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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13962 ***
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455
+
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Gallisin, an Unfermentable
+      Substance in Starch Sugar.
+
+      The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific Gravities of
+      Elements and Compounds.
+
+      Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means of
+      Ammonium Carbonate.
+
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Petroleum as a Fuel in
+      Locomotive Engines.--By THOMAS URQUHART.--Spray
+      injector.--Driving locomotives.--Storage of petroleum.
+
+      Improved Gas Light Buoy.--2 figures.
+
+      Project for a Roadstead at Havre.--With map and views of
+      different breakwaters.
+
+      Improved Catch Basin.--2 figures.
+
+      Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron Water
+      Pipe.--By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.--Methods of conducting water
+      and transmitting power.--Texas Creek pipe and aqueduct.--4
+      figures.
+
+      Parachute Hydraulic Motor.
+
+      Improved Shafting Lathe.--1 figure.
+
+      Power Straightening Machine.--1 figure.
+
+      Hydraulic Mining in California.--By GEO. O'BRIEN.
+
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--Emerald Green: Its Properties and
+      Manufacture.--Use in wall paper.--ROBERT GALLOWAY.
+
+      Charcoal Kilns.--Extra yield.--2 figures.
+
+
+IV.   ARCHITECTURE--Entrance, Tiddington House, Oxon.--An
+      engraving.
+
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.--The Temperature of the
+      Earth as shown by Deep Mines.
+
+      New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash Pile.--3
+      figures.
+
+      The Distribution of Electricity by Induction.--1 figure.
+
+      Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic Movements.--Apparatus
+      for the study of horizontal and vertical seismic
+      movements, etc.--8 figures.
+
+      New Accumulators.--3 figures.
+
+      Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc Accumulator.
+
+      The History of a Lightning Flash.--By W. SLINGO.
+
+      Researches on Magnetism.
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY.--The Giraffe.--With engraving.
+
+VII.  MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.--The Treatment of Cholera--By
+      Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.
+
+      Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their Relations
+      to Health.--London deaths under 1 year in July, August,
+      and part of September.
+
+      Consumption Spread by Chickens.
+
+      New Method of Reducing Fever.
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Crown Diamonds of France at the
+      Exhibition of Industrial Arts.
+
+      A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses of
+      Management in Life Insurance.--By WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GIRAFFE.
+
+
+The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of the
+Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the _Illustrated
+London News_. Hunting the giraffe has long been a favorite sport among the
+more adventurous of British sportsmen, its natural range being all the
+wooded parts of eastern, central, and southern Africa, though of late
+years it has been greatly thinned out before the settlements advancing
+from the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+[Illustration: THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE.]
+
+The characteristics of this singular animal are in some particulars those
+of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes are beautiful, extremely
+large, and so placed that the animal can see much of what is passing on
+all sides, and even behind it, so that it is approached with the greatest
+difficulty. The animal when full grown attains sometimes a height of
+fifteen to seventeen feet. It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees
+principally, its immense length of legs and height at the withers
+rendering it difficult for the animal to graze on an even surface. It is
+not easily overtaken except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run
+down it can defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is
+said, often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost
+universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder ones,
+but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch, the error
+having been caused by the great development and height of the withers, to
+give a proper base to the long neck and towering head. The color varies a
+good deal, the head being generally a reddish brown, and the neck, back,
+and sides marked with tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white
+divisions. Many specimens have been brought to this country, the animal
+being extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being
+very friendly to those who are kind to it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even with
+incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid any risk of
+fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and lighted by a current,
+the heat generated was sufficient to set fire to the paper, which burnt
+out and caused the lamp to explode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
+observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep mines, were
+presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B Dorsey. Mr. Smith
+said that the temperature of the earth varies very greatly at different
+localities and in different geological formations. There are decided
+exceptions to the general law that the temperature increased with the
+depth. At the New Almaden quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of
+about 600 feet the temperature was very high--some 115 degrees; but in the
+deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500 feet
+below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably less than 80
+degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air 1,200 feet below the
+surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet below the surface. The normal
+temperature of the earth at a depth of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the
+mean annual temperature of the air at the particular place. At the
+Comstock mines, some years since, the miners could remain but a few
+moments at a time, on account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an
+experiment; it produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better
+advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these mines,
+and drunk with apparently no bad results.
+
+Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein, Nevada, were
+exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, the thermometer
+placed in a freshly drilled hole will show 130 degrees. Very large bodies
+of water have run for years at 155 degrees, and smaller bodies at 170
+degrees. The temperature of the air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing
+in fresh air cooled over ice.
+
+Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted annually
+from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and cold air forced in,
+as equal to that generated by the combustion of 55,560 tons of anthracite
+coal or 97,700 cords of wood. Observations were then given upon
+temperature at every 100 feet in the Forman shaft of the Overman mine,
+running from 53 degrees at a depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a
+depth of 2,300 feet. The temperature increased:
+
+    100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet.
+    100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet.
+    100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.
+
+A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number of deep
+mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines or tunnels are
+in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont Cenis tunnel; and the two
+hottest are in trachyte and the "coal measures," namely, the Comstock
+mines in trachyte and the South Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey
+considered that experience showed that limestone was the coolest
+formation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.
+
+
+C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of the
+unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and have
+succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give the name
+gallisin. The method of separation and purification which they made use of
+is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch sugar were allowed to
+ferment. At a temperature of 18-20° C. and with a solution containing 20
+per cent. the fermentation was complete in five to six days. It was
+filtered; the perfectly clear, almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far
+as possible on the water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into
+a good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large excess of
+absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix with the
+alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh alcohol, and again
+shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been repeated several times,
+the sirup is finally changed to a yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought
+into a large mortar, and rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether.
+After some time the whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is
+quickly filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and
+then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved in water
+and treated with bone-black. The solution is then evaporated to a sirup,
+and this poured into a mixture of equal parts of anhydrous alcohol and
+ether. In this way the new compound is obtained as a very fine, pure white
+powder which rapidly settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under
+the microscope it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much
+more rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.
+
+Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the water-bath
+gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not ferment when treated in
+water solution with fresh yeast. The analyses led to the formula
+C_{12}H_{24}O_{10}. When treated under pressure with three times its
+weight of acetic anhydride at 130-140° it dissolves perfectly. From the
+solution a product was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing
+with the formula C_{12}H_{18}O_{10}(C_{2}H_{3}O)_{6}. The substance
+appears therefore to be hexacetylgallisin.
+
+Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings demonstrated
+clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor indirectly any injurious
+effect on the health.--_Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
+17, 1000; Amer. Chem. Jour._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND
+COMPOUNDS.
+
+
+Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer, of New
+York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of Gas Lighting,
+from which the _American Gas Light Journal_ gives the following:
+
+I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the elements
+and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and specific
+gravities. When the combining weight of any of these elements and
+compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor therefrom will always
+occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at 60° Fahr. and 30 inches
+barometer. If we divide this constant 377.07 by the combining weight of
+any of the substances, then the quotient will be the number of cubic feet
+per pound of the same. If we divide the combining weight of any of the
+substances given in the table by 2, then the quotient will give the
+density of the same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining
+weight of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient
+will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as compared
+with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic weights which are
+now generally adopted by the majority of chemists.
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+                              |        |        |Cub. Ft.|        |
+                              |        |        |  per   |        |
+                              | Combi- |Cub. Ft.| Combi- |Specific|
+                              |  ning  |  per   |  ning  |Gravity |
+                              |Weight. | Pound. |Weight. |Air = 1.|
+------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------|
+Hydrogen (H_{2})              |   2.00 | 188.53 | 377.07 | 0.0692 |
+Carbon vapour (C_{2})         |  23.94 |  15.75 | 377.07 | 0.8292 |
+Nitrogen (N_{2})              |  28.06 |  13.43 | 377.07 | 0.9719 |
+Oxygen (O_{2})                |  31.92 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1056 |
+Chlorine (Cl_{2})             |  71.00 |   5.31 | 377.07 | 2.4593 |
+Bromine (Br_{2})              | 160.00 |   2.35 | 377.07 | 5.5420 |
+Flourine (F_{2})              |  38.00 |   9.92 | 377.07 | 1.3162 |
+Iodine (I_{2})                | 253.20 |   1.48 | 377.07 | 8.7703 |
+Sulphur (S_{2})               |  63.96 |   5.89 | 377.07 | 2.2154 |
+Phosphorus (P_{4})            | 123.84 |   3.04 | 377.07 | 4.2895 |
+Carbonic oxide (CO)           |  27.03 |  13.50 | 377.07 | 0.9674 |
+Carbonic acid (CO_{2})        |  48.89 |   8.59 | 377.07 | 1.5202 |
+Water vapour (H_{2}O)         |  17.06 |  20.99 | 377.07 | 0.6221 |
+Hydrogen sulphide (H_{2}S)    |  33.08 |  11.09 | 377.07 | 1.1770 |
+Ammonia (H_{2}N)              |  17.03 |  22.14 | 377.07 | 0.5898 |
+Sulphurous oxide (SO_{2})     |  63.90 |   5.90 | 377.07 | 2.2133 |
+Sulphuric oxide (SO_{3})      |  79.86 |   4.72 | 377.07 | 2.7662 |
+Cyanogen (C_{2}N_{2})         |  52.00 |   7.25 | 377.07 | 1.8011 |
+Bisulphide of carbon (CS_{2}) |  75.93 |   4.96 | 377.07 | 2.6300 |
+Ethyl alcohol (C_{2}H_{6}O)   |  45.90 |   8.21 | 377.07 | 1.5898 |
+Ethyl ether (C_{4}H_{10}O)    |  73.84 |   5.10 | 377.07 | 2.5576 |
+Methyl alcohol (CH_{4}O)      |  31.93 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1059 |
+Methyl chloride (CH_{3}Cl)    |  50.47 |   7.47 | 377.07 | 1.7482 |
+Carbonyl chloride (COCl_{2})  |  98.93 |   3.81 | 377.07 | 3.4267 |
+Phosphine gas (PH_{3})        |  33.96 |  11.10 | 377.07 | 1.1769 |
+Hydrochloric acid (HCl)       |  36.50 |  10.33 | 377.07 | 1.2642 |
+Methane (CH_{4})              |  15.98 |  26.61 | 377.07 | 0.5531 |
+Ethane (C_{2}H_{6})           |  29.94 |  12.50 | 377.07 | 1.0370 |
+Propane (C_{3}H_{8})          |  43.91 |   8.58 | 377.07 | 1.5209 |
+Butane (C_{4}H_{10})          |  57.88 |   6.51 | 377.07 | 2.0048 |
+Ethene (C_{2}H_{4})           |  27.94 |  13.49 | 377.07 | 0.9677 |
+Propene (C_{3}H_{6})          |  41.91 |   8.99 | 377.07 | 1.4516 |
+Butene (C_{4}H_{8})           |  55.88 |   6.74 | 377.07 | 1.9355 |
+Ethine (C_{2}H_{2})           |  25.94 |  14.53 | 377.07 | 0.8985 |
+Propine (C_{3}H_{4})          |  39.91 |   9.44 | 377.07 | 1.3824 |
+Butine (C_{4}H_{6})           |  53.88 |   6.98 | 377.07 | 1.8662 |
+Quintone (C_{5}H_{6})         |  65.85 |   5.72 | 377.07 | 2.2809 |
+Benzene (C_{6}H_{6})          |  77.82 |   4.84 | 377.07 | 2.6955 |
+Styrolene (C_{8}H_{8})        | 103.75 |   3.63 | 377.07 | 3.5936 |
+Naphtalene (C_{10}H_{8})      | 127.70 |   2.95 | 377.07 | 4.4232 |
+Turpentine (C_{10}H_{16})     | 135.70 |   2.77 | 377.07 | 4.7003 |
+Dry air                       |  28.87 |  13.06 |   --   | 1.0000 |
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This substance is also known by the name Schweinfurt green.]
+
+By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green
+(aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in many
+journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another in
+different publications, especially medical ones; there has recently
+appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The Poisonous Effect of
+Wall-paper." As some years ago I became practically acquainted with its
+properties and manufacture, a few observations on these subjects may not
+be without interest.
+
+In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous effect of
+this pigment cannot be _entirely_ due to its mere mechanical detachment
+from the paper. This writer therefore attributes the poisonous effects to
+the formation of the hydrogen compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted
+hydrogen (AsH_{3}); the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound,
+being generated, the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of
+moisture and organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls
+papers impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr.
+Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that
+arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the _fermentation_ of the starch-paste
+employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is perfectly obvious
+that the fermentation of the starch-paste must cease after a time, and
+therefore the poisonous effects of the paper must likewise cease if its
+injurious effects are caused by the fermentation. I do not think that
+arseniureted hydrogen could be formed under the _conditions_, for the
+oxygen compound of arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound
+is in a dry solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two
+elements--arsenic and hydrogen--for each other are so exceedingly weak
+that they cannot be made to unite directly except they are both set free
+at the same moment in presence of each other. Further, for the formation
+of this hydrogen compound by the fermentation of the starch, or by the
+growth of minute fungi, the _entire_ compound must be broken up, and
+therefore the pigment would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of
+copper
+
+    (3CuAs_{2}O_{4}+Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2})
+
+is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition, and is
+consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not unfrequently
+stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are due to the arsenious
+oxide volatilizing from the other constituents of the compound. This
+volatilization would likewise cause a breaking up of the entire compound,
+and would consequently cause a discoloration of the paper; but the
+volatilization of this arsenic compound is in every respect most
+improbable.
+
+The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be due to
+its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever been
+conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the wall-paper of which
+is stained with emerald-green suffer from arsenical poisoning? If it does
+occur, then the effects of what may be termed homoeopathic doses of this
+substance are totally different from the effects which arise from larger
+doses. During the packing of this substance in its dry state in the
+factory, clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had
+to do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands
+suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is any
+abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the delicate
+lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in this way it acts in
+large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as to its supposed poisonous
+effects when wall-paper is stained with it.
+
+Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the manufacture of
+this pigment, but as they do not agree in every respect with the method
+which was followed in English color factories some years ago, it will be
+as well, for the full elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to
+briefly recite some of these methods before describing the one that was,
+and probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method
+which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other, both in
+the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for producing it at a
+less cost.
+
+It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is "prepared on a
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric acetate and water. Five
+parts of verdigris are made up to a thin paste, and added to a boiling
+solution of 4 parts or rather more of arsenious acid in 50 parts of water.
+The boiling must be well kept up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a
+yellow-green color, from the formation of copper arsenite; in that case
+acetic acid must be added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer.
+The precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green
+color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal
+knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt employed in
+its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would account, in my
+opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which it is obtained in
+France than can be produced by the English method of manufacturing it.
+Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe, in England--the much cheaper
+copper salt, the sulphate, being always employed.
+
+In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by _boiling_
+solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate, and adding to the
+mixture an equal bulk of _cold_ water." Why it should be recommended to
+add _cold water_, I am at a loss to understand.
+
+In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and in the
+English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical Technology," edited by
+Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr. Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.,"
+xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated in Wagner's work: "This pigment is
+prepared by first separately dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious
+acid and neutral acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these
+solutions while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent
+olive-green colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the
+supernatant liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the
+precipitate becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a
+beautiful green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration,
+and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode of
+preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised by M.
+Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are dissolved in
+the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with a boiling and
+concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa, so prepared as to
+contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is immediately formed a dirty
+greenish-colored precipitate which is converted into Schweinfurt green by
+the addition of some 15 liters of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having
+been done, the precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."
+
+As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the manufacture of this
+pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is carried out pretty much
+according to Braconnot's method as described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one
+would infer, from reading his description of the manufacturing process,
+that the compound, aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately
+after the addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric
+temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the formation.
+Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms more readily in
+an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or cannot be formed in a
+neutral one; now both these points are important to notice in describing
+its manufacture. As regards the former I shall notice it presently, and,
+as far as my knowledge extends, the pigment will not form when the
+solution is neutral.
+
+The operation is conducted in the following manner in the factory: The
+requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in a large wooden vat,
+and hot water added to dissolve it; the requisite quantity of arsenic
+(arsenious anhydride) and carbonate of soda, the latter not in quantity
+quite sufficient to neutralize the whole of the sulphuric acid set free
+from the sulphate of copper on the precipitation of the copper as
+arsenite, are placed in another wooden vessel; water is then added, and
+the formation of the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the
+introduction of steam into the liquid. When complete solution has been
+effected the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the
+solution of the sulphate of copper, arsenite of copper being at once
+precipitated. The necessary quantity of acetic acid is afterward added. In
+_warm_ weather the formation of the aceto-arsenite soon commences after
+the addition of the vinegar; but, even in that case, it takes a week or
+more to have the whole of a big batch of arsenite converted into the
+aceto-arsenite; and perfect conversion is necessary, as the presence of a
+very minute quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of
+the emerald pigment, and a by no means large quantity renders the pigment
+unsalable, owing to its dirty yellowish-green color. In cold weather a
+much longer time is required for its complete conversion; even at the end
+of a fortnight or three weeks there frequently remains sufficient
+unconverted arsenite to affect seriously the selling price of the color;
+when this occurs the manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a
+most wasteful method viz, by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid. The
+acid of course dissolves the arsenite, but it dissolves in very much
+larger quantities the aceto-arsenite; and this costly solution is not
+utilized, but is run into the factory sewer.
+
+By my method of manufacturing it, it can be produced in winter as well as
+in summer in one or two hours, and the quantity of free acid required for
+its formation is reduced to the lowest amount. I proceed as follows: After
+having dissolved in hot water the requisite quantity of cupric sulphate, I
+decompose one-fourth of this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution
+of carbonate of soda to precipitate the copper, in that quantity of the
+sulphate, as carbonate. I then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert
+the carbonate into acetate. I have now got in solution--
+
+    3CuSO_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2},
+
+and I have to transform it into--
+
+    3CuAs_{2}O_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}.
+
+It is at once seen that I have got the requisite quantity of acetate
+formed. I next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious anhydride in
+an amount of carbonate of soda _rather less_ than is sufficient to
+neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric sulphate, and I then bring the
+solution to or near the boiling-point by introducing steam into it; the
+arsenic is dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt, but in a
+separate one. When the arsenic solution is fully heated, a small current
+of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper salts, and
+brisk stirring is kept up in the vat. The emerald green is at once formed;
+but if there should be the slightest formation of any arsenite, the flow
+of the arsenic solution is at once stopped until every trace of the
+arsenite has been converted; the arsenic solution is then allowed to flow
+in again, with the same precautions as before; in this way a large batch
+of emerald-green can he formed in one or two hours, without containing the
+slightest trace of the arsenite. I keep the arsenic solution near the
+boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the other
+vessel. By varying the proportions of water I could either make it coarse
+or fine, as I wished, which is an important matter to have complete
+control over in its manufacture.
+
+Two points of interest occurred to me during the time I was occupied with
+the research, which I had not time to complete; one was whether the
+aceto-arsenite can be formed, adopting the old method for its formation,
+if there is more than a certain quantity of water; from some experiments I
+made in this direction I was inclined to the opinion it could not. I have
+already stated that emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids,
+and that it is formed in a more or less acid solution; consequently a
+varying amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the
+supernatant liquid. To prevent to a certain extent this loss I
+precipitated the copper from it as arsenite; but I was not successful in
+the few experiments I had time to make on this part of the subject of
+reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained into the aceto-arsenite by
+the addition of acetic acid.--_Jour. of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF ZINC ASH AND CALCINED PYRITES BY MEANS OF AMMONIUM CARBONATE.
+
+
+In a recent issue of the _Chemiker Zeitung_ Dr. Kosmann has reported an
+analytical method for the examination of zinciferous products; according
+to this report, the ash and flue dust produced by the extraction of zinc
+from its ore comprise:
+
+1. Zinc dust, from the distillation of zinc,
+
+2. Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers,
+
+3. Zinc ash, of various assortments, from iron blast furnaces.
+
+Of these, zinc dust is the only ready product which is, as color or
+reducing agent, employed in analytical and technical processes. Its value,
+when serving the latter purpose, is determined by the percentage of finely
+divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained therein; of equal reducing
+power is cadmium, generally associating zinc; injurious, and therefore
+uneffective, are zinc oxide and oxides of other metals, also metallic
+lead.
+
+Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers, is employed with zinc ores in the extraction of zinc, and in
+small quantities as substitute for zinc white; its commercial value is
+similarly estimated as that of zinc ores.
+
+The various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast furnaces
+are an object for continual demand, being both a valuable material for the
+production of zinc and, in its superior qualities, a desirable pigment. In
+the regeneration of zinc the presence of foreign substances is of some
+concern; detrimental are lead, sulphur, and sulphuric acid in form of
+lead, zinc, and lime sulphate.
+
+The chemico-technical analysis of these products has until recently been
+confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by means of sodium
+sulphide (Schaffner's method). But as a remnant of sulphur, as sulphuric
+acid, in roasted blende causes a material loss during distillation, and
+otherwise being induced to produce a zinc free of lead, the estimation of
+sulphur, sulphuric acid, and lead became necessary. These impurities are
+determined by well-known methods; sulphur is oxidized and precipitated
+with barium chloride, lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol. The examination
+of zinc dust, when used for the regeneration of metal, determines the
+quantity of zinc resident therein, and employed as reducing agent, the
+quantity of metal which causes the generation of hydrogen. Cadmium,
+showing the same deportment, must also be considered as well as lead and
+arsenic.
+
+A most complete and rapidly working method for the examination of
+zinciferous products has originated with the application of neutral
+ammonium carbonate as solvent. A solution of this preparation is made,
+according to H. Rose, by dissolving 230 grm. commercial ammon carbonate in
+180 c.c. ammoniacal liquor of 0.92 s.g., and, by addition of water,
+augmenting it to one liter.
+
+This solution dissolves the metallic components, their oxides, and basic
+zinc sulphate, and transfers cadmium and lead oxide, also lead, magnesium,
+and lime sulphate, into insoluble carbonates. Iron and manganese, when
+present as protoxide, are dissolved; of iron sesquioxide but traces, and
+of cadmium oxide _in statu nascendi_ a small portion enter into solution.
+The solution of ammonium carbonate contains in each 10 c.c. 1 grm.
+ammonia, which dissolves 1.5 grm. zinc.
+
+The sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed with an
+adequate volume of the solvent, is digested at 50-60° C. until complete
+decomposition is effected. The heating of the liquid prevents the solution
+of iron, manganese, and cadmium. The content, sediment and liquid, is
+thrown on a filter and washed with hot water to which a small quantity of
+the solvent has been added. When the solution contains iron and manganese,
+it is separated by decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine
+(according to the method of Nic-Wolff) until a flocculent precipitate of
+iron sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible; it is united with
+the original residue and filtered.
+
+The filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy, boiled to expel ammonia,
+tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc, and, when freed of
+all zinc, decanted. The precipitate of zinc carbonate is filtered,
+exhausted with water, transferred into zinc oxide by ignition, and
+weighed. The gravimetric method can be substituted by the volumetric by
+introducing a solution of sodium sulphide of known strength into the
+ammoniacal filtrate. On dividing the filtered liquid into various equal
+portions other substances, arsenic and sulphuric acid, can be determined
+from the same sample. For this purpose the filtrate is concentrated;
+divided into two equal portions, one of which is acidified and treated
+with hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic, the other is
+acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of barium
+chloride. The original residue is dissolved in muriatic or acetic acid and
+filtered. The lead of the filtered liquid is thrown down by sulphuric
+acid, and alcohol, and cadmium, after dissipation of alcohol into gas,
+precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Iron, manganese, alumina, and other
+substances present in the solution are determined by known methods.
+
+It is manifest that the determination of substances--zinc, lead, and
+sulphuric acid--which are of importance in technical analysis of zinc ash,
+can be executed by this method within a comparatively short time. The
+application of ammonium carbonate as solvent has the advantage, over the
+application of ammonia, that it is a far better solvent, that it
+decomposes insoluble basic sulphates, and that the remaining carbonates
+are readily dissolved by acids.
+
+The decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively evolution of
+gas; it is therefore necessary to continue the digestion of the sample
+till no more hydrogen is given off. Zinc dust contains both metals and
+their oxides, and methods which, from the volume of hydrogen generated,
+determine indirectly the percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real
+composition of the zinc dust. For the determination of the metallic
+components the material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate,
+which dissolves zinc and cadmium; the liquid is filtered, acidified, and
+decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, or treated with a solution of ammonium
+carbonate. The use of cupric chloride is not advisable, as it corrodes
+lead, and gives rise to the formation of soluble chloride of lead, which
+complicates the separation of zinc from cadmium. The best mode of
+operation is the following: Both copper sulphate and zinc dust are weighed
+separately, the former is dissolved in water and the latter introduced
+into the solution of copper sulphate in small portions until it appears
+colorless. During the operation the vessel is freely shaken, lumps are
+comminuted with a glass rod, and a few drops of the liquid are ultimately
+tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. The remainder of zinc dust is
+then weighed, and its value deducted from the original weight. Zinc and
+cadmium of the filtrate are determined as above. On repeating this method
+several times most satisfactory results are obtained.
+
+Another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper sulphate and to
+determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate. The separation of copper
+from cadmium being difficult and laborious, and the volumetric estimation
+with potassium cyanide not practicable, it is not prudent to apply this
+method.
+
+When calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined, the estimation of
+zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of zinc ore. The sample
+is exhausted with water, filtered, and, to eliminate calcium sulphate and
+basic iron sulphate, evaporated to dryness. It is then dissolved in a
+small quantity of alcohol and water, refiltered, and the filtrate
+decomposed with ammonium carbonate. The original residue is treated with a
+solution of ammonium carbonate, which dissolves arsenious acid and basic
+zinc sulphate, filtered, and united with the first filtrate. When iron and
+manganese are present, the filtrates are treated with bromine. The united
+filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with sodium sulphide.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PETROLEUM AS FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Abstract of paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.]
+
+By Mr. THOMAS URQUHART.
+
+
+Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a theoretical
+evaporative power of 16.2 lb. of water per lb. of fuel, and the latter of
+12.2 lb., at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 lb. per square inch; hence
+petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent. higher evaporative value
+than anthracite. Now in locomotive practice a mean evaporation of from 7
+lb. to 7½ lb. of water per lb. of anthracite is about what is generally
+obtained, thus giving about 60 per cent. efficiency, while 40 per cent. of
+the heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an evaporation
+of 12.25 lb. is practically obtained, giving 12.25/16.2 = 75 per cent.
+efficiency. Thus in the first place petroleum is theoretically 33 per
+cent. superior to anthracite in evaporative power; and secondly, its
+useful effect is 25 per cent. greater, being 75 percent. instead of 60
+percent.; while, thirdly, weight for weight, the practical evaporative
+value of petroleum must be reckoned as at least from (12.25 - 7.50)/7.50 =
+63 per cent. to (12.25 - 7.00)/7.00 = 75 per cent. higher than that of
+anthracite.
+
+_Spray injector._--Steam not superheated, being the most convenient for
+injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the furnace, it remains to be
+proved how far superheated steam or compressed air is really superior to
+ordinary saturated steam, taken from the highest point inside the boiler
+by a special internal pipe. In using several systems of spray injectors
+for locomotives, the author invariably noticed the impossibility of
+preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation of soot, and inequality of
+heating of the fire box. The work of a locomotive boiler is very different
+from that of a marine or stationary boiler, owing to the frequent changes
+of gradient on the line, and the frequent stoppages at stations. These
+conditions render firing with petroleum very difficult; and were it not
+for the part played by properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box,
+the spray jet alone would be quite inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of
+engineers have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of
+"spray injector," for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum into a
+fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to render it
+inflammable and of easy ignition. For this object nearly all the known
+spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices for petroleum as well
+as for steam; the width of the orifices does not exceed from ½ mm. to 2
+mm. or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and in many instances is capable of
+adjustment. With such narrow orifices it is clear that any small solid
+particles which may find their way into the spray injector along with the
+petroleum will foul the nozzle and check the fire. Hence in many of the
+steamboats on the Caspian Sea, although a single spray injector suffices
+for one furnace, two are used, in order that when one gets fouled the
+other may still work; but, of course, the fouled orifices require
+incessant cleaning out.
+
+_Locomotives._--In arranging a locomotive for burning petroleum, several
+details are required to be added in order to render the application
+convenient. In the first place, for getting up steam to begin with, a gas
+pipe of 1 inch internal diameter is fixed along the outside of the boiler,
+and at about the middle of its length it is fitted with a three-way cock
+having a screw nipple and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is
+connected to the blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to
+the spray injector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a
+shunting locomotive under steam, the spray jet is immediately started by
+the borrowed steam, by which at the same time a draught is also maintained
+in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine shed the borrowed steam would
+be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently placed and specially arranged
+for the purpose of raising steam. In practice steam can be raised from
+cold water to 3 atm. pressure--45 lb. per square inch--in twenty minutes.
+The use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
+worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm.--120 lb.--is
+thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the time the spray jet
+was first started. In daily practice, when it is only necessary to raise
+steam in boilers already full of hot water, the full pressure of 7 to 8
+atm. is obtained in from twenty to twenty-five minutes. While
+experimenting with liquid fuel for locomotives, a separate tank was placed
+on the tender for carrying the petroleum, having a capacity of about 3
+tons. But to have a separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in
+place, would be a source of danger from the possibility of its moving
+forward in case of collision. It was therefore decided, as soon as
+petroleum firing was permanently introduced, to place the tank for fuel in
+the tender between the two side compartments of the water tank, utilizing
+the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the capacity of the
+tank is 3-1/2 tons of oil--a quantity sufficient for 250 miles, with a
+train of 480 tons gross exclusive of engine and tender. In charging the
+tender tank with petroleum, it is of great importance to have strainers of
+wire cloth in the manhole of two different meshes, the outer one having
+openings, say, of 1/4 in., the inner, say 1/8 in.; these strainers are
+occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent any solid
+particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of the spray
+injector is likely to occur; and even if an obstruction should arise, the
+obstacle being of small size can easily be blown through by screwing back
+the steam cone in the spray injector far enough to let the solid particles
+pass and be blown out into the fire-box by the steam. This expedient is
+easily resorted to even when running; and no more inconvenience arises
+than an extra puff of dense smoke for a moment, in consequence of the
+sudden admission of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the
+manhole of the petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another
+strainer at the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of 1/3 in.
+holes.
+
+_Driving locomotives._--In lighting up, certain precise rules have to be
+followed, in order to prevent explosion of any gas that may have
+accumulated in the fire box. Such explosions do often take place through
+negligence; but they amount simply to a puff of gas, driving smoke out
+through the ash-pan dampers, without any disagreeably loud report. This is
+all prevented by adhering to the following simple rules: First clear the
+spray nozzle of water by letting a small quantity of steam blow through,
+with the ash-pan doors open; at the same time start the blower in the
+chimney for a few seconds, and the gas, if any, will be immediately drawn
+up the chimney. Next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece
+of cotton waste, or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum and
+burning with a flame. Then by opening first the steam valve of the spray
+injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the very first spray of oil
+coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites without any explosion
+whatever; after which the quantity of fuel can be increased at pleasure.
+By looking at the top of the chimney, the supply of petroleum can be
+regulated by observing the smoke. The general rule is to allow a
+transparent light smoke to escape, thus showing that neither too much air
+is being admitted nor too little. The combustion is quite under the
+control of the driver, and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent
+smoke altogether. While running, it is indispensable that the driver and
+fireman should act together, the latter having at his side of the engine
+the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the steam wheel and the
+petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two ash-pan door handles
+in which there are notches for regulating the air admission. Each
+alteration in the position of the reversing lever or screw, as well as in
+the degree of opening of the steam regulator or the blast pipe, requires a
+corresponding alteration of the fire. Generally the driver generally
+passes the word when he intends shutting off steam, so that the alteration
+in the firing can be effected before the steam is actually shut off; and
+in this way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually
+done together. All this care is necessary to prevent smoke, which is
+nothing less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, the train arrives
+at the top of a bank, which it has to go down with the brakes on, exactly
+at the moment of the driver shutting off the steam and shifting the
+reversing lever into full forward gear, the petroleum and steam are shut
+off from the spray injector, the ash-pan doors are closed, and if the
+incline be a long one, the revolving iron damper over the chimney top is
+moved into position, closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The
+accumulated heat is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even
+rises in pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon
+as the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again
+required, the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top; then the
+steam is turned on to the spray injector, and next a small quantity of
+petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-pan doors, a small fire
+being rendered possible by the entrance of air around the spray injector,
+as well as by possible leakage past the ash-pan doors. The spray
+immediately coming in contact with the hot chamber ignites without any
+audible explosion; and the ash-pan doors are finally opened, when
+considerable power is required, or when the air otherwise admitted is not
+sufficient to support complete combustion. By looking at the fire through
+the sight hole it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or
+dusky; in fact, with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after
+a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with petroleum. The
+better men contrive to burn less fuel than others, simply by greater care
+in attending to all the points essential to success. At present
+seventy-two locomotives are running with petroleum firing; ten of them are
+passenger engines, seventeen are eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and
+forty-five are six-wheel coupled. As might be expected, several points
+have arisen which must be dealt with in order to insure success. For
+instance, the distance ring between the plates around the firing door is
+apt to leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it, and the
+absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by having
+the brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is taken out
+altogether when the engines are in for repairs, and a flange joint is
+substituted, similar to what is now used in the engines of the London and
+Northwestern Railway. This arrangement gives better results, and occasions
+no trouble whatever.
+
+_Storage of petroleum._--The length of line now worked with petroleum is
+from Tsaritsin to Burnack, 291 miles. There is a main iron reservoir for
+petroleum at each of the four engine sheds, namely at Tsaritsin, Archeda,
+Filonoff, and Borisoglebsk. Each reservoir is 66 ft. internal diameter and
+24 ft. high, and when full holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging
+the reservoir, which stands a good way from the line, and is situated at a
+convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings, is as follows:
+On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed ten cistern cars
+full of oil, the capacity of each being about ten tons. From each of these
+cars a connection is made by a flexible India rubber pipe to one of ten
+stand pipes which project 1 ft. above the ground line. Parallel with the
+rails is laid a main pipe, with which the ten stand pipes are all
+connected, thus forming one general suction main. About the middle of the
+length of the main, which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or
+other non-conducting material, is fixed a Blake steam pump. As soon as all
+the ten connections are made with the cistern cars, the pump is set to
+work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are discharged into the
+main reservoir, the time depending of course upon the capacity of the
+pump. All the pipes used are of malleable iron, lap-welded, and of 5 in.
+internal diameter, having screwed coupling muffs for making the
+connections. At each engine shed, in addition to the main storage
+reservoir, there is a smaller distributing tank, which is erected at a
+sufficient height to supply the tenders, and very much resembles the
+ordinary water tanks. These distributing tanks are circular, about 8½ ft.
+diameter and 6 ft. high, and of ¼ in. plates; their inside mean area is
+calculated exactly, and a scale graduated in inches stands in the middle
+of the tank; a glass with scale is used outside in summer time. Each inch
+in height on the scale is converted into cubic feet, and then by means of
+a table is converted into Russian poods, according to the specific gravity
+at various temperatures. As it would be superfluous to graduate the table
+for each separate degree of temperature, the columns in the table show the
+weights for every 8 degrees Reaumur, which is quite sufficient: namely,
+from 24 deg. to 17 deg., from 16 deg. to 9 deg., and so on, down to -24
+deg.; the equivalent Fahrenheit range being from 86 deg. down to -22 deg.
+Suppose the filling of a tender tank draws off a height of 27 in. from the
+distributing tank, at a temperature of say -20 deg. R., these figures are
+shown by the table to correspond with 200.61 poods = 7,245 lb., or 3.23
+tons, of petroleum. This arrangement does very well in practice; both the
+quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill at the
+time of his taking in his supply.
+
+_Engines._--The engines used in the trials were built by Borsig, of
+Berlin, Schneider, of Creusot, and the Russian Mechanical and Mining
+Company, of St. Petersburg. Their main dimensions and weights were about
+the same, as follows, all of them having six wheels coupled, and 36 tons
+adhesive weight; as originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes
+for burning anthracite or wood; cylinders 18-1/8 in. diameter and 24 in.
+stroke; slide valves, outside lap 1-1/16 in., inside lap 3/32 in., maximum
+travel, 4-9/16 in.; Stephenson link motion; boiler pressure, 120 lb. per
+square inch; six wheels, all coupled, 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter; distance
+between centers of leading and middle wheels, 6 ft. 2-3/4 in.; between
+middle and trailing, 4 ft. 9-1/4 in.; total length of wheel base, 11 ft.;
+weight empty, on leading wheels, 12.041 tons; middle, 10.782 tons;
+trailing, 10.685 tons; total weight, 33.508 tons empty; weight in running
+order, on leading wheels, 12.563 tons; middle, 11.885 tons; trailing
+12.790 tons; total weight, 37.238 tons in running order. Tubes number 151;
+outside diameter, 2-1/8 in.; length between tube plates, 13 ft. 10-1/8
+in.; outside heating surface, 1,166 square feet; fire box heating surface,
+82 square feet; total heating surface, 1,248 square feet; fire grate area,
+17 square feet; tractive power =
+65 per cent. of boiler pressure × (cyl. diam.)² × stroke / diameter of wheels
+= 0.65 × 120 × (18.125)² × 24 / 51 = 5.383 tons. Ratio of tractive power
+to adhesion weight = 5.383 / 37.238 = 1 / 6.9.
+
+_Tender._--Contents: water, 310 cubic feet, or 1,933 gallons, or 8½
+tons; anthracite, 600 poods, or 10 tons; or wood, 1½ cubic sajene, or
+514 cubic feet; weight empty, 13.477 tons; weight in running order, 28.665
+tons; six wheels.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Petroleum Refuse--Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite,
+Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and Tsaritsin on Grazi and
+Tsaritsin Railway, in Winter Time._
+
+-----+---+-----+------+---+-----+------+-----------+-------------+------+------------
+     | L |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |
+     | o |     |  Train   |     |      |           | Consumption |      |
+     | c |     |  alone.  |     |      |           |  Including  |      |
+Date.| o |     |          |     |      |           | Lighting up.|      |
+1883.| m |     |----+-----|     |      |           |             | Cost |
+     | o |Train|Num-|     | Dis-| Car  |           |             |  of  |Atmospheric
+     | t |     |ber |Gross|tance|miles.|  Fuel.    |-------+-----| fuel |temperature
+     | i |     | of |load.| run.|      |           |       | Per | per  |   and
+     | v |     |Loa-|     |     |      |           | Total |train| train| weather.
+     | e |     |ded |     |     |      |           |       |mile.| mile.|
+     | . |     |cars|     |     |      |           |       |     |      |
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |   |     | No.| Tons|Miles|      |           |       |     |Pence.|
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |  8|32-23| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Anthracite.| 31799 |81.90|11.957|-17° to -18°
+     |   |32-23|    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+ Feb.|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      | equiv. to
+  8  |   |24-21|    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      |-6° to -8½°
+     | 14|24-21| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Bituminous |37557.5|96.53|14.093|   Fah.
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | Coal.     |  lb.  | lb. |      |
+     |  7|26-29| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,830|Petroleum  | 9462  |48.77| 5.487|   Strong
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     | 24|32-23| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Anthracite.|12639.5|65.15| 9.512|-5° to -9°
+March|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+  6  | 21|24-21| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Wood, in   | 1071.8| 5.52| 8.5  | equiv. to
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | billets.  | c. ft.|c. ft|      | 21° to 12°
+     |   |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |   Fah.
+     | 23|26-27| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Petroleum  | 7228  |37.28| 4.188|   Light
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+
+Prices of fuel:
+  Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton; Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton;
+  Wood, in billets, 42s. per cubic sajene = 343 cubic feet;
+    equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic foot.
+
+Dimensions of locomotives:
+  Cylinders, 18 1/8 in. diam. and 24 in. stroke; Wheels, 4 feet 3 in. diam.;
+  Total heating surface, 1,248 sq. feet: Total adhesion weight, 36 tons;
+  Boiler pressure, 8 to 9 atm.
+
+The preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made in winter
+with different sorts of fuel, under exactly similar conditions as to type
+of engine, profile of line, and load of train. Two sets of comparative
+trials were made, both of them in winter. The three engines used were some
+of those built by Schneider. In comparison with anthracite, the economy in
+favor of petroleum refuse was 41 per cent. in weight, and 55 per cent. in
+cost. With bituminous coal there was a difference of 49 per cent. in favor
+of petroleum as to weight and 61 per cent. as to cost. As compared with
+wood petroleum was 50 per cent. cheaper. At a speed of fourteen miles an
+hour up an incline of 1 in 125 the steam pressure was easily kept up at 9
+to 9½ atm. with a No. 9 injector feeding the boiler all the time.
+
+Up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two locomotives to
+burn petroleum; and from his own personal observations made on the foot
+plate with considerable frost he is satisfied that no other fuel can
+compare with petroleum either for locomotives or for other purposes. In
+illustration of its safety in case of accident, a photograph was exhibited
+of an accident that occurred on the author's line on 30th December, 1883,
+when a locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment,
+taking the train after it; no explosion or conflagration of any kind took
+place under such trying circumstances, thus affording some proof of the
+safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of firing. Although it is
+scarcely possible that petroleum firing will ever be of use for
+locomotives on the ordinary railways of coal-bearing England, yet the
+author is convinced chat, even in such a country, its employment would be
+an enormous boon on underground lines.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOAL KILNS.
+
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+In answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal making, we
+offer two illustrations that show a method of manufacture differing from
+that usually adopted, which is that of burning on the bare ground, and
+covering with soil or sods to exclude the air. These kilns are made of
+brick, one course being sufficient, bands of iron or timber framework
+being added to strengthen the brickwork with greater economy. The usual
+style is conical, and the size is 24 feet in diameter, with an equal
+height, holding about 40 cords of wood. The difference in price is 1-1/8
+d. per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual mounds,
+the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns, and the timber
+standing, the kiln burning costing 2-1/8 d., and the other 3-1/4 d. The
+kilns must be lined to about halfway up with fire-brick, the cost of which
+will vary with the locality, but will be about £200, and as 40 to 50
+bushels of coal have been made per cord the extra yield on good charcoal
+and the lessening of the cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on
+the cost of the kilns. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight
+for 6 feet, when it is drawn in, so as to become bluntly conical. Upon the
+top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone of an arch,
+and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn tight with screw
+bolts and nuts to strengthen it. Double doors of sheet-iron are made at
+the bottom and near the tops, by which it is either filled or emptied, and
+a few air-holes (B), which may be stopped with loose bricks, left in the
+bottom. The second figure shows a kiln of another shape made to burn 3,000
+bushels of charcoal, or about 80 cords of wood. The shape is a
+parallelogram, having an arched roof, and it is strengthened by a
+framework of timber 10 inches square. As the pressure of the gas is
+sometimes very great, the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to
+prevent their bursting. The usual size is 16 feet wide and high, and 40
+feet in length, outside measure. The time occupied in filling, burning,
+and emptying a small cone is about three weeks, and four weeks is required
+for the larger ones.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle._
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENTRANCE, TIDDINGTON HOUSE, OXON.
+
+
+Our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to Tiddington House,
+Oxfordshire, the residence of the Rev. Joshua Bennett. The house is an old
+building of the Georgian period, and though originally plain and
+unpretentious, its bold coved cornices under the eaves, its rubbed and
+shaped arches, moulded strings, and thick sash bars, made it of
+considerable interest to the admirers of the "Queen Anne" school of
+architecture, and led to the adoption of that style in the alterations and
+additions made last year, of which the work shown in our illustration
+formed a small part. Between the "entrance facade" and the wall of the
+house there is a space of some twenty feet in length, which is inclosed by
+a substantially built conservatory-like erection of Queen Anne design,
+forming an outer hall.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.--Morris &
+Stallwood--Architects.]
+
+The works were executed by Messrs. Holly & Butler, of Nettlebed. The brick
+carving was beautifully done by the late Mr. Finlay; and the architects
+were Messrs. Morris & Stallwood, of Reading.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASH PILE.
+
+
+Since Poggendorff in 1842 thought of substituting in the Bunsen battery a
+solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for nitric acid, and
+of thus making a single liquid pile of it, in suppressing the porous
+vessel, his idea has been taken up a considerable number of times. Some
+rediscovered it simply, while others, who were better posted in regard to
+the work of their predecessors, took Poggendorff's pile as he conceived
+it, and, considering the future that was in store for it, thought only of
+modifying it in order to render it better. Among these, Mr. Grenet was one
+of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under a truly
+practical form. As long ago as 1856, in fact, he gave it the form that is
+still in use, and that is known as the bottle pile. Thus constructed, this
+pile, as is well known, presents a feeble internal resistance, and a
+greater electro-motive power than the Bunsen element. Unfortunately, its
+energy rapidly decreases, and the alteration of the liquid, as well as the
+large deposit of oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode,
+prevents its being employed in experiments of quite long duration. Mr.
+Grenet, it is true, obviated these two defects by first renewing the
+liquid slowly and continuously, and causing a current of air to bubble up
+in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in measure as the
+deposit formed. Thus improved, the bichromate pile was employed on a large
+scale in the lighting of the Comptoir d'Escompte. In an extensive
+application like this latter, the use of compressed air for renewing the
+liquid can be easily adapted to the bichromate pile, as the number of
+elements is great enough to allow of the putting in of all the piping
+necessary; but when it is only desired to use this pile for laboratory
+purposes, and when there is need of but a small number of elements, it is
+impossible to adopt Mr. Grenet's elements in the form required by an
+electric lighting installation. It becomes absolutely necessary, then, to
+come back to a simpler form, and attempt at the same time to obviate the
+defects which are inherent to its very principle. In accordance with this
+idea, it will be well to point out the arrangement adopted by Mr. Courtot
+for his bichromate of potash piles--an arrangement that is very simple,
+but, sufficiently well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a
+laboratory.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+Fig. 1 gives the most elementary form. It consists of an earthen vessel
+into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other by a copper
+ring which carries one of the terminals. In the center there is a
+cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute and feebly
+acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which dips a prism of
+zinc, which may be lifted by means of a rod when the pile ceases to
+operate. It is true that the presence of the porous vessel in the
+bichromate of potash element increases the internal resistance, but, as an
+offset, although it decreases the discharge, it secures constancy and
+quite a long duration for it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The elements thus constituted may be grouped, to the number of six, in a
+frame analogous to that shown in the engraving, and, sum total, form a
+small sized battery adapted to the current experiments of the laboratory,
+and capable of supplying two small four volt lamps for ten or twelve
+hours. We have had occasion to make use of these elements for the
+graduation of galvanometers, and, after ascertaining the constancy of the
+discharge, have found that the internal resistance of each couple is
+nearly 0.175 ohm, with an electro-motive force of two volts. As may be
+seen, these elements should, in general, all be mounted for tension, as
+they are in the figure, inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits,
+according to circumstances, of employing a variable number of them without
+changing anything. Moreover, with zincs amalgamated in a special manner,
+the attack is imperceptible, and the work in open circuit need scarcely to
+be taken into consideration.
+
+Yet, despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we have just
+described, that defect common to all bichromate of potash piles--the
+deposit of oxide of chromium upon the carbon--is not here avoided. It
+occurs quite slowly, to be sure, but it does occur, and, from this point
+of view, the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is preferable. The elements here
+are composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing, as before, the
+solution and porous vessel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the zinc and
+the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is not in operation
+the whole can be lifted from the liquid. Under such circumstances the
+deposit of oxide is notably diminished, and the duration of the discharge
+is consequently greatly increased.
+
+Fig. 3 shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting, according
+to circumstances, all the elements of the same trough or only a part of
+them. To effect this, the drum around which the chain winds that carries
+the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed upon the axle. This latter is
+actuated by a winch; and a ratchet wheel, R, joined to a click which is
+actuated by a spiral spring, prevents the ebonite plates from falling back
+when it is desired to place the bolt under the button, B, of the spring.
+
+When it is desired to put an element out of the circuit, it is only
+necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the lever, D. Under
+the action of the latter, the piece, _s_, which carries a groove for the
+passage of the screws that fix it to the upper cross-piece, takes on a
+longitudinal motion and consequently gears with the drum through the
+toothed sleeve, E. When an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be
+lifted from the liquid, and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming
+upon the carbon. As may be seen, the arrangements which we have just
+described exhibit nothing that is particularly original. The windlasses
+used for removing the elements from a pile when the circuit is open have
+been employed for a long time; the bichromate pile is itself old, and, as
+we said in the beginning, it has been modified in its details a number of
+times. In spite of this, we have thought it well to point out the mode of
+construction adopted by Mr. Courtot, since, owing to the simplicity of the
+arrangements, it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very
+great constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps, as
+well as for the most varied experiments of the laboratory.--_La Lumiere
+Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.
+
+
+There has been much said in recent times about the distribution of
+electricity by means of induction coils, and the use of this process has
+given rise to several systems that differ but little from one another in
+principle.
+
+The following are a few details in regard to a system due to a Dutch
+engineer:
+
+In the month of December, 1881, a patent relating to the distribution of
+electricity was taken out in Germany and other countries by Mr. B.
+Haitzema Enuma, whose system is based upon a series of successive
+inductions. The primary current developed by a dynamo-electric machine
+gives rise to secondary, tertiary, etc., currents. The principal line runs
+through the streets parallel with their axes, and, when the arrangement of
+the places is adapted thereto, it is closed upon the generator itself. In
+those frequent cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return
+over a path that it has already traversed, it is more advantageous to
+effect the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains
+or gas pipes as conductors. This return arrangement may likewise be
+applied to the lines of secondary, tertiary, etc., order, as may easily be
+seen.
+
+The induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior consists of
+a bundle of soft iron. The wire of the inducting current is wound directly
+around this core. The wire of the induced current is superposed upon the
+first and presents a large number of spirals. It is useless to say that
+these wires must be perfectly insulated from each other, as well as from
+the soft iron core. We shall call primary bobbins those which are
+interposed in the principal line, and secondary bobbins those in which the
+inducting current is a secondary one, and so on.
+
+It will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of continuing the
+distribution of electricity to the interior of buildings by the simple
+adjunction of one or several bobbins. Each electric apparatus, whether it
+be a lamp or other mechanism, is furnished with a special current. If the
+number of these apparatus be increased, it is only necessary to increase
+the number of bobbins in the same ratio, on condition, be it understood,
+that the intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper
+working of the apparatus in question. When such intensity diminishes to
+too great a degree, the bobbin must be replaced by a stronger one.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.]
+
+It results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in in such a
+way as to permit, of the opening and closing of the corresponding circuit.
+This arrangement, moreover, has no need of being dependent upon the
+apparatus, and may just as well be transferred to any part of this same
+circuit. As regards lighting, it is preferable to employ alternating
+current dynamo machines; yet there is nothing to prevent the use of
+continuous current ones, provided that there is an arrangement that
+permits of constantly opening and closing this same circuit. That portion
+of the line which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way
+at the places where it is necessary. As for the underground circuit and
+the induction coils connected therewith, these are protected against all
+external influence, and are at the same time insulated very economically
+by covering them with a coat of very fine silicious sand mixed with
+asphalt.
+
+It is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an accurate idea
+of this system of distribution. C represents the building in which the
+generator of electricity, D, is placed; B, the public street, and Q the
+house of a subscriber. The principal line, E, starts from the terminals,
+_a, b_, of the machine, passes through the primary bobbins, G, and is
+closed through the earth at F. It will be seen that the primary current
+communicates through _d_ and _c_ with the internal winding of the bobbins,
+G, while the secondary currents, H, are connected through _e_ and _f_ with
+the external winding. The same arrangement is repeated for the tertiary
+currents, M, and the quaternary ones, _o, p_. In the annexed example all
+the lines that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed
+through the earth, while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto
+enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit. In the interior
+of these houses the wires, as well as the induction coils, are insulated
+and applied to the walls. At Q is represented the arrangement that would
+have to be adopted in the case of a structure consisting of a vestibule,
+_r_, and two rooms, _s_, lighted by two electric lamps, R. In the portion
+of the figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed
+for insulating the line. A commencement is made by digging a ditch in the
+street and paving the bottom of it with bricks. Upon these latter there is
+laid a mixture of sand and asphalt, and then the wires and bobbins are put
+in, and the whole is finally covered with a new insulating layer.
+
+It is a simple statement that we make here, and it is therefore not for us
+to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the system. If we are to
+believe Mr. Enuma, the advantages are very numerous, to wit: (1) The
+cables have no need of being of large size; (2) the intensity is the same
+through the entire extent of the primary circuit, secondary one, etc.; (3)
+the resistance is invariable in all portions of the line; (4) the
+apparatus are independent of each other, and consequently there may be a
+disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering
+therefrom; (5) either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be produced,
+since, that depends only upon the size of the coil employed; (6) there is
+no style of lamp that may not be used, since each lamp is mounted upon a
+special circuit; (7) any number of lamps may be lighted or extinguished
+without the others being influenced thereby; (8) when a fire or other
+accident happens in a house, it in no wise interferes with the service in
+the rest of the line; (9) the system could, were it required, be connected
+with any other kind of existing line; and (10) the cost of installation is
+infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the same
+extent of ground.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.
+
+
+Italy, with her volcanic nature, has very naturally made a specialty of
+movements of the ground, or seismic perturbations. So the larger part of
+the apparatus designed for such study are due to Italians. Several of
+these instruments have already been, described in this journal, and on the
+present occasion we shall make known a few others that will serve to give
+an idea of the methods employed.
+
+For the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of the ground,
+different apparatus are required. The following is a description of those
+constructed for each of such purposes by the Brassart Brothers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC
+MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for Studying Horizontal Movements._--A lever, (Fig. 1), movable
+about a horizontal axis, carries a corrugated funnel, _i_, at one of its
+extremities. At the other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise
+which permits of its being exactly balanced, while not interfering with
+its sensitiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 2 AND 3.--DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS.]
+
+The opening of the funnel passes freely around a column, _v_ (Fig. 2),
+upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that terminates in a weight, P.
+The corrugations of the funnel carry letters indicating the four cardinal
+points, and the funnel itself is capable of revolving in such a way that
+the marked indications shall always correspond to the real position of the
+cardinal points. When a horizontal shock occurs, the weight, P, falls in a
+direction opposite thereto, and into one of the corrugations, where it
+rests, so that the direction of the shock is indicated. But, in falling,
+it causes the lever, F, to tilt, and this brings about an electric contact
+between the screw, _h_, and the column, _n_, which sends a current into
+the electro, E, so that the armature of the latter is attracted. In its
+position of rest this armature holds a series of parts, S, A, L, which
+have the effect of stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same
+apparatus. At the moment, then, that the armature is attracted the
+pendulum is set free and the clockwork is started. As the current, at the
+same time, sets a bell ringing, the observer comes and arranges the
+apparatus again to await a new shock. Knowing the hour at which the hand
+of the clock was stopped, he sees how long it has been in motion again and
+deduces therefrom the precise moment of the shock.
+
+The small rod, _f_, which is seen at the extremity of F, is for the
+purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with, if need be. In this
+case the screw, _h_, is so regulated that F descends farther, and that _f_
+may depress the armature of the magnet just as the current would have
+done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for the Study of Vertical Movements._--In this apparatus (Fig.
+4), the contact is formed between a mercury cup, T, and a weight, D. The
+cup is capable of being raised and lowered by means of a screw, so that
+the two parts approach each other very closely without touching. At the
+moment of a vertical shock a contact occurs between the mercury and
+weight, and there results a current which, acting upon the electro, E,
+frees the pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus. In this
+case, in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may be
+rung, the piece, A, upon falling, sets up a permanent contact with the
+part, _a_ (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK.]
+
+_Brassart's Seismic Clock._--This apparatus is designed for being put in
+connection at a distance with an indicator like the ones just described.
+It is a simple clock to which a few special devices have been added.
+Seismic clocks may be classed in two categories, according as they are
+stopped by the effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant
+one occurs. The Messrs. Brassart have always given preference to those of
+the second category, because there is no need of watching them during a
+seismic calm, and because they are much more easily constructed. It is to
+this class, then, that their seismic clock belongs. It is capable of being
+used for domestic purposes in place of any other clock, and of becoming a
+seismoscopic clock as soon as it is put in electric communication with the
+seismic telltales.
+
+To the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the inventors have
+added (Fig. 5) a support formed of a strip of brass, S, with whose
+extremity is jointed (at the lower part) a double lever, A. This latter is
+held in a horizontal position by a small counterpoise, _i_, so that the
+finger at the opposite extremity shall prevent the pendulum, P, from
+swinging. To keep the latter in a position of rest a bent lever, _n n'_,
+is jointed to the upper part of the support, S. The longer arm, _n'_, of
+this lever is bent forward at right angles, so that it may come into
+contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon as the lever
+has been lifted by means of a small cord which is connected with the
+larger arm, _n_, and runs up to a small hook, from whence it descends and
+makes its exit under the clock-case.
+
+In order to stop the clock, then, it is only necessary to pull on this
+cord slightly, when, by moving the pendulum to the left, it will thrust
+it against the inclined plane of the finger of the lever arm, A. It is
+clear that the extremity of the pendulum, upon striking against the
+finger, will depress it slightly and go beyond the projection against
+which it remains fixed owing to the counterpoise, _i_. The fever, _n n'_,
+is brought back to its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise
+at the extremity of the arm, _n_. When the lever, A, is depressed, the
+pendulum escapes and sets the clock running. This depression is effected
+by means of an electro-magnet, E, whose armature, which is connected with
+the rod, _t, t_, lifts the arm, _i_, of the lever, and depresses A. The
+wires of the two bobbins of the electro-magnet end in two clamps, 1 and 2.
+The second of these latter is insulated from the clock-case. Both
+communicate with the extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the
+seismic telltale that brings about a closing of the current. Having noted
+the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running, one can
+deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred that set the clock
+in motion.
+
+In addition to the parts that we have described, there are other accessory
+ones, R R_r_, and a third clamp, 3, which constitute a sort of rheotome
+that is designed to keep the circuit closed after the momentary closing
+that is produced by the telltale has occurred. This little mechanism is
+indispensable when the disturbed telltale has also to act upon an electric
+bell. This rheotome, which is very simple, is constructed as follows: A
+small brass rod, R, which is screwed to the support, S, carries at its
+left extremity a brass axis, X, which is insulated from the rod, R, by
+means of an ivory piece. Toward the center of this small rod, the bent
+lever, _r_, carries a small arm that is bent forward, and against which
+abuts the axis of the pendulum, thus causing it to be thrust toward the
+left when the pendulum is arrested by the projection of the finger, A. As
+soon as the pendulum is set free, the lever, _r_, redescends and places
+itself against the axis, X. This latter communicates with clamp 3, which
+is insulated, while the rod, R, communicates with clamp 1. The external
+communications are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is
+interposed remains definitely closed when the lever, _r_, is in contact
+with the rod, X.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.]
+
+_Rossi's Tremitoscope._--This instrument (Fig. 6) unites, upon the same
+stone base, three different arrangements for showing evidences of
+trepidations of the earth. On one side we find (protected by a glass tube)
+a weight suspended over a mercury cup by a spring, and designed to show
+vertical motions. The two other parts of the apparatus are designed for
+registering horizontal motions. The first is a pendulum which causes a
+contact with four distinct springs, and whose movements are watched with a
+spy-glass. The second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a
+heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock. This ball is provided with a
+point which is movable within a second ball, so that its motion produces
+a contact. All these different contacts are signaled or registered
+electrically.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.]
+
+_Scateni's Registering Seismograph._--This apparatus, which is shown in
+Figs. 7 and 8, consists of two parts--of a transmitter and of a
+registering device.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--REGISTERING APPARATUS.]
+
+The transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a steel point
+and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected with a pile. All
+around this circle are four strips of platinum, against one of which abuts
+the circle at every movement of the glass. Each strip of platinum
+communicates, through a special wire, with one of the electro-magnets of
+the registering device (Fig. 8). This latter consists of an ordinary clock
+that carries three concentric dials--one for minutes, one for hours, and
+one for seconds. In a direction with the radii of these dials there are
+four superposed levers, each of which is actuated by one of the electros.
+On another hand, each dial is divided into four zones that correspond to
+the four cardinal points. When a shock coming from the north, for example,
+produces a contact, the corresponding electro is affected, and its lever
+falls and marks upon each of the dials a point in its north zone. We thus
+obtain the exact hour of the shock, as well as its direction. As may be
+seen, the apparatus, as regards principle, is one of the simplest of its
+kind.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ACCUMULATORS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ARNOULD & TAMINE'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Messrs. Arnould and Tamine's accumulators, shown in Fig. 1, the
+formation is effected directly by the current, as in the Planté pile, but
+the plates are formed of wires connected horizontally at their extremities
+by soldering. These plates are held apart either by setting them into
+paraffined wooden grooves at the ends of the trough or by interposing
+between them pieces of paraffined wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--BARRIER & TOURVIELLE'S ELECTRODOCK.]
+
+In Messrs. Barrier and Tourville's _Electrodock_ (Fig. 2) the plates are
+formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a wooden cover. These tubes
+are threaded internally and externally, and the grooves thus produced are
+filled with a peculiar cement composed of litharge, powdered charcoal, and
+permanganate of potash, triturated together, sifted, and then mixed with
+glucose or sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them. This mixture forms a
+cement that is very adhesive after, as well as before, the electrolytic
+action.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden gratings
+between which is compressed red lead prepared in a peculiar manner, and
+constituting, 48 hours after formation, a compact mass with the lead. The
+tangs of the plates are widened so as to touch one another while leaving a
+proper distance between the plates themselves, and are hollowed out for
+the reception of a rod provided at its extremities with a winged nut and
+jam nut for passing them up close to one another. The plates, properly so
+called, are held apart by rubber bauds. The glass vessels are placed in
+osier baskets.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL MODEL OF THE REYNIER ZINC ACCUMULATOR.
+
+
+The three models of a secondary battery that I recently made known to the
+readers of this journal have been the object of continuous experiment.
+Conformably to the provisions of theory, the zinc accumulator has shown
+itself practically superior to the two others, and I have therefore chosen
+this type for getting up an industrial model, which is shown in the
+annexed cut. The accumulator contains four Planté positives, having a wide
+surface, and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead covered
+with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of zinc sulphate
+in which the couple is immersed. Accidental contact with the interior of
+the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to the negatives by means of
+leaden bands. The seven electrodes are carried by as many distinct
+crosspieces of paraffined wood, which rest upon the edges of the trough
+and hold the plates at a certain distance from the bottom. These various
+crosspieces, which touch one another, take the place of a cover. Each
+plate is provided with a terminal. The four positive terminals are all on
+the same side, and the three negatives are on the opposite side. Two brass
+rods ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same
+name. The trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles, one within the
+other, and having a play of several millimeters. This space is lined with
+a tight, elastic, insulating cement having tar for a base.
+
+[Illustration: REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual size.)]
+
+The careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the apparatus, and
+the purity of the metal and its amalgamation, reduce the local attack of
+the zinc to almost nothing. So the coefficient of restitution is now
+comparable with that of accumulators of the Planté type.
+
+The following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc
+accumulator.
+
+           PHYSICAL DATA.
+
+E. Electromotive force.                                   2.36 volts.
+R. Mean resistance.                                       0.02 ohm.
+I. Normal intensity of the discharge current.             25 amperes.
+i. Intensity of the charge current.                       5 to 10 amperes.
+Q. Capacity of accumulation after 200 hours' formation.   550,000 couples.
+
+       DATA CONCERNING CONSTRUCTION.
+
+Efficient surface of the 4 positive electrodes.        200 square dec.
+Efficient surface of the 3 negative electrodes.         15 square dec.
+Weight of the positive electrodes.                       8.2 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the negative electrodes.                       1.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the trough.                                    2.7 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the liquid.                                    4.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the attachments.                               0.46 kilogrammes.
+Weight, total.                                          17.16 kilogrammes.
+
+The total electric work stored up is 130,000 kilogrammeters, or 7,600
+kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator. Theory indicates that a zinc
+accumulator might store up as much as 15,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme. If the present model gives half less, it is because I have
+purposely exaggerated the solidity of the trough and the mass of the
+electrodes.
+
+It should be remarked that this capacity of 7,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator constructed
+in France. The new model possesses, then, despite the size of the
+positives and the box, a relative lightness that will permit it to take a
+place upon electric locomotives as well as in fixed installations.
+
+Independently of their use as accumulators, secondary zinc batteries may
+be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by incandescence, for
+deadening piston strokes, attenuating the irregularities in speed, and
+covering accidental stoppages.--_E. Reynier, in La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF A LIGHTNING FLASH.
+
+By W. SLINGO.
+
+
+Lately we have all felt, I doubt not, a considerable amount of interest in
+the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually heavy
+thunderstorms, accompanied, as they have been, by vivid lightning
+discharges of a more or less hurtful nature. The list of disasters
+published in _Knowledge_, No. 143, might be very materially augmented were
+we to record such damage as has been wrought since that list was compiled.
+
+There is not, I suppose, in the mind of any intelligent man at the present
+day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning flash. The
+questions to be considered are rather whence comes the electricity, and in
+what way is the thunderstorm brought about. In attempting to answer these
+questions, sight must not be lost of the fact that the very nature of
+electricity is in itself almost sufficient to baffle any effort put forth
+to ascertain from lightning, as such, its whence and its whither.
+
+It is possible, however, with the aid of our knowledge of static
+electricity, to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical nature. In
+the first place, that our sphere is a more or less electrified body is
+generally admitted. More than this, it is demonstrated that the different
+parts of the earth's surface and its enveloping atmosphere are variously
+charged. As a consequence of these varying charges, there is a constant
+series of currents flowing through the various parts of the earth, which
+show themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction
+followed by the currents. Such currents are known as earth currents, and
+present phenomena of a highly interesting nature. But, apart from these
+electrical manifestations, there is generally a difference of electrical
+condition between the various parts of the earth's surface and those
+portions of the atmosphere adjacent to or above them. Inasmuch as air is
+one of the very best insulators, this difference of condition (or
+potential) in any particular region is in most cases incapable of being
+neutralized or equilibrated by an electric flow. Consequently the air
+remains more or less continually charged. With these points admitted as
+facts, the question arises, Whence this electricity? There have been very
+many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of terrestrial
+electricity, but far the greater portion of such theories lack fundamental
+probability, and indicate causes which cannot be regarded as sufficiently
+extensive or operative to produce such tremendous effects as are
+occasionally witnessed. I take it that we may safely regard the evolution
+of electricity as one of the ways in which force exhibits itself, that, in
+other words, when work is performed electricity may result. When two
+bodies are rubbed together, electricity is produced, so also is it when
+two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is dissolved,
+or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to a higher
+temperature than the other junction. I will go further than this, so far,
+in fact, as to maintain that there is a reasonable ground for supposing
+that every movement, whether it be of the mass or among the constituent
+particles, is attended by a change of electrical distribution; and if this
+is true, it may easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of
+the universe, there must be a constant series of electrical changes. Now,
+these changes do not all operate in one direction, nor are they all of
+similar character, whence it is that not only are there earth currents of
+feeble electro-motive force, but that this E.M.F. is constantly varying,
+and that, furthermore, electricity of high E.M.F. is to be met with in
+various parts of the atmosphere.
+
+With earth currents we have here very little to do. The rotation of the
+earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents, and the fact
+that they vary in strength at regular periods of the day and of the year
+enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts considerable electrical
+influence on the earth. Letting it be granted, however, that the earth is
+variously charged, how comes it that the air is also charged, and with
+electricity of greater tension than that of the earth itself? It was
+pointed out by Sir W. Grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum
+wire be placed in a candle flame, one at the bottom and the other near the
+top, an electric current will flow through the wire, indicating the
+presence of electricity. If an electrified body be heated, the electricity
+escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises. If a vessel of water be
+electrified, and the water then converted into steam, the electric charge
+will be rapidly dissipated. If a vessel containing water be electrified,
+and the water allowed to escape drop by drop, electricity will escape with
+each drop, and the vessel will soon be discharged.
+
+We regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a greater or
+less charge; whence it is safe to assume that in the process of
+evaporation which is going on all over the surface of the globe, more
+particularly in equatorial regions, every particle of water, as it rises
+into the air, carries with it its portion, however minute that portion may
+be, of the earth's electric charge. This small charge distributes itself
+over the surface of the aqueous particle, and the vapor rises higher and
+higher until it reaches that point above which the air is too rare to
+support it. It then flows away laterally, and as it approaches colder
+regions gets denser, sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface. The
+aqueous particles becoming reduced in size, the extent of their surfaces
+is proportionately reduced. It follows that as the particles and their
+surfaces are reduced, the charge is confined to a smaller surface, and
+attains, therefore, a greater "surface density," or in simpler language, a
+greater amount of electricity per unit of surface.
+
+Electricity, as above set forth, is in what is known as the "static"
+condition (to distinguish it from electricity which is being transferred
+in the form of a current), when it has the property of "repelling itself"
+to the utmost limits of any conductor upon which it may be confined. This
+will account for the charge finding its way to the surface of the water
+particles, and will furthermore account for the greater density of the
+charge as the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface
+rapidly diminished. It may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere
+varies as the cube of its radius.
+
+Returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing when the
+particles have reached their highest position in the atmosphere, we may
+imagine that they set themselves off on journeys toward either the north
+or the south pole. As they pass from the hotter to the colder regions, a
+number of particles coalesce; these again combine with others on the road
+until the vapor becomes visible as cloud. The increased density implies
+increased weight, and the cloud particles, as they sail poleward, descend
+toward the surface of the earth. Assuming that a spherical form is
+maintained throughout, the condensation of a number of particles implies a
+considerable reduction of surface. Thus, the contents of two spheres vary
+as the cubes of their radii, or eight (the cube of 2) drops on combining
+will form a drop twice the radius of one of the original drops. We may
+safely conceive hundreds and thousands of such combinations to take place
+until a cloud mass is formed, in which the constituent parts are more or
+less in contact, and, therefore, behave electrically as a single conductor
+of irregular surface, upon which is accumulated all the electricity that
+was previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of particles
+that now compose it.
+
+The tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a conductor is to
+take upon itself a position in which it may approach nearest to an equal
+and opposite charge; or, if possible, to attain neutrality. If, then, a
+cloud has a charge, and there is no other cloud above or near it, the
+charge _induces_ on the adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite
+kind. Thus, assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity,
+the subjacent earth will be in the negative state. The two
+electricities[3] exert a strong tendency to combine or to produce
+neutrality, whence there is a species of stress applied to the intervening
+air. Possibly the cloud will be drawn bodily toward the earth more or less
+rapidly, according as the charge is great or small. Or, on the other hand,
+the cloud may roll on for leagues, carrying its influence with it, so that
+the various portions of the earth underneath become successively charged
+and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey.
+
+[Footnote 3: We may speak of two electricities or two electric states
+without necessarily implying adherence either to the single or the double
+"fluid" theory. Whether electricity be of two kinds or no, the fact
+remains that there are two conditions, and all the features of this paper
+may be explained with equal facility by the supporters of either
+hypothesis.]
+
+Should the cloud be near the earth, or should it be very highly charged,
+the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to overcome the
+resistance of the intervening air; and if this resistance should prove too
+weak, what happens? How does the discharge show itself? It takes place in
+the form of a lightning flash, and passing from the one surface to the
+other--or, maybe, simultaneously from both--produces neutrality more or
+less complete.
+
+There has recently been a little discussion in these pages on the subject
+of lightning, some having stated that they discerned the discharge to take
+place upward--that is, from the earth toward the cloud. I will not venture
+so far as to say whether or not the direction of the discharge is
+discernible; possibly the flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one
+to tell; but I have never so seen it, and have always looked upon the eye
+as a deceitful member--very. "The lightning flash itself never lasts more
+than 1/100000 of a second." It is, however, just as likely that a
+discharge may travel upward as downward. What controls the discharge? Does
+the quality of the charge?--that is to say, is the positive or the
+negative more prone to break disruptively through the insulating medium?
+Investigations with Geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied
+gases have made it tolerably clear that there is a greater "tearing away"
+influence at the negative than at the positive pole, and if two equal
+balls, containing one a positive and the other a negative charge, be
+equally heated, the negative is more readily dissipated than the positive.
+But, so far as we at present know, this question enters into the
+discussion scarcely, if at all. Our knowledge seems rather to point to the
+substances upon which the charges are collected. The self-repellent nature
+of electricity compels it to manifest itself at the more prominent parts
+of the surface, the level being forsaken for the point. The tension of the
+charge, or its tendency to fly off, is proportionately increased. And if
+at a given moment the tension attains a certain intensity, the discharge
+follows, emanating from the surface which offers the greatest facilities
+for escape. The earth is generally flatter than the cloud, whence, in all
+probability, the discharge more frequently originates with the cloud.
+
+Should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct neutrality,
+it is possible that no damage will result, although this again is not
+always certain, because when the cloud charge acts inductively on the
+earth it produces the opposite (say negative) charge on the nearer parts,
+the similar (or positive) state is also produced at some place more or
+less distant. Sometimes this "freed" positive (which, by the way,
+accumulates gradually and physiologically imperceptibly) is collected at
+some portion of the earth's surface. When the negative is neutralized by
+the discharge, the freed positive is no longer confined to a particular
+region, but tends to dissipate itself, and a shock may be felt more or
+less severely by any person within the region. Or, again, a similar shock
+may be experienced by a person standing within the negative zone on the
+neutralization of the charge.
+
+I may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting and
+instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits during a
+thunderstorm. The storm may be taking place at some distance from the
+point of observation. The electrified cloud induces the opposite charge
+beneath it, the similar charge being repelled. It is noticeable that the
+needle of a galvanometer, starting from the middle position, goes
+gradually over to one side, eventually indicating a considerable
+deflection. Suddenly, owing apparently to a lightning discharge some
+distance away, the force which caused the deflection is withdrawn, and the
+needle rebounds with great violence to the opposite side. In a short time,
+the cloud becoming again charged on its under surface, and recommencing
+its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth, the needle starts again, and
+goes through the same series of movements, a violent counterthrow
+following every flash of lightning.
+
+If we can so far control our imagination, we may conceive the earth to be
+one large insulated conductor, susceptible to every influence around it.
+If then the earth, as a mass of matter, behaves as above indicated, there
+is no plausible reason for declining to regard any other large conducting
+mass in a similar light, and as a body capable of being subjected more or
+less completely to the various impulses affecting the earth. In other
+words, a large mass of conducting material, partially or perfectly
+insulated, is, during a thunderstorm, in considerable danger. With this
+portion of the subject I shall, however, deal more fully when discussing
+the merits of lightning protectors.
+
+Lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth only, but
+also, and perhaps more frequently, between too oppositely charged clouds.
+We then get atmospheric lightning, the flash often extending for miles.
+This form of lightning is harmless, and in all probability what we see is
+only a reflection of the discharge. The oft-told tale of the lightning
+flying in at the window, across the room, and out of the door, or up the
+chimney, is all moonshine, and before dealing with lightning protectors I
+intend to expose some of the fallacies concerning lightning. Were the
+discharge to pass through a house, it would infallibly leave more decided
+traces and do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now
+and again. Many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a
+thunderstorm, but it may be safely predicted that a person under a roof is
+infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level ground, and
+making himself a prominence inviting a discharge. Rain almost invariably
+accompanies the discharge, and the roof and sides of the house being wet,
+they form a more or less perfect channel of escape should a flash strike
+the building.--_Knowledge._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RESEARCHES ON MAGNETISM.
+
+By M. DUTER.
+
+
+If we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field, so that the
+lines of force of the field may be normal to the surface of the plate, we
+have a very flat magnet, the two faces of which are the two polar
+surfaces. The magnetic distribution thus obtained seems to disappear when
+the plate is no longer in the field. The following experiments show that
+this disappearance is not complete. I made use of plates of tempered steel
+of 1 millimeter in thickness, and varying in diameter from 0.040 to 0.005
+meter. With these plates I formed cylindrical batteries. In some of these
+batteries the plates are directly in contact, and in others they were
+separated by leaves of pasteboard, the thickness of which varied from that
+of the thinnest paper to 0.001 meter. The batteries were placed in the
+central portion of a very powerful magnetic field, and after they have
+been taken out they formed perfectly regular permanent magnets. The
+supporting power of these magnets was the greater the nearer its
+constituent plates were to each other. In a battery of 100 plates,
+touching each other directly, and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder,
+the portative force at each extremity rose to 30 grammes. This first
+result having been obtained, I dismounted the batteries, plate by plate,
+taking care to mark the upper and under side of each. I found then that
+each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism. Yet each of them
+still constituted a flat magnet, of which the two faces are the polar
+surfaces; for on rebuilding the battery it gave again a perfectly regular
+magnet, though weaker than it was at first. The separation of the magnet
+into its constituent plates, and its reconstruction, maybe repeated
+indefinitely.--_Comptes Rendus._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dr. T. Tommasi (_Cosmos les Mondes_) notes that the thermic constant of
+thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants of potassium and
+lead, the two metals which it most resembles in its chemical character.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED GAS LIGHT BUOY.
+
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+The accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the Pintsch's
+Patent Lighting Company for the river Humber. The chief dimensions of the
+buoy are given in the engraving, which also shows that the gas holder is
+placed within the boat in such a way as to be protected from blows likely
+to cause any leakage. The buoy has a special form to meet its requirements
+as a lightship, and the conditions of its employment is the fast tidal
+current of the river. It was designed by Mr. C. Berthon, of Westminster,
+and is intended to carry a six months' supply of gas, the burner,
+regulator, and lamp being on the well known Pintsch system. The hull is
+formed of 3/8 inch plate, 24 feet 3 inches total length, and 9 feet beam
+at the line of flotation. The laps of the plates are 4 inches wide, and
+riveted with 3/4 inch rivets, spaced 2-1/4 inch apart center to center.
+The keel and stem are both in one piece, as shown, and to this the
+garboard strake is to be fastened. The bilge pieces are riveted on to the
+bilge, and made of 9 inches by 4-1/2 inches by 9/16 inch T-iron. A wooden
+fender, 4 inches by 4 inches wood, is fitted on both sides of hull,
+running from stern to stern, by 3 inches by 3-1/2 inches by 7/16 inch
+L-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown. The hull from water line
+falls in as shown, so as to describe at midships an arc of 4 feet 6
+inches, and a circular deck of 1/8 inch plate is riveted on the hull.
+There are two man-holes, each 16 inches diameter in the clear, placed in
+end plates of the circular deck as shown, and provided with covers 3/8
+inch thick, secured by twenty screws 3/4 inch diameter. The edge of each
+manhole is stiffened by a welded iron ring. The surface of the mooring
+link that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is steeled.
+The gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side, and riveted to the
+keelson, and is prevented from rolling by four gusset plates, with two
+short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto at the ends and coming in
+contact with the holder, and at the ends by angular plates, and angle iron
+riveted on each side and riveted to the keelson. The superstructure
+consists of four legs of angle iron 2-1/2 inches by 2-1/2 inches by 5/16
+inch, the upper ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate
+for supporting the lighting apparatus. Four wooden battens of pitch pine,
+4 inches by 1-1/2 inches, and bolted on to each cant of the angle iron
+superstructure, with 7/8 inch galvanized iron bolts and nuts.
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PROJECT FOR A ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.
+
+
+The present port of Havre is absolutely insufficient to answer the ever
+increasing requirements of commerce. Its entrance, which is too narrow and
+not deep enough, does not permit steamers to go in, come out, and perform
+their evolutions with the rapidity required by our epoch. So they are
+gradually abandoning our port, and going to load and unload at Anvers and
+elsewhere. A large number of wise heads, who are anxious about the future
+of this port and our national interests, have devoted themselves to
+finding a means of enlarging it, not by dredging _new_ basins, which would
+prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years, but by installing
+a true roadstead at the entrance to the present basins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.]
+
+Upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen, under the name of
+the Little Roadstead, a vast extent of sea nearly two kilometers wide by
+three to four in length, bounded upon one side by the heights of Heve and
+St. Adresse, and upon the other by the rocky line of Eclat and of the
+heights of the roadstead (Fig. 1). This Little Roadstead, so called, in
+order to become a genuine one, would have to be protected against the
+great waves of the open sea. To thus protect it, to close it as quickly
+and as cheaply as possible--that is the problem.
+
+In 1838, Charles de Massas presented a project (the first in order of
+date), which consisted in constructing upon the Eclat reef a semi-lunate
+dike, and a breakwater at Cape Heve. Moreover, upon the emergent parts of
+the Eclat reef and heights of the roadstead he proposed to erect two
+forts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER.]
+
+The defense of the port of Havre is a very important question, and one
+that appears to be completely abandoned. Since Engineer Degaulle in 1808
+advised the erection of a fort upon the Eclat, and requests have
+periodically been made and projects drawn. The requests are forgotten, but
+the drawings are in the Ministers' portfolios, and if France should
+to-morrow have a war with a maritime power our great northern port might
+be destroyed and burned by the smallest squadron.
+
+Some years after Massas' project, two officers, Deloffre and Bleve, and an
+engineer named Renaud, received a commission to search for a means of
+closing a portion of Seine Bay. These gentlemen advised the erection of
+two dikes, one on the Eclat shoal in the very axis of this reef, and the
+other at Heve. Between these two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating
+breakwater. This project, which was submitted to Admiral de Hell in 1845,
+had a favorable reception, and the Admiral especially applauded the trial
+of breakwaters, "which were much talked of in England, although the
+effects that they might produce were not well known." Deloffre, Bleve, and
+Renauds' project comprised two forts--one to the north and the other to
+the south of the roadstead. For a long time nothing more was said about
+it, and it is only during recent years, when the peril has become imminent
+for Havre (threatened as it is of being abandoned even by the French
+transatlantics), that the question has again became the order of the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.--END VIEW.]
+
+Mr. Bert, a merchant, would protect the Little Roadstead by means of two
+jetties, 1,000 and 1,600 meters in length, built, one of them upon the
+Eclat and the other upon the eminences of the roadstead. These would be
+constructed by forming a foundation of loose rocks, and using earth and
+brick above the level of the water. Mr. Vial has likewise proposed a
+rockwork of 2,000 meters in length, to form a dike 10 meters in height and
+width, whose platform would be on a level with the highest tides.
+
+Next comes the more recent project of Mr. Coulon. Seeing that it is the
+deposits of the ocean and not those of the Seine that accumulate upon the
+estuary, Mr. Coulon advises the construction of a dike about 2,000 meters
+in length, starting from the Havre jetty, and ending at the southwest
+extremity of the shoals at the roadstead heights, and a second one
+returning toward the northwest, of from 500 to 1,000 meters. A third and
+very long one of not less than 8 kilometers would be built from Honfleur
+to the Ratier shoals.
+
+This latter one, in contracting the bay, would contribute to increase the
+force of the current, which, throwing back at the ocean its mud and
+pebbles, would give us the depths of 15 and 20 meters indicated on the map
+of Beautemps-Beaupre.
+
+This year, again, two projects have arisen; one of them due to Mr.
+Thuillard-Froideville, and the other to Mr. Hersent.
+
+According to Mr. Hersent, it would be necessary to surround the Little
+Roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky shoals, which
+would begin at Cape Heve (which it would consolidate) and end opposite the
+entrance to the port at 1,600 meters from the jetties. Through it there
+would be five passages. Afterward another dike would be constructed,
+starting from the shore and running to meet the jetty designed to inclose
+the Little Roadstead. On turning the angle at which it met the jetty it
+would be continued as far as to Berville. Finally, a third dike, running
+from Honfleur to Berville, would complete the system.
+
+Mr. Hersent's project, which is one of the most remarkable of those that
+have been proposed, has one fault, and that is that it would require
+twelve years of work, and cost 158 million francs.
+
+Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, completely renouncing masonry dikes as being
+too costly and taking too long to construct, proposes to inclose the Havre
+roadstead by means of floating breakwaters. As we have already seen, the
+use of these between Cape Heve and the Eclat shoals had already been
+proposed in 1845. As the project was abandoned, the models of these
+breakwaters are rare.
+
+In Bouniceau's "Marine Constructions" we find a curious figure, a sort of
+open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular manner, and
+surmounted by rooms for watchmen, semaphores, posts for the shipwrecked,
+etc. It is, indeed, the most complicated and most impracticable type that
+could be imagined.
+
+Mr. Lewis' model, which was exhibited last year at the International
+Fisheries Exhibition, was, on the contrary, one of the simplest. It
+consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly triangular section, the
+sharpest angle of which, being turned oceanward, was designed to cut the
+waves and cause them to break over it (Fig. 2). If, by favor of divine
+Providence, this breakwater, which presents absolutely plane surfaces to
+the shock and pressure of the waves, is not broken to fragments in the
+first tempest, it will certainly acquit itself of the _role_ for which the
+inventor destined it. When we have a system of resistance to the sea,
+anchored and facing a certain direction, and consequently not being able
+to revolve around its axis as vessels do, care must be taken not to give
+it entire surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.--MODE OF JOINING THE
+PARTS.]
+
+Mr. Froideville's breakwater consists of a framework 25 meters in length,
+and 9 in height and width, and having the form of an irregular 5-sided
+prism (Fig. 3). The smallest side of the prism is designed to serve as a
+flat keel. The axis is formed of a metallic float, from whence start radii
+that form the skeleton of the framework, and that are designed for
+connecting the center with five long spruce beams that form the angles of
+the prism. To these beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the
+openwork sides. Five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams, but not
+so strong as they, protect the cross pieces and secure them against
+breakage in the middle. All the angles of the breakwater and all points of
+juncture of the pieces are protected with iron, and it is in order to
+counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central float is
+used. Parallel with this first breakwater, there are two other and smaller
+ones, which are designed for reducing the effect of rolling as much as
+possible. Reduced to a single float, the breakwater might remain under the
+waves too long, but, owing to the two others, it rights itself, warps
+around, and always presents the spur of its sharp roof to the wave.
+
+In order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each other, they
+are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious manner. From each of
+them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar which terminates in a journal
+that permits the breakwater to oscillate. Between these two bars there is
+a sort of swivel, whose pieces, in playing upon one another, give the
+breakwaters elasticity, while always holding them apart (Fig. 4). From
+each side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which the
+anchorage chain is attached. This latter is of steel, without solderings,
+and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage need be feared. To the
+other extremity of the chain is attached an anchor having two flukes,
+which both engage with the bottom.
+
+Mr. Froideville proposes to set up two lines of these breakwaters, for a
+length of about 7½ kilometers, starting at the north from Cape Heve,
+taking in depths of 15 meters (the best that are found in the Little
+Roadstead), passing in front of the Eclat shoal and the heights, and
+ending opposite the entrance of the present port.
+
+The first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves, and the
+second for lending its aid in times of high tempests, and stopping the
+surge that has escaped from the first.
+
+The extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its promoter to
+affirm that in a few months, and with nine millions, he can inclose the
+Havre roadstead.
+
+The Little Roadstead, being thenceforward protected, will become an
+excellent port of refuge in bad weather. In addition, a system of
+lighters, or, better, a few floats connected with the shore and forming a
+rock, will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with great rapidity.
+
+Mr. Froideville's project presents the further advantage of rendering it
+easier to put the port of Havre quickly in defense. A certain number of
+floating batteries, anchored behind the breakwaters and protecting the
+advances of torpedo boats by means of their firing, would make a
+formidable defense. Not having to perform any evolutions, they might
+without danger be invested with armor plate thicker than that of ordinary
+ironclads. In order to complete the system, there might be erected upon
+the Eclat shoal an ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of
+Portsmouth.
+
+An English chronicler of the fourteenth century, in speaking of his
+country, places it above all others, and declares that men are handsomer,
+whiter, and purer blooded there than elsewhere, and he says that this is
+so "because it is so." We would not like to imitate his naive reasoning,
+and yet, for defending the very original system proposed by Mr.
