary, was slain. But He was not +slain, nor crucified, but another was taken for Him. The true Isa +[Jesus] was taken up by God unto Himself, not seeing death. (4.) + + +_MUHAMMAD ADMITS THE FACT OF THE CRUCIFIXION OF CHRIST_ + + +And God said, "O Isa [Jesus], I will cause Thee to die, but I will take +Thee up to Myself and deliver Thee from unbelievers!" (4.) + + +_ONE GOD, NOT THREE GODS, ACCORDING TO THE SCRIPTURE_ + + +O ye who have received the Scriptures, do not believe more than these +sacred writings teach! Jesus, Son of Mary, was God's Apostle, His Word, +a spirit proceeding from God. Do not say there are three gods--Allah, +Isa, and Mary.[30] There is but one God, and He can have no son. (4.) + + +_FORBIDDEN FOOD_ + + +Ye are forbidden to eat that which dies of itself, blood, swine's flesh, +and that on which the name of any other god than Allah has been +invoked;[31] that which has been strangled, or killed by a blow, or by a +fall, or what has been gored to death, and whatever has been sacrificed +to idols. (5.) + + +_DIVINATION BY ARROWS CONDEMNED_ + + +It is not allowed you to make division by casting lots with arrows. + + +_DENIAL OF THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST AND THE TRINITY_ + + +Those are unbelievers who say that God is the Christ [lit., Messiah], +Son of Mary. Nay, this Christ Himself said, "O Israelites, worship God, +My Lord and yours!" He who associates with God any companion His equal +shall be excluded from Paradise, and have his place in Hell fire. (5.) + + +_Jesus Denies that He and His Mother were Gods_ + + +At the last day God will say unto Isa, "O Isa, Son of Mary, didst Thou +say unto men, 'Take Me and My Mother for two Gods in addition to +Allah'?" And He shall answer, "Praise be unto Thee. Thou knowest all +things, and Thou knowest that I commanded men to worship Allah alone." + + * * * * * + + + +CARDINAL NEWMAN + + +APOLOGIA PRO VITâ SUA + + + That most remarkable ecclesiastic of the nineteenth century, + John Henry Newman, born in London on February 21, 1801, was of + Dutch extraction, but the name itself, at one time spelt + "Newmann," suggests Hebrew origin. His mother came of a + Huguenot family, long established in England as engravers and + paper manufacturers. His early education he obtained at a + school at Ealing, where he distinguished himself by diligence + and good conduct, as also by a certain aloofness and shyness. + The only important incident Newman connects with this period + is his "conversion," an incident more certain to him "than + that he had hands and feet." In 1820 he graduated at Trinity + College, Oxford. The various phases of his religious career + are amply set forth in his famous "Apologia pro Vitâ Sua" + ("Apology for His Life"), afterwards called "A History of my + Religious Opinions." The work was called out by an attack, in + January, 1864, by Charles Kingsley, in a review of Froude's + "History of England." Kingsley wrote: "Truth, for its own + sake, had never been a virtue with the Roman clergy. Father + Newman informs us that it need not, and, on the whole, ought + not to be." Challenged to withdraw or substantiate this + charge, Kingsley did neither, whereupon Newman, after much + correspondence, wrote his "Apologia," which was published in + bi-monthly parts. Newman died on August 11, 1890. + + +_I.--HISTORY OF MY RELIGIOUS OPINIONS TO 1833_ + + +I was brought up to delight in the Bible, but I had no formed religious +convictions till I was fifteen. Of course, Ï had a perfect knowledge of +my Catechism. But when I was fifteen I fell under the influence of a +definite creed, and believed that the inward conversion of which I was +conscious, and of which I am still more certain than that I have hands +and feet, would last into the next life, and that I was elected to +eternal glory. This belief faded away at the age of twenty-one; but it +had had some influence on my opinions, in isolating me from the objects +which surrounded me, in confirming my mistrust of the reality of +material phenomena, and in making me rest in the thought of two, and two +only, absolute and luminously self-evident beings, myself and my +Creator. At the age of fifteen also I was deeply impressed by the works +of Thomas Scott, by Law's "Serious Call," by Joseph Milner's "Church +History," and by Newton, "On the Prophecies." Newton's book stained my +imagination, till 1843, with the doctrine that the Pope was Antichrist. +At this same time, the autumn of 1816, I realised that it would be the +will of God that I should lead a single life, and this anticipation +strengthened my feeling of separation from the visible world. + +In 1822, at Oxford, I came under new influences. Dr. Hawkins, then vicar +of St. Mary's, a man of most exact mind, led me to the doctrine of +tradition, and taught me to anticipate that before many years there +would be an attack made upon the books and the canon of Scripture. He +gave me Summer's "Treatise on Apostolic Preaching," by which I was led +to give up my remaining Calvinism, and to receive the doctrine of +baptismal regeneration. I now read Butler's "Analogy," from which I +learned two principles which underlie much of my teaching: first, that +the idea of an analogy between the separate works of God leads to the +conclusion that the less important system is sacramentally connected +with the more momentous system; and secondly, Butler's doctrine that +probability is the guide of life led me to the question of the logical +cogency of faith. + +I owe much to Dr. Whately, who taught me the existence of the Church as +a substantive corporation, and fixed in me those anti-Erastian views of +Church polity which characterized the Tractarian movement. That +movement, unknown to ourselves, was taking form. Its true author, John +Keble, had left Oxford for a country parish, but his "Christian Year" +had waked a new music in the hearts of thousands. His creative mind +repeated, in a new form, Butler's two principles: that material +phenomena are the types and instruments of real things unseen; and that, +in religious certitude, faith and love give to probability a force which +it has not in itself. + +Hurrell Froude, one of his pupils and a man of high genius, taught me to +venerate the Church of Rome and to dislike the Reformation. About 1830 I +set to work on "The Arians of the Fourth Century," and the broad +philosophy of Clement and Origen, based on the mystical or sacramental +principle, came like music to my inward ear. + +Great events were now happening at home and abroad. There had been a +revolution in France, and the reform agitation was going on around me as +I wrote. The vital question was, how were we to keep the Church from +being liberalised? I saw that reformation principles were powerless to +rescue her. I ever kept before me that there was something greater than +the Establishd Church, and that was the Church Catholic and Apostolic, +of which she was but the local presence and the organ. She was nothing, +unless she was this. I was now disengaged from college duties; my health +had suffered from work; and in December, 1832, I joined Hurrell Froude +and his father, who were going to the south of Europe. I went to various +coasts of the Mediterranean. I saw nothing but what was external; of the +hidden life of Catholics I knew nothing. England was in my thoughts +solely, and the success of the liberal cause fretted me. The thought +came upon me that deliverance is wrought not by the many but by the few, +not by bodies but by persons. + +I began to think that I had a mission. I reached England on July 9, and +on July 14 Mr. Keble preached in the university pulpit on "National +Apostasy." This day was the start of the religious movement of 1833. + + +_II.--WITH THE TRACTARIANS_ + + +A movement had begun in opposition to the danger of liberalism which was +threatening the religion of the nation. Mr. Keble, Hurrell Froude, Mr. +William Palmer, Mr. Arthur Purceval, Mr. Hugh Rose, and other zealous, +and able men had united their counsels. I had the exultation of health +restored, a joyous energy which I never had before or since. And I had a +supreme confidence in our cause; we were upholding that primitive +Christianity which was delivered for all time by the early teachers of +the Church. Owing to this supreme confidence, my behaviour had a mixture +in it both of fierceness, and of sport, and on this account it gave +offence to many. + +The three propositions about which I was so confident were as follow: +First was the principle of dogma; my battle was with liberalism--and by +liberalism I mean the anti-dogmatic principle and its developments. I +have changed in many things, but not in this; religion, as a mere +sentiment, has been to me from childhood a dream and a mockery. +Secondly, I was confident that there was a visible Church, with +sacraments and rites which are the channels of invisible grace. Here, +again, I have not changed. But, thirdly, I held a view of the Church of +Rome which I have utterly renounced since. + +The attack of liberalism upon the university and upon the old orthodoxy +of England began in 1834. Thus, in a pamphlet by Dr. Hampden it was +maintained that religion is distinct from theological opinion, that it +is but a common prejudice to identify theological propositions with the +simple religion of Christ; and so on. The tracts were widely read and +discussed, but the counter-attack against liberalism was not a power +until Dr. Pusey joined us. His great learning, his immense diligence, +his simple devotion to the cause of religion, no less than his great +influence in the university, at once gave us a position and a name. He +taught us that there ought to be more sense of responsibility in the +tracts and in the whole movement. Under his influence I wrote a work +defining our relation to the Church of Rome, namely, "The Prophetical +Office of the Church viewed relatively to Romanism and to Popular +Protestantism." The subject of this volume, published in 1837, is the +"Via Media." This was followed by my "Essay on Justification," and other +works; and so I went on for years up to 1841. It was, in a human point +of view, the happiest time of my life. We prospered and spread. + +But the movement was to come into collision with the nation, and with +the Church of the nation. In 1838 my bishop made some light +animadversions on the tracts. But my tract on the Thirty-nine Articles, +designed to show that the Articles do not oppose Catholic teaching, and +but partially oppose Roman dogma, while they do oppose the dominant +errors of Rome, brought down, in 1839, a storm of indignation throughout +the country. I saw that my place in the movement was lost. + + +_III.--A THEOLOGICAL DEATH-BED_ + + +In the long vacation of 1839 I began to study the history of the +Monophysites, and was-absorbed in the doctrinal question. It was during +this course of reading that for the first time a doubt came upon me of +the tenableness of Anglicism, and by the end of August I was seriously +alarmed. My stronghold was antiquity; yet here, in the fifth century, I +found Christendom of the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries reflected. + +The drama of religion and the combat of truth and error were ever one +and the same; the principles of the Roman Church now were those of the +Church then; the principles of heretics then were those of Protestants +now; there was an awful similitude. Be my soul with the saints! In the +same month the words of St. Augustine were pointed out to me, _"Securus +judicat orbis terrarum";_ they struck me with a power which I had never +felt from any words before; the theory of the "Via Media" was absolutely +pulverised. + +In the summer of 1841, in retirement at Littlemore, I received three +blows which broke me. First, in the history of the Arians I found the +same phenomena which I had found in the Monophysites: the pure Arians +were the Protestants, the semi-Arians were the Anglicans, and Rome now +was what it was then. Secondly, the bishops, one after another, began to +charge against me in a formal, determinate movement. Third, it was +proposed by Anglican authorities to establish an Anglican bishopric in +Jerusalem--a step which amounted to a formal denial that the Anglican +Church was a branch of the Catholic Church, and to a formal assertion +that the Anglican was a Protestant Church. The Jerusalem bishopric +brought me to the beginning of the end. + +From the end of 1841 I was on my death-bed, as regards my membership of +the Anglican Church, though at the time I became aware of it only by +degrees. A death-bed has scarcely a history; it is a tedious decline, +with seasons of rallying and seasons of falling back. My position at +first was this: I had given up my place in the movement in the spring of +1841, but I could not give up my duties towards the many and various +minds who had been brought into it by me; I expected gradually to fall +back into lay communion; I never contemplated leaving the Church of +England; I could not hold office in its service if I were not allowed to +hold the Catholic sense of the Articles; I could not go to Rome while +she suffered honours to be paid to the Blessed Virgin and the saints +which I thought in my conscience to be incompatible with the supreme +glory of the One, Infinite and Eternal; I desired a union with Rome +under conditions, Church with Church; I called Littlemore my Torres +Vedras, and thought that some day we might advance again within the +Anglican Church; I kept back all persons who were disposed to go to Rome +with all my might. + +The "Via Media" was now an impossible idea; I abandoned that old ground, +and took another. I said, "Much as Roman Catholics may denounce us at +present as schismatical, they could not resist us if the Anglican +communion had but that one note of the Church upon it--sanctity." I was +pleased with my new view, but my friends were naturally offended at a +novel line of argument which substituted a sort of methodistic +self-contemplation for the plain and honest tokens of a divine mission +in the Anglican Church. + +In spite of my ingrained fears of Rome, in spite of my affection for +Oxford and Oriel, yet I had a secret longing love of Rome, the Mother of +English Christianity. It was the consciousness of this bias in myself +which made me preach so earnestly against the danger of being swayed in +religious inquiry by our sympathy rather than by our reason. I was in +great perplexity, and hardly knew where I stood; I incurred the charge +of weakness from some men, and of mysteriousness and underhand dealing +from the majority. But I have never had any suspicion of my own honesty. + +In July, 1844, I wrote to a friend: "I am far more certain, according to +the fathers, that we _are_ in a state of culpable separation than that +developments do _not_ exist under the Gospel, and that the Roman +developments are not the true ones." I then saw that the principle of +development was discernible from the first years of the Catholic +teaching up to the present day. I came to the conclusion that there was +no medium, in true philosophy, between atheism and Catholicity, and that +a perfectly consistent mind must embrace either the one or the other. I +saw that no valid reasons could be assigned for continuing in the +Anglican Church, and that no Valid objections could be taken to joining +the Roman. + +In February, 1843, I had made a formal retraction of all the hard things +which I had said against the Church of Rome, and in September I had +resigned the living of St. Mary's, Littlemore included. I began my +"Essay on the Development of Doctrine" in the beginning of 1845, and was +hard at it till October. Before I got to the end, I resolved to be +received into the Catholic Church. Father Dominic came to Littlemore on +October 8, and did for me this charitable service. I left Oxford for +good on February 23, 1846. + + +_IV.--THE FAITH OF A CATHOLIC_ + + +From the time that I became a Catholic of course I have no further +history of my religious opinions to narrate. I do not mean that I have +given up thinking on theological subjects, but that I have had no +variations to record, and have had no anxiety of heart whatever. I have +been in perfect peace; I never have had one doubt. + +Nor had I any trouble about receiving those additional articles which +are not found in the Anglican creed. I am far from denying that every +article of the Christian creed is beset with difficulties, and it is +simple fact that I cannot answer those difficulties. But ten thousand +difficulties do not make one doubt. Of all points of faith, the being of +a God is encompassed with most difficulty, and yet borne in upon our +minds with most power. + +Starting, then, with the being of a God, which is as certain to me as my +own existence, I look out of myself into the world of men, and there I +see a sight which fills me with unspeakable distress. The world seems +simply to give the lie to that great truth, of which my whole being is +so full; I look into this living, busy world, and see no reflection of +its Creator. To consider the world in its length and breadth, its +various history; the progress of things, as if from unreasoning +elements, not towards final causes; the greatness and littleness of man, +his far-reaching aims, his short duration, the curtain hung over his +futurity, the defeat of good, the prevalence and intensity of sin, the +dreary, hopeless irreligion--all this is a vision to dizzy and appal, +and inflicts upon the mind the sense of a profound mystery which is +absolutely beyond human solution. What shall be said to this +heart-piercing, reason-bewildering fact? I can only answer, that either +there is no Creator, or this living society of men is in a true sense +discarded from His presence. + +And now, supposing it were the blessed will of the Creator to interfere +in this anarchical condition of things, what would be the methods which +might be necessarily or naturally involved in His purpose of mercy? What +must be the face-to-face antagonist, by which to withstand and baffle +the fierce energy and passion and the all-corroding, all-dissolving +scepticism of the intellect in religious inquiries? There is nothing to +surprise the mind, if He should think fit to introduce a power into the +world, invested with the prerogative of infallibility in religious +matters. Such a provision would be a direct, immediate, active, and +prompt means of withstanding the difficulty; and when I find that this +is the very claim of the Catholic Church, not only do I feel no +difficulty in admitting the idea, but there is a fitness in it which +recommends it to my mind. + +I am defending myself from the charge that I, as a Catholic, not only +make profession to hold doctrines which I cannot possibly believe in my +heart, but that I also believe in a power on earth, which at its own +will imposes upon men any new set of _credenda_, when it pleases, by a +claim to infallibility; and that the necessary effect of such a +condition of mind must be a degrading bondage, or a bitter inward +rebellion relieving itself in secret infidelity, or the necessity of +ignoring the whole subject of religion in a sort of disgust, and of +mechanically saying everything that the Church says. But this is far +from the result; it is far from borne out by the history of the conflict +between infallibility and reason in the past, and the prospect in the +future. + +The energy of the human intellect thrives and is joyous, with a tough, +elastic strength, under the terrible blows of the divinely fashioned +weapon. Protestant writers consider that they have all the private +judgment to themselves, and that we have the superincumbent oppression +of authority. But this is not so; it is the vast Catholic body itself, +and it only, which affords an arena for both combatants in that awful, +never-dying duel. St. Paul says that his apostolical power is given him +to edification, and not to destruction. There can be no better account +of the infallibility of the Church. Its object is, and its effect also, +not to enfeeble the freedom or vigour of human thought in religious +speculation, but resist and control its extravagance. + +I will go on in fairness to say what I think _is_ the great trial to the +reason when confronted with that august prerogative of the Catholic +Church. The Church claims, not only to judge infallibly on religious +questions, but to animadvert on opinions in secular matters which bear +upon religion, on matters of philosophy, of science, of literature, of +history, and it demands our submission to her claim. In this province, +taken as a whole, it does not so much speak doctrinally, as enforce +measures of discipline. + +I will go on to say further, that, in spite of all the most hostile +critics may urge about these verities of high ecclesiastics in time +past, in the use of their power, I think that the event has shown, after +all, that they were mainly in the right, and that those whom they were +hard upon were mainly in the wrong. There is a time for everything, and +many a man desires a reformation of an abuse, or the fuller development +of a doctrine, or the adoption of a particular policy, but forgets to +ask himself whether the right time for it is come. + +There is only one other subject which I think it necessary to introduce +here, as bearing upon the vague suspicions which are attached in this +country to the Catholic priesthood. It is one of which my accusers have +before now said much--the charge of reserve and economy. I come to the +direct question of truth, and of the truthfulness of Catholic priests +generally in their dealings with the world, as bearing on the general +question of their honesty, and of their internal belief in their +religious professions. First, I will say that when I became a Catholic, +nothing struck me more at once than the English outspoken manner of the +priests. There was nothing of that smoothness or mannerism which is +commonly imputed to them. Next, I was struck, when I had more +opportunity of judging of the priests, by the simple faith in the +Catholic creed and system, of which they always give evidence, and which +they never seemed to feel in any sense at all to be a burden. + +Vague charges against us are drawn from our books of moral theology. St. +Alfonso Liguori, for instance, lays down that an equivocation is +allowable in an extraordinary case. I avow at once that in this +department of morality, I like the English rule of conduct better. Yet, +great English authors, Jeremy Taylor, Milton, Paley, Johnson, distinctly +say that under extraordinary circumstances it is allowable to tell a +lie. Would anyone give ever so little weight to these statements, in +forming an estimate of the veracity of the writers? And, in fact, it is +notorious from St. Alfonso's life that he had one of the most scrupulous +and anxious of consciences; and, further, he was originally in the law, +and was betrayed on one occasion by accident into what seemed like a +deceit, and this was the very occasion of his leaving the profession. + +If Protestants wish to know what our real teaching is, let them look at +the Catechism of the Council of Trent. Let me appeal also to the life of +St. Philip Neri, founder of the Oratory: "As for liars, he could not +endure them, and he was continually reminding his spiritual children to +avoid them as they would a pestilence." + +These are the principles on which I have acted before I was a Catholic, +these are the principles which, I trust, will be my stay and guidance to +the end. + + * * * * * + + + +THOMAS PAINE + + +THE AGE OF REASON + + + In 1774, Thomas Paine, thirty-seven years of age, landed + unknown and penniless in the American colonies. Born at + Thetford, Norfolk, England, Jan. 29, 1737, of poor Quaker + parents, he had tried many occupations, and had succeeded in + none. Within two years he had become an intellectual leader of + the American Revolution. Beginning his literary career with an + attack on slavery, he continued it in 1776 by publishing his + pamphlet "Common Sense," which gave an electric inspiration to + the cause of separation and republicanism among the colonists. + After serving the new commonwealth in office and with his pen, + he went to France on an official mission in 1781; then + returned to his native England, intent on furthering his + views. In 1793 Paine wrote the first part of "The Age of + Reason," which aroused a storm of indignation, but undaunted, + he added a second and a third part to the work, consisting + mostly of amplifications of some of the contentions advanced + in the first part, in the writing of which Paine had no Bible + to consult. The book, the first part of which was published in + 1794, the second part in 1795, and the third in 1801, is an + exposition of Deism on a purely scientific basis; the visible + creation was everything to Paine in his reasonings, the + religious hopes, fears and aspirations of men were nothing at + all--this universal human phenomenon was curtly dismissed by + him as a universal human delusion. Many of his comments on the + Bible were rather crude anticipations of the modern Higher + Criticism. But in dealing with the Bible, Paine showed the + animus of a prosecuting counsel rather than the impartiality + of a judge. His stormy life ended on July 8, 1809. (See also + ECONOMICS, Vol. XIV.) + + +_I.--REVEALED RELIGION_ + + +It has been my intention, for several years past, to publish my thoughts +upon religion. As several of my colleagues, and others of my fellow +citizens of France, have given me the example of making their voluntary +and individual profession of faith, I also will make mine; and I do this +with all that sincerity and frankness with which the mind of man +communicates with itself. + +I believe in one God, and no more; and I hope for happiness beyond this +life. + +I believe in the equality of man, and I believe that religious duties +consist in doing justice, loving mercy, and endeavouring to make our +fellow-creatures happy. + +I do not believe in the creed professed by the Jewish Church, by the +Roman Church, by the Greek Church, by the Turkish Church, by the +Protestant Church, nor by any church that I know of. My own mind is my +own church. + +All national institutions of churches appear to me no other than human +inventions set up to terrify and enslave mankind, and monopolise power +and profit. + +Each of those churches show certain books which they call "revelation," +or the word of God. The Jews say that the word of God was given by God +to Moses face to face; the Christians say that their word of God came by +divine inspiration; and the Turks say their word of God (the Koran) was +brought by an angel from heaven. Each of these churches accuses the +other of unbelief; and, for my own part, I disbelieve them all. + +As it is necessary to affix right ideas to words, I will, before I +proceed further into the subject, offer some observations on the word +revelation. Revelation, when applied to religion, means something +communicated immediately from God to man. + +No one will deny or dispute the power of the Almighty to make such a +communication if he pleases. But admitting, for the sake of a case, that +something has been revealed to a certain person, and not revealed to any +other person, it is revelation to that person only. + +When he tells it to a second person, a second to a third, a third to a +fourth, and so on, it ceases to be a revelation to all those persons. It +is a revelation to the first person only, and hearsay to every other; +consequently they are not obliged to believe it, for they have only the +word of the first person that it was made to him. + +The world has been amused with the terms "revealed religion," and the +generality of priests apply this term to the books called the Old and +New Testament. There is no man that believes in revealed religion +stronger than I do; but it is not the reveries of the Old and New +Testament that I dignify with that sacred title. That which is a +revelation to me exists in something which no human mind can invent, no +human hand can counterfeit or alter. + +The word of God is the Creation we behold; and this word of God +revealeth to man all that is necessary for him to know of his Creator. + +Do we want to contemplate his power? We see it in the immensity of his +creation. + +Do we want to contemplate his wisdom? We see it in the unchangeable +order by which the incomprehensible whole is governed. + +Do we want to contemplate his munificence? We see it in the abundance +with which he fills the earth. + +Do we want to contemplate his mercy? We see it in his not withholding +that abundance even from the unthankful. + +Do we want to contemplate his will, so far as it respects man? The +goodness he shows to all is a lesson for our conduct to each other. + +In fine, do we want to know what God is? Search not the book called the +Scripture, which any human hand might make, but the Scripture called the +Creation. + + +_II.--THEOLOGY AND RELIGION_ + + +As to the Christian system of faith, it appears to me as a compound made +up chiefly of manism with but little Deism, and is near to Atheism as +twilight is to darkness. + +That which is now called natural philosophy, embracing the whole circle +of science, of which astronomy occupies the chief place, is the study of +the works of God, and of the power and wisdom of God in his works, and +is the true theology. + +As to the theology that is now studied in its place, it is the study of +human opinions and of human fancies concerning God. It is not the study +of God Himself in the works that He has made, but in the works or +writings that man has made; and it is not among the least of the +mischiefs that the Christian system has done to the world that it has +abandoned the original and beautiful system of theology, like a +beautiful innocent, to distress and reproach, to make room for the bag +of superstition. + +It is an inconsistency, scarcely possible to be credited, that anything +should exist under the name of a religion that held it to be irreligious +to study and contemplate the structure of the universe that God had +made. But the fact is too well established to be denied. The event that +served more than any other to break the first link in the long chain of +despotic ignorance is that known by the name of the Reformation by +Luther. From that time, though it does not appear to have made part of +the intention of Luther, or of these who are called Reformers, the +sciences began to revive, and liberality, their natural associate, began +to appear. This was the only public good the Reformation did; for with +respect to religious good it might as well not have taken place. The +mythology still continued the same; and the multiplicity of national +popes grew out of the downfall of the Pope of Christendom. + +The prejudice of unfounded belief often degenerates into the prejudice +of custom, and becomes at last rank hypocrisy. When men from custom or +fashion, or any worldly motive profess or pretend to believe what they +do not believe, nor can give any reason for believing, they unship the +helm of their morality, and, being no longer honest in their own minds, +they feel no moral difficulty in being unjust to others. It is from the +influence of this vice, hypocrisy, that we see so many church and +meeting-going professors and pretenders to religion so full of tricks +and deceit in their dealings, and so loose in the performance of their +engagements that they are not to be trusted further than the laws of the +country will bind them. Morality has no hold on their minds, no +restraint on their actions. + +One set of preachers make salvation to consist in believing. They tell +their congregations that if they believe in Christ their sins shall be +forgiven. This, in the first place, is an encouragement to sin; in the +next place, the doctrine these men preach cannot be true. + +Another set of preachers tell their congregations that God predestined +and selected from all eternity a certain number to be saved, and a +certain number to be damned eternally. If this were true, the day of +judgment is past; their preaching is in vain, and they had better work +at some useful calling for their livelihood. + +Nothing that is here said can apply, even with the most distant +disrespect, to the real character of Jesus Christ. He was a virtuous and +an amiable man. The morality that he preached and practised was of the +most benevolent kind, and, though similar systems of morality had been +preached by Confucius and by some of the Greek philosophers many years +before, by the Quakers since, and by many good men in all ages, it has +not been exceeded by any. + + +_III.--THE BIBLE_ + + +If we permit ourselves to conceive right ideas of things, we must +necessarily affix the idea, not only of unchangeableness, but of the +utter impossibility of any change taking place, by any means or accident +whatever, in that which we would honour with the name of God; and +therefore the word of God cannot exist in any written or human language. + +The continually progressive change to which the meaning of words is +subject, the want of an universal language which renders translation +necessary, the errors to which translations are again subject, the +mistakes of copyists and printers, together with the possibility of +wilful alteration, are of themselves evidences that human language, +whether in speech or in print, cannot be the vehicle of the word of God. +The word of God exists in something else. + +It has been the practice of all Christian commentators on the Bible, and +of all Christian priests and preachers, to impose the Bible on the world +as a mass of truth, and as the word of God; they have disputed and +wrangled, and have anathematised each other about the supposable meaning +of particular parts and passages therein; one has said and insisted that +such a passage meant such a thing; another, that it meant directly the +contrary; and a third, that it meant neither the one nor the other, but +something different from both; and this they have called understanding +the Bible. + +Now, instead of wasting their time, and heating themselves in fractious +disputations about doctrinal points drawn from the Bible, these men +ought to know, and if they do not it is civility to inform them, that +the first thing to be understood is, whether there is sufficient +authority for believing the Bible to be the word of God, or whether +there is not. + +I therefore pass on to an examination of the Books called the Old and +the New Testament. The case historically appears to be as follows: + +When the Church mythologists established their system, they collected +all the writings they could find and managed them as they pleased. It is +a matter altogether of uncertainty to us whether such of the writings as +now appear under the name of the Old and the New Testament are in the +same state in which these collectors say they found them; or whether +they added, altered, abridged, or dressed them up. + +Be this as it may, they decided by _vote_ which of the books out of the +collection they had made should be the word of God, and which should +not. They rejected several; they voted others to be doubtful, such as +the books called the Apocrypha; and those books which had a majority of +votes they voted to be the word of God. Had they voted otherwise, all +the people since calling themselves Christians, had believed otherwise; +for the belief of the one comes from the vote of the other. Who the +people were that did all this we know nothing of; they call themselves +by the general name of the Church; and this is all we know of the +matter. + +There are matters in the Bible, said to be done by the express command +of God, that are as shocking to humanity and to every idea we have of +moral justice as anything done by Robespierre, by Carrier, by Joseph le +Ben, in France; by the English Government in the East Indies; or by any +other assassin in modern times. Are we sure that the Creator of man +commissioned these things to be done? Are we sure that the books that +tell us so were written by His authority? To read the Bible without +horror, we must undo everything that is tender, sympathising, and +benevolent in the heart of man. Speaking for myself, if I had no other +evidence that the Bible is fabulous than the sacrifice I must make to +believe it to be true, that alone would be sufficient to determine my +choice. + +But it can be shown by internal evidence that the Bible is not entitled +to credit as the word of God. It can readily be proved that the first +five books of the Bible, attributed to Moses, were not written by him +nor in his time, but several hundred years afterwards. Moses could not +have described his own death, nor mentioned that he was buried in a +valley in the land of Moab. Similarly, the book of Joshua was not +written by Joshua; it is manifest that Joshua could not write that +Israel served the Lord not only in his days, but in the days of the +elders that over-lived him. The book of Judges is anonymous on the face +of it. The books of Samuel were not written by Samuel, for they relate +many things that did not happen till after his death. + +The history in the two books of Kings, which is little more than a +history of assassinations, treachery, and war, sometimes contradicts +itself; and several of the most extraordinary matters related in Kings +are not mentioned in the companion books of Chronicles. The book of Job +has no internal evidence of being a Hebrew book; it appears to have been +translated from another language into Hebrew; and it is the only book in +the Bible that can be read without indignation or disgust. It is an +error to call the Psalms the Psalms of David because historical evidence +shows that some of them were not written until long after the time of +David. The books of the prophets are wild, disorderly, and obscure +compositions, the so-called prophecies in which do not refer to Jesus +Christ, but to circumstances the Jewish nation was in at the time they +were written or spoken. + +I now go on to the book called the New Testament. Had it been the object +of Jesus Christ to establish a new religion, he would undoubtedly have +written the system himself, or procured it to be written in His +lifetime. But there is no publication extant authenticated with his +name. All the books called the New Testament were written after his +death. He was a Jew by birth and profession, and he was the Son of God +in like manner that every other person is; for the Creator is the Father +of All. + +The first four books--Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John--are altogether +anecdotal. They relate events after they had taken place. They tell what +Jesus Christ did and said, and what others did and said to him; and in +several instances they relate the same event differently. Revelation, +therefore, is out of the question with respect to these books. The +presumption, moreover, is that they are written by other persons than +these whose name they bear. + +The book of Acts of the Apostles belongs also to the anecdotal part. All +the rest of the New Testament, except the book of enigmas called the +Revelation, are a collection of letters under the name of epistles, and +the forgery of letters under the name of epistles. One thing, however, +is certain, which is that out of the matters contained in these books, +together with the assistance of some old stories, the Church has set up +a system of religion very contradictory to the character of the person +whose name it bears. It has set up a religion of pomp and reverence in +pretended imitation of a person whose life was humility and poverty. + + +_IV.--MYSTERY, MIRACLE, AND PROPHECY_ + + +I proceed to speak of the three principal means that have been employed +in all ages and perhaps in all countries to impose upon mankind. + +These three means are mystery, miracle, and prophecy. The two first are +incompatible with true religion, and the third ought always to be +suspected. With respect to mystery, everything we behold is, in one +sense, a mystery to us. Our own existence is a mystery, the whole +vegetable world is a mystery. We know not how it is that the seed we sow +unfolds and multiplies itself. + +The fact, however, as distinct from the operating cause, is not a +mystery, because we see it; and we know also the means we are to use, +which is no other than putting the seed in the ground. We know, +therefore, as much as is necessary for us to know; and that part of the +operation that we do not know, and which if we did we could not perform, +the Creator takes upon Himself and performs it for us. + +But though every created thing is in this sense a mystery, the word +mystery cannot be applied to moral truth, any more than obscurity can be +applied to light. The God in whom we believe is a God of moral truth, +and not of mystery. Mystery is the antagonist of truth. It is a fog of +human invention that obscures truth, and represents it in distortion. + +Religion, therefore, being the belief of a God, and the practice of +moral truth, cannot have connection with mystery. The belief of a God, +so far from having anything of mystery in it, is of all beliefs the most +easy, becauses it arises to us out of necessity. And the practice of +moral truth, or, in other words, a practical imitation of the goodness +of God, is no other than our acting towards each other as he acts +benignly towards all. + +When men, whether from policy or pious fraud, set up systems of religion +incompatible with the word or works of God in the creation, they were +under the necessity of inventing or adopting a word that should serve as +a bar to all inquiries and speculations. The word "mystery" answered +this purpose, and thus it has happened that religion, which in itself is +without mystery, has been corrupted into a fog of mysteries. + +As mystery answered all general purposes, "miracle" followed as an +occasional auxiliary. Of all the modes of evidence that ever were +invented to obtain belief to any system or opinion to which the name of +religion has been given, that of miracle is the most inconsistent. For, +in the first place, whenever recourse is had to show, for the purpose of +procuring that belief, it implies a lameness or weakness in the doctrine +that is preached. And, in the second place, it is degrading the Almighty +into the character of a showman, playing tricks to amuse and make the +people stare and wonder. It is also the most equivocal sort of evidence +that can be set up; for the belief is not to depend upon the thing +called a miracle, but upon the credit of the reporter who says that he +saw it; and therefore the thing, were it true, would have no better +chance of being believed than if it were a lie. + +As mystery and miracle took charge of the past and the present, prophecy +took charge of the future, and rounded the tenses of faith. The original +meaning of the words "prophet" and "prophesying" has been changed, the +Old Testament prophets were simply poets and musicians. It is owing to +this change in the meaning of the words that the flights and metaphors +of the Jewish poets, and phrases and expressions now rendered obscure by +our not being acquainted with the local circumstances to which they +applied at the time they were used, have been erected into prophecies, +and made to bend explanations at the will and whimsical conceits of +sectaries, expounders, and commentators. Everything unintelligible was +prophetical. + + +_V.