+Froideville, we have only our conviction, which we share, moreover, with a
+large number of sea-faring men and engineers. Mathematics are powerless to
+predict to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters
+will behave, but experiment remains. Let the promoter of the project,
+then, be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters, and if, as we
+suppose, the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a northwester, a
+maritime revolution will have been brought about.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.
+
+
+In 1882, M. Bacle published in _Le Génie Civil_ a study of the sewer
+systems in some of the large foreign cities. There may be found there a
+description of the Liernur system at Amsterdam, Leyden, and Dordrecht, in
+Holland, and in certain cities of Germany and the United States.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.]
+
+This system consists in the employment of two distinct systems of ducts,
+one for the discharges from water-closets and the other for household
+wastes, rain water, and the discharges from factories when sufficiently
+purified. This arrangement allows the employment of sewers of small
+section, provided that it shall be unnecessary to enter them for the
+purpose of cleansing them. It has been necessary, therefore, to provide
+inlets with a separating apparatus called "gully" or "catch basin," which
+retains as completely as possible all solid matter, mud, excrement, and
+_debris_ of every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by
+rain-water, and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the sewers,
+the choking up being followed by fermentation and the emanation of noxious
+vapors.
+
+M.C. Pieper of Berlin suggests a device for a catch basin, which appears
+to meet the requirements. It is in the form of a cylindrical metal box,
+enlarged in its upper section to receive a filtering cylinder of
+perforated sheet iron, which occupies almost the upper half of the device
+and rests upon the smaller lower part. The entire apparatus is covered by
+a movable funnel, through which enter water and any rubbish which it may
+carry with it. From one side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged,
+while a siphon placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under
+certain circumstances, as will be explained.
+
+Figure 1 represents the apparatus discharging under normal conditions. The
+heavy matter, sand, stones, etc., falls to the bottom into a receptacle
+which can be lifted out from time to time and emptied. The lighter buoyant
+matters, straw, vegetable _debris_, paper, etc., remain at the surface,
+and are retained by the filter; the water passing through the holes in the
+sheet iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which
+exists in the upper part between the two cylinders, and escapes by the
+waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level. If at a given moment the
+quantity of water flowing in is too much to be discharged through this
+waste-pipe, the level of the water mounts in the cylinder until it reaches
+the top of the siphon. Immediately the siphon comes into play and empties
+the upper part of the apparatus, and the filtered water contained in the
+annular space already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the
+perforated sheet iron, and in so doing cleans out the perforations with
+considerable energy. This second period is represented in the second
+figure.
+
+The mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket, the heavy
+matters contained in the latter are not in the least disturbed, and the
+metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents the entrance of any
+floating matters. When siphonic action ceases, the water in the short arm
+of the siphon empties itself into the main receptacle, and by so doing
+cleanses the screen. During a rain or the washing of the streets, the
+siphon can work in concurrence with the ordinary discharge-pipe. It is
+evident of course that these two--pipes can be placed on the same side of
+the apparatus, if this prove the most convenient arrangement.
+
+We will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the Liernur
+system, but also can be used for preventing the entrance of obstructions
+into sewers of the ordinary type, where the grade is small or where the
+quantity of water is insufficient; and if we adopt the system of
+"everything to the sewer," can we not find in the employment of this
+apparatus an element for the realization of the famous formula, "Always in
+circulation, and never in stagnation?"--_Le Génie Civil._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 454, page 7249.]
+
+WATER-POWER WITH HIGH PRESSURES AND WROUGHT-IRON WATER-PIPE.
+
+By HAMILTON SMITH, JR., M. Am. Soc. C.E.
+
+METHODS OF CONDUCTING WATER AND TRANSMITTING POWER.
+
+
+A description of the mode of using water-power for driving the North
+Bloomfield tunnel in California, some years since, will give a good
+illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy. This tunnel was
+originally about 8,000 feet long, through a slate highly metamorphosed,
+with its general line passing under a good-sized stream, at a depth of
+about 190 feet. There were eight working-shafts, each about 200 feet deep,
+which, with the lower entrance or portal, gave sixteen working faces.
+Diamond drills were used at the lower heading requiring power; the other
+fifteen headings were driven by hand-work. It was uncertain how much water
+would be encountered; but from the location, it was evident that a large
+quantity might be struck in any shaft, and hence it became necessary to
+have ample power at hand at each opening, in readiness for such an
+emergency. A pipe main was laid along the general line of the tunnel, with
+its pen-stock 285 feet vertical above the surface at the upper shaft, and
+549 feet above the lowest shaft. It was made of single riveted sheet-iron,
+of No. 14 (Birmingham) gauge, in lengths of 20 feet, put together
+stove-pipe fashion, with the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and
+pine wedges. This pipe had a diameter of 15 inches at the pen-stock,
+diminishing from this to 13, 11, and 7 inches at its lower end. From it,
+short branches, 7 inches in diameter, were extended to the several shafts.
+It was in one place carried across the stream by a light suspension
+bridge, some 150 feet long, the trunk of a tree on each side forming a
+convenient tower. The aggregate length of the main and branches was 9,960
+feet, with some 2,500 feet additional, for the branch to the diamond
+drills. The pipe was laid on the surface of the ground, its only
+protection being in places a couple of 1½-inch planks tacked together, and
+placed over it; the range of temperature was from 10 degrees to 107
+degrees Fahr. (in the shade). It was inspected by the foreman of the
+tunnel-work as he daily walked over the line; besides the occasional
+driving of a few wedges and putting on a band or two, it gave no trouble
+from leakage, which probably for its entire length did not amount to more
+than an average of 3 or 4 cubic feet a minute; from time to time, a little
+sawdust was put into the pen-stock. Three stop-gates were placed on the
+main, and a separate stop-gate at each shaft, operated by a fine-threaded
+screw, so that the water could be cut off when desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Fig. 13 shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and pumping,
+which was identical at the several shafts, except that the hurdy-gurdies
+varied from 16½ feet in diameter at the upper shaft to 21 feet at the
+lowest shaft. The water-wheel moved only in one direction; the pinion on
+the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel, to which the pitman of the pump-bob
+was attached. On the spur-wheel shaft was a friction-gear, driving the
+hoisting-reel; this reel was mounted on sliding blocks, so that hoisting
+was done by putting it in gear, the empty load being dropped by a
+friction-band. Changing the size of the water-wheel as the pressure
+increased permitted the use of the same pattern of machinery at the
+different shafts. The water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe,
+some nine feet long, having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint,
+so that at pleasure, by dropping the pipe, the machinery could be run at
+various speeds, or entirely stopped. At the end of this discharge-pipe
+was a cast tapered nozzle, about 3½ inches in diameter, in which was
+inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having the desired diameter, and which
+was held in place by an annular screw-cap. By changing the ring, which
+only required a few moments' time, any desired amount of water, up to 3 or
+4 cubic feet a second, could be discharged against the wheel. The
+stop-gate was left wide open while the machinery was running. The pumping
+was done by eighteen pumps, of Cornish pattern; the largest amount of
+water pumped from any one shaft was something over 30 cubic feet a minute;
+the power at hand, however, was ample to pump more than twice that
+quantity. It was rather curious at, this shaft to see more water coming
+from the pumps than was used on the wheel. The two diamond drills were
+driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the rear of the drill carriage. This,
+but at another tunnel, was afterward modified by placing a separate
+hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on each drill-rod; the advance movement of the
+drill being given by hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston, thus doing
+away with all gearing. These eight sets of machinery were run for nearly
+2½ years' time; the only break being that of a spur-wheel, doubtless
+caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it and its pinion.
+Aside from this accident, practically not a dollar was spent for repairs,
+and the machinery, including the pipe, was in about as good order when the
+tunnel was finished as when it was first erected. One man, on a twelve
+hour shift, operated the machinery at each shaft, besides dumping the
+cars; two men kept the 18 pumps on the line in order, the principal work
+being in keeping the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight; thus
+a force of 18 men was only required for the eight shafts. The cost of the
+pipe, gates, etc., when put in place, was $14,631, and of the machinery
+about $60,000.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+At the Idaho gold quartz mine, situated near Grass Valley, California,
+water-power has been introduced during the past year (1883), taking the
+place of steam. The supply main is of wrought-iron, 22 inches in diameter,
+8,764 feet long, buried in the ground below frost-line. The joints, as a
+rule, are riveted together, with occasional lead joints to admit of slight
+movements in the pipe.[4] The pipe was coated by placing each joint in a
+bath of boiling tar and asphaltum; to insure the most thorough coating, it
+is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or fifteen minutes in the boiling
+mixture. A cast-iron stop-gate is placed at the lower end of the main, and
+also one at each of the branches. Cast-iron man-holes are attached to the
+main, which, although they have given no trouble in this particular case,
+are very objectionable for high pressures, as it is difficult to avoid
+ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined, owing to the great
+difference in the elasticity of the two metals. The long seams of this
+pipe are double-riveted, and the round seams single riveted; at the lower
+end, iron of No. 6 gauge is used. From the end of the main, the water is
+led to the several wheels by branches of smaller diameter.
+
+[Footnote 4: With buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is unnecessary,
+as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the movement due to changes of
+temperature, without injury to the rivets.]
+
+The water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head of 542.6
+feet. For power and for mill uses, etc., the required supply is about 8
+cubic feet a second; this draught reduces the effective head to say 523
+feet.
+
+The work done consists in driving the following described machinery:
+
+A large air-compressor--2 cylinders, double acting, air compressed to 75
+pounds--requiring about 140 horse-power.
+
+A line of Cornish pumps, forcing the water from a depth of 1,450 feet
+vertical; 12-inch plungers for upper 800 feet, 6-inch plungers for lower
+650 feet, with 6-foot stroke, requiring from 55 to 70 horse-power.
+
+Hoisting from a double-compartment shaft--two connected winding reels,
+moving separate cages--requiring 35 horse-power, or more.
+
+A few small machine-tools and smithy forges, requiring 3 or 4 horse-power.
+
+A 35-stamp mill, with concentrating apparatus, etc., requiring about 70
+horse-power.
+
+The total amount of power required being say 320 horse-power, for which
+seven Pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed.
+
+The power in all cases is transmitted by systems of Manila rope belting;
+the rope is 2 inches in diameter; the grooves in the sheaves or pulleys
+are slightly oval, so that the rope does not go quite to the bottom; the
+ropes are horizontal, and run very slack (no tighteners), with no
+appreciable slip; the splices are made very long, to obtain uniformity in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+This method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly and has
+given excellent satisfaction. It is thought, at the Idaho, to be greatly
+preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the works were driven by
+steam (for such work as pumping or hoisting, leather or rubber belting is
+never used), besides being much cheaper in first cost.
+
+The wheel driving the air-compressor is 6 feet in diameter, running 300
+turns[5] per minute, with 1-15/18-inch nozzle; three ropes are used from
+the wheel shaft to the counter-shaft, and six ropes from the latter to the
+fly-wheel shaft.
+
+[Footnote 5: The revolutions per minute, of these wheels, as here given,
+are only approximate, as the design was to have the bucket speed=½
+2(gh)^{½}.]
+
+For driving the pumps, there are two water-wheels, set on the same shaft,
+one 5 feet and the other 7 feet in diameter, either of which can be used
+at will, thus permitting different rates of speed; two nozzles are placed
+on each wheel, so that if necessary the power can at any time be doubled.
+The smaller wheel has a 1-1/4 inch nozzle, and runs 360 turns a minute;
+the larger has 1-1/8-inch nozzle, and makes 270 turns a minute. There are
+two ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft, and four ropes to the
+fly-wheel shaft, on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel attached to
+the pitman of the pump-bob. Hoisting is done by two wheels placed side by
+side on the same shaft, the buckets and nozzle of each wheel being placed
+in opposite directions. Both wheels are 8 feet in diameter, with
+15/16-inch nozzles, and make at full speed about 225 turns a minute.
+Reversing the movement of the shaft is done by shutting off water from one
+wheel, and turning water on the other wheel; the two water-gates for these
+nozzles are quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure, afforded
+from the water main. In addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels,
+a brake is placed on the wheel-shaft, so that it can be stopped in a very
+short period of time.
+
+The shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off the water at
+these hoisting-wheels (nearly one cubic foot per second) has not
+apparently had any injurious, effect. To lessen this shock, a compensating
+balance was designed, but which is not now in use. A wheel, of small
+diameter, is used for the smithy, etc., running at a very high velocity.
+The wheel driving the stamp-mill is 6 feet in diameter, makes 300
+revolutions a minute, and is supplied through a 1-3/16 inch nozzle. The
+head of water at this point is a few feet greater than at the other
+wheels. Power is transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by
+two and four ropes, the same as with the pumping rig. The amount of work
+done, or of water used, has not been carefully determined; judging from
+the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines, the managers of the
+Idaho believe that an efficiency of fully 80 per cent. of the theoretic
+power of the water is obtained on the main driving-shafts of the
+machinery. The substitution of water for steam-power has resulted in a
+large saving of expense. Although the hills near by are covered with fine
+forests, thus making wood cheap, and although a round price is charged for
+water by the company furnishing it, the cost of the water is considerably
+less than that of the wood formerly used as fuel. The cost of attendance
+is altogether in favor of the water-wheels, which hardly require any
+attention. The cost of the change from steam to water-power was
+$46,496.32.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEXAS CREEK PIPE AND AQUEDUCT.
+
+
+A description of this work will be of interest in showing the general
+practice followed in California for carrying water across deep mountain
+gorges. In order to augment its water supply, the North Bloomfield Gravel
+Mining Company desired to conduct water from a stream known as Texas
+Creek, in Nevada County, California, across the Big Cañon branch of the
+South Yuba River into the main Bloomfield flume or aqueduct, which was
+located on the side of Big Cañon Creek, at a vertical elevation of 620
+feet above the bed of the latter stream. The quantity of water to be
+carried was about 32 cubic feet a second (1,250 miner's inches), which
+could be diverted from Texas Creek at a point 480 feet vertical above the
+Bloomfield flume. An aqueduct about 4,000 feet long, partly of ditch and
+partly of flume, was needed to bring the water from the catchment dam on
+the creek to the brow of the gorge. The vertical head for the pipe could
+therefore be from a maximum of 460 feet down to any lesser head; with a
+head of 460 feet, the pipe would be 4,790 feet long; and with a head of
+220 feet, the length would be 4,290 feet. Assuming a maximum tensile
+strain upon the iron of 16,500 pounds per square inch, with the formula
+for the greatest head of about
+
+d = (.359 l/h)^{1/5}, [or, v = 68 (dh/l)^{1/2}, and Q = 32],
+
+and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for the lesser
+heads, it was found, by calculation, that the least cost could be obtained
+with a head from 300 to 350 feet. The head fixed upon was 303.6 feet, with
+a length of 4,438.7 feet. A profile of the pipe, with nearly the same
+horizontal and vertical scales (horizontal scale, showing slope lengths),
+is given in Fig. 14; details are given in Figs. 15 and 16. The pipe was of
+double riveted sheet iron, made in lengths of about 20 feet, and of the
+following thicknesses:
+
+  1,349 linear feet,    0.083 inch thick.
+    220    "            0.095     "
+    240    "            0.109     "
+    250    "            0.120     "
+    320    "            0.134     "
+    610    "            0.148     "
+  1,450    "            0.165     "
+
+Some of the iron was of the very poorest quality; the pipe was made by
+contract in San Francisco, without the supervision of an inspector, as the
+contractors were a firm of good reputation; the bad quality of the iron
+was not detected until too late to have it corrected. Since then, the
+writer has always had such pipes--the mines of which he has been the
+manager using large quantities--made directly on the ground where they are
+to be used; the pipe makers, in the latter case, always reject such sheets
+as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge, and those which
+show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of iron; tests of each
+joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too much to the cost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+The maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of iron used
+was intended to be 16,500 pounds per square inch. Some of the sheets were
+below the standard gauge, so that, in reality, the tensile strain is
+sometimes as high as 18,000 pounds. The mean diameter of the pipe was
+1.416 feet. The entrance into the pen-stock was tapered, so that the
+coefficient of contraction was about 0.92. For pressures not exceeding say
+380 feet, the joints were put together stove-pipe fashion. For greater
+pressures, the joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of
+the joint, with an outer lap-welded band, as shown by Fig. 15; lead was
+run into the space between the outer band and the pipe, and then tightly
+driven up by calking-irons. The pipe was laid under the bed of the Big
+Cañon Creek, a large stream when in freshet, where the head below the
+hydraulic grade line was 760 feet. Some of the lead joints leaked slightly
+at first, but this was soon remedied by more careful calking. No man-holes
+or escape-gates were used. The pipe for the larger part of the year is not
+filled at its upper end; when such is the case, the water at the inlet
+carries down the pipe a great quantity of air, for which escapes must be
+provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing, which would soon destroy the
+pipe. The escape air-valves used are shown by Fig. 16. They consist simply
+of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron, with recess for lead filling to give
+greater weight set on top the pipe, seating on a vulcanized rubber
+cushion, and swinging on a loose hinge. When the pipe is only partly
+filled with water, the valves drop down by their own weight, allowing the
+air to freely escape; when the water rises above the level of a valve, it
+is tightly closed by the resulting pressure. There are fourteen of these
+valves, those on the lower end being designed to allow air to freely enter
+the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper portion, and thus prevent
+any collapse from atmospheric pressure. The valves have answered the
+desired purposes most effectually. The pipe was hauled over a road built
+to the inlet end, and shot down the mountain side by means of a V-shaped
+trough of wood. For the lower end, the joints were hauled up the cliff
+side into place by a crab worked by horse-power. On steep inclinations,
+the pipe was held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in
+the solid rock, as shown by the sketch. The covering of earth and stone
+was 1 foot to 2 feet in depth; with steep slopes, the earth was kept from
+sliding by rough dry walls, or by cedar plank placed crosswise. The pipe
+was laid in 1878; the first year it broke twice, owing to the wretched
+quality of the iron; since then, it has given no trouble, and has required
+practically no attention. The cost of this work--ditch and flume 4,000
+feet, and pipe 4,440 feet--was $23,779.53.
+
+A comparison of the relative values of n, in the formula v = n (r s)^{½},
+for the foregoing ditch, flume, and pipe will be instructive. The ditch
+has a width on the bottom of 3 feet, on the top of 6 feet, with a depth of
+3 feet, and an inclination of 20 feet per mile; its sides are rough, being
+cut in part through the rock and with sharp curves, although fairly
+regular; with a flow of about 1,300 miner's inches (32.8 cubic feet per
+second) the ditch runs about full.
+
+Therefore:
+
+      6 + 3
+  a = ----- × 3 = 13.5 ;
+        2
+
+[TEX: a = \frac{6+3}{2} \times 3 = 13.5;]
+
+           a
+  r = ------------- = 1.41 ;
+      3.3 + 3 + 3.3
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{3.3 + 3 + 3.3} = 1.41;]
+
+        20       1
+  s = ------ = ----- ;
+       5280     264
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{20}{5280} = \frac{1}{264};]
+
+  Q = 32.8, hence
+
+       Q
+  v = --- = 2.43;
+       a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 2.43;]
+
+and
+
+     /              {½} \
+  n ( in v = n (r s)^    ) = 33.
+     \                  /
+
+[TEX: n\ (\text{in}\ v = n (r s)^\frac{1}{2}) = 33.]
+
+The flume is of unplaned boards, rectangular, 2.67 wide × 2.83 deep, with
+an inclination of 32 feet per mile. There are sharp curves, although these
+were made as regular as practicable; the boiling action of the water
+passing around these curves brought the flow line (Q = 32.8) nearly up to
+the top of the sides; with a straight flume of the same size, the water
+would have doubtless stood several inches lower.
+
+Therefore:
+
+    a = 2.67 × 2.83 = 7.56 ;
+
+                a
+    r =  -------------------- = 0.908 ;
+        2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83} = 0.908;]
+
+           32       1
+    s =  ------ = ----- ;
+          5280     165
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{32}{5280} = \frac{1}{165};]
+
+    Q = 32.8, hence
+
+         Q
+    v = --- = 4.34;
+         a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 4.34;]
+
+    and n = 59.
+
+With the pipe,[6] 1.416 diameter,
+
+         d
+    r = --- = 0.354; Q = 31.69; v = 20.13.
+         4
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{d}{4} = 0.354;\ Q = 31.69;\ v = 20.13.]
+
+[Footnote 6: _Vide_ pages 120-122, Transactions American Society of Civil
+Engineers for 1883.]
+
+Allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water, and for
+contraction,
+
+         296.1
+    s= --------; and n = 131.
+        4438.7
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{296.1}{4438.7};\ \text{and}\ n = 131.]
+
+We hence have the following values of n, in v = n (r s)^{½}, Q being
+constant:
+
+    Rough ditch, with sharp curves.                    33
+    Rectangular flume, with sharp curves.              59
+    Wrought-iron pipe, with easy curves, coated with
+    asphalt, but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy
+    obstructions (m = 65.5, and 2m = n)               131
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.
+
+
+The very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate herewith
+is the invention of a Russian engineer, Mr. Jagn. It is scarcely as yet
+known in Western Europe, where, however, something will probably be heard
+of it ere long. Its true field would seem to be Egypt, India, or any
+country where canals or rivers are used for irrigation, and where it is
+desired to draw water from them at particular spots in the simplest and
+cheapest manner. At present in nearly all such cases water is raised by
+hand or steam power; nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of
+the canal itself, slow though it may be, is quite sufficient to raise a
+small portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally
+needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields. Why then is it
+not employed for the purpose? The answer is obvious, when we consider the
+various hydraulic motors at present in use. Of course, motors worked by
+water pressure must here be excluded; and we are left with scarcely
+anything but the undershot wheel, the turbine, and the screw pump. All
+these require expensive buildings and erections to set them to work,
+present but a very small fraction of their surface to the water at any one
+time, and must be very large and costly if they are to draw even a very
+moderate amount of power from such a source. There is no possibility of
+adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the current or
+in the quantity of water required, nor of moving them from place to place
+should this be convenient.
+
+[Illustration: PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.]
+
+The motor of Mr. Jagn is on a totally different principle. Its essential
+features consist, as shown, of an endless rope made of hemp or aloe fiber,
+which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums mounted on a barge or
+pontoon, and then passes down the channel to return over a pulley hung
+from a floating punt, at such a depth that the whole of the rope is
+immersed in the water. Along this rope are suspended at equal intervals a
+number of parachutes made of sail cloth. The rope passes through the
+center of each of these, and to it are attached a series of strings, the
+other ends of which are connected to the outside edge of the parachute.
+Thus they act like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from
+opening too far under the pressure of the current. The parachutes must be
+placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on each, and the sum
+of the pressures forms the force which draws the rope through the water.
+The moment, however, that any parachute has passed round the return
+pulley, the current acts upon it in the opposite direction. It then shuts
+up like an umbrella, and assumes a volume so small that its resistance on
+the return journey is insignificant. After passing round the drum at the
+upper end, it at once opens afresh of its own accord, and once more
+becomes part of the moving power of the whole system. The parachutes are
+formed by first cutting out a complete circle of cloth, and then taking
+from this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area. Such
+parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the water better
+than a surface originally spherical, although the latter would be
+theoretically more correct. The motion of the drum is transmitted by spur,
+gear, or otherwise as may be required, to give the requisite speed.
+
+It will be seen that the advantages of the system are as follows: First,
+the facility it offers for obtaining a large working area, which may be
+increased or diminished at will, according to the requirements of the
+moment, by lengthening or shortening the rope. Secondly, the ease with
+which it is erected and set to work. Thirdly, the small part of the river
+section which it occupies, so as to present no obstacle to navigation.
+Fourthly, the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind,
+and carried wherever it may be needed. Fifthly, it is not stopped, like
+all other hydraulic motors, by the appearance of ice--it has, in fact,
+already been worked under ice in the Neva. At the same time, winds and
+waves have no influence upon it.
+
+The principle of the apparatus is not altogether new. In 1872 there was
+tried on the Ohio River an arrangement termed the Brooks motor. It was
+composed of two drums, placed horizontally and parallel to each other.
+Round these there passed endless chains at equal spaces apart on the
+length of the drums, and to these chains were fixed wooden blades or arms
+of a curved form, and so jointed to the frames that they opened when
+moving in one direction, and closed down on the chain when moving in the
+other. In this machine the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to
+obtaining any large amount of power. The whole apparatus was mounted on a
+heavy wooden scaffold, which proved an impediment to the flow of the
+river. Again, the resistance due to the surface of the returning blades
+and to their stiffness was found to be far from insignificant.
+
+In the present system Mr. Jagn has found, after many experiments, that the
+best effect was obtained when the parachutes were spaced apart at twice
+their diameter, and when the rope made an angle of 8 degrees to 10 degrees
+with the current. It is found that when open and in motion the parachutes
+never touch the bottom. This was the case with a rope containing 180
+parachutes of 4 feet diameter, and working in a depth of only 6 feet. This
+is easily explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always
+diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Hence the pressure on the lower
+part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper part; but the
+former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward, while the latter
+tends to raise it to the top of the water. Thus, the latter being the
+larger, the parachute will always have a tendency to rise. In fact, it is
+necessary to sink the return pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that
+the parachutes will not emerge from the surface. For the same reason no
+intermediate supports are needed over the driving span; if any are needed
+it is for the return span, on which the parachutes are closed. Of course,
+if metal were used instead of hemp, the case would be entirely different,
+and intermediate supports would have to be used for anything but very
+moderate lengths.
+
+In practice, Mr. Jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same pair of
+drums, which are mounted upon a pontoon. The ropes are spread out from
+each other, as in Fig. 1, making an angle of about 10 degrees. The low
+specific gravity of the system enables ropes to be employed of as great a
+length as 450 yards, each of them carrying 350 parachutes of 17.2 square
+feet area. As half of these are in action at the same time, the total
+working area for the two cables is 5,860 square feet. This immense area
+furnishes a considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble
+current. Comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes
+employed, and supposing this to have only 172 square feet of working area,
+such a wheel must have a length of 46 feet, a diameter of 23 feet, and
+seventy-two floats, each 2½ feet wide. The enormous dimensions thus
+required for a comparatively small working area point sufficiently clearly
+to the advantage which remains on the side of the parachute motor.
+
+The general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving. Behind
+the return pulleys, D D, are attached cords, A A, with some parachutes
+strung upon them. These present their openings to the current and preserve
+the tension of the connecting ropes. At the further end of each cord is a
+board, B, which is kept in a vertical plane, but lying at a slight angle
+to the direction of the current; and this acts to keep the two moving
+ropes apart from each other. The two return pulleys are, however,
+connected by a line, E, which can be shortened or lengthened from the
+pontoon, and in this way the angle of inclination between the two ropes
+can be varied if required. A grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span
+at the moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum. It is
+mounted on a screwed spindle, which is depressed by a nut, and thus makes
+the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly efficacious
+manner.
+
+The author has made a theoretical investigation of the power which may be
+developed by the system, and has worked out tables by which, when the
+velocity of the current and the other elements of the problem are known,
+the power developed by any given number of parachutes can be at once
+determined. We do not reproduce this investigation, which takes account of
+the resistance of the returning parachutes and other circumstances, but
+will content ourselves with quoting the final equation, which is as
+follows: T = 0.328 S V³. Here T is the work done in H.P., S is the total
+working area in sq. m., and V is the velocity of the current in m. per
+sec. Taking V = 1, and S = 1 sq. m., which is by no means an impracticable
+quantity, we have T = 0.328 H.P. per sq. m. We may check this result by
+the equation given, in English measures, by Rankine--"Applied Mechanics,"
+p. 398--for the pressure of a current upon a solid body immersed in it.
+This equation, F = 1.8 m A v² / 2g, where m is the weight of a unit of
+volume of the fluid--say 62 lb.--A is the area exposed, and v the relative
+velocity of the current. Mr. Jagn finds that the maximum of efficiency is
+obtained when the rope moves at one-third the velocity of the stream. If
+this velocity be 3 feet per second, we shall have v = 2. and we then get F
+= 7 lb. per sq. ft. very nearly. Now 1 sq. meter = 10.76 sq. ft., and a
+speed of 1 ft. per second (which is that of the rope) is 60 ft. per
+minute. Hence the H.P. realized in the same case as that taken above will
+be 7 × 10.76 × 60 / 33,000 = 0.137 H.P. The difference between the two
+values is very large, but Rankine, of course, depends entirely on the
+value of the constant 1.8, which is quite empirical, and is for a flat
+band instead of a hollow parachute. Taking, however, his smaller figure,
+and an area of 544 square inches, which Mr. Jagn has actually employed, we
+get a gross power of = 0.137 × 544 = 7.43 H.P. Hence it will be seen that
+the amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from being
+inconsiderable.
+
+Lastly, we may point out that the durability of the apparatus will be
+considerable. There is no wear except at the moment when the rope is
+passing round the drum, and even then there need be no slipping or
+grinding. The apparatus worked in the Neva was in very good condition
+after running for four months day and night. After five months about
+one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced, but after seven months the
+hemp rope still showed no signs of wear. We think we have said enough to
+show that for certain purposes, and especially, as we have, already
+mentioned, for irrigation purposes, the new motor is well worthy of a
+careful and extended trial. It may be questioned even whether we have not
+here the germ of an idea which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the
+most interesting and important of engineering problems, viz., the
+utilization of the great store of power provided for us twice daily in the
+ebb and flow of the tide.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.
+
+
+Our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning lathes, and is
+the result of thirty years' experience in the manufacture of shafting,
+with many years' study, to perfect a machine of the greatest practical
+capacity and efficiency.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.]
+
+The principal points of difference from a common engine lathe are readily
+distinguished, among which may be mentioned the absence of centers and
+tail stock, a traveling head with hollow driving spindle, and a stationary
+tool rest and water tank. By dispensing with a tail stock a much shorter
+bed may be used, and the hollow driving spindle enables any length shaft
+to be turned, with one setting of the tools. The tool rest is so arranged
+as to allow of perfect lubrication of the tools, keeping the shaft cool,
+and at the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong; the operator
+is not required to travel the length of the bed, but remains near the
+driving belt, feed gearing, etc. Power is communicated to the driving
+spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod inside the bed, the
+driving belt and gears being at the end.
+
+The driving head, after having traveled the length of the bed and turned a
+shaft, is returned by a quick feed, and stops automatically, allowing
+nearly time enough for the operator to grind tools and be ready with
+another shaft, thus economizing the time completely.
+
+Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass., are the makers, and they say that
+with a good quality of iron they have turned three hundred feet of two
+inch iron in ten hours.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.
+
+
+The machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the bed, which
+are adjustable for different lengths of shaft, and are made to revolve by
+power applied through suitable gearing and a splined rod inside the bed;
+the bar of iron being placed on the periphery of the rolls receives a
+rotary motion by friction, and shows the crooked places in the same way
+and with the same ease as though rotating on centers in the usual manner;
+vertically adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to
+support the iron; power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at
+the back of the machine, on which is a sliding clutch connecting, at the
+will of the operator, with an eccentric; the eccentric conveys motion and
+power through a link to the elbow joint at the front of the press, which
+forces a plunger down against the iron.
+
+[Illustration: POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.]
+
+Sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by turning a
+nut at the top of the press.
+
+Any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the press on
+the bed. Any length of iron can be straightened, and the most laborious
+and disagreeable work in the process of making shafting is rendered easy
+and rapid. Made by Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA.
+
+By GEORGE O'BRIEN.
+
+
+Our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional, as we are only aware
+that from very early times the precious metal was collected and highly
+prized by them, and that they chiefly extracted the visible gold, which
+existed in prodigious quantities on or closely beneath the surface of the
+earth, and of its being particularly abundant in Asia and Africa. But we
+can draw more positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but
+effective contrivances used by them in later, but still remote, periods,
+with full evidence as to the extent of their operations, in the numerous
+perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other, over
+large areas of auriferous gravel in India, as well as from precisely
+similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also further
+demonstrations, in the abandoned "hill diggings," and shifted beds, and
+beds of rivers, in Peru South America, flowing between the sea and coast
+ranges of the Andes, descending in a northeasterly direction to the river
+Amazon, and that their much coveted and enormous productions were the
+accumulated riches of the Incas, transferred as spoils of war to their
+Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century. And for similar explorations
+in the same class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times,
+and which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded to.
+
+Thus in the year 1849, after the cession of the northern portion of Mexico
+to the United States of North America, the rich mineral district of
+California was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent bands of mining
+adventurers from all parts of the world, who, with little other means at
+their disposal but pick, shovel, and pan, soon fell on the productive bars
+of rivers and rich ravines where the gold was trapped, derived from its
+original birthplaces, where it had been sparsely disseminated, to be
+dispersed by the subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the
+mountains themselves, and deposited in a disengaged form for the first
+comer; and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations, in certain
+localities where water once streamed, that, divested of its earthy matrix,
+the cleansed pure metal was found deposited, detained by its superior
+specific gravity, on the bare rock, and only hidden from vision by a
+slight covering of vegetable mould. In this manner, as an example of such
+concentration, a "pot" or "find" (in mining parlance) to the value of
+£10,000 was collected in a space of 15 square yards, or within the limits
+of a particular "mining claim," at the foot of Mokulumne Hill, in a
+southern county of California, soon after the territorial transfer from
+Mexico. And in search of such locations we must account for the numberless
+shafts which still exist both in India and Peru, and sometimes sunk within
+a few feet of each other, passing through the alluvium to a depth of 40
+feet to the bed rock.
+
+These mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over the other
+recently acquired territories, and built Virginia City, the capital of
+Montana, with the gold derived from the alluvium of a river channel which
+they excavated; and its inhabitants were the founders of an institution
+called the Vigilance Committee, with "Lynch law," and by it ruled
+supremely for many years. But their surface diggings, by the manual
+operations alone of multitudes, were soon exhausted in every direction,
+and then their energies and powers of invention were dedicated to discover
+and explore deeper and more permanent depositions, along the western
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada, the Andes of the Western Territories, and
+which originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at
+the present time--probably 20,000 feet above the sea-level--and of which,
+or whatever superior elevation they formerly had, the greater portion of
+it has already been removed, by the continuous natural action of
+centuries, to form there, as elsewhere, the plains and prairies of the
+earth, burying and diverting by the mutation the ancient river system,
+whose sources of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of
+these altitudes. These denudations and subsequent depositions have been
+caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air, water,
+and time since the creation of the world; and powerful demonstrations of
+these transformations instruct us in all directions, if we care to observe
+them. Thus in "Little Cottonwood" ravine, in the Wahsatch range of
+mountains in Utah Territory, lie isolated in the center of the valley huge
+masses of metamorphic granite, some blocks of which weigh individually
+thousands of tons, and were dislodged from the hills--which on either side
+are of limestone formation--with no visible granite in them, having been
+undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by denudation, and
+which is the material now forming the tablelands, the foundation, of Salt
+Lake City. The blocks of granite, having alone resisted the atmospheric
+changes, were precipitated into the valley beneath, and the Mormons are
+now constructing their cathedral church from these granitic remains.
+
+The melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges of
+mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the extinguished
+channels of ancient rivers, and whose now diverted waters were also the
+powerful agent to assist in causing these marvelous alternations; and by
+the means of hydraulic mining we can advance our feeble knowledge on the
+subject.
+
+These mighty changes have gradually been accomplished, and the accumulated
+denudations of the mineral zones have defended themselves by strata of
+crystallized silicates of quartz of various thicknesses, and thus in
+places beneath such system of defense, or by their own concretion, have
+preserved in many localities a thickness of from 500 to 600 feet of
+conglomerate, but without this necessary cementation its further removal
+is very certain when again attacked by water. An example of this
+continuous process is very observable in "Death Valley," Lower California,
+where a width of about 100 miles has been filled up from the hills to the
+gulf of same name, invading and occupying its former bed; and this
+activity is still proceeding, and a temporary formation of tableland
+above it is in course of removal, although already overgrown with forest
+trees, which are toppling over the side which is being attacked. But
+eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these Sierras, and a
+period of comparative repose may be expected, as the distribution has
+already been far advanced by the excessive reduction of the mountains.
+
+The deep and extensive depositions which I now attempt to describe
+attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers, and were called
+"hill diggings," but not being properly understood were therefore not
+immediately operated upon, and remained in abeyance, while the lower,
+richer, and more manifest alluvials endured. They were designated "blue
+gravel," the color being due to the action of sulphuret of iron and other
+salts, the cementing auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate,
+and on exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet,
+losing also its firmness by oxidation.
+
+The "great blue lead" is another important mining term and designates the
+alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on the bed rock, being
+the well-worn path of an ancient river; and it is obvious that the
+material in these channels should be richer than the general mass beyond
+their limits.
+
+"Rim rock" is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel, and, like
+the bottom, is well worn and corrugated by the running water into cavities
+and "pot holes," where the force of the stream eddied. The width of these
+channels varies from 60 to 400 feet, and the cement near the rim and
+bottom is always richer than elsewhere. The wider and deeper channels
+generally course from N. to N.W. The richest and most explored belt of
+gold-bearing alluvium in California lies between the South and Middle Yuba
+Rivers, commencing near Eureka, in Nevada county, and extends downwards to
+Smartsville and Timbuctoo, in Yuba county, a distance of 40 miles; and
+from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from where the
+ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers, which are 2,000 feet
+beneath the auriferous gravel and region near Smartsville, and 2,000 feet
+above the Yuba River, where snow is unknown, and near its terminus the
+ancient river bed courses more westerly than it does above it, and crosses
+Yuba below Timbuctoo, where the auriferous depositions disappear. The
+whole distance of 40 miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers,
+and around the village of Timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful
+yield of gold, obtained chiefly in the ravines, in holes, and depressions
+in the bed rock. These hollows detained the concentrations of the
+denudated alluvium from the altitudes, and were generally closely beneath
+the surface, and by such guidance and means of discovery the miners traced
+the gold up the ravines to their sources in the lofty mounds and deposits,
+or hills of cemented conglomerate, near Eureka in Nevada county; and by
+constructing canals from a higher level began the new system of "hydraulic
+mining" and washing, and gradually extended their operations over the area
+of the metallic zone mentioned, of 40 miles long by 20 wide, using the
+Yuba River below Timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings, or
+refuse from their operations. The result in gold was considerable, but the
+system is from its violent nature difficult to control, by presuming to
+handle and remove such huge depositions in order to collect the richest
+material. The idea was bold, being an anticipation of Nature's operations;
+but the equitable disposal of the "tailings" in a cultivated country is
+impossible, as the silt runs down the rivers, creating banks and bars in
+their channels, obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements.
+
+_General Description of Hydraulic Mining._
+
+The first work to be accomplished, after calculating that the amount or
+value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient to guarantee the
+cost of the undertaking in general, is the construction of a canal or
+canals, to convey the requisite volume of water from the fountain-head,
+and of sufficient elevation to command the ground to be worked upon,
+having also in view the levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as
+outlets for the discharge of the gravel through them, these being
+engineering operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless
+after-cost.
+
+Aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed across deep
+valleys, and the speculation is at all times problematical, as the ground
+cannot be properly tested until the water arrives upon it, and disputes
+may arise between the shareholders of the canal and the mining company,
+ending frequently in the one devouring the other, unless the two interests
+be quickly amalgamated.
+
+The starting point should be the lowest level, or "bed rock," on the white
+cement in the ancient channel, which is probably the original silt
+collected in it, and is harder than the conglomerate above it, which is
+more easily removed. The courses of these beds can be easily traced by
+landmarks and undulations, and occasional exposures of the bed rock at low
+levels; also trial shafts are sunk in various places in search of it, to a
+depth of 100 feet, passing through blue gravel. The grades of these beds
+are not steep, being from 10 to 40 feet per mile as of an ordinary river,
+and the calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about 600
+feet in many places across the ridge between the South and Middle Yuba
+River across the Columbia.
+
+The power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given volume
+deposited in a reservoir, and at sufficient elevation above the points of
+discharge, as on this depends effectivity to tear down the gravel. It is
+delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of wrought iron, and laid down
+to follow the curvatures of the surface of the ground; and the pipe I now
+treat of, belonging to the Excelsior Water Company, has a diameter of 40
+inches on a length of 6,000 feet, and 20 inches on the rest of its length
+of 8,000 feet, being 9,000 feet in all; and this large pipe forms an
+inverted siphon across a valley, following on the gravel, to the top of
+the hill into the reservoir.
+
+These pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning chasms,
+and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys; being also cheaper to
+construct in general, and less liable to accidents from fire and storms,
+and have the convenience for conveying the water from point to point, as
+the work of excavation advances, necessitating the removal of portions of
+the aqueduct forward. The watershed, or reservoir, of the Excelsior
+Company embraces the valley of the South Yuba and its affluents, and the
+entire cost of its eight amalgamated canals was 750,000 dollars.
+
+The rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged 49 inches
+annually, while the medium in the same period did not exceed 20 inches in
+the plains beneath. The height of the reservoir above the tailing, or Yuba
+River, is 393 feet: and the height of the head above the floor, or outlet
+sluice-tunnel, of the Blue Gravel Mining Company was 197 feet.
+
+The exact quantity of water required to wash every class of gravel is
+difficult to estimate, but no quantity or pressure would be excessive if
+properly arranged. The measurement of water is effected by miner's
+inches, by allowing it to flow from the reservoir of the seller to the
+purchaser through a box 10 or 12 feet square, with divisions to obtain a
+quiet head, with a slide or opening capable of adjustment to any required
+measure; thus an opening of 25 inches by 2 inches, with a quiet head of 6
+inches above the middle of the orifice, would give 50 inches, or about
+89,259 cubic feet of water, flowing during ten hours per day, being an
+amount necessary for a first-class operation. The capability of the
+Excelsior Canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in twenty-four
+hours, to the various mining companies, of 21,120,000 cubic feet of water,
+or 8,000 miner's inches, and the value of the water paid for by the Blue
+Gravel Company in forty-three months ending November 9, 1867, was 157,261
+dollars, being at the rate of 15 cents of a dollar per miner's inch; and
+the proportion of water used to wash down 989,165 cubic yards of gravel
+was 17,074,758 cubic yards, or 17¼ cubic yards of water to 1 cubic yard of
+gravel; and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was 1,298
+cubic yards, and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of gravel was 5
+and 7/10 cents of a dollar. But in the face of contingencies the Blue
+Gravel Company moved 1,000,000 cubic yards of gravel in four years, or at
+the rate of 250,000 cubic yards per annum, and the cost of washing each
+cubic yard stands thus:
+
+                                                 Cents.
+  Cost of water, at 15 cents per miner's inch     5.77
+  Cost of labor, gunpowder, sluices, and
+      superintendence                            16.10
+                                                 -----
+                                                 21.87
+    Or 21¾ cents of a dollar per cubic yard.
+
+Thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of 22 cents of a dollar
+per cubic yard to cover cost, and the value of the gravel referred to
+ranged from 20 to 45 cents per cubic yard; and the cost of work done in
+shafts and tunnels, in the said Blue Gravel Company's Mining claim,
+reached 100,000 dollars. But with the cost of the necessary canals paid
+for by the Excelsior Water Company apart, the total cost amounted to about
+1,000,000 dollars, and we must note that the latter company sold water to
+other mining companies.
+
+The gross yield in gold of the Blue Gravel Company in four years was
+837,399 dollars, and in the year 1866 the returns from the Blue Gravel
+Company paid all the costs of the developments; but in 1867 assessments
+were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising from the cost of
+sinking two new shafts, and driving fresh tunnels on the lowest levels,
+which evidently contain on the bed rock the richest concentrations.
+
+In smaller mining adventures of this description, involving less capital,
+large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone treated of, by also
+not having invested in costly canals, which would not have repaid the
+latter investment; and thus it is evident that the water companies are
+dependent blindly on the prosperity of the miners.
+
+I will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations. The mining
+ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the nearest and most
+convenient ravine, so that the starting-point on the bed rock toward the
+face of the ravine shall approach the center of the material to be removed
+at a gradient of 1 in 10 to 1 in 30. The dimensions of such tunnels are
+usually 6 feet in width by 7 in height, and continuing in contact with the
+hard river-bed, for the greater ease of excavation, collection of gold,
+and conservation of quicksilver amalgam.
+
+These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile, and some
+of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in execution, at a
+cost of from 10 to 60 dollars per foot of frontage. The tunnel of the Blue
+Gravel Company, with length of 1,358 feet, cost in labor alone 70,000
+dollars, but it could now be driven for 35,000 dollars, as skilled labor
+is cheaper now than then. The grade in this tunnel is about 12 per cent.,
+and the end of the tunnel is designed to be 170 feet of elevation, and
+reaching to a point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being
+operated upon, and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed
+rock or gravel, until it intersects the tunnel.
+
+The object of this laborious operation is obvious, as the long tunnel
+becomes a sluiceway, and through the whole length of which sluice boxes
+are laid, for the double motive of carrying off the material and saving
+the gold, and for this purpose a trough of strong planks is placed in the
+tunnel, 2½ feet wide, and with sides high enough to contain the stream.
+The pavement of the trough is generally laid of blocks of wood 6 inches in
+thickness, cut across the grain, and placed on their ends, to the width of
+the sluiceway. The wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections of
+stone pavement, the stones being set endwise, and in the interstices
+between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is distributed, and as
+much as 2 tons of this metal is required to charge a long sluice. The
+water in the canal is brought by aqueducts, or other means, to the head of
+the mining ground, having an elevation of 100 to 200 ft. above the lowest
+level of the mining ground, and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes,
+sometimes sustained on a strong incline of timber.
+
+These pipes are of sheet iron, of adequate strength, riveted at the
+joints, and measure from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, and communicate at
+the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron, on the top and sides
+of which are openings for the adaptation of flexible tubes, made of very
+strong fabric of canvas, strengthened by cording, and terminating in
+nozzles of metal of 2½ to 3 inches in diameter. From these nozzles the
+streams of water are directed against the face of the gravel to be washed,
+exercising incredible effectivity.
+
+The volume of water employed varies of course with the work to be done;
+but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting simultaneously on
+the same bank, each conveying from 100 to 600 inches of water per
+hour--1,000 miner's inches being equal to 106,600 cubic feet of water per
+hour, constantly exerting its force under a pressure of 90 to 200 pounds
+to the square inch, varying with the height of the column.
+
+Under the continuous action of this enormous force, aided by the softening
+power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass are dislodged, and
+fall with great violence, the _debris_ speedily disintegrating and
+disappearing under the resistless force of the water, and is hurried
+forward in the sluices to the mouth of the shaft, down which it is
+precipitated with the whole volume of turbid water. Bowlders of 100 to 200
+lb. in weight are dislodged and shot forward by the impetuous stream,
+accompanied by masses of the harder cement which meet in the fall, and by
+the concussion from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency
+required is found to disintegrate it. The heavy banks, of 80 feet and
+upward, are usually worked in two benches, the upper never being so rich
+as the lower, and also less firm, and therefore worked away with greater
+rapidity.
+
+The lower section is much the more compact, as this stratum on the bed
+rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure, and even sometimes
+the full force of the streams of water, until it has been loosened by
+gunpowder or other explosives. For this purpose adits are driven in on its
+foundation-point of from 40 to 70 feet and more from the face of the bank,
+and drifts are extended at right angles therefrom to a short distance on
+each side of the adit, and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder
+is placed (from 1 to 3 tons), and fired at one blast, having been
+previously built in with masonry. And in this manner the compact
+conglomerate is broken up, and then the water easily completes its work.
+Sometimes in the soft, upper strata the systems of tunnel is extended, as
+in a coal-mine, by cross alleys, leaving blocks which are afterward washed
+away, and then the whole mass settles, and is disintegrated under the
+influence of water. The wooden sluices in the tunnels already described
+are often made double for the convenience of "cleaning up" one of them,
+while the other remains in action. The process of cleaning up is performed
+according to the quantity and richness of the material worked upon, at
+intervals of twenty to forty days, and consists in removing the pavement
+and blocks from the bed of the sluice, and then gathering all the amalgam
+of gold and rich dirt collected, and replacing the locks in the same way
+as at first. Advantage is taken on this occasion to reverse the position
+of the blocks and stones when they are worn irregularly, or substitute new
+ones for those which are worn through. The mechanical action of the
+washing process on the blocks is of course very rapid and severe,
+requiring complete renewal of them once in eight to ten weeks. Some miners
+prefer a pavement of egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring,
+the gold being deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluiceways are,
+however, paved with rectangular wooden blocks, with or without stones as
+described. Standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full
+action, any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with
+astonishment, amounting almost to terror, as the muddy mass sweeps onward,
+bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders, which add their din to
+the roar of the water, the whole being precipitated down a series of
+falls, at each of which it is caught up again by new sluices of timber,
+lined like the first, and so onward and downward many hundreds of feet
+until the level of the river is reached, at a distance of about a half
+mile or more from the mouth of the first tunnel.
+
+At each of these new falls of 25 to 50 feet the process of comminution
+begun in the first shaft is carried on, and a fresh portion of gold
+obtained. Rude as this plan of saving gold appears to be, more gold is
+procured by it than by any other method of washing yet devised for this
+process of work, and the economical advantages obtained by it cannot be
+surpassed, as it would be impossible to handle such vast quantities of
+material in any other way, and we can compare the cost of washing and
+handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows:
+
+                                        Dollars.
+By manual labor with the pan              15.00
+    "       "   with rocker                3.75
+    "       "   with the long tom           .75
+By the hydraulic process                    .15
+
+But this process, even if effective or profitable as a mining operation,
+may be prejudicial to the interests of the general public, if conducted on
+a large scale, as the vast quantity of material which it so suddenly
+removes is merely shifted into the shallows beneath, to be redistributed
+by every freshet to points lower and lower down until it reaches the
+sea-coast, creating bars at the mouths of rivers in its course, and
+changing the hydrography of harbors--as it has done with the Bay of San
+Francisco by its silt.
+
+The hills behind, torn up and washed by the gold miner, are abandoned as
+desolate and irredeemable; and the costly canals, constructed with
+peculiar conveniences for mining purposes, eventually fall into disuse
+from being too expensive to maintain or alter for general agricultural
+uses.--_Journal of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA.
+
+
+From the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging the
+European medical press, we select the following from Dr. Henry A. Rawlins,
+in the _London Med. Times_, July 12. 1884:
+
+The man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by diarrhoea of
+an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his blood. This loss is one of
+simple transudation, increasing as the powers of life decrease. This
+_sudden_ loss produces intense prostration, and renders the heart
+powerless to perfect the circulation. The body, thus deprived of oxygen,
+speedily runs into decomposition, even before life is extinct. Have we any
+agent by which we can collect and press forward these scattered and
+lethargic drops of blood to the heart, and enable it to renew the
+circulation, and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body? My reply is
+emphatically--Yes! Flannel bandages from the toes to the trunk, around the
+abdomen, and from the fingers to the body, will effect this object
+perfectly. Remark that the effect is gradual, increasing with every turn
+of the roller, but would be in full force in about twenty minutes. By thus
+exposing the blood in the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted
+form, as it is in the air, instead of pure oxygen, the reaction would
+neither be too rapid nor too dangerous. In confirmation of my views, I
+have this day learned that it is the custom in India to wear a double roll
+of flannel around the abdomen, as a preventive to cholera. The other
+advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are:
+
+1. That they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor creature
+who is already in a state of refrigeration.
+
+2. By their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor muscles
+alike, they are steadied, and rendered much less likely to be affected
+with spasmodic action or cramp.
+
+3. By their steady _elastic_ pressure and support of about 160 pounds,
+they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of the blood, which
+they had previously restored.
+
+4. That the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will, I believe, prove
+quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison, and also destroy its
+effects.
+
+5. That this much can at least be claimed for their use--that they remove
+from nature a stumbling-block, which prevented her from exercising her
+marvelous recuperative powers. Diluted sulphuric acid is the best medicine
+to arrest the flux from the bowels, acting also as a tonic. It should be
+given in five-minim doses about every half hour, with rice gruel. By
+adopting this plan, the natural process is brought about, that of the
+starch being converted into grape sugar. Plenty of white of egg, well
+whipped up, so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach,
+which it will appropriate, should be given. Opium, in small quantities,
+and other stimulants, should be given according to the necessities of the
+case. May it not be well, through the medium of wet sponge over the
+thorax, to apply a continuous but gentle current of galvanism, so as to
+stimulate the heart's action, keep alive the respiratory movements, and
+thereby assist in the maintenance of the functions of the body?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND PRESSURE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO HEALTH.
+
+
+At the recent meteorological conference held at the Health Exhibition, Dr.
+J.W. Tripe read a paper of much interest on some relations of
+meteorological phenomena to health.
+
+In ages long past these relations excited much attention, but the
+knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind; and indeed, even now,
+no very great advance has been made, because it is only quite recently
+that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate record of deaths with
+observations taken at a number of reliable meteorological stations. The
+more useful and searching comparison between cases of sickness, instead of
+deaths, and meteorological phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large
+scale in this country, and especially as regards zymotic diseases. In
+Belgium there is a Society of Medical Practitioners, embracing nearly the
+whole country, that publishes a monthly record of cases of sickness, of
+deaths, and of meteorological observations; but the only attempt on a
+large scale in this country, which was started by the Society of Medical
+Officers of Health for the whole of London, failed partly from want of
+funds, and partly from irregularity in the returns. My remarks, which must
+necessarily be very brief, will refer to the relations between (1)
+meteorological phenomena and the bodily functions of man, and (2) between
+varying meteorological conditions and death-rates from certain diseases.
+
+As regards the first, I will commence with a few brief remarks on the
+effects of varying barometric pressures. A great deal too much attention
+is paid to the barometer if we regard it as indicating only, as it really
+does, variations in the weight of the column of air pressing upon our
+bodies, because, except at considerable elevations, where the barometer is
+always much lower than at sea level, these variations produce but little
+effect on health. At considerable elevations the diminished pressure
+frequently causes a great feeling of malaise, giddiness, loss of strength,
+palpitation, and even nausea; and at greater heights, as was noticed by
+Mr. Glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent, loss of sight, feeling, and
+consciousness. These were caused by a want of a sufficient supply of
+oxygen to remove effete matters from the system, and to carry on the
+organic functions necessary for the maintenance of life. On elevated
+mountain plateaus, or even in high residences among the Alps, an increased
+rapidity in the number of respirations and of the pulse, as well as
+increased evaporation from the lungs and skin, occur.
+
+For some years past, many persons suffering from consumption, gout,
+rheumatism, and anæmic affections have gone to mountain stations, chiefly
+in Switzerland, for relief, and many have derived much benefit from the
+change. It must not, however, be supposed that diminished atmospheric
+pressure was the chief cause of the improvement in health, as its
+concomitants, viz., a diminution in the quantity of oxygen and moisture
+contained in each cubic foot of air, probably the low temperature, with a
+total change in the daily habits of life, have assisted in the beneficial
+results. The diminution in the quantity of air, and consequently of
+oxygen, taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by
+an increased frequency and depth of the respirations, and a greater
+capacity of the chest. In this country, alterations in the barometric
+pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an approaching change in the
+wind, and as well as of the amount of moisture in the air; hence the
+instrument is often called "the weather glass." A sudden diminution in the
+atmospheric pressure is likely to be attended with an escape of ground air
+from the soil, and therefore to cause injury to health, especially among
+the occupants of basement rooms, unless the whole interior of the building
+be covered with concrete.
+
+_Temperature._--Experience has shown that man can bear greater variations
+of temperature than any other animal, as in the Arctic regions a
+temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit, or more than 100 degrees below
+freezing point, can be safely borne; that he can not only live but work,
+and remain in good health, in these regions provided that he be supplied
+with suitable clothing and plenty of proper food. On the other hand, man
+has existed and taken exercise in the interior of Australia when the
+thermometer showed a temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, or nearly 90
+degrees above freezing point, so that he can live and be in fairly good
+health within a range of nearly 200 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+The effects of a high temperature vary very much according to the amount
+of moisture in the air, as when the air is nearly saturated in hot
+climates, or even in summer in our own, more or less languor and malaise
+are felt, with great indisposition to bodily labor. With a dry air these
+are not so noticeable. The cause is evident; in the former case but little
+evaporation occurs from the skin, and the normal amount of moisture is not
+given off from the lungs, so that the body is not cooled down to such an
+extent as by dry air. Sunstroke is probably the result, not only of the
+direct action of the sun's rays, but partly from diminished cooling of the
+blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin.
+
+The effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the mean for
+the day, month, or year, as on the extremes, as, when the days are hot and
+the nights comparatively cool, the energy of the system becomes partially
+restored, so that a residence near the sea, or in the vicinity of high
+mountains, in hot climates is, other things being equal, less enervating
+than in the plains, as the night air is generally cooler. It is commonly
+believed that hot climates are _necessarily_ injurious to Europeans, by
+causing frequent liver derangements and diseases, dysentery, cholera, and
+fevers. This, however, is, to a certain extent, a mistake, as the recent
+medical statistical returns of our army in India show that in the new
+barracks, with more careful supervision as regards diet and clothing, the
+sickness and death-rates are much reduced. Planters and others, who ride
+about a good deal, as a rule keep in fairly good health; but the children
+of Europeans certainly degenerate, and after two or three generations die
+out, unless they intermarry with natives, and make frequent visits to
+colder climates. This fact shows that hot climates, probably by
+interfering with the due performance of the various processes concerned in
+the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues, eventually sap the
+foundations of life among Europeans; but how far this result has been
+caused by bad habits as regards food, exercise, and self-indulgence, I
+cannot say. Rapid changes of temperature in this country are often very
+injurious to the young and old, causing diarrhoea and derangements of the
+liver when great heat occurs, and inflammatory diseases of the lungs,
+colds, etc., when the air becomes suddenly colder, even in summer.
+
+The _direct_ influence of rain on man is not very marked in this country,
+except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation from the ground and
+from vegetable life, and by altering the level of ground water. This is a
+subject almost overlooked by the public, and it is therefore as well that
+it should be known that when ground water has a level persistently less
+than five feet from the surface of the soil, the locality is usually
+unhealthy, and should not, if possible, be selected for a residence.
+Fluctuations in the level of ground water, especially if great and sudden,
+generally cause ill-health among the residents. Thus, Dr. Buchanan in his
+reports to the Privy Council in 1866-1867, showed that consumption (using
+the word in its most extended sense) is more prevalent in damp than on dry
+soils, and numerous reports of medical officers of health, and others,
+which have been published since then, show that an effective drainage of
+the land, and consequent carrying away of the ground water, has been
+followed by a diminution of these diseases.
+
+Varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the health and
+comfort of man. In this country, however, it is not only the absolute but
+the relative proportions of aerial moisture which materially influence
+mankind. The quantity of aqueous vapor that a cubic foot of air can hold
+in suspension, when it is saturated, varies very much with the
+temperature. Thus at 40 degrees Fahr. it will hold 2.86 grains of water;
+at 50 degrees, 4.10 grains; at 60 degrees, 5.77 grains; at 70 degrees,
+8.01 grains; and at 90 degrees as much as 14.85 grains. If saturation be
+represented by 100, more rapid evaporation from the skin will take place
+at 70 degrees, and 75 per cent. of saturation, than at 60 degrees when
+saturated, although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is
+greater at the first named temperature than at the latter. As regards the
+lungs, however, the case is different, as the air breathed out is, if the
+respirations be regular and fairly deep, completely saturated with
+moisture at the temperature of the body. In cold climates the amount of
+moisture and of the effete matters given off from the lungs in the expired
+air is much greater than in hot climates, and the body is also cooled by
+the evaporation of water in the form of aqueous vapor. Moist air is a
+better conductor of heat than dry air, which accounts for much of the
+discomfort felt in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the
+feeling of elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather, therefore,
+moist air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, and
+colds consequently result. London fogs are injurious, not only on account
+of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal, but in
+consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated with moisture
+at a low temperature. The injuriousness of fogs and low temperatures will
+be presently dwelt upon at greater length.
+
+Variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere exert a
+considerable influence on the circulation of air contained in the soil,
+which is called ground air. As all the interstices of the ground are
+filled with air or water, the more porous the soil, the greater is the
+bulk of air. The quantity of air contained in soil varies very much
+according to the material of which the soil is composed, as it is evident
+that in a gravelly or sandy soil it must be greater than when the ground
+consists of loam or clay. The estimates vary from 3 to 30 per cent., but
+the latter is probably too high. If, therefore, a cesspool leak into the
+ground, the offensive effluvia, if in large quantities, will escape into
+the soil, and are given off at the surface of the ground, or are drawn
+into a house by the fire; but, if small, they are rendered innocuous by
+oxidation. The distance to which injurious gases and suspended or
+dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous soil is sometimes
+considerable, as I have known it pass for 130 feet along a disused drain,
+and above 30 feet through loose soil.
+
+Winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and indirectly.
+Directly, by promoting evaporation from the skin, and abstracting heat
+from the body in proportion to their dryness and rapidity of motion. Their
+indirect action is more important, as the temperature and pressure of the
+air depend to a great extent on their direction. Thus winds from the north
+in this country are usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry
+weather; in summer with a pleasant feeling, but in winter with much cold.
+Southwest winds are the most frequent here of any, as about 24 per cent.
+of the winds come from this quarter against 16½ from the west, 11½ from
+the east, and the same from the northeast; 10½ from the south, 8 from the
+north, and a smaller number from the other quarters. Southwest winds are
+also those which are most frequently accompanied by rain, as about 30 per
+cent. of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds. Another set
+of observations give precisely the same order, but a considerable
+difference in their prevalence, viz., southwest 31 per cent., west 14½,
+and northeast 11½ per cent. Easterly winds are the most unpleasant, as
+well as the most injurious to man of all that occur in this country.
+
+I now propose discussing very briefly the known relations between
+meteorological phenomena and disease. I say the known relations, because
+it is evident that there are many unknown relations of which at present we
+have had the merest glimpse. For instance, small-pox, while of an ordinary
+type, and producing only a comparatively small proportion of deaths to
+those attacked, will sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form, and
+spread with great rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological
+conditions when it usually declines in frequency. There are, however, in
+this country known relations between the temperature and, I may say,
+almost all diseases. As far back as 1847 I began a series of elaborate
+investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at different periods of
+the year, and the relations between this disease and the heat, moisture,
+and electricity of the air. I then showed that a mean monthly temperature
+below 44.6° F. was adverse to the spread of this disease, that the
+greatest relative decrease took place when the mean temperature was below
+40°, and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months having
+a mean temperature of between 45° and 57° F. Diseases of the lungs,
+excluding consumption, are fatal in proportion to the lowness of the
+temperature and the presence of excess of moisture and fog. Thus, in
+January, 1882, the mean weekly temperature fell from 43.9° F. in the
+second week to 36.2° in the third, with fog and mist. The number of deaths
+registered in London during the third week, which may be taken as
+corresponding with the meteorological conditions of the second week, was
+1,700, and in the next week 1,971. Unusual cold, with frequent fogs and
+little sunshine, continued for four weeks, the weekly number of deaths
+rising from 1,700 to 1,971, 2,023, 2,632, and 2,188. The deaths from
+acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were respectively 279, 481,
+566, 881, and 689, showing that a large proportion of the excessive
+mortality was caused by these diseases. At the end of November and in
+December of the same year there was a rapid fall of temperature, when the
+number of deaths from acute diseases of the lungs rose from 297 to 358,
+350, 387, 541, 553, and 389 in the respective weeks. From November 29 to
+December 9 the sun was seen only on two days for 4½ hours, and from
+December 9 to the 18th also on two other days for less than 4 hours,
+making the total amount of sunshine 8.1 hours only in 20 days. In January
+and February the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases reached the
+large number of 504 deaths; in December it was less, the fogs not having
+been so dense, but the excess equaled 246 deaths per week.
+
+The relations between a high summer temperature and excessive mortality
+from diarrhoea have long been well known, but the immediate cause of the
+disease as an epidemic is not known. Summer diarrhoea prevails to a greater
+extent in certain localities, notably in Leicester (and has done so for
+years); and the cause has been carefully sought for, but has not been
+found out. Recent researches, however, point to a kind of bacillus as the
+immediate cause, as it has been found in the air of water-closets, in the
+traps under the pans, and in the discharges from infants and young
+children. In order to indicate more readily how intimately the mortality
+from diarrhoea depends on temperature, I now lay before you a table showing
+the mean temperature for ten weeks in summer, of seven cold and hot
+summers, the temperature of Thames water, and the death-rates of infants
+under one year per million population of London:
+
+_London.--Deaths under 1 Year, in July, August, and part of
+September, from Diarrhoea per 1,000,000 Population Living
+at all Ages, arranged in the Order of Mortality._
+
+                                      Age 0-1 year.
+           Mean       Temperature  Deaths from Diarrhoea
+Years.  temperature,   of Thames       per 1,000,000
+         10 weeks.      water.     population living at
+                                       all ages.
+1860       58.1°         60.6°             151
+1862       59.0          62.0              189
+1879       58.7          60.7              228
+1877       61.2          63.3              347
+1874       61.7          63.8              447
+1878       63.7          64.1              576
+1876       64.4          64.9              643
+
+As may be seen, the deaths of infants under 1 year of age from diarrhoea
+per 1,000,000 population was only 151; while the mean summer temperature
+was only 58.1° F. against 189 in 1862, when the mean temperature was
+59.0°. In 1879, when the mean temperature was 58.7°, the deaths from
+diarrhoea rose to 228 per million, but a few days were unusually hot. In
+1877 the mean temperature of the air was 61.2°, of the Thames water 63.3°,
+and the mortality of infants from diarrhoea 347 per million population. In
+1874, when the mean temperature of the air was 61.7°, the mortality rose
+to 447 per million; and in the hot summers of 1878 and 1876, when the mean
+air temperatures were 64.1° and 64.9° respectively, the death-rates of
+infants were 576 and 642 per million population. The relations, therefore,
+between a high summer temperature and the mortality from diarrhoea in
+infants are very intimate. I have selected the mortality among infants in
+preference to that at all ages, as the deaths occur more quickly, and
+because young children suffer in greater proportion than other persons.
+
+The proportionate number of deaths at _all ages_ from diarrhoea corresponds
+pretty closely with those of infants. To prove this, I made calculations
+for three years, and ascertained that only 3.9 per cent. of all the deaths
+from this disease were registered in the weeks having a temperature of
+less than 50°; 11.9 per cent. in the weeks having a temperature between
+50° and 60°; while in the comparatively few weeks in which the temperature
+exceeded 60° F., as many as 84.2 per cent. of the total number of deaths
+was registered. In the sixteen years, 1840-56, for which many years ago I
+made a special inquiry, only 18.9 per cent. of all the deaths from
+diarrhoea occurred in winter and spring, against 81.1 per cent. in summer
+and autumn. In the twenty years, 1860-79, there were seven years in which
+the summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per 100,000
+inhabitants of London was 200; while in ten summers, during which the
+temperature was in excess by 2° or less, the mortality was 317 per
+100,000. The mean temperature was largely in excess, that is to say, more
+than 2° plus in three of these summers, when the mortality reached 339 per
+100,000 inhabitants.
+
+These figures show that great care should be taken in hot weather to
+prevent diarrhoea, especially among young children; by frequent washing
+with soap and water to insure cleanliness, and proper action of the skin;
+by great attention to the food, especially of infants fed from the bottle;
+free ventilation of living rooms, and especially of bedrooms; and by
+protection, as far as possible, being afforded from a hot sun, as well as
+by avoiding excessive exercise. All animal and vegetable matter should be
+removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible
+(indeed, these should be burnt instead of being put in the dust-bin), the
+drains should be frequently disinfected and well flushed out, especially
+when the mean daily temperature of the air is above 60° F.
+
+Time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations between
+meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other diseases and
+affections, such as apoplexy from heat, sunstroke, liver diseases, yellow
+fever, cholera, whooping-cough, measles, etc., especially as the state of
+our knowledge on the subject is so very limited. A comparison between the
+mortality from several diseases in this and other countries shows that
+certain of these do not prevail under closely corresponding conditions.
+Thus the curves of mortality from whooping-cough, typhoid fever, and
+scarlet fever do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both
+London and New York, and the same may be said of diarrhoea in India. It is
+therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying
+temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased death-rate
+from these diseases. The subject is of great importance, and I do not
+despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the agents through which
+meteorological phenomena act in the production of increased and decreased
+death rates from certain diseases, and the means by which, to a certain
+extent, these injurious effects on man may be presented.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+P. Rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide diminishes
+the sensibility of the cortical substance of the cerebrum to electric
+excitement, while, the excitability of the underlying white substance
+remains unaltered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONSUMPTION SPREAD BY CHICKENS.
+
+
+In a village, C., near Weimar, where for many years no case of tubercular
+phthisis had taken place, two years ago several families suddenly
+discovered one of their members to be suffering from the disease. After a
+long inquiry, it was discovered by accident that all these families had
+been buying their spring chickens from one and the same place, viz., from
+a private hospital in the neighborhood. A medical student brought the
+livers of two such chickens to Prof. Johne, in Dresden. The student, whose
+own sister had become affected with consumption, had lived during his
+vacation at home with his parents, in C., and he had there at dinner
+observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens.
+
+On examination, both organs were found to be full of tubercular bacilli. A
+thorough investigation was at once instituted, and it was then that the
+fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the families, members of
+which had been affected with tuberculosis, had all been brought from the
+institution mentioned. On further inquiry at the latter place the
+following facts were elicited:
+
+At about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in the
+village, an inmate or the hospital, Mrs. R., had died of the disease.
+Before her death, Mrs. R. used to feed the chickens raised there; she was
+often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it to the chickens.
+Further, the spittoons were emptied on a place in the yard where the
+chickens generally came to pick up any stray corn.
+
+As none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in the
+neighborhood--the hospital being situated at a considerable distance from
+the village--as no disease had happened among them until the arrival of
+Mrs. R., when soon after an epidemic seemed to break out among them, and
+many died, there is no doubt that they contracted the disease from Mrs.
+R., and in return infected those who ate their flesh.
+
+The case is very interesting, first, as it proves how such animals may
+become affected, then how they may spread the disease, and lastly, that
+some kind of a disposition must exist in the person infected; for here, of
+many who had eaten of the diseased flesh, only a few contracted the
+malady. The whole report teaches us how careful we have to be, and how
+necessary is the appointment of skillful experts by the State to inspect
+all food offered for sale.--_Med. and Surg. Reporter._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF REDUCING FEVER.
+
+
+For many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly through the
+vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by means of which the high
+temperature often prevailing in typhoid, malarial, and other fevers might
+be reduced with rapidity and safety to the patient. A few substances have
+been found which produce a decline in temperature when administered in
+enormous and frequently repeated doses; but such administration has often
+been found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient, producing not
+infrequently serious injury to the stomach, kidneys, and sometimes the
+nervous system. So great is the danger of such injurious results, few
+careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic "antipyretic"
+medication recommended by experimenters, preferring to allow their
+patients to burn with fever, mitigated only by such simple means as are
+commonly employed by nurses, than to require them to combat the poisonous
+influences of a drug in addition to the morbid element of the disease.
+
+Happily, however, it is not necessary to leave the patient to the unaided
+efforts of nature. By cool sponging of the surface, persistently and
+thoroughly applied; by large, cool compresses placed over the abdomen and
+chest, or even the whole front of the body, and changed as often as warm,
+or every three to five minutes; by frequently repeated cool packs; by cold
+water drinking; by ice-packs to the spine; by constant application of ice
+or frozen compresses to the head; by forcing perspiration by copious hot
+drinks and a warm blanket pack--by any or all of these means the
+temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every case. However,
+cases will now and then occur in which the temperature remains dangerously
+high, notwithstanding the thorough application of the above means. What
+shall be done?
+
+Several years ago our attention was called to a series of experiments made
+by Dr. Winternitz, Professor of Hydropathy in the Medical University of
+Vienna, for the purpose of determining the influence upon temperature of
+enemas of water of different temperature in cases of fever. The results
+claimed by Prof. Winternitz were so striking that we improved the first
+opportunity to repeat his experiments, and with such results as have
+justified the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in
+fever, in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient. The
+only objection we have found to the method has been the inconvenience to
+the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the bed-pan. In a recent
+case in which we found it necessary to resort to this method, the nurse
+observed that if the tin can of the fountain syringe used in administering
+the enema happened to be lowered below the level of the bed on which the
+patient lay, water which had previously been introduced into the rectum
+returned readily through the tube into the can. On learning this fact, the
+attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way. From one to
+two pints of water, of 70° or 75° F. temperature, were allowed to pass
+into the bowels; and after being retained for five or ten minutes, or
+until the patient experienced uncomfortable sensations, it was made to
+pass out through the tube by simply lowering the reservoir to the level of
+the floor. A new supply of water of a proper temperature being introduced
+into the reservoir, it was again raised to the proper height, and the
+operation so continued until six quarts of water had been used. Then the
+patient was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour, according to the
+height of the fever, and the same process was repeated. Careful record was
+made of the temperature of the patient just before the treatment and
+immediately after. It was found to be invariably reduced from one to one
+and a half degrees by each treatment. The temperature, which had been
+exceedingly obstinate previous to the employment of this method, ranging
+from 104° to 105°, during the intervals between the treatments would, of
+course, rise somewhat; but each time it stopped short of the point reached
+during the previous interval, so that in the course of a few hours the
+fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature. The
+temperature of the water, when taken after passing through the bowels, was
+found to have risen each time from 10° to 13°.
+
+The great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of the most
+useful of all substances for lowering the temperature; and it is readily
+apparent that, by the means described, heat may be abstracted from the
+body almost _ad libitum_, and the temperature may thus be controlled with
+a rapidity and a degree of certainty which cannot be approached by any
+other method. In a still more recent case, in which the same treatment was
+employed, the temperature of the patient had reached 106° F., in spite of
+the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment, such as cold
+compresses, etc.; but it was, in four or five hours, brought down to
+nearly 100° by the use of the cold enemas.
+
+The advantages of this method are: 1. It may be employed without wetting
+or moving the patient; very frequently a patient will sleep continuously
+during the administration of the treatment. 2. It seldom causes
+chilliness, which is frequently a disturbing symptom, especially in fevers
+of a low type, and even, when the temperature is alarmingly high, causing
+the patient to dread the employment of sponging with cool or tepid water.
+3. It is not necessary to employ cold water, a temperature of 80° or even
+85° being thoroughly efficient. In the majority of cases, however, water
+of 70° or even 60° may be employed without danger. The water comes in such
+immediate contact with surfaces filled with large blood-vessels that a
+temperature but a few degrees below that of the body is more effective
+than very much colder water applied to the surface.
+
+In cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by chilliness,
+this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by the application of a
+hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the pit of the stomach.
+
+The simple measures of treatment we have described will be found more
+effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other remedies which
+have ever been recommended for this purpose.--_Good Health._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE EXHIBITION
+OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.]
+
+According to a recent law of Parliament, a large part of the crown jewels
+of France is destined to be sold. The exhibit that has been made of these
+riches for the last two months at the National Exhibition of the
+Industrial Arts, in the State Hall of the Louvre, has excited a lively
+interest among the visitors. Here are to be seen, heaped up in a large
+octagonal show-case, incomparable treasures, whose value exceeds quite a
+number of millions. According to the inventory of 1818, the 52,000
+precious stones of the crown of France were estimated as worth more than
+20 million francs ($4,000,000); but since that epoch the stones have
+increased in number, and money has singularly diminished in value, so that
+the total at present would be much less.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)]
+
+In order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was necessary to
+take precautions against thieves and fire, and this was done in a very
+sure and ingenious manner. The collection of crown jewels is distributed
+over the eight faces of an octagonal truncated cone, which is supported by
+a framework about three feet in height at the lower part. The stand is
+exhibited every day, at ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening,
+under an elegant octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of
+Fortune by Barbedienne. The whole is covered with a canopy, as shown in
+Fig. 1.
+
+A force of guardians of the Treasury is detailed to watch over the crown
+jewels, and it is to them that is confided the care of operating in the
+morning and evening the safety mechanism that we shall describe. The
+object of this mechanism is to lower into and lift out of the strong-box
+the entire stand with all its jewels.
+
+A winch, shown at A to the right of the engraving, sets in motion a system
+of gear wheels keyed at an angle, at B and C, upon intermediate shafts
+that transmit motion to the four vertical threaded rods of the frame, D.
+All these shaftings are 1½ inch in diameter, and the cog-wheels, twenty in
+number, are about 5 inches in diameter.
+
+The well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick, and is 20 inches
+thick and 6 feet high. In the center of this masonry is embedded very
+thick iron plate. The bottom of the well is isolated from the flooring of
+the Exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler plate, by a filling of tire
+bricks, and finally by a second thickness of boiler plate. The well is
+closed by means of a large plate of iron 6 inches thick, 10 feet in
+length, and 88 feet in width. The winch which maneuvers this mass is
+placed at E. It actuates a system of bevel wheels, keyed at F, which
+transmit motion to two horizontal screws (hidden under the stage) that
+actuate the plate, H. This latter is provided with two parallel series of
+five rollers each that revolve over long and strong pieces of wood covered
+with rails. Electric alarms are located near the winches.
+
+A fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen feet of the
+exhibition building.
+
+A committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has been
+appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to indicate such as
+should be withheld from sale on account of their scientific, artistic, or
+historic interest. The members of the committee propose to preserve the
+following objects:
+
+1. The "Regent" (Fig. 2), by reason of its mineralogical value, the
+perfection of its cutting, the purity of its water, its incomparable
+luster, and its great size, it being the largest brilliant as yet known.
+
+2. The military sword of Charles the Tenth's coronation, the hilt of which
+is entirely of brilliants mounted by Bapst with wonderful art.
+
+3. The jewel called the "Reliquary," of the 15th century.
+
+To these riches must be added the following interesting objects: the Dey
+of Algiers' watch; the Elephant of Denmark; the decorations, etc., of
+foreign orders; crowns and diadems of sapphire; rubies; pearls that afford
+curious specimens of French art at the beginning of our century; one of
+the Mazarins bequeathed by the celebrated Cardinal; and lots of colored
+stones destined for our national museums.
+
+The same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other
+collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over in
+silence, such as the exhibit of the French diamond mines of the Cape,
+where one may see all the details of this prosperous exploitation by means
+of photographs and specimens. The art bronzes, the objects of jewelry, of
+goldsmith's work, and of morocco work, the music boxes, Trouve's and
+Aboilard's electric jewelry, and the retrospective art collections
+especially attracted the attention of the public.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW MODE OF TESTING THE ECONOMY OF THE EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT IN
+LIFE INSURANCE.
+
+
+How to determine the general ratios of the expenses of management of life
+insurance companies has hitherto been an unsettled question, and I think
+no serious attempt has been made before my own to study this question
+exhaustively, and reach a scientific conclusion.
+
+Believing that, one is contained in the following statement, I
+respectfully submit it to the criticism of others.
+
+It has generally been taken for granted that the measure of economy of
+life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single ratio of expenses
+to one feature of the business, such as the premium income, or the total
+income (premium and interest), or the mean amount of all policies
+outstanding. But this is not the case. No exhaustive reason has been shown
+for preferring one of these bases of ratio to another, and, indeed, no
+reason well supported by argument has been shown for employing either. On
+the other hand, no better evidence is needed of the importance of
+establishing a uniform and demonstrably sound basis, than the fact that it
+is common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior
+economy, and totally confuse the public, by opposing ratios found in one
+way by ratios found in another--that one of two companies which appears
+the most economical according to one test being apparently the least so
+according to another.
+
+The economy of the expense of any transaction, or work, can only be
+intelligently judged by the value of the _result_. This truth is too well
+recognized to need illustration, and it only needs to be called to mind,
+to perceive both the error of ratios of expense based on premium, which is
+not the result but the _raw material_, so to speak, of insurance
+transactions; and what, on the contrary, the true basis is.
+
+It is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must be judged,
+not by comparison with the premiums paid, but by comparison specifically
+with the resulting advantages in fact secured by such payments. Now these
+are of two kinds: which may be called the _insurance advantage_ and the
+_investment advantage_.
+
+(1) Each death claim paid is an insurance advantage, though it is so only
+to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy which has become a
+claim over its premium reserve, or value, for the latter being the balance
+(with interest) of the policy holder's own premium money, could have been
+left or secured to his representatives without the intervention of the
+policy and company.
+
+It is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not consist in
+adding anything to the wealth of a company, but only consists in drawing
+from the premiums paid into its treasury by the policy holders generally,
+to meet each death claim which arises; or can only be called an _advantage
+of distribution_, or process of collecting aid from the living members, to
+assist the representatives or dependents of the deceased ones; but it is
+not the less on this account an advantage worth _same expense_ in
+securing.
+
+(2) Interest realized by the investment of premium while it is in the
+keeping of a company is an advantage; in every sense so, since it comes
+wholly from outside sources, and accrues proportionally to all members; it
+may be called, as above, the investment advantage, and of course justifies
+some _expense_ to secure it.
+
+Hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given; time must be
+divided into two parts, one being the expense incidental to insurance, and
+the other that incidental to investment, which parts are to be compared
+respectively with the insurance claims met, and interest receipts of the
+company for the same time; or what is equivalent in the latter case, the
+net rate of interest earned after deducting the incidental investment
+expense may be found.
+
+When this process shows that one company has earned a higher rate of
+interest than another, at the same time that its insurance expenses bear a
+lower ratio to its insurance claims paid, _there is no escape from the
+conclusion that during the period under observation it has served its
+policy-holders more economically_, and the test is therefore scientific.
+Though, if one company shows a higher rate of interest, while the other
+shows a lower ratio of insurance expense, it will still be necessary, to
+complete the test, to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of
+insurance expense (it does not practically matter which), and note how
+this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the other score.
+
+To be exact, if the average vitality of the members of the two companies
+differ (other things being equal, it is always cheapest to belong to that
+company which has the lowest death rate), the ratios of insurance expense
+to expected, as well as actual, claims of each must be found, and equated.
+
+The science of this procedure, or mode of testing expenses, and also its
+practical simplicity, may be more clearly perceived by reference to its
+practical application in the following table:
+
+_Table Exhibiting Ratio of Expense, Determined by the New Mode, of Companies
+Doing Business in Massachusetts during the Year 1883._
+___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |         |           |           |
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |Expense  |           |           |Net Rate
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |per $100 |           |           |   of
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |of claims|           |           |interest
+                   |     |   Death   |Estimated |Difference |Expense    |paid.    | Interest  |  Expense  | earned.
+Name of Company.   |Loca-|   claims  |Premiums. | or Net    | on the    |---------| Receipts. |  on the   |--------
+                   |tion.|   paid.   | Reserve  |Insurance  |score of   | R   | R |           | score of  | R  | R
+                   |     |           | thereon. |furnished. |Insurance. | a   | a |           |investment.| a  | a
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | t   | n |           |           | t  | n
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | e.  | k.|           |           | e. | k.
+-------------------+-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------|----|---
+Berkshire          |Mass.|   $208,147|   $46,605|   $161,524|   $122,779| 75.4| 14|   $194,067|    $15,809|5.25| 16
+[1]John Hancock    |  "  |    169,604|    25,117|    144,487| [8]228,566|158.2| 24|    135,597|     11,686|3.65| 26
+Mass. Mutual       |  "  |    426,995|    86,215|    340,780|    232,400| 68.2| 10|    428,255|     33,176|6.03|  7
+N. England Mutual  |  "  |  1,039,694|   235,630|    804,064|    311,879| 38.8|  3|    995,883|     69,908|6.40|  4
+State Mutual       |  "  |    121,969|    22,493|     99,476|     98,839| 99.4| 19|    143,751|     13,057|4.51| 24
+Ætna               |Conn.|  1,302,807|   364,510|    938,297|    460,014| 49.0|  6|  1,760,372|    118,962|6.22|  5
+Connecticut General|  "  |     87,639|    15,624|     72,015|     46,113| 64.0|  9|     95,580|      5,407|7.03|  1
+     "      Mutual |  "  |  2,867,489|   881,600|  1,985,889|    622,941| 31.4|  1|  3,041,125|    238,944|5.70| 10
+Equitable          | N.Y.|  3,072,232|   483,950|  2,588,282|  1,884,108| 72.8| 12|  2,743,024|    216,725|5.42| 12
+Germania           |  "  |    606,072|   149,950|    456,122|    325,662| 71.4| 11|    508,702|     47,193|4.85| 22
+Home               |  "  |    205,921|    48,603|    157,318|    155,192| 98.6| 18|    260,506|     19,917|4.86| 21
+Homoeopathic       |  "  |     35,610|     6,340|     29,270|     48,734|166.5| 25|     42,814|      2,935|6.20|  6
+Manhattan          |  "  |    687,171|   183,450|    503,721|    266,305| 44.9|  5|    627,628|     44,081|5.82|  8
+[7]Metropolitan    |  "  |    638,639|    18,322|    620,317|  1,161,893|187.3| 26|    106,916|      9,098|4.90| 20
+Mutual Life        |  "  |  5,172,275| 1,407,700|  3,764,575|  1,480,198| 39.3|  4|  5,042,964|    466,739|5.01| 19
+Mutual Benefit     | N.J.|  2,160,991|   550,890|  1,610,101|    521,829| 32.4|  2|  2,072,629|    169,913|5.61| 11
+National           | Vt. |    174,767|    29,127|    145,640|     77,861| 53.5|  7|    149,010|     10,100|5.26| 15
+New York Life      | N.Y.|  2,408,636|   574,150|  1,834,484|  1,995,102|108.8| 21|  2,676,592|    236,884|5.03| 18
+Northwest'n Mutual | Wis.|    990,692|   190,500|    800,192|    630,582| 78.8| 15|  1,200,001|     88,527|5.80|  9
+Penn. Mutual       |Penn.|    601,625|   107,600|    494,025|    309,858| 62.7|  8|    463,567|     37,131|5.38| 13
+Provident Life and |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+   Trust           |  "  |    280,817|    49,865|    230,952|    222,665| 96.4| 17|    340,115|     33,294|4.26| 25
+Provident Savings  | N.Y.|     24,875|     1,828|     23,047|     51,608|233.9| 27|      4,955|      2,579|1.70| 27
+Travelers'         |Conn.|    235,001|    42,243|    192,758|    144,621| 75.0| 13|    331,623|     22,476|6.42|  3
+Union Mutual       |Maine|    377,547|    88,520|    289,027|    237,913| 82.3| 16|    301,499|     28,754|4.66| 23
+United States      | N.Y.|    283,304|    69,245|    214,059|    277,919|129.8| 23|    271,594|     23,460|5.09| 17
+Vermont            | Vt. |     13,000|     1,542|     11,458|     13,613|118.8| 22|     12,917|        822|5.33| 14
+Washington         | N.Y.|    356,289|    71,820|    284,469|    289,461|101.8| 20|    446,998|     32,249|6.78|  2
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+                   +-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------+----+---
+   Totals          |     |$24,549,808|$5,753,439|$18,796,369|$12,177,655| 64.8|   |$24,398,684| $1,999,826|5.42|
+
+_Collective Business of Assessment Societies Doing Business in the State (excepting Secret Societies_).
+
+46 Societies       |     |   $735,383|          |           |   $237,770| 32.3|   |           |           |    |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[Footnote 7: Including industrial business.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Includes $18.867 depreciation.]
+
+The figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual report of
+the Insurance Commissioner of Massachusetts, excepting the premium reserve
+on death claims, which, as well as the division of the total expenses of
+each company into insurance and investment expenses, I have estimated on a
+uniform rule. This was for lack of the actual data in these particulars,
+which the report did not give, as it is desirable that future ones may.
+
+This, however, does not injure the value of the table for illustrating the
+mode of procedure, for which purpose mainly it is presented. The companies
+whose figures I have used, moreover, have no occasion to complain of this,
+as my estimate certainly gives all ratios of insurance expense lower than
+they would appear if I had known, and used, the exact actual premium
+reserve on death claims, and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to
+each other as they would in that case.
+
+As the object of this statement is to explain the new method, and not to
+defend my particular estimates in applying it, I forbear to state on what
+rules I have made them. Expense which is not ascribed to insurance must be
+ascribed to investment, and as in comparing any two companies, their two
+ratios of one kind or the other must be equated, to decide the question of
+economy between them, it may well be left to any company to say what the
+fair division of its own expenses is.
+
+Moreover, there can be but little motive to make a false division; for to
+successfully compete for business, a company having large investments has
+as much need to show a high net rate of interest earned as a low rate of
+insurance expense. Again, it is not my purpose to pass judgment on the
+economy or extravagance of any ratio of expense shown in the table. It is
+not a fact exhibited for the first time by my figures, that the ratios of
+some companies are more than double those of others. The same fact would
+be displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium income,
+or any other incorrect basis. Custom, the balance of opinions, and
+competition may well be left to decide what ratios of expense are high,
+and what are average, or low. And their decision is to be gathered only
+from _statistics_.
+
+What I do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein explained is
+the only intelligible and scientific one, and the only one proper to
+employ in _statistical tabulations_ and _investigations_.
+
+As such, it calls attention to the fact that the amount of insurance
+claims met, and of interest receipts, _are limits_ which the corresponding
+expenses cannot exceed, certainly for a series of years together, without
+making the _expense_ more than the _advantage_ of the business. To keep
+this fact in view, _as a preventive of extravagance_, is not the least
+valuable service the new mode may render. It may be seen that there are
+eight cases in the table, in which the ratio of insurance expense points
+to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in the same time, yet the
+reader need not hasten to conclude that the same companies will
+permanently show similar ratios, or have no good reasons to give for the
+ones which now appear. I may remark, however, that it is an evidence of
+the scientific mode in which the figures are presented, that it
+facilitates such explanations as are pertinent of any of the ratios.
+
+For instance, some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the fact that
+the claims for the year of the company in question have been exceptionally
+high or low, or that the company (being of recent organization perhaps)
+has just incurred exceptional expense to increase its business, the
+advantage of which will appear later, etc. But I leave to the companies
+themselves to show to what extent such circumstances have affected their
+ratios; except that, in regard to the several net rates of interest
+earned, it is proper to say that in all cases in which they considerably
+exceed the average of 5.42 per cent. it will be found, by referring to the
+details of interest receipts reported to the Commissioner, that the excess
+is owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks, or
+recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss.
+
+WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+Medford, Mass., Sept., 1884.
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+455, September 20, 1884, by Various
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13962 ***
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American
+Supplement, September 20, 1884.</title>
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13962 ***</div>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src=
+"./images/1a_th.jpg" alt="TITLE"></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.&mdash;Gallisin, an
+Unfermentable Substance in Starch Sugar.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#2">The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific
+Gravities of Elements and Compounds.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#3">Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means
+of Ammonium Carbonate.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#4">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.&mdash;Petroleum as a
+Fuel in Locomotive Engines.&mdash;By THOMAS URQUHART.&mdash;Spray
+injector.&mdash;Driving locomotives.&mdash;Storage of
+petroleum.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#5">Improved Gas Light Buoy.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#6">Project for a Roadstead at Havre.&mdash;With map
+and views of different breakwaters.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#7">Improved Catch Basin.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#8">Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron
+Water Pipe.&mdash;By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.&mdash;Methods of
+conducting water and transmitting power.&mdash;Texas Creek pipe and
+aqueduct.&mdash;4 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#9">Parachute Hydraulic Motor.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#10">Improved Shafting Lathe.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#11">Power Straightening Machine.&mdash;1
+figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#12">Hydraulic Mining in California.&mdash;By GEO.
+O'BRIEN.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#13">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Emerald Green: Its Properties
+and Manufacture.&mdash;Use in wall paper.&mdash;ROBERT
+GALLOWAY.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#14">Charcoal Kilns.&mdash;Extra yield.&mdash;2
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#15">ARCHITECTURE&mdash;Entrance, Tiddington House,
+Oxon.&mdash;An engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#16">ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.&mdash;The
+Temperature of the Earth as shown by Deep Mines.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#17">New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash
+Pile.&mdash;3 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#18">The Distribution of Electricity by
+Induction.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#19">Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic
+Movements.&mdash;Apparatus for the study of horizontal and vertical
+seismic movements, etc.&mdash;8 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#20">New Accumulators.&mdash;3 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#21">Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc
+Accumulator.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#22">The History of a Lightning Flash.&mdash;By W.
+SLINGO.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#23">Researches on Magnetism.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#24">NATURAL HISTORY.&mdash;The Giraffe.&mdash;With
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#25">MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.&mdash;The Treatment of
+Cholera&mdash;By Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#26">Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their
+Relations to Health.&mdash;London deaths under 1 year in July,
+August, and part of September.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#27">Consumption Spread by Chickens.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#28">New Method of Reducing Fever.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#29">MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;The Crown Diamonds of France
+at the Exhibition of Industrial Arts.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#30">A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses
+of Management in Life Insurance.&mdash;By WALTER C.
+WRIGHT.</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="24"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE GIRAFFE.</h2>
+
+<p>The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of
+the Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the
+<i>Illustrated London News</i>. Hunting the giraffe has long been a
+favorite sport among the more adventurous of British sportsmen, its
+natural range being all the wooded parts of eastern, central, and
+southern Africa, though of late years it has been greatly thinned
+out before the settlements advancing from the Cape of Good
+Hope.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1b.png"><img src=
+"./images/1b_th.jpg" alt=" THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of this singular animal are in some
+particulars those of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes
+are beautiful, extremely large, and so placed that the animal can
+see much of what is passing on all sides, and even behind it, so
+that it is approached with the greatest difficulty. The animal when
+full grown attains sometimes a height of fifteen to seventeen feet.
+It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees principally, its immense
+length of legs and height at the withers rendering it difficult for
+the animal to graze on an even surface. It is not easily overtaken
+except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run down it can
+defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is said,
+often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost
+universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder
+ones, but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch,
+the error having been caused by the great development and height of
+the withers, to give a proper base to the long neck and towering
+head. The color varies a good deal, the head being generally a
+reddish brown, and the neck, back, and sides marked with
+tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white divisions. Many
+specimens have been brought to this country, the animal being
+extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being
+very friendly to those who are kind to it.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even
+with incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid
+any risk of fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and
+lighted by a current, the heat generated was sufficient to set fire
+to the paper, which burnt out and caused the lamp to explode.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="16"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.</h2>
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
+observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep
+mines, were presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B
+Dorsey. Mr. Smith said that the temperature of the earth varies
+very greatly at different localities and in different geological
+formations. There are decided exceptions to the general law that
+the temperature increased with the depth. At the New Almaden
+quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of about 600 feet the
+temperature was very high&mdash;some 115 degrees; but in the
+deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500
+feet below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably
+less than 80 degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air
+1,200 feet below the surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet
+below the surface. The normal temperature of the earth at a depth
+of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the mean annual temperature of
+the air at the particular place. At the Comstock mines, some years
+since, the miners could remain but a few moments at a time, on
+account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an experiment; it
+produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better
+advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these
+mines, and drunk with apparently no bad results.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein,
+Nevada, were exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000
+feet, the thermometer placed in a freshly drilled hole will show
+130 degrees. Very large bodies of water have run for years at 155
+degrees, and smaller bodies at 170 degrees. The temperature of the
+air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing in fresh air cooled over
+ice.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted
+annually from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and
+cold air forced in, as equal to that generated by the combustion of
+55,560 tons of anthracite coal or 97,700 cords of wood.
+Observations were then given upon temperature at every 100 feet in
+the Forman shaft of the Overman mine, running from 53 degrees at a
+depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a depth of 2,300 feet. The
+temperature increased:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet.</li>
+
+<li>100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet.</li>
+
+<li>100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number
+of deep mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines
+or tunnels are in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont
+Cenis tunnel; and the two hottest are in trachyte and the "coal
+measures," namely, the Comstock mines in trachyte and the South
+Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey considered that
+experience showed that limestone was the coolest formation.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="1"></a></p>
+
+<h2>GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.</h2>
+
+<p>C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of
+the unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and
+have succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give
+the name gallisin. The method of separation and purification which
+they made use of is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch
+sugar were allowed to ferment. At a temperature of 18-20&deg; C.
+and with a solution containing 20 per cent. the fermentation was
+complete in five to six days. It was filtered; the perfectly clear,
+almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far as possible on the
+water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into a
+good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large
+excess of absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix
+with the alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh
+alcohol, and again shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been
+repeated several times, the sirup is finally changed to a
+yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought into a large mortar, and
+rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether. After some time the
+whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is quickly
+filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and
+then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved
+in water and treated with bone-black. The solution is then
+evaporated to a sirup, and this poured into a mixture of equal
+parts of anhydrous alcohol and ether. In this way the new compound
+is obtained as a very fine, pure white powder which rapidly
+settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under the microscope
+it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much more
+rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.</p>
+
+<p>Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the
+water-bath gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not
+ferment when treated in water solution with fresh yeast. The
+analyses led to the formula
+C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>24</sub>O<sub>10</sub>. When treated under
+pressure with three times its weight of acetic anhydride at
+130-140&deg; it dissolves perfectly. From the solution a product
+was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing with the
+formula
+C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>18</sub>O<sub>10</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O)<sub>
+6</sub>. The substance appears therefore to be
+hexacetylgallisin.</p>
+
+<p>Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings
+demonstrated clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor
+indirectly any injurious effect on the health.&mdash;<i>Berichte
+der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 17, 1000; Amer. Chem.
+Jour.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="2"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF
+ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.</h2>
+
+<p>Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer,
+of New York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of
+Gas Lighting, from which the <i>American Gas Light Journal</i>
+gives the following:</p>
+
+<p>I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the
+elements and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and
+specific gravities. When the combining weight of any of these
+elements and compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor
+therefrom will always occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at
+60&deg; Fahr. and 30 inches barometer. If we divide this constant
+377.07 by the combining weight of any of the substances, then the
+quotient will be the number of cubic feet per pound of the same. If
+we divide the combining weight of any of the substances given in
+the table by 2, then the quotient will give the density of the
+same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining weight
+of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient
+will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as
+compared with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic
+weights which are now generally adopted by the majority of
+chemists.</p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.">
+<tbody>
+<tr align="center">
+<th width='25%'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th width='10%'>Combining Weight.</th>
+<th width='10%'>Cub. Ft. per Pound.</th>
+<th width='10%'>Cub. Ft. per Combining Weight.</th>
+<th width='10%'>Specific Gravity, Air = 1.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>2.00</td>
+<td align='right'>188.53</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.0692</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbon vapour (C<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>23.94</td>
+<td align='right'>15.75</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.8292</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>28.06</td>
+<td align='right'>13.43</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.9719</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>31.92</td>
+<td align='right'>11.81</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1056</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Chlorine (Cl<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>71.00</td>
+<td align='right'>5.31</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.4593</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Bromine (Br<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>160.00</td>
+<td align='right'>2.35</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>5.5420</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Flourine (F<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>38.00</td>
+<td align='right'>9.92</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.3162</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Iodine (I<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>253.20</td>
+<td align='right'>1.48</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>8.7703</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sulphur (S<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>63.96</td>
+<td align='right'>5.89</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.2154</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Phosphorus (P<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>123.84</td>
+<td align='right'>3.04</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>4.2895</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbonic oxide (CO)</td>
+<td align='right'>27.03</td>
+<td align='right'>13.50</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.9674</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbonic acid (CO<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>48.89</td>
+<td align='right'>8.59</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.5202</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Water vapour (H<sub>2</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>17.06</td>
+<td align='right'>20.99</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.6221</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hydrogen sulphide (H<sub>2</sub>S)</td>
+<td align='right'>33.08</td>
+<td align='right'>11.09</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1770</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ammonia (H<sub>2</sub>N)</td>
+<td align='right'>17.03</td>
+<td align='right'>22.14</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.5898</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sulphurous oxide (SO<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>63.90</td>
+<td align='right'>5.90</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.2133</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sulphuric oxide (SO<sub>3</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>79.86</td>
+<td align='right'>4.72</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.7662</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Cyanogen (C<sub>2</sub>N<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>52.00</td>
+<td align='right'>7.25</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.8011</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Bisulphide of carbon (CS<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>75.93</td>
+<td align='right'>4.96</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.6300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethyl alcohol (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>45.90</td>
+<td align='right'>8.21</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.5898</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethyl ether (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>73.84</td>
+<td align='right'>5.10</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.5576</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Methyl alcohol (CH<sub>4</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>31.93</td>
+<td align='right'>11.81</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1059</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Methyl chloride (CH<sub>3</sub>Cl)</td>
+<td align='right'>50.47</td>
+<td align='right'>7.47</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.7482</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbonyl chloride (COCl<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>98.93</td>
+<td align='right'>3.81</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>3.4267</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Phosphine gas (PH<sub>3</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>33.96</td>
+<td align='right'>11.10</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1769</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hydrochloric acid (HCl)</td>
+<td align='right'>36.50</td>
+<td align='right'>10.33</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.2642</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>15.98</td>
+<td align='right'>26.61</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.5531</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethane (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>29.94</td>
+<td align='right'>12.50</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.0370</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Propane (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>43.91</td>
+<td align='right'>8.58</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.5209</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>57.88</td>
+<td align='right'>6.51</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.0048</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethene (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>27.94</td>
+<td align='right'>13.49</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.9677</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Propene (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>41.91</td>
+<td align='right'>8.99</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.4516</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Butene (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>55.88</td>
+<td align='right'>6.74</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.9355</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethine (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>25.94</td>
+<td align='right'>14.53</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.8985</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Propine (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>39.91</td>
+<td align='right'>9.44</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.3824</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Butine (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>53.88</td>
+<td align='right'>6.98</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.8662</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Quintone (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>65.85</td>
+<td align='right'>5.72</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.2809</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Benzene (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>77.82</td>
+<td align='right'>4.84</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.6955</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Styrolene (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>103.75</td>
+<td align='right'>3.63</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>3.5936</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Naphtalene (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>127.70</td>
+<td align='right'>2.95</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>4.4232</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Turpentine (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>135.70</td>
+<td align='right'>2.77</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>4.7003</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Dry air</td>
+<td align='right'>28.87</td>
+<td align='right'>13.06</td>
+<td align='center'>&mdash;</td>
+<td align='right'>1.0000</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="13"></a></p>
+
+<h2>EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.<a name=
+"FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.</h3>
+
+<p>The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green
+(aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in
+many journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another
+in different publications, especially medical ones; there has
+recently appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The
+Poisonous Effect of Wall-paper." As some years ago I became
+practically acquainted with its properties and manufacture, a few
+observations on these subjects may not be without interest.</p>
+
+<p>In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous
+effect of this pigment cannot be <i>entirely</i> due to its mere
+mechanical detachment from the paper. This writer therefore
+attributes the poisonous effects to the formation of the hydrogen
+compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted hydrogen (AsH<sub>3</sub>);
+the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound, being generated,
+the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of moisture and
+organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls papers
+impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr.
+Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that
+arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the <i>fermentation</i> of the
+starch-paste employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is
+perfectly obvious that the fermentation of the starch-paste must
+cease after a time, and therefore the poisonous effects of the
+paper must likewise cease if its injurious effects are caused by
+the fermentation. I do not think that arseniureted hydrogen could
+be formed under the <i>conditions</i>, for the oxygen compound of
+arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound is in a dry
+solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two
+elements&mdash;arsenic and hydrogen&mdash;for each other are so
+exceedingly weak that they cannot be made to unite directly except
+they are both set free at the same moment in presence of each
+other. Further, for the formation of this hydrogen compound by the
+fermentation of the starch, or by the growth of minute fungi, the
+<i>entire</i> compound must be broken up, and therefore the pigment
+would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of copper</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span>(3CuAs<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>+Cu(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>
+2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>)<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition,
+and is consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not
+unfrequently stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are
+due to the arsenious oxide volatilizing from the other constituents
+of the compound. This volatilization would likewise cause a
+breaking up of the entire compound, and would consequently cause a
+discoloration of the paper; but the volatilization of this arsenic
+compound is in every respect most improbable.</p>
+
+<p>The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be
+due to its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever
+been conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the
+wall-paper of which is stained with emerald-green suffer from
+arsenical poisoning? If it does occur, then the effects of what may
+be termed hom&oelig;opathic doses of this substance are totally
+different from the effects which arise from larger doses. During
+the packing of this substance in its dry state in the factory,
+clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had to
+do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands
+suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is
+any abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the
+delicate lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in
+this way it acts in large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as
+to its supposed poisonous effects when wall-paper is stained with
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the
+manufacture of this pigment, but as they do not agree in every
+respect with the method which was followed in English color
+factories some years ago, it will be as well, for the full
+elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to briefly recite
+some of these methods before describing the one that was, and
+probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method
+which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other,
+both in the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for
+producing it at a less cost.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is
+"prepared on a large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric
+acetate and water. Five parts of verdigris are made up to a thin
+paste, and added to a boiling solution of 4 parts or rather more of
+arsenious acid in 50 parts of water. The boiling must be well kept
+up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a yellow-green color, from
+the formation of copper arsenite; in that case acetic acid must be
+added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer. The
+precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green
+color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal
+knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt
+employed in its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would
+account, in my opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which
+it is obtained in France than can be produced by the English method
+of manufacturing it. Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe,
+in England&mdash;the much cheaper copper salt, the sulphate, being
+always employed.</p>
+
+<p>In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by
+<i>boiling</i> solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate,
+and adding to the mixture an equal bulk of <i>cold</i> water." Why
+it should be recommended to add <i>cold water</i>, I am at a loss
+to understand.</p>
+
+<p>In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and
+in the English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical
+Technology," edited by Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr.
+Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.," xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated
+in Wagner's work: "This pigment is prepared by first separately
+dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious acid and neutral
+acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these solutions
+while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent olive-green
+colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the supernatant
+liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the precipitate
+becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a beautiful
+green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration,
+and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode
+of preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised
+by M. Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are
+dissolved in the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with
+a boiling and concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa,
+so prepared as to contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is
+immediately formed a dirty greenish-colored precipitate which is
+converted into Schweinfurt green by the addition of some 15 liters
+of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having been done, the
+precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."</p>
+
+<p>As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the
+manufacture of this pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is
+carried out pretty much according to Braconnot's method as
+described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one would infer, from reading his
+description of the manufacturing process, that the compound,
+aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately after the
+addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric
+temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the
+formation. Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms
+more readily in an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or
+cannot be formed in a neutral one; now both these points are
+important to notice in describing its manufacture. As regards the
+former I shall notice it presently, and, as far as my knowledge
+extends, the pigment will not form when the solution is
+neutral.</p>
+
+<p>The operation is conducted in the following manner in the
+factory: The requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in
+a large wooden vat, and hot water added to dissolve it; the
+requisite quantity of arsenic (arsenious anhydride) and carbonate
+of soda, the latter not in quantity quite sufficient to neutralize
+the whole of the sulphuric acid set free from the sulphate of
+copper on the precipitation of the copper as arsenite, are placed
+in another wooden vessel; water is then added, and the formation of
+the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the introduction
+of steam into the liquid. When complete solution has been effected
+the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the
+solution of the sulphate of copper, arsenite of copper being at
+once precipitated. The necessary quantity of acetic acid is
+afterward added. In <i>warm</i> weather the formation of the
+aceto-arsenite soon commences after the addition of the vinegar;
+but, even in that case, it takes a week or more to have the whole
+of a big batch of arsenite converted into the aceto-arsenite; and
+perfect conversion is necessary, as the presence of a very minute
+quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of the
+emerald pigment, and a by no means large quantity renders the
+pigment unsalable, owing to its dirty yellowish-green color. In
+cold weather a much longer time is required for its complete
+conversion; even at the end of a fortnight or three weeks there
+frequently remains sufficient unconverted arsenite to affect
+seriously the selling price of the color; when this occurs the
+manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a most wasteful
+method viz, by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid. The acid
+of course dissolves the arsenite, but it dissolves in very much
+larger quantities the aceto-arsenite; and this costly solution is
+not utilized, but is run into the factory sewer.</p>
+
+<p>By my method of manufacturing it, it can be produced in winter
+as well as in summer in one or two hours, and the quantity of free
+acid required for its formation is reduced to the lowest amount. I
+proceed as follows: After having dissolved in hot water the
+requisite quantity of cupric sulphate, I decompose one-fourth of
+this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution of carbonate of
+soda to precipitate the copper, in that quantity of the sulphate,
+as carbonate. I then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert the
+carbonate into acetate. I have now got in solution&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza"><span>3CuSO<sub>4</sub> +
+Cu(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>,<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and I have to transform it into&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza"><span>3CuAs<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> +
+Cu(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>.<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is at once seen that I have got the requisite quantity of
+acetate formed. I next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious
+anhydride in an amount of carbonate of soda <i>rather less</i> than
+is sufficient to neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric
+sulphate, and I then bring the solution to or near the
+boiling-point by introducing steam into it; the arsenic is
+dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt, but in a
+separate one. When the arsenic solution is fully heated, a small
+current of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper
+salts, and brisk stirring is kept up in the vat. The emerald green
+is at once formed; but if there should be the slightest formation
+of any arsenite, the flow of the arsenic solution is at once
+stopped until every trace of the arsenite has been converted; the
+arsenic solution is then allowed to flow in again, with the same
+precautions as before; in this way a large batch of emerald-green
+can he formed in one or two hours, without containing the slightest
+trace of the arsenite. I keep the arsenic solution near the
+boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the
+other vessel. By varying the proportions of water I could either
+make it coarse or fine, as I wished, which is an important matter
+to have complete control over in its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>Two points of interest occurred to me during the time I was
+occupied with the research, which I had not time to complete; one
+was whether the aceto-arsenite can be formed, adopting the old
+method for its formation, if there is more than a certain quantity
+of water; from some experiments I made in this direction I was
+inclined to the opinion it could not. I have already stated that
+emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids, and that it
+is formed in a more or less acid solution; consequently a varying
+amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the
+supernatant liquid. To prevent to a certain extent this loss I
+precipitated the copper from it as arsenite; but I was not
+successful in the few experiments I had time to make on this part
+of the subject of reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained
+into the aceto-arsenite by the addition of acetic
+acid.&mdash;<i>Jour. of Science.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a>
+<div class="note">This substance is also known by the name
+Schweinfurt green.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="3"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ANALYSIS OF ZINC ASH AND CALCINED PYRITES BY MEANS OF AMMONIUM
+CARBONATE.</h2>
+
+<p>In a recent issue of the <i>Chemiker Zeitung</i> Dr. Kosmann has
+reported an analytical method for the examination of zinciferous
+products; according to this report, the ash and flue dust produced
+by the extraction of zinc from its ore comprise:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Zinc dust, from the distillation of zinc,</li>
+
+<li>Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with
+Kleemann's receivers,</li>
+
+<li>Zinc ash, of various assortments, from iron blast
+furnaces.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Of these, zinc dust is the only ready product which is, as color
+or reducing agent, employed in analytical and technical processes.
+Its value, when serving the latter purpose, is determined by the
+percentage of finely divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained
+therein; of equal reducing power is cadmium, generally associating
+zinc; injurious, and therefore uneffective, are zinc oxide and
+oxides of other metals, also metallic lead.</p>
+
+<p>Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with
+Kleemann's receivers, is employed with zinc ores in the extraction
+of zinc, and in small quantities as substitute for zinc white; its
+commercial value is similarly estimated as that of zinc ores.</p>
+
+<p>The various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast
+furnaces are an object for continual demand, being both a valuable
+material for the production of zinc and, in its superior qualities,
+a desirable pigment. In the regeneration of zinc the presence of
+foreign substances is of some concern; detrimental are lead,
+sulphur, and sulphuric acid in form of lead, zinc, and lime
+sulphate.</p>
+
+<p>The chemico-technical analysis of these products has until
+recently been confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by
+means of sodium sulphide (Schaffner's method). But as a remnant of
+sulphur, as sulphuric acid, in roasted blende causes a material
+loss during distillation, and otherwise being induced to produce a
+zinc free of lead, the estimation of sulphur, sulphuric acid, and
+lead became necessary. These impurities are determined by
+well-known methods; sulphur is oxidized and precipitated with
+barium chloride, lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol. The
+examination of zinc dust, when used for the regeneration of metal,
+determines the quantity of zinc resident therein, and employed as
+reducing agent, the quantity of metal which causes the generation
+of hydrogen. Cadmium, showing the same deportment, must also be
+considered as well as lead and arsenic.</p>
+
+<p>A most complete and rapidly working method for the examination
+of zinciferous products has originated with the application of
+neutral ammonium carbonate as solvent. A solution of this
+preparation is made, according to H. Rose, by dissolving 230 grm.
+commercial ammon carbonate in 180 c.c. ammoniacal liquor of 0.92
+s.g., and, by addition of water, augmenting it to one liter.</p>
+
+<p>This solution dissolves the metallic components, their oxides,
+and basic zinc sulphate, and transfers cadmium and lead oxide, also
+lead, magnesium, and lime sulphate, into insoluble carbonates. Iron
+and manganese, when present as protoxide, are dissolved; of iron
+sesquioxide but traces, and of cadmium oxide <i>in statu
+nascendi</i> a small portion enter into solution. The solution of
+ammonium carbonate contains in each 10 c.c. 1 grm. ammonia, which
+dissolves 1.5 grm. zinc.</p>
+
+<p>The sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed
+with an adequate volume of the solvent, is digested at 50-60&deg;
+C. until complete decomposition is effected. The heating of the
+liquid prevents the solution of iron, manganese, and cadmium. The
+content, sediment and liquid, is thrown on a filter and washed with
+hot water to which a small quantity of the solvent has been added.
+When the solution contains iron and manganese, it is separated by
+decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine (according
+to the method of Nic-Wolff) until a flocculent precipitate of iron
+sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible; it is united
+with the original residue and filtered.</p>
+
+<p>The filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy, boiled to expel
+ammonia, tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc,
+and, when freed of all zinc, decanted. The precipitate of zinc
+carbonate is filtered, exhausted with water, transferred into zinc
+oxide by ignition, and weighed. The gravimetric method can be
+substituted by the volumetric by introducing a solution of sodium
+sulphide of known strength into the ammoniacal filtrate. On
+dividing the filtered liquid into various equal portions other
+substances, arsenic and sulphuric acid, can be determined from the
+same sample. For this purpose the filtrate is concentrated; divided
+into two equal portions, one of which is acidified and treated with
+hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic, the other is
+acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of
+barium chloride. The original residue is dissolved in muriatic or
+acetic acid and filtered. The lead of the filtered liquid is thrown
+down by sulphuric acid, and alcohol, and cadmium, after dissipation
+of alcohol into gas, precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Iron,
+manganese, alumina, and other substances present in the solution
+are determined by known methods.</p>
+
+<p>It is manifest that the determination of substances&mdash;zinc,
+lead, and sulphuric acid&mdash;which are of importance in technical
+analysis of zinc ash, can be executed by this method within a
+comparatively short time. The application of ammonium carbonate as
+solvent has the advantage, over the application of ammonia, that it
+is a far better solvent, that it decomposes insoluble basic
+sulphates, and that the remaining carbonates are readily dissolved
+by acids.</p>
+
+<p>The decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively
+evolution of gas; it is therefore necessary to continue the
+digestion of the sample till no more hydrogen is given off. Zinc
+dust contains both metals and their oxides, and methods which, from
+the volume of hydrogen generated, determine indirectly the
+percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real composition of the
+zinc dust. For the determination of the metallic components the
+material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate, which
+dissolves zinc and cadmium; the liquid is filtered, acidified, and
+decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, or treated with a solution of
+ammonium carbonate. The use of cupric chloride is not advisable, as
+it corrodes lead, and gives rise to the formation of soluble
+chloride of lead, which complicates the separation of zinc from
+cadmium. The best mode of operation is the following: Both copper
+sulphate and zinc dust are weighed separately, the former is
+dissolved in water and the latter introduced into the solution of
+copper sulphate in small portions until it appears colorless.
+During the operation the vessel is freely shaken, lumps are
+comminuted with a glass rod, and a few drops of the liquid are
+ultimately tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. The remainder
+of zinc dust is then weighed, and its value deducted from the
+original weight. Zinc and cadmium of the filtrate are determined as
+above. On repeating this method several times most satisfactory
+results are obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper
+sulphate and to determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate. The
+separation of copper from cadmium being difficult and laborious,
+and the volumetric estimation with potassium cyanide not
+practicable, it is not prudent to apply this method.</p>
+
+<p>When calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined, the
+estimation of zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of
+zinc ore. The sample is exhausted with water, filtered, and, to
+eliminate calcium sulphate and basic iron sulphate, evaporated to
+dryness. It is then dissolved in a small quantity of alcohol and
+water, refiltered, and the filtrate decomposed with ammonium
+carbonate. The original residue is treated with a solution of
+ammonium carbonate, which dissolves arsenious acid and basic zinc
+sulphate, filtered, and united with the first filtrate. When iron
+and manganese are present, the filtrates are treated with bromine.
+The united filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with
+sodium sulphide.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="4"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PETROLEUM AS FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.<a name=
+"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Mr. THOMAS URQUHART.</h3>
+
+<p>Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a
+theoretical evaporative power of 16.2 lb. of water per lb. of fuel,
+and the latter of 12.2 lb., at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 lb. per
+square inch; hence petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent.
+higher evaporative value than anthracite. Now in locomotive
+practice a mean evaporation of from 7 lb. to 7&frac12; lb. of water
+per lb. of anthracite is about what is generally obtained, thus
+giving about 60 per cent. efficiency, while 40 per cent. of the
+heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an
+evaporation of 12.25 lb. is practically obtained, giving 12.25/16.2
+= 75 per cent. efficiency. Thus in the first place petroleum is
+theoretically 33 per cent. superior to anthracite in evaporative
+power; and secondly, its useful effect is 25 per cent. greater,
+being 75 percent. instead of 60 percent.; while, thirdly, weight
+for weight, the practical evaporative value of petroleum must be
+reckoned as at least from (12.25 - 7.50)/7.50 = 63 per cent. to
+(12.25 - 7.00)/7.00 = 75 per cent. higher than that of
+anthracite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spray injector.</i>&mdash;Steam not superheated, being the
+most convenient for injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the
+furnace, it remains to be proved how far superheated steam or
+compressed air is really superior to ordinary saturated steam,
+taken from the highest point inside the boiler by a special
+internal pipe. In using several systems of spray injectors for
+locomotives, the author invariably noticed the impossibility of
+preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation of soot, and inequality
+of heating of the fire box. The work of a locomotive boiler is very
+different from that of a marine or stationary boiler, owing to the
+frequent changes of gradient on the line, and the frequent
+stoppages at stations. These conditions render firing with
+petroleum very difficult; and were it not for the part played by
+properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box, the spray jet
+alone would be quite inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of engineers
+have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of
+"spray injector," for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum
+into a fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to
+render it inflammable and of easy ignition. For this object nearly
+all the known spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices
+for petroleum as well as for steam; the width of the orifices does
+not exceed from &frac12; mm. to 2 mm. or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and
+in many instances is capable of adjustment. With such narrow
+orifices it is clear that any small solid particles which may find
+their way into the spray injector along with the petroleum will
+foul the nozzle and check the fire. Hence in many of the steamboats
+on the Caspian Sea, although a single spray injector suffices for
+one furnace, two are used, in order that when one gets fouled the
+other may still work; but, of course, the fouled orifices require
+incessant cleaning out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Locomotives.</i>&mdash;In arranging a locomotive for burning
+petroleum, several details are required to be added in order to
+render the application convenient. In the first place, for getting
+up steam to begin with, a gas pipe of 1 inch internal diameter is
+fixed along the outside of the boiler, and at about the middle of
+its length it is fitted with a three-way cock having a screw nipple
+and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is connected to the
+blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to the spray
+injector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a shunting
+locomotive under steam, the spray jet is immediately started by the
+borrowed steam, by which at the same time a draught is also
+maintained in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine shed the
+borrowed steam would be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently
+placed and specially arranged for the purpose of raising steam. In
+practice steam can be raised from cold water to 3 atm.
+pressure&mdash;45 lb. per square inch&mdash;in twenty minutes. The
+use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
+worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm.&mdash;120
+lb.&mdash;is thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the
+time the spray jet was first started. In daily practice, when it is
+only necessary to raise steam in boilers already full of hot water,
+the full pressure of 7 to 8 atm. is obtained in from twenty to
+twenty-five minutes. While experimenting with liquid fuel for
+locomotives, a separate tank was placed on the tender for carrying
+the petroleum, having a capacity of about 3 tons. But to have a
+separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in place, would be a
+source of danger from the possibility of its moving forward in case
+of collision. It was therefore decided, as soon as petroleum firing
+was permanently introduced, to place the tank for fuel in the
+tender between the two side compartments of the water tank,
+utilizing the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the
+capacity of the tank is 3&frac12; tons of oil&mdash;a quantity
+sufficient for 250 miles, with a train of 480 tons gross exclusive
+of engine and tender. In charging the tender tank with petroleum,
+it is of great importance to have strainers of wire cloth in the
+manhole of two different meshes, the outer one having openings,
+say, of &frac14; in., the inner, say &#8539; in.; these strainers
+are occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent
+any solid particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of
+the spray injector is likely to occur; and even if an obstruction
+should arise, the obstacle being of small size can easily be blown
+through by screwing back the steam cone in the spray injector far
+enough to let the solid particles pass and be blown out into the
+fire-box by the steam. This expedient is easily resorted to even
+when running; and no more inconvenience arises than an extra puff
+of dense smoke for a moment, in consequence of the sudden admission
+of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the manhole of the
+petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another strainer at
+the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of &#8531; in.
+holes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Driving locomotives.</i>&mdash;In lighting up, certain
+precise rules have to be followed, in order to prevent explosion of
+any gas that may have accumulated in the fire box. Such explosions
+do often take place through negligence; but they amount simply to a
+puff of gas, driving smoke out through the ash-pan dampers, without
+any disagreeably loud report. This is all prevented by adhering to
+the following simple rules: First clear the spray nozzle of water
+by letting a small quantity of steam blow through, with the ash-pan
+doors open; at the same time start the blower in the chimney for a
+few seconds, and the gas, if any, will be immediately drawn up the
+chimney. Next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece
+of cotton waste, or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum
+and burning with a flame. Then by opening first the steam valve of
+the spray injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the very
+first spray of oil coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites
+without any explosion whatever; after which the quantity of fuel
+can be increased at pleasure. By looking at the top of the chimney,
+the supply of petroleum can be regulated by observing the smoke.
+The general rule is to allow a transparent light smoke to escape,
+thus showing that neither too much air is being admitted nor too
+little. The combustion is quite under the control of the driver,
+and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent smoke
+altogether. While running, it is indispensable that the driver and
+fireman should act together, the latter having at his side of the
+engine the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the steam
+wheel and the petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two
+ash-pan door handles in which there are notches for regulating the
+air admission. Each alteration in the position of the reversing
+lever or screw, as well as in the degree of opening of the steam
+regulator or the blast pipe, requires a corresponding alteration of
+the fire. Generally the driver generally passes the word when he
+intends shutting off steam, so that the alteration in the firing
+can be effected before the steam is actually shut off; and in this
+way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually
+done together. All this care is necessary to prevent smoke, which
+is nothing less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, the train
+arrives at the top of a bank, which it has to go down with the
+brakes on, exactly at the moment of the driver shutting off the
+steam and shifting the reversing lever into full forward gear, the
+petroleum and steam are shut off from the spray injector, the
+ash-pan doors are closed, and if the incline be a long one, the
+revolving iron damper over the chimney top is moved into position,
+closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The accumulated heat
+is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even rises in
+pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon as
+the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again
+required, the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top; then
+the steam is turned on to the spray injector, and next a small
+quantity of petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-pan
+doors, a small fire being rendered possible by the entrance of air
+around the spray injector, as well as by possible leakage past the
+ash-pan doors. The spray immediately coming in contact with the hot
+chamber ignites without any audible explosion; and the ash-pan
+doors are finally opened, when considerable power is required, or
+when the air otherwise admitted is not sufficient to support
+complete combustion. By looking at the fire through the sight hole
+it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or dusky;
+in fact, with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after
+a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with
+petroleum. The better men contrive to burn less fuel than others,
+simply by greater care in attending to all the points essential to
+success. At present seventy-two locomotives are running with
+petroleum firing; ten of them are passenger engines, seventeen are
+eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and forty-five are six-wheel
+coupled. As might be expected, several points have arisen which
+must be dealt with in order to insure success. For instance, the
+distance ring between the plates around the firing door is apt to
+leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it, and the
+absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by
+having the brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is
+taken out altogether when the engines are in for repairs, and a
+flange joint is substituted, similar to what is now used in the
+engines of the London and Northwestern Railway. This arrangement
+gives better results, and occasions no trouble whatever.</p>
+
+<p><i>Storage of petroleum.</i>&mdash;The length of line now worked
+with petroleum is from Tsaritsin to Burnack, 291 miles. There is a
+main iron reservoir for petroleum at each of the four engine sheds,
+namely at Tsaritsin, Archeda, Filonoff, and Borisoglebsk. Each
+reservoir is 66 ft. internal diameter and 24 ft. high, and when
+full holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging the reservoir,
+which stands a good way from the line, and is situated at a
+convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings, is as
+follows: On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed
+ten cistern cars full of oil, the capacity of each being about ten
+tons. From each of these cars a connection is made by a flexible
+India rubber pipe to one of ten stand pipes which project 1 ft.
+above the ground line. Parallel with the rails is laid a main pipe,
+with which the ten stand pipes are all connected, thus forming one
+general suction main. About the middle of the length of the main,
+which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or other
+non-conducting material, is fixed a Blake steam pump. As soon as
+all the ten connections are made with the cistern cars, the pump is
+set to work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are
+discharged into the main reservoir, the time depending of course
+upon the capacity of the pump. All the pipes used are of malleable
+iron, lap-welded, and of 5 in. internal diameter, having screwed
+coupling muffs for making the connections. At each engine shed, in
+addition to the main storage reservoir, there is a smaller
+distributing tank, which is erected at a sufficient height to
+supply the tenders, and very much resembles the ordinary water
+tanks. These distributing tanks are circular, about 8&frac12; ft.
+diameter and 6 ft. high, and of &frac14; in. plates; their inside
+mean area is calculated exactly, and a scale graduated in inches
+stands in the middle of the tank; a glass with scale is used
+outside in summer time. Each inch in height on the scale is
+converted into cubic feet, and then by means of a table is
+converted into Russian poods, according to the specific gravity at
+various temperatures. As it would be superfluous to graduate the
+table for each separate degree of temperature, the columns in the
+table show the weights for every 8 degrees Reaumur, which is quite
+sufficient: namely, from 24 deg. to 17 deg., from 16 deg. to 9
+deg., and so on, down to -24 deg.; the equivalent Fahrenheit range
+being from 86 deg. down to -22 deg. Suppose the filling of a tender
+tank draws off a height of 27 in. from the distributing tank, at a
+temperature of say -20 deg. R., these figures are shown by the
+table to correspond with 200.61 poods = 7,245 lb., or 3.23 tons, of
+petroleum. This arrangement does very well in practice; both the
+quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill
+at the time of his taking in his supply.</p>
+
+<p><i>Engines.</i>&mdash;The engines used in the trials were built
+by Borsig, of Berlin, Schneider, of Creusot, and the Russian
+Mechanical and Mining Company, of St. Petersburg. Their main
+dimensions and weights were about the same, as follows, all of them
+having six wheels coupled, and 36 tons adhesive weight; as
+originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes for burning
+anthracite or wood; cylinders 18&#8539; in. diameter and 24 in.
+stroke; slide valves, outside lap 1-1/16 in., inside lap 3/32 in.,
+maximum travel, 4-9/16 in.; Stephenson link motion; boiler
+pressure, 120 lb. per square inch; six wheels, all coupled, 4 ft. 3
+in. in diameter; distance between centers of leading and middle
+wheels, 6 ft. 2&frac34; in.; between middle and trailing, 4 ft.
+9&frac14; in.; total length of wheel base, 11 ft.; weight empty, on
+leading wheels, 12.041 tons; middle, 10.782 tons; trailing, 10.685
+tons; total weight, 33.508 tons empty; weight in running order, on
+leading wheels, 12.563 tons; middle, 11.885 tons; trailing 12.790
+tons; total weight, 37.238 tons in running order. Tubes number 151;
+outside diameter, 2&#8539; in.; length between tube plates, 13 ft.
+10&#8539; in.; outside heating surface, 1,166 square feet; fire box
+heating surface, 82 square feet; total heating surface, 1,248
+square feet; fire grate area, 17 square feet;tractive power = 65
+per cent. of boiler pressure &times; (cyl. diam.)&sup2; &times;
+stroke / diameter of wheels = 0.65 &times; 120 &times;
+(18.125)&sup2; &times; 24 / 51 = 5.383 tons. Ratio of tractive
+power to adhesion weight = 5.383 / 37.238 = 1 / 6.9.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tender.</i>&mdash;Contents: water, 310 cubic feet, or 1,933
+gallons, or 8&frac12; tons; anthracite, 600 poods, or 10 tons; or
+wood, 1&frac12; cubic sajene, or 514 cubic feet; weight empty,
+13.477 tons; weight in running order, 28.665 tons; six wheels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petroleum Refuse&mdash;Comparative Trials with Petroleum,
+Anthracite, Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and
+Tsaritsin on Grazi and Tsaritsin Railway, in Winter Time.</i></p>
+
+<pre>
+-----+----+-----+------+---+-----+------+-----------+-------------+------+------------
+     |  L |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |
+     |  o |     |  Train   |     |      |           | Consumption |      |
+     |  c |     |  alone.  |     |      |           |  Including  |      |
+Date.|  o |     |          |     |      |           | Lighting up.|      |
+1883.|  m |     |----+-----|     |      |           |             | Cost |
+     |  o |Train|Num-|     | Dis-| Car  |           |             |  of  |Atmospheric
+     |  t |     |ber |Gross|tance|miles.|  Fuel.    |-------+-----| fuel |temperature
+     |  i |     | of |load.| run.|      |           |       | Per | per  |   and
+     |  v |     |Loa-|     |     |      |           | Total |train| train| weather.
+     |  e |     |ded |     |     |      |           |       |mile.| mile.|
+     |  . |     |cars|     |     |      |           |       |     |      |
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |    |     | No.| Tons|Miles|      |           |       |     |Pence.|
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |  8 |32-23| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Anthracite.| 31799 |81.90|11.957|-17&deg; to -18&deg;
+     |    |32-23|    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+ Feb.|    |     |    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      | equiv. to
+  8  |    |24-21|    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      |-6&deg; to -8&frac12;&deg;
+     | 14 |24-21| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Bituminous |37557.5|96.53|14.093|   Fah.
+     |    |     |    |     |     |      | Coal.     |  lb.  | lb. |      |
+     |  7 |26-29| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,830|Petroleum  | 9462  |48.77| 5.487|   Strong
+     |    |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     | 24 |32-23| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Anthracite.|12639.5|65.15| 9.512|-5&deg; to -9&deg;
+March|    |     |    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+  6  | 21 |24-21| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Wood, in   | 1071.8| 5.52| 8.5  | equiv. to
+     |    |     |    |     |     |      | billets.  | c. ft.|c. ft|      | 21&deg; to 12&deg;
+     |    |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |   Fah.
+     | 23 |26-27| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Petroleum  | 7228  |37.28| 4.188|   Light
+     |    |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+-----------
+</pre>
+
+<p>Prices of fuel:<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton;
+Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood, in billets, 42s. per cubic
+sajene = 343 cubic feet;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic
+foot.</span><br>
+<br>
+Dimensions of locomotives:<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cylinders, 18 &#8539; in. diam. and
+24 in. stroke; Wheels, 4 feet 3 in. diam.;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total heating surface, 1,248 sq.
+feet: Total adhesion weight, 36 tons;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boiler pressure, 8 to 9
+atm.</span><br>
+</p>
+
+<p>The preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made
+in winter with different sorts of fuel, under exactly similar
+conditions as to type of engine, profile of line, and load of
+train. Two sets of comparative trials were made, both of them in
+winter. The three engines used were some of those built by
+Schneider. In comparison with anthracite, the economy in favor of
+petroleum refuse was 41 per cent. in weight, and 55 per cent. in
+cost. With bituminous coal there was a difference of 49 per cent.
+in favor of petroleum as to weight and 61 per cent. as to cost. As
+compared with wood petroleum was 50 per cent. cheaper. At a speed
+of fourteen miles an hour up an incline of 1 in 125 the steam
+pressure was easily kept up at 9 to 9&frac12; atm. with a No. 9
+injector feeding the boiler all the time.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two
+locomotives to burn petroleum; and from his own personal
+observations made on the foot plate with considerable frost he is
+satisfied that no other fuel can compare with petroleum either for
+locomotives or for other purposes. In illustration of its safety in
+case of accident, a photograph was exhibited of an accident that
+occurred on the author's line on 30th December, 1883, when a
+locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment,
+taking the train after it; no explosion or conflagration of any
+kind took place under such trying circumstances, thus affording
+some proof of the safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of
+firing. Although it is scarcely possible that petroleum firing will
+ever be of use for locomotives on the ordinary railways of
+coal-bearing England, yet the author is convinced chat, even in
+such a country, its employment would be an enormous boon on
+underground lines.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a>
+<div class="note">Abstract of paper read before the Institution of
+Mechanical Engineers.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="14"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHARCOAL KILNS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src=
+"./images/4b_th.jpg" alt=" KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal
+making, we offer two illustrations that show a method of
+manufacture differing from that usually adopted, which is that of
+burning on the bare ground, and covering with soil or sods to
+exclude the air. These kilns are made of brick, one course being
+sufficient, bands of iron or timber framework being added to
+strengthen the brickwork with greater economy. The usual style is
+conical, and the size is 24 feet in diameter, with an equal height,
+holding about 40 cords of wood. The difference in price is 1&#8539;
+d. per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual
+mounds, the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns, and
+the timber standing, the kiln burning costing 2&#8539; d., and the
+other 3&frac14; d. The kilns must be lined to about halfway up with
+fire-brick, the cost of which will vary with the locality, but will
+be about &pound;200, and as 40 to 50 bushels of coal have been made
+per cord the extra yield on good charcoal and the lessening of the
+cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on the cost of the
+kilns. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight for 6
+feet, when it is drawn in, so as to become bluntly conical. Upon
+the top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone
+of an arch, and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn
+tight with screw bolts and nuts to strengthen it. Double doors of
+sheet-iron are made at the bottom and near the tops, by which it is
+either filled or emptied, and a few air-holes (B), which may be
+stopped with loose bricks, left in the bottom. The second figure
+shows a kiln of another shape made to burn 3,000 bushels of
+charcoal, or about 80 cords of wood. The shape is a parallelogram,
+having an arched roof, and it is strengthened by a framework of
+timber 10 inches square. As the pressure of the gas is sometimes
+very great, the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to
+prevent their bursting. The usual size is 16 feet wide and high,
+and 40 feet in length, outside measure. The time occupied in
+filling, burning, and emptying a small cone is about three weeks,
+and four weeks is required for the larger ones.&mdash;<i>The
+Gardeners' Chronicle.</i></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4a.png"><img src=
+"./images/4a_th.jpg" alt=" KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="15"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ENTRANCE, TIDDINGTON HOUSE, OXON.</h2>
+
+<p>Our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to Tiddington
+House, Oxfordshire, the residence of the Rev. Joshua Bennett. The
+house is an old building of the Georgian period, and though
+originally plain and unpretentious, its bold coved cornices under
+the eaves, its rubbed and shaped arches, moulded strings, and thick
+sash bars, made it of considerable interest to the admirers of the
+"Queen Anne" school of architecture, and led to the adoption of
+that style in the alterations and additions made last year, of
+which the work shown in our illustration formed a small part.
+Between the "entrance facade" and the wall of the house there is a
+space of some twenty feet in length, which is inclosed by a
+substantially built conservatory-like erection of Queen Anne
+design, forming an outer hall.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4c.png"><img src=
+"./images/4c_th.jpg" alt=
+"ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.&mdash;Morris &amp; Stallwood&mdash;Architects.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.&mdash;Morris &amp;
+Stallwood&mdash;Architects.</p>
+
+<p>The works were executed by Messrs. Holly &amp; Butler, of
+Nettlebed. The brick carving was beautifully done by the late Mr.
+Finlay; and the architects were Messrs. Morris &amp; Stallwood, of
+Reading.&mdash;<i>The Architect.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="17"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASH PILE.</h2>
+
+<p>Since Poggendorff in 1842 thought of substituting in the Bunsen
+battery a solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for
+nitric acid, and of thus making a single liquid pile of it, in
+suppressing the porous vessel, his idea has been taken up a
+considerable number of times. Some rediscovered it simply, while
+others, who were better posted in regard to the work of their
+predecessors, took Poggendorff's pile as he conceived it, and,
+considering the future that was in store for it, thought only of
+modifying it in order to render it better. Among these, Mr. Grenet
+was one of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under
+a truly practical form. As long ago as 1856, in fact, he gave it
+the form that is still in use, and that is known as the bottle
+pile. Thus constructed, this pile, as is well known, presents a
+feeble internal resistance, and a greater electro-motive power than
+the Bunsen element. Unfortunately, its energy rapidly decreases,
+and the alteration of the liquid, as well as the large deposit of
+oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode, prevents
+its being employed in experiments of quite long duration. Mr.
+Grenet, it is true, obviated these two defects by first renewing
+the liquid slowly and continuously, and causing a current of air to
+bubble up in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in
+measure as the deposit formed. Thus improved, the bichromate pile
+was employed on a large scale in the lighting of the Comptoir
+d'Escompte. In an extensive application like this latter, the use
+of compressed air for renewing the liquid can be easily adapted to
+the bichromate pile, as the number of elements is great enough to
+allow of the putting in of all the piping necessary; but when it is
+only desired to use this pile for laboratory purposes, and when
+there is need of but a small number of elements, it is impossible
+to adopt Mr. Grenet's elements in the form required by an electric
+lighting installation. It becomes absolutely necessary, then, to
+come back to a simpler form, and attempt at the same time to
+obviate the defects which are inherent to its very principle. In
+accordance with this idea, it will be well to point out the
+arrangement adopted by Mr. Courtot for his bichromate of potash
+piles&mdash;an arrangement that is very simple, but, sufficiently
+well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a
+laboratory.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src=
+"./images/5a_th.jpg" alt=
+" Fig. 1.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
+BICHROMATE PILE.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 gives the most elementary form. It consists of an earthen
+vessel into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other
+by a copper ring which carries one of the terminals. In the center
+there is a cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute
+and feebly acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which
+dips a prism of zinc, which may be lifted by means of a rod when
+the pile ceases to operate. It is true that the presence of the
+porous vessel in the bichromate of potash element increases the
+internal resistance, but, as an offset, although it decreases the
+discharge, it secures constancy and quite a long duration for
+it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5b.png"><img src=
+"./images/5b_th.jpg" alt=
+" Fig. 2.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 2.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
+BICHROMATE PILE.</p>
+
+<p>The elements thus constituted may be grouped, to the number of
+six, in a frame analogous to that shown in the engraving, and, sum
+total, form a small sized battery adapted to the current
+experiments of the laboratory, and capable of supplying two small
+four volt lamps for ten or twelve hours. We have had occasion to
+make use of these elements for the graduation of galvanometers,
+and, after ascertaining the constancy of the discharge, have found
+that the internal resistance of each couple is nearly 0.175 ohm,
+with an electro-motive force of two volts. As may be seen, these
+elements should, in general, all be mounted for tension, as they
+are in the figure, inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits,
+according to circumstances, of employing a variable number of them
+without changing anything. Moreover, with zincs amalgamated in a
+special manner, the attack is imperceptible, and the work in open
+circuit need scarcely to be taken into consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we
+have just described, that defect common to all bichromate of potash
+piles&mdash;the deposit of oxide of chromium upon the
+carbon&mdash;is not here avoided. It occurs quite slowly, to be
+sure, but it does occur, and, from this point of view, the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is preferable. The elements here are
+composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing, as before, the
+solution and porous vessel.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5c.png"><img src=
+"./images/5c_th.jpg" alt=
+" Fig. 3.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 3.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
+BICHROMATE PILE.</p>
+
+<p>The whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the
+zinc and the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is
+not in operation the whole can be lifted from the liquid. Under
+such circumstances the deposit of oxide is notably diminished, and
+the duration of the discharge is consequently greatly
+increased.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 3 shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting,
+according to circumstances, all the elements of the same trough or
+only a part of them. To effect this, the drum around which the
+chain winds that carries the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed
+upon the axle. This latter is actuated by a winch; and a ratchet
+wheel, R, joined to a click which is actuated by a spiral spring,
+prevents the ebonite plates from falling back when it is desired to
+place the bolt under the button, B, of the spring.</p>
+
+<p>When it is desired to put an element out of the circuit, it is
+only necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the
+lever, D. Under the action of the latter, the piece, <i>s</i>,
+which carries a groove for the passage of the screws that fix it to
+the upper cross-piece, takes on a longitudinal motion and
+consequently gears with the drum through the toothed sleeve, E.
+When an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be lifted from the
+liquid, and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming upon the
+carbon. As may be seen, the arrangements which we have just
+described exhibit nothing that is particularly original. The
+windlasses used for removing the elements from a pile when the
+circuit is open have been employed for a long time; the bichromate
+pile is itself old, and, as we said in the beginning, it has been
+modified in its details a number of times. In spite of this, we
+have thought it well to point out the mode of construction adopted
+by Mr. Courtot, since, owing to the simplicity of the arrangements,
+it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very great
+constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps, as
+well as for the most varied experiments of the
+laboratory.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="18"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.</h2>
+
+<p>There has been much said in recent times about the distribution
+of electricity by means of induction coils, and the use of this
+process has given rise to several systems that differ but little
+from one another in principle.</p>
+
+<p>The following are a few details in regard to a system due to a
+Dutch engineer:</p>
+
+<p>In the month of December, 1881, a patent relating to the
+distribution of electricity was taken out in Germany and other
+countries by Mr. B. Haitzema Enuma, whose system is based upon a
+series of successive inductions. The primary current developed by a
+dynamo-electric machine gives rise to secondary, tertiary, etc.,
+currents. The principal line runs through the streets parallel with
+their axes, and, when the arrangement of the places is adapted
+thereto, it is closed upon the generator itself. In those frequent
+cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return over a path
+that it has already traversed, it is more advantageous to effect
+the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains
+or gas pipes as conductors. This return arrangement may likewise be
+applied to the lines of secondary, tertiary, etc., order, as may
+easily be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior
+consists of a bundle of soft iron. The wire of the inducting
+current is wound directly around this core. The wire of the induced
+current is superposed upon the first and presents a large number of
+spirals. It is useless to say that these wires must be perfectly
+insulated from each other, as well as from the soft iron core. We
+shall call primary bobbins those which are interposed in the
+principal line, and secondary bobbins those in which the inducting
+current is a secondary one, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>It will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of
+continuing the distribution of electricity to the interior of
+buildings by the simple adjunction of one or several bobbins. Each
+electric apparatus, whether it be a lamp or other mechanism, is
+furnished with a special current. If the number of these apparatus
+be increased, it is only necessary to increase the number of
+bobbins in the same ratio, on condition, be it understood, that the
+intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper
+working of the apparatus in question. When such intensity
+diminishes to too great a degree, the bobbin must be replaced by a
+stronger one.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5d.png"><img src=
+"./images/5d_th.jpg" alt=
+" DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.</p>
+
+<p>It results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in
+in such a way as to permit, of the opening and closing of the
+corresponding circuit. This arrangement, moreover, has no need of
+being dependent upon the apparatus, and may just as well be
+transferred to any part of this same circuit. As regards lighting,
+it is preferable to employ alternating current dynamo machines; yet
+there is nothing to prevent the use of continuous current ones,
+provided that there is an arrangement that permits of constantly
+opening and closing this same circuit. That portion of the line
+which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way at
+the places where it is necessary. As for the underground circuit
+and the induction coils connected therewith, these are protected
+against all external influence, and are at the same time insulated
+very economically by covering them with a coat of very fine
+silicious sand mixed with asphalt.</p>
+
+<p>It is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an
+accurate idea of this system of distribution. C represents the
+building in which the generator of electricity, D, is placed; B,
+the public street, and Q the house of a subscriber. The principal
+line, E, starts from the terminals, <i>a, b</i>, of the machine,
+passes through the primary bobbins, G, and is closed through the
+earth at F. It will be seen that the primary current communicates
+through <i>d</i> and <i>c</i> with the internal winding of the
+bobbins, G, while the secondary currents, H, are connected through
+<i>e</i> and <i>f</i>with the external winding. The same
+arrangement is repeated for the tertiary currents, M, and the
+quaternary ones, <i>o, p</i>. In the annexed example all the lines
+that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed through
+the earth, while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto
+enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit. In the
+interior of these houses the wires, as well as the induction coils,
+are insulated and applied to the walls. At Q is represented the
+arrangement that would have to be adopted in the case of a
+structure consisting of a vestibule, <i>r</i>, and two rooms,
+<i>s</i>, lighted by two electric lamps, R. In the portion of the
+figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed
+for insulating the line. A commencement is made by digging a ditch
+in the street and paving the bottom of it with bricks. Upon these
+latter there is laid a mixture of sand and asphalt, and then the
+wires and bobbins are put in, and the whole is finally covered with
+a new insulating layer.</p>
+
+<p>It is a simple statement that we make here, and it is therefore
+not for us to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
+system. If we are to believe Mr. Enuma, the advantages are very
+numerous, to wit: (1) The cables have no need of being of large
+size; (2) the intensity is the same through the entire extent of
+the primary circuit, secondary one, etc.; (3) the resistance is
+invariable in all portions of the line; (4) the apparatus are
+independent of each other, and consequently there may be a
+disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering
+therefrom; (5) either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be
+produced, since, that depends only upon the size of the coil
+employed; (6) there is no style of lamp that may not be used, since
+each lamp is mounted upon a special circuit; (7) any number of
+lamps may be lighted or extinguished without the others being
+influenced thereby; (8) when a fire or other accident happens in a
+house, it in no wise interferes with the service in the rest of the
+line; (9) the system could, were it required, be connected with any
+other kind of existing line; and (10) the cost of installation is
+infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the
+same extent of ground.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="19"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>Italy, with her volcanic nature, has very naturally made a
+specialty of movements of the ground, or seismic perturbations. So
+the larger part of the apparatus designed for such study are due to
+Italians. Several of these instruments have already been, described
+in this journal, and on the present occasion we shall make known a
+few others that will serve to give an idea of the methods
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>For the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of
+the ground, different apparatus are required. The following is a
+description of those constructed for each of such purposes by the
+Brassart Brothers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6a.png"><img src=
+"./images/6a_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 1.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL
+SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apparatus for Studying Horizontal Movements.</i>&mdash;A
+lever, (Fig. 1), movable about a horizontal axis, carries a
+corrugated funnel, <i>i</i>, at one of its extremities. At the
+other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise which permits of
+its being exactly balanced, while not interfering with its
+sensitiveness.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6b.png"><img src=
+"./images/6b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIGS. 2 AND 3.&mdash;DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIGS. 2 AND 3.&mdash;DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the funnel passes freely around a column,
+<i>v</i> (Fig. 2), upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that
+terminates in a weight, P. The corrugations of the funnel carry
+letters indicating the four cardinal points, and the funnel itself
+is capable of revolving in such a way that the marked indications
+shall always correspond to the real position of the cardinal
+points. When a horizontal shock occurs, the weight, P, falls in a
+direction opposite thereto, and into one of the corrugations, where
+it rests, so that the direction of the shock is indicated. But, in
+falling, it causes the lever, F, to tilt, and this brings about an
+electric contact between the screw, <i>h</i>, and the column,
+<i>n</i>, which sends a current into the electro, E, so that the
+armature of the latter is attracted. In its position of rest this
+armature holds a series of parts, S, A, L, which have the effect of
+stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same apparatus. At
+the moment, then, that the armature is attracted the pendulum is
+set free and the clockwork is started. As the current, at the same
+time, sets a bell ringing, the observer comes and arranges the
+apparatus again to await a new shock. Knowing the hour at which the
+hand of the clock was stopped, he sees how long it has been in
+motion again and deduces therefrom the precise moment of the
+shock.</p>
+
+<p>The small rod, <i>f</i>, which is seen at the extremity of F, is
+for the purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with, if
+need be. In this case the screw, <i>h</i>, is so regulated that F
+descends farther, and that <i>f</i> may depress the armature of the
+magnet just as the current would have done.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6c.png"><img src=
+"./images/6c_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 4.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL
+MOVEMENTS.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apparatus for the Study of Vertical Movements.</i>&mdash;In
+this apparatus (Fig. 4), the contact is formed between a mercury
+cup, T, and a weight, D. The cup is capable of being raised and
+lowered by means of a screw, so that the two parts approach each
+other very closely without touching. At the moment of a vertical
+shock a contact occurs between the mercury and weight, and there
+results a current which, acting upon the electro, E, frees the
+pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus. In this case,
+in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may
+be rung, the piece, A, upon falling, sets up a permanent contact
+with the part, <i>a</i> (Fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6d.png"><img src=
+"./images/6d_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 5.&mdash;BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.&mdash;BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brassart's Seismic Clock.</i>&mdash;This apparatus is
+designed for being put in connection at a distance with an
+indicator like the ones just described. It is a simple clock to
+which a few special devices have been added. Seismic clocks may be
+classed in two categories, according as they are stopped by the
+effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant one
+occurs. The Messrs. Brassart have always given preference to those
+of the second category, because there is no need of watching them
+during a seismic calm, and because they are much more easily
+constructed. It is to this class, then, that their seismic clock
+belongs. It is capable of being used for domestic purposes in place
+of any other clock, and of becoming a seismoscopic clock as soon as
+it is put in electric communication with the seismic telltales.</p>
+
+<p>To the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the
+inventors have added (Fig. 5) a support formed of a strip of brass,
+S, with whose extremity is jointed (at the lower part) a double
+lever, A. This latter is held in a horizontal position by a small
+counterpoise, <i>i</i>, so that the finger at the opposite
+extremity shall prevent the pendulum, P, from swinging. To keep the
+latter in a position of rest a bent lever, <i>n n'</i>, is jointed
+to the upper part of the support, S. The longer arm, <i>n'</i>, of
+this lever is bent forward at right angles, so that it may come
+into contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon
+as the lever has been lifted by means of a small cord which is
+connected with the larger arm, <i>n</i>, and runs up to a small
+hook, from whence it descends and makes its exit under the
+clock-case.</p>
+
+<p>In order to stop the clock, then, it is only necessary to pull
+on this cord slightly, when, by moving the pendulum to the left, it
+will thrust it against the inclined plane of the finger of the
+lever arm, A. It is clear that the extremity of the pendulum, upon
+striking against the finger, will depress it slightly and go beyond
+the projection against which it remains fixed owing to the
+counterpoise, <i>i</i>. The fever, <i>n n'</i>, is brought back to
+its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise at the
+extremity of the arm, <i>n</i>. When the lever, A, is depressed,
+the pendulum escapes and sets the clock running. This depression is
+effected by means of an electro-magnet, E, whose armature, which is
+connected with the rod, <i>t, t</i>, lifts the arm, <i>i</i>, of
+the lever, and depresses A. The wires of the two bobbins of the
+electro-magnet end in two clamps, 1 and 2. The second of these
+latter is insulated from the clock-case. Both communicate with the
+extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the seismic
+telltale that brings about a closing of the current. Having noted
+the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running,
+one can deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred
+that set the clock in motion.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the parts that we have described, there are other
+accessory ones, R R<i>r</i>, and a third clamp, 3, which constitute
+a sort of rheotome that is designed to keep the circuit closed
+after the momentary closing that is produced by the telltale has
+occurred. This little mechanism is indispensable when the disturbed
+telltale has also to act upon an electric bell. This rheotome,
+which is very simple, is constructed as follows: A small brass rod,
+R, which is screwed to the support, S, carries at its left
+extremity a brass axis, X, which is insulated from the rod, R, by
+means of an ivory piece. Toward the center of this small rod, the
+bent lever, <i>r</i>, carries a small arm that is bent forward, and
+against which abuts the axis of the pendulum, thus causing it to be
+thrust toward the left when the pendulum is arrested by the
+projection of the finger, A. As soon as the pendulum is set free,
+the lever, <i>r</i>, redescends and places itself against the axis,
+X. This latter communicates with clamp 3, which is insulated, while
+the rod, R, communicates with clamp 1. The external communications
+are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is interposed
+remains definitely closed when the lever, <i>r</i>, is in contact
+with the rod, X.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6e.png"><img src=
+"./images/6e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6.&mdash;ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.&mdash;ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rossi's Tremitoscope.</i>&mdash;This instrument (Fig. 6)
+unites, upon the same stone base, three different arrangements for
+showing evidences of trepidations of the earth. On one side we find
+(protected by a glass tube) a weight suspended over a mercury cup
+by a spring, and designed to show vertical motions. The two other
+parts of the apparatus are designed for registering horizontal
+motions. The first is a pendulum which causes a contact with four
+distinct springs, and whose movements are watched with a spy-glass.
+The second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a
+heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock. This ball is provided
+with a point which is movable within a second ball, so that its
+motion produces a contact. All these different contacts are
+signaled or registered electrically.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6f.png"><img src=
+"./images/6f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7.&mdash;SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.&mdash;SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scateni's Registering Seismograph.</i>&mdash;This apparatus,
+which is shown in Figs. 7 and 8, consists of two parts&mdash;of a
+transmitter and of a registering device.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7a.png"><img src=
+"./images/7a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 8.&mdash;REGISTERING APPARATUS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 8.&mdash;REGISTERING APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>The transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a
+steel point and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected
+with a pile. All around this circle are four strips of platinum,
+against one of which abuts the circle at every movement of the
+glass. Each strip of platinum communicates, through a special wire,
+with one of the electro-magnets of the registering device (Fig. 8).
+This latter consists of an ordinary clock that carries three
+concentric dials&mdash;one for minutes, one for hours, and one for
+seconds. In a direction with the radii of these dials there are
+four superposed levers, each of which is actuated by one of the
+electros. On another hand, each dial is divided into four zones
+that correspond to the four cardinal points. When a shock coming
+from the north, for example, produces a contact, the corresponding
+electro is affected, and its lever falls and marks upon each of the
+dials a point in its north zone. We thus obtain the exact hour of
+the shock, as well as its direction. As may be seen, the apparatus,
+as regards principle, is one of the simplest of its
+kind.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="20"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NEW ACCUMULATORS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7b.png"><img src=
+"./images/7b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 1.&mdash;ARNOULD &amp; TAMINE'S ACCUMULATOR."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.&mdash;ARNOULD &amp; TAMINE'S
+ACCUMULATOR.</p>
+
+<p>In Messrs. Arnould and Tamine's accumulators, shown in Fig. 1,
+the formation is effected directly by the current, as in the
+Plant&eacute; pile, but the plates are formed of wires connected
+horizontally at their extremities by soldering. These plates are
+held apart either by setting them into paraffined wooden grooves at
+the ends of the trough or by interposing between them pieces of
+paraffined wood.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7c.png"><img src=
+"./images/7c_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 2.&mdash;BARRIER &amp; TOURVIELLE'S ELECTRODOCK."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.&mdash;BARRIER &amp; TOURVIELLE'S
+ELECTRODOCK.</p>
+
+<p>In Messrs. Barrier and Tourville's <i>Electrodock</i> (Fig. 2)
+the plates are formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a
+wooden cover. These tubes are threaded internally and externally,
+and the grooves thus produced are filled with a peculiar cement
+composed of litharge, powdered charcoal, and permanganate of
+potash, triturated together, sifted, and then mixed with glucose or
+sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them. This mixture forms a
+cement that is very adhesive after, as well as before, the
+electrolytic action.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7d.png"><img src=
+"./images/7d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3.&mdash;KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.&mdash;KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.</p>
+
+<p>In Kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden
+gratings between which is compressed red lead prepared in a
+peculiar manner, and constituting, 48 hours after formation, a
+compact mass with the lead. The tangs of the plates are widened so
+as to touch one another while leaving a proper distance between the
+plates themselves, and are hollowed out for the reception of a rod
+provided at its extremities with a winged nut and jam nut for
+passing them up close to one another. The plates, properly so
+called, are held apart by rubber bauds. The glass vessels are
+placed in osier baskets.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="21"></a></p>
+
+<h2>INDUSTRIAL MODEL OF THE REYNIER ZINC ACCUMULATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>The three models of a secondary battery that I recently made
+known to the readers of this journal have been the object of
+continuous experiment. Conformably to the provisions of theory, the
+zinc accumulator has shown itself practically superior to the two
+others, and I have therefore chosen this type for getting up an
+industrial model, which is shown in the annexed cut. The
+accumulator contains four Plant&eacute; positives, having a wide
+surface, and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead
+covered with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of
+zinc sulphate in which the couple is immersed. Accidental contact
+with the interior of the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to
+the negatives by means of leaden bands. The seven electrodes are
+carried by as many distinct crosspieces of paraffined wood, which
+rest upon the edges of the trough and hold the plates at a certain
+distance from the bottom. These various crosspieces, which touch
+one another, take the place of a cover. Each plate is provided with
+a terminal. The four positive terminals are all on the same side,
+and the three negatives are on the opposite side. Two brass rods
+ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same
+name. The trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles, one
+within the other, and having a play of several millimeters. This
+space is lined with a tight, elastic, insulating cement having tar
+for a base.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7e.png"><img src=
+"./images/7e_th.jpg" alt=
+" REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual size.)"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual
+size.)</p>
+
+<p>The careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the
+apparatus, and the purity of the metal and its amalgamation, reduce
+the local attack of the zinc to almost nothing. So the coefficient
+of restitution is now comparable with that of accumulators of the
+Plant&eacute; type.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc
+accumulator.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='center' colspan="3">PHYSICAL DATA.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>E.</td>
+<td align='left'>Electromotive force.</td>
+<td align='left'>2.36 volts.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>R.</td>
+<td align='left'>Mean resistance.</td>
+<td align='left'>0.02 ohm.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>I.</td>
+<td align='left'>Normal intensity of the discharge current.</td>
+<td align='left'>25 amperes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>i.</td>
+<td align='left'>Intensity of the charge current.</td>
+<td align='left'>5 to 10 amperes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Q.</td>
+<td align='left'>Capacity of accumulation after 200 hours'
+formation.</td>
+<td align='left'>550,000 couples.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='center' colspan="3">DATA CONCERNING CONSTRUCTION.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Efficient surface of the 4 positive
+electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>200 square dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Efficient surface of the 3 negative
+electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>15 square dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the positive electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>8.2 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the negative electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>1.4 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the trough.</td>
+<td align='left'>2.7 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the liquid.</td>
+<td align='left'>4.4 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the attachments.</td>
+<td align='left'>0.46 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight, total.</td>
+<td align='left'>17.16 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total electric work stored up is 130,000 kilogrammeters, or
+7,600 kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator. Theory
+indicates that a zinc accumulator might store up as much as 15,600
+kilogrammeters per kilogramme. If the present model gives half
+less, it is because I have purposely exaggerated the solidity of
+the trough and the mass of the electrodes.</p>
+
+<p>It should be remarked that this capacity of 7,600 kilogrammeters
+per kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator
+constructed in France. The new model possesses, then, despite the
+size of the positives and the box, a relative lightness that will
+permit it to take a place upon electric locomotives as well as in
+fixed installations.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of their use as accumulators, secondary zinc
+batteries may be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by
+incandescence, for deadening piston strokes, attenuating the
+irregularities in speed, and covering accidental
+stoppages.&mdash;<i>E. Reynier, in La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="22"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE HISTORY OF A LIGHTNING FLASH.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W. SLINGO.</h3>
+
+<p>Lately we have all felt, I doubt not, a considerable amount of
+interest in the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually
+heavy thunderstorms, accompanied, as they have been, by vivid
+lightning discharges of a more or less hurtful nature. The list of
+disasters published in <i>Knowledge</i>, No. 143, might be very
+materially augmented were we to record such damage as has been
+wrought since that list was compiled.</p>
+
+<p>There is not, I suppose, in the mind of any intelligent man at
+the present day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning
+flash. The questions to be considered are rather whence comes the
+electricity, and in what way is the thunderstorm brought about. In
+attempting to answer these questions, sight must not be lost of the
+fact that the very nature of electricity is in itself almost
+sufficient to baffle any effort put forth to ascertain from
+lightning, as such, its whence and its whither.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible, however, with the aid of our knowledge of static
+electricity, to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical
+nature. In the first place, that our sphere is a more or less
+electrified body is generally admitted. More than this, it is
+demonstrated that the different parts of the earth's surface and
+its enveloping atmosphere are variously charged. As a consequence
+of these varying charges, there is a constant series of currents
+flowing through the various parts of the earth, which show
+themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction
+followed by the currents. Such currents are known as earth
+currents, and present phenomena of a highly interesting nature.
+But, apart from these electrical manifestations, there is generally
+a difference of electrical condition between the various parts of
+the earth's surface and those portions of the atmosphere adjacent
+to or above them. Inasmuch as air is one of the very best
+insulators, this difference of condition (or potential) in any
+particular region is in most cases incapable of being neutralized
+or equilibrated by an electric flow. Consequently the air remains
+more or less continually charged. With these points admitted as
+facts, the question arises, Whence this electricity? There have
+been very many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of
+terrestrial electricity, but far the greater portion of such
+theories lack fundamental probability, and indicate causes which
+cannot be regarded as sufficiently extensive or operative to
+produce such tremendous effects as are occasionally witnessed. I
+take it that we may safely regard the evolution of electricity as
+one of the ways in which force exhibits itself, that, in other
+words, when work is performed electricity may result. When two
+bodies are rubbed together, electricity is produced, so also is it
+when two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is
+dissolved, or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to
+a higher temperature than the other junction. I will go further
+than this, so far, in fact, as to maintain that there is a
+reasonable ground for supposing that every movement, whether it be
+of the mass or among the constituent particles, is attended by a
+change of electrical distribution; and if this is true, it may
+easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of the
+universe, there must be a constant series of electrical changes.
+Now, these changes do not all operate in one direction, nor are
+they all of similar character, whence it is that not only are there
+earth currents of feeble electro-motive force, but that this E.M.F.
+is constantly varying, and that, furthermore, electricity of high
+E.M.F. is to be met with in various parts of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>With earth currents we have here very little to do. The rotation
+of the earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents,
+and the fact that they vary in strength at regular periods of the
+day and of the year enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts
+considerable electrical influence on the earth. Letting it be
+granted, however, that the earth is variously charged, how comes it
+that the air is also charged, and with electricity of greater
+tension than that of the earth itself? It was pointed out by Sir W.
+Grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum wire be placed
+in a candle flame, one at the bottom and the other near the top, an
+electric current will flow through the wire, indicating the
+presence of electricity. If an electrified body be heated, the
+electricity escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises. If a
+vessel of water be electrified, and the water then converted into
+steam, the electric charge will be rapidly dissipated. If a vessel
+containing water be electrified, and the water allowed to escape
+drop by drop, electricity will escape with each drop, and the
+vessel will soon be discharged.</p>
+
+<p>We regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a
+greater or less charge; whence it is safe to assume that in the
+process of evaporation which is going on all over the surface of
+the globe, more particularly in equatorial regions, every particle
+of water, as it rises into the air, carries with it its portion,
+however minute that portion may be, of the earth's electric charge.
+This small charge distributes itself over the surface of the
+aqueous particle, and the vapor rises higher and higher until it
+reaches that point above which the air is too rare to support it.
+It then flows away laterally, and as it approaches colder regions
+gets denser, sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface. The
+aqueous particles becoming reduced in size, the extent of their
+surfaces is proportionately reduced. It follows that as the
+particles and their surfaces are reduced, the charge is confined to
+a smaller surface, and attains, therefore, a greater "surface
+density," or in simpler language, a greater amount of electricity
+per unit of surface.</p>
+
+<p>Electricity, as above set forth, is in what is known as the
+"static" condition (to distinguish it from electricity which is
+being transferred in the form of a current), when it has the
+property of "repelling itself" to the utmost limits of any
+conductor upon which it may be confined. This will account for the
+charge finding its way to the surface of the water particles, and
+will furthermore account for the greater density of the charge as
+the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface rapidly
+diminished. It may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere varies
+as the cube of its radius.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing
+when the particles have reached their highest position in the
+atmosphere, we may imagine that they set themselves off on journeys
+toward either the north or the south pole. As they pass from the
+hotter to the colder regions, a number of particles coalesce; these
+again combine with others on the road until the vapor becomes
+visible as cloud. The increased density implies increased weight,
+and the cloud particles, as they sail poleward, descend toward the
+surface of the earth. Assuming that a spherical form is maintained
+throughout, the condensation of a number of particles implies a
+considerable reduction of surface. Thus, the contents of two
+spheres vary as the cubes of their radii, or eight (the cube of 2)
+drops on combining will form a drop twice the radius of one of the
+original drops. We may safely conceive hundreds and thousands of
+such combinations to take place until a cloud mass is formed, in
+which the constituent parts are more or less in contact, and,
+therefore, behave electrically as a single conductor of irregular
+surface, upon which is accumulated all the electricity that was
+previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of
+particles that now compose it.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a
+conductor is to take upon itself a position in which it may
+approach nearest to an equal and opposite charge; or, if possible,
+to attain neutrality. If, then, a cloud has a charge, and there is
+no other cloud above or near it, the charge <i>induces</i> on the
+adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite kind. Thus,
+assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity, the
+subjacent earth will be in the negative state. The two
+electricities<a name="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> exert a strong tendency to
+combine or to produce neutrality, whence there is a species of
+stress applied to the intervening air. Possibly the cloud will be
+drawn bodily toward the earth more or less rapidly, according as
+the charge is great or small. Or, on the other hand, the cloud may
+roll on for leagues, carrying its influence with it, so that the
+various portions of the earth underneath become successively
+charged and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey.</p>
+
+<p>Should the cloud be near the earth, or should it be very highly
+charged, the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to
+overcome the resistance of the intervening air; and if this
+resistance should prove too weak, what happens? How does the
+discharge show itself? It takes place in the form of a lightning
+flash, and passing from the one surface to the other&mdash;or,
+maybe, simultaneously from both&mdash;produces neutrality more or
+less complete.</p>
+
+<p>There has recently been a little discussion in these pages on
+the subject of lightning, some having stated that they discerned
+the discharge to take place upward&mdash;that is, from the earth
+toward the cloud. I will not venture so far as to say whether or
+not the direction of the discharge is discernible; possibly the
+flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one to tell; but I
+have never so seen it, and have always looked upon the eye as a
+deceitful member&mdash;very. "The lightning flash itself never
+lasts more than 1/100000 of a second." It is, however, just as
+likely that a discharge may travel upward as downward. What
+controls the discharge? Does the quality of the charge?&mdash;that
+is to say, is the positive or the negative more prone to break
+disruptively through the insulating medium? Investigations with
+Geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied gases have
+made it tolerably clear that there is a greater "tearing away"
+influence at the negative than at the positive pole, and if two
+equal balls, containing one a positive and the other a negative
+charge, be equally heated, the negative is more readily dissipated
+than the positive. But, so far as we at present know, this question
+enters into the discussion scarcely, if at all. Our knowledge seems
+rather to point to the substances upon which the charges are
+collected. The self-repellent nature of electricity compels it to
+manifest itself at the more prominent parts of the surface, the
+level being forsaken for the point. The tension of the charge, or
+its tendency to fly off, is proportionately increased. And if at a
+given moment the tension attains a certain intensity, the discharge
+follows, emanating from the surface which offers the greatest
+facilities for escape. The earth is generally flatter than the
+cloud, whence, in all probability, the discharge more frequently
+originates with the cloud.</p>
+
+<p>Should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct
+neutrality, it is possible that no damage will result, although
+this again is not always certain, because when the cloud charge
+acts inductively on the earth it produces the opposite (say
+negative) charge on the nearer parts, the similar (or positive)
+state is also produced at some place more or less distant.
+Sometimes this "freed" positive (which, by the way, accumulates
+gradually and physiologically imperceptibly) is collected at some
+portion of the earth's surface. When the negative is neutralized by
+the discharge, the freed positive is no longer confined to a
+particular region, but tends to dissipate itself, and a shock may
+be felt more or less severely by any person within the region. Or,
+again, a similar shock may be experienced by a person standing
+within the negative zone on the neutralization of the charge.</p>
+
+<p>I may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting
+and instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits
+during a thunderstorm. The storm may be taking place at some
+distance from the point of observation. The electrified cloud
+induces the opposite charge beneath it, the similar charge being
+repelled. It is noticeable that the needle of a galvanometer,
+starting from the middle position, goes gradually over to one side,
+eventually indicating a considerable deflection. Suddenly, owing
+apparently to a lightning discharge some distance away, the force
+which caused the deflection is withdrawn, and the needle rebounds
+with great violence to the opposite side. In a short time, the
+cloud becoming again charged on its under surface, and recommencing
+its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth, the needle starts
+again, and goes through the same series of movements, a violent
+counterthrow following every flash of lightning.</p>
+
+<p>If we can so far control our imagination, we may conceive the
+earth to be one large insulated conductor, susceptible to every
+influence around it. If then the earth, as a mass of matter,
+behaves as above indicated, there is no plausible reason for
+declining to regard any other large conducting mass in a similar
+light, and as a body capable of being subjected more or less
+completely to the various impulses affecting the earth. In other
+words, a large mass of conducting material, partially or perfectly
+insulated, is, during a thunderstorm, in considerable danger. With
+this portion of the subject I shall, however, deal more fully when
+discussing the merits of lightning protectors.</p>
+
+<p>Lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth
+only, but also, and perhaps more frequently, between too oppositely
+charged clouds. We then get atmospheric lightning, the flash often
+extending for miles. This form of lightning is harmless, and in all
+probability what we see is only a reflection of the discharge. The
+oft-told tale of the lightning flying in at the window, across the
+room, and out of the door, or up the chimney, is all moonshine, and
+before dealing with lightning protectors I intend to expose some of
+the fallacies concerning lightning. Were the discharge to pass
+through a house, it would infallibly leave more decided traces and
+do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now and
+again. Many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a
+thunderstorm, but it may be safely predicted that a person under a
+roof is infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level
+ground, and making himself a prominence inviting a discharge. Rain
+almost invariably accompanies the discharge, and the roof and sides
+of the house being wet, they form a more or less perfect channel of
+escape should a flash strike the
+building.&mdash;<i>Knowledge.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a>
+<div class="note">We may speak of two electricities or two electric
+states without necessarily implying adherence either to the single
+or the double "fluid" theory. Whether electricity be of two kinds
+or no, the fact remains that there are two conditions, and all the
+features of this paper may be explained with equal facility by the
+supporters of either hypothesis.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="23"></a></p>
+
+<h2>RESEARCHES ON MAGNETISM.</h2>
+
+<h3>By M. DUTER.</h3>
+
+<p>If we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field,
+so that the lines of force of the field may be normal to the
+surface of the plate, we have a very flat magnet, the two faces of
+which are the two polar surfaces. The magnetic distribution thus
+obtained seems to disappear when the plate is no longer in the
+field. The following experiments show that this disappearance is
+not complete. I made use of plates of tempered steel of 1
+millimeter in thickness, and varying in diameter from 0.040 to
+0.005 meter. With these plates I formed cylindrical batteries. In
+some of these batteries the plates are directly in contact, and in
+others they were separated by leaves of pasteboard, the thickness
+of which varied from that of the thinnest paper to 0.001 meter. The
+batteries were placed in the central portion of a very powerful
+magnetic field, and after they have been taken out they formed
+perfectly regular permanent magnets. The supporting power of these
+magnets was the greater the nearer its constituent plates were to
+each other. In a battery of 100 plates, touching each other
+directly, and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder, the portative
+force at each extremity rose to 30 grammes. This first result
+having been obtained, I dismounted the batteries, plate by plate,
+taking care to mark the upper and under side of each. I found then
+that each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism. Yet
+each of them still constituted a flat magnet, of which the two
+faces are the polar surfaces; for on rebuilding the battery it gave
+again a perfectly regular magnet, though weaker than it was at
+first. The separation of the magnet into its constituent plates,
+and its reconstruction, maybe repeated
+indefinitely.&mdash;<i>Comptes Rendus.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>Dr. T. Tommasi (<i>Cosmos les Mondes</i>) notes that the thermic
+constant of thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants
+of potassium and lead, the two metals which it most resembles in
+its chemical character.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="5"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED GAS LIGHT BUOY.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8a.png"><img src=
+"./images/8a_th.jpg" alt=" GAS LIGHT BUOY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GAS LIGHT BUOY.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the
+Pintsch's Patent Lighting Company for the river Humber. The chief
+dimensions of the buoy are given in the engraving, which also shows
+that the gas holder is placed within the boat in such a way as to
+be protected from blows likely to cause any leakage. The buoy has a
+special form to meet its requirements as a lightship, and the
+conditions of its employment is the fast tidal current of the
+river. It was designed by Mr. C. Berthon, of Westminster, and is
+intended to carry a six months' supply of gas, the burner,
+regulator, and lamp being on the well known Pintsch system. The
+hull is formed of &#8540; inch plate, 24 feet 3 inches total
+length, and 9 feet beam at the line of flotation. The laps of the
+plates are 4 inches wide, and riveted with &frac34; inch rivets,
+spaced 2&frac14; inch apart center to center. The keel and stem are
+both in one piece, as shown, and to this the garboard strake is to
+be fastened. The bilge pieces are riveted on to the bilge, and made
+of 9 inches by 4&frac12; inches by 9/16 inch T-iron. A wooden
+fender, 4 inches by 4 inches wood, is fitted on both sides of hull,
+running from stern to stern, by 3 inches by 3&frac12; inches by
+7/16 inch L-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown. The hull
+from water line falls in as shown, so as to describe at midships an
+arc of 4 feet 6 inches, and a circular deck of &#8539; inch plate
+is riveted on the hull. There are two man-holes, each 16 inches
+diameter in the clear, placed in end plates of the circular deck as
+shown, and provided with covers &#8540; inch thick, secured by
+twenty screws &frac34; inch diameter. The edge of each manhole is
+stiffened by a welded iron ring. The surface of the mooring link
+that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is
+steeled. The gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side,
+and riveted to the keelson, and is prevented from rolling by four
+gusset plates, with two short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto
+at the ends and coming in contact with the holder, and at the ends
+by angular plates, and angle iron riveted on each side and riveted
+to the keelson. The superstructure consists of four legs of angle
+iron 2&frac12; inches by 2&frac12; inches by 5/16 inch, the upper
+ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate for
+supporting the lighting apparatus. Four wooden battens of pitch
+pine, 4 inches by 1&frac12; inches, and bolted on to each cant of
+the angle iron superstructure, with &#8542; inch galvanized iron
+bolts and nuts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8b.png"><img src=
+"./images/8b_th.jpg" alt=" GAS LIGHT BUOY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GAS LIGHT BUOY.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="6"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PROJECT FOR A ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.</h2>
+
+<p>The present port of Havre is absolutely insufficient to answer
+the ever increasing requirements of commerce. Its entrance, which
+is too narrow and not deep enough, does not permit steamers to go
+in, come out, and perform their evolutions with the rapidity
+required by our epoch. So they are gradually abandoning our port,
+and going to load and unload at Anvers and elsewhere. A large
+number of wise heads, who are anxious about the future of this port
+and our national interests, have devoted themselves to finding a
+means of enlarging it, not by dredging <i>new</i> basins, which
+would prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years, but
+by installing a true roadstead at the entrance to the present
+basins.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src=
+"./images/9a_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG 1.&mdash;PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG 1.&mdash;PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT
+HAVRE.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen, under the
+name of the Little Roadstead, a vast extent of sea nearly two
+kilometers wide by three to four in length, bounded upon one side
+by the heights of Heve and St. Adresse, and upon the other by the
+rocky line of Eclat and of the heights of the roadstead (Fig. 1).