--DEISM_ + + +Fom the time I was capable of conceiving an idea, and acting upon it by +reflection, I either doubted the truth of the Christian system or +thought it to be a strange affair. It seems as if parents of the +Christian profession were ashamed to tell their children anything about +the principles of their religion. They sometimes instruct them in +morals, and talk to them of the goodness of what they call Providence. +But the Christian story of what they call God the Father putting his son +to death, or employing people to do it--for that is the plain language +of the story--cannot be told by a parent to a child; and to tell him it +was done to make mankind happier and better is making the story still +worse; and to tell him that all this is a mystery is only making an +excuse for the incredibility of it. + +How different is this from the pure and simple profession of deism! The +true deist has but one Deity, and his religion consists in contemplating +the power, wisdom, and benignity of the Deity in his works, and in +endeavouring to imitate him in everything moral, scientific, and +mechanical. + +The religion that approaches the nearest of all others to true deism, in +the moral and benign part thereof, is that professed by the Quakers; but +they have contracted themselves too much by leaving the works of God out +of their system. Though I reverence their philanthropy, I cannot help +smiling at the conceit, that if the taste of the Quaker could have been +consulted at the creation what a silent and drab-coloured creation it +would have been! Not a flower would have blossomed its gaieties, not a +bird been permitted to sing. + +Quitting these reflections, I proceed to other matters. Our ideas, not +only of the almightiness of the Creator, but of His wisdom and His +beneficence, become enlarged as we contemplate the extent and structure +of the universe. The solitary idea of a solitary world rolling or at +rest in the immense ocean of space gives place to the cheerful idea of a +society of worlds, so happily contrived as to administer, even by their +motion, instruction to man. We see our own earth filled with abundance, +but we forget to consider how much of that abundance is owing to the +scientific knowledge the vast machinery of the universe has unfolded. + +But what are we to think of the Christian system of faith that forms +itself upon the idea of only one world? Alas! what is this to the mighty +ocean of space and the almighty power of the Creator? From whence, then, +could arise the solitary and strange conceit that the Almighty, who had +millions of worlds equally dependent on His protection, should quit the +care of all the rest and come to die in our world, because they say one +man and one woman had eaten an apple? + +It has been by rejecting the evidence that the word or works of God in +the creation affords to our senses, and the action of our reason upon +that evidence, that so many wild and whimsical systems of faith, and of +religion, have been fabricated and set up. There may be many systems of +religion that so far from being morally bad are in many respects morally +good; but there can be but one that is true, and that one necessarily +must, as it ever will, be in all things consistent with the +ever-existing word of God that we behold in His works. + +I shall close by giving a summary of the deistic belief: + +First, that the creation we behold is the real word of God, in which we +cannot be deceived. It proclaims His power, it demonstrates His wisdom, +it manifests His goodness and beneficence. + +Secondly, that the moral duty of man consists in imitating the moral +goodness and beneficence of God manifested in the creation towards all +His creatures. That seeing, as we daily do, the goodness of God to all +men, it is an example calling upon all men to practise the same towards +each other, and consequently that everything of persecution and revenge +between man and man, and everything of cruelty to animals, is a +violation of moral duty. + +It is certain that, in one point, all nations of the earth and all +religions agree. All believe in a God. The things in which they disagree +are the redundancies annexed to that belief; and, therefore, if ever an +universal religion should prevail, it will not be in believing anything +new, but in getting rid of redundancies, and believing as man believed +at first. But in the meantime let every man follow, as he has a right to +do, the religion and the worship he prefers. + + * * * * * + + + +BLAISE PASCAL + + +LETTERS TO A PROVINCIAL + + + Blaise Pascal, mathematician, theologian, and one of the + greatest writers of French prose, was born on June 19, 1623, + at Clermont-Ferrand, and died on August 19, 1662. His mother + died in his fourth year, and the father, an eminent lawyer, + took the boy with his two sisters to Paris. Pascal showed the + most astonishing mathematical genius; he produced at the age + of seventeen a profound work on conic sections, and devoted + the following years to physical researches and to + investigations in the higher mathematics. In 1654, Pascal, + having experienced a remarkable vision, which he recorded on a + parchment known as his "amulet," renounced the world and + entered on the ascetic life, in close relations with the + Jansenist community. Hence, in the interests of Arnauld, the + Jansenist leader, Pascal issued the famous "Letters Written to + a Provincial" ("Lettres Écrites par Louis de Montalte à un + Provincial de ses Amis"), a series of eighteen tracts directed + with the keenest and bitterest irony against the casuistry of + the Jesuits. The "Letters" appeared during a period of + fourteen months, the first being dated January 23, 1656, and + the last March 24, 1657. They took the form of little + pamphlets, each of eight or twelve quarto pages; they had a + very large circulation, and created an immense impression + throughout Catholic countries. They are open letters, intended + really for the public and not for any individual. + + +_I.--LAX CASUISTS_ + + +SIR,--I send you, as I promised, the chief outlines of the moral +teaching of these good Jesuit fathers, these "men so eminent in doctrine +and in wisdom, who are led by that divine wisdom which is more +trustworthy than all philosophy." Possibly you think that I speak in +jest. I speak seriously, or, rather, it is they who have spoken thus of +themselves. I only copy their words where they write, "It is a society +of men, or, rather, of angels, foretold by the prophet Isaiah." They +claim to have changed the face of Christianity. We must believe it, +since they have told us so; and, indeed, you will see how far they have +done so, when you have mastered their maxims. + +I took care to be instructed by themselves and trusted to nothing which +my friend had told me. I had been told such strange things that I could +hardly believe them, until I was shown them in their own books; and then +I could say nothing in their defence, except that these must be the +principles of certain isolated Jesuits, and not those of the whole +society. Indeed, I was able to say that I knew Jesuits who were as +severe as these were lax. + +It was on that occasion that the spirit of the society was explained to +me, for it is not by any means known to every one. I was told as +follows: + +"You imagine that you are speaking in their favour when you say that +there are among them fathers who are as obedient to the principles of +the Gospel as others are distant from those principles, and you conclude +therefore that these loose opinions do not characterise the whole +society. That is true. But since the society admits of so licentious a +doctrine within it, you must conclude that its spirit is not one of +Christian severity." + +"But what then," said I, "is the purpose of the whole institution? Is it +that everyone should be free to say whatever he may happen to think?" + +"That is not so," was the reply. "So great a society could not exist +without discipline, and without one spirit governing and ruling all its +movements." + +The objects of the Jesuits is not to corrupt morals, but, on the other +hand, they have not in view as their single object the reformation of +morals, because they would find this a political disadvantage. Their +principle is this: they have so high an opinion of themselves as to +believe that it is advantageous, and even necessary, to the good of +religion that their credit should extend everywhere and that they should +govern all consciences. And as the severe maxims of the Gospel are +suitable for governing certain temperaments, they make use of these +whenever they serve their purpose. But since these same maxims do not at +all suit the wishes of the generality of mankind, they usually put them +aside so as to be able to please everyone. + +Therefore, having to do with people of all sorts and conditions, and of +diverse nationalities, they need casuists suited to all this diversity. +From this principle you will easily see that if they had none but lax +casuists they would defeat their chief purpose, which is to include the +whole world. Truly pious people seek a more severe direction, but as +there are not many who are truly pious the Jesuits do not need many +strict directors to guide them. They have a few for the few who need +them. On the other hand, the vast number of their lax casuists are at +the service of the innumerable multitude who seek the broad and easy +way. + +It is by this obliging and accommodating conduct that they open their +arms to all the world. Thus, if someone comes to them already determined +to make restitution of goods which he has wrongly acquired, you need not +fear that they will dissuade him. On the contrary, they will praise and +confirm his holy resolution. But if another should come wishing to have +absolution without making restitution, their position would be a +difficult one, if they had not the means of giving him his desire. It is +thus that they keep all their friends and defend themselves against +their enemies. And if anyone accuses them of extreme laxity, they +immediately bring forward their most austere directors, and certain +books which they have written on the severity of the Christian law; and +simple and uninquiring people are contented with these proofs. + +They have proofs for all sorts of people, and make such ingenious +replies to every question that when they find themselves in countries +where a crucified God seems like madness, they suppress the scandal of +the Cross and preach only Christ in glory. This they have done in India +and China, where they even condone idolatry by a subtle device; they +allow their people to carry with them hidden images of Christ, to which +they should address the public worship ostensibly paid to their idols. +This conduct led to their being forbidden under pain of excommunication +to permit the adoration of idols, under any pretext, or to hide the +mystery of the Cross from those whom they instruct in religion, and they +have been forbidden to receive anyone in baptism until he has this +knowledge, and are enjoined to erect in their churches the image of the +crucifix. + +Thus they have spread over the whole earth in the strength of their +doctrine of "probable opinions," which is the fount and origin of all +these irregularities. You may learn of this from themselves, for they +take no pains to hide it, except that they cover their human and +political prudence with the pretence of a divine and Christian prudence. +They act as if the faith and the tradition which maintains it were not +for ever invariable at all times and in all places, and as if nothing +more were required, in order to remove the stains of guilt, than to +corrupt the law of the Lord, instead of regarding that stainless and +holy law as itself the instrument of conversion, and conforming human +souls to its salutary precepts. + + +_II.--THE DOCTRINE OF INTENTION_ + + +Sir,--I must now let you know what the good Jesuit father told me about +the maxims of their casuists, with regard to the "point of honour" among +gentlemen. "You know," said he, "that this point of honour is the +dominating passion of men in that rank of life, and is constantly +leading them into acts of violence which appear quite contrary to +Christian piety. Indeed, we should have to exclude all of them from our +confessionals, if our fathers had not in some degree relaxed the +severity of religion and accommodated it to the weakness of men. But +since they wished to remain attached to the Gospel by their duty towards +God, and to men of the world by their charity towards their neighbour, +they had to seek expedients by which they might make it possible for a +man to maintain his honour in the ordinary way of the world without +wounding his conscience. They had to preserve, at the same time, two +things which are apparently so opposed to one another as piety and +honour. But, however valuable their purpose might be, its execution was +exceedingly difficult." + +"I am surprised," I said, "that you find it difficult." + +"Are you?" he replied. "Do you not know that on the one hand the law of +the Gospel commands us never to render evil for evil, and to leave +vengeance to God; and that on the other hand the laws of the world +forbid that we should suffer injury without executing justice, even by +the death of our enemies? Is it possible that two precepts should be +more contrary to one another?" + +"What I meant to say was, that after what I have seen of your fathers, I +know that they can easily do things which are impossible to other men. I +am quite ready to believe that they have discovered some means of +reconciling these two precepts, and I beg of you to inform me what it +is." + +"You must know, then," he replied, "that this wonderful principle is our +grand method of _directing the intention,_ a principle of great +importance in our moral system. You have already seen certain examples +of it. Thus, when I explained to you how servants could carry with a +clear conscience certain harmful messages, you must have seen that it +was by diverting their intention from the evil of which they are the +bearers and by turning it to the gain which they receive for their +service. This is what we call 'directing the intention.' In the same way +you have seen that those who give money in return for benefices would be +guilty of simony unless they diverted their intention from the +transaction. But I am going to show you this grand method in all its +beauty in relation to homicide, which it justifies under a thousand +circumstances." + +"I am ready to believe," I said, "that your principle will permit +everything, and that nothing will escape it." + +"Not at all," he replied; "you are always running from one extreme to +the other. We by no means permit everything. For instance, we never +permit the formal intention of sin, for the mere sake of sinning, and we +will have nothing to do with anyone who persists in seeking evil as an +end in itself, for that is a devilish intention, in whatever age, sex, +or rank it may be found. But so long as there is no such unhappy +disposition as that, we try to put in practice our method of directing +intention, which consists in proposing a lawful object as the end of +one's actions. In so far as it is in our power, we turn away from +forbidden things; but when we are unable to prevent the action, we at +least try to purify the intention, and so correct the vice of the means +by the purity of the end. + +"That is how our fathers have been able to permit the acts of violence +which are committed in the defence of honour. It is only necessary to +turn away one's intention from the desire of vengeance, which is +criminal, and to restrict it to the desire of defending one's honour, +which is a lawful desire. It is thus that our fathers are able to fulfil +their duties towards God and towards men alike. They please the world by +permitting the actions, and they satisfy the Gospel by purifying the +intentions. It is a method which was unknown to the ancients, and is +entirely due to our fathers. Do you understand it now?" + +"I understand it very well," I said. "You allow to men the external and +material effect of the action, and you give to God the internal and +spiritual movement of intention, and thus reconcile the human with the +divine law. But though I understand your principle well enough, I should +like to know what are its consequences.--I should like to know, for +instance, all the cases in which your method permits one to kill. You +have told me that whoever receives a blow may repay it with a +sword-thrust without the guilt of vengeance, but you have not yet told +me how far one may go." + +"You can hardly make a mistake," said the father. "You may go as far as +to kill the man. One of our authorities speaks: 'It is permitted to kill +a man who has given a blow, even though he runs away, on the condition +that it is not done through hatred or through vengeance, and that one's +actions do not lead to murders which are excessive and harmful to the +state.' The reason is, that one may thus run after one's honour as if +after a stolen object. For though your honour is not exactly in the +hands of your enemy as if it were something which he had picked up, you +can yet recover it in the same way by giving a proof of greatness and of +authority, and by thus acquiring human esteem. Indeed, he continues: 'Is +it not true that he who has received a blow is considered disgraced +until he has slain his enemy?'" + +This appeared to me so horrible that I had difficulty in restraining +myself. I felt that I had heard enough. + + +_III.--THE CHARGE OF RAILLERY_ + + +Reverend Fathers,--I have read the letters which you have published in +answer to some of mine on the subject of your moral principles; and I +find that one of the principal points in your defence is that I have not +spoken seriously enough of your maxims. You repeat this charge in all +your writings, and you go so far as to say that I have turned holy +things into ridicule. + +This is a surprising and very unjust reproach; for where is a passage to +be found in which I have treated holy things with raillery? It is true +that I have spoken with little respect of the teachings of certain among +you, but do you suppose that the imaginations of your authors are to be +taken as the verities of the faith? Is it impossible to laugh at +passages of Escobar, and at the very fantastic and unchristian +conclusions of others of your authors without being accused of +ridiculing religion? Are you not afraid lest your reproaches should give +me a new subject for ridicule, or lest it should be seen that when I +make sport of your moral principles I am as far from laughing at holy +things as the doctrine of your casuists is far from the holy teaching of +the Evangel! + +Truly, fathers, there is a great difference between laughing at +religion, and laughing at those whose extravagant opinions are its +profanation. It would be impious to be wanting in respect for the truths +which the Spirit of God has revealed, but it would hardly be less +impious that we should not show our contempt for the falsities which the +human spirit has opposed to them. + +I pray you to consider that just as Christian truth is worthy of love +and of respect, the errors that are contrary to it deserve our contempt +and hatred. For there are two qualities in the truths of our religion, a +divine beauty which compels our love, and a holy majesty that demands +our veneration; and there are two qualities in error, the impiety which +makes it horrible, and the impertinence which renders it absurd. + +Do not hope, therefore, to persuade the world that it is unworthy of +Christians to deal with errors as absurdities, since this method has +been common to the early fathers of the church, and is authorised by +Holy Scriptures, by the example of the greatest saints, and even by that +of God himself. For do we not see that God at the same time hates and +despises sinners in such a degree that at the hour of their death, when +their condition is at its saddest and most deplorable, the divine wisdom +is said to unite mockery and laughter with the vengeance and fury which +condemns them to perpetual torments. + +Nay, it is worthy of our notice that in the first words which God spake +to man after the fall the fathers of the church have discovered a tone +of mockery, a stinging irony. After Adam had disobeyed, in the hope that +the devil had given that he would then be made like a God, it appears +from Scripture that God's punishment made him subject to death, and that +after having reduced Adam to the miserable condition which his sin had +deserved, God mocked him with words of piercing irony, saying: "There is +the man who has become as one of us." + +You see, therefore, that mockery is sometimes designed to turn men from +their follies, and is then an act of righteousness. Thus Jeremiah says +that the deeds of the foolish are worthy of laughter because of their +vanity. And, again, St. Augustine says that the wise laugh at the +foolish because they are wise, but in virtue not of their own wisdom, +but of the divine wisdom which will mock at the death of the wicked. + +What? Must we call in Scripture and tradition to prove that cutting down +one's enemy from behind, and in an ambush is a treacherous murder? Or +that giving a present of money to secure an ecclesiastical benefice is +to purchase it? Of course, there are teachings which deserve our +contempt, and can only be dealt with by mockery. Are you, fathers, to be +permitted to teach that it is lawful to slay in order to avoid a blow +and an affront, yet are we to be forbidden to refute publicly so grave +an error? Are you to be at liberty to say that a judge may +conscientiously retain a bribe given him to purchase injustice, yet may +we never contradict you? Are you formally to pronounce that a man may be +saved without ever having loved God, and yet close the mouths of those +who would defend the truth of the faith, on the ground that their +defence must wound fraternal charity by attacking you, and must grieve +Christian modesty by laughing at your maxims? + + +_IV.--THE SIN OF SIMONY_ + + +Reverend Fathers,--I was about to write to you concerning the +accusations which you have so long brought against me, wherein you call +me impious, buffoon, rogue, impostor, calumniator, swindler, heretic, +disguised Calvinist, one possessed of a legion of devils. I wish the +world to know why you speak thus, for I should be sorry that anyone +should think thus of me; and I had already made up my mind to complain +publicly of your calumnies and impostures when I saw your replies, +wherein you bring the same charges against me. You have thus forced me +to change my purpose. Yet I shall still carry it out in some degree, +inasmuch as I hope that my defence will convict you of more real +impostures which you have imputed to me. Truly, fathers, your position +is more open to suspicion than mine, for it is very unlikely that I, +being alone as I am, and without strength or human support against so +powerful a society as yours, and being sustained only by truth and +sincerity, should have exposed myself to the risk of losing all, by +exposing myself to a conviction of imposture. But your position, +fathers, is different; you can say of me what you please, and I can find +no one to whom I may complain. Well, you have chosen your ground, and +the war shall be made in your country and at your expense. Do not fear +that I shall be tedious; there is something so diverting about your +maxims that they never fail to rejoice the world. + +Let me closely explain, for instance, your doctrine with regard to +simony. Finding yourself in a dilemma between the canons of the church, +which forbid with the severest penalties any trade in ecclesiastical +benefices, and the avarice of so many people who promote this infamous +traffic, you have followed your ordinary method, which is to give to men +what they desire, and to offer to God nothing but words and appearances. +For what do simonfacal persons demand, if not that they shall receive +money in return for their benefices? + +But that is precisely the transaction which you have cleared from the +guilt of simony. Yet, since you cannot do away with the name of simony, +and there must be some matter to which the name attaches, you have +devised for that purpose an imaginary idea, which never enters the minds +of simoniacs at all, and indeed would be quite useless to them. This is, +that simony consists in valuing the money, considered in itself, as +highly as the spiritual privilege, considered in itself. Who would ever +dream of comparing things which are so disproportionate and of such +different kinds? Yet, according to your authors, so long as a man does +not entertain this metaphysical comparison, he may give his benefice to +another, and may receive money in return, without incurring the guilt of +simony. It is thus that you make game of religion in order to pander to +human passions. + +The abusive language which you utter against me will never clear up our +differences, nor shall any of your threats restrain me from defending +myself. You trust in your strength and impunity, but I believe that I +possess truth and innocence. The war by which violence attempts to +oppress the truth is a strange and a long one, for all the efforts of +violence are unable to weaken truth, and serve only to make it more +evident. On the other hand, all the light of truth can do nothing to +arrest violence, but rather inflames it. When force combats force, the +stronger destroys the weaker; when argument is opposed to argument, true +and convincing reasoning confounds that which is based on vanity and +lies; but violence and truth have, no power one over the other. That is +not to say that these two things are equal. There is this extreme +difference between them: the career of violence is limited by the divine +order, which determines its effects to the glory of the truth which it +attacks; but truth, on the other hand, exists externally, and triumphs +at last over its enemies, because it is eternal and powerful as God +Himself. + + +_V.--HOMICIDE_ + + +Let us now see, fathers, how you value that life of man, which is so +jealously safeguarded by human justice. It appears from your novel laws +that there is only one judge in a case of affront or injury, and that +this judge is to be he who has received the offence. He is to be at the +same time judge, plaintiff, and executioner. He demands the death of the +offender, sentences him to death, and immediately executes the sentence; +and so, without respect either for the body or for the soul of his +brother, slays and imperils the salvation of him for whom Christ died. +And all this is to be done to avoid a blow, a slander, an insulting +word, or some other offence for which neither the law nor any authorised +judge could assign the penalty of death. + +Not only so, but even a priest is held to have contracted neither sin +nor irregularity in this infliction of death without authority and +against law. Can these be religious men and priests who speak in this +way? Are they Christians or Turks--men or demons? Spread over the whole +earth, according to St. Augustine, there are two peoples and two +worlds--the world of the children of God, who form one body, of which +Jesus Christ is king, and the world of the enemies of God, of whom the +devil is king. + +Now, Christ has founded honour on suffering; the devil has founded it on +the refusal to suffer. Christ has taught those who receive a blow to +offer the other cheek; but the devil has taught those who are in danger +of a blow to kill the enemy who threatens them. + +Consider, therefore, fathers, to which of these two kingdoms you belong. +You have heard the language of the city of peace, which is called the +mystical Jerusalem, and you have heard the language of the city of +turmoil, which is called in the Scriptures the spiritual Sodom. Which of +these two languages do you understand? According to St. Paul, those who +belong to Christ act and speak on his principles; and, according to the +words of Christ, those who are the children of the devil, who has been a +murderer from the beginning of the world, follow his maxims. We listen, +therefore, to the language of your teachers, and ask of them whether +when a blow is threatened, we ought to suffer it rather than slay the +offender, or whether we may kill him in order to escape the affront? + +Lessius, Molina, Escobar, and other Jesuits say that it is lawful to +kill the man who threatens a blow. Is that the language of Jesus Christ? + + * * * * * + + + +WILLIAM PENN + + +SOME FRUITS OF SOLITUDE + + + William Penn was born in London on October 14, 1644. In early + life he joined the Quakers, and while still a young man + underwent imprisonment for the expression of his religious + views. For "A Sandy Foundation Shaken," an attack on the + Athanasian Creed, he was in 1668 sent to the Tower, where he + wrote, "No Cross, No Crown." Under James II., however, he was + high in the favour of the court, and received a grant of the + region afterwards known as Pennsylvania, whither he went with + a number of his co-religionists in 1682. After his return to + England, he suffered by the fall of James II., but under + William III. was acquitted of treason, and spent his later + years in retirement. He died at Ruscombe, in Berkshire, on + July 30, 1718. "Some Fruits of Solitude, or the Maxims of + William Penn," evidently the result of one of his sojourns in + prison, was licensed in 1693. It was followed by "More Fruits + of Solitude." The whole forms a collection of maxims which are + shrewd, wise, and charitable, informed with a good courage for + life, and a contempt for mean ends, if in their variety they + do not always escape the touch of the commonplace. The book + has become known as a favourite of R.L. Stevenson, who said of + it that "there is not the man living--no, nor recently + dead--that could put, with so lovely a spirit, so much honest, + kind wisdom into words." + + +_TO THE READER_ + + +Reader, this Enchiridion I present thee which is the fruit of solitude; +a school few care to learn in, though none instructs us better. Some +parts of it are the result of serious reflection; others the flashings +of lucid intervals. Writ for private satisfaction, and now published for +an help to human conduct. + +The author blesseth God for his retirement, and kisses that Gentle Hand +which led him into it; for though it should prove barren to the world, +it can never do so to him. + +He has now had some time he could call his own; a property he was never +so much master of before; in which he has taken a view of himself and +the world; and observed wherein he hath hit and mist the mark; what +might have been done, what mended, and what avoided in his human +conduct; together with the omissions and excesses of others, as well +societies and governments, as private families and persons. And he +verily thinks, were he to live over his life again, he could not only, +with God's grace, serve Him, but his neighbour and himself, better than +he hath done, and have seven years of his time to spare. And yet perhaps +he hath not been the worst or the idlest man in the world, nor is he the +oldest. And this is the rather said, that it might quicken thee, reader, +to lose none of the time that is yet thine. + +There is nothing of which we are apt to be so lavish as of time, and +about which we ought to be more solicitous; since without it we can do +nothing in this world. Time is what we want most, but what, alas! we use +worst; and for which God will certainly most strictly reckon with us, +when time shall be no more. + +The author does not pretend to deliver thee an exact piece; his business +not being ostentation, but charity. 'Tis miscellaneous in the matter of +it, and by no means artificial in the composure. But it contains hints +that may serve thee for texts to preach to thyself upon, and which +comprehend much of the course of human life. Since whatever be thy +inclination or aversion, practice or duty, thou wilt find something not +unsuitably said for thy direction and advantage. Accept and improve what +deserves thy notice; the rest excuse, and place to account of good will +to thee and the whole creation of God. + + +_IGNORANCE_ + + +It is admirable to consider how many millions of people come into and go +out of the world ignorant of themselves and of the world they have lived +in. If one went to see Windsor Castle or Hampton Court it would be +strange not to observe and remember the situation, the building, the +gardens, fountains, etc., that make up the beauty and pleasure of such a +seat. And yet few people know themselves; no, not their own bodies, the +houses of their minds, the most curious structure of the world, a living +walking tabernacle: nor the world of which it was made, and out of which +it is fed; which would be so much our benefit as well as our pleasure to +know. We cannot doubt of this when we are told the Invisible things of +God are brought to light by the things that are seen; and consequently +we read our duty in them as often as we look upon them, to Him that is +the Great and Wise Author of them, if we look as we should do. + +The world is certainly a great and stately volume of natural things; and +may not be improperly styled the hieroglyphics of a better. But, alas! +how very few leaves of it do we really turn over! This ought to be the +subject of the education of our youth, who at twenty, when they should +be fit for business, know little or nothing of it. + + +_EDUCATION_ + + +We are in pain to make them scholars, but not men; to talk rather than +to know, which is true canting. The first thing obvious to children is +what is sensible; and that we make no part of their rudiments. + +We press their memory too soon, and puzzle, strain, and load them with +words and rules; to know grammar and rhetoric, and a strange tongue or +two, that it is ten to one may never be useful to them; leaving their +natural genius to mechanical and physical, or natural knowledge +uncultivated and neglected; which would be of exceeding use and pleasure +to them through the whole course of their life. + +To be sure, languages are not to be despised or neglected; but things +are still to be preferred. + +Children had rather be making of tools and instruments of play; shaping, +drawing, framing, and building, etc., than getting some rules of +propriety of speech by heart; and those also would follow with more +judgment and less trouble and time. + +It were happy if we studied nature more in natural things, and acted +according to nature; whose rules are few, plain, and most reasonable. + +Let us begin where she begins, go her pace, and close always where she +ends, and we cannot miss of being good naturalists. + +The creation would not be longer a riddle to us: the heavens, earth, and +waters, with their respective, various, and numerous inhabitants: their +productions, natures, seasons, sympathies, and antipathies; their use, +benefit, and pleasure would be better understood by us: and an eternal +wisdom, power, majesty, and goodness very conspicuous to us through +those sensible and passing forms: the world wearing the mark of its +Maker, whose stamp is everywhere visible, and the characters very +legible to the children of wisdom. + +And it would go a great way to caution and direct people in their use of +the world that they were better studied and known in the creation of it. + +For how could man find the confidence to abuse it, while they should +find the Great Creator stare them in the face, in all and every part +thereof? + +Their ignorance makes them insensible and that insensibility hardy in +misusing this noble creation, that has the stamp and voice of a Deity +everywhere, and in everything to the observing. + +It is pity, therefore, that books have not been composed for youth, by +some curious and careful naturalists, and also mechanics, in the Latin +tongue, to be used in schools, that they might learn things with words: +things obvious and familiar to them, and which would make the tongue +easier to be obtained by them. + +Many able gardeners and husbandmen are yet ignorant of the reason of +their calling; as most artificers are of the reason of their own rules +that govern their excellent workmanship. But a naturalist and mechanick +of this sort is master of the reason of both, and might be of the +practice, too, if his industry kept pace with his speculation; which +were very commendable, and without which he cannot be said to be a +complete naturalist or mechanic. + +Finally, if man be the index or epitome of the world, as philosophers +tell us, we have only to read ourselves well to be learned in it. But +because there is nothing we less regard than the characters of the Power +that made us, which are so clearly written upon us and the world He has +given us, and can best tell us what we are and should be, we are even +strangers to our own genius; the glass in which we should see that true +instructing and agreeable variety, which is to be observed in nature, to +the admiration of that wisdom and adoration of that Power which made us +all. + + +_FRUGALITY OR BOUNTY_ + + +Frugality is good, if liberality be joined with it. The first is leaving +off superfluous expenses; the last bestowing them to the benefit of +others that need. The first without the last begins covetousness; the +last without the first begins prodigality. Both together make an +excellent temper. Happy the place wherever that is found. + +Were it universal, we should be cured of two extremes, want and excess: +and the one would supply the other, and so bring both nearer to a mean; +the just degree of earthly happiness. + +It is a reproach to religion and government to suffer so much poverty +and excess. + +Were the superfluities of a nation valued, and made a perpetual tax on +benevolence, there were be more alms-houses than poor, schools than +scholars; and enough to spare for government besides. + + +_INDUSTRY_ + + +Love labour; for if thou dost not want it for food thou mayest for +physick. It is wholesome for thy body, and good for thy mind. It +prevents the fruits of idleness, which many times come of having nothing +to do, and lead too many to do what is worse than nothing. + +A garden, an elaboratory, a work-house, improvements and breeding, are +pleasant and profitable diversions to the idle and ingenious; for here +they miss ill company, and converse with nature and art; whose variety +are equally grateful and instructing; and preserve a good constitution +of body and mind. + + +_KNOWLEDGE_ + + +Knowledge is the treature, but judgment the treasurer of a wise man. + +He that has more knowledge than judgment is made for another man's use +more than his own. + +It cannot be a good constitution, where the appetite is great and the +digestion is weak. + +There are some men like dictionaries; to be looked into upon occasions, +but have no connection, and are little entertaining. + +Less knowledge than judgment will always have the advantage over the +injudicious knowing man. + +A wise man makes what he learns his own, t'other shows he's but a copy, +or a collection at most. + + +_ON THE GOVERNMENT OF THOUGHTS_ + + +Man being made a reasonable, and so a thinking creature, there is +nothing more worthy of his being than the right direction and employment +of his thoughts; since upon this depends both his usefulness to the +publick and his own present and future benefit in all respects. + +The consideration of this has often obliged me to lament the unhappiness +of mankind, that through too great a mixture and confusion of thoughts +have been hardly able to make a right or mature judgment of things. + +Clear, therefore, thy head, and rally, and manage thy thoughts rightly, +and thou wilt save time, and see and do thy business well; for thy +judgment will be distinct, thy mind free, and the faculties strong and +regular. + +Always remember to bound thy thoughts to the present occasion. + +Make not more business necessary than is so; and rather lessen than +augment work for thyself. + +Upon the whole matter employ thy thoughts as thy business requires, and +let that have place according to merit and urgency, giving everything a +review and due digestion, and thou wilt prevent many errors and +vexations, as well as save much time to thyself in the course of thy +life. + + +_FRIENDSHIP_ + + +Friendship is an union of spirits, a marriage of hearts, and the bond +thereof virtue. + +There can be no friendship where there is no freedom. Friendship loves