+This Little Roadstead, so called, in order to become a genuine one,
+would have to be protected against the great waves of the open sea.
+To thus protect it, to close it as quickly and as cheaply as
+possible&mdash;that is the problem.</p>
+
+<p>In 1838, Charles de Massas presented a project (the first in
+order of date), which consisted in constructing upon the Eclat reef
+a semi-lunate dike, and a breakwater at Cape Heve. Moreover, upon
+the emergent parts of the Eclat reef and heights of the roadstead
+he proposed to erect two forts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src=
+"./images/9b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 2.&mdash;LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.&mdash;LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER.</p>
+
+<p>The defense of the port of Havre is a very important question,
+and one that appears to be completely abandoned. Since Engineer
+Degaulle in 1808 advised the erection of a fort upon the Eclat, and
+requests have periodically been made and projects drawn. The
+requests are forgotten, but the drawings are in the Ministers'
+portfolios, and if France should to-morrow have a war with a
+maritime power our great northern port might be destroyed and
+burned by the smallest squadron.</p>
+
+<p>Some years after Massas' project, two officers, Deloffre and
+Bleve, and an engineer named Renaud, received a commission to
+search for a means of closing a portion of Seine Bay. These
+gentlemen advised the erection of two dikes, one on the Eclat shoal
+in the very axis of this reef, and the other at Heve. Between these
+two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating breakwater. This
+project, which was submitted to Admiral de Hell in 1845, had a
+favorable reception, and the Admiral especially applauded the trial
+of breakwaters, "which were much talked of in England, although the
+effects that they might produce were not well known." Deloffre,
+Bleve, and Renauds' project comprised two forts&mdash;one to the
+north and the other to the south of the roadstead. For a long time
+nothing more was said about it, and it is only during recent years,
+when the peril has become imminent for Havre (threatened as it is
+of being abandoned even by the French transatlantics), that the
+question has again became the order of the day.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9c.png"><img src=
+"./images/9c_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 3.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.&mdash;END VIEW.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING
+BREAKWATER.&mdash;END VIEW.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bert, a merchant, would protect the Little Roadstead by
+means of two jetties, 1,000 and 1,600 meters in length, built, one
+of them upon the Eclat and the other upon the eminences of the
+roadstead. These would be constructed by forming a foundation of
+loose rocks, and using earth and brick above the level of the
+water. Mr. Vial has likewise proposed a rockwork of 2,000 meters in
+length, to form a dike 10 meters in height and width, whose
+platform would be on a level with the highest tides.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the more recent project of Mr. Coulon. Seeing that it
+is the deposits of the ocean and not those of the Seine that
+accumulate upon the estuary, Mr. Coulon advises the construction of
+a dike about 2,000 meters in length, starting from the Havre jetty,
+and ending at the southwest extremity of the shoals at the
+roadstead heights, and a second one returning toward the northwest,
+of from 500 to 1,000 meters. A third and very long one of not less
+than 8 kilometers would be built from Honfleur to the Ratier
+shoals.</p>
+
+<p>This latter one, in contracting the bay, would contribute to
+increase the force of the current, which, throwing back at the
+ocean its mud and pebbles, would give us the depths of 15 and 20
+meters indicated on the map of Beautemps-Beaupre.</p>
+
+<p>This year, again, two projects have arisen; one of them due to
+Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, and the other to Mr. Hersent.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Hersent, it would be necessary to surround the
+Little Roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky
+shoals, which would begin at Cape Heve (which it would consolidate)
+and end opposite the entrance to the port at 1,600 meters from the
+jetties. Through it there would be five passages. Afterward another
+dike would be constructed, starting from the shore and running to
+meet the jetty designed to inclose the Little Roadstead. On turning
+the angle at which it met the jetty it would be continued as far as
+to Berville. Finally, a third dike, running from Honfleur to
+Berville, would complete the system.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hersent's project, which is one of the most remarkable of
+those that have been proposed, has one fault, and that is that it
+would require twelve years of work, and cost 158 million
+francs.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, completely renouncing masonry dikes
+as being too costly and taking too long to construct, proposes to
+inclose the Havre roadstead by means of floating breakwaters. As we
+have already seen, the use of these between Cape Heve and the Eclat
+shoals had already been proposed in 1845. As the project was
+abandoned, the models of these breakwaters are rare.</p>
+
+<p>In Bouniceau's "Marine Constructions" we find a curious figure,
+a sort of open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular
+manner, and surmounted by rooms for watchmen, semaphores, posts for
+the shipwrecked, etc. It is, indeed, the most complicated and most
+impracticable type that could be imagined.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lewis' model, which was exhibited last year at the
+International Fisheries Exhibition, was, on the contrary, one of
+the simplest. It consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly
+triangular section, the sharpest angle of which, being turned
+oceanward, was designed to cut the waves and cause them to break
+over it (Fig. 2). If, by favor of divine Providence, this
+breakwater, which presents absolutely plane surfaces to the shock
+and pressure of the waves, is not broken to fragments in the first
+tempest, it will certainly acquit itself of the <i>role</i> for
+which the inventor destined it. When we have a system of resistance
+to the sea, anchored and facing a certain direction, and
+consequently not being able to revolve around its axis as vessels
+do, care must be taken not to give it entire surfaces.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9d.png"><img src=
+"./images/9d_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 4.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.&mdash;MODE OF JOINING THE PARTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.&mdash;MODE
+OF JOINING THE PARTS.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froideville's breakwater consists of a framework 25 meters
+in length, and 9 in height and width, and having the form of an
+irregular 5-sided prism (Fig. 3). The smallest side of the prism is
+designed to serve as a flat keel. The axis is formed of a metallic
+float, from whence start radii that form the skeleton of the
+framework, and that are designed for connecting the center with
+five long spruce beams that form the angles of the prism. To these
+beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the openwork sides.
+Five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams, but not so strong
+as they, protect the cross pieces and secure them against breakage
+in the middle. All the angles of the breakwater and all points of
+juncture of the pieces are protected with iron, and it is in order
+to counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central
+float is used. Parallel with this first breakwater, there are two
+other and smaller ones, which are designed for reducing the effect
+of rolling as much as possible. Reduced to a single float, the
+breakwater might remain under the waves too long, but, owing to the
+two others, it rights itself, warps around, and always presents the
+spur of its sharp roof to the wave.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each
+other, they are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious
+manner. From each of them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar
+which terminates in a journal that permits the breakwater to
+oscillate. Between these two bars there is a sort of swivel, whose
+pieces, in playing upon one another, give the breakwaters
+elasticity, while always holding them apart (Fig. 4). From each
+side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which
+the anchorage chain is attached. This latter is of steel, without
+solderings, and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage
+need be feared. To the other extremity of the chain is attached an
+anchor having two flukes, which both engage with the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froideville proposes to set up two lines of these
+breakwaters, for a length of about 7&frac12; kilometers, starting
+at the north from Cape Heve, taking in depths of 15 meters (the
+best that are found in the Little Roadstead), passing in front of
+the Eclat shoal and the heights, and ending opposite the entrance
+of the present port.</p>
+
+<p>The first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves,
+and the second for lending its aid in times of high tempests, and
+stopping the surge that has escaped from the first.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its
+promoter to affirm that in a few months, and with nine millions, he
+can inclose the Havre roadstead.</p>
+
+<p>The Little Roadstead, being thenceforward protected, will become
+an excellent port of refuge in bad weather. In addition, a system
+of lighters, or, better, a few floats connected with the shore and
+forming a rock, will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with
+great rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froideville's project presents the further advantage of
+rendering it easier to put the port of Havre quickly in defense. A
+certain number of floating batteries, anchored behind the
+breakwaters and protecting the advances of torpedo boats by means
+of their firing, would make a formidable defense. Not having to
+perform any evolutions, they might without danger be invested with
+armor plate thicker than that of ordinary ironclads. In order to
+complete the system, there might be erected upon the Eclat shoal an
+ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of
+Portsmouth.</p>
+
+<p>An English chronicler of the fourteenth century, in speaking of
+his country, places it above all others, and declares that men are
+handsomer, whiter, and purer blooded there than elsewhere, and he
+says that this is so "because it is so." We would not like to
+imitate his naive reasoning, and yet, for defending the very
+original system proposed by Mr. Froideville, we have only our
+conviction, which we share, moreover, with a large number of
+sea-faring men and engineers. Mathematics are powerless to predict
+to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters
+will behave, but experiment remains. Let the promoter of the
+project, then, be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters,
+and if, as we suppose, the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a
+northwester, a maritime revolution will have been brought
+about.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="7"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.</h2>
+
+<p>In 1882, M. Bacle published in <i>Le G&eacute;nie Civil</i> a
+study of the sewer systems in some of the large foreign cities.
+There may be found there a description of the Liernur system at
+Amsterdam, Leyden, and Dordrecht, in Holland, and in certain cities
+of Germany and the United States.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9e.png"><img src=
+"./images/9e_th.jpg" alt=" IMPROVED CATCH BASIN."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.</p>
+
+<p>This system consists in the employment of two distinct systems
+of ducts, one for the discharges from water-closets and the other
+for household wastes, rain water, and the discharges from factories
+when sufficiently purified. This arrangement allows the employment
+of sewers of small section, provided that it shall be unnecessary
+to enter them for the purpose of cleansing them. It has been
+necessary, therefore, to provide inlets with a separating apparatus
+called "gully" or "catch basin," which retains as completely as
+possible all solid matter, mud, excrement, and <i>debris</i> of
+every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by
+rain-water, and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the
+sewers, the choking up being followed by fermentation and the
+emanation of noxious vapors.</p>
+
+<p>M.C. Pieper of Berlin suggests a device for a catch basin, which
+appears to meet the requirements. It is in the form of a
+cylindrical metal box, enlarged in its upper section to receive a
+filtering cylinder of perforated sheet iron, which occupies almost
+the upper half of the device and rests upon the smaller lower part.
+The entire apparatus is covered by a movable funnel, through which
+enter water and any rubbish which it may carry with it. From one
+side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged, while a siphon
+placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under certain
+circumstances, as will be explained.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 1 represents the apparatus discharging under normal
+conditions. The heavy matter, sand, stones, etc., falls to the
+bottom into a receptacle which can be lifted out from time to time
+and emptied. The lighter buoyant matters, straw, vegetable
+<i>debris</i>, paper, etc., remain at the surface, and are retained
+by the filter; the water passing through the holes in the sheet
+iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which
+exists in the upper part between the two cylinders, and escapes by
+the waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level. If at a given
+moment the quantity of water flowing in is too much to be
+discharged through this waste-pipe, the level of the water mounts
+in the cylinder until it reaches the top of the siphon. Immediately
+the siphon comes into play and empties the upper part of the
+apparatus, and the filtered water contained in the annular space
+already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the
+perforated sheet iron, and in so doing cleans out the perforations
+with considerable energy. This second period is represented in the
+second figure.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket,
+the heavy matters contained in the latter are not in the least
+disturbed, and the metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents
+the entrance of any floating matters. When siphonic action ceases,
+the water in the short arm of the siphon empties itself into the
+main receptacle, and by so doing cleanses the screen. During a rain
+or the washing of the streets, the siphon can work in concurrence
+with the ordinary discharge-pipe. It is evident of course that
+these two&mdash;pipes can be placed on the same side of the
+apparatus, if this prove the most convenient arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>We will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the
+Liernur system, but also can be used for preventing the entrance of
+obstructions into sewers of the ordinary type, where the grade is
+small or where the quantity of water is insufficient; and if we
+adopt the system of "everything to the sewer," can we not find in
+the employment of this apparatus an element for the realization of
+the famous formula, "Always in circulation, and never in
+stagnation?"&mdash;<i>Le G&eacute;nie Civil.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 454, page 7249.]</h3>
+
+<p><a name="8"></a></p>
+
+<h2>WATER-POWER WITH HIGH PRESSURES AND WROUGHT-IRON
+WATER-PIPE.</h2>
+
+<h3>By HAMILTON SMITH, JR., M. Am. Soc. C.E.</h3>
+
+<h3>METHODS OF CONDUCTING WATER AND TRANSMITTING POWER.</h3>
+
+<p>A description of the mode of using water-power for driving the
+North Bloomfield tunnel in California, some years since, will give
+a good illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy.
+This tunnel was originally about 8,000 feet long, through a slate
+highly metamorphosed, with its general line passing under a
+good-sized stream, at a depth of about 190 feet. There were eight
+working-shafts, each about 200 feet deep, which, with the lower
+entrance or portal, gave sixteen working faces. Diamond drills were
+used at the lower heading requiring power; the other fifteen
+headings were driven by hand-work. It was uncertain how much water
+would be encountered; but from the location, it was evident that a
+large quantity might be struck in any shaft, and hence it became
+necessary to have ample power at hand at each opening, in readiness
+for such an emergency. A pipe main was laid along the general line
+of the tunnel, with its pen-stock 285 feet vertical above the
+surface at the upper shaft, and 549 feet above the lowest shaft. It
+was made of single riveted sheet-iron, of No. 14 (Birmingham)
+gauge, in lengths of 20 feet, put together stove-pipe fashion, with
+the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and pine wedges. This
+pipe had a diameter of 15 inches at the pen-stock, diminishing from
+this to 13, 11, and 7 inches at its lower end. From it, short
+branches, 7 inches in diameter, were extended to the several
+shafts. It was in one place carried across the stream by a light
+suspension bridge, some 150 feet long, the trunk of a tree on each
+side forming a convenient tower. The aggregate length of the main
+and branches was 9,960 feet, with some 2,500 feet additional, for
+the branch to the diamond drills. The pipe was laid on the surface
+of the ground, its only protection being in places a couple of
+1&frac12;-inch planks tacked together, and placed over it; the
+range of temperature was from 10 degrees to 107 degrees Fahr. (in
+the shade). It was inspected by the foreman of the tunnel-work as
+he daily walked over the line; besides the occasional driving of a
+few wedges and putting on a band or two, it gave no trouble from
+leakage, which probably for its entire length did not amount to
+more than an average of 3 or 4 cubic feet a minute; from time to
+time, a little sawdust was put into the pen-stock. Three stop-gates
+were placed on the main, and a separate stop-gate at each shaft,
+operated by a fine-threaded screw, so that the water could be cut
+off when desired.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src=
+"./images/10a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 13."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 13.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 13 shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and
+pumping, which was identical at the several shafts, except that the
+hurdy-gurdies varied from 16&frac12; feet in diameter at the upper
+shaft to 21 feet at the lowest shaft. The water-wheel moved only in
+one direction; the pinion on the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel,
+to which the pitman of the pump-bob was attached. On the spur-wheel
+shaft was a friction-gear, driving the hoisting-reel; this reel was
+mounted on sliding blocks, so that hoisting was done by putting it
+in gear, the empty load being dropped by a friction-band. Changing
+the size of the water-wheel as the pressure increased permitted the
+use of the same pattern of machinery at the different shafts. The
+water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe, some nine feet
+long, having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint, so that
+at pleasure, by dropping the pipe, the machinery could be run at
+various speeds, or entirely stopped. At the end of this
+discharge-pipe was a cast tapered nozzle, about 3&frac12; inches in
+diameter, in which was inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having
+the desired diameter, and which was held in place by an annular
+screw-cap. By changing the ring, which only required a few moments'
+time, any desired amount of water, up to 3 or 4 cubic feet a
+second, could be discharged against the wheel. The stop-gate was
+left wide open while the machinery was running. The pumping was
+done by eighteen pumps, of Cornish pattern; the largest amount of
+water pumped from any one shaft was something over 30 cubic feet a
+minute; the power at hand, however, was ample to pump more than
+twice that quantity. It was rather curious at, this shaft to see
+more water coming from the pumps than was used on the wheel. The
+two diamond drills were driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the
+rear of the drill carriage. This, but at another tunnel, was
+afterward modified by placing a separate hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on
+each drill-rod; the advance movement of the drill being given by
+hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston, thus doing away with all
+gearing. These eight sets of machinery were run for nearly
+2&frac12; years' time; the only break being that of a spur-wheel,
+doubtless caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it
+and its pinion. Aside from this accident, practically not a dollar
+was spent for repairs, and the machinery, including the pipe, was
+in about as good order when the tunnel was finished as when it was
+first erected. One man, on a twelve hour shift, operated the
+machinery at each shaft, besides dumping the cars; two men kept the
+18 pumps on the line in order, the principal work being in keeping
+the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight; thus a force
+of 18 men was only required for the eight shafts. The cost of the
+pipe, gates, etc., when put in place, was $14,631, and of the
+machinery about $60,000.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10b.png"><img src=
+"./images/10b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 14."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 14.</p>
+
+<p>At the Idaho gold quartz mine, situated near Grass Valley,
+California, water-power has been introduced during the past year
+(1883), taking the place of steam. The supply main is of
+wrought-iron, 22 inches in diameter, 8,764 feet long, buried in the
+ground below frost-line. The joints, as a rule, are riveted
+together, with occasional lead joints to admit of slight movements
+in the pipe.<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> The pipe was coated by placing
+each joint in a bath of boiling tar and asphaltum; to insure the
+most thorough coating, it is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or
+fifteen minutes in the boiling mixture. A cast-iron stop-gate is
+placed at the lower end of the main, and also one at each of the
+branches. Cast-iron man-holes are attached to the main, which,
+although they have given no trouble in this particular case, are
+very objectionable for high pressures, as it is difficult to avoid
+ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined, owing to the great
+difference in the elasticity of the two metals. The long seams of
+this pipe are double-riveted, and the round seams single riveted;
+at the lower end, iron of No. 6 gauge is used. From the end of the
+main, the water is led to the several wheels by branches of smaller
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head
+of 542.6 feet. For power and for mill uses, etc., the required
+supply is about 8 cubic feet a second; this draught reduces the
+effective head to say 523 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The work done consists in driving the following described
+machinery:</p>
+
+<p>A large air-compressor&mdash;2 cylinders, double acting, air
+compressed to 75 pounds&mdash;requiring about 140 horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>A line of Cornish pumps, forcing the water from a depth of 1,450
+feet vertical; 12-inch plungers for upper 800 feet, 6-inch plungers
+for lower 650 feet, with 6-foot stroke, requiring from 55 to 70
+horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>Hoisting from a double-compartment shaft&mdash;two connected
+winding reels, moving separate cages&mdash;requiring 35
+horse-power, or more.</p>
+
+<p>A few small machine-tools and smithy forges, requiring 3 or 4
+horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>A 35-stamp mill, with concentrating apparatus, etc., requiring
+about 70 horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>The total amount of power required being say 320 horse-power,
+for which seven Pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed.</p>
+
+<p>The power in all cases is transmitted by systems of Manila rope
+belting; the rope is 2 inches in diameter; the grooves in the
+sheaves or pulleys are slightly oval, so that the rope does not go
+quite to the bottom; the ropes are horizontal, and run very slack
+(no tighteners), with no appreciable slip; the splices are made
+very long, to obtain uniformity in diameter.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10c.png"><img src=
+"./images/10c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 15."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 15.</p>
+
+<p>This method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly
+and has given excellent satisfaction. It is thought, at the Idaho,
+to be greatly preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the
+works were driven by steam (for such work as pumping or hoisting,
+leather or rubber belting is never used), besides being much
+cheaper in first cost.</p>
+
+<p>The wheel driving the air-compressor is 6 feet in diameter,
+running 300 turns<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> per minute, with 1-15/18-inch
+nozzle; three ropes are used from the wheel shaft to the
+counter-shaft, and six ropes from the latter to the fly-wheel
+shaft.</p>
+
+<p>For driving the pumps, there are two water-wheels, set on the
+same shaft, one 5 feet and the other 7 feet in diameter, either of
+which can be used at will, thus permitting different rates of
+speed; two nozzles are placed on each wheel, so that if necessary
+the power can at any time be doubled. The smaller wheel has a
+1&frac14; inch nozzle, and runs 360 turns a minute; the larger has
+1&#8539;-inch nozzle, and makes 270 turns a minute. There are two
+ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft, and four ropes to
+the fly-wheel shaft, on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel
+attached to the pitman of the pump-bob. Hoisting is done by two
+wheels placed side by side on the same shaft, the buckets and
+nozzle of each wheel being placed in opposite directions. Both
+wheels are 8 feet in diameter, with 15/16-inch nozzles, and make at
+full speed about 225 turns a minute. Reversing the movement of the
+shaft is done by shutting off water from one wheel, and turning
+water on the other wheel; the two water-gates for these nozzles are
+quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure, afforded from the
+water main. In addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels, a
+brake is placed on the wheel-shaft, so that it can be stopped in a
+very short period of time.</p>
+
+<p>The shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off
+the water at these hoisting-wheels (nearly one cubic foot per
+second) has not apparently had any injurious, effect. To lessen
+this shock, a compensating balance was designed, but which is not
+now in use. A wheel, of small diameter, is used for the smithy,
+etc., running at a very high velocity. The wheel driving the
+stamp-mill is 6 feet in diameter, makes 300 revolutions a minute,
+and is supplied through a 1-3/16 inch nozzle. The head of water at
+this point is a few feet greater than at the other wheels. Power is
+transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by two and four
+ropes, the same as with the pumping rig. The amount of work done,
+or of water used, has not been carefully determined; judging from
+the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines, the managers
+of the Idaho believe that an efficiency of fully 80 per cent. of
+the theoretic power of the water is obtained on the main
+driving-shafts of the machinery. The substitution of water for
+steam-power has resulted in a large saving of expense. Although the
+hills near by are covered with fine forests, thus making wood
+cheap, and although a round price is charged for water by the
+company furnishing it, the cost of the water is considerably less
+than that of the wood formerly used as fuel. The cost of attendance
+is altogether in favor of the water-wheels, which hardly require
+any attention. The cost of the change from steam to water-power was
+$46,496.32.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a>
+<div class="note">With buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is
+unnecessary, as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the
+movement due to changes of temperature, without injury to the
+rivets.</div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a>
+<div class="note">The revolutions per minute, of these wheels, as
+here given, are only approximate, as the design was to have the
+bucket speed=&frac12; 2(gh)<sup>&frac12;</sup>.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>TEXAS CREEK PIPE AND AQUEDUCT.</h2>
+
+<p>A description of this work will be of interest in showing the
+general practice followed in California for carrying water across
+deep mountain gorges. In order to augment its water supply, the
+North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company desired to conduct water
+from a stream known as Texas Creek, in Nevada County, California,
+across the Big Ca&ntilde;on branch of the South Yuba River into the
+main Bloomfield flume or aqueduct, which was located on the side of
+Big Ca&ntilde;on Creek, at a vertical elevation of 620 feet above
+the bed of the latter stream. The quantity of water to be carried
+was about 32 cubic feet a second (1,250 miner's inches), which
+could be diverted from Texas Creek at a point 480 feet vertical
+above the Bloomfield flume. An aqueduct about 4,000 feet long,
+partly of ditch and partly of flume, was needed to bring the water
+from the catchment dam on the creek to the brow of the gorge. The
+vertical head for the pipe could therefore be from a maximum of 460
+feet down to any lesser head; with a head of 460 feet, the pipe
+would be 4,790 feet long; and with a head of 220 feet, the length
+would be 4,290 feet. Assuming a maximum tensile strain upon the
+iron of 16,500 pounds per square inch, with the formula for the
+greatest head of about</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex11.png" align="middle" alt=
+"d = \Big(.359 \frac{l}{h}\Big)^{\frac{1}{5}},\ [\text{or,}\ v = 68 \Big(\frac{dh}{l}\Big)^{\frac{1}{2}},\ \text{and}\ Q = 32],">
+</p>
+
+<p>and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for
+the lesser heads, it was found, by calculation, that the least cost
+could be obtained with a head from 300 to 350 feet. The head fixed
+upon was 303.6 feet, with a length of 4,438.7 feet. A profile of
+the pipe, with nearly the same horizontal and vertical scales
+(horizontal scale, showing slope lengths), is given in Fig. 14;
+details are given in Figs. 15 and 16. The pipe was of double
+riveted sheet iron, made in lengths of about 20 feet, and of the
+following thicknesses:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>1,349</td>
+<td align='right'>linear feet,</td>
+<td align='right'>0.083</td>
+<td align='right'>inch thick.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>220</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.095</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>240</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.109</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>250</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.120</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>320</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.134</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>610</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.148</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>1,450</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.165</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Some of the iron was of the very poorest quality; the pipe was
+made by contract in San Francisco, without the supervision of an
+inspector, as the contractors were a firm of good reputation; the
+bad quality of the iron was not detected until too late to have it
+corrected. Since then, the writer has always had such
+pipes&mdash;the mines of which he has been the manager using large
+quantities&mdash;made directly on the ground where they are to be
+used; the pipe makers, in the latter case, always reject such
+sheets as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge, and
+those which show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of
+iron; tests of each joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too
+much to the cost.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11a.png"><img src=
+"./images/11a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 16."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 16.</p>
+
+<p>The maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of
+iron used was intended to be 16,500 pounds per square inch. Some of
+the sheets were below the standard gauge, so that, in reality, the
+tensile strain is sometimes as high as 18,000 pounds. The mean
+diameter of the pipe was 1.416 feet. The entrance into the
+pen-stock was tapered, so that the coefficient of contraction was
+about 0.92. For pressures not exceeding say 380 feet, the joints
+were put together stove-pipe fashion. For greater pressures, the
+joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of the
+joint, with an outer lap-welded band, as shown by Fig. 15; lead was
+run into the space between the outer band and the pipe, and then
+tightly driven up by calking-irons. The pipe was laid under the bed
+of the Big Ca&ntilde;on Creek, a large stream when in freshet,
+where the head below the hydraulic grade line was 760 feet. Some of
+the lead joints leaked slightly at first, but this was soon
+remedied by more careful calking. No man-holes or escape-gates were
+used. The pipe for the larger part of the year is not filled at its
+upper end; when such is the case, the water at the inlet carries
+down the pipe a great quantity of air, for which escapes must be
+provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing, which would soon
+destroy the pipe. The escape air-valves used are shown by Fig. 16.
+They consist simply of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron, with recess
+for lead filling to give greater weight set on top the pipe,
+seating on a vulcanized rubber cushion, and swinging on a loose
+hinge. When the pipe is only partly filled with water, the valves
+drop down by their own weight, allowing the air to freely escape;
+when the water rises above the level of a valve, it is tightly
+closed by the resulting pressure. There are fourteen of these
+valves, those on the lower end being designed to allow air to
+freely enter the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper
+portion, and thus prevent any collapse from atmospheric pressure.
+The valves have answered the desired purposes most effectually. The
+pipe was hauled over a road built to the inlet end, and shot down
+the mountain side by means of a V-shaped trough of wood. For the
+lower end, the joints were hauled up the cliff side into place by a
+crab worked by horse-power. On steep inclinations, the pipe was
+held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in the
+solid rock, as shown by the sketch. The covering of earth and stone
+was 1 foot to 2 feet in depth; with steep slopes, the earth was
+kept from sliding by rough dry walls, or by cedar plank placed
+crosswise. The pipe was laid in 1878; the first year it broke
+twice, owing to the wretched quality of the iron; since then, it
+has given no trouble, and has required practically no attention.
+The cost of this work&mdash;ditch and flume 4,000 feet, and pipe
+4,440 feet&mdash;was $23,779.53.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the relative values of n, in the formula v = n
+(r s)<sup>&frac12;</sup>, for the foregoing ditch, flume, and pipe
+will be instructive. The ditch has a width on the bottom of 3 feet,
+on the top of 6 feet, with a depth of 3 feet, and an inclination of
+20 feet per mile; its sides are rough, being cut in part through
+the rock and with sharp curves, although fairly regular; with a
+flow of about 1,300 miner's inches (32.8 cubic feet per second) the
+ditch runs about full.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore:</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex1.png" align="middle" alt=
+"a = \frac{6+3}{2} \times 3 = 13.5;"></p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex2.png" align="middle" alt=
+"r = \frac{a}{3.3 + 3 + 3.3} = 1.41;"></p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex3.png" align="middle" alt=
+"s = \frac{20}{5280} = \frac{1}{264};"></p>
+
+<p>Q = 32.8, hence</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex4.png" align="middle" alt=
+"v = \frac{Q}{a} = 2.43;"></p>
+
+<p>and</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex5.png" align="middle" alt=
+"n\ (\text{in}\ v = n (r s)^\frac{1}{2}) = 33."></p>
+
+<p>The flume is of unplaned boards, rectangular, 2.67 wide X 2.83
+deep, with an inclination of 32 feet per mile. There are sharp
+curves, although these were made as regular as practicable; the
+boiling action of the water passing around these curves brought the
+flow line (Q = 32.8) nearly up to the top of the sides; with a
+straight flume of the same size, the water would have doubtless
+stood several inches lower.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore:</p>
+
+<p>a = 2.67 &times; 2.83 = 7.56 ;</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex6.png" align="middle" alt=
+"r = \frac{a}{2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83} = 0.908;"></p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex7.png" align="middle" alt=
+"s = \frac{32}{5280} = \frac{1}{165};"></p>
+
+<p>Q = 32.8, hence</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex8.png" align="middle" alt=
+"v = \frac{Q}{a} = 4.34;"></p>
+
+<p>and n = 59.</p>
+
+<p>With the pipe,<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> 1.416 diameter,</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex9.png" align="middle" alt=
+"r = \frac{d}{4} = 0.354;\ Q = 31.69;\ v = 20.13."></p>
+
+<p>Allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water,
+and for contraction,</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex10.png" align="middle" alt=
+"s = \frac{296.1}{4438.7};\ \text{and}\ n = 131."></p>
+
+<p>We hence have the following values of n, in v = n (r
+s)<sup>&frac12;</sup>, Q being constant:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Rough ditch, with sharp curves.</td>
+<td align='right'>33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Rectangular flume, with sharp curves.</td>
+<td align='right'>59</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Wrought-iron pipe, with easy curves, coated with
+asphalt, but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy obstructions (m =
+65.5, and 2m = n)</td>
+<td align='right'>131</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a>
+<div class="note"><i>Vide</i> pages 120-122, Transactions American
+Society of Civil Engineers for 1883.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="9"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.</h2>
+
+<p>The very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate
+herewith is the invention of a Russian engineer, Mr. Jagn. It is
+scarcely as yet known in Western Europe, where, however, something
+will probably be heard of it ere long. Its true field would seem to
+be Egypt, India, or any country where canals or rivers are used for
+irrigation, and where it is desired to draw water from them at
+particular spots in the simplest and cheapest manner. At present in
+nearly all such cases water is raised by hand or steam power;
+nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of the canal
+itself, slow though it may be, is quite sufficient to raise a small
+portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally
+needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields. Why
+then is it not employed for the purpose? The answer is obvious,
+when we consider the various hydraulic motors at present in use. Of
+course, motors worked by water pressure must here be excluded; and
+we are left with scarcely anything but the undershot wheel, the
+turbine, and the screw pump. All these require expensive buildings
+and erections to set them to work, present but a very small
+fraction of their surface to the water at any one time, and must be
+very large and costly if they are to draw even a very moderate
+amount of power from such a source. There is no possibility of
+adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the
+current or in the quantity of water required, nor of moving them
+from place to place should this be convenient.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11b.png"><img src=
+"./images/11b_th.jpg" alt=" PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.</p>
+
+<p>The motor of Mr. Jagn is on a totally different principle. Its
+essential features consist, as shown, of an endless rope made of
+hemp or aloe fiber, which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums
+mounted on a barge or pontoon, and then passes down the channel to
+return over a pulley hung from a floating punt, at such a depth
+that the whole of the rope is immersed in the water. Along this
+rope are suspended at equal intervals a number of parachutes made
+of sail cloth. The rope passes through the center of each of these,
+and to it are attached a series of strings, the other ends of which
+are connected to the outside edge of the parachute. Thus they act
+like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from
+opening too far under the pressure of the current. The parachutes
+must be placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on
+each, and the sum of the pressures forms the force which draws the
+rope through the water. The moment, however, that any parachute has
+passed round the return pulley, the current acts upon it in the
+opposite direction. It then shuts up like an umbrella, and assumes
+a volume so small that its resistance on the return journey is
+insignificant. After passing round the drum at the upper end, it at
+once opens afresh of its own accord, and once more becomes part of
+the moving power of the whole system. The parachutes are formed by
+first cutting out a complete circle of cloth, and then taking from
+this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area.
+Such parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the
+water better than a surface originally spherical, although the
+latter would be theoretically more correct. The motion of the drum
+is transmitted by spur, gear, or otherwise as may be required, to
+give the requisite speed.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the advantages of the system are as
+follows: First, the facility it offers for obtaining a large
+working area, which may be increased or diminished at will,
+according to the requirements of the moment, by lengthening or
+shortening the rope. Secondly, the ease with which it is erected
+and set to work. Thirdly, the small part of the river section which
+it occupies, so as to present no obstacle to navigation. Fourthly,
+the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind, and
+carried wherever it may be needed. Fifthly, it is not stopped, like
+all other hydraulic motors, by the appearance of ice&mdash;it has,
+in fact, already been worked under ice in the Neva. At the same
+time, winds and waves have no influence upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the apparatus is not altogether new. In 1872
+there was tried on the Ohio River an arrangement termed the Brooks
+motor. It was composed of two drums, placed horizontally and
+parallel to each other. Round these there passed endless chains at
+equal spaces apart on the length of the drums, and to these chains
+were fixed wooden blades or arms of a curved form, and so jointed
+to the frames that they opened when moving in one direction, and
+closed down on the chain when moving in the other. In this machine
+the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to obtaining any
+large amount of power. The whole apparatus was mounted on a heavy
+wooden scaffold, which proved an impediment to the flow of the
+river. Again, the resistance due to the surface of the returning
+blades and to their stiffness was found to be far from
+insignificant.</p>
+
+<p>In the present system Mr. Jagn has found, after many
+experiments, that the best effect was obtained when the parachutes
+were spaced apart at twice their diameter, and when the rope made
+an angle of 8 degrees to 10 degrees with the current. It is found
+that when open and in motion the parachutes never touch the bottom.
+This was the case with a rope containing 180 parachutes of 4 feet
+diameter, and working in a depth of only 6 feet. This is easily
+explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always
+diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Hence the pressure on the
+lower part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper
+part; but the former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward,
+while the latter tends to raise it to the top of the water. Thus,
+the latter being the larger, the parachute will always have a
+tendency to rise. In fact, it is necessary to sink the return
+pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that the parachutes will not
+emerge from the surface. For the same reason no intermediate
+supports are needed over the driving span; if any are needed it is
+for the return span, on which the parachutes are closed. Of course,
+if metal were used instead of hemp, the case would be entirely
+different, and intermediate supports would have to be used for
+anything but very moderate lengths.</p>
+
+<p>In practice, Mr. Jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same
+pair of drums, which are mounted upon a pontoon. The ropes are
+spread out from each other, as in Fig. 1, making an angle of about
+10 degrees. The low specific gravity of the system enables ropes to
+be employed of as great a length as 450 yards, each of them
+carrying 350 parachutes of 17.2 square feet area. As half of these
+are in action at the same time, the total working area for the two
+cables is 5,860 square feet. This immense area furnishes a
+considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble current.
+Comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes
+employed, and supposing this to have only 172 square feet of
+working area, such a wheel must have a length of 46 feet, a
+diameter of 23 feet, and seventy-two floats, each 2&frac12; feet
+wide. The enormous dimensions thus required for a comparatively
+small working area point sufficiently clearly to the advantage
+which remains on the side of the parachute motor.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving.
+Behind the return pulleys, D D, are attached cords, A A, with some
+parachutes strung upon them. These present their openings to the
+current and preserve the tension of the connecting ropes. At the
+further end of each cord is a board, B, which is kept in a vertical
+plane, but lying at a slight angle to the direction of the current;
+and this acts to keep the two moving ropes apart from each other.
+The two return pulleys are, however, connected by a line, E, which
+can be shortened or lengthened from the pontoon, and in this way
+the angle of inclination between the two ropes can be varied if
+required. A grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span at the
+moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum. It is
+mounted on a screwed spindle, which is depressed by a nut, and thus
+makes the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly
+efficacious manner.</p>
+
+<p>The author has made a theoretical investigation of the power
+which may be developed by the system, and has worked out tables by
+which, when the velocity of the current and the other elements of
+the problem are known, the power developed by any given number of
+parachutes can be at once determined. We do not reproduce this
+investigation, which takes account of the resistance of the
+returning parachutes and other circumstances, but will content
+ourselves with quoting the final equation, which is as follows: T =
+0.328 S V&sup3;. Here T is the work done in H.P., S is the total
+working area in sq. m., and V is the velocity of the current in m.
+per sec. Taking V = 1, and S = 1 sq. m., which is by no means an
+impracticable quantity, we have T = 0.328 H.P. per sq. m. We may
+check this result by the equation given, in English measures, by
+Rankine&mdash;"Applied Mechanics," p. 398&mdash;for the pressure of
+a current upon a solid body immersed in it. This equation, F = 1.8
+m A v&sup2; / 2g, where m is the weight of a unit of volume of the
+fluid&mdash;say 62 lb.&mdash;A is the area exposed, and v the
+relative velocity of the current. Mr. Jagn finds that the maximum
+of efficiency is obtained when the rope moves at one-third the
+velocity of the stream. If this velocity be 3 feet per second, we
+shall have v = 2. and we then get F = 7 lb. per sq. ft. very
+nearly. Now 1 sq. meter = 10.76 sq. ft., and a speed of 1 ft. per
+second (which is that of the rope) is 60 ft. per minute. Hence the
+H.P. realized in the same case as that taken above will be 7
+&times; 10.76 &times; 60 / 33,000 = 0.137 H.P. The difference
+between the two values is very large, but Rankine, of course,
+depends entirely on the value of the constant 1.8, which is quite
+empirical, and is for a flat band instead of a hollow parachute.
+Taking, however, his smaller figure, and an area of 544 square
+inches, which Mr. Jagn has actually employed, we get a gross power
+of = 0.137 &times; 544 = 7.43 H.P. Hence it will be seen that the
+amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from
+being inconsiderable.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we may point out that the durability of the apparatus
+will be considerable. There is no wear except at the moment when
+the rope is passing round the drum, and even then there need be no
+slipping or grinding. The apparatus worked in the Neva was in very
+good condition after running for four months day and night. After
+five months about one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced,
+but after seven months the hemp rope still showed no signs of wear.
+We think we have said enough to show that for certain purposes, and
+especially, as we have, already mentioned, for irrigation purposes,
+the new motor is well worthy of a careful and extended trial. It
+may be questioned even whether we have not here the germ of an idea
+which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the most interesting
+and important of engineering problems, viz., the utilization of the
+great store of power provided for us twice daily in the ebb and
+flow of the tide.&mdash;<i>The Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="10"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.</h2>
+
+<p>Our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning
+lathes, and is the result of thirty years' experience in the
+manufacture of shafting, with many years' study, to perfect a
+machine of the greatest practical capacity and efficiency.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/12a.png"><img src=
+"./images/12a_th.jpg" alt=" IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.</p>
+
+<p>The principal points of difference from a common engine lathe
+are readily distinguished, among which may be mentioned the absence
+of centers and tail stock, a traveling head with hollow driving
+spindle, and a stationary tool rest and water tank. By dispensing
+with a tail stock a much shorter bed may be used, and the hollow
+driving spindle enables any length shaft to be turned, with one
+setting of the tools. The tool rest is so arranged as to allow of
+perfect lubrication of the tools, keeping the shaft cool, and at
+the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong; the operator
+is not required to travel the length of the bed, but remains near
+the driving belt, feed gearing, etc. Power is communicated to the
+driving spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod
+inside the bed, the driving belt and gears being at the end.</p>
+
+<p>The driving head, after having traveled the length of the bed
+and turned a shaft, is returned by a quick feed, and stops
+automatically, allowing nearly time enough for the operator to
+grind tools and be ready with another shaft, thus economizing the
+time completely.</p>
+
+<p>Wood, Jennison &amp; Co., Worcester, Mass., are the makers, and
+they say that with a good quality of iron they have turned three
+hundred feet of two inch iron in ten hours.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="11"></a></p>
+
+<h2>POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the
+bed, which are adjustable for different lengths of shaft, and are
+made to revolve by power applied through suitable gearing and a
+splined rod inside the bed; the bar of iron being placed on the
+periphery of the rolls receives a rotary motion by friction, and
+shows the crooked places in the same way and with the same ease as
+though rotating on centers in the usual manner; vertically
+adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to support
+the iron; power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at
+the back of the machine, on which is a sliding clutch connecting,
+at the will of the operator, with an eccentric; the eccentric
+conveys motion and power through a link to the elbow joint at the
+front of the press, which forces a plunger down against the
+iron.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/12b.png"><img src=
+"./images/12b_th.jpg" alt=" POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p>Sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by
+turning a nut at the top of the press.</p>
+
+<p>Any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the
+press on the bed. Any length of iron can be straightened, and the
+most laborious and disagreeable work in the process of making
+shafting is rendered easy and rapid. Made by Wood, Jennison &amp;
+Co., Worcester, Mass.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="12"></a></p>
+
+<h2>HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA.</h2>
+
+<h3>By GEORGE O'BRIEN.</h3>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal
+inhabitants of the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional,
+as we are only aware that from very early times the precious metal
+was collected and highly prized by them, and that they chiefly
+extracted the visible gold, which existed in prodigious quantities
+on or closely beneath the surface of the earth, and of its being
+particularly abundant in Asia and Africa. But we can draw more
+positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but effective
+contrivances used by them in later, but still remote, periods, with
+full evidence as to the extent of their operations, in the numerous
+perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other,
+over large areas of auriferous gravel in India, as well as from
+precisely similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also
+further demonstrations, in the abandoned "hill diggings," and
+shifted beds, and beds of rivers, in Peru South America, flowing
+between the sea and coast ranges of the Andes, descending in a
+northeasterly direction to the river Amazon, and that their much
+coveted and enormous productions were the accumulated riches of the
+Incas, transferred as spoils of war to their Spanish conquerors in
+the sixteenth century. And for similar explorations in the same
+class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times, and
+which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded
+to.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the year 1849, after the cession of the northern portion
+of Mexico to the United States of North America, the rich mineral
+district of California was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent
+bands of mining adventurers from all parts of the world, who, with
+little other means at their disposal but pick, shovel, and pan,
+soon fell on the productive bars of rivers and rich ravines where
+the gold was trapped, derived from its original birthplaces, where
+it had been sparsely disseminated, to be dispersed by the
+subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the mountains
+themselves, and deposited in a disengaged form for the first comer;
+and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations, in certain
+localities where water once streamed, that, divested of its earthy
+matrix, the cleansed pure metal was found deposited, detained by
+its superior specific gravity, on the bare rock, and only hidden
+from vision by a slight covering of vegetable mould. In this
+manner, as an example of such concentration, a "pot" or "find" (in
+mining parlance) to the value of &pound;10,000 was collected in a
+space of 15 square yards, or within the limits of a particular
+"mining claim," at the foot of Mokulumne Hill, in a southern county
+of California, soon after the territorial transfer from Mexico. And
+in search of such locations we must account for the numberless
+shafts which still exist both in India and Peru, and sometimes sunk
+within a few feet of each other, passing through the alluvium to a
+depth of 40 feet to the bed rock.</p>
+
+<p>These mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over
+the other recently acquired territories, and built Virginia City,
+the capital of Montana, with the gold derived from the alluvium of
+a river channel which they excavated; and its inhabitants were the
+founders of an institution called the Vigilance Committee, with
+"Lynch law," and by it ruled supremely for many years. But their
+surface diggings, by the manual operations alone of multitudes,
+were soon exhausted in every direction, and then their energies and
+powers of invention were dedicated to discover and explore deeper
+and more permanent depositions, along the western slopes of the
+Sierra Nevada, the Andes of the Western Territories, and which
+originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at
+the present time&mdash;probably 20,000 feet above the
+sea-level&mdash;and of which, or whatever superior elevation they
+formerly had, the greater portion of it has already been removed,
+by the continuous natural action of centuries, to form there, as
+elsewhere, the plains and prairies of the earth, burying and
+diverting by the mutation the ancient river system, whose sources
+of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of these
+altitudes. These denudations and subsequent depositions have been
+caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air,
+water, and time since the creation of the world; and powerful
+demonstrations of these transformations instruct us in all
+directions, if we care to observe them. Thus in "Little Cottonwood"
+ravine, in the Wahsatch range of mountains in Utah Territory, lie
+isolated in the center of the valley huge masses of metamorphic
+granite, some blocks of which weigh individually thousands of tons,
+and were dislodged from the hills&mdash;which on either side are of
+limestone formation&mdash;with no visible granite in them, having
+been undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by
+denudation, and which is the material now forming the tablelands,
+the foundation, of Salt Lake City. The blocks of granite, having
+alone resisted the atmospheric changes, were precipitated into the
+valley beneath, and the Mormons are now constructing their
+cathedral church from these granitic remains.</p>
+
+<p>The melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges
+of mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the
+extinguished channels of ancient rivers, and whose now diverted
+waters were also the powerful agent to assist in causing these
+marvelous alternations; and by the means of hydraulic mining we can
+advance our feeble knowledge on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>These mighty changes have gradually been accomplished, and the
+accumulated denudations of the mineral zones have defended
+themselves by strata of crystallized silicates of quartz of various
+thicknesses, and thus in places beneath such system of defense, or
+by their own concretion, have preserved in many localities a
+thickness of from 500 to 600 feet of conglomerate, but without this
+necessary cementation its further removal is very certain when
+again attacked by water. An example of this continuous process is
+very observable in "Death Valley," Lower California, where a width
+of about 100 miles has been filled up from the hills to the gulf of
+same name, invading and occupying its former bed; and this activity
+is still proceeding, and a temporary formation of tableland above
+it is in course of removal, although already overgrown with forest
+trees, which are toppling over the side which is being attacked.
+But eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these Sierras,
+and a period of comparative repose may be expected, as the
+distribution has already been far advanced by the excessive
+reduction of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The deep and extensive depositions which I now attempt to
+describe attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers,
+and were called "hill diggings," but not being properly understood
+were therefore not immediately operated upon, and remained in
+abeyance, while the lower, richer, and more manifest alluvials
+endured. They were designated "blue gravel," the color being due to
+the action of sulphuret of iron and other salts, the cementing
+auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate, and on
+exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet,
+losing also its firmness by oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>The "great blue lead" is another important mining term and
+designates the alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on
+the bed rock, being the well-worn path of an ancient river; and it
+is obvious that the material in these channels should be richer
+than the general mass beyond their limits.</p>
+
+<p>"Rim rock" is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel,
+and, like the bottom, is well worn and corrugated by the running
+water into cavities and "pot holes," where the force of the stream
+eddied. The width of these channels varies from 60 to 400 feet, and
+the cement near the rim and bottom is always richer than elsewhere.
+The wider and deeper channels generally course from N. to N.W. The
+richest and most explored belt of gold-bearing alluvium in
+California lies between the South and Middle Yuba Rivers,
+commencing near Eureka, in Nevada county, and extends downwards to
+Smartsville and Timbuctoo, in Yuba county, a distance of 40 miles;
+and from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from
+where the ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers, which are
+2,000 feet beneath the auriferous gravel and region near
+Smartsville, and 2,000 feet above the Yuba River, where snow is
+unknown, and near its terminus the ancient river bed courses more
+westerly than it does above it, and crosses Yuba below Timbuctoo,
+where the auriferous depositions disappear. The whole distance of
+40 miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers, and around
+the village of Timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful yield
+of gold, obtained chiefly in the ravines, in holes, and depressions
+in the bed rock. These hollows detained the concentrations of the
+denudated alluvium from the altitudes, and were generally closely
+beneath the surface, and by such guidance and means of discovery
+the miners traced the gold up the ravines to their sources in the
+lofty mounds and deposits, or hills of cemented conglomerate, near
+Eureka in Nevada county; and by constructing canals from a higher
+level began the new system of "hydraulic mining" and washing, and
+gradually extended their operations over the area of the metallic
+zone mentioned, of 40 miles long by 20 wide, using the Yuba River
+below Timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings, or refuse
+from their operations. The result in gold was considerable, but the
+system is from its violent nature difficult to control, by
+presuming to handle and remove such huge depositions in order to
+collect the richest material. The idea was bold, being an
+anticipation of Nature's operations; but the equitable disposal of
+the "tailings" in a cultivated country is impossible, as the silt
+runs down the rivers, creating banks and bars in their channels,
+obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements.</p>
+
+<h3><i>General Description of Hydraulic Mining.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The first work to be accomplished, after calculating that the
+amount or value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient
+to guarantee the cost of the undertaking in general, is the
+construction of a canal or canals, to convey the requisite volume
+of water from the fountain-head, and of sufficient elevation to
+command the ground to be worked upon, having also in view the
+levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as outlets for the
+discharge of the gravel through them, these being engineering
+operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless
+after-cost.</p>
+
+<p>Aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed
+across deep valleys, and the speculation is at all times
+problematical, as the ground cannot be properly tested until the
+water arrives upon it, and disputes may arise between the
+shareholders of the canal and the mining company, ending frequently
+in the one devouring the other, unless the two interests be quickly
+amalgamated.</p>
+
+<p>The starting point should be the lowest level, or "bed rock," on
+the white cement in the ancient channel, which is probably the
+original silt collected in it, and is harder than the conglomerate
+above it, which is more easily removed. The courses of these beds
+can be easily traced by landmarks and undulations, and occasional
+exposures of the bed rock at low levels; also trial shafts are sunk
+in various places in search of it, to a depth of 100 feet, passing
+through blue gravel. The grades of these beds are not steep, being
+from 10 to 40 feet per mile as of an ordinary river, and the
+calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about 600 feet
+in many places across the ridge between the South and Middle Yuba
+River across the Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given
+volume deposited in a reservoir, and at sufficient elevation above
+the points of discharge, as on this depends effectivity to tear
+down the gravel. It is delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of
+wrought iron, and laid down to follow the curvatures of the surface
+of the ground; and the pipe I now treat of, belonging to the
+Excelsior Water Company, has a diameter of 40 inches on a length of
+6,000 feet, and 20 inches on the rest of its length of 8,000 feet,
+being 9,000 feet in all; and this large pipe forms an inverted
+siphon across a valley, following on the gravel, to the top of the
+hill into the reservoir.</p>
+
+<p>These pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning
+chasms, and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys; being also
+cheaper to construct in general, and less liable to accidents from
+fire and storms, and have the convenience for conveying the water
+from point to point, as the work of excavation advances,
+necessitating the removal of portions of the aqueduct forward. The
+watershed, or reservoir, of the Excelsior Company embraces the
+valley of the South Yuba and its affluents, and the entire cost of
+its eight amalgamated canals was 750,000 dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged 49
+inches annually, while the medium in the same period did not exceed
+20 inches in the plains beneath. The height of the reservoir above
+the tailing, or Yuba River, is 393 feet: and the height of the head
+above the floor, or outlet sluice-tunnel, of the Blue Gravel Mining
+Company was 197 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The exact quantity of water required to wash every class of
+gravel is difficult to estimate, but no quantity or pressure would
+be excessive if properly arranged. The measurement of water is
+effected by miner's inches, by allowing it to flow from the
+reservoir of the seller to the purchaser through a box 10 or 12
+feet square, with divisions to obtain a quiet head, with a slide or
+opening capable of adjustment to any required measure; thus an
+opening of 25 inches by 2 inches, with a quiet head of 6 inches
+above the middle of the orifice, would give 50 inches, or about
+89,259 cubic feet of water, flowing during ten hours per day, being
+an amount necessary for a first-class operation. The capability of
+the Excelsior Canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in
+twenty-four hours, to the various mining companies, of 21,120,000
+cubic feet of water, or 8,000 miner's inches, and the value of the
+water paid for by the Blue Gravel Company in forty-three months
+ending November 9, 1867, was 157,261 dollars, being at the rate of
+15 cents of a dollar per miner's inch; and the proportion of water
+used to wash down 989,165 cubic yards of gravel was 17,074,758
+cubic yards, or 17&frac14; cubic yards of water to 1 cubic yard of
+gravel; and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was
+1,298 cubic yards, and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of
+gravel was 5 and 7/10 cents of a dollar. But in the face of
+contingencies the Blue Gravel Company moved 1,000,000 cubic yards
+of gravel in four years, or at the rate of 250,000 cubic yards per
+annum, and the cost of washing each cubic yard stands thus:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='left'></th>
+<th align='center'>Cents.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Cost of water, at 15 cents per miner's inch</td>
+<td align='right'>5.77</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Cost of labor, gunpowder, sluices, and
+superintendence</td>
+<td align='right'>16.10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='left'></th>
+<th align='right'>21.87</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' colspan="2">Or 21&frac34; cents of a dollar per
+cubic yard.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of 22 cents of
+a dollar per cubic yard to cover cost, and the value of the gravel
+referred to ranged from 20 to 45 cents per cubic yard; and the cost
+of work done in shafts and tunnels, in the said Blue Gravel
+Company's Mining claim, reached 100,000 dollars. But with the cost
+of the necessary canals paid for by the Excelsior Water Company
+apart, the total cost amounted to about 1,000,000 dollars, and we
+must note that the latter company sold water to other mining
+companies.</p>
+
+<p>The gross yield in gold of the Blue Gravel Company in four years
+was 837,399 dollars, and in the year 1866 the returns from the Blue
+Gravel Company paid all the costs of the developments; but in 1867
+assessments were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising
+from the cost of sinking two new shafts, and driving fresh tunnels
+on the lowest levels, which evidently contain on the bed rock the
+richest concentrations.</p>
+
+<p>In smaller mining adventures of this description, involving less
+capital, large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone
+treated of, by also not having invested in costly canals, which
+would not have repaid the latter investment; and thus it is evident
+that the water companies are dependent blindly on the prosperity of
+the miners.</p>
+
+<p>I will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations.
+The mining ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the
+nearest and most convenient ravine, so that the starting-point on
+the bed rock toward the face of the ravine shall approach the
+center of the material to be removed at a gradient of 1 in 10 to 1
+in 30. The dimensions of such tunnels are usually 6 feet in width
+by 7 in height, and continuing in contact with the hard river-bed,
+for the greater ease of excavation, collection of gold, and
+conservation of quicksilver amalgam.</p>
+
+<p>These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile,
+and some of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in
+execution, at a cost of from 10 to 60 dollars per foot of frontage.
+The tunnel of the Blue Gravel Company, with length of 1,358 feet,
+cost in labor alone 70,000 dollars, but it could now be driven for
+35,000 dollars, as skilled labor is cheaper now than then. The
+grade in this tunnel is about 12 per cent., and the end of the
+tunnel is designed to be 170 feet of elevation, and reaching to a
+point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being operated
+upon, and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed
+rock or gravel, until it intersects the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>The object of this laborious operation is obvious, as the long
+tunnel becomes a sluiceway, and through the whole length of which
+sluice boxes are laid, for the double motive of carrying off the
+material and saving the gold, and for this purpose a trough of
+strong planks is placed in the tunnel, 2&frac12; feet wide, and
+with sides high enough to contain the stream. The pavement of the
+trough is generally laid of blocks of wood 6 inches in thickness,
+cut across the grain, and placed on their ends, to the width of the
+sluiceway. The wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections
+of stone pavement, the stones being set endwise, and in the
+interstices between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is
+distributed, and as much as 2 tons of this metal is required to
+charge a long sluice. The water in the canal is brought by
+aqueducts, or other means, to the head of the mining ground, having
+an elevation of 100 to 200 ft. above the lowest level of the mining
+ground, and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes, sometimes
+sustained on a strong incline of timber.</p>
+
+<p>These pipes are of sheet iron, of adequate strength, riveted at
+the joints, and measure from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, and
+communicate at the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron,
+on the top and sides of which are openings for the adaptation of
+flexible tubes, made of very strong fabric of canvas, strengthened
+by cording, and terminating in nozzles of metal of 2&frac12; to 3
+inches in diameter. From these nozzles the streams of water are
+directed against the face of the gravel to be washed, exercising
+incredible effectivity.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of water employed varies of course with the work to
+be done; but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting
+simultaneously on the same bank, each conveying from 100 to 600
+inches of water per hour&mdash;1,000 miner's inches being equal to
+106,600 cubic feet of water per hour, constantly exerting its force
+under a pressure of 90 to 200 pounds to the square inch, varying
+with the height of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Under the continuous action of this enormous force, aided by the
+softening power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass
+are dislodged, and fall with great violence, the <i>debris</i>
+speedily disintegrating and disappearing under the resistless force
+of the water, and is hurried forward in the sluices to the mouth of
+the shaft, down which it is precipitated with the whole volume of
+turbid water. Bowlders of 100 to 200 lb. in weight are dislodged
+and shot forward by the impetuous stream, accompanied by masses of
+the harder cement which meet in the fall, and by the concussion
+from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency
+required is found to disintegrate it. The heavy banks, of 80 feet
+and upward, are usually worked in two benches, the upper never
+being so rich as the lower, and also less firm, and therefore
+worked away with greater rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>The lower section is much the more compact, as this stratum on
+the bed rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure, and
+even sometimes the full force of the streams of water, until it has
+been loosened by gunpowder or other explosives. For this purpose
+adits are driven in on its foundation-point of from 40 to 70 feet
+and more from the face of the bank, and drifts are extended at
+right angles therefrom to a short distance on each side of the
+adit, and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder is placed
+(from 1 to 3 tons), and fired at one blast, having been previously
+built in with masonry. And in this manner the compact conglomerate
+is broken up, and then the water easily completes its work.
+Sometimes in the soft, upper strata the systems of tunnel is
+extended, as in a coal-mine, by cross alleys, leaving blocks which
+are afterward washed away, and then the whole mass settles, and is
+disintegrated under the influence of water. The wooden sluices in
+the tunnels already described are often made double for the
+convenience of "cleaning up" one of them, while the other remains
+in action. The process of cleaning up is performed according to the
+quantity and richness of the material worked upon, at intervals of
+twenty to forty days, and consists in removing the pavement and
+blocks from the bed of the sluice, and then gathering all the
+amalgam of gold and rich dirt collected, and replacing the locks in
+the same way as at first. Advantage is taken on this occasion to
+reverse the position of the blocks and stones when they are worn
+irregularly, or substitute new ones for those which are worn
+through. The mechanical action of the washing process on the blocks
+is of course very rapid and severe, requiring complete renewal of
+them once in eight to ten weeks. Some miners prefer a pavement of
+egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring, the gold being
+deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluiceways are, however,
+paved with rectangular wooden blocks, with or without stones as
+described. Standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full
+action, any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with
+astonishment, amounting almost to terror, as the muddy mass sweeps
+onward, bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders, which add
+their din to the roar of the water, the whole being precipitated
+down a series of falls, at each of which it is caught up again by
+new sluices of timber, lined like the first, and so onward and
+downward many hundreds of feet until the level of the river is
+reached, at a distance of about a half mile or more from the mouth
+of the first tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>At each of these new falls of 25 to 50 feet the process of
+comminution begun in the first shaft is carried on, and a fresh
+portion of gold obtained. Rude as this plan of saving gold appears
+to be, more gold is procured by it than by any other method of
+washing yet devised for this process of work, and the economical
+advantages obtained by it cannot be surpassed, as it would be
+impossible to handle such vast quantities of material in any other
+way, and we can compare the cost of washing and handling a cubic
+yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>Dollars.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By manual labor with the pan</td>
+<td align='right'>15.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By manual labor with rocker</td>
+<td align='right'>3.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By manual labor with the long tom</td>
+<td align='right'>.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By the hydraulic process</td>
+<td align='right'>.15</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>But this process, even if effective or profitable as a mining
+operation, may be prejudicial to the interests of the general
+public, if conducted on a large scale, as the vast quantity of
+material which it so suddenly removes is merely shifted into the
+shallows beneath, to be redistributed by every freshet to points
+lower and lower down until it reaches the sea-coast, creating bars
+at the mouths of rivers in its course, and changing the hydrography
+of harbors&mdash;as it has done with the Bay of San Francisco by
+its silt.</p>
+
+<p>The hills behind, torn up and washed by the gold miner, are
+abandoned as desolate and irredeemable; and the costly canals,
+constructed with peculiar conveniences for mining purposes,
+eventually fall into disuse from being too expensive to maintain or
+alter for general agricultural uses.&mdash;<i>Journal of
+Science.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA.</h2>
+
+<p>From the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging
+the European medical press, we select the following from Dr. Henry
+A. Rawlins, in the <i>London Med. Times</i>, July 12. 1884:</p>
+
+<p>The man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by
+diarrh&oelig;a of an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his
+blood. This loss is one of simple transudation, increasing as the
+powers of life decrease. This <i>sudden</i> loss produces intense
+prostration, and renders the heart powerless to perfect the
+circulation. The body, thus deprived of oxygen, speedily runs into
+decomposition, even before life is extinct. Have we any agent by
+which we can collect and press forward these scattered and
+lethargic drops of blood to the heart, and enable it to renew the
+circulation, and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body? My
+reply is emphatically&mdash;Yes! Flannel bandages from the toes to
+the trunk, around the abdomen, and from the fingers to the body,
+will effect this object perfectly. Remark that the effect is
+gradual, increasing with every turn of the roller, but would be in
+full force in about twenty minutes. By thus exposing the blood in
+the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted form, as it is in
+the air, instead of pure oxygen, the reaction would neither be too
+rapid nor too dangerous. In confirmation of my views, I have this
+day learned that it is the custom in India to wear a double roll of
+flannel around the abdomen, as a preventive to cholera. The other
+advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>That they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor
+creature who is already in a state of refrigeration.</li>
+
+<li>By their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor
+muscles alike, they are steadied, and rendered much less likely to
+be affected with spasmodic action or cramp.</li>
+
+<li>By their steady<i>elastic</i> pressure and support of about 160
+pounds, they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of
+the blood, which they had previously restored.</li>
+
+<li>That the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will, I believe,
+prove quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison, and also
+destroy its effects.</li>
+
+<li>That this much can at least be claimed for their use&mdash;that
+they remove from nature a stumbling-block, which prevented her from
+exercising her marvelous recuperative powers. Diluted sulphuric
+acid is the best medicine to arrest the flux from the bowels,
+acting also as a tonic. It should be given in five-minim doses
+about every half hour, with rice gruel. By adopting this plan, the
+natural process is brought about, that of the starch being
+converted into grape sugar. Plenty of white of egg, well whipped
+up, so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach,
+which it will appropriate, should be given. Opium, in small
+quantities, and other stimulants, should be given according to the
+necessities of the case. May it not be well, through the medium of
+wet sponge over the thorax, to apply a continuous but gentle
+current of galvanism, so as to stimulate the heart's action, keep
+alive the respiratory movements, and thereby assist in the
+maintenance of the functions of the body?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="26"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND PRESSURE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO
+HEALTH.</h2>
+
+<p>At the recent meteorological conference held at the Health
+Exhibition, Dr. J.W. Tripe read a paper of much interest on some
+relations of meteorological phenomena to health.</p>
+
+<p>In ages long past these relations excited much attention, but
+the knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind; and indeed,
+even now, no very great advance has been made, because it is only
+quite recently that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate
+record of deaths with observations taken at a number of reliable
+meteorological stations. The more useful and searching comparison
+between cases of sickness, instead of deaths, and meteorological
+phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large scale in this
+country, and especially as regards zymotic diseases. In Belgium
+there is a Society of Medical Practitioners, embracing nearly the
+whole country, that publishes a monthly record of cases of
+sickness, of deaths, and of meteorological observations; but the
+only attempt on a large scale in this country, which was started by
+the Society of Medical Officers of Health for the whole of London,
+failed partly from want of funds, and partly from irregularity in
+the returns. My remarks, which must necessarily be very brief, will
+refer to the relations between (1) meteorological phenomena and the
+bodily functions of man, and (2) between varying meteorological
+conditions and death-rates from certain diseases.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the first, I will commence with a few brief remarks
+on the effects of varying barometric pressures. A great deal too
+much attention is paid to the barometer if we regard it as
+indicating only, as it really does, variations in the weight of the
+column of air pressing upon our bodies, because, except at
+considerable elevations, where the barometer is always much lower
+than at sea level, these variations produce but little effect on
+health. At considerable elevations the diminished pressure
+frequently causes a great feeling of malaise, giddiness, loss of
+strength, palpitation, and even nausea; and at greater heights, as
+was noticed by Mr. Glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent, loss of
+sight, feeling, and consciousness. These were caused by a want of a
+sufficient supply of oxygen to remove effete matters from the
+system, and to carry on the organic functions necessary for the
+maintenance of life. On elevated mountain plateaus, or even in high
+residences among the Alps, an increased rapidity in the number of
+respirations and of the pulse, as well as increased evaporation
+from the lungs and skin, occur.</p>
+
+<p>For some years past, many persons suffering from consumption,
+gout, rheumatism, and an&aelig;mic affections have gone to mountain
+stations, chiefly in Switzerland, for relief, and many have derived
+much benefit from the change. It must not, however, be supposed
+that diminished atmospheric pressure was the chief cause of the
+improvement in health, as its concomitants, viz., a diminution in
+the quantity of oxygen and moisture contained in each cubic foot of
+air, probably the low temperature, with a total change in the daily
+habits of life, have assisted in the beneficial results. The
+diminution in the quantity of air, and consequently of oxygen,
+taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by
+an increased frequency and depth of the respirations, and a greater
+capacity of the chest. In this country, alterations in the
+barometric pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an
+approaching change in the wind, and as well as of the amount of
+moisture in the air; hence the instrument is often called "the
+weather glass." A sudden diminution in the atmospheric pressure is
+likely to be attended with an escape of ground air from the soil,
+and therefore to cause injury to health, especially among the
+occupants of basement rooms, unless the whole interior of the
+building be covered with concrete.</p>
+
+<p><i>Temperature.</i>&mdash;Experience has shown that man can bear
+greater variations of temperature than any other animal, as in the
+Arctic regions a temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit, or more
+than 100 degrees below freezing point, can be safely borne; that he
+can not only live but work, and remain in good health, in these
+regions provided that he be supplied with suitable clothing and
+plenty of proper food. On the other hand, man has existed and taken
+exercise in the interior of Australia when the thermometer showed a
+temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, or nearly 90 degrees above
+freezing point, so that he can live and be in fairly good health
+within a range of nearly 200 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of a high temperature vary very much according to
+the amount of moisture in the air, as when the air is nearly
+saturated in hot climates, or even in summer in our own, more or
+less languor and malaise are felt, with great indisposition to
+bodily labor. With a dry air these are not so noticeable. The cause
+is evident; in the former case but little evaporation occurs from
+the skin, and the normal amount of moisture is not given off from
+the lungs, so that the body is not cooled down to such an extent as
+by dry air. Sunstroke is probably the result, not only of the
+direct action of the sun's rays, but partly from diminished cooling
+of the blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the
+mean for the day, month, or year, as on the extremes, as, when the
+days are hot and the nights comparatively cool, the energy of the
+system becomes partially restored, so that a residence near the
+sea, or in the vicinity of high mountains, in hot climates is,
+other things being equal, less enervating than in the plains, as
+the night air is generally cooler. It is commonly believed that hot
+climates are <i>necessarily</i> injurious to Europeans, by causing
+frequent liver derangements and diseases, dysentery, cholera, and
+fevers. This, however, is, to a certain extent, a mistake, as the
+recent medical statistical returns of our army in India show that
+in the new barracks, with more careful supervision as regards diet
+and clothing, the sickness and death-rates are much reduced.
+Planters and others, who ride about a good deal, as a rule keep in
+fairly good health; but the children of Europeans certainly
+degenerate, and after two or three generations die out, unless they
+intermarry with natives, and make frequent visits to colder
+climates. This fact shows that hot climates, probably by
+interfering with the due performance of the various processes
+concerned in the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues,
+eventually sap the foundations of life among Europeans; but how far
+this result has been caused by bad habits as regards food,
+exercise, and self-indulgence, I cannot say. Rapid changes of
+temperature in this country are often very injurious to the young
+and old, causing diarrh&oelig;a and derangements of the liver when
+great heat occurs, and inflammatory diseases of the lungs, colds,
+etc., when the air becomes suddenly colder, even in summer.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>direct</i> influence of rain on man is not very marked in
+this country, except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation
+from the ground and from vegetable life, and by altering the level
+of ground water. This is a subject almost overlooked by the public,
+and it is therefore as well that it should be known that when
+ground water has a level persistently less than five feet from the
+surface of the soil, the locality is usually unhealthy, and should
+not, if possible, be selected for a residence. Fluctuations in the
+level of ground water, especially if great and sudden, generally
+cause ill-health among the residents. Thus, Dr. Buchanan in his
+reports to the Privy Council in 1866-1867, showed that consumption
+(using the word in its most extended sense) is more prevalent in
+damp than on dry soils, and numerous reports of medical officers of
+health, and others, which have been published since then, show that
+an effective drainage of the land, and consequent carrying away of
+the ground water, has been followed by a diminution of these
+diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the
+health and comfort of man. In this country, however, it is not only
+the absolute but the relative proportions of aerial moisture which
+materially influence mankind. The quantity of aqueous vapor that a
+cubic foot of air can hold in suspension, when it is saturated,
+varies very much with the temperature. Thus at 40 degrees Fahr. it
+will hold 2.86 grains of water; at 50 degrees, 4.10 grains; at 60
+degrees, 5.77 grains; at 70 degrees, 8.01 grains; and at 90 degrees
+as much as 14.85 grains. If saturation be represented by 100, more
+rapid evaporation from the skin will take place at 70 degrees, and
+75 per cent. of saturation, than at 60 degrees when saturated,
+although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is greater at
+the first named temperature than at the latter. As regards the
+lungs, however, the case is different, as the air breathed out is,
+if the respirations be regular and fairly deep, completely
+saturated with moisture at the temperature of the body. In cold
+climates the amount of moisture and of the effete matters given off
+from the lungs in the expired air is much greater than in hot
+climates, and the body is also cooled by the evaporation of water
+in the form of aqueous vapor. Moist air is a better conductor of
+heat than dry air, which accounts for much of the discomfort felt
+in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the feeling of
+elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather, therefore, moist
+air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, and
+colds consequently result. London fogs are injurious, not only on
+account of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal,
+but in consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated
+with moisture at a low temperature. The injuriousness of fogs and
+low temperatures will be presently dwelt upon at greater
+length.</p>
+
+<p>Variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere
+exert a considerable influence on the circulation of air contained
+in the soil, which is called ground air. As all the interstices of
+the ground are filled with air or water, the more porous the soil,
+the greater is the bulk of air. The quantity of air contained in
+soil varies very much according to the material of which the soil
+is composed, as it is evident that in a gravelly or sandy soil it
+must be greater than when the ground consists of loam or clay. The
+estimates vary from 3 to 30 per cent., but the latter is probably
+too high. If, therefore, a cesspool leak into the ground, the
+offensive effluvia, if in large quantities, will escape into the
+soil, and are given off at the surface of the ground, or are drawn
+into a house by the fire; but, if small, they are rendered
+innocuous by oxidation. The distance to which injurious gases and
+suspended or dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous
+soil is sometimes considerable, as I have known it pass for 130
+feet along a disused drain, and above 30 feet through loose
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>Winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and
+indirectly. Directly, by promoting evaporation from the skin, and
+abstracting heat from the body in proportion to their dryness and
+rapidity of motion. Their indirect action is more important, as the
+temperature and pressure of the air depend to a great extent on
+their direction. Thus winds from the north in this country are
+usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry weather; in
+summer with a pleasant feeling, but in winter with much cold.
+Southwest winds are the most frequent here of any, as about 24 per
+cent. of the winds come from this quarter against 16&frac12; from
+the west, 11&frac12; from the east, and the same from the
+northeast; 10&frac12; from the south, 8 from the north, and a
+smaller number from the other quarters. Southwest winds are also
+those which are most frequently accompanied by rain, as about 30
+per cent. of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds.
+Another set of observations give precisely the same order, but a
+considerable difference in their prevalence, viz., southwest 31 per
+cent., west 14&frac12;, and northeast 11&frac12; per cent. Easterly
+winds are the most unpleasant, as well as the most injurious to man
+of all that occur in this country.</p>
+
+<p>I now propose discussing very briefly the known relations
+between meteorological phenomena and disease. I say the known
+relations, because it is evident that there are many unknown
+relations of which at present we have had the merest glimpse. For
+instance, small-pox, while of an ordinary type, and producing only
+a comparatively small proportion of deaths to those attacked, will
+sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form, and spread with great
+rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological conditions
+when it usually declines in frequency. There are, however, in this
+country known relations between the temperature and, I may say,
+almost all diseases. As far back as 1847 I began a series of
+elaborate investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at
+different periods of the year, and the relations between this
+disease and the heat, moisture, and electricity of the air. I then
+showed that a mean monthly temperature below 44.6&deg; F. was
+adverse to the spread of this disease, that the greatest relative
+decrease took place when the mean temperature was below 40&deg;,
+and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months
+having a mean temperature of between 45&deg; and 57&deg; F.
+Diseases of the lungs, excluding consumption, are fatal in
+proportion to the lowness of the temperature and the presence of
+excess of moisture and fog. Thus, in January, 1882, the mean weekly
+temperature fell from 43.9&deg; F. in the second week to 36.2&deg;
+in the third, with fog and mist. The number of deaths registered in
+London during the third week, which may be taken as corresponding
+with the meteorological conditions of the second week, was 1,700,
+and in the next week 1,971. Unusual cold, with frequent fogs and
+little sunshine, continued for four weeks, the weekly number of
+deaths rising from 1,700 to 1,971, 2,023, 2,632, and 2,188. The
+deaths from acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were
+respectively 279, 481, 566, 881, and 689, showing that a large
+proportion of the excessive mortality was caused by these diseases.
+At the end of November and in December of the same year there was a
+rapid fall of temperature, when the number of deaths from acute
+diseases of the lungs rose from 297 to 358, 350, 387, 541, 553, and
+389 in the respective weeks. From November 29 to December 9 the sun
+was seen only on two days for 4&frac12; hours, and from December 9
+to the 18th also on two other days for less than 4 hours, making
+the total amount of sunshine 8.1 hours only in 20 days. In January
+and February the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases
+reached the large number of 504 deaths; in December it was less,
+the fogs not having been so dense, but the excess equaled 246
+deaths per week.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between a high summer temperature and excessive
+mortality from diarrh&oelig;a have long been well known, but the
+immediate cause of the disease as an epidemic is not known. Summer
+diarrh&oelig;a prevails to a greater extent in certain localities,
+notably in Leicester (and has done so for years); and the cause has
+been carefully sought for, but has not been found out. Recent
+researches, however, point to a kind of bacillus as the immediate
+cause, as it has been found in the air of water-closets, in the
+traps under the pans, and in the discharges from infants and young
+children. In order to indicate more readily how intimately the
+mortality from diarrh&oelig;a depends on temperature, I now lay
+before you a table showing the mean temperature for ten weeks in
+summer, of seven cold and hot summers, the temperature of Thames
+water, and the death-rates of infants under one year per million
+population of London:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><i>London.&mdash;Deaths under 1 Year, in July,
+August, and part of September, from Diarrh&oelig;a per 1,000,000
+Population Living at all Ages, arranged in the Order of
+Mortality.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='center' width='10%'>Years.</th>
+<th align='left' width='10%'>Mean<br>
+ temperature,<br>
+ 10 weeks.</th>
+<th align='left' width='10%'>Temperature<br>
+ of Thames water.</th>
+<th align='left' width='10%'>Age 0-1 year.<br>
+ Deaths from<br>
+ Diarrhoea per<br>
+ 1,000,000 population<br>
+ living at all ages.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>58.1&deg;</td>
+<td align='left'>60.6&deg;</td>
+<td align='left'>151</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1862</td>
+<td align='left'>59.0</td>
+<td align='left'>62.0</td>
+<td align='left'>189</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1879</td>
+<td align='left'>58.7</td>
+<td align='left'>60.7</td>
+<td align='left'>228</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1877</td>
+<td align='left'>61.2</td>
+<td align='left'>63.3</td>
+<td align='left'>347</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1874</td>
+<td align='left'>61.7</td>
+<td align='left'>63.8</td>
+<td align='left'>447</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1878</td>
+<td align='left'>63.7</td>
+<td align='left'>64.1</td>
+<td align='left'>576</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1876</td>
+<td align='left'>64.4</td>
+<td align='left'>64.9</td>
+<td align='left'>643</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As may be seen, the deaths of infants under 1 year of age from
+diarrh&oelig;a per 1,000,000 population was only 151; while the
+mean summer temperature was only 58.1&deg; F. against 189 in 1862,
+when the mean temperature was 59.0&deg;. In 1879, when the mean
+temperature was 58.7&deg;, the deaths from diarrh&oelig;a rose to
+228 per million, but a few days were unusually hot. In 1877 the
+mean temperature of the air was 61.2&deg;, of the Thames water
+63.3&deg;, and the mortality of infants from diarrh&oelig;a 347 per
+million population. In 1874, when the mean temperature of the air
+was 61.7&deg;, the mortality rose to 447 per million; and in the
+hot summers of 1878 and 1876, when the mean air temperatures were
+64.1&deg; and 64.9&deg; respectively, the death-rates of infants
+were 576 and 642 per million population. The relations, therefore,
+between a high summer temperature and the mortality from
+diarrh&oelig;a in infants are very intimate. I have selected the
+mortality among infants in preference to that at all ages, as the
+deaths occur more quickly, and because young children suffer in
+greater proportion than other persons.</p>
+
+<p>The proportionate number of deaths at <i>all ages</i> from
+diarrh&oelig;a corresponds pretty closely with those of infants. To
+prove this, I made calculations for three years, and ascertained
+that only 3.9 per cent. of all the deaths from this disease were
+registered in the weeks having a temperature of less than 50&deg;;
+11.9 per cent. in the weeks having a temperature between 50&deg;
+and 60&deg;; while in the comparatively few weeks in which the
+temperature exceeded 60&deg; F., as many as 84.2 per cent. of the
+total number of deaths was registered. In the sixteen years,
+1840-56, for which many years ago I made a special inquiry, only
+18.9 per cent. of all the deaths from diarrh&oelig;a occurred in
+winter and spring, against 81.1 per cent. in summer and autumn. In
+the twenty years, 1860-79, there were seven years in which the
+summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per 100,000
+inhabitants of London was 200; while in ten summers, during which
+the temperature was in excess by 2&deg; or less, the mortality was
+317 per 100,000. The mean temperature was largely in excess, that
+is to say, more than 2&deg; plus in three of these summers, when
+the mortality reached 339 per 100,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>These figures show that great care should be taken in hot
+weather to prevent diarrh&oelig;a, especially among young children;
+by frequent washing with soap and water to insure cleanliness, and
+proper action of the skin; by great attention to the food,
+especially of infants fed from the bottle; free ventilation of
+living rooms, and especially of bedrooms; and by protection, as far
+as possible, being afforded from a hot sun, as well as by avoiding
+excessive exercise. All animal and vegetable matter should be
+removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible
+(indeed, these should be burnt instead of being put in the
+dust-bin), the drains should be frequently disinfected and well
+flushed out, especially when the mean daily temperature of the air
+is above 60&deg; F.</p>
+
+<p>Time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations
+between meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other
+diseases and affections, such as apoplexy from heat, sunstroke,
+liver diseases, yellow fever, cholera, whooping-cough, measles,
+etc., especially as the state of our knowledge on the subject is so
+very limited. A comparison between the mortality from several
+diseases in this and other countries shows that certain of these do
+not prevail under closely corresponding conditions. Thus the curves
+of mortality from whooping-cough, typhoid fever, and scarlet fever
+do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both London and
+New York, and the same may be said of diarrh&oelig;a in India. It
+is therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying
+temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased
+death-rate from these diseases. The subject is of great importance,
+and I do not despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the
+agents through which meteorological phenomena act in the production
+of increased and decreased death rates from certain diseases, and
+the means by which, to a certain extent, these injurious effects on
+man may be presented.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>P. Rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide
+diminishes the sensibility of the cortical substance of the
+cerebrum to electric excitement, while, the excitability of the
+underlying white substance remains unaltered.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="27"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CONSUMPTION SPREAD BY CHICKENS.</h2>
+
+<p>In a village, C., near Weimar, where for many years no case of
+tubercular phthisis had taken place, two years ago several families
+suddenly discovered one of their members to be suffering from the
+disease. After a long inquiry, it was discovered by accident that
+all these families had been buying their spring chickens from one
+and the same place, viz., from a private hospital in the
+neighborhood. A medical student brought the livers of two such
+chickens to Prof. Johne, in Dresden. The student, whose own sister
+had become affected with consumption, had lived during his vacation
+at home with his parents, in C., and he had there at dinner
+observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens.</p>
+
+<p>On examination, both organs were found to be full of tubercular
+bacilli. A thorough investigation was at once instituted, and it
+was then that the fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the
+families, members of which had been affected with tuberculosis, had
+all been brought from the institution mentioned. On further inquiry
+at the latter place the following facts were elicited:</p>
+
+<p>At about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in
+the village, an inmate or the hospital, Mrs. R., had died of the
+disease. Before her death, Mrs. R. used to feed the chickens raised
+there; she was often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it
+to the chickens. Further, the spittoons were emptied on a place in
+the yard where the chickens generally came to pick up any stray
+corn.</p>
+
+<p>As none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in
+the neighborhood&mdash;the hospital being situated at a
+considerable distance from the village&mdash;as no disease had
+happened among them until the arrival of Mrs. R., when soon after
+an epidemic seemed to break out among them, and many died, there is
+no doubt that they contracted the disease from Mrs. R., and in
+return infected those who ate their flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The case is very interesting, first, as it proves how such
+animals may become affected, then how they may spread the disease,
+and lastly, that some kind of a disposition must exist in the
+person infected; for here, of many who had eaten of the diseased
+flesh, only a few contracted the malady. The whole report teaches
+us how careful we have to be, and how necessary is the appointment
+of skillful experts by the State to inspect all food offered for
+sale.&mdash;<i>Med. and Surg. Reporter.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="28"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NEW METHOD OF REDUCING FEVER.</h2>
+
+<p>For many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly
+through the vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by
+means of which the high temperature often prevailing in typhoid,
+malarial, and other fevers might be reduced with rapidity and
+safety to the patient. A few substances have been found which
+produce a decline in temperature when administered in enormous and
+frequently repeated doses; but such administration has often been
+found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient, producing not
+infrequently serious injury to the stomach, kidneys, and sometimes
+the nervous system. So great is the danger of such injurious
+results, few careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic
+"antipyretic" medication recommended by experimenters, preferring
+to allow their patients to burn with fever, mitigated only by such
+simple means as are commonly employed by nurses, than to require
+them to combat the poisonous influences of a drug in addition to
+the morbid element of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>Happily, however, it is not necessary to leave the patient to
+the unaided efforts of nature. By cool sponging of the surface,
+persistently and thoroughly applied; by large, cool compresses
+placed over the abdomen and chest, or even the whole front of the
+body, and changed as often as warm, or every three to five minutes;
+by frequently repeated cool packs; by cold water drinking; by
+ice-packs to the spine; by constant application of ice or frozen
+compresses to the head; by forcing perspiration by copious hot
+drinks and a warm blanket pack&mdash;by any or all of these means
+the temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every
+case. However, cases will now and then occur in which the
+temperature remains dangerously high, notwithstanding the thorough
+application of the above means. What shall be done?</p>
+
+<p>Several years ago our attention was called to a series of
+experiments made by Dr. Winternitz, Professor of Hydropathy in the
+Medical University of Vienna, for the purpose of determining the
+influence upon temperature of enemas of water of different
+temperature in cases of fever. The results claimed by Prof.
+Winternitz were so striking that we improved the first opportunity
+to repeat his experiments, and with such results as have justified
+the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in fever,
+in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient. The
+only objection we have found to the method has been the
+inconvenience to the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the
+bed-pan. In a recent case in which we found it necessary to resort
+to this method, the nurse observed that if the tin can of the
+fountain syringe used in administering the enema happened to be
+lowered below the level of the bed on which the patient lay, water
+which had previously been introduced into the rectum returned
+readily through the tube into the can. On learning this fact, the
+attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way. From
+one to two pints of water, of 70&deg; or 75&deg; F. temperature,
+were allowed to pass into the bowels; and after being retained for
+five or ten minutes, or until the patient experienced uncomfortable
+sensations, it was made to pass out through the tube by simply
+lowering the reservoir to the level of the floor. A new supply of
+water of a proper temperature being introduced into the reservoir,
+it was again raised to the proper height, and the operation so
+continued until six quarts of water had been used. Then the patient
+was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour, according to the
+height of the fever, and the same process was repeated. Careful
+record was made of the temperature of the patient just before the
+treatment and immediately after. It was found to be invariably
+reduced from one to one and a half degrees by each treatment. The
+temperature, which had been exceedingly obstinate previous to the
+employment of this method, ranging from 104&deg; to 105&deg;,
+during the intervals between the treatments would, of course, rise
+somewhat; but each time it stopped short of the point reached
+during the previous interval, so that in the course of a few hours
+the fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature. The
+temperature of the water, when taken after passing through the
+bowels, was found to have risen each time from 10&deg; to
+13&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>The great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of
+the most useful of all substances for lowering the temperature; and
+it is readily apparent that, by the means described, heat may be
+abstracted from the body almost <i>ad libitum</i>, and the
+temperature may thus be controlled with a rapidity and a degree of
+certainty which cannot be approached by any other method. In a
+still more recent case, in which the same treatment was employed,
+the temperature of the patient had reached 106&deg; F., in spite of
+the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment, such as
+cold compresses, etc.; but it was, in four or five hours, brought
+down to nearly 100&deg; by the use of the cold enemas.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of this method are: 1. It may be employed without
+wetting or moving the patient; very frequently a patient will sleep
+continuously during the administration of the treatment. 2. It
+seldom causes chilliness, which is frequently a disturbing symptom,
+especially in fevers of a low type, and even, when the temperature
+is alarmingly high, causing the patient to dread the employment of
+sponging with cool or tepid water. 3. It is not necessary to employ
+cold water, a temperature of 80&deg; or even 85&deg; being
+thoroughly efficient. In the majority of cases, however, water of
+70&deg; or even 60&deg; may be employed without danger. The water
+comes in such immediate contact with surfaces filled with large
+blood-vessels that a temperature but a few degrees below that of
+the body is more effective than very much colder water applied to
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p>In cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by
+chilliness, this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by
+the application of a hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the
+pit of the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The simple measures of treatment we have described will be found
+more effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other
+remedies which have ever been recommended for this
+purpose.&mdash;<i>Good Health.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="29"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src=
+"./images/15a_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG 1.&mdash;THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE EXHIBITION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG 1.&mdash;THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE
+EXHIBITION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.</p>
+
+<p>According to a recent law of Parliament, a large part of the
+crown jewels of France is destined to be sold. The exhibit that has
+been made of these riches for the last two months at the National
+Exhibition of the Industrial Arts, in the State Hall of the Louvre,
+has excited a lively interest among the visitors. Here are to be
+seen, heaped up in a large octagonal show-case, incomparable
+treasures, whose value exceeds quite a number of millions.
+According to the inventory of 1818, the 52,000 precious stones of
+the crown of France were estimated as worth more than 20 million
+francs ($4,000,000); but since that epoch the stones have increased
+in number, and money has singularly diminished in value, so that
+the total at present would be much less.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15b.png"><img src=
+"./images/15b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 2.&mdash;THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.&mdash;THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)</p>
+
+<p>In order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was
+necessary to take precautions against thieves and fire, and this
+was done in a very sure and ingenious manner. The collection of
+crown jewels is distributed over the eight faces of an octagonal
+truncated cone, which is supported by a framework about three feet
+in height at the lower part. The stand is exhibited every day, at
+ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening, under an elegant
+octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of Fortune
+by Barbedienne. The whole is covered with a canopy, as shown in
+Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>A force of guardians of the Treasury is detailed to watch over
+the crown jewels, and it is to them that is confided the care of
+operating in the morning and evening the safety mechanism that we
+shall describe. The object of this mechanism is to lower into and
+lift out of the strong-box the entire stand with all its
+jewels.</p>
+
+<p>A winch, shown at A to the right of the engraving, sets in
+motion a system of gear wheels keyed at an angle, at B and C, upon
+intermediate shafts that transmit motion to the four vertical
+threaded rods of the frame, D. All these shaftings are 1&frac12;
+inch in diameter, and the cog-wheels, twenty in number, are about 5
+inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick, and is 20
+inches thick and 6 feet high. In the center of this masonry is
+embedded very thick iron plate. The bottom of the well is isolated
+from the flooring of the Exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler
+plate, by a filling of tire bricks, and finally by a second
+thickness of boiler plate. The well is closed by means of a large
+plate of iron 6 inches thick, 10 feet in length, and 88 feet in
+width. The winch which maneuvers this mass is placed at E. It
+actuates a system of bevel wheels, keyed at F, which transmit
+motion to two horizontal screws (hidden under the stage) that
+actuate the plate, H. This latter is provided with two parallel
+series of five rollers each that revolve over long and strong
+pieces of wood covered with rails. Electric alarms are located near
+the winches.</p>
+
+<p>A fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen
+feet of the exhibition building.</p>
+
+<p>A committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has
+been appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to
+indicate such as should be withheld from sale on account of their
+scientific, artistic, or historic interest. The members of the
+committee propose to preserve the following objects:</p>
+
+<p>1. The "Regent" (Fig. 2), by reason of its mineralogical value,
+the perfection of its cutting, the purity of its water, its
+incomparable luster, and its great size, it being the largest
+brilliant as yet known.</p>
+
+<p>2. The military sword of Charles the Tenth's coronation, the
+hilt of which is entirely of brilliants mounted by Bapst with
+wonderful art.</p>
+
+<p>3. The jewel called the "Reliquary," of the 15th century.</p>
+
+<p>To these riches must be added the following interesting objects:
+the Dey of Algiers' watch; the Elephant of Denmark; the
+decorations, etc., of foreign orders; crowns and diadems of
+sapphire; rubies; pearls that afford curious specimens of French
+art at the beginning of our century; one of the Mazarins bequeathed
+by the celebrated Cardinal; and lots of colored stones destined for
+our national museums.</p>
+
+<p>The same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other
+collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over
+in silence, such as the exhibit of the French diamond mines of the
+Cape, where one may see all the details of this prosperous
+exploitation by means of photographs and specimens. The art
+bronzes, the objects of jewelry, of goldsmith's work, and of
+morocco work, the music boxes, Trouve's and Aboilard's electric
+jewelry, and the retrospective art collections especially attracted
+the attention of the public.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="30"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A NEW MODE OF TESTING THE ECONOMY OF THE EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT
+IN LIFE INSURANCE.</h2>
+
+<p>How to determine the general ratios of the expenses of
+management of life insurance companies has hitherto been an
+unsettled question, and I think no serious attempt has been made
+before my own to study this question exhaustively, and reach a
+scientific conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Believing that, one is contained in the following statement, I
+respectfully submit it to the criticism of others.</p>
+
+<p>It has generally been taken for granted that the measure of
+economy of life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single
+ratio of expenses to one feature of the business, such as the
+premium income, or the total income (premium and interest), or the
+mean amount of all policies outstanding. But this is not the case.
+No exhaustive reason has been shown for preferring one of these
+bases of ratio to another, and, indeed, no reason well supported by
+argument has been shown for employing either. On the other hand, no
+better evidence is needed of the importance of establishing a
+uniform and demonstrably sound basis, than the fact that it is
+common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior
+economy, and totally confuse the public, by opposing ratios found
+in one way by ratios found in another&mdash;that one of two
+companies which appears the most economical according to one test
+being apparently the least so according to another.</p>
+
+<p>The economy of the expense of any transaction, or work, can only
+be intelligently judged by the value of the <i>result</i>. This
+truth is too well recognized to need illustration, and it only
+needs to be called to mind, to perceive both the error of ratios of
+expense based on premium, which is not the result but the <i>raw
+material</i>, so to speak, of insurance transactions; and what, on
+the contrary, the true basis is.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must
+be judged, not by comparison with the premiums paid, but by
+comparison specifically with the resulting advantages in fact
+secured by such payments. Now these are of two kinds: which may be
+called the <i>insurance advantage</i> and the <i>investment
+advantage</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Each death claim paid is an insurance advantage, though it
+is so only to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy
+which has become a claim over its premium reserve, or value, for
+the latter being the balance (with interest) of the policy holder's
+own premium money, could have been left or secured to his
+representatives without the intervention of the policy and
+company.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not
+consist in adding anything to the wealth of a company, but only
+consists in drawing from the premiums paid into its treasury by the
+policy holders generally, to meet each death claim which arises; or
+can only be called an <i>advantage of distribution</i>, or process
+of collecting aid from the living members, to assist the
+representatives or dependents of the deceased ones; but it is not
+the less on this account an advantage worth <i>same expense</i> in
+securing.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Interest realized by the investment of premium while it is
+in the keeping of a company is an advantage; in every sense so,
+since it comes wholly from outside sources, and accrues
+proportionally to all members; it may be called, as above, the
+investment advantage, and of course justifies some <i>expense</i>
+to secure it.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given; time must
+be divided into two parts, one being the expense incidental to
+insurance, and the other that incidental to investment, which parts
+are to be compared respectively with the insurance claims met, and
+interest receipts of the company for the same time; or what is
+equivalent in the latter case, the net rate of interest earned
+after deducting the incidental investment expense may be found.</p>
+
+<p>When this process shows that one company has earned a higher
+rate of interest than another, at the same time that its insurance
+expenses bear a lower ratio to its insurance claims paid, <i>there
+is no escape from the conclusion that during the period under
+observation it has served its policy-holders more economically</i>,
+and the test is therefore scientific. Though, if one company shows
+a higher rate of interest, while the other shows a lower ratio of
+insurance expense, it will still be necessary, to complete the
+test, to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of
+insurance expense (it does not practically matter which), and note
+how this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the
+other score.</p>
+
+<p>To be exact, if the average vitality of the members of the two
+companies differ (other things being equal, it is always cheapest
+to belong to that company which has the lowest death rate), the
+ratios of insurance expense to expected, as well as actual, claims
+of each must be found, and equated.</p>
+
+<p>The science of this procedure, or mode of testing expenses, and
+also its practical simplicity, may be more clearly perceived by
+reference to its practical application in the following table:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><i>Table Exhibiting Ratio of Expense, Determined by
+the New Mode, of Companies Doing Business in Massachusetts during
+the Year</i> 1883.</p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Name of Company.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Location.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Death claims paid.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Estimated Premiums. Reserve
+thereon.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Difference or Net insurance
+furnished.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Expense on the score of
+Insurance.</th>
+<th align='left' colspan='2'>Expense per $100 of claims paid.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Interest Receipts.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Expense on the score of
+investment.</th>
+<th align='left' colspan='2'>Net Rate of interest earned.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>Rate.</th>
+<th align='left'>Rank.</th>
+<th align='left'>Rate.</th>
+<th align='left'>Rank.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Berkshire</td>
+<td align='right'>Mass.</td>
+<td align='right'>$208,147</td>
+<td align='right'>$46,605</td>
+<td align='right'>$161,524</td>
+<td align='right'>$122,779</td>
+<td align='right'>75.4</td>
+<td align='right'>14</td>
+<td align='right'>$194,067</td>
+<td align='right'>$15,809</td>
+<td align='right'>5.25</td>
+<td align='right'>16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'><a href="#Footnote_7_2"><sup>[7]</sup></a>John
+Hancock</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>169,604</td>
+<td align='right'>25,117</td>
+<td align='right'>144,487</td>
+<td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_8_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>228,566</td>
+<td align='right'>158.2</td>
+<td align='right'>24</td>
+<td align='right'>135,597</td>
+<td align='right'>11,686</td>
+<td align='right'>3.65</td>
+<td align='right'>26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mass. Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>426,995</td>
+<td align='right'>86,215</td>
+<td align='right'>340,780</td>
+<td align='right'>232,400</td>
+<td align='right'>68.2</td>
+<td align='right'>10</td>
+<td align='right'>428,255</td>
+<td align='right'>33,176</td>
+<td align='right'>6.03</td>
+<td align='right'>7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>N. England Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>1,039,694</td>
+<td align='right'>235,630</td>
+<td align='right'>804,064</td>
+<td align='right'>311,879</td>
+<td align='right'>38.8</td>
+<td align='right'>3</td>
+<td align='right'>995,883</td>
+<td align='right'>69,908</td>
+<td align='right'>6.40</td>
+<td align='right'>4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>State Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>121,969</td>
+<td align='right'>22,493</td>
+<td align='right'>99,476</td>
+<td align='right'>98,839</td>
+<td align='right'>99.4</td>
+<td align='right'>19</td>
+<td align='right'>143,751</td>
+<td align='right'>13,057</td>
+<td align='right'>4.51</td>
+<td align='right'>24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>&AElig;tna</td>
+<td align='right'>Conn.</td>
+<td align='right'>1,302,807</td>
+<td align='right'>364,510</td>
+<td align='right'>938,297</td>
+<td align='right'>460,014</td>
+<td align='right'>49.0</td>
+<td align='right'>6</td>
+<td align='right'>1,760,372</td>
+<td align='right'>118,962</td>
+<td align='right'>6.22</td>
+<td align='right'>5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Connecticut General</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>87,639</td>
+<td align='right'>15,624</td>
+<td align='right'>72,015</td>
+<td align='right'>46,113</td>
+<td align='right'>64.0</td>
+<td align='right'>9</td>
+<td align='right'>95,580</td>
+<td align='right'>5,407</td>
+<td align='right'>7.03</td>
+<td align='right'>1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Connecticut Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>2,867,489</td>
+<td align='right'>881,600</td>
+<td align='right'>1,985,889</td>
+<td align='right'>622,941</td>
+<td align='right'>31.4</td>
+<td align='right'>1</td>
+<td align='right'>3,041,125</td>
+<td align='right'>238,944</td>
+<td align='right'>5.70</td>
+<td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Equitable</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>3,072,232</td>
+<td align='right'>483,950</td>
+<td align='right'>2,588,282</td>
+<td align='right'>1,884,108</td>
+<td align='right'>72.8</td>
+<td align='right'>12</td>
+<td align='right'>2,743,024</td>
+<td align='right'>216,725</td>
+<td align='right'>5.42</td>
+<td align='right'>12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Germania</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>606,072</td>
+<td align='right'>149,950</td>
+<td align='right'>456,122</td>
+<td align='right'>325,662</td>
+<td align='right'>71.4</td>
+<td align='right'>11</td>
+<td align='right'>508,702</td>
+<td align='right'>47,193</td>
+<td align='right'>4.85</td>
+<td align='right'>22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Home</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>205,921</td>
+<td align='right'>48,603</td>
+<td align='right'>157,318</td>
+<td align='right'>155,192</td>
+<td align='right'>98.6</td>
+<td align='right'>18</td>
+<td align='right'>260,506</td>
+<td align='right'>19,917</td>
+<td align='right'>4.86</td>
+<td align='right'>21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Homoeopathic</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>35,610</td>
+<td align='right'>6,340</td>
+<td align='right'>29,270</td>
+<td align='right'>48,734</td>
+<td align='right'>166.5</td>
+<td align='right'>25</td>
+<td align='right'>42,814</td>
+<td align='right'>2,935</td>
+<td align='right'>6.20</td>
+<td align='right'>6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Manhattan</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>687,171</td>
+<td align='right'>183,450</td>
+<td align='right'>503,721</td>
+<td align='right'>266,305</td>
+<td align='right'>44.9</td>
+<td align='right'>5</td>
+<td align='right'>627,628</td>
+<td align='right'>44,081</td>
+<td align='right'>5.82</td>
+<td align='right'>8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'><a name="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>Metropolitan</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>638,639</td>
+<td align='right'>18,322</td>
+<td align='right'>620,317</td>
+<td align='right'>1,161,893</td>
+<td align='right'>187.3</td>
+<td align='right'>26</td>
+<td align='right'>106,916</td>
+<td align='right'>9,098</td>
+<td align='right'>4.90</td>
+<td align='right'>20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mutual Life</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>5,172,275</td>
+<td align='right'>1,407,700</td>
+<td align='right'>3,764,575</td>
+<td align='right'>1,480,198</td>
+<td align='right'>39.3</td>
+<td align='right'>4</td>
+<td align='right'>5,042,964</td>
+<td align='right'>466,739</td>
+<td align='right'>5.01</td>
+<td align='right'>19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mutual Benefit</td>
+<td align='right'>N.J.</td>
+<td align='right'>2,160,991</td>
+<td align='right'>550,890</td>
+<td align='right'>1,610,101</td>
+<td align='right'>521,829</td>
+<td align='right'>32.4</td>
+<td align='right'>2</td>
+<td align='right'>2,072,629</td>
+<td align='right'>169,913</td>
+<td align='right'>5.61</td>
+<td align='right'>11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>National</td>
+<td align='right'>Vt.</td>
+<td align='right'>174,767</td>
+<td align='right'>29,127</td>
+<td align='right'>145,640</td>
+<td align='right'>77,861</td>
+<td align='right'>53.5</td>
+<td align='right'>7</td>
+<td align='right'>149,010</td>
+<td align='right'>10,100</td>
+<td align='right'>5.26</td>
+<td align='right'>15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>New York Life</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>2,408,636</td>
+<td align='right'>574,150</td>
+<td align='right'>1,834,484</td>
+<td align='right'>1,995,102</td>
+<td align='right'>108.8</td>
+<td align='right'>21</td>
+<td align='right'>2,676,592</td>
+<td align='right'>236,884</td>
+<td align='right'>5.03</td>
+<td align='right'>18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Northwest'n Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>Wis.</td>
+<td align='right'>990,692</td>
+<td align='right'>190,500</td>
+<td align='right'>800,192</td>
+<td align='right'>630,582</td>
+<td align='right'>78.8</td>
+<td align='right'>15</td>
+<td align='right'>1,200,001</td>
+<td align='right'>88,527</td>
+<td align='right'>5.80</td>
+<td align='right'>9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Penn. Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>Penn.</td>
+<td align='right'>601,625</td>
+<td align='right'>107,600</td>
+<td align='right'>494,025</td>
+<td align='right'>309,858</td>
+<td align='right'>62.7</td>
+<td align='right'>8</td>
+<td align='right'>463,567</td>
+<td align='right'>37,131</td>
+<td align='right'>5.38</td>
+<td align='right'>13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Provident Life and Trust</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>280,817</td>
+<td align='right'>49,865</td>
+<td align='right'>230,952</td>
+<td align='right'>222,665</td>
+<td align='right'>96.4</td>
+<td align='right'>17</td>
+<td align='right'>340,115</td>
+<td align='right'>33,294</td>
+<td align='right'>4.26</td>
+<td align='right'>25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Provident Savings</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>24,875</td>
+<td align='right'>1,828</td>
+<td align='right'>23,047</td>
+<td align='right'>51,608</td>
+<td align='right'>233.9</td>
+<td align='right'>27</td>
+<td align='right'>4,955</td>
+<td align='right'>2,579</td>
+<td align='right'>1.70</td>
+<td align='right'>27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Travelers'</td>
+<td align='right'>Conn.</td>
+<td align='right'>235,001</td>
+<td align='right'>42,243</td>
+<td align='right'>192,758</td>
+<td align='right'>144,621</td>
+<td align='right'>75.0</td>
+<td align='right'>13</td>
+<td align='right'>331,623</td>
+<td align='right'>22,476</td>
+<td align='right'>6.42</td>
+<td align='right'>3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Union Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>Maine</td>
+<td align='right'>377,547</td>
+<td align='right'>88,520</td>
+<td align='right'>289,027</td>
+<td align='right'>237,913</td>
+<td align='right'>82.3</td>
+<td align='right'>16</td>
+<td align='right'>301,499</td>
+<td align='right'>28,754</td>
+<td align='right'>4.66</td>
+<td align='right'>23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>United States</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>283,304</td>
+<td align='right'>69,245</td>
+<td align='right'>214,059</td>
+<td align='right'>277,919</td>
+<td align='right'>129.8</td>
+<td align='right'>23</td>
+<td align='right'>271,594</td>
+<td align='right'>23,460</td>
+<td align='right'>5.09</td>
+<td align='right'>17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Vermont</td>
+<td align='right'>Vt.</td>
+<td align='right'>13,000</td>
+<td align='right'>1,542</td>
+<td align='right'>11,458</td>
+<td align='right'>13,613</td>
+<td align='right'>118.8</td>
+<td align='right'>22</td>
+<td align='right'>12,917</td>
+<td align='right'>822</td>
+<td align='right'>5.33</td>
+<td align='right'>14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Washington</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>356,289</td>
+<td align='right'>71,820</td>
+<td align='right'>284,469</td>
+<td align='right'>289,461</td>
+<td align='right'>101.8</td>
+<td align='right'>20</td>
+<td align='right'>446,998</td>
+<td align='right'>32,249</td>
+<td align='right'>6.78</td>
+<td align='right'>2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>Totals</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$24,549,808</th>
+<th align='right'>$5,753,439</th>
+<th align='right'>$18,796,369</th>
+<th align='right'>$12,177,655</th>
+<th align='right'>64.8</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$24,398,684</th>
+<th align='right'>$1,999,826</th>
+<th align='right'>5.42</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='center' colspan='12'><i>Collective Business of
+Assessment Societies Doing Business in the State (excepting Secret
+Societies).</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='center'>46 Societies</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$735,383</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$237,770</th>
+<th align='right'>32.3</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual
+report of the Insurance Commissioner of Massachusetts, excepting
+the premium reserve on death claims, which, as well as the division
+of the total expenses of each company into insurance and investment
+expenses, I have estimated on a uniform rule. This was for lack of
+the actual data in these particulars, which the report did not
+give, as it is desirable that future ones may.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, does not injure the value of the table for
+illustrating the mode of procedure, for which purpose mainly it is
+presented. The companies whose figures I have used, moreover, have
+no occasion to complain of this, as my estimate certainly gives all
+ratios of insurance expense lower than they would appear if I had
+known, and used, the exact actual premium reserve on death claims,
+and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to each other as they
+would in that case.</p>
+
+<p>As the object of this statement is to explain the new method,
+and not to defend my particular estimates in applying it, I forbear
+to state on what rules I have made them. Expense which is not
+ascribed to insurance must be ascribed to investment, and as in
+comparing any two companies, their two ratios of one kind or the
+other must be equated, to decide the question of economy between
+them, it may well be left to any company to say what the fair
+division of its own expenses is.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, there can be but little motive to make a false
+division; for to successfully compete for business, a company
+having large investments has as much need to show a high net rate
+of interest earned as a low rate of insurance expense. Again, it is
+not my purpose to pass judgment on the economy or extravagance of
+any ratio of expense shown in the table. It is not a fact exhibited
+for the first time by my figures, that the ratios of some companies
+are more than double those of others. The same fact would be
+displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium
+income, or any other incorrect basis. Custom, the balance of
+opinions, and competition may well be left to decide what ratios of
+expense are high, and what are average, or low. And their decision
+is to be gathered only from <i>statistics</i>.</p>
+
+<p>What I do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein
+explained is the only intelligible and scientific one, and the only
+one proper to employ in <i>statistical tabulations</i> and
+<i>investigations</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As such, it calls attention to the fact that the amount of
+insurance claims met, and of interest receipts, <i>are limits</i>
+which the corresponding expenses cannot exceed, certainly for a
+series of years together, without making the <i>expense</i> more
+than the <i>advantage</i> of the business. To keep this fact in
+view, <i>as a preventive of extravagance</i>, is not the least
+valuable service the new mode may render. It may be seen that there
+are eight cases in the table, in which the ratio of insurance
+expense points to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in
+the same time, yet the reader need not hasten to conclude that the
+same companies will permanently show similar ratios, or have no
+good reasons to give for the ones which now appear. I may remark,
+however, that it is an evidence of the scientific mode in which the
+figures are presented, that it facilitates such explanations as are
+pertinent of any of the ratios.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the
+fact that the claims for the year of the company in question have
+been exceptionally high or low, or that the company (being of
+recent organization perhaps) has just incurred exceptional expense
+to increase its business, the advantage of which will appear later,
+etc. But I leave to the companies themselves to show to what extent
+such circumstances have affected their ratios; except that, in
+regard to the several net rates of interest earned, it is proper to
+say that in all cases in which they considerably exceed the average
+of 5.42 per cent. it will be found, by referring to the details of
+interest receipts reported to the Commissioner, that the excess is
+owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks, or
+recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss.</p>
+
+<p>WALTER C. WRIGHT.</p>
+
+<p>Medford, Mass., Sept., 1884.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a name="Footnote_7_2"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a>
+<div class="note">Including industrial business.</div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8">[8]</a>
+<div class="note">Includes $18.867 depreciation.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p>A catalogue containing brief notices of many important
+scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be
+had gratis at this office.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2>
+
+<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
+
+<h3>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</h3>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement,
+January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied.
+Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p>COMBINED RATES&mdash;One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one
+copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid,
+$7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and
+canvassers.</p>
+
+<p><b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers,</b></p>
+
+<p><b>361 Broadway, New York, N.Y.</b></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>In connection with the Scientific American, Messrs. MUNN &amp;
+Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 39
+years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the
+world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the Scientific American of all
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+public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and
+sales or introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can
+ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be
+obtained, by writing to MUNN &amp; Co.</p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
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+
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+
+<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13962 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #13962 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13962)
diff --git a/old/13962-8.txt b/old/13962-8.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 455,
+September 20, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 455, September 20, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 5, 2004 [EBook #13962]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the PG
+Distibuted Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455
+
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Gallisin, an Unfermentable
+      Substance in Starch Sugar.
+
+      The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific Gravities of
+      Elements and Compounds.
+
+      Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means of
+      Ammonium Carbonate.
+
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Petroleum as a Fuel in
+      Locomotive Engines.--By THOMAS URQUHART.--Spray
+      injector.--Driving locomotives.--Storage of petroleum.
+
+      Improved Gas Light Buoy.--2 figures.
+
+      Project for a Roadstead at Havre.--With map and views of
+      different breakwaters.
+
+      Improved Catch Basin.--2 figures.
+
+      Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron Water
+      Pipe.--By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.--Methods of conducting water
+      and transmitting power.--Texas Creek pipe and aqueduct.--4
+      figures.
+
+      Parachute Hydraulic Motor.
+
+      Improved Shafting Lathe.--1 figure.
+
+      Power Straightening Machine.--1 figure.
+
+      Hydraulic Mining in California.--By GEO. O'BRIEN.
+
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--Emerald Green: Its Properties and
+      Manufacture.--Use in wall paper.--ROBERT GALLOWAY.
+
+      Charcoal Kilns.--Extra yield.--2 figures.
+
+
+IV.   ARCHITECTURE--Entrance, Tiddington House, Oxon.--An
+      engraving.
+
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.--The Temperature of the
+      Earth as shown by Deep Mines.
+
+      New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash Pile.--3
+      figures.
+
+      The Distribution of Electricity by Induction.--1 figure.
+
+      Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic Movements.--Apparatus
+      for the study of horizontal and vertical seismic
+      movements, etc.--8 figures.
+
+      New Accumulators.--3 figures.
+
+      Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc Accumulator.
+
+      The History of a Lightning Flash.--By W. SLINGO.
+
+      Researches on Magnetism.
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY.--The Giraffe.--With engraving.
+
+VII.  MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.--The Treatment of Cholera--By
+      Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.
+
+      Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their Relations
+      to Health.--London deaths under 1 year in July, August,
+      and part of September.
+
+      Consumption Spread by Chickens.
+
+      New Method of Reducing Fever.
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Crown Diamonds of France at the
+      Exhibition of Industrial Arts.
+
+      A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses of
+      Management in Life Insurance.--By WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GIRAFFE.
+
+
+The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of the
+Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the _Illustrated
+London News_. Hunting the giraffe has long been a favorite sport among the
+more adventurous of British sportsmen, its natural range being all the
+wooded parts of eastern, central, and southern Africa, though of late
+years it has been greatly thinned out before the settlements advancing
+from the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+[Illustration: THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE.]
+
+The characteristics of this singular animal are in some particulars those
+of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes are beautiful, extremely
+large, and so placed that the animal can see much of what is passing on
+all sides, and even behind it, so that it is approached with the greatest
+difficulty. The animal when full grown attains sometimes a height of
+fifteen to seventeen feet. It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees
+principally, its immense length of legs and height at the withers
+rendering it difficult for the animal to graze on an even surface. It is
+not easily overtaken except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run
+down it can defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is
+said, often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost
+universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder ones,
+but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch, the error
+having been caused by the great development and height of the withers, to
+give a proper base to the long neck and towering head. The color varies a
+good deal, the head being generally a reddish brown, and the neck, back,
+and sides marked with tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white
+divisions. Many specimens have been brought to this country, the animal
+being extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being
+very friendly to those who are kind to it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even with
+incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid any risk of
+fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and lighted by a current,
+the heat generated was sufficient to set fire to the paper, which burnt
+out and caused the lamp to explode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
+observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep mines, were
+presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B Dorsey. Mr. Smith
+said that the temperature of the earth varies very greatly at different
+localities and in different geological formations. There are decided
+exceptions to the general law that the temperature increased with the
+depth. At the New Almaden quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of
+about 600 feet the temperature was very high--some 115 degrees; but in the
+deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500 feet
+below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably less than 80
+degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air 1,200 feet below the
+surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet below the surface. The normal
+temperature of the earth at a depth of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the
+mean annual temperature of the air at the particular place. At the
+Comstock mines, some years since, the miners could remain but a few
+moments at a time, on account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an
+experiment; it produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better
+advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these mines,
+and drunk with apparently no bad results.
+
+Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein, Nevada, were
+exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, the thermometer
+placed in a freshly drilled hole will show 130 degrees. Very large bodies
+of water have run for years at 155 degrees, and smaller bodies at 170
+degrees. The temperature of the air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing
+in fresh air cooled over ice.
+
+Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted annually
+from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and cold air forced in,
+as equal to that generated by the combustion of 55,560 tons of anthracite
+coal or 97,700 cords of wood. Observations were then given upon
+temperature at every 100 feet in the Forman shaft of the Overman mine,
+running from 53 degrees at a depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a
+depth of 2,300 feet. The temperature increased:
+
+    100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet.
+    100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet.
+    100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.
+
+A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number of deep
+mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines or tunnels are
+in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont Cenis tunnel; and the two
+hottest are in trachyte and the "coal measures," namely, the Comstock
+mines in trachyte and the South Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey
+considered that experience showed that limestone was the coolest
+formation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.
+
+
+C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of the
+unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and have
+succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give the name
+gallisin. The method of separation and purification which they made use of
+is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch sugar were allowed to
+ferment. At a temperature of 18-20° C. and with a solution containing 20
+per cent. the fermentation was complete in five to six days. It was
+filtered; the perfectly clear, almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far
+as possible on the water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into
+a good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large excess of
+absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix with the
+alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh alcohol, and again
+shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been repeated several times,
+the sirup is finally changed to a yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought
+into a large mortar, and rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether.
+After some time the whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is
+quickly filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and
+then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved in water
+and treated with bone-black. The solution is then evaporated to a sirup,
+and this poured into a mixture of equal parts of anhydrous alcohol and
+ether. In this way the new compound is obtained as a very fine, pure white
+powder which rapidly settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under
+the microscope it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much
+more rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.
+
+Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the water-bath
+gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not ferment when treated in
+water solution with fresh yeast. The analyses led to the formula
+C_{12}H_{24}O_{10}. When treated under pressure with three times its
+weight of acetic anhydride at 130-140° it dissolves perfectly. From the
+solution a product was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing
+with the formula C_{12}H_{18}O_{10}(C_{2}H_{3}O)_{6}. The substance
+appears therefore to be hexacetylgallisin.
+
+Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings demonstrated
+clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor indirectly any injurious
+effect on the health.--_Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
+17, 1000; Amer. Chem. Jour._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND
+COMPOUNDS.
+
+
+Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer, of New
+York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of Gas Lighting,
+from which the _American Gas Light Journal_ gives the following:
+
+I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the elements
+and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and specific
+gravities. When the combining weight of any of these elements and
+compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor therefrom will always
+occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at 60° Fahr. and 30 inches
+barometer. If we divide this constant 377.07 by the combining weight of
+any of the substances, then the quotient will be the number of cubic feet
+per pound of the same. If we divide the combining weight of any of the
+substances given in the table by 2, then the quotient will give the
+density of the same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining
+weight of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient
+will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as compared
+with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic weights which are
+now generally adopted by the majority of chemists.
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+                              |        |        |Cub. Ft.|        |
+                              |        |        |  per   |        |
+                              | Combi- |Cub. Ft.| Combi- |Specific|
+                              |  ning  |  per   |  ning  |Gravity |
+                              |Weight. | Pound. |Weight. |Air = 1.|
+------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------|
+Hydrogen (H_{2})              |   2.00 | 188.53 | 377.07 | 0.0692 |
+Carbon vapour (C_{2})         |  23.94 |  15.75 | 377.07 | 0.8292 |
+Nitrogen (N_{2})              |  28.06 |  13.43 | 377.07 | 0.9719 |
+Oxygen (O_{2})                |  31.92 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1056 |
+Chlorine (Cl_{2})             |  71.00 |   5.31 | 377.07 | 2.4593 |
+Bromine (Br_{2})              | 160.00 |   2.35 | 377.07 | 5.5420 |
+Flourine (F_{2})              |  38.00 |   9.92 | 377.07 | 1.3162 |
+Iodine (I_{2})                | 253.20 |   1.48 | 377.07 | 8.7703 |
+Sulphur (S_{2})               |  63.96 |   5.89 | 377.07 | 2.2154 |
+Phosphorus (P_{4})            | 123.84 |   3.04 | 377.07 | 4.2895 |
+Carbonic oxide (CO)           |  27.03 |  13.50 | 377.07 | 0.9674 |
+Carbonic acid (CO_{2})        |  48.89 |   8.59 | 377.07 | 1.5202 |
+Water vapour (H_{2}O)         |  17.06 |  20.99 | 377.07 | 0.6221 |
+Hydrogen sulphide (H_{2}S)    |  33.08 |  11.09 | 377.07 | 1.1770 |
+Ammonia (H_{2}N)              |  17.03 |  22.14 | 377.07 | 0.5898 |
+Sulphurous oxide (SO_{2})     |  63.90 |   5.90 | 377.07 | 2.2133 |
+Sulphuric oxide (SO_{3})      |  79.86 |   4.72 | 377.07 | 2.7662 |
+Cyanogen (C_{2}N_{2})         |  52.00 |   7.25 | 377.07 | 1.8011 |
+Bisulphide of carbon (CS_{2}) |  75.93 |   4.96 | 377.07 | 2.6300 |
+Ethyl alcohol (C_{2}H_{6}O)   |  45.90 |   8.21 | 377.07 | 1.5898 |
+Ethyl ether (C_{4}H_{10}O)    |  73.84 |   5.10 | 377.07 | 2.5576 |
+Methyl alcohol (CH_{4}O)      |  31.93 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1059 |
+Methyl chloride (CH_{3}Cl)    |  50.47 |   7.47 | 377.07 | 1.7482 |
+Carbonyl chloride (COCl_{2})  |  98.93 |   3.81 | 377.07 | 3.4267 |
+Phosphine gas (PH_{3})        |  33.96 |  11.10 | 377.07 | 1.1769 |
+Hydrochloric acid (HCl)       |  36.50 |  10.33 | 377.07 | 1.2642 |
+Methane (CH_{4})              |  15.98 |  26.61 | 377.07 | 0.5531 |
+Ethane (C_{2}H_{6})           |  29.94 |  12.50 | 377.07 | 1.0370 |
+Propane (C_{3}H_{8})          |  43.91 |   8.58 | 377.07 | 1.5209 |
+Butane (C_{4}H_{10})          |  57.88 |   6.51 | 377.07 | 2.0048 |
+Ethene (C_{2}H_{4})           |  27.94 |  13.49 | 377.07 | 0.9677 |
+Propene (C_{3}H_{6})          |  41.91 |   8.99 | 377.07 | 1.4516 |
+Butene (C_{4}H_{8})           |  55.88 |   6.74 | 377.07 | 1.9355 |
+Ethine (C_{2}H_{2})           |  25.94 |  14.53 | 377.07 | 0.8985 |
+Propine (C_{3}H_{4})          |  39.91 |   9.44 | 377.07 | 1.3824 |
+Butine (C_{4}H_{6})           |  53.88 |   6.98 | 377.07 | 1.8662 |
+Quintone (C_{5}H_{6})         |  65.85 |   5.72 | 377.07 | 2.2809 |
+Benzene (C_{6}H_{6})          |  77.82 |   4.84 | 377.07 | 2.6955 |
+Styrolene (C_{8}H_{8})        | 103.75 |   3.63 | 377.07 | 3.5936 |
+Naphtalene (C_{10}H_{8})      | 127.70 |   2.95 | 377.07 | 4.4232 |
+Turpentine (C_{10}H_{16})     | 135.70 |   2.77 | 377.07 | 4.7003 |
+Dry air                       |  28.87 |  13.06 |   --   | 1.0000 |
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This substance is also known by the name Schweinfurt green.]
+
+By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green
+(aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in many
+journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another in
+different publications, especially medical ones; there has recently
+appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The Poisonous Effect of
+Wall-paper." As some years ago I became practically acquainted with its
+properties and manufacture, a few observations on these subjects may not
+be without interest.
+
+In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous effect of
+this pigment cannot be _entirely_ due to its mere mechanical detachment
+from the paper. This writer therefore attributes the poisonous effects to
+the formation of the hydrogen compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted
+hydrogen (AsH_{3}); the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound,
+being generated, the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of
+moisture and organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls
+papers impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr.
+Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that
+arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the _fermentation_ of the starch-paste
+employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is perfectly obvious
+that the fermentation of the starch-paste must cease after a time, and
+therefore the poisonous effects of the paper must likewise cease if its
+injurious effects are caused by the fermentation. I do not think that
+arseniureted hydrogen could be formed under the _conditions_, for the
+oxygen compound of arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound
+is in a dry solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two
+elements--arsenic and hydrogen--for each other are so exceedingly weak
+that they cannot be made to unite directly except they are both set free
+at the same moment in presence of each other. Further, for the formation
+of this hydrogen compound by the fermentation of the starch, or by the
+growth of minute fungi, the _entire_ compound must be broken up, and
+therefore the pigment would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of
+copper
+
+    (3CuAs_{2}O_{4}+Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2})
+
+is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition, and is
+consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not unfrequently
+stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are due to the arsenious
+oxide volatilizing from the other constituents of the compound. This
+volatilization would likewise cause a breaking up of the entire compound,
+and would consequently cause a discoloration of the paper; but the
+volatilization of this arsenic compound is in every respect most
+improbable.
+
+The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be due to
+its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever been
+conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the wall-paper of which
+is stained with emerald-green suffer from arsenical poisoning? If it does
+occur, then the effects of what may be termed homoeopathic doses of this
+substance are totally different from the effects which arise from larger
+doses. During the packing of this substance in its dry state in the
+factory, clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had
+to do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands
+suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is any
+abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the delicate
+lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in this way it acts in
+large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as to its supposed poisonous
+effects when wall-paper is stained with it.
+
+Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the manufacture of
+this pigment, but as they do not agree in every respect with the method
+which was followed in English color factories some years ago, it will be
+as well, for the full elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to
+briefly recite some of these methods before describing the one that was,
+and probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method
+which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other, both in
+the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for producing it at a
+less cost.
+
+It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is "prepared on a
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric acetate and water. Five
+parts of verdigris are made up to a thin paste, and added to a boiling
+solution of 4 parts or rather more of arsenious acid in 50 parts of water.
+The boiling must be well kept up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a
+yellow-green color, from the formation of copper arsenite; in that case
+acetic acid must be added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer.
+The precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green
+color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal
+knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt employed in
+its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would account, in my
+opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which it is obtained in
+France than can be produced by the English method of manufacturing it.
+Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe, in England--the much cheaper
+copper salt, the sulphate, being always employed.
+
+In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by _boiling_
+solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate, and adding to the
+mixture an equal bulk of _cold_ water." Why it should be recommended to
+add _cold water_, I am at a loss to understand.
+
+In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and in the
+English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical Technology," edited by
+Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr. Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.,"
+xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated in Wagner's work: "This pigment is
+prepared by first separately dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious
+acid and neutral acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these
+solutions while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent
+olive-green colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the
+supernatant liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the
+precipitate becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a
+beautiful green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration,
+and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode of
+preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised by M.
+Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are dissolved in
+the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with a boiling and
+concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa, so prepared as to
+contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is immediately formed a dirty
+greenish-colored precipitate which is converted into Schweinfurt green by
+the addition of some 15 liters of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having
+been done, the precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."
+
+As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the manufacture of this
+pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is carried out pretty much
+according to Braconnot's method as described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one
+would infer, from reading his description of the manufacturing process,
+that the compound, aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately
+after the addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric
+temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the formation.
+Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms more readily in
+an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or cannot be formed in a
+neutral one; now both these points are important to notice in describing
+its manufacture. As regards the former I shall notice it presently, and,
+as far as my knowledge extends, the pigment will not form when the
+solution is neutral.
+
+The operation is conducted in the following manner in the factory: The
+requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in a large wooden vat,
+and hot water added to dissolve it; the requisite quantity of arsenic
+(arsenious anhydride) and carbonate of soda, the latter not in quantity
+quite sufficient to neutralize the whole of the sulphuric acid set free
+from the sulphate of copper on the precipitation of the copper as
+arsenite, are placed in another wooden vessel; water is then added, and
+the formation of the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the
+introduction of steam into the liquid. When complete solution has been
+effected the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the
+solution of the sulphate of copper, arsenite of copper being at once
+precipitated. The necessary quantity of acetic acid is afterward added. In
+_warm_ weather the formation of the aceto-arsenite soon commences after
+the addition of the vinegar; but, even in that case, it takes a week or
+more to have the whole of a big batch of arsenite converted into the
+aceto-arsenite; and perfect conversion is necessary, as the presence of a
+very minute quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of
+the emerald pigment, and a by no means large quantity renders the pigment
+unsalable, owing to its dirty yellowish-green color. In cold weather a
+much longer time is required for its complete conversion; even at the end
+of a fortnight or three weeks there frequently remains sufficient
+unconverted arsenite to affect seriously the selling price of the color;
+when this occurs the manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a
+most wasteful method viz, by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid. The
+acid of course dissolves the arsenite, but it dissolves in very much
+larger quantities the aceto-arsenite; and this costly solution is not
+utilized, but is run into the factory sewer.
+
+By my method of manufacturing it, it can be produced in winter as well as
+in summer in one or two hours, and the quantity of free acid required for
+its formation is reduced to the lowest amount. I proceed as follows: After
+having dissolved in hot water the requisite quantity of cupric sulphate, I
+decompose one-fourth of this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution
+of carbonate of soda to precipitate the copper, in that quantity of the
+sulphate, as carbonate. I then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert
+the carbonate into acetate. I have now got in solution--
+
+    3CuSO_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2},
+
+and I have to transform it into--
+
+    3CuAs_{2}O_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}.
+
+It is at once seen that I have got the requisite quantity of acetate
+formed. I next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious anhydride in
+an amount of carbonate of soda _rather less_ than is sufficient to
+neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric sulphate, and I then bring the
+solution to or near the boiling-point by introducing steam into it; the
+arsenic is dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt, but in a
+separate one. When the arsenic solution is fully heated, a small current
+of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper salts, and
+brisk stirring is kept up in the vat. The emerald green is at once formed;
+but if there should be the slightest formation of any arsenite, the flow
+of the arsenic solution is at once stopped until every trace of the
+arsenite has been converted; the arsenic solution is then allowed to flow
+in again, with the same precautions as before; in this way a large batch
+of emerald-green can he formed in one or two hours, without containing the
+slightest trace of the arsenite. I keep the arsenic solution near the
+boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the other
+vessel. By varying the proportions of water I could either make it coarse
+or fine, as I wished, which is an important matter to have complete
+control over in its manufacture.
+
+Two points of interest occurred to me during the time I was occupied with
+the research, which I had not time to complete; one was whether the
+aceto-arsenite can be formed, adopting the old method for its formation,
+if there is more than a certain quantity of water; from some experiments I
+made in this direction I was inclined to the opinion it could not. I have
+already stated that emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids,
+and that it is formed in a more or less acid solution; consequently a
+varying amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the
+supernatant liquid. To prevent to a certain extent this loss I
+precipitated the copper from it as arsenite; but I was not successful in
+the few experiments I had time to make on this part of the subject of
+reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained into the aceto-arsenite by
+the addition of acetic acid.--_Jour. of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF ZINC ASH AND CALCINED PYRITES BY MEANS OF AMMONIUM CARBONATE.
+
+
+In a recent issue of the _Chemiker Zeitung_ Dr. Kosmann has reported an
+analytical method for the examination of zinciferous products; according
+to this report, the ash and flue dust produced by the extraction of zinc
+from its ore comprise:
+
+1. Zinc dust, from the distillation of zinc,
+
+2. Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers,
+
+3. Zinc ash, of various assortments, from iron blast furnaces.
+
+Of these, zinc dust is the only ready product which is, as color or
+reducing agent, employed in analytical and technical processes. Its value,
+when serving the latter purpose, is determined by the percentage of finely
+divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained therein; of equal reducing
+power is cadmium, generally associating zinc; injurious, and therefore
+uneffective, are zinc oxide and oxides of other metals, also metallic
+lead.
+
+Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers, is employed with zinc ores in the extraction of zinc, and in
+small quantities as substitute for zinc white; its commercial value is
+similarly estimated as that of zinc ores.
+
+The various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast furnaces
+are an object for continual demand, being both a valuable material for the
+production of zinc and, in its superior qualities, a desirable pigment. In
+the regeneration of zinc the presence of foreign substances is of some
+concern; detrimental are lead, sulphur, and sulphuric acid in form of
+lead, zinc, and lime sulphate.
+
+The chemico-technical analysis of these products has until recently been
+confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by means of sodium
+sulphide (Schaffner's method). But as a remnant of sulphur, as sulphuric
+acid, in roasted blende causes a material loss during distillation, and
+otherwise being induced to produce a zinc free of lead, the estimation of
+sulphur, sulphuric acid, and lead became necessary. These impurities are
+determined by well-known methods; sulphur is oxidized and precipitated
+with barium chloride, lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol. The examination
+of zinc dust, when used for the regeneration of metal, determines the
+quantity of zinc resident therein, and employed as reducing agent, the
+quantity of metal which causes the generation of hydrogen. Cadmium,
+showing the same deportment, must also be considered as well as lead and
+arsenic.
+
+A most complete and rapidly working method for the examination of
+zinciferous products has originated with the application of neutral
+ammonium carbonate as solvent. A solution of this preparation is made,
+according to H. Rose, by dissolving 230 grm. commercial ammon carbonate in
+180 c.c. ammoniacal liquor of 0.92 s.g., and, by addition of water,
+augmenting it to one liter.
+
+This solution dissolves the metallic components, their oxides, and basic
+zinc sulphate, and transfers cadmium and lead oxide, also lead, magnesium,
+and lime sulphate, into insoluble carbonates. Iron and manganese, when
+present as protoxide, are dissolved; of iron sesquioxide but traces, and
+of cadmium oxide _in statu nascendi_ a small portion enter into solution.
+The solution of ammonium carbonate contains in each 10 c.c. 1 grm.
+ammonia, which dissolves 1.5 grm. zinc.
+
+The sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed with an
+adequate volume of the solvent, is digested at 50-60° C. until complete
+decomposition is effected. The heating of the liquid prevents the solution
+of iron, manganese, and cadmium. The content, sediment and liquid, is
+thrown on a filter and washed with hot water to which a small quantity of
+the solvent has been added. When the solution contains iron and manganese,
+it is separated by decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine
+(according to the method of Nic-Wolff) until a flocculent precipitate of
+iron sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible; it is united with
+the original residue and filtered.
+
+The filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy, boiled to expel ammonia,
+tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc, and, when freed of
+all zinc, decanted. The precipitate of zinc carbonate is filtered,
+exhausted with water, transferred into zinc oxide by ignition, and
+weighed. The gravimetric method can be substituted by the volumetric by
+introducing a solution of sodium sulphide of known strength into the
+ammoniacal filtrate. On dividing the filtered liquid into various equal
+portions other substances, arsenic and sulphuric acid, can be determined
+from the same sample. For this purpose the filtrate is concentrated;
+divided into two equal portions, one of which is acidified and treated
+with hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic, the other is
+acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of barium
+chloride. The original residue is dissolved in muriatic or acetic acid and
+filtered. The lead of the filtered liquid is thrown down by sulphuric
+acid, and alcohol, and cadmium, after dissipation of alcohol into gas,
+precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Iron, manganese, alumina, and other
+substances present in the solution are determined by known methods.
+
+It is manifest that the determination of substances--zinc, lead, and
+sulphuric acid--which are of importance in technical analysis of zinc ash,
+can be executed by this method within a comparatively short time. The
+application of ammonium carbonate as solvent has the advantage, over the
+application of ammonia, that it is a far better solvent, that it
+decomposes insoluble basic sulphates, and that the remaining carbonates
+are readily dissolved by acids.
+
+The decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively evolution of
+gas; it is therefore necessary to continue the digestion of the sample
+till no more hydrogen is given off. Zinc dust contains both metals and
+their oxides, and methods which, from the volume of hydrogen generated,
+determine indirectly the percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real
+composition of the zinc dust. For the determination of the metallic
+components the material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate,
+which dissolves zinc and cadmium; the liquid is filtered, acidified, and
+decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, or treated with a solution of ammonium
+carbonate. The use of cupric chloride is not advisable, as it corrodes
+lead, and gives rise to the formation of soluble chloride of lead, which
+complicates the separation of zinc from cadmium. The best mode of
+operation is the following: Both copper sulphate and zinc dust are weighed
+separately, the former is dissolved in water and the latter introduced
+into the solution of copper sulphate in small portions until it appears
+colorless. During the operation the vessel is freely shaken, lumps are
+comminuted with a glass rod, and a few drops of the liquid are ultimately
+tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. The remainder of zinc dust is
+then weighed, and its value deducted from the original weight. Zinc and
+cadmium of the filtrate are determined as above. On repeating this method
+several times most satisfactory results are obtained.
+
+Another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper sulphate and to
+determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate. The separation of copper
+from cadmium being difficult and laborious, and the volumetric estimation
+with potassium cyanide not practicable, it is not prudent to apply this
+method.
+
+When calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined, the estimation of
+zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of zinc ore. The sample
+is exhausted with water, filtered, and, to eliminate calcium sulphate and
+basic iron sulphate, evaporated to dryness. It is then dissolved in a
+small quantity of alcohol and water, refiltered, and the filtrate
+decomposed with ammonium carbonate. The original residue is treated with a
+solution of ammonium carbonate, which dissolves arsenious acid and basic
+zinc sulphate, filtered, and united with the first filtrate. When iron and
+manganese are present, the filtrates are treated with bromine. The united
+filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with sodium sulphide.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PETROLEUM AS FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Abstract of paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.]
+
+By Mr. THOMAS URQUHART.
+
+
+Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a theoretical
+evaporative power of 16.2 lb. of water per lb. of fuel, and the latter of
+12.2 lb., at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 lb. per square inch; hence
+petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent. higher evaporative value
+than anthracite. Now in locomotive practice a mean evaporation of from 7
+lb. to 7½ lb. of water per lb. of anthracite is about what is generally
+obtained, thus giving about 60 per cent. efficiency, while 40 per cent. of
+the heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an evaporation
+of 12.25 lb. is practically obtained, giving 12.25/16.2 = 75 per cent.
+efficiency. Thus in the first place petroleum is theoretically 33 per
+cent. superior to anthracite in evaporative power; and secondly, its
+useful effect is 25 per cent. greater, being 75 percent. instead of 60
+percent.; while, thirdly, weight for weight, the practical evaporative
+value of petroleum must be reckoned as at least from (12.25 - 7.50)/7.50 =
+63 per cent. to (12.25 - 7.00)/7.00 = 75 per cent. higher than that of
+anthracite.
+
+_Spray injector._--Steam not superheated, being the most convenient for
+injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the furnace, it remains to be
+proved how far superheated steam or compressed air is really superior to
+ordinary saturated steam, taken from the highest point inside the boiler
+by a special internal pipe. In using several systems of spray injectors
+for locomotives, the author invariably noticed the impossibility of
+preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation of soot, and inequality of
+heating of the fire box. The work of a locomotive boiler is very different
+from that of a marine or stationary boiler, owing to the frequent changes
+of gradient on the line, and the frequent stoppages at stations. These
+conditions render firing with petroleum very difficult; and were it not
+for the part played by properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box,
+the spray jet alone would be quite inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of
+engineers have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of
+"spray injector," for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum into a
+fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to render it
+inflammable and of easy ignition. For this object nearly all the known
+spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices for petroleum as well
+as for steam; the width of the orifices does not exceed from ½ mm. to 2
+mm. or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and in many instances is capable of
+adjustment. With such narrow orifices it is clear that any small solid
+particles which may find their way into the spray injector along with the
+petroleum will foul the nozzle and check the fire. Hence in many of the
+steamboats on the Caspian Sea, although a single spray injector suffices
+for one furnace, two are used, in order that when one gets fouled the
+other may still work; but, of course, the fouled orifices require
+incessant cleaning out.
+
+_Locomotives._--In arranging a locomotive for burning petroleum, several
+details are required to be added in order to render the application
+convenient. In the first place, for getting up steam to begin with, a gas
+pipe of 1 inch internal diameter is fixed along the outside of the boiler,
+and at about the middle of its length it is fitted with a three-way cock
+having a screw nipple and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is
+connected to the blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to
+the spray injector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a
+shunting locomotive under steam, the spray jet is immediately started by
+the borrowed steam, by which at the same time a draught is also maintained
+in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine shed the borrowed steam would
+be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently placed and specially arranged
+for the purpose of raising steam. In practice steam can be raised from
+cold water to 3 atm. pressure--45 lb. per square inch--in twenty minutes.
+The use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
+worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm.--120 lb.--is
+thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the time the spray jet
+was first started. In daily practice, when it is only necessary to raise
+steam in boilers already full of hot water, the full pressure of 7 to 8
+atm. is obtained in from twenty to twenty-five minutes. While
+experimenting with liquid fuel for locomotives, a separate tank was placed
+on the tender for carrying the petroleum, having a capacity of about 3
+tons. But to have a separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in
+place, would be a source of danger from the possibility of its moving
+forward in case of collision. It was therefore decided, as soon as
+petroleum firing was permanently introduced, to place the tank for fuel in
+the tender between the two side compartments of the water tank, utilizing
+the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the capacity of the
+tank is 3-1/2 tons of oil--a quantity sufficient for 250 miles, with a
+train of 480 tons gross exclusive of engine and tender. In charging the
+tender tank with petroleum, it is of great importance to have strainers of
+wire cloth in the manhole of two different meshes, the outer one having
+openings, say, of 1/4 in., the inner, say 1/8 in.; these strainers are
+occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent any solid
+particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of the spray
+injector is likely to occur; and even if an obstruction should arise, the
+obstacle being of small size can easily be blown through by screwing back
+the steam cone in the spray injector far enough to let the solid particles
+pass and be blown out into the fire-box by the steam. This expedient is
+easily resorted to even when running; and no more inconvenience arises
+than an extra puff of dense smoke for a moment, in consequence of the
+sudden admission of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the
+manhole of the petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another
+strainer at the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of 1/3 in.
+holes.
+
+_Driving locomotives._--In lighting up, certain precise rules have to be
+followed, in order to prevent explosion of any gas that may have
+accumulated in the fire box. Such explosions do often take place through
+negligence; but they amount simply to a puff of gas, driving smoke out
+through the ash-pan dampers, without any disagreeably loud report. This is
+all prevented by adhering to the following simple rules: First clear the
+spray nozzle of water by letting a small quantity of steam blow through,
+with the ash-pan doors open; at the same time start the blower in the
+chimney for a few seconds, and the gas, if any, will be immediately drawn
+up the chimney. Next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece
+of cotton waste, or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum and
+burning with a flame. Then by opening first the steam valve of the spray
+injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the very first spray of oil
+coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites without any explosion
+whatever; after which the quantity of fuel can be increased at pleasure.
+By looking at the top of the chimney, the supply of petroleum can be
+regulated by observing the smoke. The general rule is to allow a
+transparent light smoke to escape, thus showing that neither too much air
+is being admitted nor too little. The combustion is quite under the
+control of the driver, and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent
+smoke altogether. While running, it is indispensable that the driver and
+fireman should act together, the latter having at his side of the engine
+the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the steam wheel and the
+petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two ash-pan door handles
+in which there are notches for regulating the air admission. Each
+alteration in the position of the reversing lever or screw, as well as in
+the degree of opening of the steam regulator or the blast pipe, requires a
+corresponding alteration of the fire. Generally the driver generally
+passes the word when he intends shutting off steam, so that the alteration
+in the firing can be effected before the steam is actually shut off; and
+in this way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually
+done together. All this care is necessary to prevent smoke, which is
+nothing less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, the train arrives
+at the top of a bank, which it has to go down with the brakes on, exactly
+at the moment of the driver shutting off the steam and shifting the
+reversing lever into full forward gear, the petroleum and steam are shut
+off from the spray injector, the ash-pan doors are closed, and if the
+incline be a long one, the revolving iron damper over the chimney top is
+moved into position, closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The
+accumulated heat is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even
+rises in pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon
+as the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again
+required, the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top; then the
+steam is turned on to the spray injector, and next a small quantity of
+petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-pan doors, a small fire
+being rendered possible by the entrance of air around the spray injector,
+as well as by possible leakage past the ash-pan doors. The spray
+immediately coming in contact with the hot chamber ignites without any
+audible explosion; and the ash-pan doors are finally opened, when
+considerable power is required, or when the air otherwise admitted is not
+sufficient to support complete combustion. By looking at the fire through
+the sight hole it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or
+dusky; in fact, with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after
+a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with petroleum. The
+better men contrive to burn less fuel than others, simply by greater care
+in attending to all the points essential to success. At present
+seventy-two locomotives are running with petroleum firing; ten of them are
+passenger engines, seventeen are eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and
+forty-five are six-wheel coupled. As might be expected, several points
+have arisen which must be dealt with in order to insure success. For
+instance, the distance ring between the plates around the firing door is
+apt to leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it, and the
+absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by having
+the brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is taken out
+altogether when the engines are in for repairs, and a flange joint is
+substituted, similar to what is now used in the engines of the London and
+Northwestern Railway. This arrangement gives better results, and occasions
+no trouble whatever.
+
+_Storage of petroleum._--The length of line now worked with petroleum is
+from Tsaritsin to Burnack, 291 miles. There is a main iron reservoir for
+petroleum at each of the four engine sheds, namely at Tsaritsin, Archeda,
+Filonoff, and Borisoglebsk. Each reservoir is 66 ft. internal diameter and
+24 ft. high, and when full holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging
+the reservoir, which stands a good way from the line, and is situated at a
+convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings, is as follows:
+On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed ten cistern cars
+full of oil, the capacity of each being about ten tons. From each of these
+cars a connection is made by a flexible India rubber pipe to one of ten
+stand pipes which project 1 ft. above the ground line. Parallel with the
+rails is laid a main pipe, with which the ten stand pipes are all
+connected, thus forming one general suction main. About the middle of the
+length of the main, which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or
+other non-conducting material, is fixed a Blake steam pump. As soon as all
+the ten connections are made with the cistern cars, the pump is set to
+work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are discharged into the
+main reservoir, the time depending of course upon the capacity of the
+pump. All the pipes used are of malleable iron, lap-welded, and of 5 in.
+internal diameter, having screwed coupling muffs for making the
+connections. At each engine shed, in addition to the main storage
+reservoir, there is a smaller distributing tank, which is erected at a
+sufficient height to supply the tenders, and very much resembles the
+ordinary water tanks. These distributing tanks are circular, about 8½ ft.
+diameter and 6 ft. high, and of ¼ in. plates; their inside mean area is
+calculated exactly, and a scale graduated in inches stands in the middle
+of the tank; a glass with scale is used outside in summer time. Each inch
+in height on the scale is converted into cubic feet, and then by means of
+a table is converted into Russian poods, according to the specific gravity
+at various temperatures. As it would be superfluous to graduate the table
+for each separate degree of temperature, the columns in the table show the
+weights for every 8 degrees Reaumur, which is quite sufficient: namely,
+from 24 deg. to 17 deg., from 16 deg. to 9 deg., and so on, down to -24
+deg.; the equivalent Fahrenheit range being from 86 deg. down to -22 deg.
+Suppose the filling of a tender tank draws off a height of 27 in. from the
+distributing tank, at a temperature of say -20 deg. R., these figures are
+shown by the table to correspond with 200.61 poods = 7,245 lb., or 3.23
+tons, of petroleum. This arrangement does very well in practice; both the
+quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill at the
+time of his taking in his supply.
+
+_Engines._--The engines used in the trials were built by Borsig, of
+Berlin, Schneider, of Creusot, and the Russian Mechanical and Mining
+Company, of St. Petersburg. Their main dimensions and weights were about
+the same, as follows, all of them having six wheels coupled, and 36 tons
+adhesive weight; as originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes
+for burning anthracite or wood; cylinders 18-1/8 in. diameter and 24 in.
+stroke; slide valves, outside lap 1-1/16 in., inside lap 3/32 in., maximum
+travel, 4-9/16 in.; Stephenson link motion; boiler pressure, 120 lb. per
+square inch; six wheels, all coupled, 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter; distance
+between centers of leading and middle wheels, 6 ft. 2-3/4 in.; between
+middle and trailing, 4 ft. 9-1/4 in.; total length of wheel base, 11 ft.;
+weight empty, on leading wheels, 12.041 tons; middle, 10.782 tons;
+trailing, 10.685 tons; total weight, 33.508 tons empty; weight in running
+order, on leading wheels, 12.563 tons; middle, 11.885 tons; trailing
+12.790 tons; total weight, 37.238 tons in running order. Tubes number 151;
+outside diameter, 2-1/8 in.; length between tube plates, 13 ft. 10-1/8
+in.; outside heating surface, 1,166 square feet; fire box heating surface,
+82 square feet; total heating surface, 1,248 square feet; fire grate area,
+17 square feet; tractive power =
+65 per cent. of boiler pressure × (cyl. diam.)² × stroke / diameter of wheels
+= 0.65 × 120 × (18.125)² × 24 / 51 = 5.383 tons. Ratio of tractive power
+to adhesion weight = 5.383 / 37.238 = 1 / 6.9.
+
+_Tender._--Contents: water, 310 cubic feet, or 1,933 gallons, or 8½
+tons; anthracite, 600 poods, or 10 tons; or wood, 1½ cubic sajene, or
+514 cubic feet; weight empty, 13.477 tons; weight in running order, 28.665
+tons; six wheels.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Petroleum Refuse--Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite,
+Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and Tsaritsin on Grazi and
+Tsaritsin Railway, in Winter Time._
+
+-----+---+-----+------+---+-----+------+-----------+-------------+------+------------
+     | L |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |
+     | o |     |  Train   |     |      |           | Consumption |      |
+     | c |     |  alone.  |     |      |           |  Including  |      |
+Date.| o |     |          |     |      |           | Lighting up.|      |
+1883.| m |     |----+-----|     |      |           |             | Cost |
+     | o |Train|Num-|     | Dis-| Car  |           |             |  of  |Atmospheric
+     | t |     |ber |Gross|tance|miles.|  Fuel.    |-------+-----| fuel |temperature
+     | i |     | of |load.| run.|      |           |       | Per | per  |   and
+     | v |     |Loa-|     |     |      |           | Total |train| train| weather.
+     | e |     |ded |     |     |      |           |       |mile.| mile.|
+     | . |     |cars|     |     |      |           |       |     |      |
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |   |     | No.| Tons|Miles|      |           |       |     |Pence.|
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |  8|32-23| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Anthracite.| 31799 |81.90|11.957|-17° to -18°
+     |   |32-23|    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+ Feb.|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      | equiv. to
+  8  |   |24-21|    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      |-6° to -8½°
+     | 14|24-21| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Bituminous |37557.5|96.53|14.093|   Fah.
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | Coal.     |  lb.  | lb. |      |
+     |  7|26-29| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,830|Petroleum  | 9462  |48.77| 5.487|   Strong
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     | 24|32-23| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Anthracite.|12639.5|65.15| 9.512|-5° to -9°
+March|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+  6  | 21|24-21| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Wood, in   | 1071.8| 5.52| 8.5  | equiv. to
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | billets.  | c. ft.|c. ft|      | 21° to 12°
+     |   |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |   Fah.
+     | 23|26-27| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Petroleum  | 7228  |37.28| 4.188|   Light
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+
+Prices of fuel:
+  Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton; Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton;
+  Wood, in billets, 42s. per cubic sajene = 343 cubic feet;
+    equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic foot.
+
+Dimensions of locomotives:
+  Cylinders, 18 1/8 in. diam. and 24 in. stroke; Wheels, 4 feet 3 in. diam.;
+  Total heating surface, 1,248 sq. feet: Total adhesion weight, 36 tons;
+  Boiler pressure, 8 to 9 atm.
+
+The preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made in winter
+with different sorts of fuel, under exactly similar conditions as to type
+of engine, profile of line, and load of train. Two sets of comparative
+trials were made, both of them in winter. The three engines used were some
+of those built by Schneider. In comparison with anthracite, the economy in
+favor of petroleum refuse was 41 per cent. in weight, and 55 per cent. in
+cost. With bituminous coal there was a difference of 49 per cent. in favor
+of petroleum as to weight and 61 per cent. as to cost. As compared with
+wood petroleum was 50 per cent. cheaper. At a speed of fourteen miles an
+hour up an incline of 1 in 125 the steam pressure was easily kept up at 9
+to 9½ atm. with a No. 9 injector feeding the boiler all the time.
+
+Up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two locomotives to
+burn petroleum; and from his own personal observations made on the foot
+plate with considerable frost he is satisfied that no other fuel can
+compare with petroleum either for locomotives or for other purposes. In
+illustration of its safety in case of accident, a photograph was exhibited
+of an accident that occurred on the author's line on 30th December, 1883,
+when a locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment,
+taking the train after it; no explosion or conflagration of any kind took
+place under such trying circumstances, thus affording some proof of the
+safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of firing. Although it is
+scarcely possible that petroleum firing will ever be of use for
+locomotives on the ordinary railways of coal-bearing England, yet the
+author is convinced chat, even in such a country, its employment would be
+an enormous boon on underground lines.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOAL KILNS.
+
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+In answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal making, we
+offer two illustrations that show a method of manufacture differing from
+that usually adopted, which is that of burning on the bare ground, and
+covering with soil or sods to exclude the air. These kilns are made of
+brick, one course being sufficient, bands of iron or timber framework
+being added to strengthen the brickwork with greater economy. The usual
+style is conical, and the size is 24 feet in diameter, with an equal
+height, holding about 40 cords of wood. The difference in price is 1-1/8
+d. per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual mounds,
+the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns, and the timber
+standing, the kiln burning costing 2-1/8 d., and the other 3-1/4 d. The
+kilns must be lined to about halfway up with fire-brick, the cost of which
+will vary with the locality, but will be about £200, and as 40 to 50
+bushels of coal have been made per cord the extra yield on good charcoal
+and the lessening of the cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on
+the cost of the kilns. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight
+for 6 feet, when it is drawn in, so as to become bluntly conical. Upon the
+top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone of an arch,
+and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn tight with screw
+bolts and nuts to strengthen it. Double doors of sheet-iron are made at
+the bottom and near the tops, by which it is either filled or emptied, and
+a few air-holes (B), which may be stopped with loose bricks, left in the
+bottom. The second figure shows a kiln of another shape made to burn 3,000
+bushels of charcoal, or about 80 cords of wood. The shape is a
+parallelogram, having an arched roof, and it is strengthened by a
+framework of timber 10 inches square. As the pressure of the gas is
+sometimes very great, the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to
+prevent their bursting. The usual size is 16 feet wide and high, and 40
+feet in length, outside measure. The time occupied in filling, burning,
+and emptying a small cone is about three weeks, and four weeks is required
+for the larger ones.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle._
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENTRANCE, TIDDINGTON HOUSE, OXON.
+
+
+Our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to Tiddington House,
+Oxfordshire, the residence of the Rev. Joshua Bennett. The house is an old
+building of the Georgian period, and though originally plain and
+unpretentious, its bold coved cornices under the eaves, its rubbed and
+shaped arches, moulded strings, and thick sash bars, made it of
+considerable interest to the admirers of the "Queen Anne" school of
+architecture, and led to the adoption of that style in the alterations and
+additions made last year, of which the work shown in our illustration
+formed a small part. Between the "entrance facade" and the wall of the
+house there is a space of some twenty feet in length, which is inclosed by
+a substantially built conservatory-like erection of Queen Anne design,
+forming an outer hall.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.--Morris &
+Stallwood--Architects.]
+
+The works were executed by Messrs. Holly & Butler, of Nettlebed. The brick
+carving was beautifully done by the late Mr. Finlay; and the architects
+were Messrs. Morris & Stallwood, of Reading.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASH PILE.
+
+
+Since Poggendorff in 1842 thought of substituting in the Bunsen battery a
+solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for nitric acid, and
+of thus making a single liquid pile of it, in suppressing the porous
+vessel, his idea has been taken up a considerable number of times. Some
+rediscovered it simply, while others, who were better posted in regard to
+the work of their predecessors, took Poggendorff's pile as he conceived
+it, and, considering the future that was in store for it, thought only of
+modifying it in order to render it better. Among these, Mr. Grenet was one
+of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under a truly
+practical form. As long ago as 1856, in fact, he gave it the form that is
+still in use, and that is known as the bottle pile. Thus constructed, this
+pile, as is well known, presents a feeble internal resistance, and a
+greater electro-motive power than the Bunsen element. Unfortunately, its
+energy rapidly decreases, and the alteration of the liquid, as well as the
+large deposit of oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode,
+prevents its being employed in experiments of quite long duration. Mr.
+Grenet, it is true, obviated these two defects by first renewing the
+liquid slowly and continuously, and causing a current of air to bubble up
+in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in measure as the
+deposit formed. Thus improved, the bichromate pile was employed on a large
+scale in the lighting of the Comptoir d'Escompte. In an extensive
+application like this latter, the use of compressed air for renewing the
+liquid can be easily adapted to the bichromate pile, as the number of
+elements is great enough to allow of the putting in of all the piping
+necessary; but when it is only desired to use this pile for laboratory
+purposes, and when there is need of but a small number of elements, it is
+impossible to adopt Mr. Grenet's elements in the form required by an
+electric lighting installation. It becomes absolutely necessary, then, to
+come back to a simpler form, and attempt at the same time to obviate the
+defects which are inherent to its very principle. In accordance with this
+idea, it will be well to point out the arrangement adopted by Mr. Courtot
+for his bichromate of potash piles--an arrangement that is very simple,
+but, sufficiently well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a
+laboratory.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+Fig. 1 gives the most elementary form. It consists of an earthen vessel
+into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other by a copper
+ring which carries one of the terminals. In the center there is a
+cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute and feebly
+acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which dips a prism of
+zinc, which may be lifted by means of a rod when the pile ceases to
+operate. It is true that the presence of the porous vessel in the
+bichromate of potash element increases the internal resistance, but, as an
+offset, although it decreases the discharge, it secures constancy and
+quite a long duration for it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The elements thus constituted may be grouped, to the number of six, in a
+frame analogous to that shown in the engraving, and, sum total, form a
+small sized battery adapted to the current experiments of the laboratory,
+and capable of supplying two small four volt lamps for ten or twelve
+hours. We have had occasion to make use of these elements for the
+graduation of galvanometers, and, after ascertaining the constancy of the
+discharge, have found that the internal resistance of each couple is
+nearly 0.175 ohm, with an electro-motive force of two volts. As may be
+seen, these elements should, in general, all be mounted for tension, as
+they are in the figure, inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits,
+according to circumstances, of employing a variable number of them without
+changing anything. Moreover, with zincs amalgamated in a special manner,
+the attack is imperceptible, and the work in open circuit need scarcely to
+be taken into consideration.
+
+Yet, despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we have just
+described, that defect common to all bichromate of potash piles--the
+deposit of oxide of chromium upon the carbon--is not here avoided. It
+occurs quite slowly, to be sure, but it does occur, and, from this point
+of view, the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is preferable. The elements here
+are composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing, as before, the
+solution and porous vessel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the zinc and
+the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is not in operation
+the whole can be lifted from the liquid. Under such circumstances the
+deposit of oxide is notably diminished, and the duration of the discharge
+is consequently greatly increased.
+
+Fig. 3 shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting, according
+to circumstances, all the elements of the same trough or only a part of
+them. To effect this, the drum around which the chain winds that carries
+the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed upon the axle. This latter is
+actuated by a winch; and a ratchet wheel, R, joined to a click which is
+actuated by a spiral spring, prevents the ebonite plates from falling back
+when it is desired to place the bolt under the button, B, of the spring.
+
+When it is desired to put an element out of the circuit, it is only
+necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the lever, D. Under
+the action of the latter, the piece, _s_, which carries a groove for the
+passage of the screws that fix it to the upper cross-piece, takes on a
+longitudinal motion and consequently gears with the drum through the
+toothed sleeve, E. When an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be
+lifted from the liquid, and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming
+upon the carbon. As may be seen, the arrangements which we have just
+described exhibit nothing that is particularly original. The windlasses
+used for removing the elements from a pile when the circuit is open have
+been employed for a long time; the bichromate pile is itself old, and, as
+we said in the beginning, it has been modified in its details a number of
+times. In spite of this, we have thought it well to point out the mode of
+construction adopted by Mr. Courtot, since, owing to the simplicity of the
+arrangements, it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very
+great constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps, as
+well as for the most varied experiments of the laboratory.--_La Lumiere
+Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.
+
+
+There has been much said in recent times about the distribution of
+electricity by means of induction coils, and the use of this process has
+given rise to several systems that differ but little from one another in
+principle.
+
+The following are a few details in regard to a system due to a Dutch
+engineer:
+
+In the month of December, 1881, a patent relating to the distribution of
+electricity was taken out in Germany and other countries by Mr. B.
+Haitzema Enuma, whose system is based upon a series of successive
+inductions. The primary current developed by a dynamo-electric machine
+gives rise to secondary, tertiary, etc., currents. The principal line runs
+through the streets parallel with their axes, and, when the arrangement of
+the places is adapted thereto, it is closed upon the generator itself. In
+those frequent cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return
+over a path that it has already traversed, it is more advantageous to
+effect the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains
+or gas pipes as conductors. This return arrangement may likewise be
+applied to the lines of secondary, tertiary, etc., order, as may easily be
+seen.
+
+The induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior consists of
+a bundle of soft iron. The wire of the inducting current is wound directly
+around this core. The wire of the induced current is superposed upon the
+first and presents a large number of spirals. It is useless to say that
+these wires must be perfectly insulated from each other, as well as from
+the soft iron core. We shall call primary bobbins those which are
+interposed in the principal line, and secondary bobbins those in which the
+inducting current is a secondary one, and so on.
+
+It will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of continuing the
+distribution of electricity to the interior of buildings by the simple
+adjunction of one or several bobbins. Each electric apparatus, whether it
+be a lamp or other mechanism, is furnished with a special current. If the
+number of these apparatus be increased, it is only necessary to increase
+the number of bobbins in the same ratio, on condition, be it understood,
+that the intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper
+working of the apparatus in question. When such intensity diminishes to
+too great a degree, the bobbin must be replaced by a stronger one.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.]
+
+It results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in in such a
+way as to permit, of the opening and closing of the corresponding circuit.
+This arrangement, moreover, has no need of being dependent upon the
+apparatus, and may just as well be transferred to any part of this same
+circuit. As regards lighting, it is preferable to employ alternating
+current dynamo machines; yet there is nothing to prevent the use of
+continuous current ones, provided that there is an arrangement that
+permits of constantly opening and closing this same circuit. That portion
+of the line which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way
+at the places where it is necessary. As for the underground circuit and
+the induction coils connected therewith, these are protected against all
+external influence, and are at the same time insulated very economically
+by covering them with a coat of very fine silicious sand mixed with
+asphalt.
+
+It is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an accurate idea
+of this system of distribution. C represents the building in which the
+generator of electricity, D, is placed; B, the public street, and Q the
+house of a subscriber. The principal line, E, starts from the terminals,
+_a, b_, of the machine, passes through the primary bobbins, G, and is
+closed through the earth at F. It will be seen that the primary current
+communicates through _d_ and _c_ with the internal winding of the bobbins,
+G, while the secondary currents, H, are connected through _e_ and _f_ with
+the external winding. The same arrangement is repeated for the tertiary
+currents, M, and the quaternary ones, _o, p_. In the annexed example all
+the lines that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed
+through the earth, while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto
+enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit. In the interior
+of these houses the wires, as well as the induction coils, are insulated
+and applied to the walls. At Q is represented the arrangement that would
+have to be adopted in the case of a structure consisting of a vestibule,
+_r_, and two rooms, _s_, lighted by two electric lamps, R. In the portion
+of the figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed
+for insulating the line. A commencement is made by digging a ditch in the
+street and paving the bottom of it with bricks. Upon these latter there is
+laid a mixture of sand and asphalt, and then the wires and bobbins are put
+in, and the whole is finally covered with a new insulating layer.
+
+It is a simple statement that we make here, and it is therefore not for us
+to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the system. If we are to
+believe Mr. Enuma, the advantages are very numerous, to wit: (1) The
+cables have no need of being of large size; (2) the intensity is the same
+through the entire extent of the primary circuit, secondary one, etc.; (3)
+the resistance is invariable in all portions of the line; (4) the
+apparatus are independent of each other, and consequently there may be a
+disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering
+therefrom; (5) either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be produced,
+since, that depends only upon the size of the coil employed; (6) there is
+no style of lamp that may not be used, since each lamp is mounted upon a
+special circuit; (7) any number of lamps may be lighted or extinguished
+without the others being influenced thereby; (8) when a fire or other
+accident happens in a house, it in no wise interferes with the service in
+the rest of the line; (9) the system could, were it required, be connected
+with any other kind of existing line; and (10) the cost of installation is
+infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the same
+extent of ground.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.
+
+
+Italy, with her volcanic nature, has very naturally made a specialty of
+movements of the ground, or seismic perturbations. So the larger part of
+the apparatus designed for such study are due to Italians. Several of
+these instruments have already been, described in this journal, and on the
+present occasion we shall make known a few others that will serve to give
+an idea of the methods employed.
+
+For the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of the ground,
+different apparatus are required. The following is a description of those
+constructed for each of such purposes by the Brassart Brothers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC
+MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for Studying Horizontal Movements._--A lever, (Fig. 1), movable
+about a horizontal axis, carries a corrugated funnel, _i_, at one of its
+extremities. At the other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise
+which permits of its being exactly balanced, while not interfering with
+its sensitiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 2 AND 3.--DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS.]
+
+The opening of the funnel passes freely around a column, _v_ (Fig. 2),
+upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that terminates in a weight, P.
+The corrugations of the funnel carry letters indicating the four cardinal
+points, and the funnel itself is capable of revolving in such a way that
+the marked indications shall always correspond to the real position of the
+cardinal points. When a horizontal shock occurs, the weight, P, falls in a
+direction opposite thereto, and into one of the corrugations, where it
+rests, so that the direction of the shock is indicated. But, in falling,
+it causes the lever, F, to tilt, and this brings about an electric contact
+between the screw, _h_, and the column, _n_, which sends a current into
+the electro, E, so that the armature of the latter is attracted. In its
+position of rest this armature holds a series of parts, S, A, L, which
+have the effect of stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same
+apparatus. At the moment, then, that the armature is attracted the
+pendulum is set free and the clockwork is started. As the current, at the
+same time, sets a bell ringing, the observer comes and arranges the
+apparatus again to await a new shock. Knowing the hour at which the hand
+of the clock was stopped, he sees how long it has been in motion again and
+deduces therefrom the precise moment of the shock.
+
+The small rod, _f_, which is seen at the extremity of F, is for the
+purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with, if need be. In this
+case the screw, _h_, is so regulated that F descends farther, and that _f_
+may depress the armature of the magnet just as the current would have
+done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for the Study of Vertical Movements._--In this apparatus (Fig.
+4), the contact is formed between a mercury cup, T, and a weight, D. The
+cup is capable of being raised and lowered by means of a screw, so that
+the two parts approach each other very closely without touching. At the
+moment of a vertical shock a contact occurs between the mercury and
+weight, and there results a current which, acting upon the electro, E,
+frees the pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus. In this
+case, in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may be
+rung, the piece, A, upon falling, sets up a permanent contact with the
+part, _a_ (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK.]
+
+_Brassart's Seismic Clock._--This apparatus is designed for being put in
+connection at a distance with an indicator like the ones just described.
+It is a simple clock to which a few special devices have been added.
+Seismic clocks may be classed in two categories, according as they are
+stopped by the effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant
+one occurs. The Messrs. Brassart have always given preference to those of
+the second category, because there is no need of watching them during a
+seismic calm, and because they are much more easily constructed. It is to
+this class, then, that their seismic clock belongs. It is capable of being
+used for domestic purposes in place of any other clock, and of becoming a
+seismoscopic clock as soon as it is put in electric communication with the
+seismic telltales.
+
+To the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the inventors have
+added (Fig. 5) a support formed of a strip of brass, S, with whose
+extremity is jointed (at the lower part) a double lever, A. This latter is
+held in a horizontal position by a small counterpoise, _i_, so that the
+finger at the opposite extremity shall prevent the pendulum, P, from
+swinging. To keep the latter in a position of rest a bent lever, _n n'_,
+is jointed to the upper part of the support, S. The longer arm, _n'_, of
+this lever is bent forward at right angles, so that it may come into
+contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon as the lever
+has been lifted by means of a small cord which is connected with the
+larger arm, _n_, and runs up to a small hook, from whence it descends and
+makes its exit under the clock-case.
+
+In order to stop the clock, then, it is only necessary to pull on this
+cord slightly, when, by moving the pendulum to the left, it will thrust
+it against the inclined plane of the finger of the lever arm, A. It is
+clear that the extremity of the pendulum, upon striking against the
+finger, will depress it slightly and go beyond the projection against
+which it remains fixed owing to the counterpoise, _i_. The fever, _n n'_,
+is brought back to its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise
+at the extremity of the arm, _n_. When the lever, A, is depressed, the
+pendulum escapes and sets the clock running. This depression is effected
+by means of an electro-magnet, E, whose armature, which is connected with
+the rod, _t, t_, lifts the arm, _i_, of the lever, and depresses A. The
+wires of the two bobbins of the electro-magnet end in two clamps, 1 and 2.
+The second of these latter is insulated from the clock-case. Both
+communicate with the extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the
+seismic telltale that brings about a closing of the current. Having noted
+the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running, one can
+deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred that set the clock
+in motion.
+
+In addition to the parts that we have described, there are other accessory
+ones, R R_r_, and a third clamp, 3, which constitute a sort of rheotome
+that is designed to keep the circuit closed after the momentary closing
+that is produced by the telltale has occurred. This little mechanism is
+indispensable when the disturbed telltale has also to act upon an electric
+bell. This rheotome, which is very simple, is constructed as follows: A
+small brass rod, R, which is screwed to the support, S, carries at its
+left extremity a brass axis, X, which is insulated from the rod, R, by
+means of an ivory piece. Toward the center of this small rod, the bent
+lever, _r_, carries a small arm that is bent forward, and against which
+abuts the axis of the pendulum, thus causing it to be thrust toward the
+left when the pendulum is arrested by the projection of the finger, A. As
+soon as the pendulum is set free, the lever, _r_, redescends and places
+itself against the axis, X. This latter communicates with clamp 3, which
+is insulated, while the rod, R, communicates with clamp 1. The external
+communications are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is
+interposed remains definitely closed when the lever, _r_, is in contact
+with the rod, X.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.]
+
+_Rossi's Tremitoscope._--This instrument (Fig. 6) unites, upon the same
+stone base, three different arrangements for showing evidences of
+trepidations of the earth. On one side we find (protected by a glass tube)
+a weight suspended over a mercury cup by a spring, and designed to show
+vertical motions. The two other parts of the apparatus are designed for
+registering horizontal motions. The first is a pendulum which causes a
+contact with four distinct springs, and whose movements are watched with a
+spy-glass. The second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a
+heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock. This ball is provided with a
+point which is movable within a second ball, so that its motion produces
+a contact. All these different contacts are signaled or registered
+electrically.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.]
+
+_Scateni's Registering Seismograph._--This apparatus, which is shown in
+Figs. 7 and 8, consists of two parts--of a transmitter and of a
+registering device.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--REGISTERING APPARATUS.]
+
+The transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a steel point
+and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected with a pile. All
+around this circle are four strips of platinum, against one of which abuts
+the circle at every movement of the glass. Each strip of platinum
+communicates, through a special wire, with one of the electro-magnets of
+the registering device (Fig. 8). This latter consists of an ordinary clock
+that carries three concentric dials--one for minutes, one for hours, and
+one for seconds. In a direction with the radii of these dials there are
+four superposed levers, each of which is actuated by one of the electros.
+On another hand, each dial is divided into four zones that correspond to
+the four cardinal points. When a shock coming from the north, for example,
+produces a contact, the corresponding electro is affected, and its lever
+falls and marks upon each of the dials a point in its north zone. We thus
+obtain the exact hour of the shock, as well as its direction. As may be
+seen, the apparatus, as regards principle, is one of the simplest of its
+kind.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ACCUMULATORS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ARNOULD & TAMINE'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Messrs. Arnould and Tamine's accumulators, shown in Fig. 1, the
+formation is effected directly by the current, as in the Planté pile, but
+the plates are formed of wires connected horizontally at their extremities
+by soldering. These plates are held apart either by setting them into
+paraffined wooden grooves at the ends of the trough or by interposing
+between them pieces of paraffined wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--BARRIER & TOURVIELLE'S ELECTRODOCK.]
+
+In Messrs. Barrier and Tourville's _Electrodock_ (Fig. 2) the plates are
+formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a wooden cover. These tubes
+are threaded internally and externally, and the grooves thus produced are
+filled with a peculiar cement composed of litharge, powdered charcoal, and
+permanganate of potash, triturated together, sifted, and then mixed with
+glucose or sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them. This mixture forms a
+cement that is very adhesive after, as well as before, the electrolytic
+action.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden gratings
+between which is compressed red lead prepared in a peculiar manner, and
+constituting, 48 hours after formation, a compact mass with the lead. The
+tangs of the plates are widened so as to touch one another while leaving a
+proper distance between the plates themselves, and are hollowed out for
+the reception of a rod provided at its extremities with a winged nut and
+jam nut for passing them up close to one another. The plates, properly so
+called, are held apart by rubber bauds. The glass vessels are placed in
+osier baskets.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL MODEL OF THE REYNIER ZINC ACCUMULATOR.
+
+
+The three models of a secondary battery that I recently made known to the
+readers of this journal have been the object of continuous experiment.
+Conformably to the provisions of theory, the zinc accumulator has shown
+itself practically superior to the two others, and I have therefore chosen
+this type for getting up an industrial model, which is shown in the
+annexed cut. The accumulator contains four Planté positives, having a wide
+surface, and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead covered
+with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of zinc sulphate
+in which the couple is immersed. Accidental contact with the interior of
+the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to the negatives by means of
+leaden bands. The seven electrodes are carried by as many distinct
+crosspieces of paraffined wood, which rest upon the edges of the trough
+and hold the plates at a certain distance from the bottom. These various
+crosspieces, which touch one another, take the place of a cover. Each
+plate is provided with a terminal. The four positive terminals are all on
+the same side, and the three negatives are on the opposite side. Two brass
+rods ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same
+name. The trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles, one within the
+other, and having a play of several millimeters. This space is lined with
+a tight, elastic, insulating cement having tar for a base.
+
+[Illustration: REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual size.)]
+
+The careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the apparatus, and
+the purity of the metal and its amalgamation, reduce the local attack of
+the zinc to almost nothing. So the coefficient of restitution is now
+comparable with that of accumulators of the Planté type.
+
+The following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc
+accumulator.
+
+           PHYSICAL DATA.
+
+E. Electromotive force.                                   2.36 volts.
+R. Mean resistance.                                       0.02 ohm.
+I. Normal intensity of the discharge current.             25 amperes.
+i. Intensity of the charge current.                       5 to 10 amperes.
+Q. Capacity of accumulation after 200 hours' formation.   550,000 couples.
+
+       DATA CONCERNING CONSTRUCTION.
+
+Efficient surface of the 4 positive electrodes.        200 square dec.
+Efficient surface of the 3 negative electrodes.         15 square dec.
+Weight of the positive electrodes.                       8.2 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the negative electrodes.                       1.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the trough.                                    2.7 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the liquid.                                    4.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the attachments.                               0.46 kilogrammes.
+Weight, total.                                          17.16 kilogrammes.
+
+The total electric work stored up is 130,000 kilogrammeters, or 7,600
+kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator. Theory indicates that a zinc
+accumulator might store up as much as 15,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme. If the present model gives half less, it is because I have
+purposely exaggerated the solidity of the trough and the mass of the
+electrodes.
+
+It should be remarked that this capacity of 7,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator constructed
+in France. The new model possesses, then, despite the size of the
+positives and the box, a relative lightness that will permit it to take a
+place upon electric locomotives as well as in fixed installations.
+
+Independently of their use as accumulators, secondary zinc batteries may
+be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by incandescence, for
+deadening piston strokes, attenuating the irregularities in speed, and
+covering accidental stoppages.--_E. Reynier, in La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF A LIGHTNING FLASH.
+
+By W. SLINGO.
+
+
+Lately we have all felt, I doubt not, a considerable amount of interest in
+the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually heavy
+thunderstorms, accompanied, as they have been, by vivid lightning
+discharges of a more or less hurtful nature. The list of disasters
+published in _Knowledge_, No. 143, might be very materially augmented were
+we to record such damage as has been wrought since that list was compiled.