a +free air, and will not be penned up in strait and narrow enclosures. It +will speak freely, and act so too; and take nothing ill where no ill is +meant; nay, where it is 'twill easily forgive, and forget, too, upon +small acknowledgements. + +Friends are true twins in soul; they sympathise in everything, and have +the same love and aversion. + +One is not happy without the other, nor can either be miserable alone. +As if they could change bodies, they take their turns in pain as well as +in pleasure; relieving one another in their most adverse conditions. + +What one enjoys the other cannot want. Like the primitive Christians, +they have all things in common, and no property but in one another. + +They that love beyond the world cannot be separated by it. + +Death cannot kill what never dies. + +Nor can spirits ever be divided that love and live in the same divine +principle, the root and record of their friendship. + +If absence be not death, neither is theirs. + +Death is but crossing the world, as friends do the seas; they live in +one another still. + +For they must needs be present that love and live in that which is +omnipresent. In this divine glass they see face to face; and their +converse is free, as well as pure. + +This is the comfort of friends, that though they may be said to die yet +their friendship and society are in the best sense ever present, because +immortal. + + +_OF CHARITY_ + + +Charity has various senses, but is excellent in all of them. + +It imports, first, the commiseration of the poor and unhappy of mankind, +and extends an helping hand to mend their condition. + +Next, charity makes the best construction of things and persons; it +makes the best of everything, forgives everybody, serves all, and hopes +to the end. + +It is an universal remedy against discord, an holy cement for mankind. + +And, lastly, 'tis love to God and the brethren which raises the soul +above all earthly considerations; and as it gives a taste of heaven upon +earth, so 'tis heaven in the fulness of it hereafter to the truly +charitable here. + +This is the noblest sense charity has, after which all should press as +being the more excellent way. + +Would God this divine virtue were more implanted and diffused among +mankind, the pretenders to Christianity especially; and then we should +certainly mind piety more than controversy, and exercise love and +compassion instead of censuring and persecuting one another in any +manner whatsoever. + + * * * * * + + + + +ERNEST RENAN + + +LIFE OF JESUS + + + Ernest Renan, the most widely read writer of religious history + in his day, was forty years old when the "Vie de Jésus," his + most popular book, appeared as the first volume of a "History + of the Origins of Christianity." He was born at Tréguier in + Brittany, France, Feb. 27, 1823, a Breton through his father + and a Gascon through his mother. Educated for the Church, + under priestly tutelage, he specialised in the study of + Oriental languages, with the result that he found it + impossible to accept the traditional view of Christian and + Jewish history. After holding an appointment in the Department + of Manuscripts in the Bibliothèque Nationale, he became + Professor of Hebrew in the Collège de France. At the age of 55 + he was elected a member of the French Academy. His works + include "A History of Semitic Languages," a "History of the + Origins of Christianity," and a "History of the People of + Israel," besides many volumes of essays and criticism, and + several autobiographical books of great charm. Everybody read + Renan, and disagreed with him. The orthodox rejected his + opinions, and the unorthodox his sentiment. But his books + marked an epoch in religious criticism. "The Life of Jesus" + was the outcome of a visit to Palestine in pursuance of + research studies of Phoenician civilisation. A feature is the + importance given to scenic surroundings which he could so + happily describe. Renan died on October 2, 1892, widely + admired, honoured, and also condemned, and was buried in the + Pantheon. + + +_THE HOUR AND THE MAN_ + + +The principal event in the history of the world is the revolution by +which the noblest portions of humanity have forsaken the ancient +religions of Paganism for a religion founded on the Divine Unity, the +Trinity, and the Incarnation of the Son of God. Nearly a thousand years +were required to achieve this conversion. The new religion itself took +at least three hundred years in its formation. But the origin of the +revolution is a historical event which happened in the reigns of +Augustus and Tiberius. At that time there lived a man of supreme +personality, who, by his bold originality, and by the love which he was +able to inspire, became the object, and settled the direction, of the +future faith of mankind. + +The great empires which succeeded each other in Western Asia annihilated +all the hopes of the Jewish race for a terrestial kingdom, and cast it +back on religious dreams, which it cherished with a kind of sombre +passion. The establishment of the Roman empire exalted men's +imaginations, and the great era of peace on which the world was entering +gave birth to illimitable hopes. This confused medley of dreams found at +length an interpretation in the peerless man to whom the universal +conscience has decreed the title of the Son of God, and that with +justice, since he gave religion an impetus greater than that which any +other man has been capable of giving--an impetus with which, in all +probability, no further advance will be comparable. + + +_YOUTH AND EDUCATION_ + + +Jesus was born at Nazareth, a small town in Galilee, which before his +time was not known to fame. The precise date of his birth is unknown. It +took place in the reign of Augustus, probably some years before the year +one of the era which all civilised peoples date from the day of his +birth. Jesus came from the ranks of the common folk. His father, Joseph, +and his mother, Mary, were people in humble circumstances, artisans +living by their handiwork in the state, so usual in the East, which is +neither ease nor poverty. The family was somewhat large. Jesus had +brothers and sisters who seem to have been younger than he. They all +remained obscure. The four men who were called his brothers, and among +whom one at least, James, became of great importance in the early years +of the development of Christianity, were his cousins-german. The sisters +of Jesus were married at Nazareth, and there he spent the early years of +his youth. + +The town must have presented the poverty-stricken aspect still +characteristic of villages in the East. We see to-day the streets where +Jesus played as a child in the stony paths or little lanes which +separate the dwellings from each other. No doubt the house of Joseph +much resembled these poor domiciles, lighted only by the doorway, +serving at once as workshop, kitchen, and bedroom, and having for +furniture a mat, some cushions on the ground, one or two clay pots, and +a painted chest. But the surroundings are charming, and no place in the +world could be so well adapted for dreams of perfect happiness. If we +ascend to the plateau, swept by a perpetual breeze, above the highest +houses, the landscape is magnificent. An enchanted circle, cradle of the +Kingdom of God, was for years the horizon of Jesus, and indeed during +his whole life he went but little beyond these, the familiar bounds of +his childhood. + +No doubt he learnt to read and write according to the Eastern method; +but it is doubtful if he understood the Hebrew writings in their +original tongue. His biographers make him cite translations in the +Aramean language. Nevertheless, it would be a great error to imagine +that Jesus was what we should call an ignorant man. Refinement of +manners and acuteness of intellect have, in the East, nothing in common +with what we call education. In all probability Jesus did not know +Greek. His mother tongue was the Syrian dialect, mingled with Hebrew. No +element of secular teaching reached him. He was ignorant of all beyond +Judaism; his mind kept that free innocence which an extended and varied +culture always weakens. Happily, he was also ignorant of the grotesque +scholasticism which was taught at Jerusalem, and which was soon to +constitute the Talmud. The reading of the books of the Old Testament +made a deep impression on him, especially the book of Daniel, and the +religious poetry of the Psalms was in marvellous accordance with his +lyrical soul, and all his life was his sustenance and support. That he +had no knowledge of the general state of the world is evident from every +feature of his most authentic discourses, and he never conceived of +aristocratic society, save as a young villager who sees the world +through the prism of his simplicity. Although born at a time when the +principles of positive science had already been proclaimed, he lived in +entirely supernatural ideas. To him the marvellous was not the +exceptional but the normal statf of things, since to him the whole +course of things was the result of the free-will of the Deity. This led +to a profound conception of the close relations of man with God. + + +_IDYLLIC SURROUNDINGS_ + + +A mighty dream haunted the Jewish people for centuries, constantly +renewing its youth. Judaea believed that she possessed divine promises +of a boundless future. In combination with the belief in the Messiah and +the doctrine of an approaching renewal of all things, the dogma of the +resurrection had emerged and produced a great fermentation from one end +of the Jewish world to the other. Jesus, as soon as he had any thought +of his own, entered into the burning atmosphere created in Palestine by +these ideas, and his soul was soon filled with them. A beautiful natural +environment imprinted a charming and idyllic character on all the dreams +of Galilee. During the months of March and April that green, shady, +smiling land is a carpet of flowers of an incomparable variety of +colours. The animals are small and extremely gentle--delicate and +playful turtle-doves, blackbirds so light that they rest on a blade of +grass without bending it, tufted larks which almost venture under the +feet of the traveller, little river-tortoises with mild bright eyes, +storks of gravely modest mien, which, casting aside all timidity, allow +men to come quite near them, and indeed seem to invite his approach. In +no country in the world do the mountains extend with more harmonious +outlines, or inspire higher thought. Jesus seems to have had an especial +love for them. The most important events of his divine career took place +upon the mountains. This beautiful country in his time was filled with +prosperity and gaiety. There Jesus lived and grew up. True, every year +he knew the sweet solemnity of the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and it is +believed that early in life the wilderness had some influence on his +development, but it was when he returned into his beloved Galilee that +he once more found his Heavenly Father in the midst of green hills and +clear fountains, and women and children who with joyous soul awaited the +salvation of Israel. + + +_A CHARACTER TO LOVE_ + + +Jesus followed the trade of his father, which was that of a carpenter. +In this there was nothing irksome or humiliating. The Jewish custom +required that a man devoted to intellectual work should learn a +handicraft. Jesus never married. His whole capacity for love was +concentrated upon that which he felt was his heavenly vocation. He was +no doubt more beloved than loving. Thus, as often happens in very lofty +natures, tenderness of heart was in him transformed into an infinite +sweetness, a vague poetry, a universal charm. + +Through what stages did the ideas of Jesus progress during this obscure +early period of his life? A high conception of the Divinity, the +creation of his own great mind, was the guiding principle to which his +power was due. God did not speak to him as to one outside of himself; +God was in him; he felt himself with God, and from his own heart drew +all he said of his Father. The highest consciousness of God which ever +existed in the heart of man was that of Jesus; but he never once gave +utterance to the sacrilegious idea that he was God. From the first he +looked upon his relationship with God as that of a son with his father. +Herein was his great originality; in this he had nothing in common with +his race. Neither Jew nor Musselman has understood this sweet theology +of love. The God of Jesus is our Father. He is the God of humanity. The +Jesus who founded the true Kingdom of God, the kingdom of the humble and +meek, was the Jesus of early life--of those chaste and simple days when +the voice of his Father re-echoed within him in clearer tones. It was +then, for some months, perhaps a year, that God truly dwelt on earth. + + +_A STIMULATING ACQUAINTANCE_ + + +An extraordinary man, whose position remains to some extent enigmatical, +appeared about this time and unquestionably had some intercourse with +Jesus. About the year 28 of our era there spread through the whole of +Palestine the reputation of a certain John, a young ascetic, full of +fervour and passion. The fundamental practice which characterised his +sect was baptism; but baptism with John was only a sign to impress the +minds of the people and to prepare them for some great movement. There +can be no doubt he was possessed in the highest degree with hope for the +coming of the Messiah. He was of the same age as Jesus, and the two +young enthusiasts, full of the same hopes and the same hatreds, were +able to lend each other mutual support, Jesus recognizing John as his +superior, and timidly developing his own individual genius. John was +soon cut short in his prophetic career, and cast into prison, from +which, however, he still exercised a wide influence. + +Jesus returned from the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea and the Jordan to +Galilee, his true home, ripened by intercourse with a great man of very +different nature, and having acquired full consciousness of his own +originality. From that time he preached with greater power and made the +multitude feel his authority. The persuasion that he was to make God +reign upon earth took absolute possession of his spirit. He looked upon +himself as the universal reformer. He aimed at founding the Kingdom of +God, or, in other words, the Kingdom of the Soul. Jesus was, in some +respects, an anarchist, for he had no idea of civil government. He never +showed any desire to put himself in the place of the rich and mighty. +The idea of being all-powerful by suffering and resignation, and of +triumphing over force by purity of heart was his peculiar idea. The +founders of the Kingdom of God are the simple--not the rich, not the +learned, not the priests; but women, common folk, the humble, and the +young. He now boldly announced "the good tidings of the Kingdom of God," +and himself as that "Son of Man," whom Daniel in his vision had beheld +as the divine herald of the last and supreme revelation. + + +_EARLY SUCCESSES_ + + +The success of the new prophet's teaching was decisive. A group of men +and women, all characterised by the same spirit of childish frankness +and simple innocence, adhered to him, and said, "Thou art the Messiah." +The centre of his operations was the little town of Capernaum, on the +shore of the Lake of Genesareth. Jesus was much attached to the town and +made it a second home. He had attempted to begin the work at Nazareth, +but without success. The fact that his family, which was of humble rank, +was known in the district lessened his authority too much; and it is +moreover remarkable that his family were strongly opposed to him, and +flatly declined to believe in his mission. In Capernaum he was much more +favourably received, and it became "his own city." These good Galileans +had never heard preaching so well adapted to their cheerful +imaginations. They admired him, they encouraged him, they found that he +spoke well, and that his reasons were convincing. The almost poetical +harmony of his discourses won their affections. The authority of the +young master increased day by day, and naturally the more that people +believed in him the more he believed in himself. Four or five large +villages, lying at half an hour's journey from one another, formed the +little world of Jesus at this time. Sometimes, however, he wandered +beyond his favourite region, once in the direction of Tyre and Sidon, a +country which must have been marvellously prosperous at that time. But +he returned always to his well-beloved shore of Genesareth. The +motherland of his thoughts was there; there he found faith and love. + +In this earthly paradise lived a population in perfect harmony with the +land itself, active, honest, joyous, and tender of heart, and here Jesus +became the centre of a little circle which adored him. In this friendly +group he evidently had his favourites. Peter, for whom his affection was +very deep, James, son of Zebedee, and John, his brother, formed a sort +of privy council. Jesus owed his conquests to the infinite charm of his +personality and speech. Everyone thought that he lived in a sphere +higher than that of humanity. The aristocracy of the group was +represented by a customs-officer, and by the wife of one of Herod's +stewards. The rest were fishermen and common folk. Jesus lived with his +disciples almost always in the open air, the faithful band leading a +joyous wandering life, and gathering the inspirations of the Master in +their first bloom. His preaching was soft and gentle, inspired with a +feeling for nature and the perfume of the fields. It was above all in +parable that the Master excelled. There was nothing in Judaism to give +him a model for this delightful feature. He created it. In freeing man +from what he called "the cares of this world" Jesus might go to excess +and injure the essential conditions of human society; but he founded +that spiritual exaltation which for centuries has filled souls with joy +in the midst of this vale of tears. In our busy civilisation the memory +of the free life of Galilee has been like perfume from another world, +like the "dew of Hermon," which has kept drought and grossness from +entirely invading the fields of God. + + +_A GOSPEL FOR THE POOR_ + + +Jesus very soon understood that the official world of his time would by +no means lend its support to his kingdom. He took his resolution with +extreme daring. Leaving the world, with its hard heart and narrow +prejudices, on one side, he turned towards the simple. A vast +rearrangement of classes was to take place. The Kingdom of God was made +for children, and those like them; for the world's outcasts, victims of +that social arrogance which repulses the good but humble man; for +heretics and schismatics, publicans, Samaritans, and the pagans of Tyre +and Sidon. That the reign of the poor is at hand was the doctrine of +Jesus. This exaggerated taste for poverty could not last very long, but +although it quickly passed, poverty remained an ideal from which true +descendants of Jesus were never afterwards separated. + +Like all great men, Jesus was fond of common folk, and felt at his ease +with them. He particularly esteemed all those whom orthodox Judaism +disdained. Love of the people, pity for their powerlessness, the feeling +of the democratic leader who has the spirit of the multitude quick +within him, reveal themselves at every instant in his acts and sayings. +He had no external affection, and made no display of austerity. He did +not shun pleasure; but went willingly to marriage feasts. His gentle +gaiety found constant expression in amiable pleasantries. Thus he +journeyed through Galilee in the midst of continual festivities. When he +entered a house, it was considered a joy and a blessing. Children and +women adored him. The children, indeed, were like a young guard about +him, for the inauguration of his innocent kingship, and gave him little +ovations. It was childhood, in fact, in its divine spontaneity, in its +simple bewilderment of joy, that took possession of the earth. + +How long did this intoxication last? We cannot tell. But whether it +filled years or months, the dream was so beautiful that humanity has +lived upon it ever since. Happy he to whom it has been granted to behold +with his own eyes this divine blossoming, and to share, if but for a +day, the incomparable illusion! But yet more happy, Jesus would tell us, +shall he be who, by the uprightness of his will, and the poetry of his +soul, shall be able to create anew in his own heart the true Kingdom of +God! + + +_THE PRIEST IN THE PATH_ + + +Nearly every year Jesus went to Jerusalem for the feast of the Passover. +It was, it appears, in the year 31 that the most important of these +visits took place. Jesus felt that to play a leading part he must leave +Galilee and attack Judaism in its stronghold, Jerusalem. There the +little Galilean community was far from feeling at home. Jerusalem was a +city of pedantry, acrimony, disputation, hatreds, and pettiness of mind. +Its fanaticism was extreme. All the religious discussions of the Jewish +schools, all the canonical instruction, even the legal business and +civil actions--in a word, all form of national activity, were +concentrated in the temple. The Romans refrained from entering the +sactuary; the surveillance of the Temple was in the hands of the Jews. +It was in the Temple that Jesus spent his days during his sojourn at +Jerusalem, and all that he saw aroused his aversion. These old Jewish +institutions displeased him, and the necessity of conforming to them +gave him pain. He who gave forgiveness to all men, provided they loved +him, could find nothing congenial in vain disputations and obsolete +sacrifices, and apparently he brought from Jerusalem one idea +thenceforth rooted in his mind--that there was no understanding possible +between him and the ancient Jewish religion. He no longer took his stand +as a Jewish reformer, but as a destroyer of Judaism. In other words, +Jesus is no longer a Jew. He is, in the highest degree, a revolutionary; +he calls all men to a worship founded solely on the ground of their +being children of God. Love of God, charity, and mutual forgiveness--in +these consisted his whole law. Nothing could be less sacerdotal. It was +on his return from Jerusalem, as he passed near Shechem, and when +talking with a Samaritan woman, that Jesus gave utterance to the saying +upon which will rest the edifice of eternal religion--Believe me, the +hour cometh when neither in this mountain nor in Jerusalem shall ye +worship the Father ... but the hour cometh, and now is, when the true +worshippers shall worship the Father in spirit and in truth. On the day +when he said these words he was truly Son of God. + +Jesus returned to Galilee full of revolutionary ardour. His innocent +aphorisms and beautiful moral precepts now culminated in a decided +policy. The law is to be abolished, and it is he that will abolish it. +The Messiah is come, and it is he that is the Messiah. The Kingdom of +God is about to be revealed, and it is he that will reveal it. He knew +well that he would be the victim of his own audacity, but it was by +cries and the rending of hearts that the kingdom had to be established. + +The proposition "Jesus is the Messiah" was followed by the proposition +"Jesus is the Son of David," and, by an entirely spontaneous conspiracy, +fictitious genealogies arose in the imaginations of his partisans, while +he was still alive, to prove his royal descent. We cannot tell whether +he knew anything of these legends. He never designated himself Son of +David. That he ever dreamed of making himself pass for an incarnation of +God is a matter about which no doubt can exist. Such an idea was +entirely foreign to the Jewish mind. He believed himself to be more than +an ordinary man, but separated by an infinite distance from God. He was +the Son of God, but all men are, or may become so in divers degrees. +Jesus apparently remained a stranger to the theological subtleties which +were soon to fill the world with sterile disputations. + + +_TIME-WORM PROOFS_ + + +Two means of proof--miracles and the accomplishment of prophecies--could +alone establish a supernatural mission in the opinion of the +contemporaries of Jesus. He himself, but more especially his disciples, +employed these two methods of demonstration in perfect good faith. For a +long time Jesus had recognised himself in the sacred oracles of the +prophets. As to miracles, they were considered at this epoch the +indispensable mark of the divine, and the sign of the prophetic +vocation. Jesus, therefore, was compelled either to renounce his mission +or become a thaumaturgist. It must be remembered that not only did he +believe in miracles, but he had not the least idea of an order of nature +under the reign of law. On that point, his knowledge was in no way +superior to that of his contemporaries. Indeed, one of his most +deeply-rooted opinions was that by faith and prayer man had entire power +over nature. Almost all the miracles Jesus believed he performed seem to +have been miracles of healing. The kind of healing which he most often +practised was exorcism, or the expulsion of demons. There can be no +doubt that he had in his lifetime the reputation of possessing the +greatest secrets of the art. There were many lunatics in Judaea +wandering at large, and no doubt Jesus had great influence over these +unhappy beings. Circumstances seem to indicate that he became a +thaumaturgist late in life and against his own inclinations. He accepted +miracles exacted by public opinion rather than performed them. + + +_THE NEW KINGDOM OF GOD_ + + +During the eighteen months between the return from the Passover of the +year 31 and his journey to the feast of tabernacles in the year 32, all +that was within Jesus developed with an ever-increasing degree of power +and audacity. The fundamental idea of Jesus from his earliest days was +the establishment of the Kingdom of God. This kingdom he appears to have +understood in divers senses. At times it is the literal consummation of +apocalyptic visions relating to the Messiah. At other times it is the +spiritual kingdom, and the deliverance at hand is the deliverance of the +soul. The revolution desired by Jesus in this last sense is the one +which has really taken place. That the coming of the end of the world +and the appearance of the Messiah in judgment was taken literally by the +disciples, and at certain moments by the Master himself, appears +absolutely clear. These formal declarations absorbed the minds of the +Christian family for nearly seventy years. The world has not ended, as +Jesus announced, and as his disciples believed it would end. But it has +been renewed and in one sense renewed as Jesus desired. By the side of +the false, cold, impossible idea of an ostentatious advent, he conceived +the real City of God, the raising up of the weak, the love of the +people, esteem for the poor, and the restoration of all that is humble +and true and simple. This restoration he has depicted, as an +incomparable artist, in touches which will last for eternity. His +Kingdom of God was doubtless the apocalypse which was soon to be +unfolded in the heavens. But besides this, and probably above all, was +the soul's kingdom, founded on freedom, and on the feeling of sonship +which the good man knows in his rest on the bosom of his Father. This is +what was destined to live. This is what has lived. + + +_THE CLASH OF OLD AND NEW_ + + +Throughout the first epoch of his career, it seems as though Jesus met +with no serious opposition; but when he entered upon a path brilliant +with public successes the first mutterings of the storm began to make +themselves heard. He recognised only the religion of the heart, while +the religion of the Pharisees almost exclusively consisted of +observances. As his mission proceeded, his conflicts with official +hypocrisy became incessant. His goal was in the future, not in the past. +He was more than the reformer of an obsolete religion; he was the +creator of the eternal religion of humanity. A hatred which death alone +could satisfy was the consequence of these controversies. The war was to +the death. Judaea drew him as by a charm; he wished to attempt one last +effort to win the rebellious city, and seemed anxious to fulfil the +proverb that a prophet ought not to die outside Jerusalem. + +At the feast of tabernacles in the year 32, his relatives, always +malevolent and sceptical, pressed him to go there. He set out on the +journey unknown to every one and almost alone, and never again saw his +beloved northern land. + +In Jerusalem, Jesus was a stranger. There he felt a wall of resistance +he could not penetrate. At every step he met with obstinate scepticism. +The arrogance of the priests made the courts of the Temple disagreeable +to him, and his criticisms naturally exasperated the sacerdotal caste. +Imagine a reformer going, in our own time, to preach the overthrow of +Islamism round the Mosque of Omar! His teaching in this new world was +greatly modified; he had to become controversialist, jurist, theologian, +though when alone with his disciples his gentle and irresistible genius +inspired him with accents full of tenderness. + + +_APPROACHING THE CRISIS_ + + +Jesus spent the autumn and part of the winter in Jerusalem. In the new +year he undertook a journey to the banks of the Jordan, the district he +had visited when he followed the school of John. After this pilgrimage +he returned to Bethany, a place he especially loved, and where he knew a +family whose friendship had a great charm for him. In impure and +depressing Jerusalem, Jesus was no longer himself. His mission weighed +him down, and he let himself be carried away by the torrent. The +contrast between his ever-increasing exaltation and the indifference of +the Jews became wider day by day. At the same time the public +authorities began to be bitter against him. In February, or early in +March, the council of the chief priests asked clearly the question "Can +Jesus and Judaism exist together?" The High Priest was Joseph Kaiapha, +but beside and behind him we always see another man, Hanan, his +father-in-law. He had been High Priest, and in reality kept all the +authority of the office. During fifty years the pontificate remained in +his family almost without interruption. The family spirit was haughty, +bold, and cruel. It was Hanan, his family, and the party he represented, +who really put Jesus to death. After the death of Jesus was decided, he +escaped for a short time by withdrawing to an obscure town, Ephron, and +letting the storm pass over; but when the feast of the Passover drew +nigh, he set out to see for the last time the unbelieving city. His +followers all believed that the Kingdom of God was about to be realised +there. As to Jesus, he grew confirmed in the conviction that he was +about to die, but that his death would save the world. + +During these last days a deep sadness appears to have filled the soul of +Jesus, which was generally so joyous and serene. The enormous weight of +the mission he had accepted bore cruelly upon him. All these inward +troubles were evidently a sealed chapter to his disciples. His divine +nature, however, soon gained the supremacy, and henceforth we behold him +entirely himself and with his character unclouded. Each moment of this +period is solemn, and counts more than whole ages in the history of +humanity. A lofty feeling of love, of concord, of charity, and of mutual +deference, animated the memories cherished of these last hours. + + +_VICTORY THROUGH DEFEAT_ + + +It was in the garden of Gethsemane that the guards of the Temple, +supported by a detachment of Roman soldiers, executed the warrant of +arrest. The course which the priests had determined to take against +Jesus was in perfect conformity with the established law. The warrant of +arrest probably came from Hanan, and before this powerful man Jesus was +first brought for examination as to his doctrine. Jesus, with just +pride, declined to enter into long explanations--he asked the ex-high +priest to question those who had listened to him. Hanan then sent him to +his son-in-law, Kaiapha, at whose house the Sanhedrim was assembled. It +is probable that here, too, he kept silence. The sentence was already +decided, and they only sought for pretexts. With one voice the assembly +declared him guilty of a capital crime. The point now was to get Pilate +to ratify the sentence. On being informed of the accusation, Pilate +showed his annoyance at being mixed up in the matter, and called upon to +play a cruel part for the sake of a law he detested. Perhaps the +dignified and calm attitude of the accused made an impression upon him. +To excite the suspicion of the Roman authorities, the charges now made +were those of sedition and treason against the government. Nothing could +be more unjust, for Jesus had always recognised the Roman government as +the established power. Asked by Pilate if he really were the king of the +Jews, Jesus, according to the fourth gospel, avowed his kingship, but +uttered at the same time the profound saying, "My kingdom is not of this +world." Of this lofty idealism Pilate understood nothing. No doubt Jesus +impressed him as being a harmless dreamer. When, however, the people +began to denounce Pilate's lack of zeal, in protecting an enemy of +Caesar, he surrendered, throwing on the Jews the responsibility for what +was about to take place. It was not Pilate who condemned Jesus. It was +the old Jewish party; it was the Mosaic law. Intolerance is a Jewish +characteristic. The Pentateuch has been the first code of religious +terrorism in the world. It was, however, the chimerical "King of the +Jews," not the heteradox dogmatist, who was punished, and the execution +took the Roman form of crucifixion, carried out by Roman soldiers. + +The horrors of that ignominious death were suffered by Jesus in all +their atrocity. For a moment, according to certain narratives, his heart +failed him; a cloud hid from him the face of his Father; he endured an +agony of despair more acute a thousand times than all his torments. But +his divine instinct again sustained him. In measure as the life of the +body flickered out, his soul grew serene, and by degrees returned to its +heavenly source. He regained the idea of his mission, in his death he +saw the salvation of the world; the hideous spectacle spread at his feet +melted from his sight, and profoundly united to his Father, he began +upon the gibbet the divine life which he was to live in the heart of +humanity through infinite years. + +Rest now in thy glory, noble pioneer! Thy work is achieved, thy divinity +established. At the price of a few hours of suffering, which have not +even touched thy mighty soul, thou hast purchased the fullest +immortality. For thousands of years the world will depend upon thee! A +thousand times more alive, a thousand times more loved since thy death +than during the days of thy pilgrimage here below, thou shalt become so +truly the cornerstone of humanity that to tear thy name from this world +were to shake it to its foundations. + +Whatever the unexpected phenomena of the future, Jesus will never be +surpassed. His worship will constantly renew its youth; the legend of +his life will bring ceaseless tears; his sufferings will soften the best +hearts; all the ages will proclaim that amongst the sons of men none has +been born who is greater than Jesus. + + * * * * * + + + +EMANUEL SWEDENBORG + + +HEAVEN AND HELL + + + Emanuel Swedenborg, author of a strange system of mystical + theology, was of Swedish nationality and was born at Stockholm + on January 29, 1688. He was educated at Upsala, and after + travelling for several years in Western Europe was appointed + to a post in the Swedish College of Mines. Thenceforth, until + he was 55 years of age, Swedenborg pursued, with equal + industry and ingenuity, the career of a man of science, doing + valuable work in mathematics, astronomy, navigation, + engineering, chemistry, and especially in mining and + metallurgy. These inquiries were followed by studies in + philosophy and anatomy and physiology. But about the year 1744 + certain visions and other mystical experiences began to take + hold of his mind, and three years later Swedenborg had come to + regard himself as the medium of a new revelation of divine + truth. His message, or theory, or vision, was first + promulgated in the eight quarto volumes of the "Heavenly + Arcana," published in London from 1749 to 1756, and this was + followed by "Heaven and Hell," 1758, the work now before us, + the full title of which is "Heaven and Its Wonders, the World + of Spirits, and Hell: described by one who had heard and seen + what he relates," and several other apocalyptic books, all of + which were written in Latin. The main features of Swedenborg's + theology were a strong emphasis on the divinity of Christ, the + proclamation of the immediate advent of the "New Jerusalem," + foretold by the seer of Patmos, and the conception of + correspondences between the natural, spiritual, and mental + worlds. His followers, known as Swedenborgians, or more + properly as "The New Church signified by the New Jerusalem in + the Revelation," are widely spread but not very numerous, in + England and in the United States. Swedenborg died in London on + March 29, 1772. + + +_I.