+
+There is not, I suppose, in the mind of any intelligent man at the present
+day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning flash. The
+questions to be considered are rather whence comes the electricity, and in
+what way is the thunderstorm brought about. In attempting to answer these
+questions, sight must not be lost of the fact that the very nature of
+electricity is in itself almost sufficient to baffle any effort put forth
+to ascertain from lightning, as such, its whence and its whither.
+
+It is possible, however, with the aid of our knowledge of static
+electricity, to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical nature. In
+the first place, that our sphere is a more or less electrified body is
+generally admitted. More than this, it is demonstrated that the different
+parts of the earth's surface and its enveloping atmosphere are variously
+charged. As a consequence of these varying charges, there is a constant
+series of currents flowing through the various parts of the earth, which
+show themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction
+followed by the currents. Such currents are known as earth currents, and
+present phenomena of a highly interesting nature. But, apart from these
+electrical manifestations, there is generally a difference of electrical
+condition between the various parts of the earth's surface and those
+portions of the atmosphere adjacent to or above them. Inasmuch as air is
+one of the very best insulators, this difference of condition (or
+potential) in any particular region is in most cases incapable of being
+neutralized or equilibrated by an electric flow. Consequently the air
+remains more or less continually charged. With these points admitted as
+facts, the question arises, Whence this electricity? There have been very
+many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of terrestrial
+electricity, but far the greater portion of such theories lack fundamental
+probability, and indicate causes which cannot be regarded as sufficiently
+extensive or operative to produce such tremendous effects as are
+occasionally witnessed. I take it that we may safely regard the evolution
+of electricity as one of the ways in which force exhibits itself, that, in
+other words, when work is performed electricity may result. When two
+bodies are rubbed together, electricity is produced, so also is it when
+two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is dissolved,
+or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to a higher
+temperature than the other junction. I will go further than this, so far,
+in fact, as to maintain that there is a reasonable ground for supposing
+that every movement, whether it be of the mass or among the constituent
+particles, is attended by a change of electrical distribution; and if this
+is true, it may easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of
+the universe, there must be a constant series of electrical changes. Now,
+these changes do not all operate in one direction, nor are they all of
+similar character, whence it is that not only are there earth currents of
+feeble electro-motive force, but that this E.M.F. is constantly varying,
+and that, furthermore, electricity of high E.M.F. is to be met with in
+various parts of the atmosphere.
+
+With earth currents we have here very little to do. The rotation of the
+earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents, and the fact
+that they vary in strength at regular periods of the day and of the year
+enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts considerable electrical
+influence on the earth. Letting it be granted, however, that the earth is
+variously charged, how comes it that the air is also charged, and with
+electricity of greater tension than that of the earth itself? It was
+pointed out by Sir W. Grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum
+wire be placed in a candle flame, one at the bottom and the other near the
+top, an electric current will flow through the wire, indicating the
+presence of electricity. If an electrified body be heated, the electricity
+escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises. If a vessel of water be
+electrified, and the water then converted into steam, the electric charge
+will be rapidly dissipated. If a vessel containing water be electrified,
+and the water allowed to escape drop by drop, electricity will escape with
+each drop, and the vessel will soon be discharged.
+
+We regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a greater or
+less charge; whence it is safe to assume that in the process of
+evaporation which is going on all over the surface of the globe, more
+particularly in equatorial regions, every particle of water, as it rises
+into the air, carries with it its portion, however minute that portion may
+be, of the earth's electric charge. This small charge distributes itself
+over the surface of the aqueous particle, and the vapor rises higher and
+higher until it reaches that point above which the air is too rare to
+support it. It then flows away laterally, and as it approaches colder
+regions gets denser, sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface. The
+aqueous particles becoming reduced in size, the extent of their surfaces
+is proportionately reduced. It follows that as the particles and their
+surfaces are reduced, the charge is confined to a smaller surface, and
+attains, therefore, a greater "surface density," or in simpler language, a
+greater amount of electricity per unit of surface.
+
+Electricity, as above set forth, is in what is known as the "static"
+condition (to distinguish it from electricity which is being transferred
+in the form of a current), when it has the property of "repelling itself"
+to the utmost limits of any conductor upon which it may be confined. This
+will account for the charge finding its way to the surface of the water
+particles, and will furthermore account for the greater density of the
+charge as the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface
+rapidly diminished. It may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere
+varies as the cube of its radius.
+
+Returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing when the
+particles have reached their highest position in the atmosphere, we may
+imagine that they set themselves off on journeys toward either the north
+or the south pole. As they pass from the hotter to the colder regions, a
+number of particles coalesce; these again combine with others on the road
+until the vapor becomes visible as cloud. The increased density implies
+increased weight, and the cloud particles, as they sail poleward, descend
+toward the surface of the earth. Assuming that a spherical form is
+maintained throughout, the condensation of a number of particles implies a
+considerable reduction of surface. Thus, the contents of two spheres vary
+as the cubes of their radii, or eight (the cube of 2) drops on combining
+will form a drop twice the radius of one of the original drops. We may
+safely conceive hundreds and thousands of such combinations to take place
+until a cloud mass is formed, in which the constituent parts are more or
+less in contact, and, therefore, behave electrically as a single conductor
+of irregular surface, upon which is accumulated all the electricity that
+was previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of particles
+that now compose it.
+
+The tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a conductor is to
+take upon itself a position in which it may approach nearest to an equal
+and opposite charge; or, if possible, to attain neutrality. If, then, a
+cloud has a charge, and there is no other cloud above or near it, the
+charge _induces_ on the adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite
+kind. Thus, assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity,
+the subjacent earth will be in the negative state. The two
+electricities[3] exert a strong tendency to combine or to produce
+neutrality, whence there is a species of stress applied to the intervening
+air. Possibly the cloud will be drawn bodily toward the earth more or less
+rapidly, according as the charge is great or small. Or, on the other hand,
+the cloud may roll on for leagues, carrying its influence with it, so that
+the various portions of the earth underneath become successively charged
+and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey.
+
+[Footnote 3: We may speak of two electricities or two electric states
+without necessarily implying adherence either to the single or the double
+"fluid" theory. Whether electricity be of two kinds or no, the fact
+remains that there are two conditions, and all the features of this paper
+may be explained with equal facility by the supporters of either
+hypothesis.]
+
+Should the cloud be near the earth, or should it be very highly charged,
+the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to overcome the
+resistance of the intervening air; and if this resistance should prove too
+weak, what happens? How does the discharge show itself? It takes place in
+the form of a lightning flash, and passing from the one surface to the
+other--or, maybe, simultaneously from both--produces neutrality more or
+less complete.
+
+There has recently been a little discussion in these pages on the subject
+of lightning, some having stated that they discerned the discharge to take
+place upward--that is, from the earth toward the cloud. I will not venture
+so far as to say whether or not the direction of the discharge is
+discernible; possibly the flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one
+to tell; but I have never so seen it, and have always looked upon the eye
+as a deceitful member--very. "The lightning flash itself never lasts more
+than 1/100000 of a second." It is, however, just as likely that a
+discharge may travel upward as downward. What controls the discharge? Does
+the quality of the charge?--that is to say, is the positive or the
+negative more prone to break disruptively through the insulating medium?
+Investigations with Geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied
+gases have made it tolerably clear that there is a greater "tearing away"
+influence at the negative than at the positive pole, and if two equal
+balls, containing one a positive and the other a negative charge, be
+equally heated, the negative is more readily dissipated than the positive.
+But, so far as we at present know, this question enters into the
+discussion scarcely, if at all. Our knowledge seems rather to point to the
+substances upon which the charges are collected. The self-repellent nature
+of electricity compels it to manifest itself at the more prominent parts
+of the surface, the level being forsaken for the point. The tension of the
+charge, or its tendency to fly off, is proportionately increased. And if
+at a given moment the tension attains a certain intensity, the discharge
+follows, emanating from the surface which offers the greatest facilities
+for escape. The earth is generally flatter than the cloud, whence, in all
+probability, the discharge more frequently originates with the cloud.
+
+Should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct neutrality,
+it is possible that no damage will result, although this again is not
+always certain, because when the cloud charge acts inductively on the
+earth it produces the opposite (say negative) charge on the nearer parts,
+the similar (or positive) state is also produced at some place more or
+less distant. Sometimes this "freed" positive (which, by the way,
+accumulates gradually and physiologically imperceptibly) is collected at
+some portion of the earth's surface. When the negative is neutralized by
+the discharge, the freed positive is no longer confined to a particular
+region, but tends to dissipate itself, and a shock may be felt more or
+less severely by any person within the region. Or, again, a similar shock
+may be experienced by a person standing within the negative zone on the
+neutralization of the charge.
+
+I may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting and
+instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits during a
+thunderstorm. The storm may be taking place at some distance from the
+point of observation. The electrified cloud induces the opposite charge
+beneath it, the similar charge being repelled. It is noticeable that the
+needle of a galvanometer, starting from the middle position, goes
+gradually over to one side, eventually indicating a considerable
+deflection. Suddenly, owing apparently to a lightning discharge some
+distance away, the force which caused the deflection is withdrawn, and the
+needle rebounds with great violence to the opposite side. In a short time,
+the cloud becoming again charged on its under surface, and recommencing
+its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth, the needle starts again, and
+goes through the same series of movements, a violent counterthrow
+following every flash of lightning.
+
+If we can so far control our imagination, we may conceive the earth to be
+one large insulated conductor, susceptible to every influence around it.
+If then the earth, as a mass of matter, behaves as above indicated, there
+is no plausible reason for declining to regard any other large conducting
+mass in a similar light, and as a body capable of being subjected more or
+less completely to the various impulses affecting the earth. In other
+words, a large mass of conducting material, partially or perfectly
+insulated, is, during a thunderstorm, in considerable danger. With this
+portion of the subject I shall, however, deal more fully when discussing
+the merits of lightning protectors.
+
+Lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth only, but
+also, and perhaps more frequently, between too oppositely charged clouds.
+We then get atmospheric lightning, the flash often extending for miles.
+This form of lightning is harmless, and in all probability what we see is
+only a reflection of the discharge. The oft-told tale of the lightning
+flying in at the window, across the room, and out of the door, or up the
+chimney, is all moonshine, and before dealing with lightning protectors I
+intend to expose some of the fallacies concerning lightning. Were the
+discharge to pass through a house, it would infallibly leave more decided
+traces and do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now
+and again. Many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a
+thunderstorm, but it may be safely predicted that a person under a roof is
+infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level ground, and
+making himself a prominence inviting a discharge. Rain almost invariably
+accompanies the discharge, and the roof and sides of the house being wet,
+they form a more or less perfect channel of escape should a flash strike
+the building.--_Knowledge._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RESEARCHES ON MAGNETISM.
+
+By M. DUTER.
+
+
+If we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field, so that the
+lines of force of the field may be normal to the surface of the plate, we
+have a very flat magnet, the two faces of which are the two polar
+surfaces. The magnetic distribution thus obtained seems to disappear when
+the plate is no longer in the field. The following experiments show that
+this disappearance is not complete. I made use of plates of tempered steel
+of 1 millimeter in thickness, and varying in diameter from 0.040 to 0.005
+meter. With these plates I formed cylindrical batteries. In some of these
+batteries the plates are directly in contact, and in others they were
+separated by leaves of pasteboard, the thickness of which varied from that
+of the thinnest paper to 0.001 meter. The batteries were placed in the
+central portion of a very powerful magnetic field, and after they have
+been taken out they formed perfectly regular permanent magnets. The
+supporting power of these magnets was the greater the nearer its
+constituent plates were to each other. In a battery of 100 plates,
+touching each other directly, and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder,
+the portative force at each extremity rose to 30 grammes. This first
+result having been obtained, I dismounted the batteries, plate by plate,
+taking care to mark the upper and under side of each. I found then that
+each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism. Yet each of them
+still constituted a flat magnet, of which the two faces are the polar
+surfaces; for on rebuilding the battery it gave again a perfectly regular
+magnet, though weaker than it was at first. The separation of the magnet
+into its constituent plates, and its reconstruction, maybe repeated
+indefinitely.--_Comptes Rendus._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dr. T. Tommasi (_Cosmos les Mondes_) notes that the thermic constant of
+thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants of potassium and
+lead, the two metals which it most resembles in its chemical character.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED GAS LIGHT BUOY.
+
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+The accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the Pintsch's
+Patent Lighting Company for the river Humber. The chief dimensions of the
+buoy are given in the engraving, which also shows that the gas holder is
+placed within the boat in such a way as to be protected from blows likely
+to cause any leakage. The buoy has a special form to meet its requirements
+as a lightship, and the conditions of its employment is the fast tidal
+current of the river. It was designed by Mr. C. Berthon, of Westminster,
+and is intended to carry a six months' supply of gas, the burner,
+regulator, and lamp being on the well known Pintsch system. The hull is
+formed of 3/8 inch plate, 24 feet 3 inches total length, and 9 feet beam
+at the line of flotation. The laps of the plates are 4 inches wide, and
+riveted with 3/4 inch rivets, spaced 2-1/4 inch apart center to center.
+The keel and stem are both in one piece, as shown, and to this the
+garboard strake is to be fastened. The bilge pieces are riveted on to the
+bilge, and made of 9 inches by 4-1/2 inches by 9/16 inch T-iron. A wooden
+fender, 4 inches by 4 inches wood, is fitted on both sides of hull,
+running from stern to stern, by 3 inches by 3-1/2 inches by 7/16 inch
+L-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown. The hull from water line
+falls in as shown, so as to describe at midships an arc of 4 feet 6
+inches, and a circular deck of 1/8 inch plate is riveted on the hull.
+There are two man-holes, each 16 inches diameter in the clear, placed in
+end plates of the circular deck as shown, and provided with covers 3/8
+inch thick, secured by twenty screws 3/4 inch diameter. The edge of each
+manhole is stiffened by a welded iron ring. The surface of the mooring
+link that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is steeled.
+The gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side, and riveted to the
+keelson, and is prevented from rolling by four gusset plates, with two
+short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto at the ends and coming in
+contact with the holder, and at the ends by angular plates, and angle iron
+riveted on each side and riveted to the keelson. The superstructure
+consists of four legs of angle iron 2-1/2 inches by 2-1/2 inches by 5/16
+inch, the upper ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate
+for supporting the lighting apparatus. Four wooden battens of pitch pine,
+4 inches by 1-1/2 inches, and bolted on to each cant of the angle iron
+superstructure, with 7/8 inch galvanized iron bolts and nuts.
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PROJECT FOR A ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.
+
+
+The present port of Havre is absolutely insufficient to answer the ever
+increasing requirements of commerce. Its entrance, which is too narrow and
+not deep enough, does not permit steamers to go in, come out, and perform
+their evolutions with the rapidity required by our epoch. So they are
+gradually abandoning our port, and going to load and unload at Anvers and
+elsewhere. A large number of wise heads, who are anxious about the future
+of this port and our national interests, have devoted themselves to
+finding a means of enlarging it, not by dredging _new_ basins, which would
+prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years, but by installing
+a true roadstead at the entrance to the present basins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.]
+
+Upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen, under the name of
+the Little Roadstead, a vast extent of sea nearly two kilometers wide by
+three to four in length, bounded upon one side by the heights of Heve and
+St. Adresse, and upon the other by the rocky line of Eclat and of the
+heights of the roadstead (Fig. 1). This Little Roadstead, so called, in
+order to become a genuine one, would have to be protected against the
+great waves of the open sea. To thus protect it, to close it as quickly
+and as cheaply as possible--that is the problem.
+
+In 1838, Charles de Massas presented a project (the first in order of
+date), which consisted in constructing upon the Eclat reef a semi-lunate
+dike, and a breakwater at Cape Heve. Moreover, upon the emergent parts of
+the Eclat reef and heights of the roadstead he proposed to erect two
+forts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER.]
+
+The defense of the port of Havre is a very important question, and one
+that appears to be completely abandoned. Since Engineer Degaulle in 1808
+advised the erection of a fort upon the Eclat, and requests have
+periodically been made and projects drawn. The requests are forgotten, but
+the drawings are in the Ministers' portfolios, and if France should
+to-morrow have a war with a maritime power our great northern port might
+be destroyed and burned by the smallest squadron.
+
+Some years after Massas' project, two officers, Deloffre and Bleve, and an
+engineer named Renaud, received a commission to search for a means of
+closing a portion of Seine Bay. These gentlemen advised the erection of
+two dikes, one on the Eclat shoal in the very axis of this reef, and the
+other at Heve. Between these two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating
+breakwater. This project, which was submitted to Admiral de Hell in 1845,
+had a favorable reception, and the Admiral especially applauded the trial
+of breakwaters, "which were much talked of in England, although the
+effects that they might produce were not well known." Deloffre, Bleve, and
+Renauds' project comprised two forts--one to the north and the other to
+the south of the roadstead. For a long time nothing more was said about
+it, and it is only during recent years, when the peril has become imminent
+for Havre (threatened as it is of being abandoned even by the French
+transatlantics), that the question has again became the order of the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.--END VIEW.]
+
+Mr. Bert, a merchant, would protect the Little Roadstead by means of two
+jetties, 1,000 and 1,600 meters in length, built, one of them upon the
+Eclat and the other upon the eminences of the roadstead. These would be
+constructed by forming a foundation of loose rocks, and using earth and
+brick above the level of the water. Mr. Vial has likewise proposed a
+rockwork of 2,000 meters in length, to form a dike 10 meters in height and
+width, whose platform would be on a level with the highest tides.
+
+Next comes the more recent project of Mr. Coulon. Seeing that it is the
+deposits of the ocean and not those of the Seine that accumulate upon the
+estuary, Mr. Coulon advises the construction of a dike about 2,000 meters
+in length, starting from the Havre jetty, and ending at the southwest
+extremity of the shoals at the roadstead heights, and a second one
+returning toward the northwest, of from 500 to 1,000 meters. A third and
+very long one of not less than 8 kilometers would be built from Honfleur
+to the Ratier shoals.
+
+This latter one, in contracting the bay, would contribute to increase the
+force of the current, which, throwing back at the ocean its mud and
+pebbles, would give us the depths of 15 and 20 meters indicated on the map
+of Beautemps-Beaupre.
+
+This year, again, two projects have arisen; one of them due to Mr.
+Thuillard-Froideville, and the other to Mr. Hersent.
+
+According to Mr. Hersent, it would be necessary to surround the Little
+Roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky shoals, which
+would begin at Cape Heve (which it would consolidate) and end opposite the
+entrance to the port at 1,600 meters from the jetties. Through it there
+would be five passages. Afterward another dike would be constructed,
+starting from the shore and running to meet the jetty designed to inclose
+the Little Roadstead. On turning the angle at which it met the jetty it
+would be continued as far as to Berville. Finally, a third dike, running
+from Honfleur to Berville, would complete the system.
+
+Mr. Hersent's project, which is one of the most remarkable of those that
+have been proposed, has one fault, and that is that it would require
+twelve years of work, and cost 158 million francs.
+
+Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, completely renouncing masonry dikes as being
+too costly and taking too long to construct, proposes to inclose the Havre
+roadstead by means of floating breakwaters. As we have already seen, the
+use of these between Cape Heve and the Eclat shoals had already been
+proposed in 1845. As the project was abandoned, the models of these
+breakwaters are rare.
+
+In Bouniceau's "Marine Constructions" we find a curious figure, a sort of
+open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular manner, and
+surmounted by rooms for watchmen, semaphores, posts for the shipwrecked,
+etc. It is, indeed, the most complicated and most impracticable type that
+could be imagined.
+
+Mr. Lewis' model, which was exhibited last year at the International
+Fisheries Exhibition, was, on the contrary, one of the simplest. It
+consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly triangular section, the
+sharpest angle of which, being turned oceanward, was designed to cut the
+waves and cause them to break over it (Fig. 2). If, by favor of divine
+Providence, this breakwater, which presents absolutely plane surfaces to
+the shock and pressure of the waves, is not broken to fragments in the
+first tempest, it will certainly acquit itself of the _role_ for which the
+inventor destined it. When we have a system of resistance to the sea,
+anchored and facing a certain direction, and consequently not being able
+to revolve around its axis as vessels do, care must be taken not to give
+it entire surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.--MODE OF JOINING THE
+PARTS.]
+
+Mr. Froideville's breakwater consists of a framework 25 meters in length,
+and 9 in height and width, and having the form of an irregular 5-sided
+prism (Fig. 3). The smallest side of the prism is designed to serve as a
+flat keel. The axis is formed of a metallic float, from whence start radii
+that form the skeleton of the framework, and that are designed for
+connecting the center with five long spruce beams that form the angles of
+the prism. To these beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the
+openwork sides. Five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams, but not
+so strong as they, protect the cross pieces and secure them against
+breakage in the middle. All the angles of the breakwater and all points of
+juncture of the pieces are protected with iron, and it is in order to
+counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central float is
+used. Parallel with this first breakwater, there are two other and smaller
+ones, which are designed for reducing the effect of rolling as much as
+possible. Reduced to a single float, the breakwater might remain under the
+waves too long, but, owing to the two others, it rights itself, warps
+around, and always presents the spur of its sharp roof to the wave.
+
+In order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each other, they
+are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious manner. From each of
+them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar which terminates in a journal
+that permits the breakwater to oscillate. Between these two bars there is
+a sort of swivel, whose pieces, in playing upon one another, give the
+breakwaters elasticity, while always holding them apart (Fig. 4). From
+each side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which the
+anchorage chain is attached. This latter is of steel, without solderings,
+and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage need be feared. To the
+other extremity of the chain is attached an anchor having two flukes,
+which both engage with the bottom.
+
+Mr. Froideville proposes to set up two lines of these breakwaters, for a
+length of about 7½ kilometers, starting at the north from Cape Heve,
+taking in depths of 15 meters (the best that are found in the Little
+Roadstead), passing in front of the Eclat shoal and the heights, and
+ending opposite the entrance of the present port.
+
+The first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves, and the
+second for lending its aid in times of high tempests, and stopping the
+surge that has escaped from the first.
+
+The extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its promoter to
+affirm that in a few months, and with nine millions, he can inclose the
+Havre roadstead.
+
+The Little Roadstead, being thenceforward protected, will become an
+excellent port of refuge in bad weather. In addition, a system of
+lighters, or, better, a few floats connected with the shore and forming a
+rock, will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with great rapidity.
+
+Mr. Froideville's project presents the further advantage of rendering it
+easier to put the port of Havre quickly in defense. A certain number of
+floating batteries, anchored behind the breakwaters and protecting the
+advances of torpedo boats by means of their firing, would make a
+formidable defense. Not having to perform any evolutions, they might
+without danger be invested with armor plate thicker than that of ordinary
+ironclads. In order to complete the system, there might be erected upon
+the Eclat shoal an ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of
+Portsmouth.
+
+An English chronicler of the fourteenth century, in speaking of his
+country, places it above all others, and declares that men are handsomer,
+whiter, and purer blooded there than elsewhere, and he says that this is
+so "because it is so." We would not like to imitate his naive reasoning,
+and yet, for defending the very original system proposed by Mr.
+Froideville, we have only our conviction, which we share, moreover, with a
+large number of sea-faring men and engineers. Mathematics are powerless to
+predict to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters
+will behave, but experiment remains. Let the promoter of the project,
+then, be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters, and if, as we
+suppose, the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a northwester, a
+maritime revolution will have been brought about.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.
+
+
+In 1882, M. Bacle published in _Le Génie Civil_ a study of the sewer
+systems in some of the large foreign cities. There may be found there a
+description of the Liernur system at Amsterdam, Leyden, and Dordrecht, in
+Holland, and in certain cities of Germany and the United States.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.]
+
+This system consists in the employment of two distinct systems of ducts,
+one for the discharges from water-closets and the other for household
+wastes, rain water, and the discharges from factories when sufficiently
+purified. This arrangement allows the employment of sewers of small
+section, provided that it shall be unnecessary to enter them for the
+purpose of cleansing them. It has been necessary, therefore, to provide
+inlets with a separating apparatus called "gully" or "catch basin," which
+retains as completely as possible all solid matter, mud, excrement, and
+_debris_ of every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by
+rain-water, and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the sewers,
+the choking up being followed by fermentation and the emanation of noxious
+vapors.
+
+M.C. Pieper of Berlin suggests a device for a catch basin, which appears
+to meet the requirements. It is in the form of a cylindrical metal box,
+enlarged in its upper section to receive a filtering cylinder of
+perforated sheet iron, which occupies almost the upper half of the device
+and rests upon the smaller lower part. The entire apparatus is covered by
+a movable funnel, through which enter water and any rubbish which it may
+carry with it. From one side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged,
+while a siphon placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under
+certain circumstances, as will be explained.
+
+Figure 1 represents the apparatus discharging under normal conditions. The
+heavy matter, sand, stones, etc., falls to the bottom into a receptacle
+which can be lifted out from time to time and emptied. The lighter buoyant
+matters, straw, vegetable _debris_, paper, etc., remain at the surface,
+and are retained by the filter; the water passing through the holes in the
+sheet iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which
+exists in the upper part between the two cylinders, and escapes by the
+waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level. If at a given moment the
+quantity of water flowing in is too much to be discharged through this
+waste-pipe, the level of the water mounts in the cylinder until it reaches
+the top of the siphon. Immediately the siphon comes into play and empties
+the upper part of the apparatus, and the filtered water contained in the
+annular space already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the
+perforated sheet iron, and in so doing cleans out the perforations with
+considerable energy. This second period is represented in the second
+figure.
+
+The mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket, the heavy
+matters contained in the latter are not in the least disturbed, and the
+metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents the entrance of any
+floating matters. When siphonic action ceases, the water in the short arm
+of the siphon empties itself into the main receptacle, and by so doing
+cleanses the screen. During a rain or the washing of the streets, the
+siphon can work in concurrence with the ordinary discharge-pipe. It is
+evident of course that these two--pipes can be placed on the same side of
+the apparatus, if this prove the most convenient arrangement.
+
+We will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the Liernur
+system, but also can be used for preventing the entrance of obstructions
+into sewers of the ordinary type, where the grade is small or where the
+quantity of water is insufficient; and if we adopt the system of
+"everything to the sewer," can we not find in the employment of this
+apparatus an element for the realization of the famous formula, "Always in
+circulation, and never in stagnation?"--_Le Génie Civil._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 454, page 7249.]
+
+WATER-POWER WITH HIGH PRESSURES AND WROUGHT-IRON WATER-PIPE.
+
+By HAMILTON SMITH, JR., M. Am. Soc. C.E.
+
+METHODS OF CONDUCTING WATER AND TRANSMITTING POWER.
+
+
+A description of the mode of using water-power for driving the North
+Bloomfield tunnel in California, some years since, will give a good
+illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy. This tunnel was
+originally about 8,000 feet long, through a slate highly metamorphosed,
+with its general line passing under a good-sized stream, at a depth of
+about 190 feet. There were eight working-shafts, each about 200 feet deep,
+which, with the lower entrance or portal, gave sixteen working faces.
+Diamond drills were used at the lower heading requiring power; the other
+fifteen headings were driven by hand-work. It was uncertain how much water
+would be encountered; but from the location, it was evident that a large
+quantity might be struck in any shaft, and hence it became necessary to
+have ample power at hand at each opening, in readiness for such an
+emergency. A pipe main was laid along the general line of the tunnel, with
+its pen-stock 285 feet vertical above the surface at the upper shaft, and
+549 feet above the lowest shaft. It was made of single riveted sheet-iron,
+of No. 14 (Birmingham) gauge, in lengths of 20 feet, put together
+stove-pipe fashion, with the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and
+pine wedges. This pipe had a diameter of 15 inches at the pen-stock,
+diminishing from this to 13, 11, and 7 inches at its lower end. From it,
+short branches, 7 inches in diameter, were extended to the several shafts.
+It was in one place carried across the stream by a light suspension
+bridge, some 150 feet long, the trunk of a tree on each side forming a
+convenient tower. The aggregate length of the main and branches was 9,960
+feet, with some 2,500 feet additional, for the branch to the diamond
+drills. The pipe was laid on the surface of the ground, its only
+protection being in places a couple of 1½-inch planks tacked together, and
+placed over it; the range of temperature was from 10 degrees to 107
+degrees Fahr. (in the shade). It was inspected by the foreman of the
+tunnel-work as he daily walked over the line; besides the occasional
+driving of a few wedges and putting on a band or two, it gave no trouble
+from leakage, which probably for its entire length did not amount to more
+than an average of 3 or 4 cubic feet a minute; from time to time, a little
+sawdust was put into the pen-stock. Three stop-gates were placed on the
+main, and a separate stop-gate at each shaft, operated by a fine-threaded
+screw, so that the water could be cut off when desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Fig. 13 shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and pumping,
+which was identical at the several shafts, except that the hurdy-gurdies
+varied from 16½ feet in diameter at the upper shaft to 21 feet at the
+lowest shaft. The water-wheel moved only in one direction; the pinion on
+the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel, to which the pitman of the pump-bob
+was attached. On the spur-wheel shaft was a friction-gear, driving the
+hoisting-reel; this reel was mounted on sliding blocks, so that hoisting
+was done by putting it in gear, the empty load being dropped by a
+friction-band. Changing the size of the water-wheel as the pressure
+increased permitted the use of the same pattern of machinery at the
+different shafts. The water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe,
+some nine feet long, having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint,
+so that at pleasure, by dropping the pipe, the machinery could be run at
+various speeds, or entirely stopped. At the end of this discharge-pipe
+was a cast tapered nozzle, about 3½ inches in diameter, in which was
+inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having the desired diameter, and which
+was held in place by an annular screw-cap. By changing the ring, which
+only required a few moments' time, any desired amount of water, up to 3 or
+4 cubic feet a second, could be discharged against the wheel. The
+stop-gate was left wide open while the machinery was running. The pumping
+was done by eighteen pumps, of Cornish pattern; the largest amount of
+water pumped from any one shaft was something over 30 cubic feet a minute;
+the power at hand, however, was ample to pump more than twice that
+quantity. It was rather curious at, this shaft to see more water coming
+from the pumps than was used on the wheel. The two diamond drills were
+driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the rear of the drill carriage. This,
+but at another tunnel, was afterward modified by placing a separate
+hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on each drill-rod; the advance movement of the
+drill being given by hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston, thus doing
+away with all gearing. These eight sets of machinery were run for nearly
+2½ years' time; the only break being that of a spur-wheel, doubtless
+caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it and its pinion.
+Aside from this accident, practically not a dollar was spent for repairs,
+and the machinery, including the pipe, was in about as good order when the
+tunnel was finished as when it was first erected. One man, on a twelve
+hour shift, operated the machinery at each shaft, besides dumping the
+cars; two men kept the 18 pumps on the line in order, the principal work
+being in keeping the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight; thus
+a force of 18 men was only required for the eight shafts. The cost of the
+pipe, gates, etc., when put in place, was $14,631, and of the machinery
+about $60,000.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+At the Idaho gold quartz mine, situated near Grass Valley, California,
+water-power has been introduced during the past year (1883), taking the
+place of steam. The supply main is of wrought-iron, 22 inches in diameter,
+8,764 feet long, buried in the ground below frost-line. The joints, as a
+rule, are riveted together, with occasional lead joints to admit of slight
+movements in the pipe.[4] The pipe was coated by placing each joint in a
+bath of boiling tar and asphaltum; to insure the most thorough coating, it
+is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or fifteen minutes in the boiling
+mixture. A cast-iron stop-gate is placed at the lower end of the main, and
+also one at each of the branches. Cast-iron man-holes are attached to the
+main, which, although they have given no trouble in this particular case,
+are very objectionable for high pressures, as it is difficult to avoid
+ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined, owing to the great
+difference in the elasticity of the two metals. The long seams of this
+pipe are double-riveted, and the round seams single riveted; at the lower
+end, iron of No. 6 gauge is used. From the end of the main, the water is
+led to the several wheels by branches of smaller diameter.
+
+[Footnote 4: With buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is unnecessary,
+as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the movement due to changes of
+temperature, without injury to the rivets.]
+
+The water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head of 542.6
+feet. For power and for mill uses, etc., the required supply is about 8
+cubic feet a second; this draught reduces the effective head to say 523
+feet.
+
+The work done consists in driving the following described machinery:
+
+A large air-compressor--2 cylinders, double acting, air compressed to 75
+pounds--requiring about 140 horse-power.
+
+A line of Cornish pumps, forcing the water from a depth of 1,450 feet
+vertical; 12-inch plungers for upper 800 feet, 6-inch plungers for lower
+650 feet, with 6-foot stroke, requiring from 55 to 70 horse-power.
+
+Hoisting from a double-compartment shaft--two connected winding reels,
+moving separate cages--requiring 35 horse-power, or more.
+
+A few small machine-tools and smithy forges, requiring 3 or 4 horse-power.
+
+A 35-stamp mill, with concentrating apparatus, etc., requiring about 70
+horse-power.
+
+The total amount of power required being say 320 horse-power, for which
+seven Pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed.
+
+The power in all cases is transmitted by systems of Manila rope belting;
+the rope is 2 inches in diameter; the grooves in the sheaves or pulleys
+are slightly oval, so that the rope does not go quite to the bottom; the
+ropes are horizontal, and run very slack (no tighteners), with no
+appreciable slip; the splices are made very long, to obtain uniformity in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+This method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly and has
+given excellent satisfaction. It is thought, at the Idaho, to be greatly
+preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the works were driven by
+steam (for such work as pumping or hoisting, leather or rubber belting is
+never used), besides being much cheaper in first cost.
+
+The wheel driving the air-compressor is 6 feet in diameter, running 300
+turns[5] per minute, with 1-15/18-inch nozzle; three ropes are used from
+the wheel shaft to the counter-shaft, and six ropes from the latter to the
+fly-wheel shaft.
+
+[Footnote 5: The revolutions per minute, of these wheels, as here given,
+are only approximate, as the design was to have the bucket speed=½
+2(gh)^{½}.]
+
+For driving the pumps, there are two water-wheels, set on the same shaft,
+one 5 feet and the other 7 feet in diameter, either of which can be used
+at will, thus permitting different rates of speed; two nozzles are placed
+on each wheel, so that if necessary the power can at any time be doubled.
+The smaller wheel has a 1-1/4 inch nozzle, and runs 360 turns a minute;
+the larger has 1-1/8-inch nozzle, and makes 270 turns a minute. There are
+two ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft, and four ropes to the
+fly-wheel shaft, on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel attached to
+the pitman of the pump-bob. Hoisting is done by two wheels placed side by
+side on the same shaft, the buckets and nozzle of each wheel being placed
+in opposite directions. Both wheels are 8 feet in diameter, with
+15/16-inch nozzles, and make at full speed about 225 turns a minute.
+Reversing the movement of the shaft is done by shutting off water from one
+wheel, and turning water on the other wheel; the two water-gates for these
+nozzles are quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure, afforded
+from the water main. In addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels,
+a brake is placed on the wheel-shaft, so that it can be stopped in a very
+short period of time.
+
+The shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off the water at
+these hoisting-wheels (nearly one cubic foot per second) has not
+apparently had any injurious, effect. To lessen this shock, a compensating
+balance was designed, but which is not now in use. A wheel, of small
+diameter, is used for the smithy, etc., running at a very high velocity.
+The wheel driving the stamp-mill is 6 feet in diameter, makes 300
+revolutions a minute, and is supplied through a 1-3/16 inch nozzle. The
+head of water at this point is a few feet greater than at the other
+wheels. Power is transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by
+two and four ropes, the same as with the pumping rig. The amount of work
+done, or of water used, has not been carefully determined; judging from
+the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines, the managers of the
+Idaho believe that an efficiency of fully 80 per cent. of the theoretic
+power of the water is obtained on the main driving-shafts of the
+machinery. The substitution of water for steam-power has resulted in a
+large saving of expense. Although the hills near by are covered with fine
+forests, thus making wood cheap, and although a round price is charged for
+water by the company furnishing it, the cost of the water is considerably
+less than that of the wood formerly used as fuel. The cost of attendance
+is altogether in favor of the water-wheels, which hardly require any
+attention. The cost of the change from steam to water-power was
+$46,496.32.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEXAS CREEK PIPE AND AQUEDUCT.
+
+
+A description of this work will be of interest in showing the general
+practice followed in California for carrying water across deep mountain
+gorges. In order to augment its water supply, the North Bloomfield Gravel
+Mining Company desired to conduct water from a stream known as Texas
+Creek, in Nevada County, California, across the Big Cañon branch of the
+South Yuba River into the main Bloomfield flume or aqueduct, which was
+located on the side of Big Cañon Creek, at a vertical elevation of 620
+feet above the bed of the latter stream. The quantity of water to be
+carried was about 32 cubic feet a second (1,250 miner's inches), which
+could be diverted from Texas Creek at a point 480 feet vertical above the
+Bloomfield flume. An aqueduct about 4,000 feet long, partly of ditch and
+partly of flume, was needed to bring the water from the catchment dam on
+the creek to the brow of the gorge. The vertical head for the pipe could
+therefore be from a maximum of 460 feet down to any lesser head; with a
+head of 460 feet, the pipe would be 4,790 feet long; and with a head of
+220 feet, the length would be 4,290 feet. Assuming a maximum tensile
+strain upon the iron of 16,500 pounds per square inch, with the formula
+for the greatest head of about
+
+d = (.359 l/h)^{1/5}, [or, v = 68 (dh/l)^{1/2}, and Q = 32],
+
+and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for the lesser
+heads, it was found, by calculation, that the least cost could be obtained
+with a head from 300 to 350 feet. The head fixed upon was 303.6 feet, with
+a length of 4,438.7 feet. A profile of the pipe, with nearly the same
+horizontal and vertical scales (horizontal scale, showing slope lengths),
+is given in Fig. 14; details are given in Figs. 15 and 16. The pipe was of
+double riveted sheet iron, made in lengths of about 20 feet, and of the
+following thicknesses:
+
+  1,349 linear feet,    0.083 inch thick.
+    220    "            0.095     "
+    240    "            0.109     "
+    250    "            0.120     "
+    320    "            0.134     "
+    610    "            0.148     "
+  1,450    "            0.165     "
+
+Some of the iron was of the very poorest quality; the pipe was made by
+contract in San Francisco, without the supervision of an inspector, as the
+contractors were a firm of good reputation; the bad quality of the iron
+was not detected until too late to have it corrected. Since then, the
+writer has always had such pipes--the mines of which he has been the
+manager using large quantities--made directly on the ground where they are
+to be used; the pipe makers, in the latter case, always reject such sheets
+as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge, and those which
+show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of iron; tests of each
+joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too much to the cost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+The maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of iron used
+was intended to be 16,500 pounds per square inch. Some of the sheets were
+below the standard gauge, so that, in reality, the tensile strain is
+sometimes as high as 18,000 pounds. The mean diameter of the pipe was
+1.416 feet. The entrance into the pen-stock was tapered, so that the
+coefficient of contraction was about 0.92. For pressures not exceeding say
+380 feet, the joints were put together stove-pipe fashion. For greater
+pressures, the joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of
+the joint, with an outer lap-welded band, as shown by Fig. 15; lead was
+run into the space between the outer band and the pipe, and then tightly
+driven up by calking-irons. The pipe was laid under the bed of the Big
+Cañon Creek, a large stream when in freshet, where the head below the
+hydraulic grade line was 760 feet. Some of the lead joints leaked slightly
+at first, but this was soon remedied by more careful calking. No man-holes
+or escape-gates were used. The pipe for the larger part of the year is not
+filled at its upper end; when such is the case, the water at the inlet
+carries down the pipe a great quantity of air, for which escapes must be
+provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing, which would soon destroy the
+pipe. The escape air-valves used are shown by Fig. 16. They consist simply
+of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron, with recess for lead filling to give
+greater weight set on top the pipe, seating on a vulcanized rubber
+cushion, and swinging on a loose hinge. When the pipe is only partly
+filled with water, the valves drop down by their own weight, allowing the
+air to freely escape; when the water rises above the level of a valve, it
+is tightly closed by the resulting pressure. There are fourteen of these
+valves, those on the lower end being designed to allow air to freely enter
+the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper portion, and thus prevent
+any collapse from atmospheric pressure. The valves have answered the
+desired purposes most effectually. The pipe was hauled over a road built
+to the inlet end, and shot down the mountain side by means of a V-shaped
+trough of wood. For the lower end, the joints were hauled up the cliff
+side into place by a crab worked by horse-power. On steep inclinations,
+the pipe was held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in
+the solid rock, as shown by the sketch. The covering of earth and stone
+was 1 foot to 2 feet in depth; with steep slopes, the earth was kept from
+sliding by rough dry walls, or by cedar plank placed crosswise. The pipe
+was laid in 1878; the first year it broke twice, owing to the wretched
+quality of the iron; since then, it has given no trouble, and has required
+practically no attention. The cost of this work--ditch and flume 4,000
+feet, and pipe 4,440 feet--was $23,779.53.
+
+A comparison of the relative values of n, in the formula v = n (r s)^{½},
+for the foregoing ditch, flume, and pipe will be instructive. The ditch
+has a width on the bottom of 3 feet, on the top of 6 feet, with a depth of
+3 feet, and an inclination of 20 feet per mile; its sides are rough, being
+cut in part through the rock and with sharp curves, although fairly
+regular; with a flow of about 1,300 miner's inches (32.8 cubic feet per
+second) the ditch runs about full.
+
+Therefore:
+
+      6 + 3
+  a = ----- × 3 = 13.5 ;
+        2
+
+[TEX: a = \frac{6+3}{2} \times 3 = 13.5;]
+
+           a
+  r = ------------- = 1.41 ;
+      3.3 + 3 + 3.3
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{3.3 + 3 + 3.3} = 1.41;]
+
+        20       1
+  s = ------ = ----- ;
+       5280     264
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{20}{5280} = \frac{1}{264};]
+
+  Q = 32.8, hence
+
+       Q
+  v = --- = 2.43;
+       a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 2.43;]
+
+and
+
+     /              {½} \
+  n ( in v = n (r s)^    ) = 33.
+     \                  /
+
+[TEX: n\ (\text{in}\ v = n (r s)^\frac{1}{2}) = 33.]
+
+The flume is of unplaned boards, rectangular, 2.67 wide × 2.83 deep, with
+an inclination of 32 feet per mile. There are sharp curves, although these
+were made as regular as practicable; the boiling action of the water
+passing around these curves brought the flow line (Q = 32.8) nearly up to
+the top of the sides; with a straight flume of the same size, the water
+would have doubtless stood several inches lower.
+
+Therefore:
+
+    a = 2.67 × 2.83 = 7.56 ;
+
+                a
+    r =  -------------------- = 0.908 ;
+        2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83} = 0.908;]
+
+           32       1
+    s =  ------ = ----- ;
+          5280     165
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{32}{5280} = \frac{1}{165};]
+
+    Q = 32.8, hence
+
+         Q
+    v = --- = 4.34;
+         a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 4.34;]
+
+    and n = 59.
+
+With the pipe,[6] 1.416 diameter,
+
+         d
+    r = --- = 0.354; Q = 31.69; v = 20.13.
+         4
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{d}{4} = 0.354;\ Q = 31.69;\ v = 20.13.]
+
+[Footnote 6: _Vide_ pages 120-122, Transactions American Society of Civil
+Engineers for 1883.]
+
+Allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water, and for
+contraction,
+
+         296.1
+    s= --------; and n = 131.
+        4438.7
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{296.1}{4438.7};\ \text{and}\ n = 131.]
+
+We hence have the following values of n, in v = n (r s)^{½}, Q being
+constant:
+
+    Rough ditch, with sharp curves.                    33
+    Rectangular flume, with sharp curves.              59
+    Wrought-iron pipe, with easy curves, coated with
+    asphalt, but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy
+    obstructions (m = 65.5, and 2m = n)               131
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.
+
+
+The very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate herewith
+is the invention of a Russian engineer, Mr. Jagn. It is scarcely as yet
+known in Western Europe, where, however, something will probably be heard
+of it ere long. Its true field would seem to be Egypt, India, or any
+country where canals or rivers are used for irrigation, and where it is
+desired to draw water from them at particular spots in the simplest and
+cheapest manner. At present in nearly all such cases water is raised by
+hand or steam power; nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of
+the canal itself, slow though it may be, is quite sufficient to raise a
+small portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally
+needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields. Why then is it
+not employed for the purpose? The answer is obvious, when we consider the
+various hydraulic motors at present in use. Of course, motors worked by
+water pressure must here be excluded; and we are left with scarcely
+anything but the undershot wheel, the turbine, and the screw pump. All
+these require expensive buildings and erections to set them to work,
+present but a very small fraction of their surface to the water at any one
+time, and must be very large and costly if they are to draw even a very
+moderate amount of power from such a source. There is no possibility of
+adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the current or
+in the quantity of water required, nor of moving them from place to place
+should this be convenient.
+
+[Illustration: PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.]
+
+The motor of Mr. Jagn is on a totally different principle. Its essential
+features consist, as shown, of an endless rope made of hemp or aloe fiber,
+which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums mounted on a barge or
+pontoon, and then passes down the channel to return over a pulley hung
+from a floating punt, at such a depth that the whole of the rope is
+immersed in the water. Along this rope are suspended at equal intervals a
+number of parachutes made of sail cloth. The rope passes through the
+center of each of these, and to it are attached a series of strings, the
+other ends of which are connected to the outside edge of the parachute.
+Thus they act like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from
+opening too far under the pressure of the current. The parachutes must be
+placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on each, and the sum
+of the pressures forms the force which draws the rope through the water.
+The moment, however, that any parachute has passed round the return
+pulley, the current acts upon it in the opposite direction. It then shuts
+up like an umbrella, and assumes a volume so small that its resistance on
+the return journey is insignificant. After passing round the drum at the
+upper end, it at once opens afresh of its own accord, and once more
+becomes part of the moving power of the whole system. The parachutes are
+formed by first cutting out a complete circle of cloth, and then taking
+from this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area. Such
+parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the water better
+than a surface originally spherical, although the latter would be
+theoretically more correct. The motion of the drum is transmitted by spur,
+gear, or otherwise as may be required, to give the requisite speed.
+
+It will be seen that the advantages of the system are as follows: First,
+the facility it offers for obtaining a large working area, which may be
+increased or diminished at will, according to the requirements of the
+moment, by lengthening or shortening the rope. Secondly, the ease with
+which it is erected and set to work. Thirdly, the small part of the river
+section which it occupies, so as to present no obstacle to navigation.
+Fourthly, the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind,
+and carried wherever it may be needed. Fifthly, it is not stopped, like
+all other hydraulic motors, by the appearance of ice--it has, in fact,
+already been worked under ice in the Neva. At the same time, winds and
+waves have no influence upon it.
+
+The principle of the apparatus is not altogether new. In 1872 there was
+tried on the Ohio River an arrangement termed the Brooks motor. It was
+composed of two drums, placed horizontally and parallel to each other.
+Round these there passed endless chains at equal spaces apart on the
+length of the drums, and to these chains were fixed wooden blades or arms
+of a curved form, and so jointed to the frames that they opened when
+moving in one direction, and closed down on the chain when moving in the
+other. In this machine the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to
+obtaining any large amount of power. The whole apparatus was mounted on a
+heavy wooden scaffold, which proved an impediment to the flow of the
+river. Again, the resistance due to the surface of the returning blades
+and to their stiffness was found to be far from insignificant.
+
+In the present system Mr. Jagn has found, after many experiments, that the
+best effect was obtained when the parachutes were spaced apart at twice
+their diameter, and when the rope made an angle of 8 degrees to 10 degrees
+with the current. It is found that when open and in motion the parachutes
+never touch the bottom. This was the case with a rope containing 180
+parachutes of 4 feet diameter, and working in a depth of only 6 feet. This
+is easily explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always
+diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Hence the pressure on the lower
+part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper part; but the
+former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward, while the latter
+tends to raise it to the top of the water. Thus, the latter being the
+larger, the parachute will always have a tendency to rise. In fact, it is
+necessary to sink the return pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that
+the parachutes will not emerge from the surface. For the same reason no
+intermediate supports are needed over the driving span; if any are needed
+it is for the return span, on which the parachutes are closed. Of course,
+if metal were used instead of hemp, the case would be entirely different,
+and intermediate supports would have to be used for anything but very
+moderate lengths.
+
+In practice, Mr. Jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same pair of
+drums, which are mounted upon a pontoon. The ropes are spread out from
+each other, as in Fig. 1, making an angle of about 10 degrees. The low
+specific gravity of the system enables ropes to be employed of as great a
+length as 450 yards, each of them carrying 350 parachutes of 17.2 square
+feet area. As half of these are in action at the same time, the total
+working area for the two cables is 5,860 square feet. This immense area
+furnishes a considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble
+current. Comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes
+employed, and supposing this to have only 172 square feet of working area,
+such a wheel must have a length of 46 feet, a diameter of 23 feet, and
+seventy-two floats, each 2½ feet wide. The enormous dimensions thus
+required for a comparatively small working area point sufficiently clearly
+to the advantage which remains on the side of the parachute motor.
+
+The general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving. Behind
+the return pulleys, D D, are attached cords, A A, with some parachutes
+strung upon them. These present their openings to the current and preserve
+the tension of the connecting ropes. At the further end of each cord is a
+board, B, which is kept in a vertical plane, but lying at a slight angle
+to the direction of the current; and this acts to keep the two moving
+ropes apart from each other. The two return pulleys are, however,
+connected by a line, E, which can be shortened or lengthened from the
+pontoon, and in this way the angle of inclination between the two ropes
+can be varied if required. A grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span
+at the moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum. It is
+mounted on a screwed spindle, which is depressed by a nut, and thus makes
+the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly efficacious
+manner.
+
+The author has made a theoretical investigation of the power which may be
+developed by the system, and has worked out tables by which, when the
+velocity of the current and the other elements of the problem are known,
+the power developed by any given number of parachutes can be at once
+determined. We do not reproduce this investigation, which takes account of
+the resistance of the returning parachutes and other circumstances, but
+will content ourselves with quoting the final equation, which is as
+follows: T = 0.328 S V³. Here T is the work done in H.P., S is the total
+working area in sq. m., and V is the velocity of the current in m. per
+sec. Taking V = 1, and S = 1 sq. m., which is by no means an impracticable
+quantity, we have T = 0.328 H.P. per sq. m. We may check this result by
+the equation given, in English measures, by Rankine--"Applied Mechanics,"
+p. 398--for the pressure of a current upon a solid body immersed in it.
+This equation, F = 1.8 m A v² / 2g, where m is the weight of a unit of
+volume of the fluid--say 62 lb.--A is the area exposed, and v the relative
+velocity of the current. Mr. Jagn finds that the maximum of efficiency is
+obtained when the rope moves at one-third the velocity of the stream. If
+this velocity be 3 feet per second, we shall have v = 2. and we then get F
+= 7 lb. per sq. ft. very nearly. Now 1 sq. meter = 10.76 sq. ft., and a
+speed of 1 ft. per second (which is that of the rope) is 60 ft. per
+minute. Hence the H.P. realized in the same case as that taken above will
+be 7 × 10.76 × 60 / 33,000 = 0.137 H.P. The difference between the two
+values is very large, but Rankine, of course, depends entirely on the
+value of the constant 1.8, which is quite empirical, and is for a flat
+band instead of a hollow parachute. Taking, however, his smaller figure,
+and an area of 544 square inches, which Mr. Jagn has actually employed, we
+get a gross power of = 0.137 × 544 = 7.43 H.P. Hence it will be seen that
+the amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from being
+inconsiderable.
+
+Lastly, we may point out that the durability of the apparatus will be
+considerable. There is no wear except at the moment when the rope is
+passing round the drum, and even then there need be no slipping or
+grinding. The apparatus worked in the Neva was in very good condition
+after running for four months day and night. After five months about
+one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced, but after seven months the
+hemp rope still showed no signs of wear. We think we have said enough to
+show that for certain purposes, and especially, as we have, already
+mentioned, for irrigation purposes, the new motor is well worthy of a
+careful and extended trial. It may be questioned even whether we have not
+here the germ of an idea which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the
+most interesting and important of engineering problems, viz., the
+utilization of the great store of power provided for us twice daily in the
+ebb and flow of the tide.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.
+
+
+Our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning lathes, and is
+the result of thirty years' experience in the manufacture of shafting,
+with many years' study, to perfect a machine of the greatest practical
+capacity and efficiency.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.]
+
+The principal points of difference from a common engine lathe are readily
+distinguished, among which may be mentioned the absence of centers and
+tail stock, a traveling head with hollow driving spindle, and a stationary
+tool rest and water tank. By dispensing with a tail stock a much shorter
+bed may be used, and the hollow driving spindle enables any length shaft
+to be turned, with one setting of the tools. The tool rest is so arranged
+as to allow of perfect lubrication of the tools, keeping the shaft cool,
+and at the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong; the operator
+is not required to travel the length of the bed, but remains near the
+driving belt, feed gearing, etc. Power is communicated to the driving
+spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod inside the bed, the
+driving belt and gears being at the end.
+
+The driving head, after having traveled the length of the bed and turned a
+shaft, is returned by a quick feed, and stops automatically, allowing
+nearly time enough for the operator to grind tools and be ready with
+another shaft, thus economizing the time completely.
+
+Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass., are the makers, and they say that
+with a good quality of iron they have turned three hundred feet of two
+inch iron in ten hours.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.
+
+
+The machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the bed, which
+are adjustable for different lengths of shaft, and are made to revolve by
+power applied through suitable gearing and a splined rod inside the bed;
+the bar of iron being placed on the periphery of the rolls receives a
+rotary motion by friction, and shows the crooked places in the same way
+and with the same ease as though rotating on centers in the usual manner;
+vertically adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to
+support the iron; power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at
+the back of the machine, on which is a sliding clutch connecting, at the
+will of the operator, with an eccentric; the eccentric conveys motion and
+power through a link to the elbow joint at the front of the press, which
+forces a plunger down against the iron.
+
+[Illustration: POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.]
+
+Sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by turning a
+nut at the top of the press.
+
+Any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the press on
+the bed. Any length of iron can be straightened, and the most laborious
+and disagreeable work in the process of making shafting is rendered easy
+and rapid. Made by Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA.
+
+By GEORGE O'BRIEN.
+
+
+Our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional, as we are only aware
+that from very early times the precious metal was collected and highly
+prized by them, and that they chiefly extracted the visible gold, which
+existed in prodigious quantities on or closely beneath the surface of the
+earth, and of its being particularly abundant in Asia and Africa. But we
+can draw more positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but
+effective contrivances used by them in later, but still remote, periods,
+with full evidence as to the extent of their operations, in the numerous
+perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other, over
+large areas of auriferous gravel in India, as well as from precisely
+similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also further
+demonstrations, in the abandoned "hill diggings," and shifted beds, and
+beds of rivers, in Peru South America, flowing between the sea and coast
+ranges of the Andes, descending in a northeasterly direction to the river
+Amazon, and that their much coveted and enormous productions were the
+accumulated riches of the Incas, transferred as spoils of war to their
+Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century. And for similar explorations
+in the same class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times,
+and which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded to.
+
+Thus in the year 1849, after the cession of the northern portion of Mexico
+to the United States of North America, the rich mineral district of
+California was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent bands of mining
+adventurers from all parts of the world, who, with little other means at
+their disposal but pick, shovel, and pan, soon fell on the productive bars
+of rivers and rich ravines where the gold was trapped, derived from its
+original birthplaces, where it had been sparsely disseminated, to be
+dispersed by the subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the
+mountains themselves, and deposited in a disengaged form for the first
+comer; and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations, in certain
+localities where water once streamed, that, divested of its earthy matrix,
+the cleansed pure metal was found deposited, detained by its superior
+specific gravity, on the bare rock, and only hidden from vision by a
+slight covering of vegetable mould. In this manner, as an example of such
+concentration, a "pot" or "find" (in mining parlance) to the value of
+£10,000 was collected in a space of 15 square yards, or within the limits
+of a particular "mining claim," at the foot of Mokulumne Hill, in a
+southern county of California, soon after the territorial transfer from
+Mexico. And in search of such locations we must account for the numberless
+shafts which still exist both in India and Peru, and sometimes sunk within
+a few feet of each other, passing through the alluvium to a depth of 40
+feet to the bed rock.
+
+These mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over the other
+recently acquired territories, and built Virginia City, the capital of
+Montana, with the gold derived from the alluvium of a river channel which
+they excavated; and its inhabitants were the founders of an institution
+called the Vigilance Committee, with "Lynch law," and by it ruled
+supremely for many years. But their surface diggings, by the manual
+operations alone of multitudes, were soon exhausted in every direction,
+and then their energies and powers of invention were dedicated to discover
+and explore deeper and more permanent depositions, along the western
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada, the Andes of the Western Territories, and
+which originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at
+the present time--probably 20,000 feet above the sea-level--and of which,
+or whatever superior elevation they formerly had, the greater portion of
+it has already been removed, by the continuous natural action of
+centuries, to form there, as elsewhere, the plains and prairies of the
+earth, burying and diverting by the mutation the ancient river system,
+whose sources of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of
+these altitudes. These denudations and subsequent depositions have been
+caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air, water,
+and time since the creation of the world; and powerful demonstrations of
+these transformations instruct us in all directions, if we care to observe
+them. Thus in "Little Cottonwood" ravine, in the Wahsatch range of
+mountains in Utah Territory, lie isolated in the center of the valley huge
+masses of metamorphic granite, some blocks of which weigh individually
+thousands of tons, and were dislodged from the hills--which on either side
+are of limestone formation--with no visible granite in them, having been
+undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by denudation, and
+which is the material now forming the tablelands, the foundation, of Salt
+Lake City. The blocks of granite, having alone resisted the atmospheric
+changes, were precipitated into the valley beneath, and the Mormons are
+now constructing their cathedral church from these granitic remains.
+
+The melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges of
+mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the extinguished
+channels of ancient rivers, and whose now diverted waters were also the
+powerful agent to assist in causing these marvelous alternations; and by
+the means of hydraulic mining we can advance our feeble knowledge on the
+subject.
+
+These mighty changes have gradually been accomplished, and the accumulated
+denudations of the mineral zones have defended themselves by strata of
+crystallized silicates of quartz of various thicknesses, and thus in
+places beneath such system of defense, or by their own concretion, have
+preserved in many localities a thickness of from 500 to 600 feet of
+conglomerate, but without this necessary cementation its further removal
+is very certain when again attacked by water. An example of this
+continuous process is very observable in "Death Valley," Lower California,
+where a width of about 100 miles has been filled up from the hills to the
+gulf of same name, invading and occupying its former bed; and this
+activity is still proceeding, and a temporary formation of tableland
+above it is in course of removal, although already overgrown with forest
+trees, which are toppling over the side which is being attacked. But
+eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these Sierras, and a
+period of comparative repose may be expected, as the distribution has
+already been far advanced by the excessive reduction of the mountains.
+
+The deep and extensive depositions which I now attempt to describe
+attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers, and were called
+"hill diggings," but not being properly understood were therefore not
+immediately operated upon, and remained in abeyance, while the lower,
+richer, and more manifest alluvials endured. They were designated "blue
+gravel," the color being due to the action of sulphuret of iron and other
+salts, the cementing auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate,
+and on exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet,
+losing also its firmness by oxidation.
+
+The "great blue lead" is another important mining term and designates the
+alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on the bed rock, being
+the well-worn path of an ancient river; and it is obvious that the
+material in these channels should be richer than the general mass beyond
+their limits.
+
+"Rim rock" is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel, and, like
+the bottom, is well worn and corrugated by the running water into cavities
+and "pot holes," where the force of the stream eddied. The width of these
+channels varies from 60 to 400 feet, and the cement near the rim and
+bottom is always richer than elsewhere. The wider and deeper channels
+generally course from N. to N.W. The richest and most explored belt of
+gold-bearing alluvium in California lies between the South and Middle Yuba
+Rivers, commencing near Eureka, in Nevada county, and extends downwards to
+Smartsville and Timbuctoo, in Yuba county, a distance of 40 miles; and
+from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from where the
+ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers, which are 2,000 feet
+beneath the auriferous gravel and region near Smartsville, and 2,000 feet
+above the Yuba River, where snow is unknown, and near its terminus the
+ancient river bed courses more westerly than it does above it, and crosses
+Yuba below Timbuctoo, where the auriferous depositions disappear. The
+whole distance of 40 miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers,
+and around the village of Timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful
+yield of gold, obtained chiefly in the ravines, in holes, and depressions
+in the bed rock. These hollows detained the concentrations of the
+denudated alluvium from the altitudes, and were generally closely beneath
+the surface, and by such guidance and means of discovery the miners traced
+the gold up the ravines to their sources in the lofty mounds and deposits,
+or hills of cemented conglomerate, near Eureka in Nevada county; and by
+constructing canals from a higher level began the new system of "hydraulic
+mining" and washing, and gradually extended their operations over the area
+of the metallic zone mentioned, of 40 miles long by 20 wide, using the
+Yuba River below Timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings, or
+refuse from their operations. The result in gold was considerable, but the
+system is from its violent nature difficult to control, by presuming to
+handle and remove such huge depositions in order to collect the richest
+material. The idea was bold, being an anticipation of Nature's operations;
+but the equitable disposal of the "tailings" in a cultivated country is
+impossible, as the silt runs down the rivers, creating banks and bars in
+their channels, obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements.
+
+_General Description of Hydraulic Mining._
+
+The first work to be accomplished, after calculating that the amount or
+value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient to guarantee the
+cost of the undertaking in general, is the construction of a canal or
+canals, to convey the requisite volume of water from the fountain-head,
+and of sufficient elevation to command the ground to be worked upon,
+having also in view the levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as
+outlets for the discharge of the gravel through them, these being
+engineering operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless
+after-cost.
+
+Aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed across deep
+valleys, and the speculation is at all times problematical, as the ground
+cannot be properly tested until the water arrives upon it, and disputes
+may arise between the shareholders of the canal and the mining company,
+ending frequently in the one devouring the other, unless the two interests
+be quickly amalgamated.
+
+The starting point should be the lowest level, or "bed rock," on the white
+cement in the ancient channel, which is probably the original silt
+collected in it, and is harder than the conglomerate above it, which is
+more easily removed. The courses of these beds can be easily traced by
+landmarks and undulations, and occasional exposures of the bed rock at low
+levels; also trial shafts are sunk in various places in search of it, to a
+depth of 100 feet, passing through blue gravel. The grades of these beds
+are not steep, being from 10 to 40 feet per mile as of an ordinary river,
+and the calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about 600
+feet in many places across the ridge between the South and Middle Yuba
+River across the Columbia.
+
+The power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given volume
+deposited in a reservoir, and at sufficient elevation above the points of
+discharge, as on this depends effectivity to tear down the gravel. It is
+delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of wrought iron, and laid down
+to follow the curvatures of the surface of the ground; and the pipe I now
+treat of, belonging to the Excelsior Water Company, has a diameter of 40
+inches on a length of 6,000 feet, and 20 inches on the rest of its length
+of 8,000 feet, being 9,000 feet in all; and this large pipe forms an
+inverted siphon across a valley, following on the gravel, to the top of
+the hill into the reservoir.
+
+These pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning chasms,
+and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys; being also cheaper to
+construct in general, and less liable to accidents from fire and storms,
+and have the convenience for conveying the water from point to point, as
+the work of excavation advances, necessitating the removal of portions of
+the aqueduct forward. The watershed, or reservoir, of the Excelsior
+Company embraces the valley of the South Yuba and its affluents, and the
+entire cost of its eight amalgamated canals was 750,000 dollars.
+
+The rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged 49 inches
+annually, while the medium in the same period did not exceed 20 inches in
+the plains beneath. The height of the reservoir above the tailing, or Yuba
+River, is 393 feet: and the height of the head above the floor, or outlet
+sluice-tunnel, of the Blue Gravel Mining Company was 197 feet.
+
+The exact quantity of water required to wash every class of gravel is
+difficult to estimate, but no quantity or pressure would be excessive if
+properly arranged. The measurement of water is effected by miner's
+inches, by allowing it to flow from the reservoir of the seller to the
+purchaser through a box 10 or 12 feet square, with divisions to obtain a
+quiet head, with a slide or opening capable of adjustment to any required
+measure; thus an opening of 25 inches by 2 inches, with a quiet head of 6
+inches above the middle of the orifice, would give 50 inches, or about
+89,259 cubic feet of water, flowing during ten hours per day, being an
+amount necessary for a first-class operation. The capability of the
+Excelsior Canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in twenty-four
+hours, to the various mining companies, of 21,120,000 cubic feet of water,
+or 8,000 miner's inches, and the value of the water paid for by the Blue
+Gravel Company in forty-three months ending November 9, 1867, was 157,261
+dollars, being at the rate of 15 cents of a dollar per miner's inch; and
+the proportion of water used to wash down 989,165 cubic yards of gravel
+was 17,074,758 cubic yards, or 17¼ cubic yards of water to 1 cubic yard of
+gravel; and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was 1,298
+cubic yards, and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of gravel was 5
+and 7/10 cents of a dollar. But in the face of contingencies the Blue
+Gravel Company moved 1,000,000 cubic yards of gravel in four years, or at
+the rate of 250,000 cubic yards per annum, and the cost of washing each
+cubic yard stands thus:
+
+                                                 Cents.
+  Cost of water, at 15 cents per miner's inch     5.77
+  Cost of labor, gunpowder, sluices, and
+      superintendence                            16.10
+                                                 -----
+                                                 21.87
+    Or 21¾ cents of a dollar per cubic yard.
+
+Thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of 22 cents of a dollar
+per cubic yard to cover cost, and the value of the gravel referred to
+ranged from 20 to 45 cents per cubic yard; and the cost of work done in
+shafts and tunnels, in the said Blue Gravel Company's Mining claim,
+reached 100,000 dollars. But with the cost of the necessary canals paid
+for by the Excelsior Water Company apart, the total cost amounted to about
+1,000,000 dollars, and we must note that the latter company sold water to
+other mining companies.
+
+The gross yield in gold of the Blue Gravel Company in four years was
+837,399 dollars, and in the year 1866 the returns from the Blue Gravel
+Company paid all the costs of the developments; but in 1867 assessments
+were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising from the cost of
+sinking two new shafts, and driving fresh tunnels on the lowest levels,
+which evidently contain on the bed rock the richest concentrations.
+
+In smaller mining adventures of this description, involving less capital,
+large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone treated of, by also
+not having invested in costly canals, which would not have repaid the
+latter investment; and thus it is evident that the water companies are
+dependent blindly on the prosperity of the miners.
+
+I will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations. The mining
+ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the nearest and most
+convenient ravine, so that the starting-point on the bed rock toward the
+face of the ravine shall approach the center of the material to be removed
+at a gradient of 1 in 10 to 1 in 30. The dimensions of such tunnels are
+usually 6 feet in width by 7 in height, and continuing in contact with the
+hard river-bed, for the greater ease of excavation, collection of gold,
+and conservation of quicksilver amalgam.
+
+These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile, and some
+of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in execution, at a
+cost of from 10 to 60 dollars per foot of frontage. The tunnel of the Blue
+Gravel Company, with length of 1,358 feet, cost in labor alone 70,000
+dollars, but it could now be driven for 35,000 dollars, as skilled labor
+is cheaper now than then. The grade in this tunnel is about 12 per cent.,
+and the end of the tunnel is designed to be 170 feet of elevation, and
+reaching to a point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being
+operated upon, and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed
+rock or gravel, until it intersects the tunnel.
+
+The object of this laborious operation is obvious, as the long tunnel
+becomes a sluiceway, and through the whole length of which sluice boxes
+are laid, for the double motive of carrying off the material and saving
+the gold, and for this purpose a trough of strong planks is placed in the
+tunnel, 2½ feet wide, and with sides high enough to contain the stream.
+The pavement of the trough is generally laid of blocks of wood 6 inches in
+thickness, cut across the grain, and placed on their ends, to the width of
+the sluiceway. The wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections of
+stone pavement, the stones being set endwise, and in the interstices
+between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is distributed, and as
+much as 2 tons of this metal is required to charge a long sluice. The
+water in the canal is brought by aqueducts, or other means, to the head of
+the mining ground, having an elevation of 100 to 200 ft. above the lowest
+level of the mining ground, and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes,
+sometimes sustained on a strong incline of timber.
+
+These pipes are of sheet iron, of adequate strength, riveted at the
+joints, and measure from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, and communicate at
+the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron, on the top and sides
+of which are openings for the adaptation of flexible tubes, made of very
+strong fabric of canvas, strengthened by cording, and terminating in
+nozzles of metal of 2½ to 3 inches in diameter. From these nozzles the
+streams of water are directed against the face of the gravel to be washed,
+exercising incredible effectivity.
+
+The volume of water employed varies of course with the work to be done;
+but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting simultaneously on
+the same bank, each conveying from 100 to 600 inches of water per
+hour--1,000 miner's inches being equal to 106,600 cubic feet of water per
+hour, constantly exerting its force under a pressure of 90 to 200 pounds
+to the square inch, varying with the height of the column.
+
+Under the continuous action of this enormous force, aided by the softening
+power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass are dislodged, and
+fall with great violence, the _debris_ speedily disintegrating and
+disappearing under the resistless force of the water, and is hurried
+forward in the sluices to the mouth of the shaft, down which it is
+precipitated with the whole volume of turbid water. Bowlders of 100 to 200
+lb. in weight are dislodged and shot forward by the impetuous stream,
+accompanied by masses of the harder cement which meet in the fall, and by
+the concussion from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency
+required is found to disintegrate it. The heavy banks, of 80 feet and
+upward, are usually worked in two benches, the upper never being so rich
+as the lower, and also less firm, and therefore worked away with greater
+rapidity.
+
+The lower section is much the more compact, as this stratum on the bed
+rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure, and even sometimes
+the full force of the streams of water, until it has been loosened by
+gunpowder or other explosives. For this purpose adits are driven in on its
+foundation-point of from 40 to 70 feet and more from the face of the bank,
+and drifts are extended at right angles therefrom to a short distance on
+each side of the adit, and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder
+is placed (from 1 to 3 tons), and fired at one blast, having been
+previously built in with masonry. And in this manner the compact
+conglomerate is broken up, and then the water easily completes its work.
+Sometimes in the soft, upper strata the systems of tunnel is extended, as
+in a coal-mine, by cross alleys, leaving blocks which are afterward washed
+away, and then the whole mass settles, and is disintegrated under the
+influence of water. The wooden sluices in the tunnels already described
+are often made double for the convenience of "cleaning up" one of them,
+while the other remains in action. The process of cleaning up is performed
+according to the quantity and richness of the material worked upon, at
+intervals of twenty to forty days, and consists in removing the pavement
+and blocks from the bed of the sluice, and then gathering all the amalgam
+of gold and rich dirt collected, and replacing the locks in the same way
+as at first. Advantage is taken on this occasion to reverse the position
+of the blocks and stones when they are worn irregularly, or substitute new
+ones for those which are worn through. The mechanical action of the
+washing process on the blocks is of course very rapid and severe,
+requiring complete renewal of them once in eight to ten weeks. Some miners
+prefer a pavement of egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring,
+the gold being deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluiceways are,
+however, paved with rectangular wooden blocks, with or without stones as
+described. Standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full
+action, any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with
+astonishment, amounting almost to terror, as the muddy mass sweeps onward,
+bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders, which add their din to
+the roar of the water, the whole being precipitated down a series of
+falls, at each of which it is caught up again by new sluices of timber,
+lined like the first, and so onward and downward many hundreds of feet
+until the level of the river is reached, at a distance of about a half
+mile or more from the mouth of the first tunnel.
+
+At each of these new falls of 25 to 50 feet the process of comminution
+begun in the first shaft is carried on, and a fresh portion of gold
+obtained. Rude as this plan of saving gold appears to be, more gold is
+procured by it than by any other method of washing yet devised for this
+process of work, and the economical advantages obtained by it cannot be
+surpassed, as it would be impossible to handle such vast quantities of
+material in any other way, and we can compare the cost of washing and
+handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows:
+
+                                        Dollars.
+By manual labor with the pan              15.00
+    "       "   with rocker                3.75
+    "       "   with the long tom           .75
+By the hydraulic process                    .15
+
+But this process, even if effective or profitable as a mining operation,
+may be prejudicial to the interests of the general public, if conducted on
+a large scale, as the vast quantity of material which it so suddenly
+removes is merely shifted into the shallows beneath, to be redistributed
+by every freshet to points lower and lower down until it reaches the
+sea-coast, creating bars at the mouths of rivers in its course, and
+changing the hydrography of harbors--as it has done with the Bay of San
+Francisco by its silt.
+
+The hills behind, torn up and washed by the gold miner, are abandoned as
+desolate and irredeemable; and the costly canals, constructed with
+peculiar conveniences for mining purposes, eventually fall into disuse
+from being too expensive to maintain or alter for general agricultural
+uses.--_Journal of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA.
+
+
+From the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging the
+European medical press, we select the following from Dr. Henry A. Rawlins,
+in the _London Med. Times_, July 12. 1884:
+
+The man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by diarrhoea of
+an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his blood. This loss is one of
+simple transudation, increasing as the powers of life decrease. This
+_sudden_ loss produces intense prostration, and renders the heart
+powerless to perfect the circulation. The body, thus deprived of oxygen,
+speedily runs into decomposition, even before life is extinct. Have we any
+agent by which we can collect and press forward these scattered and
+lethargic drops of blood to the heart, and enable it to renew the
+circulation, and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body? My reply is
+emphatically--Yes! Flannel bandages from the toes to the trunk, around the
+abdomen, and from the fingers to the body, will effect this object
+perfectly. Remark that the effect is gradual, increasing with every turn
+of the roller, but would be in full force in about twenty minutes. By thus
+exposing the blood in the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted
+form, as it is in the air, instead of pure oxygen, the reaction would
+neither be too rapid nor too dangerous. In confirmation of my views, I
+have this day learned that it is the custom in India to wear a double roll
+of flannel around the abdomen, as a preventive to cholera. The other
+advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are:
+
+1. That they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor creature
+who is already in a state of refrigeration.
+
+2. By their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor muscles
+alike, they are steadied, and rendered much less likely to be affected
+with spasmodic action or cramp.
+
+3. By their steady _elastic_ pressure and support of about 160 pounds,
+they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of the blood, which
+they had previously restored.
+
+4. That the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will, I believe, prove
+quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison, and also destroy its
+effects.
+
+5. That this much can at least be claimed for their use--that they remove
+from nature a stumbling-block, which prevented her from exercising her
+marvelous recuperative powers. Diluted sulphuric acid is the best medicine
+to arrest the flux from the bowels, acting also as a tonic. It should be
+given in five-minim doses about every half hour, with rice gruel. By
+adopting this plan, the natural process is brought about, that of the
+starch being converted into grape sugar. Plenty of white of egg, well
+whipped up, so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach,
+which it will appropriate, should be given. Opium, in small quantities,
+and other stimulants, should be given according to the necessities of the
+case. May it not be well, through the medium of wet sponge over the
+thorax, to apply a continuous but gentle current of galvanism, so as to
+stimulate the heart's action, keep alive the respiratory movements, and
+thereby assist in the maintenance of the functions of the body?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND PRESSURE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO HEALTH.
+
+
+At the recent meteorological conference held at the Health Exhibition, Dr.
+J.W. Tripe read a paper of much interest on some relations of
+meteorological phenomena to health.
+
+In ages long past these relations excited much attention, but the
+knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind; and indeed, even now,
+no very great advance has been made, because it is only quite recently
+that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate record of deaths with
+observations taken at a number of reliable meteorological stations. The
+more useful and searching comparison between cases of sickness, instead of
+deaths, and meteorological phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large
+scale in this country, and especially as regards zymotic diseases. In
+Belgium there is a Society of Medical Practitioners, embracing nearly the
+whole country, that publishes a monthly record of cases of sickness, of
+deaths, and of meteorological observations; but the only attempt on a
+large scale in this country, which was started by the Society of Medical
+Officers of Health for the whole of London, failed partly from want of
+funds, and partly from irregularity in the returns. My remarks, which must
+necessarily be very brief, will refer to the relations between (1)
+meteorological phenomena and the bodily functions of man, and (2) between
+varying meteorological conditions and death-rates from certain diseases.
+
+As regards the first, I will commence with a few brief remarks on the
+effects of varying barometric pressures. A great deal too much attention
+is paid to the barometer if we regard it as indicating only, as it really
+does, variations in the weight of the column of air pressing upon our
+bodies, because, except at considerable elevations, where the barometer is
+always much lower than at sea level, these variations produce but little
+effect on health. At considerable elevations the diminished pressure
+frequently causes a great feeling of malaise, giddiness, loss of strength,
+palpitation, and even nausea; and at greater heights, as was noticed by
+Mr. Glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent, loss of sight, feeling, and
+consciousness. These were caused by a want of a sufficient supply of
+oxygen to remove effete matters from the system, and to carry on the
+organic functions necessary for the maintenance of life. On elevated
+mountain plateaus, or even in high residences among the Alps, an increased
+rapidity in the number of respirations and of the pulse, as well as
+increased evaporation from the lungs and skin, occur.
+
+For some years past, many persons suffering from consumption, gout,
+rheumatism, and anæmic affections have gone to mountain stations, chiefly
+in Switzerland, for relief, and many have derived much benefit from the
+change. It must not, however, be supposed that diminished atmospheric
+pressure was the chief cause of the improvement in health, as its
+concomitants, viz., a diminution in the quantity of oxygen and moisture
+contained in each cubic foot of air, probably the low temperature, with a
+total change in the daily habits of life, have assisted in the beneficial
+results. The diminution in the quantity of air, and consequently of
+oxygen, taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by
+an increased frequency and depth of the respirations, and a greater
+capacity of the chest. In this country, alterations in the barometric
+pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an approaching change in the
+wind, and as well as of the amount of moisture in the air; hence the
+instrument is often called "the weather glass." A sudden diminution in the
+atmospheric pressure is likely to be attended with an escape of ground air
+from the soil, and therefore to cause injury to health, especially among
+the occupants of basement rooms, unless the whole interior of the building
+be covered with concrete.
+
+_Temperature._--Experience has shown that man can bear greater variations
+of temperature than any other animal, as in the Arctic regions a
+temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit, or more than 100 degrees below
+freezing point, can be safely borne; that he can not only live but work,
+and remain in good health, in these regions provided that he be supplied
+with suitable clothing and plenty of proper food. On the other hand, man
+has existed and taken exercise in the interior of Australia when the
+thermometer showed a temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, or nearly 90
+degrees above freezing point, so that he can live and be in fairly good
+health within a range of nearly 200 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+The effects of a high temperature vary very much according to the amount
+of moisture in the air, as when the air is nearly saturated in hot
+climates, or even in summer in our own, more or less languor and malaise
+are felt, with great indisposition to bodily labor. With a dry air these
+are not so noticeable. The cause is evident; in the former case but little
+evaporation occurs from the skin, and the normal amount of moisture is not
+given off from the lungs, so that the body is not cooled down to such an
+extent as by dry air. Sunstroke is probably the result, not only of the
+direct action of the sun's rays, but partly from diminished cooling of the
+blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin.
+
+The effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the mean for
+the day, month, or year, as on the extremes, as, when the days are hot and
+the nights comparatively cool, the energy of the system becomes partially
+restored, so that a residence near the sea, or in the vicinity of high
+mountains, in hot climates is, other things being equal, less enervating
+than in the plains, as the night air is generally cooler. It is commonly
+believed that hot climates are _necessarily_ injurious to Europeans, by
+causing frequent liver derangements and diseases, dysentery, cholera, and
+fevers. This, however, is, to a certain extent, a mistake, as the recent
+medical statistical returns of our army in India show that in the new
+barracks, with more careful supervision as regards diet and clothing, the
+sickness and death-rates are much reduced. Planters and others, who ride
+about a good deal, as a rule keep in fairly good health; but the children
+of Europeans certainly degenerate, and after two or three generations die
+out, unless they intermarry with natives, and make frequent visits to
+colder climates. This fact shows that hot climates, probably by
+interfering with the due performance of the various processes concerned in
+the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues, eventually sap the
+foundations of life among Europeans; but how far this result has been
+caused by bad habits as regards food, exercise, and self-indulgence, I
+cannot say. Rapid changes of temperature in this country are often very
+injurious to the young and old, causing diarrhoea and derangements of the
+liver when great heat occurs, and inflammatory diseases of the lungs,
+colds, etc., when the air becomes suddenly colder, even in summer.
+
+The _direct_ influence of rain on man is not very marked in this country,
+except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation from the ground and
+from vegetable life, and by altering the level of ground water. This is a
+subject almost overlooked by the public, and it is therefore as well that
+it should be known that when ground water has a level persistently less
+than five feet from the surface of the soil, the locality is usually
+unhealthy, and should not, if possible, be selected for a residence.
+Fluctuations in the level of ground water, especially if great and sudden,
+generally cause ill-health among the residents. Thus, Dr. Buchanan in his
+reports to the Privy Council in 1866-1867, showed that consumption (using
+the word in its most extended sense) is more prevalent in damp than on dry
+soils, and numerous reports of medical officers of health, and others,
+which have been published since then, show that an effective drainage of
+the land, and consequent carrying away of the ground water, has been
+followed by a diminution of these diseases.
+
+Varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the health and
+comfort of man. In this country, however, it is not only the absolute but
+the relative proportions of aerial moisture which materially influence
+mankind. The quantity of aqueous vapor that a cubic foot of air can hold
+in suspension, when it is saturated, varies very much with the
+temperature. Thus at 40 degrees Fahr. it will hold 2.86 grains of water;
+at 50 degrees, 4.10 grains; at 60 degrees, 5.77 grains; at 70 degrees,
+8.01 grains; and at 90 degrees as much as 14.85 grains. If saturation be
+represented by 100, more rapid evaporation from the skin will take place
+at 70 degrees, and 75 per cent. of saturation, than at 60 degrees when
+saturated, although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is
+greater at the first named temperature than at the latter. As regards the
+lungs, however, the case is different, as the air breathed out is, if the
+respirations be regular and fairly deep, completely saturated with
+moisture at the temperature of the body. In cold climates the amount of
+moisture and of the effete matters given off from the lungs in the expired
+air is much greater than in hot climates, and the body is also cooled by
+the evaporation of water in the form of aqueous vapor. Moist air is a
+better conductor of heat than dry air, which accounts for much of the
+discomfort felt in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the
+feeling of elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather, therefore,
+moist air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, and
+colds consequently result. London fogs are injurious, not only on account
+of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal, but in
+consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated with moisture
+at a low temperature. The injuriousness of fogs and low temperatures will
+be presently dwelt upon at greater length.
+
+Variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere exert a
+considerable influence on the circulation of air contained in the soil,
+which is called ground air. As all the interstices of the ground are
+filled with air or water, the more porous the soil, the greater is the
+bulk of air. The quantity of air contained in soil varies very much
+according to the material of which the soil is composed, as it is evident
+that in a gravelly or sandy soil it must be greater than when the ground
+consists of loam or clay. The estimates vary from 3 to 30 per cent., but
+the latter is probably too high. If, therefore, a cesspool leak into the
+ground, the offensive effluvia, if in large quantities, will escape into
+the soil, and are given off at the surface of the ground, or are drawn
+into a house by the fire; but, if small, they are rendered innocuous by
+oxidation. The distance to which injurious gases and suspended or
+dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous soil is sometimes
+considerable, as I have known it pass for 130 feet along a disused drain,
+and above 30 feet through loose soil.
+
+Winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and indirectly.
+Directly, by promoting evaporation from the skin, and abstracting heat
+from the body in proportion to their dryness and rapidity of motion. Their
+indirect action is more important, as the temperature and pressure of the
+air depend to a great extent on their direction. Thus winds from the north
+in this country are usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry
+weather; in summer with a pleasant feeling, but in winter with much cold.
+Southwest winds are the most frequent here of any, as about 24 per cent.
+of the winds come from this quarter against 16½ from the west, 11½ from
+the east, and the same from the northeast; 10½ from the south, 8 from the
+north, and a smaller number from the other quarters. Southwest winds are
+also those which are most frequently accompanied by rain, as about 30 per
+cent. of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds. Another set
+of observations give precisely the same order, but a considerable
+difference in their prevalence, viz., southwest 31 per cent., west 14½,
+and northeast 11½ per cent. Easterly winds are the most unpleasant, as
+well as the most injurious to man of all that occur in this country.
+
+I now propose discussing very briefly the known relations between
+meteorological phenomena and disease. I say the known relations, because
+it is evident that there are many unknown relations of which at present we
+have had the merest glimpse. For instance, small-pox, while of an ordinary
+type, and producing only a comparatively small proportion of deaths to
+those attacked, will sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form, and
+spread with great rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological
+conditions when it usually declines in frequency. There are, however, in
+this country known relations between the temperature and, I may say,
+almost all diseases. As far back as 1847 I began a series of elaborate
+investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at different periods of
+the year, and the relations between this disease and the heat, moisture,
+and electricity of the air. I then showed that a mean monthly temperature
+below 44.6° F. was adverse to the spread of this disease, that the
+greatest relative decrease took place when the mean temperature was below
+40°, and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months having
+a mean temperature of between 45° and 57° F. Diseases of the lungs,
+excluding consumption, are fatal in proportion to the lowness of the
+temperature and the presence of excess of moisture and fog. Thus, in
+January, 1882, the mean weekly temperature fell from 43.9° F. in the
+second week to 36.2° in the third, with fog and mist. The number of deaths
+registered in London during the third week, which may be taken as
+corresponding with the meteorological conditions of the second week, was
+1,700, and in the next week 1,971. Unusual cold, with frequent fogs and
+little sunshine, continued for four weeks, the weekly number of deaths
+rising from 1,700 to 1,971, 2,023, 2,632, and 2,188. The deaths from
+acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were respectively 279, 481,
+566, 881, and 689, showing that a large proportion of the excessive
+mortality was caused by these diseases. At the end of November and in
+December of the same year there was a rapid fall of temperature, when the
+number of deaths from acute diseases of the lungs rose from 297 to 358,
+350, 387, 541, 553, and 389 in the respective weeks. From November 29 to
+December 9 the sun was seen only on two days for 4½ hours, and from
+December 9 to the 18th also on two other days for less than 4 hours,
+making the total amount of sunshine 8.1 hours only in 20 days. In January
+and February the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases reached the
+large number of 504 deaths; in December it was less, the fogs not having
+been so dense, but the excess equaled 246 deaths per week.
+
+The relations between a high summer temperature and excessive mortality
+from diarrhoea have long been well known, but the immediate cause of the
+disease as an epidemic is not known. Summer diarrhoea prevails to a greater
+extent in certain localities, notably in Leicester (and has done so for
+years); and the cause has been carefully sought for, but has not been
+found out. Recent researches, however, point to a kind of bacillus as the
+immediate cause, as it has been found in the air of water-closets, in the
+traps under the pans, and in the discharges from infants and young
+children. In order to indicate more readily how intimately the mortality
+from diarrhoea depends on temperature, I now lay before you a table showing
+the mean temperature for ten weeks in summer, of seven cold and hot
+summers, the temperature of Thames water, and the death-rates of infants
+under one year per million population of London:
+
+_London.--Deaths under 1 Year, in July, August, and part of
+September, from Diarrhoea per 1,000,000 Population Living
+at all Ages, arranged in the Order of Mortality._
+
+                                      Age 0-1 year.
+           Mean       Temperature  Deaths from Diarrhoea
+Years.  temperature,   of Thames       per 1,000,000
+         10 weeks.      water.     population living at
+                                       all ages.
+1860       58.1°         60.6°             151
+1862       59.0          62.0              189
+1879       58.7          60.7              228
+1877       61.2          63.3              347
+1874       61.7          63.8              447
+1878       63.7          64.1              576
+1876       64.4          64.9              643
+
+As may be seen, the deaths of infants under 1 year of age from diarrhoea
+per 1,000,000 population was only 151; while the mean summer temperature
+was only 58.1° F. against 189 in 1862, when the mean temperature was
+59.0°. In 1879, when the mean temperature was 58.7°, the deaths from
+diarrhoea rose to 228 per million, but a few days were unusually hot. In
+1877 the mean temperature of the air was 61.2°, of the Thames water 63.3°,
+and the mortality of infants from diarrhoea 347 per million population. In
+1874, when the mean temperature of the air was 61.7°, the mortality rose
+to 447 per million; and in the hot summers of 1878 and 1876, when the mean
+air temperatures were 64.1° and 64.9° respectively, the death-rates of
+infants were 576 and 642 per million population. The relations, therefore,
+between a high summer temperature and the mortality from diarrhoea in
+infants are very intimate. I have selected the mortality among infants in
+preference to that at all ages, as the deaths occur more quickly, and
+because young children suffer in greater proportion than other persons.
+
+The proportionate number of deaths at _all ages_ from diarrhoea corresponds
+pretty closely with those of infants. To prove this, I made calculations
+for three years, and ascertained that only 3.9 per cent. of all the deaths
+from this disease were registered in the weeks having a temperature of
+less than 50°; 11.9 per cent. in the weeks having a temperature between
+50° and 60°; while in the comparatively few weeks in which the temperature
+exceeded 60° F., as many as 84.2 per cent. of the total number of deaths
+was registered. In the sixteen years, 1840-56, for which many years ago I
+made a special inquiry, only 18.9 per cent. of all the deaths from
+diarrhoea occurred in winter and spring, against 81.1 per cent. in summer
+and autumn. In the twenty years, 1860-79, there were seven years in which
+the summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per 100,000
+inhabitants of London was 200; while in ten summers, during which the
+temperature was in excess by 2° or less, the mortality was 317 per
+100,000. The mean temperature was largely in excess, that is to say, more
+than 2° plus in three of these summers, when the mortality reached 339 per
+100,000 inhabitants.
+
+These figures show that great care should be taken in hot weather to
+prevent diarrhoea, especially among young children; by frequent washing
+with soap and water to insure cleanliness, and proper action of the skin;
+by great attention to the food, especially of infants fed from the bottle;
+free ventilation of living rooms, and especially of bedrooms; and by
+protection, as far as possible, being afforded from a hot sun, as well as
+by avoiding excessive exercise. All animal and vegetable matter should be
+removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible
+(indeed, these should be burnt instead of being put in the dust-bin), the
+drains should be frequently disinfected and well flushed out, especially
+when the mean daily temperature of the air is above 60° F.
+
+Time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations between
+meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other diseases and
+affections, such as apoplexy from heat, sunstroke, liver diseases, yellow
+fever, cholera, whooping-cough, measles, etc., especially as the state of
+our knowledge on the subject is so very limited. A comparison between the
+mortality from several diseases in this and other countries shows that
+certain of these do not prevail under closely corresponding conditions.
+Thus the curves of mortality from whooping-cough, typhoid fever, and
+scarlet fever do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both
+London and New York, and the same may be said of diarrhoea in India. It is
+therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying
+temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased death-rate
+from these diseases. The subject is of great importance, and I do not
+despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the agents through which
+meteorological phenomena act in the production of increased and decreased
+death rates from certain diseases, and the means by which, to a certain
+extent, these injurious effects on man may be presented.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+P. Rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide diminishes
+the sensibility of the cortical substance of the cerebrum to electric
+excitement, while, the excitability of the underlying white substance
+remains unaltered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONSUMPTION SPREAD BY CHICKENS.
+
+
+In a village, C., near Weimar, where for many years no case of tubercular
+phthisis had taken place, two years ago several families suddenly
+discovered one of their members to be suffering from the disease. After a
+long inquiry, it was discovered by accident that all these families had
+been buying their spring chickens from one and the same place, viz., from
+a private hospital in the neighborhood. A medical student brought the
+livers of two such chickens to Prof. Johne, in Dresden. The student, whose
+own sister had become affected with consumption, had lived during his
+vacation at home with his parents, in C., and he had there at dinner
+observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens.
+
+On examination, both organs were found to be full of tubercular bacilli. A
+thorough investigation was at once instituted, and it was then that the
+fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the families, members of
+which had been affected with tuberculosis, had all been brought from the
+institution mentioned. On further inquiry at the latter place the
+following facts were elicited:
+
+At about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in the
+village, an inmate or the hospital, Mrs. R., had died of the disease.
+Before her death, Mrs. R. used to feed the chickens raised there; she was
+often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it to the chickens.
+Further, the spittoons were emptied on a place in the yard where the
+chickens generally came to pick up any stray corn.
+
+As none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in the
+neighborhood--the hospital being situated at a considerable distance from
+the village--as no disease had happened among them until the arrival of
+Mrs. R., when soon after an epidemic seemed to break out among them, and
+many died, there is no doubt that they contracted the disease from Mrs.
+R., and in return infected those who ate their flesh.
+
+The case is very interesting, first, as it proves how such animals may
+become affected, then how they may spread the disease, and lastly, that
+some kind of a disposition must exist in the person infected; for here, of
+many who had eaten of the diseased flesh, only a few contracted the
+malady. The whole report teaches us how careful we have to be, and how
+necessary is the appointment of skillful experts by the State to inspect
+all food offered for sale.--_Med. and Surg. Reporter._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF REDUCING FEVER.
+
+
+For many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly through the
+vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by means of which the high
+temperature often prevailing in typhoid, malarial, and other fevers might
+be reduced with rapidity and safety to the patient. A few substances have
+been found which produce a decline in temperature when administered in
+enormous and frequently repeated doses; but such administration has often
+been found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient, producing not
+infrequently serious injury to the stomach, kidneys, and sometimes the
+nervous system. So great is the danger of such injurious results, few
+careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic "antipyretic"
+medication recommended by experimenters, preferring to allow their
+patients to burn with fever, mitigated only by such simple means as are
+commonly employed by nurses, than to require them to combat the poisonous
+influences of a drug in addition to the morbid element of the disease.
+
+Happily, however, it is not necessary to leave the patient to the unaided
+efforts of nature. By cool sponging of the surface, persistently and
+thoroughly applied; by large, cool compresses placed over the abdomen and
+chest, or even the whole front of the body, and changed as often as warm,
+or every three to five minutes; by frequently repeated cool packs; by cold
+water drinking; by ice-packs to the spine; by constant application of ice
+or frozen compresses to the head; by forcing perspiration by copious hot
+drinks and a warm blanket pack--by any or all of these means the
+temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every case. However,
+cases will now and then occur in which the temperature remains dangerously
+high, notwithstanding the thorough application of the above means. What
+shall be done?
+
+Several years ago our attention was called to a series of experiments made
+by Dr. Winternitz, Professor of Hydropathy in the Medical University of
+Vienna, for the purpose of determining the influence upon temperature of
+enemas of water of different temperature in cases of fever. The results
+claimed by Prof. Winternitz were so striking that we improved the first
+opportunity to repeat his experiments, and with such results as have
+justified the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in
+fever, in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient. The
+only objection we have found to the method has been the inconvenience to
+the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the bed-pan. In a recent
+case in which we found it necessary to resort to this method, the nurse
+observed that if the tin can of the fountain syringe used in administering
+the enema happened to be lowered below the level of the bed on which the
+patient lay, water which had previously been introduced into the rectum
+returned readily through the tube into the can. On learning this fact, the
+attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way. From one to
+two pints of water, of 70° or 75° F. temperature, were allowed to pass
+into the bowels; and after being retained for five or ten minutes, or
+until the patient experienced uncomfortable sensations, it was made to
+pass out through the tube by simply lowering the reservoir to the level of
+the floor. A new supply of water of a proper temperature being introduced
+into the reservoir, it was again raised to the proper height, and the
+operation so continued until six quarts of water had been used. Then the
+patient was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour, according to the
+height of the fever, and the same process was repeated. Careful record was
+made of the temperature of the patient just before the treatment and
+immediately after. It was found to be invariably reduced from one to one
+and a half degrees by each treatment. The temperature, which had been
+exceedingly obstinate previous to the employment of this method, ranging
+from 104° to 105°, during the intervals between the treatments would, of
+course, rise somewhat; but each time it stopped short of the point reached
+during the previous interval, so that in the course of a few hours the
+fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature. The
+temperature of the water, when taken after passing through the bowels, was
+found to have risen each time from 10° to 13°.
+
+The great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of the most
+useful of all substances for lowering the temperature; and it is readily
+apparent that, by the means described, heat may be abstracted from the
+body almost _ad libitum_, and the temperature may thus be controlled with
+a rapidity and a degree of certainty which cannot be approached by any
+other method. In a still more recent case, in which the same treatment was
+employed, the temperature of the patient had reached 106° F., in spite of
+the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment, such as cold
+compresses, etc.; but it was, in four or five hours, brought down to
+nearly 100° by the use of the cold enemas.
+
+The advantages of this method are: 1. It may be employed without wetting
+or moving the patient; very frequently a patient will sleep continuously
+during the administration of the treatment. 2. It seldom causes
+chilliness, which is frequently a disturbing symptom, especially in fevers
+of a low type, and even, when the temperature is alarmingly high, causing
+the patient to dread the employment of sponging with cool or tepid water.
+3. It is not necessary to employ cold water, a temperature of 80° or even
+85° being thoroughly efficient. In the majority of cases, however, water
+of 70° or even 60° may be employed without danger. The water comes in such
+immediate contact with surfaces filled with large blood-vessels that a
+temperature but a few degrees below that of the body is more effective
+than very much colder water applied to the surface.
+
+In cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by chilliness,
+this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by the application of a
+hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the pit of the stomach.
+
+The simple measures of treatment we have described will be found more
+effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other remedies which
+have ever been recommended for this purpose.--_Good Health._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE EXHIBITION
+OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.]
+
+According to a recent law of Parliament, a large part of the crown jewels
+of France is destined to be sold. The exhibit that has been made of these
+riches for the last two months at the National Exhibition of the
+Industrial Arts, in the State Hall of the Louvre, has excited a lively
+interest among the visitors. Here are to be seen, heaped up in a large
+octagonal show-case, incomparable treasures, whose value exceeds quite a
+number of millions. According to the inventory of 1818, the 52,000
+precious stones of the crown of France were estimated as worth more than
+20 million francs ($4,000,000); but since that epoch the stones have
+increased in number, and money has singularly diminished in value, so that
+the total at present would be much less.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)]
+
+In order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was necessary to
+take precautions against thieves and fire, and this was done in a very
+sure and ingenious manner. The collection of crown jewels is distributed
+over the eight faces of an octagonal truncated cone, which is supported by
+a framework about three feet in height at the lower part. The stand is
+exhibited every day, at ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening,
+under an elegant octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of
+Fortune by Barbedienne. The whole is covered with a canopy, as shown in
+Fig. 1.
+
+A force of guardians of the Treasury is detailed to watch over the crown
+jewels, and it is to them that is confided the care of operating in the
+morning and evening the safety mechanism that we shall describe. The
+object of this mechanism is to lower into and lift out of the strong-box
+the entire stand with all its jewels.
+
+A winch, shown at A to the right of the engraving, sets in motion a system
+of gear wheels keyed at an angle, at B and C, upon intermediate shafts
+that transmit motion to the four vertical threaded rods of the frame, D.
+All these shaftings are 1½ inch in diameter, and the cog-wheels, twenty in
+number, are about 5 inches in diameter.
+
+The well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick, and is 20 inches
+thick and 6 feet high. In the center of this masonry is embedded very
+thick iron plate. The bottom of the well is isolated from the flooring of
+the Exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler plate, by a filling of tire
+bricks, and finally by a second thickness of boiler plate. The well is
+closed by means of a large plate of iron 6 inches thick, 10 feet in
+length, and 88 feet in width. The winch which maneuvers this mass is
+placed at E. It actuates a system of bevel wheels, keyed at F, which
+transmit motion to two horizontal screws (hidden under the stage) that
+actuate the plate, H. This latter is provided with two parallel series of
+five rollers each that revolve over long and strong pieces of wood covered
+with rails. Electric alarms are located near the winches.
+
+A fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen feet of the
+exhibition building.
+
+A committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has been
+appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to indicate such as
+should be withheld from sale on account of their scientific, artistic, or
+historic interest. The members of the committee propose to preserve the
+following objects:
+
+1. The "Regent" (Fig. 2), by reason of its mineralogical value, the
+perfection of its cutting, the purity of its water, its incomparable
+luster, and its great size, it being the largest brilliant as yet known.
+
+2. The military sword of Charles the Tenth's coronation, the hilt of which
+is entirely of brilliants mounted by Bapst with wonderful art.
+
+3. The jewel called the "Reliquary," of the 15th century.
+
+To these riches must be added the following interesting objects: the Dey
+of Algiers' watch; the Elephant of Denmark; the decorations, etc., of
+foreign orders; crowns and diadems of sapphire; rubies; pearls that afford
+curious specimens of French art at the beginning of our century; one of
+the Mazarins bequeathed by the celebrated Cardinal; and lots of colored
+stones destined for our national museums.
+
+The same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other
+collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over in
+silence, such as the exhibit of the French diamond mines of the Cape,
+where one may see all the details of this prosperous exploitation by means
+of photographs and specimens. The art bronzes, the objects of jewelry, of
+goldsmith's work, and of morocco work, the music boxes, Trouve's and
+Aboilard's electric jewelry, and the retrospective art collections
+especially attracted the attention of the public.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW MODE OF TESTING THE ECONOMY OF THE EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT IN
+LIFE INSURANCE.
+
+
+How to determine the general ratios of the expenses of management of life
+insurance companies has hitherto been an unsettled question, and I think
+no serious attempt has been made before my own to study this question
+exhaustively, and reach a scientific conclusion.
+
+Believing that, one is contained in the following statement, I
+respectfully submit it to the criticism of others.
+
+It has generally been taken for granted that the measure of economy of
+life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single ratio of expenses
+to one feature of the business, such as the premium income, or the total
+income (premium and interest), or the mean amount of all policies
+outstanding. But this is not the case. No exhaustive reason has been shown
+for preferring one of these bases of ratio to another, and, indeed, no
+reason well supported by argument has been shown for employing either. On
+the other hand, no better evidence is needed of the importance of
+establishing a uniform and demonstrably sound basis, than the fact that it
+is common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior
+economy, and totally confuse the public, by opposing ratios found in one
+way by ratios found in another--that one of two companies which appears
+the most economical according to one test being apparently the least so
+according to another.
+
+The economy of the expense of any transaction, or work, can only be
+intelligently judged by the value of the _result_. This truth is too well
+recognized to need illustration, and it only needs to be called to mind,
+to perceive both the error of ratios of expense based on premium, which is
+not the result but the _raw material_, so to speak, of insurance
+transactions; and what, on the contrary, the true basis is.
+
+It is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must be judged,
+not by comparison with the premiums paid, but by comparison specifically
+with the resulting advantages in fact secured by such payments. Now these
+are of two kinds: which may be called the _insurance advantage_ and the
+_investment advantage_.
+
+(1) Each death claim paid is an insurance advantage, though it is so only
+to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy which has become a
+claim over its premium reserve, or value, for the latter being the balance
+(with interest) of the policy holder's own premium money, could have been
+left or secured to his representatives without the intervention of the
+policy and company.
+
+It is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not consist in
+adding anything to the wealth of a company, but only consists in drawing
+from the premiums paid into its treasury by the policy holders generally,
+to meet each death claim which arises; or can only be called an _advantage
+of distribution_, or process of collecting aid from the living members, to
+assist the representatives or dependents of the deceased ones; but it is
+not the less on this account an advantage worth _same expense_ in
+securing.
+
+(2) Interest realized by the investment of premium while it is in the
+keeping of a company is an advantage; in every sense so, since it comes
+wholly from outside sources, and accrues proportionally to all members; it
+may be called, as above, the investment advantage, and of course justifies
+some _expense_ to secure it.
+
+Hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given; time must be
+divided into two parts, one being the expense incidental to insurance, and
+the other that incidental to investment, which parts are to be compared
+respectively with the insurance claims met, and interest receipts of the
+company for the same time; or what is equivalent in the latter case, the
+net rate of interest earned after deducting the incidental investment
+expense may be found.
+
+When this process shows that one company has earned a higher rate of
+interest than another, at the same time that its insurance expenses bear a
+lower ratio to its insurance claims paid, _there is no escape from the
+conclusion that during the period under observation it has served its
+policy-holders more economically_, and the test is therefore scientific.
+Though, if one company shows a higher rate of interest, while the other
+shows a lower ratio of insurance expense, it will still be necessary, to
+complete the test, to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of
+insurance expense (it does not practically matter which), and note how
+this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the other score.
+
+To be exact, if the average vitality of the members of the two companies
+differ (other things being equal, it is always cheapest to belong to that
+company which has the lowest death rate), the ratios of insurance expense
+to expected, as well as actual, claims of each must be found, and equated.
+
+The science of this procedure, or mode of testing expenses, and also its
+practical simplicity, may be more clearly perceived by reference to its
+practical application in the following table:
+
+_Table Exhibiting Ratio of Expense, Determined by the New Mode, of Companies
+Doing Business in Massachusetts during the Year 1883._
+___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |         |           |           |
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |Expense  |           |           |Net Rate
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |per $100 |           |           |   of
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |of claims|           |           |interest
+                   |     |   Death   |Estimated |Difference |Expense    |paid.    | Interest  |  Expense  | earned.
+Name of Company.   |Loca-|   claims  |Premiums. | or Net    | on the    |---------| Receipts. |  on the   |--------
+                   |tion.|   paid.   | Reserve  |Insurance  |score of   | R   | R |           | score of  | R  | R
+                   |     |           | thereon. |furnished. |Insurance. | a   | a |           |investment.| a  | a
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | t   | n |           |           | t  | n
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | e.  | k.|           |           | e. | k.
+-------------------+-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------|----|---
+Berkshire          |Mass.|   $208,147|   $46,605|   $161,524|   $122,779| 75.4| 14|   $194,067|    $15,809|5.25| 16
+[1]John Hancock    |  "  |    169,604|    25,117|    144,487| [8]228,566|158.2| 24|    135,597|     11,686|3.65| 26
+Mass. Mutual       |  "  |    426,995|    86,215|    340,780|    232,400| 68.2| 10|    428,255|     33,176|6.03|  7
+N. England Mutual  |  "  |  1,039,694|   235,630|    804,064|    311,879| 38.8|  3|    995,883|     69,908|6.40|  4
+State Mutual       |  "  |    121,969|    22,493|     99,476|     98,839| 99.4| 19|    143,751|     13,057|4.51| 24
+Ætna               |Conn.|  1,302,807|   364,510|    938,297|    460,014| 49.0|  6|  1,760,372|    118,962|6.22|  5
+Connecticut General|  "  |     87,639|    15,624|     72,015|     46,113| 64.0|  9|     95,580|      5,407|7.03|  1
+     "      Mutual |  "  |  2,867,489|   881,600|  1,985,889|    622,941| 31.4|  1|  3,041,125|    238,944|5.70| 10
+Equitable          | N.Y.|  3,072,232|   483,950|  2,588,282|  1,884,108| 72.8| 12|  2,743,024|    216,725|5.42| 12
+Germania           |  "  |    606,072|   149,950|    456,122|    325,662| 71.4| 11|    508,702|     47,193|4.85| 22
+Home               |  "  |    205,921|    48,603|    157,318|    155,192| 98.6| 18|    260,506|     19,917|4.86| 21
+Homoeopathic       |  "  |     35,610|     6,340|     29,270|     48,734|166.5| 25|     42,814|      2,935|6.20|  6
+Manhattan          |  "  |    687,171|   183,450|    503,721|    266,305| 44.9|  5|    627,628|     44,081|5.82|  8
+[7]Metropolitan    |  "  |    638,639|    18,322|    620,317|  1,161,893|187.3| 26|    106,916|      9,098|4.90| 20
+Mutual Life        |  "  |  5,172,275| 1,407,700|  3,764,575|  1,480,198| 39.3|  4|  5,042,964|    466,739|5.01| 19
+Mutual Benefit     | N.J.|  2,160,991|   550,890|  1,610,101|    521,829| 32.4|  2|  2,072,629|    169,913|5.61| 11
+National           | Vt. |    174,767|    29,127|    145,640|     77,861| 53.5|  7|    149,010|     10,100|5.26| 15
+New York Life      | N.Y.|  2,408,636|   574,150|  1,834,484|  1,995,102|108.8| 21|  2,676,592|    236,884|5.03| 18
+Northwest'n Mutual | Wis.|    990,692|   190,500|    800,192|    630,582| 78.8| 15|  1,200,001|     88,527|5.80|  9
+Penn. Mutual       |Penn.|    601,625|   107,600|    494,025|    309,858| 62.7|  8|    463,567|     37,131|5.38| 13
+Provident Life and |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+   Trust           |  "  |    280,817|    49,865|    230,952|    222,665| 96.4| 17|    340,115|     33,294|4.26| 25
+Provident Savings  | N.Y.|     24,875|     1,828|     23,047|     51,608|233.9| 27|      4,955|      2,579|1.70| 27
+Travelers'         |Conn.|    235,001|    42,243|    192,758|    144,621| 75.0| 13|    331,623|     22,476|6.42|  3
+Union Mutual       |Maine|    377,547|    88,520|    289,027|    237,913| 82.3| 16|    301,499|     28,754|4.66| 23
+United States      | N.Y.|    283,304|    69,245|    214,059|    277,919|129.8| 23|    271,594|     23,460|5.09| 17
+Vermont            | Vt. |     13,000|     1,542|     11,458|     13,613|118.8| 22|     12,917|        822|5.33| 14
+Washington         | N.Y.|    356,289|    71,820|    284,469|    289,461|101.8| 20|    446,998|     32,249|6.78|  2
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+                   +-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------+----+---
+   Totals          |     |$24,549,808|$5,753,439|$18,796,369|$12,177,655| 64.8|   |$24,398,684| $1,999,826|5.42|
+
+_Collective Business of Assessment Societies Doing Business in the State (excepting Secret Societies_).
+
+46 Societies       |     |   $735,383|          |           |   $237,770| 32.3|   |           |           |    |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[Footnote 7: Including industrial business.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Includes $18.867 depreciation.]
+
+The figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual report of
+the Insurance Commissioner of Massachusetts, excepting the premium reserve
+on death claims, which, as well as the division of the total expenses of
+each company into insurance and investment expenses, I have estimated on a
+uniform rule. This was for lack of the actual data in these particulars,
+which the report did not give, as it is desirable that future ones may.
+
+This, however, does not injure the value of the table for illustrating the
+mode of procedure, for which purpose mainly it is presented. The companies
+whose figures I have used, moreover, have no occasion to complain of this,
+as my estimate certainly gives all ratios of insurance expense lower than
+they would appear if I had known, and used, the exact actual premium
+reserve on death claims, and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to
+each other as they would in that case.
+
+As the object of this statement is to explain the new method, and not to
+defend my particular estimates in applying it, I forbear to state on what
+rules I have made them. Expense which is not ascribed to insurance must be
+ascribed to investment, and as in comparing any two companies, their two
+ratios of one kind or the other must be equated, to decide the question of
+economy between them, it may well be left to any company to say what the
+fair division of its own expenses is.
+
+Moreover, there can be but little motive to make a false division; for to
+successfully compete for business, a company having large investments has
+as much need to show a high net rate of interest earned as a low rate of
+insurance expense. Again, it is not my purpose to pass judgment on the
+economy or extravagance of any ratio of expense shown in the table. It is
+not a fact exhibited for the first time by my figures, that the ratios of
+some companies are more than double those of others. The same fact would
+be displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium income,
+or any other incorrect basis. Custom, the balance of opinions, and
+competition may well be left to decide what ratios of expense are high,
+and what are average, or low. And their decision is to be gathered only
+from _statistics_.
+
+What I do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein explained is
+the only intelligible and scientific one, and the only one proper to
+employ in _statistical tabulations_ and _investigations_.
+
+As such, it calls attention to the fact that the amount of insurance
+claims met, and of interest receipts, _are limits_ which the corresponding
+expenses cannot exceed, certainly for a series of years together, without
+making the _expense_ more than the _advantage_ of the business. To keep
+this fact in view, _as a preventive of extravagance_, is not the least
+valuable service the new mode may render. It may be seen that there are
+eight cases in the table, in which the ratio of insurance expense points
+to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in the same time, yet the
+reader need not hasten to conclude that the same companies will
+permanently show similar ratios, or have no good reasons to give for the
+ones which now appear. I may remark, however, that it is an evidence of
+the scientific mode in which the figures are presented, that it
+facilitates such explanations as are pertinent of any of the ratios.
+
+For instance, some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the fact that
+the claims for the year of the company in question have been exceptionally
+high or low, or that the company (being of recent organization perhaps)
+has just incurred exceptional expense to increase its business, the
+advantage of which will appear later, etc. But I leave to the companies
+themselves to show to what extent such circumstances have affected their
+ratios; except that, in regard to the several net rates of interest
+earned, it is proper to say that in all cases in which they considerably
+exceed the average of 5.42 per cent. it will be found, by referring to the
+details of interest receipts reported to the Commissioner, that the excess
+is owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks, or
+recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss.
+
+WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+Medford, Mass., Sept., 1884.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A catalogue containing brief notices of many important scientific papers
+heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this office.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
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+PUBLISHED WEEKLY. Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United
+States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign
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+1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
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+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two
+volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in paper,
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+MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+
+361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+
+In connection with the Scientific American, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are
+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 39 years' experience,
+and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents are obtained
+on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the Scientific American of all Inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the Patentee.
+By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is directed to the
+merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free
+of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN &
+Co.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats.
+Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address
+
+MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK.
+
+Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+455, September 20, 1884, by Various
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+Supplement, September 20, 1884.</title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 455,
+September 20, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 455, September 20, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 5, 2004 [EBook #13962]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the PG
+Distibuted Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1a.png"><img src=
+"./images/1a_th.jpg" alt="TITLE"></a></p>
+
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455</h1>
+
+<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884</h2>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+
+<hr>
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">I.</td>
+<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.&mdash;Gallisin, an
+Unfermentable Substance in Starch Sugar.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#2">The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific
+Gravities of Elements and Compounds.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#3">Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means
+of Ammonium Carbonate.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">II.</td>
+<td><a href="#4">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.&mdash;Petroleum as a
+Fuel in Locomotive Engines.&mdash;By THOMAS URQUHART.&mdash;Spray
+injector.&mdash;Driving locomotives.&mdash;Storage of
+petroleum.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#5">Improved Gas Light Buoy.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#6">Project for a Roadstead at Havre.&mdash;With map
+and views of different breakwaters.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#7">Improved Catch Basin.&mdash;2 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#8">Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron
+Water Pipe.&mdash;By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.&mdash;Methods of
+conducting water and transmitting power.&mdash;Texas Creek pipe and
+aqueduct.&mdash;4 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#9">Parachute Hydraulic Motor.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#10">Improved Shafting Lathe.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#11">Power Straightening Machine.&mdash;1
+figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#12">Hydraulic Mining in California.&mdash;By GEO.
+O'BRIEN.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">III.</td>
+<td><a href="#13">TECHNOLOGY.&mdash;Emerald Green: Its Properties
+and Manufacture.&mdash;Use in wall paper.&mdash;ROBERT
+GALLOWAY.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#14">Charcoal Kilns.&mdash;Extra yield.&mdash;2
+figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">IV.</td>
+<td><a href="#15">ARCHITECTURE&mdash;Entrance, Tiddington House,
+Oxon.&mdash;An engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">V.</td>
+<td><a href="#16">ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.&mdash;The
+Temperature of the Earth as shown by Deep Mines.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#17">New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash
+Pile.&mdash;3 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#18">The Distribution of Electricity by
+Induction.&mdash;1 figure.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#19">Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic
+Movements.&mdash;Apparatus for the study of horizontal and vertical
+seismic movements, etc.&mdash;8 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#20">New Accumulators.&mdash;3 figures.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#21">Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc
+Accumulator.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#22">The History of a Lightning Flash.&mdash;By W.
+SLINGO.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#23">Researches on Magnetism.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VI.</td>
+<td><a href="#24">NATURAL HISTORY.&mdash;The Giraffe.&mdash;With
+engraving.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VII.</td>
+<td><a href="#25">MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.&mdash;The Treatment of
+Cholera&mdash;By Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#26">Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their
+Relations to Health.&mdash;London deaths under 1 year in July,
+August, and part of September.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#27">Consumption Spread by Chickens.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#28">New Method of Reducing Fever.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td valign="top">VIII.</td>
+<td><a href="#29">MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;The Crown Diamonds of France
+at the Exhibition of Industrial Arts.</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td><a href="#30">A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses
+of Management in Life Insurance.&mdash;By WALTER C.
+WRIGHT.</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="24"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE GIRAFFE.</h2>
+
+<p>The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of
+the Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the
+<i>Illustrated London News</i>. Hunting the giraffe has long been a
+favorite sport among the more adventurous of British sportsmen, its
+natural range being all the wooded parts of eastern, central, and
+southern Africa, though of late years it has been greatly thinned
+out before the settlements advancing from the Cape of Good
+Hope.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/1b.png"><img src=
+"./images/1b_th.jpg" alt=" THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of this singular animal are in some
+particulars those of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes
+are beautiful, extremely large, and so placed that the animal can
+see much of what is passing on all sides, and even behind it, so
+that it is approached with the greatest difficulty. The animal when
+full grown attains sometimes a height of fifteen to seventeen feet.
+It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees principally, its immense
+length of legs and height at the withers rendering it difficult for
+the animal to graze on an even surface. It is not easily overtaken
+except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run down it can
+defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is said,
+often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost
+universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder
+ones, but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch,
+the error having been caused by the great development and height of
+the withers, to give a proper base to the long neck and towering
+head. The color varies a good deal, the head being generally a
+reddish brown, and the neck, back, and sides marked with
+tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white divisions. Many
+specimens have been brought to this country, the animal being
+extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being
+very friendly to those who are kind to it.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even
+with incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid
+any risk of fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and
+lighted by a current, the heat generated was sufficient to set fire
+to the paper, which burnt out and caused the lamp to explode.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="16"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.</h2>
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
+observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep
+mines, were presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B
+Dorsey. Mr. Smith said that the temperature of the earth varies
+very greatly at different localities and in different geological
+formations. There are decided exceptions to the general law that
+the temperature increased with the depth. At the New Almaden
+quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of about 600 feet the
+temperature was very high&mdash;some 115 degrees; but in the
+deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500
+feet below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably
+less than 80 degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air
+1,200 feet below the surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet
+below the surface. The normal temperature of the earth at a depth
+of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the mean annual temperature of
+the air at the particular place. At the Comstock mines, some years
+since, the miners could remain but a few moments at a time, on
+account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an experiment; it
+produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better
+advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these
+mines, and drunk with apparently no bad results.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein,
+Nevada, were exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000
+feet, the thermometer placed in a freshly drilled hole will show
+130 degrees. Very large bodies of water have run for years at 155
+degrees, and smaller bodies at 170 degrees. The temperature of the
+air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing in fresh air cooled over
+ice.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted
+annually from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and
+cold air forced in, as equal to that generated by the combustion of
+55,560 tons of anthracite coal or 97,700 cords of wood.
+Observations were then given upon temperature at every 100 feet in
+the Forman shaft of the Overman mine, running from 53 degrees at a
+depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a depth of 2,300 feet. The
+temperature increased:</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet.</li>
+
+<li>100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet.</li>
+
+<li>100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number
+of deep mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines
+or tunnels are in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont
+Cenis tunnel; and the two hottest are in trachyte and the "coal
+measures," namely, the Comstock mines in trachyte and the South
+Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey considered that
+experience showed that limestone was the coolest formation.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="1"></a></p>
+
+<h2>GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.</h2>
+
+<p>C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of
+the unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and
+have succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give
+the name gallisin. The method of separation and purification which
+they made use of is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch
+sugar were allowed to ferment. At a temperature of 18-20&deg; C.
+and with a solution containing 20 per cent. the fermentation was
+complete in five to six days. It was filtered; the perfectly clear,
+almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far as possible on the
+water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into a
+good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large
+excess of absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix
+with the alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh
+alcohol, and again shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been
+repeated several times, the sirup is finally changed to a
+yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought into a large mortar, and
+rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether. After some time the
+whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is quickly
+filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and
+then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved
+in water and treated with bone-black. The solution is then
+evaporated to a sirup, and this poured into a mixture of equal
+parts of anhydrous alcohol and ether. In this way the new compound
+is obtained as a very fine, pure white powder which rapidly
+settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under the microscope
+it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much more
+rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.</p>
+
+<p>Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the
+water-bath gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not
+ferment when treated in water solution with fresh yeast. The
+analyses led to the formula
+C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>24</sub>O<sub>10</sub>. When treated under
+pressure with three times its weight of acetic anhydride at
+130-140&deg; it dissolves perfectly. From the solution a product
+was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing with the
+formula
+C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>18</sub>O<sub>10</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O)<sub>
+6</sub>. The substance appears therefore to be
+hexacetylgallisin.</p>
+
+<p>Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings
+demonstrated clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor
+indirectly any injurious effect on the health.&mdash;<i>Berichte
+der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft, 17, 1000; Amer. Chem.
+Jour.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="2"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF
+ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.</h2>
+
+<p>Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer,
+of New York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of
+Gas Lighting, from which the <i>American Gas Light Journal</i>
+gives the following:</p>
+
+<p>I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the
+elements and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and
+specific gravities. When the combining weight of any of these
+elements and compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor
+therefrom will always occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at
+60&deg; Fahr. and 30 inches barometer. If we divide this constant
+377.07 by the combining weight of any of the substances, then the
+quotient will be the number of cubic feet per pound of the same. If
+we divide the combining weight of any of the substances given in
+the table by 2, then the quotient will give the density of the
+same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining weight
+of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient
+will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as
+compared with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic
+weights which are now generally adopted by the majority of
+chemists.</p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary=
+"THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.">
+<tbody>
+<tr align="center">
+<th width='25%'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th width='10%'>Combining Weight.</th>
+<th width='10%'>Cub. Ft. per Pound.</th>
+<th width='10%'>Cub. Ft. per Combining Weight.</th>
+<th width='10%'>Specific Gravity, Air = 1.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hydrogen (H<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>2.00</td>
+<td align='right'>188.53</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.0692</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbon vapour (C<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>23.94</td>
+<td align='right'>15.75</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.8292</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Nitrogen (N<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>28.06</td>
+<td align='right'>13.43</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.9719</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>31.92</td>
+<td align='right'>11.81</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1056</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Chlorine (Cl<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>71.00</td>
+<td align='right'>5.31</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.4593</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Bromine (Br<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>160.00</td>
+<td align='right'>2.35</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>5.5420</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Flourine (F<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>38.00</td>
+<td align='right'>9.92</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.3162</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Iodine (I<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>253.20</td>
+<td align='right'>1.48</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>8.7703</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sulphur (S<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>63.96</td>
+<td align='right'>5.89</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.2154</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Phosphorus (P<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>123.84</td>
+<td align='right'>3.04</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>4.2895</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbonic oxide (CO)</td>
+<td align='right'>27.03</td>
+<td align='right'>13.50</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.9674</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbonic acid (CO<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>48.89</td>
+<td align='right'>8.59</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.5202</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Water vapour (H<sub>2</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>17.06</td>
+<td align='right'>20.99</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.6221</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hydrogen sulphide (H<sub>2</sub>S)</td>
+<td align='right'>33.08</td>
+<td align='right'>11.09</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1770</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ammonia (H<sub>2</sub>N)</td>
+<td align='right'>17.03</td>
+<td align='right'>22.14</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.5898</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sulphurous oxide (SO<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>63.90</td>
+<td align='right'>5.90</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.2133</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Sulphuric oxide (SO<sub>3</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>79.86</td>
+<td align='right'>4.72</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.7662</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Cyanogen (C<sub>2</sub>N<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>52.00</td>
+<td align='right'>7.25</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.8011</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Bisulphide of carbon (CS<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>75.93</td>
+<td align='right'>4.96</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.6300</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethyl alcohol (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>45.90</td>
+<td align='right'>8.21</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.5898</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethyl ether (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>73.84</td>
+<td align='right'>5.10</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.5576</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Methyl alcohol (CH<sub>4</sub>O)</td>
+<td align='right'>31.93</td>
+<td align='right'>11.81</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1059</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Methyl chloride (CH<sub>3</sub>Cl)</td>
+<td align='right'>50.47</td>
+<td align='right'>7.47</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.7482</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Carbonyl chloride (COCl<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>98.93</td>
+<td align='right'>3.81</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>3.4267</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Phosphine gas (PH<sub>3</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>33.96</td>
+<td align='right'>11.10</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.1769</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Hydrochloric acid (HCl)</td>
+<td align='right'>36.50</td>
+<td align='right'>10.33</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.2642</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Methane (CH<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>15.98</td>
+<td align='right'>26.61</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.5531</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethane (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>29.94</td>
+<td align='right'>12.50</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.0370</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Propane (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>43.91</td>
+<td align='right'>8.58</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.5209</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>57.88</td>
+<td align='right'>6.51</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.0048</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethene (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>27.94</td>
+<td align='right'>13.49</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.9677</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Propene (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>41.91</td>
+<td align='right'>8.99</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.4516</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Butene (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>55.88</td>
+<td align='right'>6.74</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.9355</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Ethine (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>25.94</td>
+<td align='right'>14.53</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>0.8985</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Propine (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>39.91</td>
+<td align='right'>9.44</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.3824</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Butine (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>53.88</td>
+<td align='right'>6.98</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>1.8662</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Quintone (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>65.85</td>
+<td align='right'>5.72</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.2809</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Benzene (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>77.82</td>
+<td align='right'>4.84</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>2.6955</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Styrolene (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>103.75</td>
+<td align='right'>3.63</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>3.5936</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Naphtalene (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>127.70</td>
+<td align='right'>2.95</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>4.4232</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Turpentine (C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>16</sub>)</td>
+<td align='right'>135.70</td>
+<td align='right'>2.77</td>
+<td align='right'>377.07</td>
+<td align='right'>4.7003</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Dry air</td>
+<td align='right'>28.87</td>
+<td align='right'>13.06</td>
+<td align='center'>&mdash;</td>
+<td align='right'>1.0000</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="13"></a></p>
+
+<h2>EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.<a name=
+"FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.</h3>
+
+<p>The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green
+(aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in
+many journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another
+in different publications, especially medical ones; there has
+recently appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The
+Poisonous Effect of Wall-paper." As some years ago I became
+practically acquainted with its properties and manufacture, a few
+observations on these subjects may not be without interest.</p>
+
+<p>In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous
+effect of this pigment cannot be <i>entirely</i> due to its mere
+mechanical detachment from the paper. This writer therefore
+attributes the poisonous effects to the formation of the hydrogen
+compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted hydrogen (AsH<sub>3</sub>);
+the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound, being generated,
+the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of moisture and
+organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls papers
+impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr.
+Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that
+arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the <i>fermentation</i> of the
+starch-paste employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is
+perfectly obvious that the fermentation of the starch-paste must
+cease after a time, and therefore the poisonous effects of the
+paper must likewise cease if its injurious effects are caused by
+the fermentation. I do not think that arseniureted hydrogen could
+be formed under the <i>conditions</i>, for the oxygen compound of
+arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound is in a dry
+solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two
+elements&mdash;arsenic and hydrogen&mdash;for each other are so
+exceedingly weak that they cannot be made to unite directly except
+they are both set free at the same moment in presence of each
+other. Further, for the formation of this hydrogen compound by the
+fermentation of the starch, or by the growth of minute fungi, the
+<i>entire</i> compound must be broken up, and therefore the pigment
+would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of copper</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span>(3CuAs<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>+Cu(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>
+2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>)<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition,
+and is consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not
+unfrequently stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are
+due to the arsenious oxide volatilizing from the other constituents
+of the compound. This volatilization would likewise cause a
+breaking up of the entire compound, and would consequently cause a
+discoloration of the paper; but the volatilization of this arsenic
+compound is in every respect most improbable.</p>
+
+<p>The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be
+due to its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever
+been conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the
+wall-paper of which is stained with emerald-green suffer from
+arsenical poisoning? If it does occur, then the effects of what may
+be termed hom&oelig;opathic doses of this substance are totally
+different from the effects which arise from larger doses. During
+the packing of this substance in its dry state in the factory,
+clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had to
+do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands
+suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is
+any abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the
+delicate lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in
+this way it acts in large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as
+to its supposed poisonous effects when wall-paper is stained with
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the
+manufacture of this pigment, but as they do not agree in every
+respect with the method which was followed in English color
+factories some years ago, it will be as well, for the full
+elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to briefly recite
+some of these methods before describing the one that was, and
+probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method
+which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other,
+both in the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for
+producing it at a less cost.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is
+"prepared on a large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric
+acetate and water. Five parts of verdigris are made up to a thin
+paste, and added to a boiling solution of 4 parts or rather more of
+arsenious acid in 50 parts of water. The boiling must be well kept
+up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a yellow-green color, from
+the formation of copper arsenite; in that case acetic acid must be
+added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer. The
+precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green
+color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal
+knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt
+employed in its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would
+account, in my opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which
+it is obtained in France than can be produced by the English method
+of manufacturing it. Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe,
+in England&mdash;the much cheaper copper salt, the sulphate, being
+always employed.</p>
+
+<p>In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by
+<i>boiling</i> solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate,
+and adding to the mixture an equal bulk of <i>cold</i> water." Why
+it should be recommended to add <i>cold water</i>, I am at a loss
+to understand.</p>
+
+<p>In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and
+in the English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical
+Technology," edited by Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr.
+Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.," xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated
+in Wagner's work: "This pigment is prepared by first separately
+dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious acid and neutral
+acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these solutions
+while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent olive-green
+colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the supernatant
+liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the precipitate
+becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a beautiful
+green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration,
+and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode
+of preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised
+by M. Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are
+dissolved in the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with
+a boiling and concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa,
+so prepared as to contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is
+immediately formed a dirty greenish-colored precipitate which is
+converted into Schweinfurt green by the addition of some 15 liters
+of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having been done, the
+precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."</p>
+
+<p>As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the
+manufacture of this pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is
+carried out pretty much according to Braconnot's method as
+described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one would infer, from reading his
+description of the manufacturing process, that the compound,
+aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately after the
+addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric
+temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the
+formation. Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms
+more readily in an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or
+cannot be formed in a neutral one; now both these points are
+important to notice in describing its manufacture. As regards the
+former I shall notice it presently, and, as far as my knowledge
+extends, the pigment will not form when the solution is
+neutral.</p>
+
+<p>The operation is conducted in the following manner in the
+factory: The requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in
+a large wooden vat, and hot water added to dissolve it; the
+requisite quantity of arsenic (arsenious anhydride) and carbonate
+of soda, the latter not in quantity quite sufficient to neutralize
+the whole of the sulphuric acid set free from the sulphate of
+copper on the precipitation of the copper as arsenite, are placed
+in another wooden vessel; water is then added, and the formation of
+the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the introduction
+of steam into the liquid. When complete solution has been effected
+the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the
+solution of the sulphate of copper, arsenite of copper being at
+once precipitated. The necessary quantity of acetic acid is
+afterward added. In <i>warm</i> weather the formation of the
+aceto-arsenite soon commences after the addition of the vinegar;
+but, even in that case, it takes a week or more to have the whole
+of a big batch of arsenite converted into the aceto-arsenite; and
+perfect conversion is necessary, as the presence of a very minute
+quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of the
+emerald pigment, and a by no means large quantity renders the
+pigment unsalable, owing to its dirty yellowish-green color. In
+cold weather a much longer time is required for its complete
+conversion; even at the end of a fortnight or three weeks there
+frequently remains sufficient unconverted arsenite to affect
+seriously the selling price of the color; when this occurs the
+manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a most wasteful
+method viz, by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid. The acid
+of course dissolves the arsenite, but it dissolves in very much
+larger quantities the aceto-arsenite; and this costly solution is
+not utilized, but is run into the factory sewer.</p>
+
+<p>By my method of manufacturing it, it can be produced in winter
+as well as in summer in one or two hours, and the quantity of free
+acid required for its formation is reduced to the lowest amount. I
+proceed as follows: After having dissolved in hot water the
+requisite quantity of cupric sulphate, I decompose one-fourth of
+this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution of carbonate of
+soda to precipitate the copper, in that quantity of the sulphate,
+as carbonate. I then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert the
+carbonate into acetate. I have now got in solution&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza"><span>3CuSO<sub>4</sub> +
+Cu(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>,<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>and I have to transform it into&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza"><span>3CuAs<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub> +
+Cu(C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>.<br>
+</span></div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is at once seen that I have got the requisite quantity of
+acetate formed. I next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious
+anhydride in an amount of carbonate of soda <i>rather less</i> than
+is sufficient to neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric
+sulphate, and I then bring the solution to or near the
+boiling-point by introducing steam into it; the arsenic is
+dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt, but in a
+separate one. When the arsenic solution is fully heated, a small
+current of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper
+salts, and brisk stirring is kept up in the vat. The emerald green
+is at once formed; but if there should be the slightest formation
+of any arsenite, the flow of the arsenic solution is at once
+stopped until every trace of the arsenite has been converted; the
+arsenic solution is then allowed to flow in again, with the same
+precautions as before; in this way a large batch of emerald-green
+can he formed in one or two hours, without containing the slightest
+trace of the arsenite. I keep the arsenic solution near the
+boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the
+other vessel. By varying the proportions of water I could either
+make it coarse or fine, as I wished, which is an important matter
+to have complete control over in its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>Two points of interest occurred to me during the time I was
+occupied with the research, which I had not time to complete; one
+was whether the aceto-arsenite can be formed, adopting the old
+method for its formation, if there is more than a certain quantity
+of water; from some experiments I made in this direction I was
+inclined to the opinion it could not. I have already stated that
+emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids, and that it
+is formed in a more or less acid solution; consequently a varying
+amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the
+supernatant liquid. To prevent to a certain extent this loss I
+precipitated the copper from it as arsenite; but I was not
+successful in the few experiments I had time to make on this part
+of the subject of reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained
+into the aceto-arsenite by the addition of acetic
+acid.&mdash;<i>Jour. of Science.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a>
+<div class="note">This substance is also known by the name
+Schweinfurt green.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="3"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ANALYSIS OF ZINC ASH AND CALCINED PYRITES BY MEANS OF AMMONIUM
+CARBONATE.</h2>
+
+<p>In a recent issue of the <i>Chemiker Zeitung</i> Dr. Kosmann has
+reported an analytical method for the examination of zinciferous
+products; according to this report, the ash and flue dust produced
+by the extraction of zinc from its ore comprise:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Zinc dust, from the distillation of zinc,</li>
+
+<li>Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with
+Kleemann's receivers,</li>
+
+<li>Zinc ash, of various assortments, from iron blast
+furnaces.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>Of these, zinc dust is the only ready product which is, as color
+or reducing agent, employed in analytical and technical processes.
+Its value, when serving the latter purpose, is determined by the
+percentage of finely divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained
+therein; of equal reducing power is cadmium, generally associating
+zinc; injurious, and therefore uneffective, are zinc oxide and
+oxides of other metals, also metallic lead.</p>
+
+<p>Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with
+Kleemann's receivers, is employed with zinc ores in the extraction
+of zinc, and in small quantities as substitute for zinc white; its
+commercial value is similarly estimated as that of zinc ores.</p>
+
+<p>The various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast
+furnaces are an object for continual demand, being both a valuable
+material for the production of zinc and, in its superior qualities,
+a desirable pigment. In the regeneration of zinc the presence of
+foreign substances is of some concern; detrimental are lead,
+sulphur, and sulphuric acid in form of lead, zinc, and lime
+sulphate.</p>
+
+<p>The chemico-technical analysis of these products has until
+recently been confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by
+means of sodium sulphide (Schaffner's method). But as a remnant of
+sulphur, as sulphuric acid, in roasted blende causes a material
+loss during distillation, and otherwise being induced to produce a
+zinc free of lead, the estimation of sulphur, sulphuric acid, and
+lead became necessary. These impurities are determined by
+well-known methods; sulphur is oxidized and precipitated with
+barium chloride, lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol. The
+examination of zinc dust, when used for the regeneration of metal,
+determines the quantity of zinc resident therein, and employed as
+reducing agent, the quantity of metal which causes the generation
+of hydrogen. Cadmium, showing the same deportment, must also be
+considered as well as lead and arsenic.</p>
+
+<p>A most complete and rapidly working method for the examination
+of zinciferous products has originated with the application of
+neutral ammonium carbonate as solvent. A solution of this
+preparation is made, according to H. Rose, by dissolving 230 grm.
+commercial ammon carbonate in 180 c.c. ammoniacal liquor of 0.92
+s.g., and, by addition of water, augmenting it to one liter.</p>
+
+<p>This solution dissolves the metallic components, their oxides,
+and basic zinc sulphate, and transfers cadmium and lead oxide, also
+lead, magnesium, and lime sulphate, into insoluble carbonates. Iron
+and manganese, when present as protoxide, are dissolved; of iron
+sesquioxide but traces, and of cadmium oxide <i>in statu
+nascendi</i> a small portion enter into solution. The solution of
+ammonium carbonate contains in each 10 c.c. 1 grm. ammonia, which
+dissolves 1.5 grm. zinc.</p>
+
+<p>The sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed
+with an adequate volume of the solvent, is digested at 50-60&deg;
+C. until complete decomposition is effected. The heating of the
+liquid prevents the solution of iron, manganese, and cadmium. The
+content, sediment and liquid, is thrown on a filter and washed with
+hot water to which a small quantity of the solvent has been added.
+When the solution contains iron and manganese, it is separated by
+decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine (according
+to the method of Nic-Wolff) until a flocculent precipitate of iron
+sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible; it is united
+with the original residue and filtered.</p>
+
+<p>The filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy, boiled to expel
+ammonia, tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc,
+and, when freed of all zinc, decanted. The precipitate of zinc
+carbonate is filtered, exhausted with water, transferred into zinc
+oxide by ignition, and weighed. The gravimetric method can be
+substituted by the volumetric by introducing a solution of sodium
+sulphide of known strength into the ammoniacal filtrate. On
+dividing the filtered liquid into various equal portions other
+substances, arsenic and sulphuric acid, can be determined from the
+same sample. For this purpose the filtrate is concentrated; divided
+into two equal portions, one of which is acidified and treated with
+hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic, the other is
+acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of
+barium chloride. The original residue is dissolved in muriatic or
+acetic acid and filtered. The lead of the filtered liquid is thrown
+down by sulphuric acid, and alcohol, and cadmium, after dissipation
+of alcohol into gas, precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Iron,
+manganese, alumina, and other substances present in the solution
+are determined by known methods.</p>
+
+<p>It is manifest that the determination of substances&mdash;zinc,
+lead, and sulphuric acid&mdash;which are of importance in technical
+analysis of zinc ash, can be executed by this method within a
+comparatively short time. The application of ammonium carbonate as
+solvent has the advantage, over the application of ammonia, that it
+is a far better solvent, that it decomposes insoluble basic
+sulphates, and that the remaining carbonates are readily dissolved
+by acids.</p>
+
+<p>The decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively
+evolution of gas; it is therefore necessary to continue the
+digestion of the sample till no more hydrogen is given off. Zinc
+dust contains both metals and their oxides, and methods which, from
+the volume of hydrogen generated, determine indirectly the
+percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real composition of the
+zinc dust. For the determination of the metallic components the
+material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate, which
+dissolves zinc and cadmium; the liquid is filtered, acidified, and
+decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, or treated with a solution of
+ammonium carbonate. The use of cupric chloride is not advisable, as
+it corrodes lead, and gives rise to the formation of soluble
+chloride of lead, which complicates the separation of zinc from
+cadmium. The best mode of operation is the following: Both copper
+sulphate and zinc dust are weighed separately, the former is
+dissolved in water and the latter introduced into the solution of
+copper sulphate in small portions until it appears colorless.
+During the operation the vessel is freely shaken, lumps are
+comminuted with a glass rod, and a few drops of the liquid are
+ultimately tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. The remainder
+of zinc dust is then weighed, and its value deducted from the
+original weight. Zinc and cadmium of the filtrate are determined as
+above. On repeating this method several times most satisfactory
+results are obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper
+sulphate and to determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate. The
+separation of copper from cadmium being difficult and laborious,
+and the volumetric estimation with potassium cyanide not
+practicable, it is not prudent to apply this method.</p>
+
+<p>When calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined, the
+estimation of zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of
+zinc ore. The sample is exhausted with water, filtered, and, to
+eliminate calcium sulphate and basic iron sulphate, evaporated to
+dryness. It is then dissolved in a small quantity of alcohol and
+water, refiltered, and the filtrate decomposed with ammonium
+carbonate. The original residue is treated with a solution of
+ammonium carbonate, which dissolves arsenious acid and basic zinc
+sulphate, filtered, and united with the first filtrate. When iron
+and manganese are present, the filtrates are treated with bromine.
+The united filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with
+sodium sulphide.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="4"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PETROLEUM AS FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.<a name=
+"FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By Mr. THOMAS URQUHART.</h3>
+
+<p>Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a
+theoretical evaporative power of 16.2 lb. of water per lb. of fuel,
+and the latter of 12.2 lb., at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 lb. per
+square inch; hence petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent.
+higher evaporative value than anthracite. Now in locomotive
+practice a mean evaporation of from 7 lb. to 7&frac12; lb. of water
+per lb. of anthracite is about what is generally obtained, thus
+giving about 60 per cent. efficiency, while 40 per cent. of the
+heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an
+evaporation of 12.25 lb. is practically obtained, giving 12.25/16.2
+= 75 per cent. efficiency. Thus in the first place petroleum is
+theoretically 33 per cent. superior to anthracite in evaporative
+power; and secondly, its useful effect is 25 per cent. greater,
+being 75 percent. instead of 60 percent.; while, thirdly, weight
+for weight, the practical evaporative value of petroleum must be
+reckoned as at least from (12.25 - 7.50)/7.50 = 63 per cent. to
+(12.25 - 7.00)/7.00 = 75 per cent. higher than that of
+anthracite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spray injector.</i>&mdash;Steam not superheated, being the
+most convenient for injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the
+furnace, it remains to be proved how far superheated steam or
+compressed air is really superior to ordinary saturated steam,
+taken from the highest point inside the boiler by a special
+internal pipe. In using several systems of spray injectors for
+locomotives, the author invariably noticed the impossibility of
+preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation of soot, and inequality
+of heating of the fire box. The work of a locomotive boiler is very
+different from that of a marine or stationary boiler, owing to the
+frequent changes of gradient on the line, and the frequent
+stoppages at stations. These conditions render firing with
+petroleum very difficult; and were it not for the part played by
+properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box, the spray jet
+alone would be quite inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of engineers
+have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of
+"spray injector," for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum
+into a fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to
+render it inflammable and of easy ignition. For this object nearly
+all the known spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices
+for petroleum as well as for steam; the width of the orifices does
+not exceed from &frac12; mm. to 2 mm. or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and
+in many instances is capable of adjustment. With such narrow
+orifices it is clear that any small solid particles which may find
+their way into the spray injector along with the petroleum will
+foul the nozzle and check the fire. Hence in many of the steamboats
+on the Caspian Sea, although a single spray injector suffices for
+one furnace, two are used, in order that when one gets fouled the
+other may still work; but, of course, the fouled orifices require
+incessant cleaning out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Locomotives.</i>&mdash;In arranging a locomotive for burning
+petroleum, several details are required to be added in order to
+render the application convenient. In the first place, for getting
+up steam to begin with, a gas pipe of 1 inch internal diameter is
+fixed along the outside of the boiler, and at about the middle of
+its length it is fitted with a three-way cock having a screw nipple
+and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is connected to the
+blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to the spray
+injector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a shunting
+locomotive under steam, the spray jet is immediately started by the
+borrowed steam, by which at the same time a draught is also
+maintained in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine shed the
+borrowed steam would be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently
+placed and specially arranged for the purpose of raising steam. In
+practice steam can be raised from cold water to 3 atm.
+pressure&mdash;45 lb. per square inch&mdash;in twenty minutes. The
+use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
+worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm.&mdash;120
+lb.&mdash;is thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the
+time the spray jet was first started. In daily practice, when it is
+only necessary to raise steam in boilers already full of hot water,
+the full pressure of 7 to 8 atm. is obtained in from twenty to
+twenty-five minutes. While experimenting with liquid fuel for
+locomotives, a separate tank was placed on the tender for carrying
+the petroleum, having a capacity of about 3 tons. But to have a
+separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in place, would be a
+source of danger from the possibility of its moving forward in case
+of collision. It was therefore decided, as soon as petroleum firing
+was permanently introduced, to place the tank for fuel in the
+tender between the two side compartments of the water tank,
+utilizing the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the
+capacity of the tank is 3&frac12; tons of oil&mdash;a quantity
+sufficient for 250 miles, with a train of 480 tons gross exclusive
+of engine and tender. In charging the tender tank with petroleum,
+it is of great importance to have strainers of wire cloth in the
+manhole of two different meshes, the outer one having openings,
+say, of &frac14; in., the inner, say &#8539; in.; these strainers
+are occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent
+any solid particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of
+the spray injector is likely to occur; and even if an obstruction
+should arise, the obstacle being of small size can easily be blown
+through by screwing back the steam cone in the spray injector far
+enough to let the solid particles pass and be blown out into the
+fire-box by the steam. This expedient is easily resorted to even
+when running; and no more inconvenience arises than an extra puff
+of dense smoke for a moment, in consequence of the sudden admission
+of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the manhole of the
+petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another strainer at
+the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of &#8531; in.
+holes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Driving locomotives.</i>&mdash;In lighting up, certain
+precise rules have to be followed, in order to prevent explosion of
+any gas that may have accumulated in the fire box. Such explosions
+do often take place through negligence; but they amount simply to a
+puff of gas, driving smoke out through the ash-pan dampers, without
+any disagreeably loud report. This is all prevented by adhering to
+the following simple rules: First clear the spray nozzle of water
+by letting a small quantity of steam blow through, with the ash-pan
+doors open; at the same time start the blower in the chimney for a
+few seconds, and the gas, if any, will be immediately drawn up the
+chimney. Next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece
+of cotton waste, or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum
+and burning with a flame. Then by opening first the steam valve of
+the spray injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the very
+first spray of oil coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites
+without any explosion whatever; after which the quantity of fuel
+can be increased at pleasure. By looking at the top of the chimney,
+the supply of petroleum can be regulated by observing the smoke.
+The general rule is to allow a transparent light smoke to escape,
+thus showing that neither too much air is being admitted nor too
+little. The combustion is quite under the control of the driver,
+and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent smoke
+altogether. While running, it is indispensable that the driver and
+fireman should act together, the latter having at his side of the
+engine the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the steam
+wheel and the petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two
+ash-pan door handles in which there are notches for regulating the
+air admission. Each alteration in the position of the reversing
+lever or screw, as well as in the degree of opening of the steam
+regulator or the blast pipe, requires a corresponding alteration of
+the fire. Generally the driver generally passes the word when he
+intends shutting off steam, so that the alteration in the firing
+can be effected before the steam is actually shut off; and in this
+way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually
+done together. All this care is necessary to prevent smoke, which
+is nothing less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, the train
+arrives at the top of a bank, which it has to go down with the
+brakes on, exactly at the moment of the driver shutting off the
+steam and shifting the reversing lever into full forward gear, the
+petroleum and steam are shut off from the spray injector, the
+ash-pan doors are closed, and if the incline be a long one, the
+revolving iron damper over the chimney top is moved into position,
+closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The accumulated heat
+is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even rises in
+pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon as
+the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again
+required, the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top; then
+the steam is turned on to the spray injector, and next a small
+quantity of petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-pan
+doors, a small fire being rendered possible by the entrance of air
+around the spray injector, as well as by possible leakage past the
+ash-pan doors. The spray immediately coming in contact with the hot
+chamber ignites without any audible explosion; and the ash-pan
+doors are finally opened, when considerable power is required, or
+when the air otherwise admitted is not sufficient to support
+complete combustion. By looking at the fire through the sight hole
+it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or dusky;
+in fact, with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after
+a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with
+petroleum. The better men contrive to burn less fuel than others,
+simply by greater care in attending to all the points essential to
+success. At present seventy-two locomotives are running with
+petroleum firing; ten of them are passenger engines, seventeen are
+eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and forty-five are six-wheel
+coupled. As might be expected, several points have arisen which
+must be dealt with in order to insure success. For instance, the
+distance ring between the plates around the firing door is apt to
+leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it, and the
+absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by
+having the brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is
+taken out altogether when the engines are in for repairs, and a
+flange joint is substituted, similar to what is now used in the
+engines of the London and Northwestern Railway. This arrangement
+gives better results, and occasions no trouble whatever.</p>
+
+<p><i>Storage of petroleum.</i>&mdash;The length of line now worked
+with petroleum is from Tsaritsin to Burnack, 291 miles. There is a
+main iron reservoir for petroleum at each of the four engine sheds,
+namely at Tsaritsin, Archeda, Filonoff, and Borisoglebsk. Each
+reservoir is 66 ft. internal diameter and 24 ft. high, and when
+full holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging the reservoir,
+which stands a good way from the line, and is situated at a
+convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings, is as
+follows: On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed
+ten cistern cars full of oil, the capacity of each being about ten
+tons. From each of these cars a connection is made by a flexible
+India rubber pipe to one of ten stand pipes which project 1 ft.
+above the ground line. Parallel with the rails is laid a main pipe,
+with which the ten stand pipes are all connected, thus forming one
+general suction main. About the middle of the length of the main,
+which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or other
+non-conducting material, is fixed a Blake steam pump. As soon as
+all the ten connections are made with the cistern cars, the pump is
+set to work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are
+discharged into the main reservoir, the time depending of course
+upon the capacity of the pump. All the pipes used are of malleable
+iron, lap-welded, and of 5 in. internal diameter, having screwed
+coupling muffs for making the connections. At each engine shed, in
+addition to the main storage reservoir, there is a smaller
+distributing tank, which is erected at a sufficient height to
+supply the tenders, and very much resembles the ordinary water
+tanks. These distributing tanks are circular, about 8&frac12; ft.
+diameter and 6 ft. high, and of &frac14; in. plates; their inside
+mean area is calculated exactly, and a scale graduated in inches
+stands in the middle of the tank; a glass with scale is used
+outside in summer time. Each inch in height on the scale is
+converted into cubic feet, and then by means of a table is
+converted into Russian poods, according to the specific gravity at
+various temperatures. As it would be superfluous to graduate the
+table for each separate degree of temperature, the columns in the
+table show the weights for every 8 degrees Reaumur, which is quite
+sufficient: namely, from 24 deg. to 17 deg., from 16 deg. to 9
+deg., and so on, down to -24 deg.; the equivalent Fahrenheit range
+being from 86 deg. down to -22 deg. Suppose the filling of a tender
+tank draws off a height of 27 in. from the distributing tank, at a
+temperature of say -20 deg. R., these figures are shown by the
+table to correspond with 200.61 poods = 7,245 lb., or 3.23 tons, of
+petroleum. This arrangement does very well in practice; both the
+quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill
+at the time of his taking in his supply.</p>
+
+<p><i>Engines.</i>&mdash;The engines used in the trials were built
+by Borsig, of Berlin, Schneider, of Creusot, and the Russian
+Mechanical and Mining Company, of St. Petersburg. Their main
+dimensions and weights were about the same, as follows, all of them
+having six wheels coupled, and 36 tons adhesive weight; as
+originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes for burning
+anthracite or wood; cylinders 18&#8539; in. diameter and 24 in.
+stroke; slide valves, outside lap 1-1/16 in., inside lap 3/32 in.,
+maximum travel, 4-9/16 in.; Stephenson link motion; boiler
+pressure, 120 lb. per square inch; six wheels, all coupled, 4 ft. 3
+in. in diameter; distance between centers of leading and middle
+wheels, 6 ft. 2&frac34; in.; between middle and trailing, 4 ft.
+9&frac14; in.; total length of wheel base, 11 ft.; weight empty, on
+leading wheels, 12.041 tons; middle, 10.782 tons; trailing, 10.685
+tons; total weight, 33.508 tons empty; weight in running order, on
+leading wheels, 12.563 tons; middle, 11.885 tons; trailing 12.790
+tons; total weight, 37.238 tons in running order. Tubes number 151;
+outside diameter, 2&#8539; in.; length between tube plates, 13 ft.
+10&#8539; in.; outside heating surface, 1,166 square feet; fire box
+heating surface, 82 square feet; total heating surface, 1,248
+square feet; fire grate area, 17 square feet;tractive power = 65
+per cent. of boiler pressure &times; (cyl. diam.)&sup2; &times;
+stroke / diameter of wheels = 0.65 &times; 120 &times;
+(18.125)&sup2; &times; 24 / 51 = 5.383 tons. Ratio of tractive
+power to adhesion weight = 5.383 / 37.238 = 1 / 6.9.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tender.</i>&mdash;Contents: water, 310 cubic feet, or 1,933
+gallons, or 8&frac12; tons; anthracite, 600 poods, or 10 tons; or
+wood, 1&frac12; cubic sajene, or 514 cubic feet; weight empty,
+13.477 tons; weight in running order, 28.665 tons; six wheels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petroleum Refuse&mdash;Comparative Trials with Petroleum,
+Anthracite, Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and
+Tsaritsin on Grazi and Tsaritsin Railway, in Winter Time.</i></p>
+
+<pre>
+-----+----+-----+------+---+-----+------+-----------+-------------+------+------------
+     |  L |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |
+     |  o |     |  Train   |     |      |           | Consumption |      |
+     |  c |     |  alone.  |     |      |           |  Including  |      |
+Date.|  o |     |          |     |      |           | Lighting up.|      |
+1883.|  m |     |----+-----|     |      |           |             | Cost |
+     |  o |Train|Num-|     | Dis-| Car  |           |             |  of  |Atmospheric
+     |  t |     |ber |Gross|tance|miles.|  Fuel.    |-------+-----| fuel |temperature
+     |  i |     | of |load.| run.|      |           |       | Per | per  |   and
+     |  v |     |Loa-|     |     |      |           | Total |train| train| weather.
+     |  e |     |ded |     |     |      |           |       |mile.| mile.|
+     |  . |     |cars|     |     |      |           |       |     |      |
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |    |     | No.| Tons|Miles|      |           |       |     |Pence.|
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |  8 |32-23| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Anthracite.| 31799 |81.90|11.957|-17&deg; to -18&deg;
+     |    |32-23|    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+ Feb.|    |     |    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      | equiv. to
+  8  |    |24-21|    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      |-6&deg; to -8&frac12;&deg;
+     | 14 |24-21| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Bituminous |37557.5|96.53|14.093|   Fah.
+     |    |     |    |     |     |      | Coal.     |  lb.  | lb. |      |
+     |  7 |26-29| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,830|Petroleum  | 9462  |48.77| 5.487|   Strong
+     |    |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     | 24 |32-23| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Anthracite.|12639.5|65.15| 9.512|-5&deg; to -9&deg;
+March|    |     |    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+  6  | 21 |24-21| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Wood, in   | 1071.8| 5.52| 8.5  | equiv. to
+     |    |     |    |     |     |      | billets.  | c. ft.|c. ft|      | 21&deg; to 12&deg;
+     |    |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |   Fah.
+     | 23 |26-27| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Petroleum  | 7228  |37.28| 4.188|   Light
+     |    |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+----+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+-----------
+</pre>
+
+<p>Prices of fuel:<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton;
+Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Wood, in billets, 42s. per cubic
+sajene = 343 cubic feet;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic
+foot.</span><br>
+<br>
+Dimensions of locomotives:<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cylinders, 18 &#8539; in. diam. and
+24 in. stroke; Wheels, 4 feet 3 in. diam.;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Total heating surface, 1,248 sq.
+feet: Total adhesion weight, 36 tons;</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Boiler pressure, 8 to 9
+atm.</span><br>
+</p>
+
+<p>The preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made
+in winter with different sorts of fuel, under exactly similar
+conditions as to type of engine, profile of line, and load of
+train. Two sets of comparative trials were made, both of them in
+winter. The three engines used were some of those built by
+Schneider. In comparison with anthracite, the economy in favor of
+petroleum refuse was 41 per cent. in weight, and 55 per cent. in
+cost. With bituminous coal there was a difference of 49 per cent.
+in favor of petroleum as to weight and 61 per cent. as to cost. As
+compared with wood petroleum was 50 per cent. cheaper. At a speed
+of fourteen miles an hour up an incline of 1 in 125 the steam
+pressure was easily kept up at 9 to 9&frac12; atm. with a No. 9
+injector feeding the boiler all the time.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two
+locomotives to burn petroleum; and from his own personal
+observations made on the foot plate with considerable frost he is
+satisfied that no other fuel can compare with petroleum either for
+locomotives or for other purposes. In illustration of its safety in
+case of accident, a photograph was exhibited of an accident that
+occurred on the author's line on 30th December, 1883, when a
+locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment,
+taking the train after it; no explosion or conflagration of any
+kind took place under such trying circumstances, thus affording
+some proof of the safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of
+firing. Although it is scarcely possible that petroleum firing will
+ever be of use for locomotives on the ordinary railways of
+coal-bearing England, yet the author is convinced chat, even in
+such a country, its employment would be an enormous boon on
+underground lines.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a>
+<div class="note">Abstract of paper read before the Institution of
+Mechanical Engineers.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="14"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CHARCOAL KILNS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4b.png"><img src=
+"./images/4b_th.jpg" alt=" KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.</p>
+
+<p>In answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal
+making, we offer two illustrations that show a method of
+manufacture differing from that usually adopted, which is that of
+burning on the bare ground, and covering with soil or sods to
+exclude the air. These kilns are made of brick, one course being
+sufficient, bands of iron or timber framework being added to
+strengthen the brickwork with greater economy. The usual style is
+conical, and the size is 24 feet in diameter, with an equal height,
+holding about 40 cords of wood. The difference in price is 1&#8539;
+d. per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual
+mounds, the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns, and
+the timber standing, the kiln burning costing 2&#8539; d., and the
+other 3&frac14; d. The kilns must be lined to about halfway up with
+fire-brick, the cost of which will vary with the locality, but will
+be about &pound;200, and as 40 to 50 bushels of coal have been made
+per cord the extra yield on good charcoal and the lessening of the
+cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on the cost of the
+kilns. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight for 6
+feet, when it is drawn in, so as to become bluntly conical. Upon
+the top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone
+of an arch, and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn
+tight with screw bolts and nuts to strengthen it. Double doors of
+sheet-iron are made at the bottom and near the tops, by which it is
+either filled or emptied, and a few air-holes (B), which may be
+stopped with loose bricks, left in the bottom. The second figure
+shows a kiln of another shape made to burn 3,000 bushels of
+charcoal, or about 80 cords of wood. The shape is a parallelogram,
+having an arched roof, and it is strengthened by a framework of
+timber 10 inches square. As the pressure of the gas is sometimes
+very great, the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to
+prevent their bursting. The usual size is 16 feet wide and high,
+and 40 feet in length, outside measure. The time occupied in
+filling, burning, and emptying a small cone is about three weeks,
+and four weeks is required for the larger ones.&mdash;<i>The
+Gardeners' Chronicle.</i></p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4a.png"><img src=
+"./images/4a_th.jpg" alt=" KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="15"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ENTRANCE, TIDDINGTON HOUSE, OXON.</h2>
+
+<p>Our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to Tiddington
+House, Oxfordshire, the residence of the Rev. Joshua Bennett. The
+house is an old building of the Georgian period, and though
+originally plain and unpretentious, its bold coved cornices under
+the eaves, its rubbed and shaped arches, moulded strings, and thick
+sash bars, made it of considerable interest to the admirers of the
+"Queen Anne" school of architecture, and led to the adoption of
+that style in the alterations and additions made last year, of
+which the work shown in our illustration formed a small part.
+Between the "entrance facade" and the wall of the house there is a
+space of some twenty feet in length, which is inclosed by a
+substantially built conservatory-like erection of Queen Anne
+design, forming an outer hall.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/4c.png"><img src=
+"./images/4c_th.jpg" alt=
+"ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.&mdash;Morris &amp; Stallwood&mdash;Architects.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.&mdash;Morris &amp;
+Stallwood&mdash;Architects.</p>
+
+<p>The works were executed by Messrs. Holly &amp; Butler, of
+Nettlebed. The brick carving was beautifully done by the late Mr.
+Finlay; and the architects were Messrs. Morris &amp; Stallwood, of
+Reading.&mdash;<i>The Architect.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="17"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASH PILE.</h2>
+
+<p>Since Poggendorff in 1842 thought of substituting in the Bunsen
+battery a solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for
+nitric acid, and of thus making a single liquid pile of it, in
+suppressing the porous vessel, his idea has been taken up a
+considerable number of times. Some rediscovered it simply, while
+others, who were better posted in regard to the work of their
+predecessors, took Poggendorff's pile as he conceived it, and,
+considering the future that was in store for it, thought only of
+modifying it in order to render it better. Among these, Mr. Grenet
+was one of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under
+a truly practical form. As long ago as 1856, in fact, he gave it
+the form that is still in use, and that is known as the bottle
+pile. Thus constructed, this pile, as is well known, presents a
+feeble internal resistance, and a greater electro-motive power than
+the Bunsen element. Unfortunately, its energy rapidly decreases,
+and the alteration of the liquid, as well as the large deposit of
+oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode, prevents
+its being employed in experiments of quite long duration. Mr.
+Grenet, it is true, obviated these two defects by first renewing
+the liquid slowly and continuously, and causing a current of air to
+bubble up in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in
+measure as the deposit formed. Thus improved, the bichromate pile
+was employed on a large scale in the lighting of the Comptoir
+d'Escompte. In an extensive application like this latter, the use
+of compressed air for renewing the liquid can be easily adapted to
+the bichromate pile, as the number of elements is great enough to
+allow of the putting in of all the piping necessary; but when it is
+only desired to use this pile for laboratory purposes, and when
+there is need of but a small number of elements, it is impossible
+to adopt Mr. Grenet's elements in the form required by an electric
+lighting installation. It becomes absolutely necessary, then, to
+come back to a simpler form, and attempt at the same time to
+obviate the defects which are inherent to its very principle. In
+accordance with this idea, it will be well to point out the
+arrangement adopted by Mr. Courtot for his bichromate of potash
+piles&mdash;an arrangement that is very simple, but, sufficiently
+well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a
+laboratory.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5a.png"><img src=
+"./images/5a_th.jpg" alt=
+" Fig. 1.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
+BICHROMATE PILE.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 1 gives the most elementary form. It consists of an earthen
+vessel into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other
+by a copper ring which carries one of the terminals. In the center
+there is a cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute
+and feebly acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which
+dips a prism of zinc, which may be lifted by means of a rod when
+the pile ceases to operate. It is true that the presence of the
+porous vessel in the bichromate of potash element increases the
+internal resistance, but, as an offset, although it decreases the
+discharge, it secures constancy and quite a long duration for
+it.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5b.png"><img src=
+"./images/5b_th.jpg" alt=
+" Fig. 2.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 2.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
+BICHROMATE PILE.</p>
+
+<p>The elements thus constituted may be grouped, to the number of
+six, in a frame analogous to that shown in the engraving, and, sum
+total, form a small sized battery adapted to the current
+experiments of the laboratory, and capable of supplying two small
+four volt lamps for ten or twelve hours. We have had occasion to
+make use of these elements for the graduation of galvanometers,
+and, after ascertaining the constancy of the discharge, have found
+that the internal resistance of each couple is nearly 0.175 ohm,
+with an electro-motive force of two volts. As may be seen, these
+elements should, in general, all be mounted for tension, as they
+are in the figure, inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits,
+according to circumstances, of employing a variable number of them
+without changing anything. Moreover, with zincs amalgamated in a
+special manner, the attack is imperceptible, and the work in open
+circuit need scarcely to be taken into consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we
+have just described, that defect common to all bichromate of potash
+piles&mdash;the deposit of oxide of chromium upon the
+carbon&mdash;is not here avoided. It occurs quite slowly, to be
+sure, but it does occur, and, from this point of view, the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is preferable. The elements here are
+composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing, as before, the
+solution and porous vessel.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5c.png"><img src=
+"./images/5c_th.jpg" alt=
+" Fig. 3.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">Fig. 3.&mdash;COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE
+BICHROMATE PILE.</p>
+
+<p>The whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the
+zinc and the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is
+not in operation the whole can be lifted from the liquid. Under
+such circumstances the deposit of oxide is notably diminished, and
+the duration of the discharge is consequently greatly
+increased.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 3 shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting,
+according to circumstances, all the elements of the same trough or
+only a part of them. To effect this, the drum around which the
+chain winds that carries the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed
+upon the axle. This latter is actuated by a winch; and a ratchet
+wheel, R, joined to a click which is actuated by a spiral spring,
+prevents the ebonite plates from falling back when it is desired to
+place the bolt under the button, B, of the spring.</p>
+
+<p>When it is desired to put an element out of the circuit, it is
+only necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the
+lever, D. Under the action of the latter, the piece, <i>s</i>,
+which carries a groove for the passage of the screws that fix it to
+the upper cross-piece, takes on a longitudinal motion and
+consequently gears with the drum through the toothed sleeve, E.
+When an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be lifted from the
+liquid, and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming upon the
+carbon. As may be seen, the arrangements which we have just
+described exhibit nothing that is particularly original. The
+windlasses used for removing the elements from a pile when the
+circuit is open have been employed for a long time; the bichromate
+pile is itself old, and, as we said in the beginning, it has been
+modified in its details a number of times. In spite of this, we
+have thought it well to point out the mode of construction adopted
+by Mr. Courtot, since, owing to the simplicity of the arrangements,
+it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very great
+constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps, as
+well as for the most varied experiments of the
+laboratory.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="18"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.</h2>
+
+<p>There has been much said in recent times about the distribution
+of electricity by means of induction coils, and the use of this
+process has given rise to several systems that differ but little
+from one another in principle.</p>
+
+<p>The following are a few details in regard to a system due to a
+Dutch engineer:</p>
+
+<p>In the month of December, 1881, a patent relating to the
+distribution of electricity was taken out in Germany and other
+countries by Mr. B. Haitzema Enuma, whose system is based upon a
+series of successive inductions. The primary current developed by a
+dynamo-electric machine gives rise to secondary, tertiary, etc.,
+currents. The principal line runs through the streets parallel with
+their axes, and, when the arrangement of the places is adapted
+thereto, it is closed upon the generator itself. In those frequent
+cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return over a path
+that it has already traversed, it is more advantageous to effect
+the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains
+or gas pipes as conductors. This return arrangement may likewise be
+applied to the lines of secondary, tertiary, etc., order, as may
+easily be seen.</p>
+
+<p>The induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior
+consists of a bundle of soft iron. The wire of the inducting
+current is wound directly around this core. The wire of the induced
+current is superposed upon the first and presents a large number of
+spirals. It is useless to say that these wires must be perfectly
+insulated from each other, as well as from the soft iron core. We
+shall call primary bobbins those which are interposed in the
+principal line, and secondary bobbins those in which the inducting
+current is a secondary one, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>It will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of
+continuing the distribution of electricity to the interior of
+buildings by the simple adjunction of one or several bobbins. Each
+electric apparatus, whether it be a lamp or other mechanism, is
+furnished with a special current. If the number of these apparatus
+be increased, it is only necessary to increase the number of
+bobbins in the same ratio, on condition, be it understood, that the
+intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper
+working of the apparatus in question. When such intensity
+diminishes to too great a degree, the bobbin must be replaced by a
+stronger one.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/5d.png"><img src=
+"./images/5d_th.jpg" alt=
+" DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.</p>
+
+<p>It results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in
+in such a way as to permit, of the opening and closing of the
+corresponding circuit. This arrangement, moreover, has no need of
+being dependent upon the apparatus, and may just as well be
+transferred to any part of this same circuit. As regards lighting,
+it is preferable to employ alternating current dynamo machines; yet
+there is nothing to prevent the use of continuous current ones,
+provided that there is an arrangement that permits of constantly
+opening and closing this same circuit. That portion of the line
+which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way at
+the places where it is necessary. As for the underground circuit
+and the induction coils connected therewith, these are protected
+against all external influence, and are at the same time insulated
+very economically by covering them with a coat of very fine
+silicious sand mixed with asphalt.</p>
+
+<p>It is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an
+accurate idea of this system of distribution. C represents the
+building in which the generator of electricity, D, is placed; B,
+the public street, and Q the house of a subscriber. The principal
+line, E, starts from the terminals, <i>a, b</i>, of the machine,
+passes through the primary bobbins, G, and is closed through the
+earth at F. It will be seen that the primary current communicates
+through <i>d</i> and <i>c</i> with the internal winding of the
+bobbins, G, while the secondary currents, H, are connected through
+<i>e</i> and <i>f</i>with the external winding. The same
+arrangement is repeated for the tertiary currents, M, and the
+quaternary ones, <i>o, p</i>. In the annexed example all the lines
+that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed through
+the earth, while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto
+enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit. In the
+interior of these houses the wires, as well as the induction coils,
+are insulated and applied to the walls. At Q is represented the
+arrangement that would have to be adopted in the case of a
+structure consisting of a vestibule, <i>r</i>, and two rooms,
+<i>s</i>, lighted by two electric lamps, R. In the portion of the
+figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed
+for insulating the line. A commencement is made by digging a ditch
+in the street and paving the bottom of it with bricks. Upon these
+latter there is laid a mixture of sand and asphalt, and then the
+wires and bobbins are put in, and the whole is finally covered with
+a new insulating layer.</p>
+
+<p>It is a simple statement that we make here, and it is therefore
+not for us to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the
+system. If we are to believe Mr. Enuma, the advantages are very
+numerous, to wit: (1) The cables have no need of being of large
+size; (2) the intensity is the same through the entire extent of
+the primary circuit, secondary one, etc.; (3) the resistance is
+invariable in all portions of the line; (4) the apparatus are
+independent of each other, and consequently there may be a
+disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering
+therefrom; (5) either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be
+produced, since, that depends only upon the size of the coil
+employed; (6) there is no style of lamp that may not be used, since
+each lamp is mounted upon a special circuit; (7) any number of
+lamps may be lighted or extinguished without the others being
+influenced thereby; (8) when a fire or other accident happens in a
+house, it in no wise interferes with the service in the rest of the
+line; (9) the system could, were it required, be connected with any
+other kind of existing line; and (10) the cost of installation is
+infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the
+same extent of ground.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="19"></a></p>
+
+<h2>ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>Italy, with her volcanic nature, has very naturally made a
+specialty of movements of the ground, or seismic perturbations. So
+the larger part of the apparatus designed for such study are due to
+Italians. Several of these instruments have already been, described
+in this journal, and on the present occasion we shall make known a
+few others that will serve to give an idea of the methods
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>For the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of
+the ground, different apparatus are required. The following is a
+description of those constructed for each of such purposes by the
+Brassart Brothers.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6a.png"><img src=
+"./images/6a_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 1.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL
+SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apparatus for Studying Horizontal Movements.</i>&mdash;A
+lever, (Fig. 1), movable about a horizontal axis, carries a
+corrugated funnel, <i>i</i>, at one of its extremities. At the
+other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise which permits of
+its being exactly balanced, while not interfering with its
+sensitiveness.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6b.png"><img src=
+"./images/6b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIGS. 2 AND 3.&mdash;DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIGS. 2 AND 3.&mdash;DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the funnel passes freely around a column,
+<i>v</i> (Fig. 2), upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that
+terminates in a weight, P. The corrugations of the funnel carry
+letters indicating the four cardinal points, and the funnel itself
+is capable of revolving in such a way that the marked indications
+shall always correspond to the real position of the cardinal
+points. When a horizontal shock occurs, the weight, P, falls in a
+direction opposite thereto, and into one of the corrugations, where
+it rests, so that the direction of the shock is indicated. But, in
+falling, it causes the lever, F, to tilt, and this brings about an
+electric contact between the screw, <i>h</i>, and the column,
+<i>n</i>, which sends a current into the electro, E, so that the
+armature of the latter is attracted. In its position of rest this
+armature holds a series of parts, S, A, L, which have the effect of
+stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same apparatus. At
+the moment, then, that the armature is attracted the pendulum is
+set free and the clockwork is started. As the current, at the same
+time, sets a bell ringing, the observer comes and arranges the
+apparatus again to await a new shock. Knowing the hour at which the
+hand of the clock was stopped, he sees how long it has been in
+motion again and deduces therefrom the precise moment of the
+shock.</p>
+
+<p>The small rod, <i>f</i>, which is seen at the extremity of F, is
+for the purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with, if
+need be. In this case the screw, <i>h</i>, is so regulated that F
+descends farther, and that <i>f</i> may depress the armature of the
+magnet just as the current would have done.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6c.png"><img src=
+"./images/6c_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 4.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.&mdash;APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL
+MOVEMENTS.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apparatus for the Study of Vertical Movements.</i>&mdash;In
+this apparatus (Fig. 4), the contact is formed between a mercury
+cup, T, and a weight, D. The cup is capable of being raised and
+lowered by means of a screw, so that the two parts approach each
+other very closely without touching. At the moment of a vertical
+shock a contact occurs between the mercury and weight, and there
+results a current which, acting upon the electro, E, frees the
+pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus. In this case,
+in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may
+be rung, the piece, A, upon falling, sets up a permanent contact
+with the part, <i>a</i> (Fig. 3).</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6d.png"><img src=
+"./images/6d_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 5.&mdash;BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 5.&mdash;BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brassart's Seismic Clock.</i>&mdash;This apparatus is
+designed for being put in connection at a distance with an
+indicator like the ones just described. It is a simple clock to
+which a few special devices have been added. Seismic clocks may be
+classed in two categories, according as they are stopped by the
+effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant one
+occurs. The Messrs. Brassart have always given preference to those
+of the second category, because there is no need of watching them
+during a seismic calm, and because they are much more easily
+constructed. It is to this class, then, that their seismic clock
+belongs. It is capable of being used for domestic purposes in place
+of any other clock, and of becoming a seismoscopic clock as soon as
+it is put in electric communication with the seismic telltales.</p>
+
+<p>To the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the
+inventors have added (Fig. 5) a support formed of a strip of brass,
+S, with whose extremity is jointed (at the lower part) a double
+lever, A. This latter is held in a horizontal position by a small
+counterpoise, <i>i</i>, so that the finger at the opposite
+extremity shall prevent the pendulum, P, from swinging. To keep the
+latter in a position of rest a bent lever, <i>n n'</i>, is jointed
+to the upper part of the support, S. The longer arm, <i>n'</i>, of
+this lever is bent forward at right angles, so that it may come
+into contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon
+as the lever has been lifted by means of a small cord which is
+connected with the larger arm, <i>n</i>, and runs up to a small
+hook, from whence it descends and makes its exit under the
+clock-case.</p>
+
+<p>In order to stop the clock, then, it is only necessary to pull
+on this cord slightly, when, by moving the pendulum to the left, it
+will thrust it against the inclined plane of the finger of the
+lever arm, A. It is clear that the extremity of the pendulum, upon
+striking against the finger, will depress it slightly and go beyond
+the projection against which it remains fixed owing to the
+counterpoise, <i>i</i>. The fever, <i>n n'</i>, is brought back to
+its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise at the
+extremity of the arm, <i>n</i>. When the lever, A, is depressed,
+the pendulum escapes and sets the clock running. This depression is
+effected by means of an electro-magnet, E, whose armature, which is
+connected with the rod, <i>t, t</i>, lifts the arm, <i>i</i>, of
+the lever, and depresses A. The wires of the two bobbins of the
+electro-magnet end in two clamps, 1 and 2. The second of these
+latter is insulated from the clock-case. Both communicate with the
+extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the seismic
+telltale that brings about a closing of the current. Having noted
+the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running,
+one can deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred
+that set the clock in motion.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the parts that we have described, there are other
+accessory ones, R R<i>r</i>, and a third clamp, 3, which constitute
+a sort of rheotome that is designed to keep the circuit closed
+after the momentary closing that is produced by the telltale has
+occurred. This little mechanism is indispensable when the disturbed
+telltale has also to act upon an electric bell. This rheotome,
+which is very simple, is constructed as follows: A small brass rod,
+R, which is screwed to the support, S, carries at its left
+extremity a brass axis, X, which is insulated from the rod, R, by
+means of an ivory piece. Toward the center of this small rod, the
+bent lever, <i>r</i>, carries a small arm that is bent forward, and
+against which abuts the axis of the pendulum, thus causing it to be
+thrust toward the left when the pendulum is arrested by the
+projection of the finger, A. As soon as the pendulum is set free,
+the lever, <i>r</i>, redescends and places itself against the axis,
+X. This latter communicates with clamp 3, which is insulated, while
+the rod, R, communicates with clamp 1. The external communications
+are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is interposed
+remains definitely closed when the lever, <i>r</i>, is in contact
+with the rod, X.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6e.png"><img src=
+"./images/6e_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 6.&mdash;ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 6.&mdash;ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rossi's Tremitoscope.</i>&mdash;This instrument (Fig. 6)
+unites, upon the same stone base, three different arrangements for
+showing evidences of trepidations of the earth. On one side we find
+(protected by a glass tube) a weight suspended over a mercury cup
+by a spring, and designed to show vertical motions. The two other
+parts of the apparatus are designed for registering horizontal
+motions. The first is a pendulum which causes a contact with four
+distinct springs, and whose movements are watched with a spy-glass.