--OF HEAVEN_ + + +The first thing necessary to be known is, who is the God of heaven; for +everything else depends on this. In the universal heaven, no other is +acknowledged for its God, but the Lord Alone; they say there, as He +Himself taught, that He is One with the Father; that the Father is in +Him, and He in the Father; that whosoever seeth Him, seeth the Father; +and that everything holy proceeds from Him. I have often conversed with +the angels on this subject, and they constantly declared that they are +unable to divide the Divine Being into three, because they know and +perceive that the Divine Being is one, and that He is One in the Lord. + +The angels, taken collectively, are called heaven, because they compose +it: but still it is the Divine Sphere proceeding from the Lord, which +enters the angels by influx, and is by them received, which essentially +constitutes it, both in general and in particular. The Divine Sphere +proceeding from the Lord is the good of love and the truth of faith: in +proportion, therefore, as the angels receive good and truth from the +Lord, so far they are angels, and so far they are heaven. + +As in heaven there are infinite varieties, and no society is exactly +like another, nor indeed any angel, therefore heaven is divided in a +general, in a specific, and in a particular manner. It is divided, in +general, into two kingdoms, specifically, into three heavens, and in +particular, into innumerable societies. + +There are angels who receive the Divine Sphere proceeding from the Lord +more and less interiorly. They who receive it more interiorly are called +celestial angels; but they who receive it less interiorly are called +spiritual angels. Hence, heaven is divided into two kingdoms, one of +which is called the Celestial Kingdom, and the other, the Spiritual +Kingdom. + +The angels of each heaven do not dwell all together in one place, but +are divided into larger and smaller societies, according to the +difference of the good of love and faith in which they are grounded; +those who are grounded in similar good forming one society. There is an +infinite variety of kinds of good in the heavens; and every angel is +such in quality as is the good belonging to him. + +That heaven, viewed collectively, is in form as one man, is a mystery +which is not yet known to the world: but it is well known in the +heavens; for the knowledge of this mystery, with the particular and most +particular circumstances relating to it, is the chief article of the +intelligence of the angels; since many other things depend upon it, +which, without a knowledge of this as their common centre, could not +possibly enter distinctly and clearly into their ideas. As they know +that all the heavens together with their societies are in form as one +man, they also call heaven THE GRAND AND DIVINE MAN; divine, because the +Divine Sphere of the Lord constitutes heaven. + +From my experience, which I have enjoyed for many years, I can affirm +that angels are in every respect men; that they have faces, eyes, ears, +a body, arms, hands, and that they see, hear, and converse with each +other; in short they are deficient in nothing that belongs to a man +except that they are not super-invested with a material body. + +Their habitations are exactly like our houses on earth, but more +beautiful. They contain chambers, with-drawing-rooms, and bed-chambers, +in great numbers, and are encompassed with gardens and flower-beds. +Where the angels live together in societies the habitations are +contiguous, and arranged in the form of a city, with streets, squares, +and churches. It has also been granted to me to walk through them, and +to look about on all sides, and occasionally to enter the houses. This +occurred to me when wide awake, my interior sight being open at the +time. + +That it is by derelation from the Lord's Divine Humanity that heaven, +both in whole and in parts, is in form as a man, follows as a conclusion +from all that has been advanced. + +There is a correspondence between all things belonging to heaven and all +things belonging to man. It is unknown at this day what correspondence +is. This ignorance is owing to various causes; the chief of which is, +that man has removed himself from heaven, through cherishing the love of +self and of the world. For he that supremely loves himself and the world +cares only for worldly things, because they soothe the external senses +and are agreeable to his natural disposition; but has no concern about +spiritual things, because these only soothe the internal senses and are +agreeable to the internal or rational mind. These, therefore, they cast +aside, saying that they are too high for man's comprehension. Not so did +the ancients. With them the science of correspondences was the chief of +all sciences: by means of its discoveries, also, they imbibed +intelligence and wisdom, and such of them as belonged to the church had +by it communication with heaven; for the science of correspondences is +the science of angels. + +It shall first be stated what correspondence is. The whole natural world +corresponds to the spiritual world; and not only the natural world +collectively, but also in its individual parts: wherefore every object +in the natural world, existing from something in the spiritual world, is +called its correspondent. The natural world exists and subsists from the +spiritual world, just as the effect exists from the efficient cause. + +Since man is both a heaven and a world in miniature, he has belonging to +him both a spiritual world and a natural world. The interiors, which +belong to his mind, and have relation to his understanding and will, +constitute his spiritual world; but his exteriors, which belong to his +body, and have reference to its senses and actions, constitute his +natural world. + +The nature of correspondence may be seen from the face of man. In a +countenance which has not been taught to dissemble, all the affections +of the mind display themselves vividly, in a natural form, as in their +type; whence the face is called the index of the mind. Thus man's +spiritual world shows itself in its natural world. All things, +therefore, which take effect in the body, whether in the countenance, +the speech, or the gestures, are called correspondences. + +The angels rejoice that it has pleased the Lord to reveal many +particulars to mankind. They desire me to state from their lips, that +there does not exist, in the universal heaven, a single angel who was +created such from the first, nor any devil in hell who was created an +angel of light and afterwards cast down thither; but that all the +inhabitants, both of heaven and of hell, are derived from the human +race; the inhabitants of heaven being those who had lived in heavenly +love and faith, and those of hell who had lived in infernal love and +faith. + + +_II--OF THE WORLD OF SPIRITS_ + + +The world of spirits is not heaven nor yet hell, but is a place or state +intermediate between the two. Thither man goes after death; and having +completed the period of his stay there, according to his life in the +world he is either elevated into heaven or cast into hell. + +The world of spirits contains a great number of inhabitants, because it +is the region in which all first assemble, and where all are examined +and are prepared for their final abode. Their stay there is not limited +to any fixed period: some do but just enter it, and are presently either +taken up to heaven or cast down to hell: some remain there only a few +weeks; and some for several years, but never more than thirty. The +varieties in the length of their stay depend upon the correspondence, or +noncorrespondence between their interiors and their exteriors. + +As men enter the world of spirits, they are distinguished by the Lord +into classes. The wicked are immediately connected by invisible bonds +with the society of hell, and the good, in a similar way, with the +society of heaven, but notwithstanding these bonds, they meet and +converse together. I saw a father conversing with his six sons, all of +whom he recognised; but as they were different in disposition, resulting +from their course of life in the world, after a short time they were +parted. + +The spirit of a man, when first he enters the world of spirits, is +similar in countenance and in the tone of his voice to what he was in +the world. The reason is, because he is then in the state of his +exteriors and his interiors are not yet laid open. This is the first +state of man after death. But afterwards his countenance is changed; +being rendered similar to his governing affection or love, which is that +in which the interiors belonging to his mind had been grounded while in +the world, and which had reigned in his spirit while this was in the +body. For the face of a man's spirit differs exceedingly from that of +his body; the face of his body being derived from his parents, but that +of his spirit from his affection, of which it is the image. + +That his own life remains with everyone after death is known to every +Christian from the Word. Everyone, also, who thinks under the influence +of good and of real truth, has no other idea than that he who has lived +well will go to heaven, and he who has lived ill will go to hell. + +But by deeds and works are not merely meant deeds and works as they +appear in their external form, but as they appear internally. Everyone +knows, that every deed or work proceeds from the will and thought of the +doer; for otherwise they would be mere motions, such as are performed by +automatons and images. The deed or work, then, viewed in itself, is +nothing but an effect, which derives its soul and life from the will and +thought from which it is performed; and so completely is this the case +that the deed or work is the will and thought in their effect, and is, +consequently, the will and thought in their external form. It hence +follows, that such as are, in quality, the will and thought which +produce the deed or work, such, also, is the deed or work itself; and +that if the thought and will are good the deeds or works are good; and +if the thought and will are evil the deeds and works are evil, +notwithstanding in their external form they appear like the former. + +To sum up the truths concerning man's state after death, I will say, +first: that man, after death, is his own love, or his own will; +secondly: that, in quality, man remains to eternity, such as he is with +respect to his will or governing love; thirdly: that the man whose love +is celestial and spiritual goes to heaven, but that the man whose love +is corporeal and worldly, destitute of such as is celestial and +spiritual, goes to hell; fourthly: that faith does not remain with man, +if not grounded in heavenly love; fifthly: that what remains with man is +love in act, consequently his life. + + +_III.--OF HELL_ + + +When treating above respecting heaven, it has everywhere been shown, +that the Lord is the God of heaven, and thus that the whole government +of the heavens is that of the Lord. Now as the relation which heaven +bears to hell, and that which hell bears to heaven, is such as exists +between two opposites, which mutually act against each other, and the +result of whose action and reaction is a state of equilibrium, in which +all things may subsist, therefore, in order that all and everything +should be maintained in equilibrium, it is necessary that he who governs +the one should also govern the other. For unless the same ruler were to +restrain the assaults made by the hells, and to keep down the insanities +which rage in them, the equilibrium would be destroyed, and with it the +whole universe. + +It is this spiritual equilibrium that causes man to enjoy freedom in +thinking and willing. For whatever a man thinks and wills has reference +either to evil and the falsity proceeding from it, or to good and the +truth which comes from that source: consequently, when he is placed in +that equilibrium he enjoys the liberty of either, admitting and +receiving evil and its falsity from hell, or good in its truth from +heaven. Every man is maintained in this equilibrium by the Lord, because +he governs both--heaven as well as hell. + +Hell, like heaven, is divided into societies; and every society in +heaven has a society opposite to it in hell; which is provided for the +preservation of the equilibrium. + +It is by influence from hell that man does evil, and by influence from +the Lord that he does good. But as man believes that whatever he does, +he does from himself, the consequence is that the evil which he does +adheres to him as his own. It hence follows that the cause of his own +evil lies with man, and not at all with the Lord. Evil as existing with +man is hell, as existing with him: for whether you say evil or hell, +amounts to the same thing. Now since the cause of his own evil lies with +man himself, it follows that it is he who casts himself into hell, and +not the Lord; and so far is the Lord from leading man into hell, that he +delivers from hell, so far as the man does not will and loves to abide +in his own evil. But the whole of man's will and love remains with him +after death: whoever wills and loves evil in the world, wills and loves +the same evil in the other life; and he then no longer suffers himself +to be withdrawn from it. It hence results, that the man who is immersed +in evil is connected by invisible bonds with hell: he is also actually +there as to his spirit; and, after death, he desires nothing more +earnestly than to be where his evil is. + +From an inspection of the monstrous forms belonging to the spirits in +the hells, it was made evident to me that they all, in general, are +forms of self-love and the love of the world, and that the evils, of +which in particular they are the forms, derive their origin from those +two loves. It has also been told me from heaven, and proved to me by +much experimental evidence, that those two loves--self-love and the love +of the world--reign in the hells and also constitute them; whereas love +to the Lord and love towards the neighbour reign in the heavens and also +constitute them: and that the two former loves, which are the loves of +hell, and the two latter, which are the loves of heaven, are +diametrically opposite to each other. + +As by the fire of hell is to be understood all the lust of doing evil +flowing from self-love, by the same is also meant torment, such as +exists in the hells. For the lust flowing from that love is, in those +who are inflamed by it, the lust of doing injury to all who do not +honour, respect, and pay court to them; and in proportion to the anger +which they thence conceive against such individuals, and to the hatred +and revenge inspired by such anger, is their lust of committing outrages +against them. Now when such a lust rages in everyone in a society, and +they have no external bond to keep them under restraint, such as the +fear of the law, and of the loss of character, of honour, of gain, and +of the like, everyone under the influence of his own evil attracts +another and, so far as he is strong enough, subjugates him, subjects the +rest to his own authority, and exercises ferocious outrages with delight +upon all who do not submit to him. All the hells are societies of this +description: on which account, every spirit, and every society, +cherishes hatred in his heart against every other, and, under the +influence of such hatred, breaks out into savage outrages against him, +as far as he is able to inflict them. These outrages, and the torments +so occasioned, are also meant by hell fire; for they are the effects of +the lusts which there prevail. + +In order that man may be in a state of liberty, as necessary to his +being reformed, he is connected, as to his spirit, with heaven and with +hell: for spirits from hell, and angels from heaven, are attendant on +every man. By the spirits from hell, man is held in his evil; but by the +Angels from heaven, he is held in good by the Lord. + +Thus he is preserved in spiritual equilibrium, that is, in freedom or +liberty. + +The particulars which have been delivered in this work respecting +heaven, the world of spirits, and hell, will appear obscure to those who +take no pleasure in acquiring a knowledge of spiritual truths; but they +will appear clear to those who take pleasure in that acquirement; and +especially those who cherish an affection of truth for its own +sake,--that is, who love truth because it is truth. For everything that +is loved enters with light into the ideas of the mind: and this is +eminently the case, when that which is loved is truth: for all truth +dwells in light. + + * * * * * + + + +THE TALMUD + + + The word "Talmud," from the Hebrew verb _lamad_, equalling "to + learn," denotes literally "what-is-learning." Then it comes to + mean "instruction," "teaching," "doctrine." What is usually + called the Talmud consists of two parts: 1. The Mishnah + (literally, "tradition" and then "traditional doctrine") a + code of Jewish laws, civil, criminal, religious, and so forth; + based ostensibly on the Pentateuch, expounding, applying, and + developing the laws contained in the so-called five books of + Moses. 2. The Gemara, a word which means literally + "completion," or "supplement," _i.e._, in reference to the + Mishnah. Some, however, explain the word as meaning + "teaching." The word is used technically to denote the + expansion, exposition, and illustration of the Mishnah which + is found in the Talmud. Strictly speaking, the word "Talmud" + denotes the Gemara only, but in its ordinary sense the word + denotes the Mishnah together with its completion in the + Gemara. In the Talmud itself, as usually printed, the section + of the Mishnah to be commented on and illustrated is followed + by the Gemara in which the opinions of the great Rabbi are + stated and discussed. + + As in the case of the Mishnah, so, also, the Talmud has six + principal divisions: these will be followed in the subsequent + epitomes and need not, therefore, be given here. There are two + versions or forms of the Talmud: 1. The Babylonian, or that + due to the studies and discussions of the Jewish doctors in + the various Hebrew colleges of Babylon (Sura, Pumbaditha, and + so forth): in this the Gemara is some ten times as large as + the Mishnah. When we speak of the Talmud it is that of Babylon + which is always meant. Its language is Eastern Aramaic. 2. The + Palestinian Talmud, compiled and edited by the heads of the + Hebrew schools in Palestine, Tiberius, Sepphoris, and so + forth. Its language is Western Aramaic, and its final editor + is said to be Rabbi Ashe, who died A.D. 427. This is often + erroneously called the Jerusalem Talmud. In its present form + it is only about one-fourth as large as the Babylonian Talmud. + The latter discusses nearly every section of the Mishnah, + whereas the Palestine Talmud passes by a large proportion of + the Mishnah without note or comment. That is, however, because + much of this latter Talmud has been lost, for, in the time of + Maimonides (died at Cairo A.D. 1204) the Gemara of the + Jerusalem Talmud discussed nearly every part of the Mishnah. + The Mishnah is usually said to have been completed by Rabbi + Jehudah Hannasi, or the Prince (Hannasi), called simply + "Rabbi" by way of preeminence, who died in A.D. 210 in his + sixtieth year. But there are parts of the Mishnah which are + older, and parts also at least a century later than the death + of that great scholar. There is no absolute proof that the + Mishnah was committed to writing until some time after the + completion of the Palestinian (about A.D. 400) or even of the + Babylonian (about A.D. 500) Talmud, for, in neither Gemara is + there any reference to a written Mishnah, nor is a written + form of the Mishnah implied anywhere. The preservation of this + wonderful code of Jewish laws was due to memory alone, men + being appointed in the various synagogues to learn the + Mishnaic sections and to recite them whenever it was + necessary. Extracts will be given below from the Mishnah and + also from the Gemara, the letters M and G preceding paragraphs + indicating which of the two is summarised. + + +_DIVISION I.--CALLED SEEDS_ + + +[This part deals first of all with prayer, and then most of all with the +various tithes and donations which are due to the priests, Levites, and +the poor, from the products of the land.] + +SECTION I. TREATISE ON BLESSINGS _(Berakot)_. The time for reading or +reciting the Shemang.[32] + +_M_. At what time in the evening may shemang be read? From the time when +the priests, having cleansed themselves, enter the sanctuary to partake +of the offering (2) (_i.e._, when the stars come out) until the end of +the first watch (about 10 p.m.). So says Rabbi Eliezar, but otherwise +men extend the time until midnight. Rabbi Gameliel makes the time reach +even to the dawn of the following day. It happened once that his sons +returned home at midnight without having read the shemang. On asking +their father if it was too late he replied that the obligation to +perform the duties of each day is valid until the first light of morning +shows itself. + + +The morning Shemang. + +_M_. From what time may the morning shemang be read? From the moment +when there is light enough to distinguish between purple-blue and white. +Rabbi Eliezar says "between purple-blue and leek-green" (which are +harder to distinguish) (3). Up to when may the morning shemang be read? +Until the sun has risen. Rabbi Jose says "until the end of the third +hour after sunrise, for it is the custom of kings' sons to rise in the +third hour of the day. Yet a good act, such as shemang is, never loses +its virtue whenever it is performed." + + +The attitude in which the shemang should be read. + +_M_. The (strict) School of Shammai say men ought to bow in reading the +evening shemang, but to stand upright when saying shemang in the +morning, their scripture warrant being Deut. vi, 7, "when thou liest +down and when thou risest up." But according to (the more liberal) +School of Hillel, people must be allowed to read the shemang in whatever +attitude they choose, referring to the words in the same passage: "When +thou sittest in thy house and when thou walkest in the way." Why then +the words "when thou liest down and when thou risest up?" Because these +are the acts that men perform when the shemang would be usually read. +Rabbi Tarphon said that once when journeying of an evening, he stooped +in order to read the shemang, with the result that his goods were almost +taken from him by unsuspected robbers. He was told that he would have +deserved it, had he been actually robbed, for not having followed the +decision of the Hillel School. The Gemara on the above Mishnahs gives +the opinions of a large number of Rabbis, reporting also discussions in +which they took part. + + +The benedictions before and after the Shemang. + +_M_. Two benedictions (4) are to be said before the morning shemang, and +one after it. + + +When the Shemang is rightly read. + +_M_. He who reads the shemang without hearing his own voice has yet +discharged his duty if only his heart has gone with the reading. + + +Persons not to read the Shemang: + +Women, slaves, and minors are not commanded to read the Shemang, or to +wear phylacteries. They are, however, expected to recite the eighteen +benedictions, the grace after meat, and also to see that the Mezuza is +attached to the doorpost.[33]. + + +_G_. Where are we taught that the Shechinah rests upon _one_ who studies +the law? In Exodus xx, 24, where it is written: "In all places where I +record my name I will come unto _thee_, and I will bless _thee_." The +Palestine Talmud paraphrases thus: "In every place in which ye shall +memorialise My holy name, My word shall be revealed unto _you_, and +shall bless _you_." Hear, O Israel, Jehovah our God, even Jehovah is +one. Deut. vi, 4. Whoever prolongs the utterance of the word _one_ (Heb. +_ekhad_), his days and years shall be prolonged. + +Once, the Rabbis say, the Roman government decreed that no Israelite +should be allowed to study the Law. Immediately after, Rabbi Agiba was +found teaching the Law to crowds of people who had gathered around him. +Some one passing by asked him "Fearest thou not the Roman government?" +To which he said, "I will answer by a parable: A fox was once walking by +a river side when he saw the fish rushing distractedly hither and +thither. On asking them the cause of all their perturbation, they +replied: 'We are afraid of the nets which wicked men are ever setting to +catch us.' 'Why, then,' said the fox, 'do you not leave that dangerous +element and try the dry land with me?' 'Surely,' replied the fish, 'thou +art in this most foolish and unfoxlike, for if it is dangerous for us to +dwell in this, our native element, how much more would it be if we left +it for the dry land?' So," continued Agiba, "all those who study the Law +have the Divine Promise," Deut. xxx, 20: "He is thy life and the length +of thy days." + + +_DIVISION II--FEASTS_ (MONGëD) + + +[contains directions for observing the festivals, including the Sabbath. +The aim in all is professedly to make explicit what is implicit in the +Pentateuch. But many late ideas and customs are brought into this +division, of which the Pentateuch knows nothing. Even the feast of Purim +mentioned here it quite unmencioned in the Pentateuch.] + + +1. TREATISE ON THE SABBATH. Law regarding transfer of goods on the +Sabbath. + +_M_. It is commanded in Exodus xvi, 29, that no man go out of his place +on the Sabbath day. This implies that no one is to take goods from his +own premises to those of another.(6). What, however, constitutes one's +own premises? _(Reshut)._ There are many cases to be considered. Suppose +a beggar stand outside and the master of the house inside. If the first +reaches his hand through a window or door to the second, or takes +something out of the hand of the latter, the beggar is guilty, but the +master is absolved. If, on the other hand, the master puts his hand +outside the house, and places something in the beggar's hands, he is +guilty, but the beggar is absolved. + +[There are in all four cases treating of the man inside and four of the +man outside.] + +_G_. Rabbi Mathra said to Abazi, "There are eight or even ten cases of +transfer." Rab questioned Rabbi, "Suppose one from the outside were +laden in the house with food, fruit, etc. How stands the law? Is the +removal of his body tantamount to the removal of a thing from its +place?" "Yes," said Rabbi; "this is not like the case of removing the +hand, because the latter was not at rest, while in the former, the body, +before and after removal, was entirely at rest." "Suppose," said one +Rabbi to another, "that a person has put bread into an oven and it is +not done by the time the Sabbath begins. May he take it out before it is +spoiled?" "He may lawfully do so if he put it there, believing it would +be fully baked before the Sabbath arrived." + + +Acts forbidden on Sabbath eve. + +_M_. Just before the time of Sabbath evening prayer (7), a man is not +allowed to sit to a barber, to enter a bath, a tanyard, to sit to a +meal, or to begin to act as judge in a Law Court. He must first of all +perform his devotions. But supposing that one has commenced any one of +these acts, then let them be finished. + +_G_. A man begins the act of haircutting when the barber's cloth is +spread over him. Bathing has begun if the outer coat has been pulled +off. A man has commenced to tan if his working apron has been tied +around him. A meal begins when the hands are washed or (as some say) +when the girdle has been removed. The process of judging has begun when +the judges have donned their professional robes, or (as some have it) +directly the litigants begin pleading. + + +The Jew and a non-Jew. + +_M_. The school of Shammai forbids a Jew to sell anything to a non-Jew +on the Sabbath eve, or to help him with a load unless the Jew can reach +some neighbouring village before the Sabbath fully sets in. The School +of Hillel, however, allows it. + + +Miscellaneous prohibitions. + +_M_. A tailor must not go out on the Sabbath eve with his needle, lest +he forget it and carry it during the Sabbath. Nor must the professional +writer (scribe) go out with his writing reed on the Sabbath eve. +According to the School of Shammai it is unlawful on the Sabbath eve to +deliver skins to a heathen tanner, or clothes to be washed to a +non-Jewish laundress, unless there be time enough for them to be got +quite ready before the Sabbath begins. But the School of Hillel allowed +perfect freedom in the matter. Rabbi Simeon ben Gemaliel says, "it was +the custom in my parental home to hand over to the non-Jewish laundress +things to be washed, three days before the Sabbath." It is forbidden to +fry meat, onions, or eggs, on the Sabbath eve, unless they can be +completely cooked before the Sabbath begins. Bread must not be put into +the oven, nor cakes on the coal, unless there is time before the Sabbath +comes in for the surface to become encrusted. + + +Concerning the Sabbath lamp.[34]. + +_M_. Wherewith may one light the Sabbath lamp? Not with wicks made with +cedar moss, or raw flax, or silk fibre, or weeds growing in water, or +ship moss. Nor shall pitch, wax, cottonseed oil, or oil of rejected +offerings, or oil from sheeptail fat, be used for these lamps. + +_G_. The Rabbis allowed the aforementioned ingredients to be used for +the Sabbath fires, though not for the Sabbath lamps. Why are wicks made +of the above materials prohibited? Because they give but a flickering +light. The oily substances mentioned are forbidden because they do not +adhere to the wick. + + +About extinguishing the Sabbath lamp. + +_M_. He who extinguishes the Sabbath lamp for fear of non-Jews or +robbers or of evil spirits, or in order that the sick may sleep, is free +from guilt. But if the object is merely to save expense the lamp +extinguisher stands condemned. + + +Three things to say on the Sabbath eve. + +_M_. I. Have ye tithed the food to be eaten on the + +Sabbath? 2. Have ye made the _erub?_ 3. Light ye the Sabbath lamp. + + +Man's two Sabbath angels. + +_G_. As he returns home from the Synagogue on the Sabbath eve, every man +is accompanied by two angels, one good, the other evil. If, on coming +home, the man finds the lamp lit, the tables spread, and everything in +order, the good angel says, "May the coming Sabbath be as this present +one." To which the evil angel is compelled reluctantly to respond +"Amen." But if everything be in disorder the bad angel says, "May the +coming Sabbath be as the present one." To which the good angel is +obliged reluctantly to respond, "Amen." + + +The overturning of Mount Sinai. (9). + +_G_. When the Israelites refused to believe the words of Moses after he +had returned from the mountain, the Holy One, blessed be He, inverted +the mountain above them like a top, and said unto them, "If ye receive +the Law, well, but if not, your graves shall be here." + + +Lucky and unlucky birthdays. + +_G_. Rabbi Simon ben Levi said that whoever is born on the first day of +the week (Sunday) will be either thoroughly good or thoroughly bad, +because on that day light and darkness were created. If on the second +day of the week, he will be stingy, because the waters were divided on +that day. If on the third day, he will be rich and prosperous, because +on that day abundant vegetation was created. If on the fourth day, he +will be wise and happy, because on that day the luminaries were fixed. +If on the fifth day, he will be good-natured, because fishes and fowls +were then created, and these are fed by God alone. If on the sixth day, +he will be likely to give himself to good works, because that is the +Sabbath preparation day. If, however, he be born on the Sabbath, he will +also die on the Sabbath, as a punishment for his desecration of that +sacred day by his birth. + + +2. TREATISE ON THE PASSOVER (_Pesakhin_). No. 3 in order. + +_M._ On the eve of the fourteenth Nisan, search must be made for leaven +by the light of a lamp (10). + +_G._ What means the Hebrew word _or_? (Translated above "on the eve +of"). Rabbi Huna says it means, "when the day begins to dawn": but +according to Rabbi Jehuda it means "at night," but in Genesis xliv, 3, +and 2nd Sam. xxiii, 4, the verb means "to get day, to dawn," so that +Rabbi Huna is right. Abazi said that no student should enter upon his +studies just before the dawn of the fourteenth Nizan, lest he forget to +search for leaven. + +_G._ To Amorain (11) propose the following question: "Suppose a man let +a house to another, telling him that he had removed all leaven but +subsequently it was found that some leaven had been left. Is the +agreement to take the house binding?" Abazi said, "Yes, it is, for it is +better that each householder sees for himself that all leaven has been +removed. Before beginning the search for leaven a blessing must be said, +as, indeed, before any religious act is performed." + + +By the light of the lamp. + +_G._ The light of the sun or of the moon or of a flame of fire may not +be used in searching for leaven, as the Rabbis say is taught in +Zephaniah i, 12 (I will search Jerusalem with lights), and Prov. xx, 27 +(Man's soul is Jehovah's lamp searching the inner chambers of the body.) + + +3. TREATISE ON NEW YEAR'S DAY (_Rosh Hashshanah_). No. 8 in order. + +_G._ The generation before the flood was punished with boiling water. +(12). + + +4. TREATISE ON THE ROLL (13) _(Megillah)._ No. 10 in order. + +_M_. The Megillah _(i.e._, Esther) is sometimes read on the 11th, 12th, +13th, 14th, or 15th of the month Adar, not earlier nor later (for +details see the Mishnah and Gemara). + +_G_. Rabbi Jehuda says on the authority of Samuel, that the book of +Esther does not defile the hands (14), _i.e._, that this book was not +given by the inspiration of God. Samuel, however, explained that Esther +was dictated by the Spirit of God, but only to be orally repeated, and +not to be written. + +_G_. When a scroll of the Law has become through age unfit for use it is +to be buried in an earthen vessel, as is said in Jeremiah xxii, 14, "And +put them in an earthen vessel, that they may continue many days." A +scroll of the Law ought never to be sold unless the object be to enable +the seller to study the Law better, or to take himself a wife. Rabbi +Simon ben Gemaliel said "whoever sells a scroll of the Law, or a +daughter, though he does it because he has nothing to eat, will have no +good from the purchase money." + + +5. TREATISE DEALING WITH THE LAWS ABOUT FESTIVAL OFFERINGS. _(Khagiga)._ +No. 12 in order. + +Those under an obligation to offer the burnt offerings during the three +_great_ annual Feasts. + +_M_. Everyone is under an obligation to offer the burnt offering except +the following: A deaf man, a fool, a child, one of doubtful sex, one of +double sex, a woman, a slave, a lame man, a blind man, a sick man. + +What is meant by a child? One not able to ride upon his father's +shoulders in order to go up from Jerusalem to the Temple. So say the +School of Shammai, but the Hillel School define child, "One unable to +take hold of his father's hand to go from Jerusalem to the Temple." + +_G_. What does the expression "everyone" include? + +Him who is half a slave and half free and also him who is lame on the +first day and well on the second day, as well as the man who is blind in +one eye, except the deaf man, a fool, and à child, and so forth. A deaf +man is like a fool and a child, for he is not responsible for his +actions any more than they are. + + +THE WORD TOHU RIGHTLY TRANSLATED "VOID" IN GENESIS i. 2. + +_G_. Tohu is a green line (Heb. Qav or Qaw) which surrounds the entire +world, and from which darkness proceeds. (15). + + +THE SEVEN HEAVENS (16). + +_G_. Resh Lagish used to say, "There are seven heavens, named as +follows: 1. Vilon (equals Velum, a curtain). 2. Ragiang. 3. Sheklagim. +4. Zebul. 5. Mangon. 6. Makon. 7. Ngarabot." + + +SATAN AND HIS COMPANIONS ENDEAVOURING TO STEAL A HEARING OF GOD'S WORDS. + +_G_. Satan and his fellow-fallen angels are in the habit of listening +from behind a curtain to the words which God speaks to the angels in +heaven (17). + + +_III.--WOMEN (NASHIM)_ + + +[This division deals with betrothals, marriage, divorce, and the like. +One treatise discusses vows.] + + +1. TREATISE ON WIDOWS UNDER AN OBLIGATION TO UNDERGO THE LEVIRITE +MARRIAGE _(Yebamot)._ No. I in order (18). + +_M_. A childless widow is under an obligation to marry the eldest +unmarried brother of her deceased husband. If that brother-in-law +refuses to marry her, she is allowed in the presence of the nation's +leaders to loose his shoe from his foot, to spit in his face, and to say +to him, "Thus shall be done to the man who will not build up his +brother's house." (see Deut. xxii, 9). + +The following classes of women are released from the necessity of +marrying any brother-in-law: 1. The illegitimate daughter of the +brother. 2. Her daughter. 3. The daughter of his illegitimate son. 4. +His wife's daughter. 5. Her son's daughter. 6. Her daughter's daughter. +7. His mother-in-law. 8. The mother of his mother-in-law. 9. The mother +of his father-in-law, and so forth. + + +2. TREATISE ON VOWS (_Nedarim_). No. 3 in order. + +The Scriptures Given as a Punishment for Men's Sin. + +_G._ If the Israelites had not been guilty of sin they would never have +required more Scripture than the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua. The +last is indispensable as it records the way in which the land was +divided among the Israelites. The other Scriptures (the Prophets and the +Writing) because in much wisdom there is grief. (Eccles. i, 18). + + +3. TREATISE ON BETROTHALS (_Qidushin_). No. 7 in order. + +The Families Who went up from Babylon to Jerusalem. + +_M._ Ten kinds of families left Babylon for Palestine after the edict of +Cyrus went forth in B.C. 538 permitting the nation to return. These were +as follows: 1. Priests. 2. Levites. 3. Israelites. 4. Degraded Priests +(lit. profaned ones). 5. Proselytes (19). 6. Freedmen. 7. Bastards. 8. +Netinim. 9. Those of unknown lineage. 10. Foundlings. The three first +are allowed to intermarry: the last six may also intermarry. All those +whose mother is known but not their father are said to be of unknown +lineage. A foundling is one picked up in the streets whose parents are +both unknown. + + +The Evil of Idolatry. + +_G_. The worship of idols is so grave a sin that he who renounces or +disavows it does as much as if he confessed his belief in the whole law. + + +Sons More Desirable than Daughters. + +_G_. The world cannot exist without males and females, yet blessed is he +whose children are boys, and unlucky he whose children are girls. Cf. +Baba Bathra, p. 113, col. I:--"Whoever does not leave a son to be heir, +God will heap wrath upon him." + + +_IV.--CONCERNING PENALTIES_ (NEZIKIN) + + +[In this division the principal part of the civil and criminal court of +the Hebrews is included. See especially the treatise "Sanhedrin."] + + +1. TREATISE CALLED LIT. Chap. I, or THE FIRST GATE. (20)(Heb. _Baba +Qama_.) + +Damages to be made good by those responsible for them. + +_M_. There are four principal causes of damage to life and property. I. +The Ox. 2. The Uncovered Pit. 3. The Man who sets fire to anything. 4. +The Fire which starts of its own accord through neglect. + +Whenever damage is done in any of these four ways the one that is +responsible for it must make the loss good. + +_G_. The Rabbis teach that there are many specific forms of the above +four kinds of injuries, _i.e._, the ox can do an injury with his horns, +his teeth, or his feet. + + +Accident through falling over a jug or barrel. + +_M_. If anyone places a jug on a public road and another person stumbles +over it and breaks it, the latter is not liable for the breakage. But if +he is injured by the fall, the owner of the barrel is liable for the +damage. + +_G_. The Mishnah uses "jug" in the first clause and "barrel" in the +second. Rabbi Papa said that the same thing is meant in both cases. + + +On breaking a jug full of water on a public road. + +_M_. If a jug full of water breaks on a public road and its contents +cause a person to slip, or if in any way one is injured by the pieces, +he who carries the jug is liable for any injury. Rabbi Jehuda, however, +says he is only liable if he breaks it intentionally. + + +2. TREATISE CALLED THE MIDDLE CHAPTER (Heb. _Baba Metsia_). 2nd in +order. + +_G_. It was Elijah's custom to frequent the Rabbi's council chamber. On +one occasion, being later than usual, Rabbi asked him to explain his +delay. Elijah answered as follows: "It is my business to wake up +Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob one after the other, to wash each one's hand, +and to wait until each one has said his prayers and returned to rest." +"But," said Rabbi, "why don't they all rise at the same time?" +"Because," was Elijah's reply, "if they all three prayed at once, their +united prayers would precipitate the advent of the Messiah before its +appointed time." "Then," said Rabbi, "have we amongst us such praying +people?" Elijah said there were, mentioning Rabbi Khizah and his sons. +Rabbi then proclaimed a fast, which Rabbi Khizah and his sons came to +observe. When repeating the 18 benedictions (21) they were about to say +"Thou restorest life to the dead" when the world was convulsed and it +was asked in Heaven who revealed to them the secret. Elijah was then +beaten sixty times with a rod of fire. He afterwards came down like a +fiery bear and scattered the congregation. + + +3. TREATISE CALLED THE LAST CHAPTER _(Baba Bathra_). No. 3 in order. + +_G_. The members of the Great Synagogue who wrote the Book of Ezekiel, +the Books of the twelve minor prophets, the Book of Daniel, and the Book +of Ezra (22). + + +4. TREATISE CALLED SANHEDRIN. NO. 4 in order. [It treats at length of +the institution of the municipal and provincial courts called Sanhedrin +from a Greek word, and also of the great Sanhedrin, or _Bethdin_, at +Jerusalem.] + + +Jewish Courts and their Constitution. + +_G_. [The Sanhedrin was composed of 71 members. If an Israelite had a +point of law to decide, he first proposed it to the Court which met in +his own city. If they failed to decide the matter, it was submitted to +the judgment of the Court of the next city. If the Justices of the +immediate district failed to come to a decision, the case was laid +before the Court which met at the entrance of the Temple area. In the +event of their failing to decide, they appealed to the Court which met +at the entrance to the ante-court. Failure in this Court was followed by +an appeal to the Supreme Court of 71, where the matter was finally +disposed of by a majority of votes. + +The Sanhedrin sat in a semicircle in order that the members might be +able to see one another. There were two notaries, one on the right and +the other on the left, to count the "Ayes" and "Noes" in all cases of +voting.] + + +The authorship of the BOOK OF EZRA. + +_G_. [The Book of Ezra was written by Nehemiah. He does not attach his +name to it because he gave too much attention to his own merits, as it +is written (Neh. v, 19) "Think upon me, my God, for good, according to +all that I have done for my people." + + +5. TREATISE ON IDOLATRY _(Aboda Zara_). No. 8 in order. + +_M_. It is forbidden to have any dealings with non-Jews for three days +before they hold their unholy festivals (23). One must not lend them any +money, for that could be useful to them in preparing for the festival. +Nor must one borrow from them, for they would gain thereby and be more +able, out of the interest, to meet the expenses of their coming feasts. +Similarly, one must not pay them any money, even though due, nor in +return must payment be received. + +Rabbi Jehuda, however, maintains that payment should be allowed because +that is a displeasure and a disadvantage to those who pay. + +_M_. When there is an idol in the city one may go to that city, +providing that the road does not lead to the idol alone. Jews are not +allowed to sell to non-Jews any of the following things, because they +can be used for purposes of heathen worship:--Fir cones, white figs, or +their stems, frankincense, and a white cock. A white cock may, however, +be sold if one of its claws has been cut off, since non-Jews do not +sacrifice an animal when an organ is lacking. + + +THE BOOK OF YASHAR (see 2nd Sam. i, 18). + +_G_. What is meant by the Book of Yashar? Rabbi Khyiah bar Abba on the +authority of Rabbi Jokhanan says "It is the book of Abraham, Isaac and +Jacob, they being called righteous _(yesharim),_ and concerning whom it +is written, Numb, xxiii, 10, 'Let me die the death of the righteous'" +_(yesharim)._ + + +6. TREATISE CALLED "SENTENCES OF THE FATHERS" (Heb. _Pirga Abot_). No. 9 +in order. + +[This treatise, on which no Gemara has been handed down, contains moral +precepts, aphorisms, and so forth, of the elder Tannain. It has been +often translated, an excellent rendering by the late Dr. Charles Taylor +having been published by the Cambridge Press.] + + +The Two Tables of the Law. + +_M_. The two Tables of the Law, handed to Moses on Mount Sinai, were +created, along with nine other things, at the time when the world was +made, and at sunset, before the first Sabbath began. + + +_V.--SACRED THINGS, SACRIFICES, MEASUREMENTS OF THE TEMPLE, ETC._ + + +1. TREATISE ON THE MEASUREMENTS OF THE TEMPLE _(Middot)._ 10th in order. + +Extent of the Temple Area. + +_M_. The Temple Mount was 500 cubits square. The space was largest on +the south, next largest on the east, the third largest being on the +north, and the least, westward. All who entered this area did so on the +south side, going round and passing on to the left. + + +_VI.--LEGAL PURIFICATIONS, LAWS OF CLEAN AND UNCLEAN, ETC._ (TEHAROT) + + +1. TREATISE ON PRESERVING THE HANDS FROM CEREMONIAL UNCLEANNESS. +_(Jadaim)._ + +The Aramaic passages in Ezra and Daniel make the hands unclean (25). But +Aramaic written in Hebrew characters and Hebrew written in Aramaic +(Syriac) characters, or in the primitive Hebrew characters (much like +the Phoenician) do not make the hands unclean. Scriptures, though the +matter is the same, never make the hands unclean unless the characters +or letters, in which they are written, are the square Assyrian letters +introduced by Ezra, the second Moses. + + * * * * * + + + +ZOROASTRIANISM + + +ZEND AVESTA + + + Zoroastrianism, or, more correctly, Zarathustraism, is derived + from Zoroaster, or, more strictly, Zarathustra, the founder of + the religion. Modern scholarship inclines to the belief that + this great religious leader was born in West Media about B.C. + 600, and carried on his great work in Bactria. The religion + with which his name is connected is really a reformed and + spiritualised kind of that Magism which prevailed in Media and + contiguous countries. The priests, who are called "Atharvans," + fire-priests, in the Avesta (compare the same name in + Hinduism, the Atharvan Veda, etc.) are identical with the + Magi, priests of the religion which Zarathustra (Zoroaster) + found in his original and adopted home. According to some, the + founder of Zarathustrianism lived at a very much earlier time, + and there are great scholars (Tiele, Darmesteter, Edouard + Meyer) who wholly deny the historicity of such a character. No + doubt, in later years, there gathered around Zarathustra an + immense number of fictitious and silly legends, as was the + case with Buddha, Jesus, and even Muhammad; but that each one + of these religious teachers lived and wrought is beyond the + reach of reasonable doubt. + + +_INTRODUCTORY_ + + +This is the Bible of the Zarathustrians and of their modern +representatives, the Parsees, who flourish for the most part in Bombay. +The title "Zend Avesta" is an anomaly, for "Zend" is not the name of a +language at all, but means "commentary," the word "Avesta" connoting the +original text on which the commentary is written. The original title +denotes Avesta and Zend, which is a correct description, for what is now +known as the Zend Avesta is really a combination of text (Avesta) and +commentary (Zend), just as the Jewish Talmud is a combination of Mishnah +(text) and Gemara (commentary, or, literally, completion). The word +"Avesta" denotes (perhaps literally) knowledge, being cognate with the +Sanscrit word "Veda." But A.V.W. Jackson derives it from a form +_Upasta_, denoting "the original text." Darmesteter makes the word Old +Persian, denoting "law." + +The existing Avesta is more like a prayer book than a Bible, for it is +as a liturgical work that it took on its present form, and as such that +it is now generally used, though the part called "Vendidad" includes a +large number of laws for religious ceremonies and the like. + +What is known to modern scholars as the Avesta is, however, only a +portion of the original work, the latter having been largely lost +through the conquests over Persia of Alexander the Great, and especially +owing to the more thorough subjugation of the Sassanid Persians by the +Muslims in A.D. 632. The latter were much more bigoted and +uncompromising in their treatment of other religions and their +literatures than were Alexander the Great and his successors. The +original Avesta, as described in Pahlavi text which have come down to +us, contain twenty-one Nasks or books. These existed, in a more or less +incomplete state, down to the ninth century of our era, to which century +the Pahlavi work "Dindard" belongs. + +The Avesta which exists to-day may be divided thus:-- + +I. The strictly canonical parts, including the following, which will be +more fully described in connection with the summaries. + + + 1. Yasnas, including the Gathas. + 2. Vispereds. + 3. Vendidads. + +II. The Apocryphal Avesta usually called the Khorda Avesta, or the short +Avesta. This is much less esteemed than the Avesta proper. It comprises, + + 1. Yashts (invocation). + 2. Minor Prayers. + +The language of the Avesta can be correctly described only as Avestan, +for no other literature in the same language exists. It resembles the +Pahlavi, or Ancient Persian, but it is identical with no language. The +Zend, or commentary, is written in the Pahlavi language. + +The present writer wishes to express his obligation to the translation +of the Avesta by Spiegel (in German); Hang in his "Essays on Sacred +Language, Writing, and Religion of the Parsees "; and also to those by +Darmesteter and L.H. Mills in the "Sacred Books of the East," volumes +iv, xxiii, xxxiii. On the question whether or not the Achaemenian kings +of Persia, Cyrus I., and so forth, were Zarathustrians, see "Century +Bible,"--Ezra--Nehemiah--Esther. + + +_I.--YASNAS, OR SACRIFICIAL PRAYERS AND SONGS_ + + +[This section of the Avesta constitutes the principal liturgical +text-book of the great Yasna ceremony, which is made up chiefly of the +preparation and offering of the Parahoma (the juice of the homa or soma +plant mixed with milk and aromatic ingredients). There are seventy-two +chapters in the Yasnas, though they contain a good number of +repetitions. It is in this main part of the Avesta that the five +metrical Gathas are to be found, these being the oldest and by far the +most important of the Avesta.] + +CHAPTER I. THE PROCLAMATION OF SALVATION. I (Zarathustra) make known to +Ahura-Mazda the Great God, that I am about to offer him my prayers and +sacrifices. (Yasnas.) He is the greatest and best, the most powerful and +wise. I pay homage, also, to the bountiful immortals (the +Amensha-Spentas), the guardians of the world. And to the body of the +sacred cow and its soul; (i) to Ahura (Jupiter), Mithra the sun, to the +star Sirius; and to the Fravashis (guardian angels of the saints). If I +have offended thee, oh thou greatest one, Ahura-Mazda, or if I have +diminished ought of the sacrifices (Yasnas) due to thee, forgive me, O +forgive me, thou unerring one. I declare myself to be a Mazdaist, a +Zarathustrian, a sworn foe to the Daevas (2) and a worshipper of +Ahura-Mazda. + +CHAPTER 4. We present as offerings, pure thoughts, kind words, +beneficent works, the Homa (Soma) flesh-offerings, zaothras (3), the +holy veresma (4), suitable prayers, Gatha hymns, and mathra (the Vedic +mantra) sacred songs--these all we present as sacrifices to Ahura-Mazda, +the holy Srosh (5), to the bountiful immortals, to the Fravashis, and +souls of the pure, and also to the sacred fire of Ahura-Mazda. + +CHAPTER 8. I offer to thee, O Ahura-Mazda, sacrifices of all kinds. +Mayest thou, O all-powerful, all-wise one, rule over thy creatures, over +all waters and trees, all empires and dominions, causing fertility, +happiness, and universal justice to abound in the world. In all +conflicts between light and darkness, between the good and the bad, let +the right prevail, O thou king of righteousness. I, Zarathustra, urge +heads of families, chiefs of clans, and rulers of states, to follow the +true religion, that revealed by Ahura-Mazda and proclaimed by his +prophet Zarathustra. + +CHAPTERS 9 AND 10. [In some manuscripts these chapters are designated +Homa-Yashts, because they celebrate the praises of Homa and have the +form of Yashts. In these chapters Homa is personified, as, also, in the +Vedas, is the Sanscrit Soma. In the period before the separation of the +Iranians and Indians the worship of the Homa plant (the god of +inspiration, etc.) bulked largely. It died out, however, among the +Iranians at an early period, perhaps owing to its prevalence among their +Indian rivals, who traced to it that very courage with which they +contended against the Iranians. The present chapters belong to the +period of the revival of the Homa cult among the Mazdaists or +Zarathustrians. This comparatively late date is confirmed by the +vocabulary and style of the chapters.] + +When Zarathustra was engaged in singing the Dathas and attending the +sacred fire, Homa appeared before him in resplendently supernatural +guise and explained "I am Homa, whom thou shouldst worship as the sages +and prophets of old have done." "Tell me," replied Zarathustra, "who was +it that first worshipped thee by extracting thy juice from the plant?" +"The first," said Homa, "was Vivan-Ghvant whose reward was the birth of +his august and renowned son, Yima, (6) the king, in whose reign there +was neither death, nor scorching heat, nor benumbing cold, but when +fulness of life, perfection of happiness, and unfailing justice +prevailed. The second to worship me," said Homa, "was Athwya, the +blessed one, and to him as a reward was born Thraetaona, who slew the +three-mouthed, three-tailed, six-eyed, thousand-scaled dragon that +wrought such dire havoc in the world. The third to worship me was +Thrita, to whom, in recompense, were born two sons of illustrious name, +one great as ruler of men, and the other a brave warrior who slew the +man-and-horse-swallowing dragon. The fourth was thine own distinguished +father, Pourushasha, and the reward that he received was to have thee, O +great prophet of men, for his son." On hearing which Zarathustra +immediately set about walking around the sacred fire singing lustily the +praises of the god Homa, whom his father had worshipped. "It is Homa," +sang the prophet, "that gives men knowledge of things new and old. Even +men buried under a weight of book-lore receive from him inspiration and +perception of truth that no books can impart. It is Homa that gives kind +and wealthy husbands to unwed maidens; that fills the sky with clouds +and refreshes the ground with life-giving showers, causing the plants to +grow on the lofty mountains on whose brow thine own sacred plant +(asclepias) flourishes." + +CHAPTER 12. [Profession of faith on the part of the new convert, uttered +by the ancient Iranians on their giving up the worship of Daevas and the +nomad life, and on their being received into the religious community +established by Zarathustra.] + +Now cease I to be a Daeva worshipper and make profession of the religion +of Ahura-Mazda, proclaimed by Zarathustra. I ascribe all good things +everywhere to Ahura-Mazda, the true, shining and holy one. I will never +more molest Mazdaists. I will forsake the Daevas, the false and wicked +originators of all the mischief in the universe. I forsake also all +Daeva like beings, witches, wizards, and the like. I belong to the +Mazdaist religion, and will support it to my dying day. There is no joy +of virtue but has come from Ahura-Mazda. + +CHAPTER 19. The importance and value of the Ahuna-Vairya prayer, said +Zarathustra to Ahura-Mazda "O holiest and best of beings, what words +taughtest thou me before the world was, or human life began its +history?" "It was," responded the supreme being, "the Ahuna-Vairya +prayer. Whoever, O Zarathustra, recites this prayer or intones it, or +even whispers it under his breath, I will carry him safely across the +bridge which leads to paradise. But whoever cuts this prayer short by a +half, a third, a fourth, or by any quantity, his soul shall I keep out +of paradise and it shall wander in sorrow for ever." + +CHAPTER 22. ADORATION OF THE FRAVASHIS (GUARDIAN ANGELS OF THE SAINTS). +I will praise the Fravashis, who have existed from time immemorial. +Those of the houses, villages, and provinces, who preserve order in the +heavens above, on the earth, and in the waters. I praise the Fravashis +of Ahura-Mazda, the Fravashis of the bountiful immortals, and those of +Zarathustra and of the Holy Counsellors. All good Yazads (7) deserve +homage and sacrifice. + +CHAPTER 35. AHURA-MAZDA AND THE IMMORTALS ADORED AND SUPPLICATED. We +adore thee, O thou great God, Ahura-Mazda, and also the bountiful +immortals. We laud all good thoughts and words and deeds that have been, +are, or will be. It is our duty to live the good life, for that is best +for both worlds. Thine, O lofty spirit, is the kingdom, thine the power, +and thine the glory. Thy righteous rule surpasses every other rule; thy +praise all other praise; thy hymns are the loftiest and best. + +CHAPTER 57. IN HONOUR OF SROSH. We pay homage to thee, Srosh, the +obedient and blessed one, the first of creatures to worship Ahura-Mazda, +the Creator. Thou didst also worship the bountiful immortals, and wast +the first to brandish the veresma and to sing the Gathas. Thou didst +slay the all-destroying demon, and thou protectest the world and its +denizens. Thou sleepest not, nor slumberest day or night. Thou teachest +men the true religion--that of Ahura-Mazda. + + +THE FIVE GATHAS + + +[_Gatha_ means "song," and is the same word as the Sanscrit _Gita_ (Cf. +p. 61 Bhagavad-Gita). These five gathas include yasnas 28-34, 43-46, +47-50, and 51-53. In metre, vocabulary, and matter, the gathas prove +themselves to be the oldest part of the Avesta. The doctrines taught are +likewise purer and more rational. Note the following:--I. There is one +supreme good deity, Ahura-Mazda, the conception of whom is so lofty +that, in order to save his character, a spirit of evil (Ahriman) has +been invented. To the supreme good spirit are ascribed six attributes +which are often personified. In the later parts of the Avesta these +attributes are made independent persons (the bountiful immortals, or the +Amesha Spentas). But in the Gathas they form with Ahura-Mazda a unity +much resembling the Sabellian trinity. 2. The doctrine of reward and +punishment that is taught in the Gathas is subjective, _i.e._, it makes +a man's reward and punishment consist in change of character, +disposition, etc. + +It is a strange coincidence that the highest form of Indian and Iranian +belief is to be found in the earliest literature of these religions, +_i.e._, the Vedas and the Gathas. This does not agree with the opinion +that most prevails, that in religions there is ever progress from lower +to higher forms. + +In these Gathas there is a unity of thought and feeling suggesting +strongly unity of authorship. There is general agreement that the one +author to whom at least the great bulk of the Gathas is due is +Zarathustra himself. Roth, L.H. Mills, and other scholars date the +Gathas as they would the Vedas, somewhere between B.C. 1200 and 1500, +and they therefore fix upon the same date for the work of Zarathustra +himself. Other Avestan scholars (A.V.W. Jackson, etc.) fix the date of +Zarathustra's life, and therefore of the Gathas, some time near B.C. +600. If the latter opinion is held, it is probable that the substance of +the Gathas is much older than the form which they take in the Avesta.] + +GATHA I, Yasnas 28-34, 29, which is earlier than 28. + +THE CALL OF ZARATHUSTRA. The afflicted people cry out aloud to thee, O +Ahura-Mazda, and also to the Asha, the author of the divine order. Why +were we made to be exposed to the attacks of suffering and of sin? The +divine one asked Asha "Hast thou appointed a guardian over this people +to defend them from evil?" Said Asha: "There is no man in this world +that has to bear his lot of suffering and to resist moral adversaries, +but the great Creator knows all about his life, and demands from him all +that he is capable of. No man can choose anyone who is able to secure +justice and happiness in the world." "But I," said Ahura-Mazda, "have +chosen one for this great task, it is Zarathustra, the prophet and +priest." On hearing of his divine appointment, Zarathustra prayed to his +god, saying, "Do thou, O all-wise one, aid me, directing my thoughts, +choosing for me my words, and guiding my steps, for without thee I can +do nothing." + +28. ZARATHUSTRA'S PRAYER FOR HELP. Teach me, O loftiest one, thy ways, +and encourage me by thy promises to observe thy ceremonies. When shall I +become acquainted with thine own pure mind, and know what is truly good? +When shall I realise thee in my own soul, and have fellowship with thee +without the mediation of man or angels? I do not ask for riches, or +booty, or worldly prosperity, but for righteousness. + +GRATITUDE FOR BLESSINGS ALREADY RECEIVED. Thou hast granted my requests, +and given me the boon which I asked for. May I never offend thee, nor be +ungrateful! Supply my lot with what thou knowest to be best, and not +with what I desire. Make thou clear to me the laws which govern thy +kingdom, that I may be a safe guide to others. + +30. THE CREED WHICH ZARATHUSTRA IS TO PREACH. I announce to all who +desire to know, the true doctrine about the Creation. Let all that +listen give heed and shape their ways according to this teaching:--There +were at the beginning two spirits and nothing more--a better principle +and a worse. This pair existed independently each of the other. The good +spirit (Ahura-Mazda) made all that he created perfect and just, like +himself, but the evil spirit (Ahriman) created things that were evil. +Why have the Daevas-worshippers perverted the truth and gone astray from +the right path? Because the creator of evil has taken possession of +them. All such as make their thoughts, words, and deeds conform to the +will of the good spirit have an eternal reward, and their salvation has +already begun. But such as yield to the evil impulses prompted by +Ahriman shall abide eternally in woe and misery. + +31. THE TWO PARTIES. Many there are who hiss at this teaching of mine, +and will have none of it, but the people of Ahura give heed thereto. O +supreme spirit of good, grant me by the sacred fire and the holy ritual +some sign that will convince and convert men, so that all may be brought +to thee and be made to abandon their Daevas. O ye bountiful immortals, +will ye give me prophetic knowledge that I may lead men aside from the +error of their ways; what punishment shall be his who strives to set up +in our midst a king belonging to the Daeva party? + + +GATHA 2. 43-46. + +[This part of the Avesta gives a fuller and correcter view of the work +and teaching of Zarathustra than any other.] + +43. The Theophany of Ahura-Mazda to Zarathustra. I saw Ahura-Mazda on +high and he made known to me his truth, that I may tell it to men. + +44. A PRAYER FOR KNOWLEDGE. Speak thou truly to me, O Ahura-Mazda, and +not falsely as the Daevas do to their worshippers. How came this present +world to be, and to be supported, if not through thee? Who made the sun +and moon and stars, and the waters and the winds and the trees, who, if +not thou? Reveal thou to me, O great one, the inner truth of things. + +O ye crowds of men, when will ye call evil, evil, and good, good, +instead of the contrary? Have the Daevas ever supplied good rulers? + + +_II.--VISPEREDS_ + + +[The word Vispered means "all the lords," and this section is so called +because it contains invocations to all the lords or gods. It consists +almost entirely of extracts from other parts of the Avesta, especially +from the Yasnas. What is not found elsewhere has no special value and +need not be summarised.] + + +_III.--VENDIDADS_ (LIT. "LAWS AGAINST DEMONS") + + +[This is not strictly a liturgical work, but a priestly code describing +the various purifications, penalties and expiations by which faults of +various kinds are atoned for, or their consequences annulled. The +existing Vendidads agree almost exactly with Nask (19) of the original +Avesta, the only part of the Avesta in which one of the Nasks has been +completely preserved. The Vendidads are divided into twenty-two Fargads, +or sections.] + +FARGAD 3. THE SANCTITY OF AGRICULTURE. The earth should be cultivated, +1. that it may bring forth food for man and beast, 2. because it +promotes human piety. "How is it, O great creator," asks Zarathustra, +"that religion is to be spread?" "By cultivating barley," was the +answer, "for he who cultivates barley, cultivates purity. When barley is +threshed or ground, and when flour is produced, devils whistle, whine, +and waste away, knowing full well that man's idleness is their only +opportunity." (Cf. compare Dr. Watts' line "Satan finds some mischief +still, for idle hands to do.") + +FARGAD 4. CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW. Whoever refuses to restore property to +one to whom he knows it belongs by right, is a thief. Every day and +night that he keeps this property he is guilty of theft. "How many kinds +of property are there?" asked Zarathustra. "These six," was the answer. +"1. That made by mere words. 2. That made by striking hands. 3. That +made by depositing a sheep as security. 4, 5, 6. Those cases in which +the security is respectively an ox, a man's value, and the value of a +full field." Then there follow details of penalties for violating these +several contracts:--_e.g._, for breaking the first--300 stripes of the +rod, and so forth. + +FARGADS 5-18, give the laws for the treatment of dead bodies. The two +determining principles are--1. That a dead body is impure. 2. The +elements earth, fire, and water, are absolutely pure and sacred. Bodies +are not, therefore, to be buried, or they would pollute the earth; nor +are they to be burnt, or they would pollute fire, nor thrown into water +of any kind. They must be carried up to a lofty mountain, placed on +stones, or iron plates, and exposed to dogs and vultures. Impurity from +contact with a dead body, etc., is removed by pure water (Cf. the water +of baptism). Then there follow laws prescribing the counter-charms to be +used against evil spirits; the methods by which the sacred fire must be +made and used, and so forth. + +FARGAD 19, treats of the fate of the soul after death. + + +The Aprocryphal or Khorda Avesta + +[The Yashts resemble closely the prayers of the Yasnas and the +Vispereds, differing only in this, that each one of the twenty-four +extant is devoted to the traits of a single deity, or at least of one +class of divine beings (the bountiful immortals, and so forth). The +usual word in the Yashts for the superhuman beings at rest is Yazads.] + +YASHT I. The names of Ahura-Mazda and their efficacy. + +Asked Zarathustra, "What, O Most High, are the most effective +counter-charms (mantras) against evil spirits?" He received for answer +that the pronunciation of the twenty different names of Ahura-Mazda are +the best and strongest spells. These are the following:--1. The +Revealer. 2. The Herd-giver, etc., etc. The twentieth and last is Mazda, +the All-knowing One. + + * * * * * + + + + +_PHILOSOPHY_ + + + + * * * * * + + + + + ARISTOTLE + + +THE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE + + + Aristotle was born at Stagira, a Greek colony on the + Macedonian frontier, in 384 B.C., when Plato was forty-three, + fifteen years after the death of Socrates. Going to Athens, he + became one of Plato's pupils in philosophy at the age of + twenty. In 342 he became tutor to the future Alexander the + Great, and some years later opened, again at Athens, his own + school, whose disciples were called the Peripatetics. He died + in 322 B.C. His works laid the systematic foundations of every + science known in his time. His various treatises on logic were + comprised in the "Organon"; he dealt with psychology and + metaphysics; with rhetoric and the principles of literary + criticism. He also systematised the natural sciences; and the + two works here given, "the Ethics" and "Politics," have + profoundly influenced ethical and political thought from his + own day to ours. In particular, his classification of the + virtues, and his doctrine that virtue lies in a "mean," have + dominated a vast amount of moral speculation. The treatises as + we know them are so crabbed and condensed in style as to give + the impression that they are to a large extent not the + finished works, but notes and summaries. + + +_I.--THE END OF LIFE AND THE MEANING OF VIRTUE_ + + +Every art and science, every action, has for its end some good, whether +this be a form of activity or an actual product. The ends of minor arts +are only means to the ends of superior arts. If there is one supreme +end, this is The Good, inquiry into which belongs to the supreme Social +Science [for which the Greek term is Politics]. The name given to this +supreme good, the attainment of which is the object of Politics, is +Happiness, good living, or welfare. + +But Happiness itself is variously defined; some identify it with +Pleasure, others with Honour--the first a degrading, and the second an +inadequate view. Platonists find it in an abstract Idea of Good, a +Universal which precludes particulars. There is a great deal to be said +against this doctrine, even as a question of logic or metaphysic; but +apart from that, the theory is out of court, for the all sufficient +reason that its practical value is _nil_--knowledge of the great +Universal Good in the abstract is of no practical use whatever in +everyday life, which is a fundamental point for us. + +If, then, there is a supreme dominating Good to be aimed at, what are +the essential characteristics it must display? The Good of all Goods, +the Best, must be complete in itself, a consummation. Whatsoever is a +means to some end beyond fails so far of completeness; when we say that +our end must be "complete," it follows that it must always be an end, +never a means. It is not merely one amongst others of which it is the +best, but the one in which all the others are summed up. It is of itself +quite sufficient for the individual, and that not merely in isolation, +but as a member of society--which it is his nature to be. + +Let us then define Happiness as Man's _Work_--the performance of his +function as man. Everything has some specific function, the performance +of which is its Good, and man, too, must have a specific function. Now, +this cannot be the kind of life which he shares with the vegetable or +with the brute creation, therefore it must be the active life of his +distinctive--_i.q.,_ his rational--part, exercised in accordance with +the virtue or virtues which perfect it, and in his life as a whole, not +merely at moments. + +Testing our conclusions by the judgments of common experience, we gather +support from them. Goods external, and goods of the body, are reckoned +inferior to goods of the soul, which is recognised as the seat of +activities. The identification of happiness with virtue, however, +necessitates the distinction between active virtue and virtuousness. As +conducing to active virtue, the other kinds of goods are elements in +happiness. We must assume it to be not something granted to us, outside +our own control, but attainable by effort and education. + +Virtues are of two kinds: of the intellect, acquired by study; and +moral, acquired by practice. The moral virtues are not implanted by +nature, but we have the capacity for them by nature, and achieve them by +practice, as by practice we acquire excellence in the arts, or control +over our passions. Education, then, is of the utmost importance, since +the state or habit of virtue is the outcome of virtue in act. + +The manner, the "how" of action, must be in accord with Right Reason, +whereof we shall speak elsewhere. Here we must recognise that we are not +laying down universal propositions, but general rules which are modified +by circumstances. Our activities must lie in a mean between the two +extremes of excess and defect, and this applies both to the process of +generating virtue, and to its manifestation. The virtues are concerned +with pleasure and pain, because these act as inducements or opposing +influences; Beauty, Advantage, and Pleasure being the three standing +inducements, and Pleasure entering into both the others; so that in one +aspect Virtue is the Best action in respect to pleasure. + +But it does not lie in the mere act; the act must be born of knowledge +and of choice done for its own sake, and persistently--the first, +knowledge, being the least important; to make it the most important is a +speculative error. + +Now, there are three modes of mind: feeling or passion, faculty, and +habit. We do not praise or blame passion in itself, or the faculty; +therefore virtue can lie in neither, but must be found in habit or +condition. The virtuous habit or condition is what enables that whereof +it is the virtue to perform its function, which, in the case of man, is +the activity of the soul, preserving always a middle course between +excess and deficiency, by choice. + +In another sense, however, we must remember that there are qualities in +themselves wrong, and that virtue may be presented as not something +intermediate, but a consummation. But when we name each of these +virtues--Courage, Temperance, Liberality, etc.; the social virtues, or +good manners; the virtues concerned with the passions--we can name the +corresponding excess or deficiency. Justice and the intellectual virtues +demand a separate analysis. + +Each virtue stands in opposition to each of the extremes, and each of +these to the other extreme, though in some cases the virtue may be more +antagonistic to one extreme than to the other, as courage to cowardice +more than to rashness. In individual cases, it is difficult to avoid +being deflected towards one or other of the extremes. + +Before proceeding with this analysis, we must examine the question of +choice. To be praiseworthy, an act must be voluntary. An act is not +voluntary if it is the outcome of external compulsion. Where there is a +margin of choice, an act must still, on the whole, be regarded as +voluntary, though done "against our will." Of properly involuntary acts, +we must distinguish between the unintentional and the unwilling, meaning +by the latter, in effect, what the agent would not have done if he had +known. + +Choice is not the same thing as a voluntary act; nor is it desire, or +emotion, or exactly "wish," since we may wish for, but cannot make +choice of, the unattainable. Nor is it Deliberation--rather, it is the +act of decision following deliberation. If man has the power to say yes, +he has equally the power to say no, and is master of his own action. If +we make a wrong choice through ignorance for which we are ourselves +responsible, the ignorance itself is culpable, and cannot excuse the +wrong choice; and so, when the choice is the outcome of a judgment +disordered by bad habits, men cannot escape by saying they were made +so--they made themselves so. To say they "could not help" doing wrong +things is only an evasion. + + +_II.--THE MORAL VIRTUES EXAMINED_ + + +Virtues, then, are habits, issuing in acts corresponding to those by +which the habit was established, directed by Right Reason, every such +act being voluntary, and the whole process a voluntary process. + +We may now turn to the analysis of the several virtues. + +Courage has to do with fear. Not all kinds; for there are some things we +ought to fear, such as dishonour and pauperism, the fear of which is +compatible with dauntless courage, while the coward may not fear them. +Fearlessness of what is in our control, and endurance of what is not, +for the sake of true honour, constitute the courageous habit. Its excess +is rashness or foolhardiness, the deficiency cowardice. Akin to it, but +still spurious, is the courage of which the motive is not Honour but +honours or reputation. Spurious also is the courage which arises from +the knowledge that the danger is infinitesimal; so is that which is born +of blind anger, or of elated self-confidence, or of mere unconsciousness +of danger. True Courage lies in resisting a temptation to pleasure or to +escaping pain, and, above all, death, for Honour's sake. The exercise of +a virtue may be very far from pleasant, except, of course, in so far as +the end for which it was exercised is achieved. + +Temperance is concerned with pleasures of the senses; mainly of touch, +in a much less degree of taste; but not of sight, hearing, or smell, +except indirectly. Of carnal pleasures, some are common to all, some +have an individual application. Temperance lies in being content to do +without them, and desiring them only so far as they conduce to health +and comfort. The characteristic of intemperance is that it has to do +with pleasures only, not with pains. Hence, it is more purely voluntary +than cowardice, as being less influenced by perturbing outward +circumstances as concerns the particular case, though not the habit. + +Liberality is concerned with money matters, and lies between +extravagance and meanness. Really it means the right treatment of money, +both in spending and receiving it--the former rather than the latter. A +man is not really liberal who lavishes money for baser purposes, or +takes it whence he should not, or fails to take due care of his +property. The liberal man tends to err in the direction of lavishness. +Extravagance is curable, but is frequently accompanied by carelessness +as to the objects on which the money is spent and the sources from which +it is obtained. The habit of meanness is apt to be ineradicable, and is +displayed both in the acquisition and in the hoarding of money. + +Munificence is a virtue concerned only with expenditure on a large +scale, and it implies liberality. It lies between vulgar ostentation and +niggardliness. It is possible only for the wealthy, and is concerned +mainly with public works, but also with private occasions of ceremony. +The error of vulgar ostentation is misdirection of expenditure, not +excess. Niggardliness abstains from a proper expenditure. + +Magnanimity is the virtue of the aristocrat; its excess is +self-glorification, its deficiency self-depreciation. The magnanimous +man will bate nothing of his claim to honour, power and wealth, not as +caring greatly for them, but as demanding what he knows to be his due. +This character involves the possession of the virtues; the man must act +in the grand manner and on the grand scale. He knows his own +superiority, does not conceal it, and acts up to it. Self-glorification +overrates its own capacities; self-depreciation underrates them and +shuns its responsibilities, being the more reprehensible of the two. + +There is a nameless virtue which stands to magnanimity in the same +relation as that of liberality to munificence; these being concerned +with honours, as those with money. The excess is ambition, the +deficiency is the lack of it; but here terminology fails us. + +Good temper is a mean between ill-temper--whether of the irascible, the +sulky, or the cantankerous kind--and something for which we have no name +(poor-spiritedness). Friendliness comes between the excessive desire to +please and boorishness. It is a social virtue which might be defined as +goodwill _plus_ tact. Sincerity [there is no English term quite +corresponding to the Greek] is the quality opposed on the one side to +boastfulness, and on the other to mock-modesty; it is displayed by the +man who acknowledges, but who never exaggerates his own merits. In the +social display of wit and humour, there is a marked mean between the +buffoon and the dullard or prig. Shame is a term implying a feeling +rather than a habit; like fear, it has a physical effect, producing +blushes, and seems, in fact, to be fear of disrepute. To the young, it +is a safeguard against vice; the virtuous man need never feel it; to be +unable to feel it implies the habit of vice. Continence is not properly +in the category of moral virtues. + + +_III.--JUSTICE_ + + +We come now to Justice. A specific habit differs from a specific faculty +or science, as each of the latter covers opposites, _e.g._, the science +of health is also the science of sickness; whereas the habit of Justice +does not cover but is opposed to the habit of Injustice. Justice itself +is a term used in various senses; and the senses in which injustice is +used vary correspondingly. Confusion is apt to arise from these varying +senses not being distinguished. Injustice includes law-breaking, +grasping and unfairness. Grasping is taking too much of what is good +only; unfairness is concerned with both what is good and what is +injurious. But in the legal sense, whatever law lays down is assumed to +be just. Law, however, covers the whole field of virtuous action as it +affects our neighbours, so that in this general sense justice is an +inclusive term equivalent to righteousness. We, however, must confine +ourselves to the specific sense of the terms. + +Grasping is, in fact, included in unfairness, which is the real opposite +of specific justice; it includes law-breaking only so far as the law is +broken for the sake of gain. The justice with which we are concerned has +two branches: Distributive, of honours and the like among citizens by +the State, and of private property by contract and agreement; and +Corrective, the remedying of unfair distribution. There are always two +parties, and justice is the mean between the unfairness which favours A +and the unfairness which favours B. Distributive justice takes into +consideration the merits of the parties; corrective justice is concerned +only with restoring a balance which has been disturbed. The distribution +is a question not of equality, but of right proportion; and this applies +to retribution, which is recognised as one of its aspects, _e.g._, the +retribution for an officer striking a private and for a private striking +an officer. Proportional requital is the economic basis of society, +arrived at by the existence of a comparatively unfluctuating currency +which provides a criterion. + +In the State, as such, justice is obtained from the law and its +administrators; justice is the virtue of the magistrate. Since he has +nothing to gain or lose himself, it has been supposed that justice is +"another's good," not our own. In the family, justice does not come in, +the whole household being, in a sense, parts of the _pater familias_; +and as you cannot be unjust to yourself, you cannot be unjust to your +household. In the State, what is just is fixed partly by the nature of +things, partly by law or convention. + +As to individual acts, injury may arise from a miscalculation, or from +an incalculable accident; it becomes a wrong when it was intentional but +not premeditated, an injustice when premeditated. An act _prima facie_ +unjust is not so if done with the free consent of the person injured. It +is the agent of distribution, not the recipient, who is unjust (when +they are different persons); and similarly, the agent, not the +instrument. And even the agent of unjust distribution is not really +unjust unless he was really actuated by motives of personal gain. + +The performance of a particular act is easy. To perform it rightly as +the outcome of a right habit, is not; nor is it easy to be confident as +to what is right in the particular case. The man who is just, having the +habit, does not find it easy to act unjustly. + +What we must call equity may be opposed to justice, but only in the +legal sense of that term. It is justice freed from the errors incidental +to the particular case, for which the law cannot provide. Injustice, +again, is found in self-injury or suicide; which the law penalises, not +because the individual thereby treats himself unjustly, but because he +does an injustice to the community. It is only by metaphor that a man +may be called unjust to himself, an expression which means that the +relation between one part of him and another part of him is analogous to +the unjust relation between persons. + + +_IV.--WISDOM, PRUDENCE AND CONTINENCE_ + + +The ensuing discussion of intellectual virtue requires some remarks on +the soul. We distinguish in the rational part, that which knows, +concerned, with the unchanging; and that which reasons, concerned with +the changing. Our intellects and our propensions--not our +sense-perceptions, which are shared with animals--guide our actions and +our apprehension of truth. Attraction and repulsion, in correspondence +with affirmation and denial, combine to form right choice; the +practical--as opposed to the pure--reason having an external object, and +being a motive power. + +There are five modes of attaining truth: (1) Concerning things +unalterable, defined as demonstrative science; (2) concerning the making +of things changeable, art; (3) concerning the doing--not making--of +things changeable, prudence; (4) intuitive reason, the basis of +demonstrative science; (5) wisdom, the union of intuitive reason and +science. + +Wisdom and prudence are the two virtues of the intellect. Wisdom implies +intuitive reason, which grasps undemonstrable first principles; it is +concerned with the interests not of the moment, the individual, or the +locality. Whereas prudence is concerned precisely with these; it is +essentially practical. Wisdom cannot be identified with statesmanship; +which, again, is not the same as prudence--which applies to the self, +and to the family, as well as to the State; it differs from wisdom as +requiring experience. + +Wisdom, knowledge of the ultimate bases, is equally without practical +bearing for those who have acquired a right habit and for those who have +not; just as a knowledge of medical theory is of no use to the average +man. But being an activity of the soul, _ipso facto_, it conduces to +happiness. The general conclusion is that what we have called "prudence" +shows the means to the end which the moral virtues aim at. It is not a +moral virtue, but the moral virtues accord with it. Both are necessary +to the achievement of goodness. + +We come now to a second group of qualities, concerned with conduct. We +have dealt with the virtues and their opposing vices. We pass by the +infra-human and the supra-human bestiality and holiness; but have still +to deal with Continence and its contrasted qualities, which are +concerned with the passions. + +In the popular view, continence, self-control, is adherence to our +formed judgment. Incontinence is yielding to passion where we know it to +be wrong, and may be indulged in the pursuit of vengeance, honour, or +gain. A number of _prima facie_ contradictions are started out of the +popular views. We find that a man does not act against complete +knowledge or knowledge of which he is fully conscious. The knowledge +may, so to speak, be there, but is in abeyance, a condition which is +palpably exemplified in a drunken man. Now, incontinence is concerned +with pleasures, which are necessary--as for sustenance of life--and +unnecessary but, _per se_, desirable, as honour. Incontinence is a term +applied only by analogy in the case of the latter; its proper +concern--as with the moral vice, which we call intemperance--is with the +former. It implies, however, violent desire, which intemperance does +not. We have examples of such desires in a morbid or diseased form, +species of mania; but here again the term incontinence is only applied +by analogy. Its legitimate application, in short, is restricted to the +normal. + +Incontinence in respect of anger is not so bad as in respect of desire. +It is often constitutional, it is in itself painful, and it is not +wanton, being in all three points unlike the other. What we spoke of as +bestiality is more horrible than vice or incontinence, as being inhuman; +but it does less harm. Incontinence means transgressing the ordinary +standards in respect of pleasure and pain. Such transgression, when of +set purpose, and not followed by repentance--consequently, incurable--is +the moral vice of intemperance; which, being characterised by the +absence of violent desire, is worse than incontinence. The latter is +open, and is curable. The confusion between the two is due to their +issuing in like acts; the passionate impulse is temporary; it is not a +formed habit of wrong choice. + +Continence is acting on conviction in resistance to passion; not merely +sticking to any and every opinion, which is really rather more like +incontinence. The other extreme, of actual apathy, is rare. Continence +differs from temperance, as implying resistance to strong desires; +whereas temperance implies that such desires are not active. +Prudence--but not the acuteness which is sometimes confused with +prudence--is incompatible with incontinence, which is least curable when +the outcome of weakness. + +Here it becomes necessary to make some inquiry as to Pleasure and Pain. +Some maintain that pleasure is never good, some that it is partly good +and partly not; some that it is good, but not the best But it cannot be +bad _per se_, since it may be defined as the unimpeded activity of a +formed faculty. Pleasure, as such, is not a hindrance to any activity, +but its fulfilment; _e.g.,_ the pleasure of speculative inquiry does not +hinder it. As a matter of fact, everyone does pursue pleasure; the +denial that it is good results from thinking of it as meaning only +bodily pleasures. And even they are not evil, but only the excessive +pursuit of them. As to pleasure being fleeting, that is only because +circumstances vary. The pleasure of the unchanging would be permanent. + + +_V.--FRIENDSHIP_ + + +A quality rendered as "Friendship"--though the Greek and English terms +are not identical in content--now comes under examination. It is a +relation to some other person or persons without which life is hardly +worth living. Some account for it on the principle of "like to like," +others on the opposite theory. Now, lovableness comes of goodness, or +pleasantness, or usefulness. Love is not bestowed on the inanimate, and +it must be mutual; it is to be distinguished from goodwill or devotion, +which need not be reciprocated. + +Genuine friendship must be based on goodness; what rests on pleasantness +(as with the young), or on utility (as with the old), is only to be +recognised conventionally as friendship. In perfection it cannot subsist +without perfect mutual knowledge, and only between the good; hence it is +not possible for anyone to have many real friends. Of the conventional +forms, that which is born of intellectual sympathy is more enduring than +what springs from sexual attraction; while what comes of utility is +quite accidental. The former may develop into genuine friendship if +there be virtue in both parties. Companionship is a necessary condition, +in any case. + +Variants of friendship, however, may subsist between unequals, as +between parents and children, princes and subjects, men and women, where +there is a difference in the character of the affection of the two +parties. A certain degree of inequality--though we cannot lay down the +limitation--makes "friendship" a misnomer. One would not desire the +actual apotheosis of a friend, because that would take him out of reach; +it would end friendship. Friendship lies rather in the active loving +than in being loved, though most people are more anxious to be loved +than to love. + +Every form of social community--typified in the State--involves +relationships into which friendship enters. The relationships in the +family correspond to those in states; monarch to subjects as father to +children, tyrant to subjects as master to slaves; autocratic rule to +that of the husband, oligarchic rule to that of the wife; what we call +Timocracy to the fraternal relation, and Democracy to the entirely +unregulated household. In some kinds of association, friendship takes +the form of _esprit de corps_. It may be seen that quarrels arise most +readily in those friendships between equals which are based upon +interest, and in friendships between unequals. + +Friendship is a kind of exchange--equal between equals, and proportional +between unequals; a repayment. This suggests various questions as to +priority of claim--_e.g.,_ between paying your father's ransom and +repaying a loan, both being in a sort the repayment of a debt. No fixed +law can be laid down--_i.e.,_ it cannot be said that one obligation at +all times and in all circumstances overrides all others. + +The dissolution of friendship is warranted when one party has become +depraved, since he has changed from being the person who was the object +of friendship. But he should not be given up while there is hope of +restoring his character. Again, if one develops a great superiority, +friendship proper cannot persist--at least, in its first form. Our +relations with a friend are much like those with our own selves; the +true friend is a sort of _alter ego_. Friendship is not to be identified +with goodwill, though the latter is a condition precedent; we may feel +goodwill, but not friendship, towards a person we have never seen or +spoken to. Unanimity of feeling--not as to facts, but as to ends and +means--is a sort of equivalent to friendship in the body politic. The +reason why conferring a benefit creates more affection than receiving it +seems to be that the benefactor feels himself the maker of the other; we +all incline to love what we produced--as parents their children, or the +artist his own creations. + +Self-love is wrong in a sense--the usual sense in which the term is +used, of giving priority to oneself in the acquisition of material +pleasures. But the seeking of the noblest things for oneself is really +self-love, and may involve giving others, especially friends, the +priority in respect of desirable things--even to resigning to another +the opportunity of doing a noble deed. In this higher sense, self-love +is praiseworthy. + +The good man is self-sufficing, but friends are desirable, if not +actually necessary to him, as giving scope for the exercise of +beneficent activities, not as conferring benefits upon him. Besides, +man's highest activities must be exercised not in isolation, but as a +member of society, and such life lacks completeness if without friends. +Finally, friendship attains its completest realisation where comradeship +is complete; that is to say, in a common life. + + +_VI.--CONCLUSION_ + + +We must revert once more to the question of Pleasure and Pain. To say +that pleasure is not good is absurd; he who does so stultifies himself +by his own acts. Eudoxus thought it was _the_ good, his opinion being +the weightier because of his temperateness. + +It is desired for its own sake; its opposite is admittedly undesirable. +But since it may be added to other good things, it cannot be _the_ good: +though to say that what every one desires is not good at all is folly. +That it is not "a quality," or that it is "indeterminate," are +irrelevant arguments, both statements applying to what are admittedly +among "goods." The doctrine that it is a process, again, will not hold +water. Pleasure is a thing complete; whereas a process is complete at no +moment unless it be that of its termination. It is the completion of its +appropriate activity; not in the sense that a habit makes the activity +complete, but as its accompaniment and complement. Continuous it is not, +just as the activity is not. It is not the complete life, but is +inseparable from it. Pleasures, however, differ specifically and in +value, as do the qualities with whose activities they are associated. +The pleasures proper to men are those associated with the activities +proper to man as man, those shared with other animals being so only in a +less degree. + +It remains to recapitulate the sum of our conclusions regarding Happiness. +It is not a habit, but lies in the habitual activities--desirable in +and for themselves not as means--exercised deliberately, excluding mere +amusement. Man's highest faculty being intelligence, its activity is his +highest happiness--contemplation--constant, sufficient, and sought not +as a means, but as an end. + +This kind of happiness belongs to the gods also. Exclusively human, but +below the other, is the fulfilment of the moral life, conditioned by +human society, and more affected by environments and material wants. For +contemplative activity, the barest material needs suffice. But this does +not of itself induce the moral life, being apart from conduct. To induce +morality, not only knowledge, but the right habit of action--which does +not follow from knowledge and may be implanted without it--is absolutely +necessary. Compulsion may successfully establish the habit where +argument might fail. Compulsion, therefore, is the proper course for the +State to take. + + * * * * * + + + +MARCUS AURELIUS + + +HIS DISCOURSES WITH HIMSELF + + + Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor and Stoic + philosopher, was born on April 20, 121 A.D. Having been + adopted by Antoninus Pius, whose daughter Faustina he married, + he succeeded him as emperor in 161, but freely shared the + imperial throne with Lucius Verus, who also had been adopted + by Pius. Marcus Aurelius reigned until his death, on March 17, + 180, in almost uninterrupted conflict with rebellious + provinces, and often heavily burdened with the internal + troubles of Rome. But the serenity of this august mind, and + his constancy to wisdom, virtue and religion, were never + shaken. For magnanimity, fidelity, resignation, fortitude and + mercy, he stands unrivalled by any other figure of the pagan + world. Nor did that world produce any other book which, like + his, remains as an unfailing companion to every generation of + the modern age. The charm of these fragmentary meditations + depends greatly on their convincing candour; there is not a + trace of the cant and exaggeration that so taint the + moralisings of lesser men. It depends also on their iron + stoicism; there are here no doubtful comforts, no rosy + illusions. But it depends chiefly on the admirable and lovable + human character which is revealed in them. They were written + in Greek, and were probably jotted down at odd moments under + the most various circumstances. Tradition says that they were + intended for the guidance of his son. + + +_BOOK I_ + + +The example of my grandfather Verus taught me to be candid and to +control my temper. By the memory of my father's character I learned to +be modest and manly. My mother taught me regard for religion, to be +generous and open-handed, and neither to do an ill turn to anyone nor +even to think of it. She bred me also to a plain and inexpensive way of +living. I owe it to my grandfather that I had not a public education, +but had good masters at home. From my tutor I learned not to identify +myself with popular sporting interests, but to work hard, endure +fatigue, and not to meddle with other people's affairs. Diognetus taught +me to bear freedom and plain dealing in others, and gave me a taste for +philosophy. Rusticus first set me to improve my character, and prevented +me from running after the vanity of the Sophists, and from concerning +myself with rhetorical and poetic conceits, or with the affectations of +a dandy. He taught me to read an author carefully, and gave me a copy of +Epictetus. Apollonius showed me how to give my mind its due freedom, to +disregard everything that was not true and reasonable, and to maintain +an equable temper under the most trying circumstances. Sextus taught me +good humour, to be obliging, and to bear with the ignorant and +thoughtless. From Maximus I learned to command myself, and to put +through business efficiently, without drudging or complaint. From my +adoptive father I learned a smooth and inoffensive temper, and a +greatness proof against vanity and the impressions of pomp and power; I +learned that it was the part of a prince to check flattery, to have his +exchequer well furnished, to be frugal in his expenses, not to worship +the gods to superstition, but to be reserved, vigilant and well poised. + +I thank the gods that my grandfathers, parents, sister, preceptors, +relatives, friends and domestics were almost all persons of probity, and +that I never happened to disoblige any of them. By the goodness of the +gods I was not provoked to expose my infirmities. I owe it to them also +that my wife is so deferential, affectionate and frugal; and that when I +had a mind to look into philosophy I did not spend too much time in +reading or logic-chopping. All these points could never have been +guarded without a protection from above. + + +_BOOK II_ + + +Put yourself in mind, every morning, that before night you will meet +with some meddlesome, ungrateful and abusive fellow, with some envious +or unsociable churl. Remember that their perversity proceeds from +ignorance of good and evil; and that since it has fallen to my share to +understand the natural beauty of a good action and the deformity of an +ill one; since I am satisfied that the disobliging person is of kin to +me, our minds being both extracted from the Deity; since no man can do +me a real injury because no man can force me to misbehave myself; I +cannot therefore hate or be angry with one of my own nature and family. +For we are all made for mutual assistance, no less than the parts of the +body are for the service of the whole; whence it follows that clashing +and opposition are utterly unnatural. This being of mine consists of +body, breath, and that part which governs. Put away your books and face +the matter itself. As for your body, value it no more than if you were +just expiring; it is nothing but a little blood and bones. Your breath +is but a little air pumped in and out. But the third part is your mind. +Here make a stand. Consider that you are an old man, and do not let this +noble part of you languish in slavery any longer. Let it not be +overborne with selfish passions; let it not quarrel with fate, or be +uneasy at the present, or afraid of the future. Providence shines +clearly through the work of the gods. Let these reflections satisfy you, +and make them your rule to live by. As for books, cease to be eager for +them, that you may die in good humour, heartily thanking the gods for +what you have had. + +Remember that you are a man and a Roman, and let your actions be done +with dignity, gravity, humanity, freedom and justice; let every action +be done as though it were your last. Have neither insincerity nor +self-love. Man has to gain but few points in order to live a happy and +godlike life. And what, after all, is there to be afraid of in death? If +the gods exist, you can suffer no harm; and if they do not exist, or +take no care of us mortals, a world without gods or Providence is not +worth a man's while to live in. But the being of the gods, and their +concern in human affairs, is beyond dispute; and they have put it in +every man's power not to fall into any calamity properly so called. +Living and dying, honour and infamy, pleasure and pain, riches and +poverty--all these are common to the virtuous and the depraved, and are +therefore intrinsically neither good nor evil. We live but for a moment; +our being is in a perpetual flux, our faculties are dim, our bodies tend +ever to corruption; the soul is an eddy, fortune is not to be guessed +at, and posthumous fame is oblivion. To what, then, may we trust? Why, +to nothing but philosophy. This is, to keep the interior divinity from +injury and disgrace, and superior to pleasure and pain, and to acquiesce +in one's appointed lot. + + +_BOOK III_ + + +Observe that the least things and effects in Nature are not without +charm and beauty, as the little cracks in the crust of a loaf, though +not intended by the baker, are agreeable and invite the appetite. Thus +figs, when they are ripest, open and gape; and olives, when they are +near decaying, are peculiarly attractive. The bending of an ear of corn, +the frown of a lion, the foam of a boar, and many other like things, if +you take them singly, are far from beautiful; but seen in their natural +relations are characteristic and effective. So if a man have but +inclination and thought to examine the product of the universe, he will +find that the most unpromising appearances have their own appropriate +charm. + +Do not spend your thoughts upon other people, nor pry into the talk, +fancies and projects of another, nor guess at what he is about, or why +he is doing it. Think upon nothing but what you could willingly tell +about, so that if your soul were laid open there would appear nothing +but what was sincere, good-natured, and public-spirited. A man thus +qualified is a sort of priest and minister of the gods, and makes a +right use of the divinity within him. Be cheerful; depend not at all on +foreign supports, nor beg your happiness of another; don't throw away +your legs to stand upon crutches. + +If, in the whole compass of human life, you find anything preferable to +justice and truth, temperance and fortitude, or to a mind self-satisfied +with its own rational conduct and entirely resigned to fate, then turn +to it as to your supreme happiness. But if there be nothing more +valuable than the divinity within you, if all things are trifles in +comparison with this, then don't divide your allegiance. Let your choice +run all one way, and be resolute for that which is best. As for other +speculations, throw them once for all out of your hand. + + +_BOOK IV_ + + +It is the custom of people to go to unfrequented places and to the +seashore and to the hills for retirement; and you yourself have often +wished this solitude. But, after all, this is only a vulgar fancy, for +it is in your power to withdraw into yourself whenever you have a mind +to it. One's own heart is a place the most free from crowd and noise in +the world if only one's thoughts are serene and the mind well ordered. +Make, therefore, frequent use of this retirement, therein to refresh +your virtue. And to this end be always provided with a few short, +uncontested notions, to keep your understanding true. Do not forget to +retire to this solitude of yours; let there be no straining or +struggling in the matter, but move at ease. + +If understanding be common to us all, then reason, its cause, must be +common, too. And so also must the reason which governs conduct by +commands and prohibitions be common to us all. Mankind is therefore +under one common law, and so are fellow-citizens; and the whole world is +but one commonwealth, for there is no other society in which mankind can +be incorporated. + +Do not suppose that you are hurt, and your complaint will cease. + +If a man affronts you, do not defer to his opinion, or think just as he +would have you do. No; look upon things as reality presents them. When +incense is thrown upon the altar, one grain usually falls before +another; but it matters not. + +Adhere to the principles of wisdom, and those who now take you for a +monkey or a beast will make a god of you in a week. + +A thing is neither better nor worse for being praised. Do virtues stand +in need of a good word, or are they the worse for a bad one? An emerald +will shine none the less though its worth be not spoken of. + +Whatever is agreeable to You, O Universe, is so to me, too. Your +operations are never mistimed. Whatever Your seasons bring is fruit for +me, O Nature. From You all things proceed, subsist in You, and return to +You. The poet said, "Dear City of Cecrops"; shall we not say, "Dear City +of God"? + +The greater part of what we say and do is unnecessary; and if this were +only retrenched we should have more leisure and less disturbance. This +applies to our thoughts also, for impertinence of thought leads to +unnecessary action. + +Mankind are poor, transitory things: one day in life, and the next +turned to mummy or ashes. Therefore manage this minute wisely, and part +with it cheerfully; and like a ripe fruit, when you drop, make your +acknowledgments to the tree that bore you. + + +_BOOK V_ + + +When you feel unwilling to rise early in the morning, make this short +speech to yourself: "I am getting up now to do the business of a man; +and am I out of humour for going about that I was made for, and for the +sake of which I was sent into the world? Was I then designed for nothing +but to doze beneath the counterpane?" Surely action is the end of your +being. Look upon the plants and birds, the ants, spiders and bees, and +you will see that they are all exerting their nature, and busy in their +station. Shall not a man act like a man? + +Be not ashamed of any action which is in accordance with Nature, and +never be misled by the fear of censure or reproach. Where honesty +prompts you to say or do anything, let not the opinion of others hold +you back. Go forward by the straight path, pursuing your own and the +common interest. + +Some men, when they do you a kindness, ask for the payment of gratitude; +others, more modest, remember the favour and look upon you as their +debtor. But there are yet other benefactors who forget their good deeds; +and these are like the vine, which is satisfied by being fruitful in its +kind, and bears a bunch of grapes without expecting any thanks for it. A +truly kind man never talks of a good turn that he has done, but does +another as soon as he can, just like a vine that bears again the next +season. + +We commonly say that Aesculapius has prescribed riding for one patient, +walking for another, a cold bath for a third. In the same way we may say +that the nature of the Universe has ordered this or that person a +disease, loss of limbs or estate, or some such other calamity. For as, +in the first case, the word "prescribed" means a direction for the +health of the patient, so, in the latter, it means an application +suitable for his constitution and destiny. + +Be not uneasy, discouraged or out of humour, because practice falls +short of precept in some particulars. If you happen to be vanquished, +come on again, and be glad if most of what you do is worthy of a man. + +We ought to live with the gods. This is done by being contented with the +appointments of Providence, and by obeying the orders of that divinity +which is God's deputy; and this divine authority is no more nor less +than that soul and reason which every man carries within him. + + +_BOOK VI_ + + +The best way of revenge is not to imitate the injury. Be always doing +something serviceable to mankind; and let this constant generosity be +your only pleasure, not forgetting a due regard to God. + +The world is either an aggregation of atoms, or it is a unity ruled by +Law and Providence. If the first, what should I stay for, where Nature +is a chaos and things are blindly jumbled together? But if there is a +Providence, then I adore the great Governor of the world, and am at ease +and cheerful in the prospect of protection. + +Suppose you had a stepmother and a mother at the same time; though you +would pay regard to the first, your converse would be principally with +the latter. Let the court and philosophy represent these two relations +to me. + +If an antagonist in the circus tears our flesh with his nails, or tilts +against us with his head, we do not cry out foul play, nor are we +offended, nor do we suspect him afterwards as a dangerous person. Let us +act thus in the other instances of life. When we receive a blow, let us +think that we are but at a trial of skill, and depart without malice or +ill-will. + +It is enough to do my duty; as for other things, I will not be disturbed +about them. + +The vast continents of Europe and of Asia are but corners of the +creation; the ocean is but a drop, and Mount Athos but a grain in +respect of the universe; and the present instant of time is but a point +to the extent of eternity. + +When you have a mind to divert your fancy, try to consider the good +qualities of your acquaintance--such as the enterprising vigour of this +man, the modesty of another, the liberality of a third, and so on. Let +this practice be always at hand. + + +_BOOK VII_ + + +What is wickedness? It is nothing new. When you are in danger of being +shocked, consider that the sight is nothing but what you have frequently +seen already. All ages and histories, towns and families, are full of +the same stories; there is nothing new to be met with, but all things +are common and quickly over. + +Nature works up the matter of the universe like wax; now it is a horse; +soon afterwards you will find it melted down and run into the figure of +a tree; then it is a man; and so on. Only for a brief time is it fixed +in any species. + +Antisthenes said: "It is the fate of princes to be ill spoken of for +their good deeds." + +Consider the course of the stars as if you were driving through the sky +and kept them company. Such contemplations as these scour off the rust +contracted by conversing here below. + +Rational creatures are designed for the advantage of each other. A +sociable temper is that for which human nature was principally intended. + +It is a saying of Plato's that no one misses the truth by his own +goodwill. The same may be said of honesty, sobriety, good nature, and +the like. Remember this, for it will help to sweeten your temper. + +Though the gods are immortal, and have had their patience tried through +so many ages, yet they not only bear with a wicked world, but even +provide liberally for it. And are you tired with evil men already, +though you are one of those unhappy mortals yourself? + + +_BOOK VIII_ + + +Every man has three relations to acquit himself in: his body is one, God +is another, and his neighbours are the third. Have you seen a hand or a +foot cut off and removed from the body? Just such a thing is the man who +is discontented with destiny or cuts himself off by selfishness from the +interest of mankind. But here is the fortunate aspect of the case--it +lies in his power to set the limb on again. Consider the peculiar bounty +of God to man in this privilege: He has set him above the necessity of +breaking off from Nature and Providence at all; but supposing this +misfortune to have occurred, it is in man's power to rejoin the body, +and grow together again, and recover the advantage of being the same +member that he was at first. + +Do not take your whole life into your head at a time, nor burden +yourself with the weight of the future, nor form an image of all +probable misfortunes. Neither what is past nor what is to come need +afflict you, for you have only to deal with the present; and this is +strangely lessened if you take it singly and by itself. Chide your +fancy, therefore, if it offers to grow faint under so slender a trial. + +Throw me into what climate or state you please, for all that I will keep +my soul content. Is any misadventure big enough to ruffle my peace, or +to make my mind mean, craving and servile? What is there that can +justify such disorders? + +Be not heavy in business, nor disturbed in conversation, nor rambling in +thought. Do not burden yourself with too much employment. Do men curse +you? This cannot prevent you from keeping a wise, temperate, and upright +mind. If a man standing by a lovely spring should rail at it, the water +is none the worse for his foul language; and if he throw in dirt it will +quickly disappear, and the fountain will be as wholesome as ever. How +are you to keep your springs always running, and never stagnate into a +pool? You must persevere in the virtues of freedom, sincerity, +moderation, and good nature. + + +_BOOK IX_ + + +Do not drudge like a galley-slave, nor do business in a laborious +manner, as if you wish to be pitied or wondered at. + +As virtue and vice consist in action, and not in the impressions of the +senses, so it is not what they feel, but what they do, which makes +mankind either happy or miserable. + +This man prays that he may gain such a woman; but do you rather pray +that you may have no such inclination. Another invokes the gods to set +him free from some troublesome circumstance; but let it be your petition +that your mind may not be set upon such a wish. A third is devout in +order to prevent the loss of his son; but I would have you pray rather +against the fear of losing him. Let this be the rule for your devotions, +and watch the event. + + +_BOOK X_ + + +O my soul, are you ever to be rightly good, sincere, and uniform, and +made more visible to yourself than the body that hangs about you? Are +you ever likely to relish good nature and general kindness as you ought? +Will you ever be fully satisfied, rise above wanting and wishing, and +never desire to obtain your pleasure out of anything foreign, either +living or inanimate? Are you ever likely to be so happily qualified as +to converse with the gods and men in such a manner as neither to +complain of them nor to be condemned by them? + +Put it out of the power of all men to give you a bad name, and if anyone +reports you not to be an honest or a good man let your practice give him +the lie. This is quite feasible; for who can hinder you from being just +and sincere? + +There is no one so happy in his family and friends but that some of +them, when they see him going, will rejoice at a good riddance. Let him +be a person of never so much probity and prudence, yet someone will say +at his grave: "Well, our man of order and gravity is gone; we shall be +no more troubled with his discipline." This is the best treatment a good +man must expect. + + +_BOOK XI_ + + +What a brave soul it is that is always ready to depart from the body, +and is unconcerned as to whether she will be extinguished, scattered, or +removed! But she must be prepared upon reasonable grounds, and not out +of mere obstinacy like the Christians; her fortitude must have nothing +of noise or of tragic ostentation, but must be grave and seemly. + +How fulsome and hollow does that man seem who cries: "I'm resolved to +deal sincerely with you!" Hark you, friend, what need of all this +flourish? Let your actions speak. Your face ought to vouch for you. I +would have virtue look out of the eye no less apparently than love does. +A man of integrity and good nature can never be concealed, for his +character is wrought into his countenance. + +Gentleness and good humour are invincible, provided they are of the +right stamp and without hypocrisy. This is the way to disarm the most +outrageous person--to continue kind and unmoved under ill usage, and to +strike in at the right opportunity with advice. But let all be done out +of mere love and kindness. + + +_BOOK XII_ + + +I have often wondered how it is that everyone should love himself best, +and yet value his neighbour's opinion of him more than his own. If any +man should be ordered to turn his inside outwards, and publish every +thought and fancy as fast as they come into his head, he would not +submit to so much as a day of this discipline. Thus it is that we dread +our neighbour's judgment more than our own. + +What a mighty privilege man is born to, since it is in his power not to +do anything but what God Almighty approves, and to be satisfied with all +the distributions of Providence! + +Reflect upon those who have made the most glorious figure or have met +with the greatest misfortunes. Where are they all now? They are vanished +like a little smoke. The prize is insignificant, and the play not worth +the candle. It is much more becoming to a philosopher to stand clear of +affectation, to be honest and moderate upon all occasions, and to follow +cheerfully wherever the gods lead on, remembering that nothing is more +scandalous than a man who is proud of his humility. + +Listen, friend! You have been a burgher of this great city. What matter +though you have lived in it fewer years or more? If you have kept the +laws of the corporation, the length or shortness of the time makes no +difference. Where is the hardship, then, if Nature, that planted you +here, orders your removal? You cannot say you are sent off by an unjust +tyrant No! You quit the stage as fairly as a player does who has his +discharge from the master of the revels. "But I have only gone through +three acts, and not held out to the end of the fifth!" True; but in life +three acts may complete the play. He is the only judge of completeness +who first ordered your entrance and now your exit; you are accountable +for neither the one nor the other. Retire therefore, in serenity, as He +who dismisses you is serene. + + * * * * * + + + +FRANCIS BACON + + +THE ADVANCEMENT OF LEARNING + + + Francis Bacon, English philosopher and Chancellor, was born on + January 22, 1561, the son of Lord Keeper Bacon, was sent to + Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1573, and entered Gray's Inn in + 1576. He had already become profoundly dissatisfied at + Cambridge with the Aristotelian philosophy, and the conception + of a humble and methodical study of Nature had early become + the dominant passion of his life. Bacon became a member of + parliament in 1584, and nine years later distinguished himself + by coming forward as the champion of the privileges of the + House of Commons against the Lords. The "Essays" were + published in 1597. Bacon was knighted in 1603, on the + accession of James I. In October, 1605, he published the + "Advancement of Learning," a work designed to interest the + king in the new philosophy, of which book we here give a + summary. This review of the existing state of knowledge was + intended to be made, later, into the first part of the + "Instauratio Magna" under the title of "Partitiones + Scientiarum." For this purpose Bacon was constantly revising + it, and eventually he had it translated into Latin, and it was + so published, greatly enlarged, in 1623, under the title of + "De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum." The summit of his + career was reached in 1621, when he became Viscount St. + Albans. His fall, on a charge of corruptions in the Court of + Chancery, took place in the following March, and from this + period until his death, on April 9, 1626, he devoted himself + to his philosophical and literary works. + + +_First Book_ + + +Let us weigh the dignity of knowledge in the balance with other things. +In its archetype it is the Divine wisdom, or sapience, manifested in the +creation. In the celestial hierarchy the supposed Dionysius of Athens +places the angels of knowledge and illumination before those of office +and domination. Then, the first material form that was created was +light, which corresponds in corporal things to knowledge in incorporai. +The day wherein God contemplated His own works was blessed above the +days wherein He accomplished them. Man's first employment in Paradise +consisted of the two chief parts of knowledge, the view of creatures, +and the imposition of names. In the age before the Flood, Scripture +honours the names of the inventors of music and of works in metal. Moses +was accomplished in all the learning of the Egyptians. The book of Job +is pregnant with natural philosophy. In Solomon, the gift of wisdom and +learning is preferred before all other earthly and temporal felicity. + +Our Saviour first showed His power to subdue ignorance by His conference +with the doctors, before He showed His power to subdue Nature by +miracles; and the coming of the Holy Spirit was chiefly figured in the +gift of tongues, which are the vehicles of knowledge. St. Paul, most +learned of the apostles, had his pen most used in the New Testament. +Many of the ancient fathers of the Church were excellently read in all +the learning of the heathen; and that heathen learning was preserved, +amid Scythian and Saracen invasions, in the sacred bosom of the Church. +And in our own day, when God has called the Roman Church to account for +degenerate manners and obnoxious doctrines. He has also ordained a +renovation of all other knowledges; and, on the other side, the Jesuits, +by quickening the state of learning, have done notable service to the +Roman See. Wherefore two principal services are performed to religion by +human learning: first, the contemplation of God's works is an effectual +inducement to the exaltation of His glory; and, secondly, true learning +is a singular preservative against unbelief and error. + +To pass now to human proofs of the dignity of learning, we find that +among the heathen the inventors of new arts, such as Ceres, Bacchus, and +Apollo, were consecrated among the gods themselves by apotheosis. The +fable of Orpheus, wherein quarrelsome beasts stood sociably listening to +the harp, aptly described the nature of men among whom peace is +maintained so long as they give ear to precepts, laws, and religion. It +has been said that people would then be happy, when kings were +philosophers, or philosophers kings; and history shows that the best +times have ever been under learned princes. + +As for the services of knowledge to private virtue, it takes away all +levity, temerity, and insolence by copious suggestion of all doubts and +difficulties, and acquainting the mind to balance reasons on both sides. +It takes away vain admiration of anything, which is the root of all +weakness. No man can marvel at the play of puppets that goes behind the +curtain. And certainly, if a man meditate much upon the universal frame +of Nature, the earth with men upon it (the divineness of souls except) +will not seem much other than an ant-hill, where some ants carry corn, +and some carry their young, and some go empty, and all to and fro a +little heap of dust. But especially learning disposes the mind to be +capable of growth and reformation. For the unlearned man knows not what +it is to descend into himself or to call himself to account, nor the +pleasure of feeling himself each day a better man than he was the day +before; he is like an ill mower, that mows on still and never whets his +scythe. Knowledge crowns man's nature with power. It even gives fortune +to particular persons; and it is hard to say whether arms or learning +have advanced greater numbers. As for the pleasure and delight thereof, +in knowledge there is no satiety. "It is a pleasure incomparable," says +Lucretius, "for the mind of man to be settled, landed, and fortified in +the certainty of truth; and from thence to descry the errors and +perturbations of other men." + +Lastly, by learning man excels man in that wherein man excels beasts. +The great dignity of knowledge lies in immortality or continuance, and +the monuments of learning are more durable than the monuments of power. +Have not the verses of Homer continued twenty-five hundred years or +more, without the loss of a syllable or letter, during which time +infinite palaces, temples, castles, cities, have been decayed and +demolished? + +If the invention of the ship was thought so noble, which carries riches +and commodities from place to place, and consociates the most remote +regions in participation of their fruits, how much more are letters to +be magnified? Popular and mistaken judgments will continue as they have +ever been, but so will that also continue whereupon learning has ever +relied, and which fails not. + +"Wisdom is justified of her children." + + +_SECOND BOOK_ + + +The parts of human learning have reference to the three parts of man's +understanding--history to his memory, poetry to his imagination, and +philosophy to his reason. Divine learning receives the same +distribution, so that theology consisteth of history of the Church; of +parables, which are divine poetry; and of holy doctrine or precept. For +prophecy is but divine history, in which the narrative is before the +fact. + +History is "natural," "civil," "ecclesiastical," and "literary "; +whereof the first three are extant, but the fourth is deficient. A true +history of learning throughout the ages is wanting. History of Nature is +of three sorts--of Nature in course, of Nature erring or varying, and of +Nature altered or worked; that is, history of creatures, history of +marvels, and history of arts. The first of these is extant in good +perfection; the two others are handled so weakly that I note them as +deficient. The history of arts is of great use towards natural +philosophy such as shall be operative to the benefit of man's life. +Civil history is of three kinds: "memorials," "perfect histories," and +"antiquities," comparable to unfinished, perfect and defaced pictures. +Just or perfect history represents a time, a person, or an action. The +first we call "chronicles"; the second, "lives"; and the third, +"narrations," or "relations." + +Of modern histories the greater part are beneath mediocrity. Annals and +journals are a kind of history not to be forgotten; and there is also +ruminated history, wherein political discourse and observations are +mingled with the history of the events themselves. The history of +cosmography is compounded of natural history, civil history, and +mathematics. Ecclesiastical history receives the same divisions with +civil history, but may further be divided into history of the Church, +history of prophecy, and history of Providence. The first of these is +not deficient, only I would that the sincerity of it were proportionate +to its mass and quantity. The history of prophecy, sorting every +prophecy with the event fulfilling the same, is deficient; but the +history of Providence, and the notable examples of God's judgments and +deliverances have passed through the labour of many. Orations, letters, +and brief sayings, or apophthegms, are appendices to history. Thus much +concerning history, which answers to memory. + +Poetry refers to the imagination. In respect of its words it is but a +character of style, but in respect of its matter it is nothing else but +feigned history, which may as well be in prose as in verse. The use of +this feigned history is to give some shadow of satisfaction to the mind +of man in those points wherein the nature of things denies it; poetry +serves magnanimity, morality, and delectation. It is divided into +narrative, representative, and allusive or parabolical poetry. In poetry +I can report no deficience; it has sprung up and spread abroad more than +any other kind of learning. + +In philosophy, the contemplations of man either penetrate unto God, or +are circumferred to Nature, or are reflected upon himself; whence arise +three knowledges--divine philosophy, natural philosophy, and human +philosophy or humanity. But it is good to erect one universal science, +_Philosophia Prima,_ "primitive" or "summary philosophy," before we come +where the ways part and divide; and this universal philosophy is a +receptacle for all such profitable observations and axioms as do not +fall within the compass of any of the special parts of philosophy or +sciences, but are common and of a higher stage. Divine philosophy, or +natural theology, is that knowledge concerning God which may be obtained +by the contemplation of His creatures; and in this I note an excess +rather than a deficience, because of the extreme prejudice which both +religion and philosophy have received by being mixed together, making an +heretical religion and a fabulous philosophy. + +Of natural philosophy there are two parts, the inquisition of causes and +the production of effects; speculative and operative; natural science +and natural prudence. Natural science is divided into physic and +metaphysic. But since I have already defined a summary philosophy, and, +again, a natural theology, both of which are commonly confounded with +metaphysic, what is there remaining for metaphysic? This, that physic +inquires concerning the material and efficient causes, but metaphysic +handles the formal and final causes. So physic is in a middle term +between natural history and metaphysic; for natural history describes +the variety of things, physic the variable or respective causes, and +metaphysic the fixed and constant causes. Of metaphysic I find that it +is partly omitted and partly misplaced. In mathematics, which I place as +a part of metaphysic, I can report no deficience. But natural prudence, +or the operative part of natural philosophy, is very deficient. It were +desirable that there should be a calendar or inventory made of all the +inventions whereof man is possessed, with a note of useful things not +yet invented. A calendar, also, of doubts, and another of popular +errors, are to be desired. + +We come now to the knowledge of ourselves--that is, to human philosophy +or humanity. First, a general study of human nature will have regard to +the sympathies and concordances between mind and body. Then, since the +good of man's body is of four kinds--health, beauty, strength, and +pleasure--the knowledge of the body is also of four kinds--medicine, +decoration or cosmetic, athletic, and the art voluptuary. Medicine has +been more professed than laboured, and more laboured than advanced, the +labour having been rather in circle than in progression. + +As for human knowledge concerning the mind, it has two parts, one +inquiring of the substance or nature of the soul, and the other of its +faculties or functions. I believe that the first of these may be more +soundly inquired than it has been, yet I hold that in the end it must be +bounded by religion. It has two appendices, concerning divination and +fascination; these have rather vapoured forth fables than kindled truth. +The knowledge respecting the faculties of the mind is of two kinds, the +one respecting understanding and reason, and the other respecting will, +appetite, and affection, the imagination being active in both provinces. +The intellectual arts are four--inquiry or invention, examination or +judgment, custody or memory, and elocution or tradition; and these are +severally divided into various sciences and arts. The knowledge of the +appetite and will, or moral philosophy, leading to the culture and +regiment of the mind, is very deficient. + +Civil knowledge has three parts--conversation, negotiation, and +government--since man seeks in society comfort, use, and protection. The +first of these is well laboured, the second and third are deficient. +Thus we conclude human philosophy, and turn to the sacred and inspired +divinity, the port of all men's labours and peregrinations. + +Sacred theology, or divinity, is grounded only upon the word and oracle +of God, and not upon the light of Nature. Herein there has not been +sufficiently inquired the true limits and use of reason in spiritual +things. Exposition of Scriptures, on the other hand, is not deficient. +Divinity has four main branches--faith, manners, liturgy, and +government--in which I can find no ground vacant and unsown, so diligent +have men been, either in sowing of seed or tares. + + * * * * * + + + +GEORGE BERKELEY + + +PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE + + + George Berkeley, the metaphysician, was born on March 12, + 1685, near Thomastown, Kilkenny, the son of a collector of + revenue. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, at the age of + fifteen, and was admitted Fellow in 1707. In that year he + published two mathematical essays; two years later, his + "Theory of Vision," and in 1710 his "Principles of Human + Knowledge." In 1713, in London, where he had published further + philosophical papers, he formed the acquaintance of Steele, + Swift, and Pope. After travels in Europe he became chaplain to + the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1721, and a few years after + emigrated to Newport, Rhode Island, with a view to the + establishment of a college in Bermuda for the education of + Indians. This scheme fell through, because of the failure of + the promised government support. Berkeley returned to London, + and in 1734, by desire of Queen Caroline, was consecrated + Bishop of Cloyne, in Ireland. Here he lived until 1752, but + spent his last months in retirement at Oxford, where he died + on January 14, 1753. Berkeley's "Principles of Human + Knowledge" is one of the most eminent of that sequence of + metaphysical systems which, beginning with Descartes, + constitutes what is known as modern philosophy. + + +_I.--THE ANALYSIS OF PERCEPTION_ + + +It is evident to anyone who takes a survey of the objects of human +knowledge that they are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses, +or else such as are perceived by attending to the passions and +operations of the mind; or, lastly, ideas formed by help of memory and +imagination, either compounding, dividing, or representing those +originally perceived in the aforesaid ways. By sight, touch, and other +senses, I receive various sensations; and any group of sensations, +frequently accompanying one another, come to be known as one thing. Thus +a certain colour, taste, smell, figure, and consistence, having been +observed to go together, are accounted one distinct thing--for instance, +an apple. + +But, besides this endless variety of objects of knowledge, there is also +the "mind," "spirit," "soul," or "myself," which perceives them. Neither +our thoughts or imaginations, nor even the sensations which compose the +objects of perception, can exist otherwise than in a mind perceiving +them. It is impossible that objects should have any existence out of the +minds for which they exist; to conceive them as existing unperceived is +a mere abstraction. Whence it follows that there is no other substance +but spirit, or that which perceives. + +Some, indeed, distinguish between "primary" and "secondary" qualities, +and hold that the former, such as extension, figure, motion, and +solidity, have some existence outside of the mind in an unthinking +substance which they call "matter." But extension, figure, and motion +are only ideas existing in the mind, and neither these ideas nor their +archetypes can exist in an unperceiving substance. The very notion of +what is called "matter" involves a contradiction within it. Not only +primary and secondary qualities alike, but also "great" and "small," +"swift" and "slow," "extension," "number," and even "unity" itself, +being all of them purely relative, exist only in the mind. The +conception of "material substance" has no meaning but that of "being" in +general. + +Even if we were to give to the materialists their "external bodies," +they are by their own confession no nearer to knowledge how our ideas +are produced, since they own themselves unable to comprehend in what +manner body can act upon spirit, or how it is possible that it should +imprint any idea on the mind. + +It is evident that the production of ideas in our minds can be no reason +why we should suppose corporeal substances to exist, since the rise of +those ideas is acknowledged to remain equally inexplicable with or +without the supposition of material existences. In short, if there were +external bodies, it is impossible that we should ever come to know it; +and if there were not, we should have the same reasons to think there +were, that we have now. We perceive a continual succession of ideas; +some are anew excited, others are changed or totally disappear. There +is, therefore, some cause of these ideas, whereon they depend, which +produces and changes them. This cause must be a substance; but it has +been shown that there is no corporeal or material substance. It remains, +therefore, that the cause of ideas is an incorporeal active substance or +spirit. + +A spirit is one simple, undivided, active being; as it perceives ideas +it is called the "understanding," and as it produces or otherwise +operates about them, it is called the "will." Such is the nature of +spirit that it cannot be of itself perceived, but only by the effects +which it produceth. + +The ideas of sense are more strong, lively, and distinct than those of +the imagination; they have likewise a steadiness, order, and coherence, +and are excited in a regular series, the admirable connection whereof +sufficiently testifies the wisdom and benevolence of its Author. The set +rules or established methods, wherein the mind that we depend on excites +in us the ideas of sense, are called the "laws of Nature." + +These we learn by experience, and so obtain a sort of foresight which +enables us to regulate our actions for the benefit of life. In general, +to obtain such or such ends such or such means are conducive; and all +this we know, not by discovering any necessary connection between our +ideas, but only by the observation of the laws of Nature. + +And yet this constant uniform working, which so evidently displays the +goodness and wisdom of that governing spirit whose will constitutes the +laws of Nature, is so far from leading our thoughts to Him that it +rather sends them wandering after second causes. For when we perceive +certain ideas of sense constantly followed by other ideas, and we know +that it is not of our own doing, we forthwith attribute power and agency +to the ideas themselves, and make one the cause of another, than which +nothing can be more absurd. + + +_II.--THE ROOTS OF SCEPTICISM_ + + +Several difficult and obscure questions, on which abundance of +speculation hath been thrown away, are by our own principles entirely +banished from philosophy. "Whether corporeal substance can think," +"whether matter be infinitely divisible," "how matter operates on +spirit"--these and the like inquiries have given infinfte amusement to +philosophers in all ages. But since they depend on the existence of +matter, they have no longer any place in our principles. It follows, +also, that human knowledge may be reduced to two heads--knowledge of +ideas, and knowledge of spirits. Our knowledge of the former hath been +much obscured and confounded, and we have been led into very dangerous +errors, by supposing a twofold existence of the objects of sense, the +one "intelligible," or in the mind, the other "real," and without the +mind; whereby unthinking things are thought to have a natural +subsistence of their own, distinct from being perceived by spirits. + +This is the very root of scepticism; for so long as men thought that +real things subsisted without the mind, and that their knowledge was +only so far "real" as it was conformable to "real things," they could +not be certain that they had any real knowledge at all. + +So long as we attribute a real existence to unthinking things, distinct +from their being perceived, it is not only impossible for us to know the +nature of any real unthinking being, but it is impossible for us even to +know that it exists. Hence it is that we see philosophers distrust their +senses, and doubt of the existence of heaven and earth, of everything +they see or feel. But all this doubtfulness, which so bewilders and +confounds the mind, vanishes if we annex a meaning to our words and do +not amuse ourselves with the terms "absolute," "external," "exist," and +such like, signifying we know not what. I can as well doubt of my own +being as of the being of those things which I perceive by sense; the +very existence of unthinking beings consists in their being perceived. + +It were a mistake to think that what is here said derogates in the least +from the reality of things. The unthinking beings perceived by sense +exist in those unextended, indivisible substances, or spirits, which +act, think, and perceive them; whereas philosophers vulgarly hold that +the sensible qualities exist in an inert, extended, unperceiving +substance, which they call "matter," to which they attribute a natural +subsistence distinct from being perceived by any mind whatsoever, even +the eternal mind of the Creator. + +As we have shown the doctrine of matter to have been the main support of +scepticism, so likewise upon the same foundation have been raised all +the impious schemes of atheism and irreligion. All these monstrous +systems have so visible and necessary a dependence on this supposed +material substance that, when this cornerstone is once removed, the +whole fabric cannot choose but fall to the ground. + +On the same principle does not only fatalism but also idolatry depend in +all its varying forms. Did men but consider that the sun, moon, and +stars, and every other object of the senses, are only so many sensations +in their minds, which have no other existence but barely being +perceived, they would never fall down and worship their own ideas, but +rather address their homage to that Eternal Invisible Mind which +produces and sustains all things. + +As in reading books, a wise man will choose to fix his thoughts on the +sense rather than lay them out on grammatical remarks; so, in perusing +the volume of Nature, it seems beneath the dignity of the mind to affect +an exactness in reducing each particular phenomenon to general rules, or +showing how it follows from them. We should propose to ourselves nobler +views, such as to recreate and exalt the mind, with a prospect of the +beauty, order, extent, and variety, of natural things; hence, by proper +inferences, to enlarge our notions of the grandeur, wisdom, and +beneficence of the Creator. + +The reason that is assigned for our being thought ignorant of the nature +of spirits is our not having an idea of them. But it is manifestly +impossible that there should be any such idea. A spirit is the only +substance or support wherein the unthinking beings or ideas can exist; +but that this substance which supports or perceives ideas should itself +be an idea is absurd. + +From the opinion that spirits are to be known after the manner of an +idea or sensation have arisen many heterodox tenets and much scepticism +about the nature of the soul. It is even probable that this opinion may +have produced a doubt in some whether they had any soul at all distinct +from their body, since they could not find that they had an idea of it. +But the spirit is a real thing, which is neither an idea nor like an +idea. What I am myself, that which I denote by the term "I," is what we +mean by soul or spiritual substance; and we know other spirits by means +of our own soul, which in that sense is an image or idea of them. + +By the natural immortality of the soul we mean that it is not liable to +be either broken or dissolved by the ordinary laws of Nature or motion. +The soul itself is indivisible, incorporeal, unextended, and is +consequently incorruptible. + + +_III.--OUR KNOWLEDGE OF GOD_ + + +Though there be some things which convince us that human agents are +concerned in producing them, yet it is evident to everyone that those +things which are called the works of Nature--that is, the far greater +part of the ideas or sensations perceived by us--are not produced by, +nor dependent on, the wills of men. There is, therefore, some other +spirit that causes them, since they cannot subsist themselves. + +If we attentively consider the constant regularity, order, and +concatenation of natural things, the surprising magnificence, beauty, +and perfection of the larger, and the exquisite contrivance of the +smaller parts together with the exact harmony and correspondence of the +whole--I say, if we consider all these things, and at the same time +attend to the import of the attributes, one eternal, infinitely wise, +good, and perfect, we shall clearly perceive that they belong to the +aforesaid Spirit, who works all in all, and by whom all things consist. + +Hence it is evident that God is known as certainly and immediately as +any other mind or spirit whatsoever, distinct from ourselves. We may +even assert that the existence of God is far more evidently perceived +than the existence of men, because the effects of Nature are infinitely +more numerous and considerable than those ascribed to human agents. +There is not any one mark that denotes a man, or effect produced by him, +which does not more strongly evince the being of that Spirit who is the +Author of Nature. + +It seems to be a general pretence of the unthinking herd that they +cannot see God. Could we but see Him, say they, as we see a man, we +should believe that He is, and, believing, obey His commands. But we +need only open our eyes to see the sovereign Lord of all things with a +more full and clear view than we do any one of our fellow-creatures. We +do not see a man, if by "man" is meant that which lives, moves, +perceives, and thinks as we do; but only such a collection of ideas as +directs us to think there is a distinct principle of thought and motion +like to ourselves, accompanying and represented by it. And after the +same manner we see God. + +Men are surrounded with such clear manifestations of Deity, yet are so +little affected by them that they seem, as it were, blinded with excess +of light. + + * * * * * + + + +DESCARTES + + +DISCOURSE ON METHOD + + + René Descartes was born March 31, 1596, at La Haye, in the + ancient province of Touraine, France, of a noble family of + Touraine; and was educated at the College of La Flêche by the + Jesuits. The decisive crisis of his life arrived in 1619, + while he was serving as a volunteer with Prince Maurice of + Nassau, and the next nine years may be regarded as the period + of his formation. The most fruitful years of his life were + spent in Holland, whence he made occasional excursions into + France, and perhaps paid a visit to England. In 1633 he + finished his treatise on "The World; or on Light," an epitome + of his "Physics," which, however, he deemed it wise, in view + of Galileo's fate, to withhold from publication during his + lifetime. Besides the "Discourse on Method" (1637), with the + treatises on dioptrics, meteors, and geometry, his principal + works were his "Meditations" addressed to the Deans of the + Faculty of Theology in the University of Paris; the "Principia + Philosophiae," and the "Traité des Passions de L'Ame," in + which, he handled morals. Descartes died at Stockholm, whither + he had been summoned by Queen Christina, on February 11, 1649. + His work stands a landmark in the modern history of + philosophic thought. + + +_I.--THE AIM OF THIS DISCOURSE_ + + +Good sense or reason must be better distributed than anything else in +the world, for no man desires more of it than he already has. This shows +that reason is by nature equal in all men. If there is diversity of +opinion, this arises from the fact that we conduct our thought by +different ways, and consider not the same things. It does not suffice +that the understanding be good--it must be well applied. + +My mind is no better than another's, but I have been lucky enough to +chance on certain ways, which have led me to a certain method by means +of which it seems to me that I may by degrees augment my knowledge to +the modest measure of my intellect and my length of days. I shall be +very glad to make plain in this discourse the paths I have followed, and +to picture my life so that all may judge of it, and by the setting forth +of their opinions may furnish me with yet other means of improvement. + +It is my design not to teach the method which each man ought to follow +for the right guidance of his reason, but only to show in what manner I +have tried to conduct my own. + +I had been nourished on letters from my infancy, but as soon as I had +finished the customary course of study, I found myself hampered by so +many doubts and errors that I seemed to have reaped no benefits, except +that I had observed more and more of my ignorance: Yet I was at one of +the most celebrated schools in Europe, and I was not held inferior to my +fellow-students, some of whom were destined to take the place of our +masters; nor did our age seem less fruitful of good wits than any which +had gone before. Though I did not cease to esteem the studies of the +schools, I began to think that I had given enough time to languages, +enough also to ancient books, their stories and their fables; for when a +man spends too much time in travelling abroad he becomes a stranger in +his own country; and so, when he is too curious concerning what went on +in past ages, he is apt to remain ignorant of what is taking place in +his own day. I set a high price on eloquence, and I was in love with +poetry; above all, I rejoiced in mathematics, but I knew nothing of its +true use. + +I revered our theology, but, since the way to heaven lies open to the +ignorant no less than to the learned, and the revealed truths which lead +thither are beyond our intelligence, I did not dare to submit them to my +feeble reasonings. + +In philosophy there is no truth which is not disputed, and which, +consequently, is not doubtful; and, as to the other sciences, they all +borrow their principles from philosophy. + +Therefore, I entirely gave up the study of letters, and employed the +rest of my youth in travelling, being resolved to seek no other science +than that which I might find within myself, or in the Great Book of the +World. + +Here the best lesson that I learned was not to believe too firmly +anything of which I had learnt merely by example and custom; and thus +little by little was delivered from many errors which are liable to +obscure the light of nature, and to diminish our capacity of hearing +reason. Finally, I resolved one day to study myself in the same way, and +in this it seems to me I succeeded much better than if I had never +departed from either my country or my books. + + +_II.--THE INTELLECTUAL CRISIS_ + + +Being in Germany, on my way to rejoin the army after the coronation of +the Emperor [Ferdinand II.], I was lying at an inn where, in default of +other conversation, I was at liberty to entertain my own thoughts. Of +these, one of the first was that often there is less perfection in works +which are composite than in those which issue from a single hand. Such +was the case with buildings, cities, states; for a people which has made +its laws from time to time to meet particular occasions will enjoy a +less perfect polity than a people which from the beginning has observed +the constitution of a far-sighted legislator. This is very certain, that +the estate of true religion, which God alone has ordained, must be +incomparably better guided than any other. And again, I considered that +as, during our childhood, we had been governed by our appetites and our +tutors, which are often at variance, which neither of them perhaps +always gave us the best counsel, it is almost impossible that our +judgments should be so pure and so solid as they would have been if we +had had the perfect use of our reason from the time of our birth, and +had never been guided by anything else. + +Hence, as regarded the opinions that I had received into my belief, I +thought that, as a private person may pull down his own house to build a +finer, so I could not do better than remove them therefrom in order to +replace them by sounder, or, after I should have adjusted them to the +level of reason, to establish the same once more. + +When I was younger I had studied logic, analytical geometry, and +algebra. Of these, I found that logic served rather for explaining +things we already know; while of geometry and algebra, the former is so +tied to the consideration of figures that it cannot exercise the +understanding without wearying the imagination, and the latter is so +bound down to certain rules and ciphers that it has been made a confused +and obscure art which hampers the mind instead of a science which +cultivates it. And as a state is better governed which has but few laws, +and those laws strictly observed, I believed that I should find +sufficient four precepts which follow. + +The first was never to accept anything as true when I did not recognise +it clearly to be so--that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitation +and prejudice, but to include in my opinions nothing beyond that which +should present itself so clearly and distinctly to my mind that I might +have no occasion to doubt it. + +The second was to divide up the difficulties which I should examine into +as many parts as possible, and as should be required for their better +solution. + +The third was to conduct my thoughts in order, by beginning with the +simplest objects and those most easy to know, so as to mount little by +little, by stages, to the most complex knowledge, even supposing an +order among things which did not naturally stand in an order of +antecedent and consequent. + +And the last was to make everywhere enumerations so complete, and +surveys so wide, that I should be sure of omitting nothing. + +Exact observation of these precepts gave me such facility in unravelling +the questions comprehended in geometrical analysis and in algebra, that +in two or three months not only did I find my way through many which I +had formerly accounted too hard for me, but, towards the end, I seemed +to be able to determine, in those which were new to me, by what means +and to what extent it was possible to resolve them. And so I promised +myself that I would apply my system with equal success to the +difficulties of other sciences; but since their principles must all be +borrowed from philosophy, in which I found no certain principles of its +own, I thought that before all else I must try to establish some +therein. By way of preparation (for I was then but twenty-three years +old) I must root up from my mind my previous bad opinion of it, and must +practise my method in order that I might be confirmed in it more and +more. + + +_III.--A RULE OF LIFE_ + + +Meanwhile I must have a rule of life as a shelter while my new house was +in building, and this consisted of three or four maxims. + +The first was to conform myself to the laws and customs of my country, +and to hold to the religion in which, by God's grace, I had been brought +up; guiding myself, for the rest, by the least extreme opinions of the +most intelligent. Among extremes I counted all promises by which a man +curtails anything of his liberty; for I should have deemed it a grave +fault against good sense if, because I approved something in a given +moment, I had bound myself to accept it as good for ever after. + +My second maxim was to follow resolutely even doubtful opinions when +sure opinions were not available, just as the traveller, lost in some +forest, had better walk straight forward, though in a chance direction; +for thus he will arrive, if not precisely at the place where he desires +to be, at least probably at a better place than the middle of a forest. + +My third maxim was to endeavour always to conquer myself rather than +fortune, and to change my desires rather than the order of the world, +and in general to bring myself to believe that there is nothing wholly +in our power except our thoughts. And I believe that herein lay the +secret of those philosophers who, in the days of old, could withdraw +from the domination of fortune, and, despite pain and poverty, challenge +the felicity of their gods. + +Finally, after looking out upon the divers occupations of men, I +pondered that I could do no better than persevere in that which I had +chosen--so deep was my content in discovering every day by its means +truths which seemed to me important, yet were unknown to the world. + +Having thus made myself sure of these maxims, and having set them apart +together with the verities of faith, I judged that for the rest of my +opinions I might set freely to work to divest myself of them. For nine +years, therefore, I went up and down the world a spectator rather than +an actor. These nine years slipped away before I had begun to seek for +the foundations of any philosophy more certain, nor perhaps should I +have dared to undertake the quest had it not been put about that I had +already succeeded. + + +_IV.--"I THINK, THEREFORE I AM"_ + + +I had long since remarked that in matters of conduct it is necessary +sometimes to follow opinions known to be uncertain, as if they were not +subject to doubt; but, because now I was desirous to devote myself to +the search after truth, I considered that I must do just the contrary, +and reject as absolutely false everything concerning which I could +imagine the least doubt to exist. + +Thus, because our senses sometimes deceive us I would suppose that +nothing is such as they make us to imagine it; and because I was as +likely to err as another in reasoning, I rejected as false all the +reasons which I had formerly accepted as demonstrative; and finally, +considering that all the thoughts we have when awake can come to us also +when we sleep without any of them being true, I resolved to feign that +everything which had ever entered into my mind was no more truth than +the illusion of my dreams. + +But I observed that, while I was thus resolved to feign that everything +was false, I who thought must of necessity be somewhat; and remarking +this truth--"_I think, therefore I am_"--was so firm and so assured that +all the most extravagant suppositions of the sceptics were unable to +shake it, I judged that I could unhesitatingly accept it as the first +principle of the philosophy I was seeking. I could feign that there was +no world, I could not feign that I did not exist. And I judged that I +might take it as a general rule that the things which we conceive very +clearly and very distinctly are all true, and that the only difficulty +lies in the way of discerning which those things are that we conceive +distinctly. + +After this, reflecting upon the fact that I doubted, and that +consequently my being was not quite perfected (for I saw that to _know_ +is a greater perfection than to _doubt_), I bethought me to inquire +whence I had learned to think of something more perfect than myself; and +it was clear to me that this must come from some nature which was in +fact more perfect. For other things I could regard as dependencies of my +nature if they were real, and if they were not real they might proceed +from nothing--that is to say, they might exist in me by way of defect. +But it could not be the same with the idea of a being more perfect than +my own; for to derive it from nothing was manifestly impossible; and, +because it is no less repugnant that the more perfect should follow and +depend upon the less perfect than that something should come forth out +of nothing, I could not derive it from myself. + +It remained, then, to conclude that it was put into me by a nature truly +more perfect than was I, and possessing in itself all the perfections of +what I could form an idea--in a word, by God. To which I added that, +since I knew some perfections which I did not possess, I was not the +only being who existed, but that there must of necessity be some other +being, more perfect, on whom I depended, and from whom I had acquired +all that I possessed; for if I had existed alone and independent of all +other, so that I had of myself all this little whereby I participated in +the Perfect Being, I should have been able to have in myself all those +other qualities which I knew myself to lack, and so to be infinite, +eternal, immutable, omniscient, almighty--in fine, to possess all the +perfections which I could observe in God. + +Proposing to myself the geometer's subject matter, and then turning +again to examine my idea of a Perfect Being, I found that existence was +comprehended in that idea just as, in the idea of a triangle is +comprehended the notion that the sum of its angles is equal to two right +angles; and that consequently it is as certain that God, this Perfect +Being, is or exists, as any geometrical demonstration could be. + +That there are many who persuade themselves that there is a difficulty +in knowing Him is due to the scholastic maxim that there is nothing in +the understanding which has not first been in the senses; where the +ideas of God and the soul have never been. + +Than the existence of God all other things, even those which it seems to +a man extravagant to doubt, such as his having a body, are less certain. +Nor is there any reason sufficient to remove such doubt but such as +presupposes the existence of God. From His existence it follows that our +ideas or notions, being real things, and coming from God, cannot but be +true in so far as they are clear and distinct. In so far as they contain +falsity, they are confused and obscure, there is in them an element of +mere negation (_elles participent du néant_); that is to say, they are +thus confused in us because we ourselves are not all perfect. And it is +evident that falsity or imperfection can no more come forth from God +than can perfection proceed from nothingness. But, did we not know that +all which is in us of the real and the true comes from a perfect and +infinite being, however clear and distinct our ideas might be, we should +have no reason for assurance that they possessed the final +perfection--truth. + +Reason instructs us that all our ideas must have some foundation of +truth, for it could not be that the All-Perfect and the All-True should +otherwise have put them into us; and because our reasonings are never so +evident or so complete when we sleep as when we wake, although sometimes +during sleep our imagination may be more vivid and positive, it also +instructs us that such truth as our thoughts have will assuredly be in +our waking thoughts rather than in our dreams. + + +_V.--WHY I DO NOT PUBLISH "THE WORLD"_ + + +I have always remained firm in my resolve to assume no other principle +than that which I have used to demonstrate the existence of God and of +the soul, and to receive nothing which did not seem to me clearer and +more certain than the demonstrations of the philosophers had seemed +before; yet not only have I found means of satisfying myself with regard +to the principal difficulties which are usually treated of in +philosophy, but also I have remarked certain laws which God has so +established in nature, and of which He has implanted such notions in our +souls, that we cannot doubt that they are observed in all which happens +in the world. + +The principal truths which flow from these I have tried to unfold in a +treatise ("On the World, or on Light"), which certain considerations +prevent me from publishing. This I concluded three years ago, and had +begun to revise it for the printer when I learned that certain persons +to whom I defer had disapproved an opinion on physics published a short +time before by a certain person [Galileo, condemned by the Roman +Inquisition in 1633], in which opinion I had noticed nothing prejudicial +to religion; and this made me fear that there might be some among my +opinions in which I was mistaken. + +I now believe that I ought to continue to write all the things which I +judge of importance, but ought in no wise to consent to their +publication during my life. For my experience of the objections which +might be made forbids me to hope for any profit from them. I have tried +both friends and enemies, yet it has seldom happened that they have +offered any objection which I had not in some measure foreseen; so that +I have never, I may say, found a critic who did not seem to be either +less rigorous or less fair-minded than myself. + +Whereupon I gladly take this opportunity to beg those who shall come +after us never to believe that the things which they are told come from +me unless I have divulged them myself; and I am in nowise astonished at +the extravagances attributed to those old philosophers whose writings +have not come down to us. They were the greatest minds of their time, +but have been ill-reported. Why, I am sure that the most devoted of +those who now follow Aristotle would esteem themselves happy if they had +as much knowledge of nature as he had, even on the condition that they +should never have more! They are like ivy, which never mounts higher +than the trees which support it, and which even comes down again after +it has attained their summit. So at least, it seems to me, do they who, +not content with knowing all that is explained by their author, would +find in him the solution also of many difficulties of which he says +nothing, and of which, perhaps, he never thought. + +Yet their method of philosophising is very convenient for those who have +but middling minds, for the obscurity of the distinctions and principles +which they employ enables them to speak of all things as boldly as if +they had knowledge of them, and sustain all they have to say against the +most subtle and skilful without there being any means of convincing +them; wherein they seem to me like a blind man who, in order to fight on +equal terms with a man who has his sight, invites him into the depths of +a cavern. And I may say that it is to their interest that I should +abstain from publishing the principles of the philosophy which I employ, +for so simple and so evident are they that to publish them would be like +opening windows into their caverns and letting in the day. But if they +prefer acquaintance with a little truth, and desire to follow a plan +like mine, there is no need for me to say to them any more in this +discourse than I have already said. + +For if they are capable of passing beyond what I have done, much rather +will they be able to discover for themselves whatever I believe myself +to have found out; besides which, the practice which they will acquire +in seeking out easy things and thence passing to others which are more +difficult, will stead them better than all my instructions. + +But if some of the matters spoken about at the beginning of the +"Dioptrics" and the "Meteors" [published with the "Discourse on Method"] +should at first give offence because I have called them "suppositions," +and have shown no desire to prove them, let the reader have patience to +read the whole attentively, and I have hope that he will be satisfied. + +The time remaining to me I have resolved to employ in trying to acquire +some knowledge of nature, such that we may be able to draw from it more +certain rules for medicine than those which up to the present we +possess. And I hereby declare that I shall always hold myself more +obliged to those by whose favour I enjoy my leisure undisturbed than I +should be to any who should offer me the most esteemed employments in +the world. + + * * * * * + + + +RALPH WALDO EMERSON + + +NATURE + + + Ralph Waldo Emerson, the American writer and moralist, was + born at Boston on May 25, 1803, of English stock and a family + of preachers. He was educated at Harvard for the Unitarian + ministry, and became a settled pastor in Boston before he was + twenty-six. Three years later he resigned his charge owing to + theological disagreements. In 1833 he visited Europe and + England as a hero worshipper, his desire being to meet Landor, + Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Carlyle. He saw them all, and + formed a lifelong friendship with Carlyle. Returning to + America, he settled at Concord, where he lived till his death, + on April. 27, 1882. His public work took the form of lectures, + of which his books are reproductions. In 1836 he published his + first book, "Nature," anonymously. "Nature" was the germ essay + from which all Emerson's later work sprang, a first expression + of thoughts that were expanded and developed later. It was + published in 1836, when its writer was thirty-three years of + age, and known only as a preacher who had become a lecturer. + Already Emerson had adopted the methods of a seer rather than + those of the consecutive thinker. "Nature" was one of the + first-written books of great writers that made a deep + impression on the understanding few, but had only a few + readers. It presaged the greatness to be; and indeed its + poetical quality carries a charm, which Emerson sometimes + failed to reproduce and never afterwards surpassed. + + +_I.--TO WHAT END IS NATURE?_ + + +Our age is retrospective. It builds the sepulchres of the fathers. It +writes biographies, histories, and criticisms. The foregoing generations +beheld God face to face; we through their eyes. Why should not we also +have an original relation to the universe? Why should we grope among the +dry bones of the past, or put the living generation into masquerade out +of its faded wardrobe? Let us interrogate the great apparition that +shines so peacefully around us. Let us inquire to what end is Nature. + +Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature and Soul. +Strictly speaking, therefore, all that is separate from us, all which +philosophy distinguishes as _not me_, that is both Nature and Art, all +other men and my own body, must be ranked under this name, Nature. +Nature, in the common sense, refers to essences unchanged by man: space, +the air, the river, the leaf. Art is applied to the mixture of his will +with the same things, as in a house, a canal, a statue, a picture. But +his operations, taken together, are so insignificant, a little chipping, +baking, patching, and washing, that in an impression so grand as that of +the world on the human mind they do not vary the result. + +To go into solitude, a man needs to retire as much from his chamber as +from society. But if a man would be alone let him look at the stars. The +rays that come from those heavenly bodies will separate between him and +what he touches. One might think the atmosphere was made transparent +with this design, to give man in the heavenly bodies the perpetual +presence of the sublime. Seen in the streets of cities, how great they +are! If the stars should appear one night in a thousand years, how men +would believe and adore, and preserve for many generations the +remembrance of the city of God which had been shown! But every night +come out these envoys of beauty, and light the universe with their +admonishing smile. + +Nature never wears a mean appearance. Neither does the wisest man extort +her secret, and lose his curiosity by finding out all her perfection. +When we speak of Nature in this manner we have a distinct but most +poetical sense in the mind. We mean the integrity of impression made by +manifold natural objects. The charming landscape which I saw this +morning is indubitably made up of some twenty or thirty farms. Miller +owns this field, Locke that, and Manning the woodland beyond. But none +owns the landscape. There is a property in the horizon which no man has +but he whose eye can integrate all the parts--that is, the poet. This is +the best part of these men's farms, yet to this their warranty-deeds +give no title. + + +_II.--HER DELIGHT_ + + +In the presence of Nature a wild delight runs through the man in spite +of real sorrow. Not the sun or the summer alone, but every hour and +season yields its tribute of delight; for every hour and change +corresponds to and authorises a different state of mind, from breathless +noon to grimmest midnight. Crossing a bare common, in snow puddles, at +twilight, under a clouded sky, without having in my thoughts any +occurrence of special good fortune, I have enjoyed a perfect +exhilaration. I am glad to the brink of fear. In the woods, too, a man +casts off his years as the snake his slough, and at what period soever +of life is always a child. Within these plantations of God a decorum and +sanctity reign, a perennial festival is dressed, and the guest sees not +how he should tire of them in a thousand years. Standing on the bare +ground, my head bathed in the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite +space, all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eyeball; I am +nothing; I see all; the currents of universal being circulate through +me; I am a part or particle of God. I am the lover of uncontained and +immortal beauty. + +Yet it is certain that the power to produce this delight does not reside +in Nature, but in man, or in a harmony of both. It is necessary to use +these pleasures with great temperance. For Nature is not always tricked +in holiday attire, but the same scene which yesterday breathed perfume +and glittered as for the frolic of nymphs is overspread with melancholy +to-day. Nature always wears the colours of the spirit. + +The misery of man appears like childish petulance when we explore the +steady and prodigal provision that has been made for his support and +delight on this green ball which floats him through the heavens. All the +parts incessantly work into each other's hands for the profit of man. +The wind sows the seed; the sun evaporates the sea; the wind blows the +vapour to the field; the ice on the other side of the planet condenses +the rain on this; the plant feeds the animal; and thus the endless +circulations of the divine charity nourish man. + +The useful arts are reproductions or new combinations by the wit of man +of the same natural benefactors. The private poor man hath cities, +ships, canals, bridges, built for him. He goes to the post-office, and +the human race run on his errands; to the book-shop, and the human race +read and write all that happens for him; to the court-house, and nations +repair his wrongs. + + +_III.--HER LOVELINESS_ + + +A nobler want of man is served by Nature, namely, the love of beauty. +Such is the constitution of all things, or such the plastic power of the +human eye, that the primary forms, as the sky, the mountain, the tree, +the animal, give us a delight in and for themselves, a pleasure arising +from art, line, colour, motion, and grouping. This seems partly owing to +the eye itself. The eye is the best of artists, as light is the first of +painters. + +To the body and mind which have been cramped by noxious work or company +Nature is medicinal, and restores their tone. But in other hours Nature +satisfies by her loveliness and without any mixture of corporeal +benefit. I see the spectacle of morning from the hilltop over against my +house from daybreak to sunrise with emotion which an angel might share. +How does Nature deify us with a few and cheap elements. Give me health +and a day, and I will make the pomp of emperors ridiculous. The dawn is +my Assyria; the sunset and moonrise my Paphos, and unimaginable realms +of faerie; broad noon shall be my England of the senses and the +understanding; the night shall be my Germany of mystic philosophy and +dreams. + +The inhabitants of cities suppose that the country landscape is pleasant +only half the year. To the attentive eye each moment of the year has its +own beauty, and in the same fields it beholds every hour a picture which +was never seen before, and which shall never be seen again. + +Every rational creature has all Nature for his dowry and estate. He may +divest himself of it, he may creep into a corner and abdicate his +kingdom, as most men do, but he is entitled to the world by his +constitution. In proportion to the energy of his thought and will he +takes up the world into himself. + + +_IV.--HER GIFT OF LANGUAGE_ + + +Language is another use which Nature subserves to man. Words are signs +of natural facts. The use of natural history is to give us aid in +supernatural history. Every word which is used to express a moral or +intellectual fact, if traced to its root, is found to be borrowed from +some material appearance. Right means straight; wrong means twisted; +transgression the crossing of a line. Most of the process by which this +transformation is made is hidden from us in the remote time when +language was framed; but the same tendency may be daily observed in +children. + +It is not words only that are emblematic, it is things. Every appearance +in Nature corresponds to some state of mind, and that state of mind can +only be described by presenting that natural appearance as its picture. +An enraged man is a lion, a cunning man is a fox, a firm man is a rock, +a learned man is a torch. Visible distance behind and before us is +respectively an image of memory and hope. + +Man is conscious of a universal soul within or behind his individual +life, wherein, as in a firmament, the natures of justice, truth, love, +freedom, arise and shine. This universal soul he calls reason: it is not +mine, or thine, or his, but we are its; we are its property and men. And +the blue sky in which the private earth is buried, the sky with its +eternal calm and full of everlasting orbs is the type of reason. That +which, intellectually considered, we call reason, considered in relation +to Nature we call spirit. Spirit is the creator. Spirit hath life in +itself, and man in all ages and countries embodies it in his language as +the Father. + +As we go back in history language becomes more picturesque until its +infancy, when it is all poetry. When simplicity of character and the +sovereignty of ideas are broken up, new imagery ceases to be created and +old words are perverted to stand for things which are not; a paper +currency is employed when there is no bullion in the vaults. + + +_V.--HER MORAL DISCIPLINE_ + + +In view of the significance of Nature we arrive at the fact that Nature +is a discipline. What tedious training, day after day, year after year, +never ending, to form the common sense; what continual reproduction of +annoyances, inconveniences, dilemmas; what rejoicing over us of little +men, what disputing of prices, what reckoning of interest--and all to +form the hand of the mind! + +The exercise of will or the lesson of power is taught in every event. +Nature is thoroughly mediate. It is made to serve. It receives the +dominion of man as meekly as the ass on which the Saviour rode. It +offers all its kingdoms to man as the raw material which he may mould +into what is useful. And he is never weary of working it up. He forges +the subtle and delicate air into wise and melodious words, and gives +them wings as angels of persuasion and command. One after another his +victorious thought comes up with and reduces all things, until the world +becomes at last a realised will. + +Every natural process is a version of a moral sentence. The moral law +lies at the centre of Nature and radiates to the circumference. What is +a farm but a mute gospel? The chaff and the wheat, weeds and plants, +blight, rain, insects, sun--it is a sacred emblem from the first furrow +of spring to the last stack which the snow of winter overtakes in the +fields. Who can guess how much firmness the sea-beaten rock has taught +the fisherman? How much tranquillity has been reflected to man from the +azure sky? How much industry and providence and affection we have caught +from the pantomime of brutes? + +The unity of Nature meets us everywhere. Resemblances exist in things +wherein there is great superficial unlikeness. Thus architecture is +called "frozen music" by Goethe. "A Gothic church," said Coleridge, "is +petrified religion." The law of harmonic sounds reappears in the +harmonic colours. The granite is different in its laws only by the more +or less of heat from the river that wears it away. The river, as it +flows, resembles the air that flows over it; the air resembles the light +that traverses it with more subtle currents. + +Each creature is only a modification of the other, the likeness in them +is more than the difference, and their radical law is one and the same. +This unity pervades thought also. + + +_VI.--IS NATURE REAL?_ + + +A noble doubt suggests itself whether discipline be not the final cause +of the universe, and whether Nature outwardly exists. The frivolous make +themselves merry with the ideal theory as if its consequences were +burlesque, as if it affected the stability of Nature. It surely does +not. The wheels and springs of man are all set to the hypothesis of the +permanence of Nature. + +But while we acquiesce entirely in the permanence of natural laws, the +question of the absolute existence of Nature still remains open. It is +the uniform effect of culture on the human mind to lead us to regard +Nature as a phenomenon, not a substance; to attribute necessary +existence to spirit. + +Intellectual science fastens the attention upon immortal necessary +uncreated natures, that is, upon ideas; and in their presence we feel +that the outward circumstance is a dream and a shade. Whilst we wait in +this Olympus of the gods we think of Nature as an appendix to the soul. +Finally, religion and ethics, which may be fitly called the practice of +ideas, have an analogous effect. The first and last lesson of religion +is: "The things that are seen are temporal; the things that are unseen +are eternal." + + +_VII.--THE SPIRIT BEHIND NATURE_ + + +The aspect of Nature is devout. Like the figure of Jesus, she stands +with bended head and hands folded on the breast. The happiest man is he +who learns from Nature the lesson of worship. Of that ineffable essence +we call spirit, he that thinks most will say least. We can foresee God +in the coarse, as it were, distant phenomena of matter; but when we try +to define and describe Himself, both language and thought desert us, and +we are as helpless as fools and savages. The noblest ministry of Nature +is to stand as the apparition of God. It is the organ through which the +universal spirit speaks to the individual, and strives to bring back the +individual to it. + +I conclude this essay with some traditions of man and Nature which a +certain poet sang to me. + +The foundations of man are not in matter, but in spirit. And the element +of spirit is eternity. To it, therefore, the longest series of events, +the oldest chronologies are young and recent. A man is a god in ruins. +When men are innocent, life shall be longer and shall pass into the +immortal as gently as we awake from dreams. Infancy is the perpetual +Messiah which comes into the arms of fallen men, and pleads with them to +return to paradise. The problem of restoring to the world the original +and eternal beauty is solved by the redemption of the soul. The ruin +that we see when we look at Nature is in our own eye. Man cannot be a +naturalist until he satisfies all the demands of the spirit. Love is as +much its demand as perception. When a faithful thinker shall kindle +science with the fire of the holiest affection, then will God go forth +anew into the creation. + +Nature is not fixed, but fluid. Spirit alters, moulds, makes it. The +immobility, or bruteness, of Nature is the absence of spirit. Every +spirit builds itself a house, and beyond its house a world, and beyond +its world a heaven. What we are, that only can we see. All that Adam +had, all that Caesar could, you have and can do. Adam called his house +heaven and earth; Caesar called his house Rome; you, perhaps, call yours +a cobbler's trade, a hundred acres of ploughed land, or a scholar's +garret. Yet, line for line, and point for point, your dominion is as +great as theirs, though without fine names. Build, therefore, your own +world. As fast as you conform your life to the pure idea in your mind, +that will unfold its great proportions. + + * * * * * + + + +EPICTETUS + + +DISCOURSES AND ENCHEIRIDION + + + The Stoic philosopher Epictetus was born about 50 A.D., at + Hierapolis, in Phrygia, at that time a Roman province of Asia + Minor, and was at first a slave in Rome. On being freed he + devoted himself to philosophy, and thereafter lived and taught + at Nicopolis, in Epirus (then a portion of Macedonia, + corresponding to Albania to-day), from about 90 A.D. to 138 + A.D. He left no works, but his utterances have been collected + in four books of "Discourses" or "Dissertations" by his pupil + and friend Arrian. In the "Encheiridion Epictete"--a "Handbook + to Epictetus" compiled and condensed from the chaos of the + almost verbatim "Discourses"--Arrian gives the most authentic + account of the philosophy of the Greek and Roman Stoics, the + sect founded by Zeno about 300 years before the Christian era, + which flourished until the decline of Rome. Arrian himself was + born about 90 A.D. at Nicomedia. He wrote in the style of + Xenophon the "Anabasis of Alexander," a book on "Tactics," and + several histories which have been lost. He is chiefly of note, + however, as the Boswell of Epictetus. He died about 180 A.D. + + +_I.--OF THE WILL, AND OF GOD_ + + +The reasoning faculty alone considers both itself and all other powers, +and judges of the appearance of things. And, as was fit, this most +excellent and superior faculty, the faculty of a right use of the +appearances of things, is that alone which the gods have placed in our +own power, while all the other matters they have placed not in our +power. Was it because they would not? I rather think that if they could, +they had granted us these, too; but they certainly could not. For, +placed upon earth, and confined to such a body and such companions, how +was it possible that we should not be hindered by things without us? + +But what says Jupiter? "O Epictetus, if it were possible, I had made +this little body and possession of thine free, and not liable to +hindrance. But now do not mistake; it is not thine own, but only a finer +mixture of clay. Since, then, I could not give thee this, I have given +thee a certain portion of myself--this faculty of exerting the powers of +pursuit and avoidance, of desire and aversion, and, in a word, the use +of the appearances of things. Taking care of this point, and making what +is thy own to consist in this, thou wilt never be restrained, never be +hindered; thou wilt not groan, wilt not complain, wilt not flatter +anyone. How then! Do all these advantages seem small to thee? Heaven +forbid! Let them suffice thee, then, and thank the gods." + +But now, when it is in our power to take care of one thing, and apply +ourselves to it, we choose rather to encumber ourselves with many--body, +property, brother, friend, child, slave--and thus we are burdened and +weighed down. When the weather happens not to be fair for sailing, we +sit screwing ourselves and perpetually looking out for the way of the +wind. + +What then is to be done? + +To make the best of what is in our power, and take the rest as it +naturally happens. + +And how is that? + +As it pleases God. + +To a reasonable creature, that alone is unsupportable which is +unreasonable; everything reasonable may be supported. When Vespasian had +sent to forbid Priscus Helvidius going to the senate, he answered, "It +is in your power to prevent my continuing a senator, but while I am one +I must go." + +"Well, then, at least be silent there." + +"Do not ask my opinion, and I will be silent." + +"But I must ask it." + +"And I must speak what appears to me to be right." + +"But if you do I will put you to death." + +"Did I ever tell you that I was immortal? You will do your part, and I +mine; it is yours to kill, and mine to die intrepid; yours to banish me, +mine to depart untroubled." + +What good, then, did Priscus do, who was but a single person? Why, what +good does the purple do to the garment? What but the being a shining +character in himself, and setting a good example to others? Another, +perhaps, if in such circumstances Caesar had forbidden his going to the +senate, would have said, "I am obliged to you for excusing me." But such +a one Caesar would not have forbidden, well knowing that he would either +sit like a statue, or, if he spoke, he would say what he knew to be +agreeable to Caesar. + +Only consider at what price you sell your own will and choice, man--if +for nothing else, that you may not sell it for a trifle. + +If a person could be persuaded, as he ought of this principle, that we +are all originally descended from God, and that He is the Father of gods +and men, I conceive he never would think meanly or degenerately +concerning himself. Suppose Caesar were to adopt you, there would be no +bearing your haughty looks. Will you not be elated on knowing yourself +to be the son of Jupiter, of God Himself? Yet, in fact, we are not +elated; but having two things in our composition, intimately united, a +body in common with the brutes, and reason and sentiment in common with +the gods, many of us incline to this unhappy and mortal kindred, and +only some few to the divine and happy one. + +By means of this animal kindred some of us, deviating towards it, become +like wolves, faithless and insidious and mischievous; others like lions, +wild and savage and untamed; but most of us like foxes, wretches even +among brutes. For what else is a slanderous and ill-natured man than a +fox, or something still more wretched and mean? + +To Triptolemus all men have raised temples and altars, because he gave +us a milder kind of food; but to Him who has discovered and communicated +to all the truth, the means not of living but of living well, who ever +raised an altar or built a statue? + +If what philosophers say of the kindred between God and man be true, +what has anyone to do but, like Socrates, when he is asked what +countryman he is, never to say that he is a citizen of Athens, or of +Corinth, but of the world? Why may not he who has learned that from God +the seeds of being are descended, not only to my father or grandfather, +but to all things that are produced and born on the earth--and +especially to rational natures, as they alone are qualified to partake +of a communication with the Deity, being connected with Him by +reason--why may not such a one call himself a citizen of the world? Why +not a son of God? And why shall he fear anything that happens among men? +Shall kindred to Caesar, or any other of the great at Rome, enable a man +to live secure, above contempt, and void of fear; and shall not the +having God for our Maker and Father and Guardian free us from griefs and +terrors? + + +_II.--THE CITIZEN OF THE WORLD AND HIS HIGH CALLING_ + + +You are a distinct portion of the essence of God, and contain a certain +part of Him in yourself. Why do not you consider whence you came? You +carry a god about with you, wretch, and know nothing of it. Do you +suppose I mean some god without you, of gold or silver? It is within +yourself you carry Him, and profane Him, without being sensible of it, +by impure thoughts and unclean actions. If even the image of God were +present, you would not dare to act as you do; when God Himself is within +you, and hears and sees all, are not you ashamed to think and act thus, +insensible of your own nature and hateful to God? + +You are a citizen of the world, and a part of it; not a subservient, but +a principal part. You are capable of comprehending the divine economy +and of considering the connection of things. What, then, does the +character of a citizen promise? To hold no private interest, to +deliberate of nothing as a separate individual, but like the hand or the +foot, which, if they had reason, and comprehended the constitution of +nature, would never pursue, or desire, but with a reference to the +whole. + +"Ah, when shall I see Athens and the citadel again?" Wretch, are not you +contented with what you see every day? Can you see anything better than +the sun, the moon, the stars, the whole earth, the sea? If, besides, you +comprehend Him who administers the whole, and carry Him about in +yourself, do you still long after pebbles and a fine rock? + +Boldly make a desperate push, man, for prosperity, for freedom, for +magnanimity. Lift up your head at last as free from slavery. Dare to +look up to God, and say, "Make use of me for the future as Thou wilt. I +am of the same mind; I am equal with Thee. I refuse nothing which seems +good to Thee. Lead me whither Thou wilt. Clothe me in whatever dress +Thou wilt. Is it Thy will that I should be in a public or a private +condition, dwell here or be banished, be poor or rich? Under all these +circumstances I will make Thy defence to men. I will show what the +nature of everything is." No, rather sit alone in a warm place, and wait +till your nurse comes to feed you. If Hercules had sat loitering at +home, what would he have been? You are not Hercules, to extirpate the +evils of others. Extirpate your own, then. Expel grief, fear, desire, +envy, malevolence, avarice, effeminacy, intemperance, from your mind. + +But these can be no otherwise expelled than by looking up to God alone +as your pattern; by attaching yourself to Him alone and being +consecrated to His commands. If you wish for anything else, you will, +with sighs and groans, follow what is stronger than you, always seeking +prosperity without, and never finding it. For you seek it where it is +not, and neglect to seek it where it is. + + +_III.--"HIS WILL IS MY WILL"_ + + +Have I ever been restrained from what I willed? Or compelled against my +will? How is this possible? I have ranged my pursuits under the +direction of God. Is it His will that I should have a fever? It is my +will too. Is it His will that I should pursue anything? It is my will +too. Is it His will that I should desire? It is my will too. Is it His +will that I should obtain anything? It is mine too. Is it not His will? +It is not mine. Is it His will that I should be tortured? Then it is my +will to be tortured. Is it His will that I should die? Then it is my +will to die. + +He has given me whatever depends upon choice. The things in my power He +has made incapable of hindrance or restraint. But how could He make a +body of clay incapable of hindrance? Therefore He hath subjected my +body, possessions, furniture, house, children, wife, to the revolution +of the universe. He who gave takes away. For whence had I these things +when I came into the world? + +"But I would enjoy the feast still longer." So perhaps would the +spectators at Olympia see more combatants. But the solemnity is over. Go +away. Depart like a grateful and modest person; make room for others. + +Do not you know that sickness and death must overtake us? At what +employment? The husbandman at his plough; the sailor on his voyage. At +what employment would you be taken? Indeed, at what employment ought you +to be taken? For if there is any better employment at which you can be +taken, follow that. + +For my own part, I would be engaged in nothing but the care of my own +faculty of choice, how to render it undisturbed, unrestrained, +uncompelled, free. I would be found studying this, that I may be able to +say to God, "Have I transgressed Thy commands? Have I perverted the +powers, the senses, the preconceptions which Thou hast given me? Have I +ever accused Thee or censured Thy dispensations? I have been sick, +because it was Thy pleasure. I have been poor, with joy. I have not been +in power, because it was not Thy will, and power I have never desired. +Have I not always approached Thee cheerfully, prepared to execute Thy +commands? Is it Thy pleasure that I depart from this assembly? I depart. +I give Thee thanks that Thou hast thought me worthy to have a share in +it with Thee; to behold Thy works, and to join with Thee in +comprehending Thy administration." Let death overtake me while I am +thinking, writing, reading such things as these. Of things, some are in +our power, others not. In our power are opinion, pursuit, desire, +accession; in a word, whatever are our own actions. Not in our power are +body, property, reputation, command; in a word, whatever are not our own +actions. + +Now, the things in our power are free, unrestrained, unhindered, while +those not in our power are weak, slavish, restrained, belonging to +others. Remember, then, that if you suppose these latter things free, +and what belongs to others your own, you will be hindered; you will +lament; you will be disturbed; you will find fault with both gods and +men. But if you regard that only as your own which is your own, and what +is others, as theirs, no one will ever compel you; no one will restrain +you; you will find fault with no one; you will accuse no one; you will +do nothing against your will; you will have no enemy and will suffer no +harm. + +Aiming, therefore, at great things, remember that you must not allow +yourself to be carried out of your course, however slightly. + +Study to be able to say to every hostile appearance, "You are but an +appearance, and not the thing you appear to be." Then examine it by your +rules, and first and chiefly by this: whether it concerns the things in +your own power or those which are not. And if it concerns anything not +in your own power, be prepared to say it is nothing to you. + +With regard to whatever objects either delight the mind, or contribute +to use, or are loved with fondness, remember to tell yourself of what +nature they are, beginning from the most trifling things. If you are +fond of an earthen cup, remind yourself it is an earthen cup of which +you are fond; thus, if it be broken, you will not be disturbed. If you +kiss your child, or your wife, remember you kiss a being subject to the +accidents of humanity; thus you will not be disturbed if either die. + +Men are disturbed, not by things, but by their own notions regarding +them. + +Be not elated over excellences not your own. If a horse should be elated +and say, "I am handsome," it would be supportable. But when you are +elated and say, "I have a handsome horse," know that you are elated on +what is, in fact, only the good of the horse. + +Require not things to happen as you wish, but wish them to happen as +they do happen. Then all will go well. + +In every happening, inquire of your mind how to turn it to proper +account. + +Never say of anything "I have lost it," but "I have restored it." Is +your child dead? It is restored. Is your wife dead? She is restored. Is +your estate taken away from you? Well, and is not that likewise +restored? "But he who took it away is a bad man." What is it to you by +whose hands He who gave it hath demanded it again? While He gives you to +possess it, take care of it, but as of something not your own, like a +passenger in an inn. + + +_IV.--OF TRANQUILLITY AND THE MEANS THERETO_ + + +If you would improve, lay aside such reasonings as prevent tranquillity. +It is better to die with hunger, exempt from grief and fear, than to +live in affluence with perturbation. It is better your servant should be +bad than you unhappy. Is a little oil spilt? A little wine stolen? Say +to yourself, "This is the purchase paid for peace, for tranquillity, and +nothing is to be had for nothing." When you call your servant, consider +it possible he may not come at your call; or if he doth, that he may not +do what you would have him do. He is by no means of such importance that +it should be in his power to give you disturbance. + +Be content to be thought foolish and stupid with regard to externals and +unessentials. Do not wish to be thought to know. And though you appear +to others to be somebody, distrust yourself. For be assured it is not +easy at once to preserve your faculty of choice in a state conformable +to nature, and to secure externals, since while you are careful of the +one you will neglect the other. + +Behave in life as at an entertainment. Is anything brought round to you? +Put out your hand and take your share, with moderation. Doth it pass by +you? Do not stop it. Is it not yet come? Do not stretch forth your +desire towards it, but wait till it reaches you. Thus do with regard to +children, to a wife, to public posts, to riches, and you will be, some +time or other, a worthy partner of the feasts of the gods. And if you do +not so much as take the things set before you, but are able even to +despise them, then you will not only be a partner of the gods' feasts, +but of their empire. + +Remember that you are an actor in a drama, of such a kind as the Author +pleases to make it. If short, of a short one; if long, of a long one. If +it be His pleasure you should act a poor man, a cripple, a governor, or +a private person, see that you act it naturally. For this is your +business, to act well the character assigned you; to choose it is +another's. + +To me all the portents are lucky, if I will. For, whatever happens, it +is in my power to derive advantage from it. + +Remember that not he who gives ill language or a blow affronts, but the +principle which represents these things as affronting. When, therefore, +anyone provokes you, be assured that it is your own opinion which +provokes you. Try in the first place not to be hurried away with the +appearance. For if you once gain time and respite you will more easily +command yourself. + +Be assured that the essential property of piety towards the gods is to +form right opinions concerning them as existing and as governing the +universe with goodness and justice. And fix yourself in the resolution +to obey them, and yield to them, and willingly follow them in all +events, as produced by the most perfect understanding. For thus you will +never find fault with the gods, nor accuse them of neglecting you. And +it is not possible for this to be effected any other way than by +withdrawing yourself from things not in your own power and placing good +or evil in those only which are. For if you suppose any of the things +not in your own power to be either good or evil, when you are +disappointed at what you wish, or incur what you would avoid, you must +necessarily find fault with and blame the authors. + +Be for the most part silent, or speak merely what is necessary, and in +few words. We may sparingly enter into discourse when occasion calls for +it, but not on the vulgar topics of gladiators, horse-races, feasts, and +so on; above all, not of men, so as either to blame, praise, or make +comparisons. + +If anyone tells you such a person speaks ill of you, make no excuses, +but answer, "He does not know my other faults, or he would not have +mentioned only these." + +When you do anything from a clear judgment that it ought to be done, +never shun the being seen to do it, even though the world should make a +wrong supposition about it. For if you do not act right, shun the action +itself; and if you do, why be afraid of mistaken censure? + +When any person does ill by you, or speaks ill of you, remember that he +acts or speaks from a supposition of its being his duty. Now, it is not +possible that he should follow what appears right to you, but what +appears so to himself. Therefore, if he misjudges, he is the person +hurt, for he is the one deceived. Meekly bear, then, a person who +reviles you, for you will say upon every occasion, "It seemed so to +him." + +The condition and characteristic of a vulgar person is that he never +expects either benefit or hurt from himself, but from externals. The +condition and characteristic of a philosopher is that he expects all +hurt and benefit from himself. The marks of a proficient are that he +censures no one, praises no one, blames no one, accuses no one, says +nothing concerning himself as being anybody or knowing anything; when he +is hindered or restrained, he accuses himself; when praised, he secretly +laughs; if censured, he makes no defence. He suppresses all desire; +transfers his aversion to things only which thwart the proper use of his +own will; is gentle in all exercise of his powers; and does not care if +he appears stupid and ignorant, but watches himself as an enemy, like +one in ambush. + +Whatever rules of life you have deliberately proposed to yourself, abide +by them as laws, and as if it were impious to transgress them; and do +not regard what anyone says of you; for this, after all, is no concern +of yours. Let whatever appears to you to be the best be to you an +inviolable law. Socrates became perfect, improving himself in everything +by attending to reason only. And though you be not yet a Socrates, live +as one who would become a Socrates. + +Upon all occasions we ought to have ready at hand these three maxims: + + Conduct me, God, and thou, O Destiny, + Wherever your decrees have fixed my station. + I follow cheerfully. And did I not, + Wicked and wretched, I must follow still. + + Whoe'er yields properly to Fate is deemed + Wise among men and knows the laws of heaven. + +"O Crito, if it thus pleases the gods, thus let it be. Anytus and +Melitus may kill me indeed, but hurt my soul they cannot." + + * * * * * + +FOOTNOTES + + + +Footnote 1: The deceased speaks constantly as if he were Osiris or some +other god. This is supposed to give him the privileges and power of the +god whose name he bears. + +Footnote 2: The Egyptians thought that in the lower world the heart or +conscience was weighed, _i.e.,_ judged. + +Footnote 3: This chapter and the like are found on stone, wood, +porcelain, etc., figures, and attached to the mummy. It was supposed to +act magically in transferring the tasks of the underworld from the +person. + +Footnote 4: The storm-god, the arch-fiend of Ra, the sun-god + +Footnote 5: The suppliant has made a wax figure of Apepi, and, by +sympathetic magic, imagines that by burning it he is destroying the +power of the original. Such wax figures of the gods made for magical +purposes were generally illegal. + +Footnote 6: There are many examples in the Book of the Dead of the +magical potency attached to names. To invoke a god by his name was to +control him. + +Footnote 7: The ass stands for Ra, the sun-god, and the eater of the ass +is darkness or some eclipse, represented as one of the foes of Ra, in +the vignette figured as a serpent on the back of an ass. Compare the +Babylonian myth of Marduk and Tiamat. + +Footnote 8: The married name of Confucius. + +Footnote 9: Compare the method of Socrates in the investigation of +truth. + +Footnote 10: In the above four "difficulties," note the reappearance of +the law of reciprocity, the negative form of the Golden Rule. + +Footnote 11: A technical name for China, which was supposed to be +enclosed by the four great oceans of the world. China is also called +"The Middle Kingdom." + +Footnote 12: That is, those who have been invested with the sacred +thread, which is a sign of having been initiated into the paternal +caste. This ceremony takes place at the age of seven or nine years, but +is only observed by the three higher castes. It is to be compared with +the Christian rites of baptism and confirmation. Hindu boys, when +invested with the sacred thread or cord, are said to be born again. + +Footnote 13: This spelling of the word ("Quran") represents the native +Arabic pronunciation if it be remembered that "q" stands for a "k" sound +proceeding from the lower part of the throat. The initial sound is +therefore to be distinguished from that of the Arabic and Hebrew letters +properly transliterated "k." + +Footnote 14: The pronunciation heard by the present writer among the +Muslim Arabs of Egypt, Syria, etc. The word means literally "The Praised +One" or "The One to be Praised." The "h," however, in the word is not +the ordinary one, but that pronounced at the lower part of the throat, +as the Arabic equivalent of "q" is. Hence this "h" is transliterated as +"h" with a dot underneath it. + +Footnote 15: All the suras, except the ninth, begin with this formula, +as, indeed, do most Arabic books, often even books of an immoral nature. + +Footnote 16: Muhammad's uncle, who, with his wife, rejected the +prophet'» claims. + +Footnote 17: A word-play, Lahab meaning "flame." + +Footnote 18: Said by Muslim commentators to be one of the last ten +nights of Ramadhan, the seventh of those nights reckoning backwards. + +Footnote 19: The earliest mention of the doctrine of abrogation of +previous revelations. When Muhammad was convinced that what he had +previously taught was erroneous he always professed to have received a +new revelation annulling the earlier one bearing on the matter. + +Footnote 20: There is perhaps here an indirect reference to the alleged +deification of the Virgin Mary by the Christians with whom Muhammad came +in contact. + +Footnote 21: This is from one of the oldest suras. A most important +Muslim tradition says that Muhammad declares this sura to be equal to a +third of the rest of the Koran. Some say it represents the prophet's +creed when he entered upon his mission. + +Footnote 22: This is directed against both the Mekkan belief that angels +were daughters of God and also against the Christian doctrine that Jesus +was the Son of God. Reference is also made, perhaps, to the Jewish +description of Ezra as God's son. + +Footnote 23: Muhammad here adopts the Jewish and Arab myth that Solomon +had a seal with the divine name (Yahwe) inscribed on it giving him +control over winds and jinns, or demons. + +Footnote 24: In Arabic, Mary and Miriam are spelt exactly alike +("Miriam"). This evidently misled Muhammad. In sura 56 he describes the +Virgin as a daughter of Amram, the father of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam. +(See Numbers xxvi. 59, and Exodus xv. 20.) + +Footnote 25: This is a well-known Arab fable, based on a +misunderstanding of I Kings iv. 33, influenced by the second Targum on +Esther. See an English translation of this last in a commentary on +Esther by Paul Cassel (T. & T. Clark), p. 263. This Targum is certainly +older than the Koran, and it embodies Jewish legends of a still greater +antiquity. + +Footnote 26: This legend about Mount Sinai is contained twice in the +Jewish Talmud (Abodah Zarah Mishnah II, 2, and Shabbath Gemarah +lxxxviii. 1). It is no doubt this Jewish tradition that suggested the +above passage. + +Footnote 27: The point to which men turn in prayer, Zoroastrians pray +towards the east--the direction of the rising sun; Jews towards +Jerusalem, where the Temple was; and Muslims, from the utterance of this +sura, towards Mekka. At first Muhammad adopted no Qiblah. On reaching +Medinah, in order to conciliate the Jews he adopted Jerusalem as the +Qiblah. But a year after reaching Medinah, he broke with the Jews and +commanded his people to make the Kaabah their Qiblah. + +Footnote 28: The cube-like building in the centre of the mosque at +Mekka, which contains the sacred black stone. + +Footnote 29: Ahmad and Muhammad have both the same meaning, _i.e._, "the +Praiseworthy One." Muslim commentators hold that the Paraclete +(Comforter) promised in John xvi. 7 means Muhammad. In order to make +this clear, however, they say we ought to read "Periklutos," _i.e._, +virtually Ahmad and Muhammad, instead of "Paracletos." + +Footnote 30: According to the Koran, Mary was worshipped as God by the +Christians of Arabia. + +Footnote 31: According to sura 2, verse 174, the _Bismillah_ (lit. "In +the name of Allah," etc.) must be uttered before animals to be eaten are +killed. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Worlds Greatest Books, Volume XIII., by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13620 *** |