+The second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a
+heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock. This ball is provided
+with a point which is movable within a second ball, so that its
+motion produces a contact. All these different contacts are
+signaled or registered electrically.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/6f.png"><img src=
+"./images/6f_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 7.&mdash;SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.&mdash;SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scateni's Registering Seismograph.</i>&mdash;This apparatus,
+which is shown in Figs. 7 and 8, consists of two parts&mdash;of a
+transmitter and of a registering device.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7a.png"><img src=
+"./images/7a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 8.&mdash;REGISTERING APPARATUS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 8.&mdash;REGISTERING APPARATUS.</p>
+
+<p>The transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a
+steel point and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected
+with a pile. All around this circle are four strips of platinum,
+against one of which abuts the circle at every movement of the
+glass. Each strip of platinum communicates, through a special wire,
+with one of the electro-magnets of the registering device (Fig. 8).
+This latter consists of an ordinary clock that carries three
+concentric dials&mdash;one for minutes, one for hours, and one for
+seconds. In a direction with the radii of these dials there are
+four superposed levers, each of which is actuated by one of the
+electros. On another hand, each dial is divided into four zones
+that correspond to the four cardinal points. When a shock coming
+from the north, for example, produces a contact, the corresponding
+electro is affected, and its lever falls and marks upon each of the
+dials a point in its north zone. We thus obtain the exact hour of
+the shock, as well as its direction. As may be seen, the apparatus,
+as regards principle, is one of the simplest of its
+kind.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="20"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NEW ACCUMULATORS.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7b.png"><img src=
+"./images/7b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 1.&mdash;ARNOULD &amp; TAMINE'S ACCUMULATOR."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.&mdash;ARNOULD &amp; TAMINE'S
+ACCUMULATOR.</p>
+
+<p>In Messrs. Arnould and Tamine's accumulators, shown in Fig. 1,
+the formation is effected directly by the current, as in the
+Plant&eacute; pile, but the plates are formed of wires connected
+horizontally at their extremities by soldering. These plates are
+held apart either by setting them into paraffined wooden grooves at
+the ends of the trough or by interposing between them pieces of
+paraffined wood.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7c.png"><img src=
+"./images/7c_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 2.&mdash;BARRIER &amp; TOURVIELLE'S ELECTRODOCK."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.&mdash;BARRIER &amp; TOURVIELLE'S
+ELECTRODOCK.</p>
+
+<p>In Messrs. Barrier and Tourville's <i>Electrodock</i> (Fig. 2)
+the plates are formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a
+wooden cover. These tubes are threaded internally and externally,
+and the grooves thus produced are filled with a peculiar cement
+composed of litharge, powdered charcoal, and permanganate of
+potash, triturated together, sifted, and then mixed with glucose or
+sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them. This mixture forms a
+cement that is very adhesive after, as well as before, the
+electrolytic action.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7d.png"><img src=
+"./images/7d_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 3.&mdash;KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.&mdash;KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.</p>
+
+<p>In Kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden
+gratings between which is compressed red lead prepared in a
+peculiar manner, and constituting, 48 hours after formation, a
+compact mass with the lead. The tangs of the plates are widened so
+as to touch one another while leaving a proper distance between the
+plates themselves, and are hollowed out for the reception of a rod
+provided at its extremities with a winged nut and jam nut for
+passing them up close to one another. The plates, properly so
+called, are held apart by rubber bauds. The glass vessels are
+placed in osier baskets.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="21"></a></p>
+
+<h2>INDUSTRIAL MODEL OF THE REYNIER ZINC ACCUMULATOR.</h2>
+
+<p>The three models of a secondary battery that I recently made
+known to the readers of this journal have been the object of
+continuous experiment. Conformably to the provisions of theory, the
+zinc accumulator has shown itself practically superior to the two
+others, and I have therefore chosen this type for getting up an
+industrial model, which is shown in the annexed cut. The
+accumulator contains four Plant&eacute; positives, having a wide
+surface, and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead
+covered with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of
+zinc sulphate in which the couple is immersed. Accidental contact
+with the interior of the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to
+the negatives by means of leaden bands. The seven electrodes are
+carried by as many distinct crosspieces of paraffined wood, which
+rest upon the edges of the trough and hold the plates at a certain
+distance from the bottom. These various crosspieces, which touch
+one another, take the place of a cover. Each plate is provided with
+a terminal. The four positive terminals are all on the same side,
+and the three negatives are on the opposite side. Two brass rods
+ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same
+name. The trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles, one
+within the other, and having a play of several millimeters. This
+space is lined with a tight, elastic, insulating cement having tar
+for a base.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/7e.png"><img src=
+"./images/7e_th.jpg" alt=
+" REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual size.)"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual
+size.)</p>
+
+<p>The careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the
+apparatus, and the purity of the metal and its amalgamation, reduce
+the local attack of the zinc to almost nothing. So the coefficient
+of restitution is now comparable with that of accumulators of the
+Plant&eacute; type.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc
+accumulator.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='center' colspan="3">PHYSICAL DATA.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>E.</td>
+<td align='left'>Electromotive force.</td>
+<td align='left'>2.36 volts.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>R.</td>
+<td align='left'>Mean resistance.</td>
+<td align='left'>0.02 ohm.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>I.</td>
+<td align='left'>Normal intensity of the discharge current.</td>
+<td align='left'>25 amperes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>i.</td>
+<td align='left'>Intensity of the charge current.</td>
+<td align='left'>5 to 10 amperes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Q.</td>
+<td align='left'>Capacity of accumulation after 200 hours'
+formation.</td>
+<td align='left'>550,000 couples.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='center' colspan="3">DATA CONCERNING CONSTRUCTION.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Efficient surface of the 4 positive
+electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>200 square dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Efficient surface of the 3 negative
+electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>15 square dec.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the positive electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>8.2 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the negative electrodes.</td>
+<td align='left'>1.4 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the trough.</td>
+<td align='left'>2.7 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the liquid.</td>
+<td align='left'>4.4 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight of the attachments.</td>
+<td align='left'>0.46 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Weight, total.</td>
+<td align='left'>17.16 kilogrammes.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The total electric work stored up is 130,000 kilogrammeters, or
+7,600 kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator. Theory
+indicates that a zinc accumulator might store up as much as 15,600
+kilogrammeters per kilogramme. If the present model gives half
+less, it is because I have purposely exaggerated the solidity of
+the trough and the mass of the electrodes.</p>
+
+<p>It should be remarked that this capacity of 7,600 kilogrammeters
+per kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator
+constructed in France. The new model possesses, then, despite the
+size of the positives and the box, a relative lightness that will
+permit it to take a place upon electric locomotives as well as in
+fixed installations.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of their use as accumulators, secondary zinc
+batteries may be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by
+incandescence, for deadening piston strokes, attenuating the
+irregularities in speed, and covering accidental
+stoppages.&mdash;<i>E. Reynier, in La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="22"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE HISTORY OF A LIGHTNING FLASH.</h2>
+
+<h3>By W. SLINGO.</h3>
+
+<p>Lately we have all felt, I doubt not, a considerable amount of
+interest in the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually
+heavy thunderstorms, accompanied, as they have been, by vivid
+lightning discharges of a more or less hurtful nature. The list of
+disasters published in <i>Knowledge</i>, No. 143, might be very
+materially augmented were we to record such damage as has been
+wrought since that list was compiled.</p>
+
+<p>There is not, I suppose, in the mind of any intelligent man at
+the present day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning
+flash. The questions to be considered are rather whence comes the
+electricity, and in what way is the thunderstorm brought about. In
+attempting to answer these questions, sight must not be lost of the
+fact that the very nature of electricity is in itself almost
+sufficient to baffle any effort put forth to ascertain from
+lightning, as such, its whence and its whither.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible, however, with the aid of our knowledge of static
+electricity, to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical
+nature. In the first place, that our sphere is a more or less
+electrified body is generally admitted. More than this, it is
+demonstrated that the different parts of the earth's surface and
+its enveloping atmosphere are variously charged. As a consequence
+of these varying charges, there is a constant series of currents
+flowing through the various parts of the earth, which show
+themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction
+followed by the currents. Such currents are known as earth
+currents, and present phenomena of a highly interesting nature.
+But, apart from these electrical manifestations, there is generally
+a difference of electrical condition between the various parts of
+the earth's surface and those portions of the atmosphere adjacent
+to or above them. Inasmuch as air is one of the very best
+insulators, this difference of condition (or potential) in any
+particular region is in most cases incapable of being neutralized
+or equilibrated by an electric flow. Consequently the air remains
+more or less continually charged. With these points admitted as
+facts, the question arises, Whence this electricity? There have
+been very many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of
+terrestrial electricity, but far the greater portion of such
+theories lack fundamental probability, and indicate causes which
+cannot be regarded as sufficiently extensive or operative to
+produce such tremendous effects as are occasionally witnessed. I
+take it that we may safely regard the evolution of electricity as
+one of the ways in which force exhibits itself, that, in other
+words, when work is performed electricity may result. When two
+bodies are rubbed together, electricity is produced, so also is it
+when two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is
+dissolved, or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to
+a higher temperature than the other junction. I will go further
+than this, so far, in fact, as to maintain that there is a
+reasonable ground for supposing that every movement, whether it be
+of the mass or among the constituent particles, is attended by a
+change of electrical distribution; and if this is true, it may
+easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of the
+universe, there must be a constant series of electrical changes.
+Now, these changes do not all operate in one direction, nor are
+they all of similar character, whence it is that not only are there
+earth currents of feeble electro-motive force, but that this E.M.F.
+is constantly varying, and that, furthermore, electricity of high
+E.M.F. is to be met with in various parts of the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p>With earth currents we have here very little to do. The rotation
+of the earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents,
+and the fact that they vary in strength at regular periods of the
+day and of the year enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts
+considerable electrical influence on the earth. Letting it be
+granted, however, that the earth is variously charged, how comes it
+that the air is also charged, and with electricity of greater
+tension than that of the earth itself? It was pointed out by Sir W.
+Grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum wire be placed
+in a candle flame, one at the bottom and the other near the top, an
+electric current will flow through the wire, indicating the
+presence of electricity. If an electrified body be heated, the
+electricity escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises. If a
+vessel of water be electrified, and the water then converted into
+steam, the electric charge will be rapidly dissipated. If a vessel
+containing water be electrified, and the water allowed to escape
+drop by drop, electricity will escape with each drop, and the
+vessel will soon be discharged.</p>
+
+<p>We regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a
+greater or less charge; whence it is safe to assume that in the
+process of evaporation which is going on all over the surface of
+the globe, more particularly in equatorial regions, every particle
+of water, as it rises into the air, carries with it its portion,
+however minute that portion may be, of the earth's electric charge.
+This small charge distributes itself over the surface of the
+aqueous particle, and the vapor rises higher and higher until it
+reaches that point above which the air is too rare to support it.
+It then flows away laterally, and as it approaches colder regions
+gets denser, sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface. The
+aqueous particles becoming reduced in size, the extent of their
+surfaces is proportionately reduced. It follows that as the
+particles and their surfaces are reduced, the charge is confined to
+a smaller surface, and attains, therefore, a greater "surface
+density," or in simpler language, a greater amount of electricity
+per unit of surface.</p>
+
+<p>Electricity, as above set forth, is in what is known as the
+"static" condition (to distinguish it from electricity which is
+being transferred in the form of a current), when it has the
+property of "repelling itself" to the utmost limits of any
+conductor upon which it may be confined. This will account for the
+charge finding its way to the surface of the water particles, and
+will furthermore account for the greater density of the charge as
+the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface rapidly
+diminished. It may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere varies
+as the cube of its radius.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing
+when the particles have reached their highest position in the
+atmosphere, we may imagine that they set themselves off on journeys
+toward either the north or the south pole. As they pass from the
+hotter to the colder regions, a number of particles coalesce; these
+again combine with others on the road until the vapor becomes
+visible as cloud. The increased density implies increased weight,
+and the cloud particles, as they sail poleward, descend toward the
+surface of the earth. Assuming that a spherical form is maintained
+throughout, the condensation of a number of particles implies a
+considerable reduction of surface. Thus, the contents of two
+spheres vary as the cubes of their radii, or eight (the cube of 2)
+drops on combining will form a drop twice the radius of one of the
+original drops. We may safely conceive hundreds and thousands of
+such combinations to take place until a cloud mass is formed, in
+which the constituent parts are more or less in contact, and,
+therefore, behave electrically as a single conductor of irregular
+surface, upon which is accumulated all the electricity that was
+previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of
+particles that now compose it.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a
+conductor is to take upon itself a position in which it may
+approach nearest to an equal and opposite charge; or, if possible,
+to attain neutrality. If, then, a cloud has a charge, and there is
+no other cloud above or near it, the charge <i>induces</i> on the
+adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite kind. Thus,
+assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity, the
+subjacent earth will be in the negative state. The two
+electricities<a name="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_3_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> exert a strong tendency to
+combine or to produce neutrality, whence there is a species of
+stress applied to the intervening air. Possibly the cloud will be
+drawn bodily toward the earth more or less rapidly, according as
+the charge is great or small. Or, on the other hand, the cloud may
+roll on for leagues, carrying its influence with it, so that the
+various portions of the earth underneath become successively
+charged and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey.</p>
+
+<p>Should the cloud be near the earth, or should it be very highly
+charged, the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to
+overcome the resistance of the intervening air; and if this
+resistance should prove too weak, what happens? How does the
+discharge show itself? It takes place in the form of a lightning
+flash, and passing from the one surface to the other&mdash;or,
+maybe, simultaneously from both&mdash;produces neutrality more or
+less complete.</p>
+
+<p>There has recently been a little discussion in these pages on
+the subject of lightning, some having stated that they discerned
+the discharge to take place upward&mdash;that is, from the earth
+toward the cloud. I will not venture so far as to say whether or
+not the direction of the discharge is discernible; possibly the
+flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one to tell; but I
+have never so seen it, and have always looked upon the eye as a
+deceitful member&mdash;very. "The lightning flash itself never
+lasts more than 1/100000 of a second." It is, however, just as
+likely that a discharge may travel upward as downward. What
+controls the discharge? Does the quality of the charge?&mdash;that
+is to say, is the positive or the negative more prone to break
+disruptively through the insulating medium? Investigations with
+Geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied gases have
+made it tolerably clear that there is a greater "tearing away"
+influence at the negative than at the positive pole, and if two
+equal balls, containing one a positive and the other a negative
+charge, be equally heated, the negative is more readily dissipated
+than the positive. But, so far as we at present know, this question
+enters into the discussion scarcely, if at all. Our knowledge seems
+rather to point to the substances upon which the charges are
+collected. The self-repellent nature of electricity compels it to
+manifest itself at the more prominent parts of the surface, the
+level being forsaken for the point. The tension of the charge, or
+its tendency to fly off, is proportionately increased. And if at a
+given moment the tension attains a certain intensity, the discharge
+follows, emanating from the surface which offers the greatest
+facilities for escape. The earth is generally flatter than the
+cloud, whence, in all probability, the discharge more frequently
+originates with the cloud.</p>
+
+<p>Should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct
+neutrality, it is possible that no damage will result, although
+this again is not always certain, because when the cloud charge
+acts inductively on the earth it produces the opposite (say
+negative) charge on the nearer parts, the similar (or positive)
+state is also produced at some place more or less distant.
+Sometimes this "freed" positive (which, by the way, accumulates
+gradually and physiologically imperceptibly) is collected at some
+portion of the earth's surface. When the negative is neutralized by
+the discharge, the freed positive is no longer confined to a
+particular region, but tends to dissipate itself, and a shock may
+be felt more or less severely by any person within the region. Or,
+again, a similar shock may be experienced by a person standing
+within the negative zone on the neutralization of the charge.</p>
+
+<p>I may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting
+and instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits
+during a thunderstorm. The storm may be taking place at some
+distance from the point of observation. The electrified cloud
+induces the opposite charge beneath it, the similar charge being
+repelled. It is noticeable that the needle of a galvanometer,
+starting from the middle position, goes gradually over to one side,
+eventually indicating a considerable deflection. Suddenly, owing
+apparently to a lightning discharge some distance away, the force
+which caused the deflection is withdrawn, and the needle rebounds
+with great violence to the opposite side. In a short time, the
+cloud becoming again charged on its under surface, and recommencing
+its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth, the needle starts
+again, and goes through the same series of movements, a violent
+counterthrow following every flash of lightning.</p>
+
+<p>If we can so far control our imagination, we may conceive the
+earth to be one large insulated conductor, susceptible to every
+influence around it. If then the earth, as a mass of matter,
+behaves as above indicated, there is no plausible reason for
+declining to regard any other large conducting mass in a similar
+light, and as a body capable of being subjected more or less
+completely to the various impulses affecting the earth. In other
+words, a large mass of conducting material, partially or perfectly
+insulated, is, during a thunderstorm, in considerable danger. With
+this portion of the subject I shall, however, deal more fully when
+discussing the merits of lightning protectors.</p>
+
+<p>Lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth
+only, but also, and perhaps more frequently, between too oppositely
+charged clouds. We then get atmospheric lightning, the flash often
+extending for miles. This form of lightning is harmless, and in all
+probability what we see is only a reflection of the discharge. The
+oft-told tale of the lightning flying in at the window, across the
+room, and out of the door, or up the chimney, is all moonshine, and
+before dealing with lightning protectors I intend to expose some of
+the fallacies concerning lightning. Were the discharge to pass
+through a house, it would infallibly leave more decided traces and
+do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now and
+again. Many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a
+thunderstorm, but it may be safely predicted that a person under a
+roof is infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level
+ground, and making himself a prominence inviting a discharge. Rain
+almost invariably accompanies the discharge, and the roof and sides
+of the house being wet, they form a more or less perfect channel of
+escape should a flash strike the
+building.&mdash;<i>Knowledge.</i></p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3">[3]</a>
+<div class="note">We may speak of two electricities or two electric
+states without necessarily implying adherence either to the single
+or the double "fluid" theory. Whether electricity be of two kinds
+or no, the fact remains that there are two conditions, and all the
+features of this paper may be explained with equal facility by the
+supporters of either hypothesis.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="23"></a></p>
+
+<h2>RESEARCHES ON MAGNETISM.</h2>
+
+<h3>By M. DUTER.</h3>
+
+<p>If we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field,
+so that the lines of force of the field may be normal to the
+surface of the plate, we have a very flat magnet, the two faces of
+which are the two polar surfaces. The magnetic distribution thus
+obtained seems to disappear when the plate is no longer in the
+field. The following experiments show that this disappearance is
+not complete. I made use of plates of tempered steel of 1
+millimeter in thickness, and varying in diameter from 0.040 to
+0.005 meter. With these plates I formed cylindrical batteries. In
+some of these batteries the plates are directly in contact, and in
+others they were separated by leaves of pasteboard, the thickness
+of which varied from that of the thinnest paper to 0.001 meter. The
+batteries were placed in the central portion of a very powerful
+magnetic field, and after they have been taken out they formed
+perfectly regular permanent magnets. The supporting power of these
+magnets was the greater the nearer its constituent plates were to
+each other. In a battery of 100 plates, touching each other
+directly, and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder, the portative
+force at each extremity rose to 30 grammes. This first result
+having been obtained, I dismounted the batteries, plate by plate,
+taking care to mark the upper and under side of each. I found then
+that each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism. Yet
+each of them still constituted a flat magnet, of which the two
+faces are the polar surfaces; for on rebuilding the battery it gave
+again a perfectly regular magnet, though weaker than it was at
+first. The separation of the magnet into its constituent plates,
+and its reconstruction, maybe repeated
+indefinitely.&mdash;<i>Comptes Rendus.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>Dr. T. Tommasi (<i>Cosmos les Mondes</i>) notes that the thermic
+constant of thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants
+of potassium and lead, the two metals which it most resembles in
+its chemical character.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="5"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED GAS LIGHT BUOY.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8a.png"><img src=
+"./images/8a_th.jpg" alt=" GAS LIGHT BUOY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GAS LIGHT BUOY.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the
+Pintsch's Patent Lighting Company for the river Humber. The chief
+dimensions of the buoy are given in the engraving, which also shows
+that the gas holder is placed within the boat in such a way as to
+be protected from blows likely to cause any leakage. The buoy has a
+special form to meet its requirements as a lightship, and the
+conditions of its employment is the fast tidal current of the
+river. It was designed by Mr. C. Berthon, of Westminster, and is
+intended to carry a six months' supply of gas, the burner,
+regulator, and lamp being on the well known Pintsch system. The
+hull is formed of &#8540; inch plate, 24 feet 3 inches total
+length, and 9 feet beam at the line of flotation. The laps of the
+plates are 4 inches wide, and riveted with &frac34; inch rivets,
+spaced 2&frac14; inch apart center to center. The keel and stem are
+both in one piece, as shown, and to this the garboard strake is to
+be fastened. The bilge pieces are riveted on to the bilge, and made
+of 9 inches by 4&frac12; inches by 9/16 inch T-iron. A wooden
+fender, 4 inches by 4 inches wood, is fitted on both sides of hull,
+running from stern to stern, by 3 inches by 3&frac12; inches by
+7/16 inch L-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown. The hull
+from water line falls in as shown, so as to describe at midships an
+arc of 4 feet 6 inches, and a circular deck of &#8539; inch plate
+is riveted on the hull. There are two man-holes, each 16 inches
+diameter in the clear, placed in end plates of the circular deck as
+shown, and provided with covers &#8540; inch thick, secured by
+twenty screws &frac34; inch diameter. The edge of each manhole is
+stiffened by a welded iron ring. The surface of the mooring link
+that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is
+steeled. The gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side,
+and riveted to the keelson, and is prevented from rolling by four
+gusset plates, with two short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto
+at the ends and coming in contact with the holder, and at the ends
+by angular plates, and angle iron riveted on each side and riveted
+to the keelson. The superstructure consists of four legs of angle
+iron 2&frac12; inches by 2&frac12; inches by 5/16 inch, the upper
+ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate for
+supporting the lighting apparatus. Four wooden battens of pitch
+pine, 4 inches by 1&frac12; inches, and bolted on to each cant of
+the angle iron superstructure, with &#8542; inch galvanized iron
+bolts and nuts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/8b.png"><img src=
+"./images/8b_th.jpg" alt=" GAS LIGHT BUOY."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">GAS LIGHT BUOY.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="6"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PROJECT FOR A ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.</h2>
+
+<p>The present port of Havre is absolutely insufficient to answer
+the ever increasing requirements of commerce. Its entrance, which
+is too narrow and not deep enough, does not permit steamers to go
+in, come out, and perform their evolutions with the rapidity
+required by our epoch. So they are gradually abandoning our port,
+and going to load and unload at Anvers and elsewhere. A large
+number of wise heads, who are anxious about the future of this port
+and our national interests, have devoted themselves to finding a
+means of enlarging it, not by dredging <i>new</i> basins, which
+would prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years, but
+by installing a true roadstead at the entrance to the present
+basins.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9a.png"><img src=
+"./images/9a_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG 1.&mdash;PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG 1.&mdash;PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT
+HAVRE.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen, under the
+name of the Little Roadstead, a vast extent of sea nearly two
+kilometers wide by three to four in length, bounded upon one side
+by the heights of Heve and St. Adresse, and upon the other by the
+rocky line of Eclat and of the heights of the roadstead (Fig. 1).
+This Little Roadstead, so called, in order to become a genuine one,
+would have to be protected against the great waves of the open sea.
+To thus protect it, to close it as quickly and as cheaply as
+possible&mdash;that is the problem.</p>
+
+<p>In 1838, Charles de Massas presented a project (the first in
+order of date), which consisted in constructing upon the Eclat reef
+a semi-lunate dike, and a breakwater at Cape Heve. Moreover, upon
+the emergent parts of the Eclat reef and heights of the roadstead
+he proposed to erect two forts.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9b.png"><img src=
+"./images/9b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 2.&mdash;LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.&mdash;LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER.</p>
+
+<p>The defense of the port of Havre is a very important question,
+and one that appears to be completely abandoned. Since Engineer
+Degaulle in 1808 advised the erection of a fort upon the Eclat, and
+requests have periodically been made and projects drawn. The
+requests are forgotten, but the drawings are in the Ministers'
+portfolios, and if France should to-morrow have a war with a
+maritime power our great northern port might be destroyed and
+burned by the smallest squadron.</p>
+
+<p>Some years after Massas' project, two officers, Deloffre and
+Bleve, and an engineer named Renaud, received a commission to
+search for a means of closing a portion of Seine Bay. These
+gentlemen advised the erection of two dikes, one on the Eclat shoal
+in the very axis of this reef, and the other at Heve. Between these
+two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating breakwater. This
+project, which was submitted to Admiral de Hell in 1845, had a
+favorable reception, and the Admiral especially applauded the trial
+of breakwaters, "which were much talked of in England, although the
+effects that they might produce were not well known." Deloffre,
+Bleve, and Renauds' project comprised two forts&mdash;one to the
+north and the other to the south of the roadstead. For a long time
+nothing more was said about it, and it is only during recent years,
+when the peril has become imminent for Havre (threatened as it is
+of being abandoned even by the French transatlantics), that the
+question has again became the order of the day.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9c.png"><img src=
+"./images/9c_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 3.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.&mdash;END VIEW.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING
+BREAKWATER.&mdash;END VIEW.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Bert, a merchant, would protect the Little Roadstead by
+means of two jetties, 1,000 and 1,600 meters in length, built, one
+of them upon the Eclat and the other upon the eminences of the
+roadstead. These would be constructed by forming a foundation of
+loose rocks, and using earth and brick above the level of the
+water. Mr. Vial has likewise proposed a rockwork of 2,000 meters in
+length, to form a dike 10 meters in height and width, whose
+platform would be on a level with the highest tides.</p>
+
+<p>Next comes the more recent project of Mr. Coulon. Seeing that it
+is the deposits of the ocean and not those of the Seine that
+accumulate upon the estuary, Mr. Coulon advises the construction of
+a dike about 2,000 meters in length, starting from the Havre jetty,
+and ending at the southwest extremity of the shoals at the
+roadstead heights, and a second one returning toward the northwest,
+of from 500 to 1,000 meters. A third and very long one of not less
+than 8 kilometers would be built from Honfleur to the Ratier
+shoals.</p>
+
+<p>This latter one, in contracting the bay, would contribute to
+increase the force of the current, which, throwing back at the
+ocean its mud and pebbles, would give us the depths of 15 and 20
+meters indicated on the map of Beautemps-Beaupre.</p>
+
+<p>This year, again, two projects have arisen; one of them due to
+Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, and the other to Mr. Hersent.</p>
+
+<p>According to Mr. Hersent, it would be necessary to surround the
+Little Roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky
+shoals, which would begin at Cape Heve (which it would consolidate)
+and end opposite the entrance to the port at 1,600 meters from the
+jetties. Through it there would be five passages. Afterward another
+dike would be constructed, starting from the shore and running to
+meet the jetty designed to inclose the Little Roadstead. On turning
+the angle at which it met the jetty it would be continued as far as
+to Berville. Finally, a third dike, running from Honfleur to
+Berville, would complete the system.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hersent's project, which is one of the most remarkable of
+those that have been proposed, has one fault, and that is that it
+would require twelve years of work, and cost 158 million
+francs.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, completely renouncing masonry dikes
+as being too costly and taking too long to construct, proposes to
+inclose the Havre roadstead by means of floating breakwaters. As we
+have already seen, the use of these between Cape Heve and the Eclat
+shoals had already been proposed in 1845. As the project was
+abandoned, the models of these breakwaters are rare.</p>
+
+<p>In Bouniceau's "Marine Constructions" we find a curious figure,
+a sort of open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular
+manner, and surmounted by rooms for watchmen, semaphores, posts for
+the shipwrecked, etc. It is, indeed, the most complicated and most
+impracticable type that could be imagined.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lewis' model, which was exhibited last year at the
+International Fisheries Exhibition, was, on the contrary, one of
+the simplest. It consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly
+triangular section, the sharpest angle of which, being turned
+oceanward, was designed to cut the waves and cause them to break
+over it (Fig. 2). If, by favor of divine Providence, this
+breakwater, which presents absolutely plane surfaces to the shock
+and pressure of the waves, is not broken to fragments in the first
+tempest, it will certainly acquit itself of the <i>role</i> for
+which the inventor destined it. When we have a system of resistance
+to the sea, anchored and facing a certain direction, and
+consequently not being able to revolve around its axis as vessels
+do, care must be taken not to give it entire surfaces.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9d.png"><img src=
+"./images/9d_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 4.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.&mdash;MODE OF JOINING THE PARTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.&mdash;FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.&mdash;MODE
+OF JOINING THE PARTS.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froideville's breakwater consists of a framework 25 meters
+in length, and 9 in height and width, and having the form of an
+irregular 5-sided prism (Fig. 3). The smallest side of the prism is
+designed to serve as a flat keel. The axis is formed of a metallic
+float, from whence start radii that form the skeleton of the
+framework, and that are designed for connecting the center with
+five long spruce beams that form the angles of the prism. To these
+beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the openwork sides.
+Five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams, but not so strong
+as they, protect the cross pieces and secure them against breakage
+in the middle. All the angles of the breakwater and all points of
+juncture of the pieces are protected with iron, and it is in order
+to counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central
+float is used. Parallel with this first breakwater, there are two
+other and smaller ones, which are designed for reducing the effect
+of rolling as much as possible. Reduced to a single float, the
+breakwater might remain under the waves too long, but, owing to the
+two others, it rights itself, warps around, and always presents the
+spur of its sharp roof to the wave.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each
+other, they are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious
+manner. From each of them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar
+which terminates in a journal that permits the breakwater to
+oscillate. Between these two bars there is a sort of swivel, whose
+pieces, in playing upon one another, give the breakwaters
+elasticity, while always holding them apart (Fig. 4). From each
+side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which
+the anchorage chain is attached. This latter is of steel, without
+solderings, and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage
+need be feared. To the other extremity of the chain is attached an
+anchor having two flukes, which both engage with the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froideville proposes to set up two lines of these
+breakwaters, for a length of about 7&frac12; kilometers, starting
+at the north from Cape Heve, taking in depths of 15 meters (the
+best that are found in the Little Roadstead), passing in front of
+the Eclat shoal and the heights, and ending opposite the entrance
+of the present port.</p>
+
+<p>The first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves,
+and the second for lending its aid in times of high tempests, and
+stopping the surge that has escaped from the first.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its
+promoter to affirm that in a few months, and with nine millions, he
+can inclose the Havre roadstead.</p>
+
+<p>The Little Roadstead, being thenceforward protected, will become
+an excellent port of refuge in bad weather. In addition, a system
+of lighters, or, better, a few floats connected with the shore and
+forming a rock, will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with
+great rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Froideville's project presents the further advantage of
+rendering it easier to put the port of Havre quickly in defense. A
+certain number of floating batteries, anchored behind the
+breakwaters and protecting the advances of torpedo boats by means
+of their firing, would make a formidable defense. Not having to
+perform any evolutions, they might without danger be invested with
+armor plate thicker than that of ordinary ironclads. In order to
+complete the system, there might be erected upon the Eclat shoal an
+ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of
+Portsmouth.</p>
+
+<p>An English chronicler of the fourteenth century, in speaking of
+his country, places it above all others, and declares that men are
+handsomer, whiter, and purer blooded there than elsewhere, and he
+says that this is so "because it is so." We would not like to
+imitate his naive reasoning, and yet, for defending the very
+original system proposed by Mr. Froideville, we have only our
+conviction, which we share, moreover, with a large number of
+sea-faring men and engineers. Mathematics are powerless to predict
+to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters
+will behave, but experiment remains. Let the promoter of the
+project, then, be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters,
+and if, as we suppose, the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a
+northwester, a maritime revolution will have been brought
+about.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="7"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.</h2>
+
+<p>In 1882, M. Bacle published in <i>Le G&eacute;nie Civil</i> a
+study of the sewer systems in some of the large foreign cities.
+There may be found there a description of the Liernur system at
+Amsterdam, Leyden, and Dordrecht, in Holland, and in certain cities
+of Germany and the United States.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/9e.png"><img src=
+"./images/9e_th.jpg" alt=" IMPROVED CATCH BASIN."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.</p>
+
+<p>This system consists in the employment of two distinct systems
+of ducts, one for the discharges from water-closets and the other
+for household wastes, rain water, and the discharges from factories
+when sufficiently purified. This arrangement allows the employment
+of sewers of small section, provided that it shall be unnecessary
+to enter them for the purpose of cleansing them. It has been
+necessary, therefore, to provide inlets with a separating apparatus
+called "gully" or "catch basin," which retains as completely as
+possible all solid matter, mud, excrement, and <i>debris</i> of
+every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by
+rain-water, and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the
+sewers, the choking up being followed by fermentation and the
+emanation of noxious vapors.</p>
+
+<p>M.C. Pieper of Berlin suggests a device for a catch basin, which
+appears to meet the requirements. It is in the form of a
+cylindrical metal box, enlarged in its upper section to receive a
+filtering cylinder of perforated sheet iron, which occupies almost
+the upper half of the device and rests upon the smaller lower part.
+The entire apparatus is covered by a movable funnel, through which
+enter water and any rubbish which it may carry with it. From one
+side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged, while a siphon
+placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under certain
+circumstances, as will be explained.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 1 represents the apparatus discharging under normal
+conditions. The heavy matter, sand, stones, etc., falls to the
+bottom into a receptacle which can be lifted out from time to time
+and emptied. The lighter buoyant matters, straw, vegetable
+<i>debris</i>, paper, etc., remain at the surface, and are retained
+by the filter; the water passing through the holes in the sheet
+iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which
+exists in the upper part between the two cylinders, and escapes by
+the waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level. If at a given
+moment the quantity of water flowing in is too much to be
+discharged through this waste-pipe, the level of the water mounts
+in the cylinder until it reaches the top of the siphon. Immediately
+the siphon comes into play and empties the upper part of the
+apparatus, and the filtered water contained in the annular space
+already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the
+perforated sheet iron, and in so doing cleans out the perforations
+with considerable energy. This second period is represented in the
+second figure.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket,
+the heavy matters contained in the latter are not in the least
+disturbed, and the metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents
+the entrance of any floating matters. When siphonic action ceases,
+the water in the short arm of the siphon empties itself into the
+main receptacle, and by so doing cleanses the screen. During a rain
+or the washing of the streets, the siphon can work in concurrence
+with the ordinary discharge-pipe. It is evident of course that
+these two&mdash;pipes can be placed on the same side of the
+apparatus, if this prove the most convenient arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>We will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the
+Liernur system, but also can be used for preventing the entrance of
+obstructions into sewers of the ordinary type, where the grade is
+small or where the quantity of water is insufficient; and if we
+adopt the system of "everything to the sewer," can we not find in
+the employment of this apparatus an element for the realization of
+the famous formula, "Always in circulation, and never in
+stagnation?"&mdash;<i>Le G&eacute;nie Civil.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<h3>[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 454, page 7249.]</h3>
+
+<p><a name="8"></a></p>
+
+<h2>WATER-POWER WITH HIGH PRESSURES AND WROUGHT-IRON
+WATER-PIPE.</h2>
+
+<h3>By HAMILTON SMITH, JR., M. Am. Soc. C.E.</h3>
+
+<h3>METHODS OF CONDUCTING WATER AND TRANSMITTING POWER.</h3>
+
+<p>A description of the mode of using water-power for driving the
+North Bloomfield tunnel in California, some years since, will give
+a good illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy.
+This tunnel was originally about 8,000 feet long, through a slate
+highly metamorphosed, with its general line passing under a
+good-sized stream, at a depth of about 190 feet. There were eight
+working-shafts, each about 200 feet deep, which, with the lower
+entrance or portal, gave sixteen working faces. Diamond drills were
+used at the lower heading requiring power; the other fifteen
+headings were driven by hand-work. It was uncertain how much water
+would be encountered; but from the location, it was evident that a
+large quantity might be struck in any shaft, and hence it became
+necessary to have ample power at hand at each opening, in readiness
+for such an emergency. A pipe main was laid along the general line
+of the tunnel, with its pen-stock 285 feet vertical above the
+surface at the upper shaft, and 549 feet above the lowest shaft. It
+was made of single riveted sheet-iron, of No. 14 (Birmingham)
+gauge, in lengths of 20 feet, put together stove-pipe fashion, with
+the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and pine wedges. This
+pipe had a diameter of 15 inches at the pen-stock, diminishing from
+this to 13, 11, and 7 inches at its lower end. From it, short
+branches, 7 inches in diameter, were extended to the several
+shafts. It was in one place carried across the stream by a light
+suspension bridge, some 150 feet long, the trunk of a tree on each
+side forming a convenient tower. The aggregate length of the main
+and branches was 9,960 feet, with some 2,500 feet additional, for
+the branch to the diamond drills. The pipe was laid on the surface
+of the ground, its only protection being in places a couple of
+1&frac12;-inch planks tacked together, and placed over it; the
+range of temperature was from 10 degrees to 107 degrees Fahr. (in
+the shade). It was inspected by the foreman of the tunnel-work as
+he daily walked over the line; besides the occasional driving of a
+few wedges and putting on a band or two, it gave no trouble from
+leakage, which probably for its entire length did not amount to
+more than an average of 3 or 4 cubic feet a minute; from time to
+time, a little sawdust was put into the pen-stock. Three stop-gates
+were placed on the main, and a separate stop-gate at each shaft,
+operated by a fine-threaded screw, so that the water could be cut
+off when desired.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10a.png"><img src=
+"./images/10a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 13."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 13.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 13 shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and
+pumping, which was identical at the several shafts, except that the
+hurdy-gurdies varied from 16&frac12; feet in diameter at the upper
+shaft to 21 feet at the lowest shaft. The water-wheel moved only in
+one direction; the pinion on the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel,
+to which the pitman of the pump-bob was attached. On the spur-wheel
+shaft was a friction-gear, driving the hoisting-reel; this reel was
+mounted on sliding blocks, so that hoisting was done by putting it
+in gear, the empty load being dropped by a friction-band. Changing
+the size of the water-wheel as the pressure increased permitted the
+use of the same pattern of machinery at the different shafts. The
+water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe, some nine feet
+long, having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint, so that
+at pleasure, by dropping the pipe, the machinery could be run at
+various speeds, or entirely stopped. At the end of this
+discharge-pipe was a cast tapered nozzle, about 3&frac12; inches in
+diameter, in which was inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having
+the desired diameter, and which was held in place by an annular
+screw-cap. By changing the ring, which only required a few moments'
+time, any desired amount of water, up to 3 or 4 cubic feet a
+second, could be discharged against the wheel. The stop-gate was
+left wide open while the machinery was running. The pumping was
+done by eighteen pumps, of Cornish pattern; the largest amount of
+water pumped from any one shaft was something over 30 cubic feet a
+minute; the power at hand, however, was ample to pump more than
+twice that quantity. It was rather curious at, this shaft to see
+more water coming from the pumps than was used on the wheel. The
+two diamond drills were driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the
+rear of the drill carriage. This, but at another tunnel, was
+afterward modified by placing a separate hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on
+each drill-rod; the advance movement of the drill being given by
+hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston, thus doing away with all
+gearing. These eight sets of machinery were run for nearly
+2&frac12; years' time; the only break being that of a spur-wheel,
+doubtless caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it
+and its pinion. Aside from this accident, practically not a dollar
+was spent for repairs, and the machinery, including the pipe, was
+in about as good order when the tunnel was finished as when it was
+first erected. One man, on a twelve hour shift, operated the
+machinery at each shaft, besides dumping the cars; two men kept the
+18 pumps on the line in order, the principal work being in keeping
+the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight; thus a force
+of 18 men was only required for the eight shafts. The cost of the
+pipe, gates, etc., when put in place, was $14,631, and of the
+machinery about $60,000.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10b.png"><img src=
+"./images/10b_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 14."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 14.</p>
+
+<p>At the Idaho gold quartz mine, situated near Grass Valley,
+California, water-power has been introduced during the past year
+(1883), taking the place of steam. The supply main is of
+wrought-iron, 22 inches in diameter, 8,764 feet long, buried in the
+ground below frost-line. The joints, as a rule, are riveted
+together, with occasional lead joints to admit of slight movements
+in the pipe.<a name="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_4_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a> The pipe was coated by placing
+each joint in a bath of boiling tar and asphaltum; to insure the
+most thorough coating, it is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or
+fifteen minutes in the boiling mixture. A cast-iron stop-gate is
+placed at the lower end of the main, and also one at each of the
+branches. Cast-iron man-holes are attached to the main, which,
+although they have given no trouble in this particular case, are
+very objectionable for high pressures, as it is difficult to avoid
+ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined, owing to the great
+difference in the elasticity of the two metals. The long seams of
+this pipe are double-riveted, and the round seams single riveted;
+at the lower end, iron of No. 6 gauge is used. From the end of the
+main, the water is led to the several wheels by branches of smaller
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head
+of 542.6 feet. For power and for mill uses, etc., the required
+supply is about 8 cubic feet a second; this draught reduces the
+effective head to say 523 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The work done consists in driving the following described
+machinery:</p>
+
+<p>A large air-compressor&mdash;2 cylinders, double acting, air
+compressed to 75 pounds&mdash;requiring about 140 horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>A line of Cornish pumps, forcing the water from a depth of 1,450
+feet vertical; 12-inch plungers for upper 800 feet, 6-inch plungers
+for lower 650 feet, with 6-foot stroke, requiring from 55 to 70
+horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>Hoisting from a double-compartment shaft&mdash;two connected
+winding reels, moving separate cages&mdash;requiring 35
+horse-power, or more.</p>
+
+<p>A few small machine-tools and smithy forges, requiring 3 or 4
+horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>A 35-stamp mill, with concentrating apparatus, etc., requiring
+about 70 horse-power.</p>
+
+<p>The total amount of power required being say 320 horse-power,
+for which seven Pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed.</p>
+
+<p>The power in all cases is transmitted by systems of Manila rope
+belting; the rope is 2 inches in diameter; the grooves in the
+sheaves or pulleys are slightly oval, so that the rope does not go
+quite to the bottom; the ropes are horizontal, and run very slack
+(no tighteners), with no appreciable slip; the splices are made
+very long, to obtain uniformity in diameter.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/10c.png"><img src=
+"./images/10c_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 15."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 15.</p>
+
+<p>This method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly
+and has given excellent satisfaction. It is thought, at the Idaho,
+to be greatly preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the
+works were driven by steam (for such work as pumping or hoisting,
+leather or rubber belting is never used), besides being much
+cheaper in first cost.</p>
+
+<p>The wheel driving the air-compressor is 6 feet in diameter,
+running 300 turns<a name="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_5_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a> per minute, with 1-15/18-inch
+nozzle; three ropes are used from the wheel shaft to the
+counter-shaft, and six ropes from the latter to the fly-wheel
+shaft.</p>
+
+<p>For driving the pumps, there are two water-wheels, set on the
+same shaft, one 5 feet and the other 7 feet in diameter, either of
+which can be used at will, thus permitting different rates of
+speed; two nozzles are placed on each wheel, so that if necessary
+the power can at any time be doubled. The smaller wheel has a
+1&frac14; inch nozzle, and runs 360 turns a minute; the larger has
+1&#8539;-inch nozzle, and makes 270 turns a minute. There are two
+ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft, and four ropes to
+the fly-wheel shaft, on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel
+attached to the pitman of the pump-bob. Hoisting is done by two
+wheels placed side by side on the same shaft, the buckets and
+nozzle of each wheel being placed in opposite directions. Both
+wheels are 8 feet in diameter, with 15/16-inch nozzles, and make at
+full speed about 225 turns a minute. Reversing the movement of the
+shaft is done by shutting off water from one wheel, and turning
+water on the other wheel; the two water-gates for these nozzles are
+quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure, afforded from the
+water main. In addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels, a
+brake is placed on the wheel-shaft, so that it can be stopped in a
+very short period of time.</p>
+
+<p>The shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off
+the water at these hoisting-wheels (nearly one cubic foot per
+second) has not apparently had any injurious, effect. To lessen
+this shock, a compensating balance was designed, but which is not
+now in use. A wheel, of small diameter, is used for the smithy,
+etc., running at a very high velocity. The wheel driving the
+stamp-mill is 6 feet in diameter, makes 300 revolutions a minute,
+and is supplied through a 1-3/16 inch nozzle. The head of water at
+this point is a few feet greater than at the other wheels. Power is
+transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by two and four
+ropes, the same as with the pumping rig. The amount of work done,
+or of water used, has not been carefully determined; judging from
+the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines, the managers
+of the Idaho believe that an efficiency of fully 80 per cent. of
+the theoretic power of the water is obtained on the main
+driving-shafts of the machinery. The substitution of water for
+steam-power has resulted in a large saving of expense. Although the
+hills near by are covered with fine forests, thus making wood
+cheap, and although a round price is charged for water by the
+company furnishing it, the cost of the water is considerably less
+than that of the wood formerly used as fuel. The cost of attendance
+is altogether in favor of the water-wheels, which hardly require
+any attention. The cost of the change from steam to water-power was
+$46,496.32.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4">[4]</a>
+<div class="note">With buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is
+unnecessary, as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the
+movement due to changes of temperature, without injury to the
+rivets.</div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5">[5]</a>
+<div class="note">The revolutions per minute, of these wheels, as
+here given, are only approximate, as the design was to have the
+bucket speed=&frac12; 2(gh)<sup>&frac12;</sup>.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<h2>TEXAS CREEK PIPE AND AQUEDUCT.</h2>
+
+<p>A description of this work will be of interest in showing the
+general practice followed in California for carrying water across
+deep mountain gorges. In order to augment its water supply, the
+North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company desired to conduct water
+from a stream known as Texas Creek, in Nevada County, California,
+across the Big Ca&ntilde;on branch of the South Yuba River into the
+main Bloomfield flume or aqueduct, which was located on the side of
+Big Ca&ntilde;on Creek, at a vertical elevation of 620 feet above
+the bed of the latter stream. The quantity of water to be carried
+was about 32 cubic feet a second (1,250 miner's inches), which
+could be diverted from Texas Creek at a point 480 feet vertical
+above the Bloomfield flume. An aqueduct about 4,000 feet long,
+partly of ditch and partly of flume, was needed to bring the water
+from the catchment dam on the creek to the brow of the gorge. The
+vertical head for the pipe could therefore be from a maximum of 460
+feet down to any lesser head; with a head of 460 feet, the pipe
+would be 4,790 feet long; and with a head of 220 feet, the length
+would be 4,290 feet. Assuming a maximum tensile strain upon the
+iron of 16,500 pounds per square inch, with the formula for the
+greatest head of about</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex11.png" align="middle" alt=
+"d = \Big(.359 \frac{l}{h}\Big)^{\frac{1}{5}},\ [\text{or,}\ v = 68 \Big(\frac{dh}{l}\Big)^{\frac{1}{2}},\ \text{and}\ Q = 32],">
+</p>
+
+<p>and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for
+the lesser heads, it was found, by calculation, that the least cost
+could be obtained with a head from 300 to 350 feet. The head fixed
+upon was 303.6 feet, with a length of 4,438.7 feet. A profile of
+the pipe, with nearly the same horizontal and vertical scales
+(horizontal scale, showing slope lengths), is given in Fig. 14;
+details are given in Figs. 15 and 16. The pipe was of double
+riveted sheet iron, made in lengths of about 20 feet, and of the
+following thicknesses:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>1,349</td>
+<td align='right'>linear feet,</td>
+<td align='right'>0.083</td>
+<td align='right'>inch thick.</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>220</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.095</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>240</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.109</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>250</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.120</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>320</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.134</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>610</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.148</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='right'>1,450</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>0.165</td>
+<td align='center'>"</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Some of the iron was of the very poorest quality; the pipe was
+made by contract in San Francisco, without the supervision of an
+inspector, as the contractors were a firm of good reputation; the
+bad quality of the iron was not detected until too late to have it
+corrected. Since then, the writer has always had such
+pipes&mdash;the mines of which he has been the manager using large
+quantities&mdash;made directly on the ground where they are to be
+used; the pipe makers, in the latter case, always reject such
+sheets as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge, and
+those which show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of
+iron; tests of each joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too
+much to the cost.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11a.png"><img src=
+"./images/11a_th.jpg" alt=" FIG. 16."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 16.</p>
+
+<p>The maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of
+iron used was intended to be 16,500 pounds per square inch. Some of
+the sheets were below the standard gauge, so that, in reality, the
+tensile strain is sometimes as high as 18,000 pounds. The mean
+diameter of the pipe was 1.416 feet. The entrance into the
+pen-stock was tapered, so that the coefficient of contraction was
+about 0.92. For pressures not exceeding say 380 feet, the joints
+were put together stove-pipe fashion. For greater pressures, the
+joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of the
+joint, with an outer lap-welded band, as shown by Fig. 15; lead was
+run into the space between the outer band and the pipe, and then
+tightly driven up by calking-irons. The pipe was laid under the bed
+of the Big Ca&ntilde;on Creek, a large stream when in freshet,
+where the head below the hydraulic grade line was 760 feet. Some of
+the lead joints leaked slightly at first, but this was soon
+remedied by more careful calking. No man-holes or escape-gates were
+used. The pipe for the larger part of the year is not filled at its
+upper end; when such is the case, the water at the inlet carries
+down the pipe a great quantity of air, for which escapes must be
+provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing, which would soon
+destroy the pipe. The escape air-valves used are shown by Fig. 16.
+They consist simply of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron, with recess
+for lead filling to give greater weight set on top the pipe,
+seating on a vulcanized rubber cushion, and swinging on a loose
+hinge. When the pipe is only partly filled with water, the valves
+drop down by their own weight, allowing the air to freely escape;
+when the water rises above the level of a valve, it is tightly
+closed by the resulting pressure. There are fourteen of these
+valves, those on the lower end being designed to allow air to
+freely enter the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper
+portion, and thus prevent any collapse from atmospheric pressure.
+The valves have answered the desired purposes most effectually. The
+pipe was hauled over a road built to the inlet end, and shot down
+the mountain side by means of a V-shaped trough of wood. For the
+lower end, the joints were hauled up the cliff side into place by a
+crab worked by horse-power. On steep inclinations, the pipe was
+held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in the
+solid rock, as shown by the sketch. The covering of earth and stone
+was 1 foot to 2 feet in depth; with steep slopes, the earth was
+kept from sliding by rough dry walls, or by cedar plank placed
+crosswise. The pipe was laid in 1878; the first year it broke
+twice, owing to the wretched quality of the iron; since then, it
+has given no trouble, and has required practically no attention.
+The cost of this work&mdash;ditch and flume 4,000 feet, and pipe
+4,440 feet&mdash;was $23,779.53.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the relative values of n, in the formula v = n
+(r s)<sup>&frac12;</sup>, for the foregoing ditch, flume, and pipe
+will be instructive. The ditch has a width on the bottom of 3 feet,
+on the top of 6 feet, with a depth of 3 feet, and an inclination of
+20 feet per mile; its sides are rough, being cut in part through
+the rock and with sharp curves, although fairly regular; with a
+flow of about 1,300 miner's inches (32.8 cubic feet per second) the
+ditch runs about full.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore:</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex1.png" align="middle" alt=
+"a = \frac{6+3}{2} \times 3 = 13.5;"></p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex2.png" align="middle" alt=
+"r = \frac{a}{3.3 + 3 + 3.3} = 1.41;"></p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex3.png" align="middle" alt=
+"s = \frac{20}{5280} = \frac{1}{264};"></p>
+
+<p>Q = 32.8, hence</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex4.png" align="middle" alt=
+"v = \frac{Q}{a} = 2.43;"></p>
+
+<p>and</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex5.png" align="middle" alt=
+"n\ (\text{in}\ v = n (r s)^\frac{1}{2}) = 33."></p>
+
+<p>The flume is of unplaned boards, rectangular, 2.67 wide X 2.83
+deep, with an inclination of 32 feet per mile. There are sharp
+curves, although these were made as regular as practicable; the
+boiling action of the water passing around these curves brought the
+flow line (Q = 32.8) nearly up to the top of the sides; with a
+straight flume of the same size, the water would have doubtless
+stood several inches lower.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore:</p>
+
+<p>a = 2.67 &times; 2.83 = 7.56 ;</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex6.png" align="middle" alt=
+"r = \frac{a}{2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83} = 0.908;"></p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex7.png" align="middle" alt=
+"s = \frac{32}{5280} = \frac{1}{165};"></p>
+
+<p>Q = 32.8, hence</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex8.png" align="middle" alt=
+"v = \frac{Q}{a} = 4.34;"></p>
+
+<p>and n = 59.</p>
+
+<p>With the pipe,<a name="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_6_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a> 1.416 diameter,</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex9.png" align="middle" alt=
+"r = \frac{d}{4} = 0.354;\ Q = 31.69;\ v = 20.13."></p>
+
+<p>Allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water,
+and for contraction,</p>
+
+<p><img src="./images/tex10.png" align="middle" alt=
+"s = \frac{296.1}{4438.7};\ \text{and}\ n = 131."></p>
+
+<p>We hence have the following values of n, in v = n (r
+s)<sup>&frac12;</sup>, Q being constant:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Rough ditch, with sharp curves.</td>
+<td align='right'>33</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Rectangular flume, with sharp curves.</td>
+<td align='right'>59</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Wrought-iron pipe, with easy curves, coated with
+asphalt, but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy obstructions (m =
+65.5, and 2m = n)</td>
+<td align='right'>131</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<br>
+<a name="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6">[6]</a>
+<div class="note"><i>Vide</i> pages 120-122, Transactions American
+Society of Civil Engineers for 1883.</div>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="9"></a></p>
+
+<h2>PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.</h2>
+
+<p>The very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate
+herewith is the invention of a Russian engineer, Mr. Jagn. It is
+scarcely as yet known in Western Europe, where, however, something
+will probably be heard of it ere long. Its true field would seem to
+be Egypt, India, or any country where canals or rivers are used for
+irrigation, and where it is desired to draw water from them at
+particular spots in the simplest and cheapest manner. At present in
+nearly all such cases water is raised by hand or steam power;
+nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of the canal
+itself, slow though it may be, is quite sufficient to raise a small
+portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally
+needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields. Why
+then is it not employed for the purpose? The answer is obvious,
+when we consider the various hydraulic motors at present in use. Of
+course, motors worked by water pressure must here be excluded; and
+we are left with scarcely anything but the undershot wheel, the
+turbine, and the screw pump. All these require expensive buildings
+and erections to set them to work, present but a very small
+fraction of their surface to the water at any one time, and must be
+very large and costly if they are to draw even a very moderate
+amount of power from such a source. There is no possibility of
+adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the
+current or in the quantity of water required, nor of moving them
+from place to place should this be convenient.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/11b.png"><img src=
+"./images/11b_th.jpg" alt=" PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.</p>
+
+<p>The motor of Mr. Jagn is on a totally different principle. Its
+essential features consist, as shown, of an endless rope made of
+hemp or aloe fiber, which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums
+mounted on a barge or pontoon, and then passes down the channel to
+return over a pulley hung from a floating punt, at such a depth
+that the whole of the rope is immersed in the water. Along this
+rope are suspended at equal intervals a number of parachutes made
+of sail cloth. The rope passes through the center of each of these,
+and to it are attached a series of strings, the other ends of which
+are connected to the outside edge of the parachute. Thus they act
+like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from
+opening too far under the pressure of the current. The parachutes
+must be placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on
+each, and the sum of the pressures forms the force which draws the
+rope through the water. The moment, however, that any parachute has
+passed round the return pulley, the current acts upon it in the
+opposite direction. It then shuts up like an umbrella, and assumes
+a volume so small that its resistance on the return journey is
+insignificant. After passing round the drum at the upper end, it at
+once opens afresh of its own accord, and once more becomes part of
+the moving power of the whole system. The parachutes are formed by
+first cutting out a complete circle of cloth, and then taking from
+this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area.
+Such parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the
+water better than a surface originally spherical, although the
+latter would be theoretically more correct. The motion of the drum
+is transmitted by spur, gear, or otherwise as may be required, to
+give the requisite speed.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that the advantages of the system are as
+follows: First, the facility it offers for obtaining a large
+working area, which may be increased or diminished at will,
+according to the requirements of the moment, by lengthening or
+shortening the rope. Secondly, the ease with which it is erected
+and set to work. Thirdly, the small part of the river section which
+it occupies, so as to present no obstacle to navigation. Fourthly,
+the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind, and
+carried wherever it may be needed. Fifthly, it is not stopped, like
+all other hydraulic motors, by the appearance of ice&mdash;it has,
+in fact, already been worked under ice in the Neva. At the same
+time, winds and waves have no influence upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the apparatus is not altogether new. In 1872
+there was tried on the Ohio River an arrangement termed the Brooks
+motor. It was composed of two drums, placed horizontally and
+parallel to each other. Round these there passed endless chains at
+equal spaces apart on the length of the drums, and to these chains
+were fixed wooden blades or arms of a curved form, and so jointed
+to the frames that they opened when moving in one direction, and
+closed down on the chain when moving in the other. In this machine
+the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to obtaining any
+large amount of power. The whole apparatus was mounted on a heavy
+wooden scaffold, which proved an impediment to the flow of the
+river. Again, the resistance due to the surface of the returning
+blades and to their stiffness was found to be far from
+insignificant.</p>
+
+<p>In the present system Mr. Jagn has found, after many
+experiments, that the best effect was obtained when the parachutes
+were spaced apart at twice their diameter, and when the rope made
+an angle of 8 degrees to 10 degrees with the current. It is found
+that when open and in motion the parachutes never touch the bottom.
+This was the case with a rope containing 180 parachutes of 4 feet
+diameter, and working in a depth of only 6 feet. This is easily
+explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always
+diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Hence the pressure on the
+lower part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper
+part; but the former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward,
+while the latter tends to raise it to the top of the water. Thus,
+the latter being the larger, the parachute will always have a
+tendency to rise. In fact, it is necessary to sink the return
+pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that the parachutes will not
+emerge from the surface. For the same reason no intermediate
+supports are needed over the driving span; if any are needed it is
+for the return span, on which the parachutes are closed. Of course,
+if metal were used instead of hemp, the case would be entirely
+different, and intermediate supports would have to be used for
+anything but very moderate lengths.</p>
+
+<p>In practice, Mr. Jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same
+pair of drums, which are mounted upon a pontoon. The ropes are
+spread out from each other, as in Fig. 1, making an angle of about
+10 degrees. The low specific gravity of the system enables ropes to
+be employed of as great a length as 450 yards, each of them
+carrying 350 parachutes of 17.2 square feet area. As half of these
+are in action at the same time, the total working area for the two
+cables is 5,860 square feet. This immense area furnishes a
+considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble current.
+Comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes
+employed, and supposing this to have only 172 square feet of
+working area, such a wheel must have a length of 46 feet, a
+diameter of 23 feet, and seventy-two floats, each 2&frac12; feet
+wide. The enormous dimensions thus required for a comparatively
+small working area point sufficiently clearly to the advantage
+which remains on the side of the parachute motor.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving.
+Behind the return pulleys, D D, are attached cords, A A, with some
+parachutes strung upon them. These present their openings to the
+current and preserve the tension of the connecting ropes. At the
+further end of each cord is a board, B, which is kept in a vertical
+plane, but lying at a slight angle to the direction of the current;
+and this acts to keep the two moving ropes apart from each other.
+The two return pulleys are, however, connected by a line, E, which
+can be shortened or lengthened from the pontoon, and in this way
+the angle of inclination between the two ropes can be varied if
+required. A grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span at the
+moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum. It is
+mounted on a screwed spindle, which is depressed by a nut, and thus
+makes the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly
+efficacious manner.</p>
+
+<p>The author has made a theoretical investigation of the power
+which may be developed by the system, and has worked out tables by
+which, when the velocity of the current and the other elements of
+the problem are known, the power developed by any given number of
+parachutes can be at once determined. We do not reproduce this
+investigation, which takes account of the resistance of the
+returning parachutes and other circumstances, but will content
+ourselves with quoting the final equation, which is as follows: T =
+0.328 S V&sup3;. Here T is the work done in H.P., S is the total
+working area in sq. m., and V is the velocity of the current in m.
+per sec. Taking V = 1, and S = 1 sq. m., which is by no means an
+impracticable quantity, we have T = 0.328 H.P. per sq. m. We may
+check this result by the equation given, in English measures, by
+Rankine&mdash;"Applied Mechanics," p. 398&mdash;for the pressure of
+a current upon a solid body immersed in it. This equation, F = 1.8
+m A v&sup2; / 2g, where m is the weight of a unit of volume of the
+fluid&mdash;say 62 lb.&mdash;A is the area exposed, and v the
+relative velocity of the current. Mr. Jagn finds that the maximum
+of efficiency is obtained when the rope moves at one-third the
+velocity of the stream. If this velocity be 3 feet per second, we
+shall have v = 2. and we then get F = 7 lb. per sq. ft. very
+nearly. Now 1 sq. meter = 10.76 sq. ft., and a speed of 1 ft. per
+second (which is that of the rope) is 60 ft. per minute. Hence the
+H.P. realized in the same case as that taken above will be 7
+&times; 10.76 &times; 60 / 33,000 = 0.137 H.P. The difference
+between the two values is very large, but Rankine, of course,
+depends entirely on the value of the constant 1.8, which is quite
+empirical, and is for a flat band instead of a hollow parachute.
+Taking, however, his smaller figure, and an area of 544 square
+inches, which Mr. Jagn has actually employed, we get a gross power
+of = 0.137 &times; 544 = 7.43 H.P. Hence it will be seen that the
+amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from
+being inconsiderable.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, we may point out that the durability of the apparatus
+will be considerable. There is no wear except at the moment when
+the rope is passing round the drum, and even then there need be no
+slipping or grinding. The apparatus worked in the Neva was in very
+good condition after running for four months day and night. After
+five months about one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced,
+but after seven months the hemp rope still showed no signs of wear.
+We think we have said enough to show that for certain purposes, and
+especially, as we have, already mentioned, for irrigation purposes,
+the new motor is well worthy of a careful and extended trial. It
+may be questioned even whether we have not here the germ of an idea
+which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the most interesting
+and important of engineering problems, viz., the utilization of the
+great store of power provided for us twice daily in the ebb and
+flow of the tide.&mdash;<i>The Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="10"></a></p>
+
+<h2>IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.</h2>
+
+<p>Our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning
+lathes, and is the result of thirty years' experience in the
+manufacture of shafting, with many years' study, to perfect a
+machine of the greatest practical capacity and efficiency.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/12a.png"><img src=
+"./images/12a_th.jpg" alt=" IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.</p>
+
+<p>The principal points of difference from a common engine lathe
+are readily distinguished, among which may be mentioned the absence
+of centers and tail stock, a traveling head with hollow driving
+spindle, and a stationary tool rest and water tank. By dispensing
+with a tail stock a much shorter bed may be used, and the hollow
+driving spindle enables any length shaft to be turned, with one
+setting of the tools. The tool rest is so arranged as to allow of
+perfect lubrication of the tools, keeping the shaft cool, and at
+the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong; the operator
+is not required to travel the length of the bed, but remains near
+the driving belt, feed gearing, etc. Power is communicated to the
+driving spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod
+inside the bed, the driving belt and gears being at the end.</p>
+
+<p>The driving head, after having traveled the length of the bed
+and turned a shaft, is returned by a quick feed, and stops
+automatically, allowing nearly time enough for the operator to
+grind tools and be ready with another shaft, thus economizing the
+time completely.</p>
+
+<p>Wood, Jennison &amp; Co., Worcester, Mass., are the makers, and
+they say that with a good quality of iron they have turned three
+hundred feet of two inch iron in ten hours.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="11"></a></p>
+
+<h2>POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the
+bed, which are adjustable for different lengths of shaft, and are
+made to revolve by power applied through suitable gearing and a
+splined rod inside the bed; the bar of iron being placed on the
+periphery of the rolls receives a rotary motion by friction, and
+shows the crooked places in the same way and with the same ease as
+though rotating on centers in the usual manner; vertically
+adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to support
+the iron; power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at
+the back of the machine, on which is a sliding clutch connecting,
+at the will of the operator, with an eccentric; the eccentric
+conveys motion and power through a link to the elbow joint at the
+front of the press, which forces a plunger down against the
+iron.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/12b.png"><img src=
+"./images/12b_th.jpg" alt=" POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE."></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.</p>
+
+<p>Sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by
+turning a nut at the top of the press.</p>
+
+<p>Any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the
+press on the bed. Any length of iron can be straightened, and the
+most laborious and disagreeable work in the process of making
+shafting is rendered easy and rapid. Made by Wood, Jennison &amp;
+Co., Worcester, Mass.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="12"></a></p>
+
+<h2>HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA.</h2>
+
+<h3>By GEORGE O'BRIEN.</h3>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal
+inhabitants of the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional,
+as we are only aware that from very early times the precious metal
+was collected and highly prized by them, and that they chiefly
+extracted the visible gold, which existed in prodigious quantities
+on or closely beneath the surface of the earth, and of its being
+particularly abundant in Asia and Africa. But we can draw more
+positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but effective
+contrivances used by them in later, but still remote, periods, with
+full evidence as to the extent of their operations, in the numerous
+perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other,
+over large areas of auriferous gravel in India, as well as from
+precisely similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also
+further demonstrations, in the abandoned "hill diggings," and
+shifted beds, and beds of rivers, in Peru South America, flowing
+between the sea and coast ranges of the Andes, descending in a
+northeasterly direction to the river Amazon, and that their much
+coveted and enormous productions were the accumulated riches of the
+Incas, transferred as spoils of war to their Spanish conquerors in
+the sixteenth century. And for similar explorations in the same
+class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times, and
+which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded
+to.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the year 1849, after the cession of the northern portion
+of Mexico to the United States of North America, the rich mineral
+district of California was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent
+bands of mining adventurers from all parts of the world, who, with
+little other means at their disposal but pick, shovel, and pan,
+soon fell on the productive bars of rivers and rich ravines where
+the gold was trapped, derived from its original birthplaces, where
+it had been sparsely disseminated, to be dispersed by the
+subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the mountains
+themselves, and deposited in a disengaged form for the first comer;
+and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations, in certain
+localities where water once streamed, that, divested of its earthy
+matrix, the cleansed pure metal was found deposited, detained by
+its superior specific gravity, on the bare rock, and only hidden
+from vision by a slight covering of vegetable mould. In this
+manner, as an example of such concentration, a "pot" or "find" (in
+mining parlance) to the value of &pound;10,000 was collected in a
+space of 15 square yards, or within the limits of a particular
+"mining claim," at the foot of Mokulumne Hill, in a southern county
+of California, soon after the territorial transfer from Mexico. And
+in search of such locations we must account for the numberless
+shafts which still exist both in India and Peru, and sometimes sunk
+within a few feet of each other, passing through the alluvium to a
+depth of 40 feet to the bed rock.</p>
+
+<p>These mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over
+the other recently acquired territories, and built Virginia City,
+the capital of Montana, with the gold derived from the alluvium of
+a river channel which they excavated; and its inhabitants were the
+founders of an institution called the Vigilance Committee, with
+"Lynch law," and by it ruled supremely for many years. But their
+surface diggings, by the manual operations alone of multitudes,
+were soon exhausted in every direction, and then their energies and
+powers of invention were dedicated to discover and explore deeper
+and more permanent depositions, along the western slopes of the
+Sierra Nevada, the Andes of the Western Territories, and which
+originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at
+the present time&mdash;probably 20,000 feet above the
+sea-level&mdash;and of which, or whatever superior elevation they
+formerly had, the greater portion of it has already been removed,
+by the continuous natural action of centuries, to form there, as
+elsewhere, the plains and prairies of the earth, burying and
+diverting by the mutation the ancient river system, whose sources
+of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of these
+altitudes. These denudations and subsequent depositions have been
+caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air,
+water, and time since the creation of the world; and powerful
+demonstrations of these transformations instruct us in all
+directions, if we care to observe them. Thus in "Little Cottonwood"
+ravine, in the Wahsatch range of mountains in Utah Territory, lie
+isolated in the center of the valley huge masses of metamorphic
+granite, some blocks of which weigh individually thousands of tons,
+and were dislodged from the hills&mdash;which on either side are of
+limestone formation&mdash;with no visible granite in them, having
+been undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by
+denudation, and which is the material now forming the tablelands,
+the foundation, of Salt Lake City. The blocks of granite, having
+alone resisted the atmospheric changes, were precipitated into the
+valley beneath, and the Mormons are now constructing their
+cathedral church from these granitic remains.</p>
+
+<p>The melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges
+of mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the
+extinguished channels of ancient rivers, and whose now diverted
+waters were also the powerful agent to assist in causing these
+marvelous alternations; and by the means of hydraulic mining we can
+advance our feeble knowledge on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>These mighty changes have gradually been accomplished, and the
+accumulated denudations of the mineral zones have defended
+themselves by strata of crystallized silicates of quartz of various
+thicknesses, and thus in places beneath such system of defense, or
+by their own concretion, have preserved in many localities a
+thickness of from 500 to 600 feet of conglomerate, but without this
+necessary cementation its further removal is very certain when
+again attacked by water. An example of this continuous process is
+very observable in "Death Valley," Lower California, where a width
+of about 100 miles has been filled up from the hills to the gulf of
+same name, invading and occupying its former bed; and this activity
+is still proceeding, and a temporary formation of tableland above
+it is in course of removal, although already overgrown with forest
+trees, which are toppling over the side which is being attacked.
+But eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these Sierras,
+and a period of comparative repose may be expected, as the
+distribution has already been far advanced by the excessive
+reduction of the mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The deep and extensive depositions which I now attempt to
+describe attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers,
+and were called "hill diggings," but not being properly understood
+were therefore not immediately operated upon, and remained in
+abeyance, while the lower, richer, and more manifest alluvials
+endured. They were designated "blue gravel," the color being due to
+the action of sulphuret of iron and other salts, the cementing
+auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate, and on
+exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet,
+losing also its firmness by oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>The "great blue lead" is another important mining term and
+designates the alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on
+the bed rock, being the well-worn path of an ancient river; and it
+is obvious that the material in these channels should be richer
+than the general mass beyond their limits.</p>
+
+<p>"Rim rock" is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel,
+and, like the bottom, is well worn and corrugated by the running
+water into cavities and "pot holes," where the force of the stream
+eddied. The width of these channels varies from 60 to 400 feet, and
+the cement near the rim and bottom is always richer than elsewhere.
+The wider and deeper channels generally course from N. to N.W. The
+richest and most explored belt of gold-bearing alluvium in
+California lies between the South and Middle Yuba Rivers,
+commencing near Eureka, in Nevada county, and extends downwards to
+Smartsville and Timbuctoo, in Yuba county, a distance of 40 miles;
+and from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from
+where the ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers, which are
+2,000 feet beneath the auriferous gravel and region near
+Smartsville, and 2,000 feet above the Yuba River, where snow is
+unknown, and near its terminus the ancient river bed courses more
+westerly than it does above it, and crosses Yuba below Timbuctoo,
+where the auriferous depositions disappear. The whole distance of
+40 miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers, and around
+the village of Timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful yield
+of gold, obtained chiefly in the ravines, in holes, and depressions
+in the bed rock. These hollows detained the concentrations of the
+denudated alluvium from the altitudes, and were generally closely
+beneath the surface, and by such guidance and means of discovery
+the miners traced the gold up the ravines to their sources in the
+lofty mounds and deposits, or hills of cemented conglomerate, near
+Eureka in Nevada county; and by constructing canals from a higher
+level began the new system of "hydraulic mining" and washing, and
+gradually extended their operations over the area of the metallic
+zone mentioned, of 40 miles long by 20 wide, using the Yuba River
+below Timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings, or refuse
+from their operations. The result in gold was considerable, but the
+system is from its violent nature difficult to control, by
+presuming to handle and remove such huge depositions in order to
+collect the richest material. The idea was bold, being an
+anticipation of Nature's operations; but the equitable disposal of
+the "tailings" in a cultivated country is impossible, as the silt
+runs down the rivers, creating banks and bars in their channels,
+obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements.</p>
+
+<h3><i>General Description of Hydraulic Mining.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The first work to be accomplished, after calculating that the
+amount or value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient
+to guarantee the cost of the undertaking in general, is the
+construction of a canal or canals, to convey the requisite volume
+of water from the fountain-head, and of sufficient elevation to
+command the ground to be worked upon, having also in view the
+levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as outlets for the
+discharge of the gravel through them, these being engineering
+operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless
+after-cost.</p>
+
+<p>Aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed
+across deep valleys, and the speculation is at all times
+problematical, as the ground cannot be properly tested until the
+water arrives upon it, and disputes may arise between the
+shareholders of the canal and the mining company, ending frequently
+in the one devouring the other, unless the two interests be quickly
+amalgamated.</p>
+
+<p>The starting point should be the lowest level, or "bed rock," on
+the white cement in the ancient channel, which is probably the
+original silt collected in it, and is harder than the conglomerate
+above it, which is more easily removed. The courses of these beds
+can be easily traced by landmarks and undulations, and occasional
+exposures of the bed rock at low levels; also trial shafts are sunk
+in various places in search of it, to a depth of 100 feet, passing
+through blue gravel. The grades of these beds are not steep, being
+from 10 to 40 feet per mile as of an ordinary river, and the
+calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about 600 feet
+in many places across the ridge between the South and Middle Yuba
+River across the Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>The power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given
+volume deposited in a reservoir, and at sufficient elevation above
+the points of discharge, as on this depends effectivity to tear
+down the gravel. It is delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of
+wrought iron, and laid down to follow the curvatures of the surface
+of the ground; and the pipe I now treat of, belonging to the
+Excelsior Water Company, has a diameter of 40 inches on a length of
+6,000 feet, and 20 inches on the rest of its length of 8,000 feet,
+being 9,000 feet in all; and this large pipe forms an inverted
+siphon across a valley, following on the gravel, to the top of the
+hill into the reservoir.</p>
+
+<p>These pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning
+chasms, and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys; being also
+cheaper to construct in general, and less liable to accidents from
+fire and storms, and have the convenience for conveying the water
+from point to point, as the work of excavation advances,
+necessitating the removal of portions of the aqueduct forward. The
+watershed, or reservoir, of the Excelsior Company embraces the
+valley of the South Yuba and its affluents, and the entire cost of
+its eight amalgamated canals was 750,000 dollars.</p>
+
+<p>The rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged 49
+inches annually, while the medium in the same period did not exceed
+20 inches in the plains beneath. The height of the reservoir above
+the tailing, or Yuba River, is 393 feet: and the height of the head
+above the floor, or outlet sluice-tunnel, of the Blue Gravel Mining
+Company was 197 feet.</p>
+
+<p>The exact quantity of water required to wash every class of
+gravel is difficult to estimate, but no quantity or pressure would
+be excessive if properly arranged. The measurement of water is
+effected by miner's inches, by allowing it to flow from the
+reservoir of the seller to the purchaser through a box 10 or 12
+feet square, with divisions to obtain a quiet head, with a slide or
+opening capable of adjustment to any required measure; thus an
+opening of 25 inches by 2 inches, with a quiet head of 6 inches
+above the middle of the orifice, would give 50 inches, or about
+89,259 cubic feet of water, flowing during ten hours per day, being
+an amount necessary for a first-class operation. The capability of
+the Excelsior Canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in
+twenty-four hours, to the various mining companies, of 21,120,000
+cubic feet of water, or 8,000 miner's inches, and the value of the
+water paid for by the Blue Gravel Company in forty-three months
+ending November 9, 1867, was 157,261 dollars, being at the rate of
+15 cents of a dollar per miner's inch; and the proportion of water
+used to wash down 989,165 cubic yards of gravel was 17,074,758
+cubic yards, or 17&frac14; cubic yards of water to 1 cubic yard of
+gravel; and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was
+1,298 cubic yards, and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of
+gravel was 5 and 7/10 cents of a dollar. But in the face of
+contingencies the Blue Gravel Company moved 1,000,000 cubic yards
+of gravel in four years, or at the rate of 250,000 cubic yards per
+annum, and the cost of washing each cubic yard stands thus:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='left'></th>
+<th align='center'>Cents.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Cost of water, at 15 cents per miner's inch</td>
+<td align='right'>5.77</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Cost of labor, gunpowder, sluices, and
+superintendence</td>
+<td align='right'>16.10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='left'></th>
+<th align='right'>21.87</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left' colspan="2">Or 21&frac34; cents of a dollar per
+cubic yard.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of 22 cents of
+a dollar per cubic yard to cover cost, and the value of the gravel
+referred to ranged from 20 to 45 cents per cubic yard; and the cost
+of work done in shafts and tunnels, in the said Blue Gravel
+Company's Mining claim, reached 100,000 dollars. But with the cost
+of the necessary canals paid for by the Excelsior Water Company
+apart, the total cost amounted to about 1,000,000 dollars, and we
+must note that the latter company sold water to other mining
+companies.</p>
+
+<p>The gross yield in gold of the Blue Gravel Company in four years
+was 837,399 dollars, and in the year 1866 the returns from the Blue
+Gravel Company paid all the costs of the developments; but in 1867
+assessments were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising
+from the cost of sinking two new shafts, and driving fresh tunnels
+on the lowest levels, which evidently contain on the bed rock the
+richest concentrations.</p>
+
+<p>In smaller mining adventures of this description, involving less
+capital, large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone
+treated of, by also not having invested in costly canals, which
+would not have repaid the latter investment; and thus it is evident
+that the water companies are dependent blindly on the prosperity of
+the miners.</p>
+
+<p>I will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations.
+The mining ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the
+nearest and most convenient ravine, so that the starting-point on
+the bed rock toward the face of the ravine shall approach the
+center of the material to be removed at a gradient of 1 in 10 to 1
+in 30. The dimensions of such tunnels are usually 6 feet in width
+by 7 in height, and continuing in contact with the hard river-bed,
+for the greater ease of excavation, collection of gold, and
+conservation of quicksilver amalgam.</p>
+
+<p>These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile,
+and some of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in
+execution, at a cost of from 10 to 60 dollars per foot of frontage.
+The tunnel of the Blue Gravel Company, with length of 1,358 feet,
+cost in labor alone 70,000 dollars, but it could now be driven for
+35,000 dollars, as skilled labor is cheaper now than then. The
+grade in this tunnel is about 12 per cent., and the end of the
+tunnel is designed to be 170 feet of elevation, and reaching to a
+point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being operated
+upon, and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed
+rock or gravel, until it intersects the tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>The object of this laborious operation is obvious, as the long
+tunnel becomes a sluiceway, and through the whole length of which
+sluice boxes are laid, for the double motive of carrying off the
+material and saving the gold, and for this purpose a trough of
+strong planks is placed in the tunnel, 2&frac12; feet wide, and
+with sides high enough to contain the stream. The pavement of the
+trough is generally laid of blocks of wood 6 inches in thickness,
+cut across the grain, and placed on their ends, to the width of the
+sluiceway. The wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections
+of stone pavement, the stones being set endwise, and in the
+interstices between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is
+distributed, and as much as 2 tons of this metal is required to
+charge a long sluice. The water in the canal is brought by
+aqueducts, or other means, to the head of the mining ground, having
+an elevation of 100 to 200 ft. above the lowest level of the mining
+ground, and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes, sometimes
+sustained on a strong incline of timber.</p>
+
+<p>These pipes are of sheet iron, of adequate strength, riveted at
+the joints, and measure from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, and
+communicate at the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron,
+on the top and sides of which are openings for the adaptation of
+flexible tubes, made of very strong fabric of canvas, strengthened
+by cording, and terminating in nozzles of metal of 2&frac12; to 3
+inches in diameter. From these nozzles the streams of water are
+directed against the face of the gravel to be washed, exercising
+incredible effectivity.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of water employed varies of course with the work to
+be done; but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting
+simultaneously on the same bank, each conveying from 100 to 600
+inches of water per hour&mdash;1,000 miner's inches being equal to
+106,600 cubic feet of water per hour, constantly exerting its force
+under a pressure of 90 to 200 pounds to the square inch, varying
+with the height of the column.</p>
+
+<p>Under the continuous action of this enormous force, aided by the
+softening power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass
+are dislodged, and fall with great violence, the <i>debris</i>
+speedily disintegrating and disappearing under the resistless force
+of the water, and is hurried forward in the sluices to the mouth of
+the shaft, down which it is precipitated with the whole volume of
+turbid water. Bowlders of 100 to 200 lb. in weight are dislodged
+and shot forward by the impetuous stream, accompanied by masses of
+the harder cement which meet in the fall, and by the concussion
+from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency
+required is found to disintegrate it. The heavy banks, of 80 feet
+and upward, are usually worked in two benches, the upper never
+being so rich as the lower, and also less firm, and therefore
+worked away with greater rapidity.</p>
+
+<p>The lower section is much the more compact, as this stratum on
+the bed rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure, and
+even sometimes the full force of the streams of water, until it has
+been loosened by gunpowder or other explosives. For this purpose
+adits are driven in on its foundation-point of from 40 to 70 feet
+and more from the face of the bank, and drifts are extended at
+right angles therefrom to a short distance on each side of the
+adit, and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder is placed
+(from 1 to 3 tons), and fired at one blast, having been previously
+built in with masonry. And in this manner the compact conglomerate
+is broken up, and then the water easily completes its work.
+Sometimes in the soft, upper strata the systems of tunnel is
+extended, as in a coal-mine, by cross alleys, leaving blocks which
+are afterward washed away, and then the whole mass settles, and is
+disintegrated under the influence of water. The wooden sluices in
+the tunnels already described are often made double for the
+convenience of "cleaning up" one of them, while the other remains
+in action. The process of cleaning up is performed according to the
+quantity and richness of the material worked upon, at intervals of
+twenty to forty days, and consists in removing the pavement and
+blocks from the bed of the sluice, and then gathering all the
+amalgam of gold and rich dirt collected, and replacing the locks in
+the same way as at first. Advantage is taken on this occasion to
+reverse the position of the blocks and stones when they are worn
+irregularly, or substitute new ones for those which are worn
+through. The mechanical action of the washing process on the blocks
+is of course very rapid and severe, requiring complete renewal of
+them once in eight to ten weeks. Some miners prefer a pavement of
+egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring, the gold being
+deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluiceways are, however,
+paved with rectangular wooden blocks, with or without stones as
+described. Standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full
+action, any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with
+astonishment, amounting almost to terror, as the muddy mass sweeps
+onward, bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders, which add
+their din to the roar of the water, the whole being precipitated
+down a series of falls, at each of which it is caught up again by
+new sluices of timber, lined like the first, and so onward and
+downward many hundreds of feet until the level of the river is
+reached, at a distance of about a half mile or more from the mouth
+of the first tunnel.</p>
+
+<p>At each of these new falls of 25 to 50 feet the process of
+comminution begun in the first shaft is carried on, and a fresh
+portion of gold obtained. Rude as this plan of saving gold appears
+to be, more gold is procured by it than by any other method of
+washing yet devised for this process of work, and the economical
+advantages obtained by it cannot be surpassed, as it would be
+impossible to handle such vast quantities of material in any other
+way, and we can compare the cost of washing and handling a cubic
+yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>Dollars.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By manual labor with the pan</td>
+<td align='right'>15.00</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By manual labor with rocker</td>
+<td align='right'>3.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By manual labor with the long tom</td>
+<td align='right'>.75</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>By the hydraulic process</td>
+<td align='right'>.15</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>But this process, even if effective or profitable as a mining
+operation, may be prejudicial to the interests of the general
+public, if conducted on a large scale, as the vast quantity of
+material which it so suddenly removes is merely shifted into the
+shallows beneath, to be redistributed by every freshet to points
+lower and lower down until it reaches the sea-coast, creating bars
+at the mouths of rivers in its course, and changing the hydrography
+of harbors&mdash;as it has done with the Bay of San Francisco by
+its silt.</p>
+
+<p>The hills behind, torn up and washed by the gold miner, are
+abandoned as desolate and irredeemable; and the costly canals,
+constructed with peculiar conveniences for mining purposes,
+eventually fall into disuse from being too expensive to maintain or
+alter for general agricultural uses.&mdash;<i>Journal of
+Science.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="25"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA.</h2>
+
+<p>From the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging
+the European medical press, we select the following from Dr. Henry
+A. Rawlins, in the <i>London Med. Times</i>, July 12. 1884:</p>
+
+<p>The man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by
+diarrh&oelig;a of an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his
+blood. This loss is one of simple transudation, increasing as the
+powers of life decrease. This <i>sudden</i> loss produces intense
+prostration, and renders the heart powerless to perfect the
+circulation. The body, thus deprived of oxygen, speedily runs into
+decomposition, even before life is extinct. Have we any agent by
+which we can collect and press forward these scattered and
+lethargic drops of blood to the heart, and enable it to renew the
+circulation, and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body? My
+reply is emphatically&mdash;Yes! Flannel bandages from the toes to
+the trunk, around the abdomen, and from the fingers to the body,
+will effect this object perfectly. Remark that the effect is
+gradual, increasing with every turn of the roller, but would be in
+full force in about twenty minutes. By thus exposing the blood in
+the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted form, as it is in
+the air, instead of pure oxygen, the reaction would neither be too
+rapid nor too dangerous. In confirmation of my views, I have this
+day learned that it is the custom in India to wear a double roll of
+flannel around the abdomen, as a preventive to cholera. The other
+advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are:</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>That they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor
+creature who is already in a state of refrigeration.</li>
+
+<li>By their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor
+muscles alike, they are steadied, and rendered much less likely to
+be affected with spasmodic action or cramp.</li>
+
+<li>By their steady<i>elastic</i> pressure and support of about 160
+pounds, they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of
+the blood, which they had previously restored.</li>
+
+<li>That the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will, I believe,
+prove quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison, and also
+destroy its effects.</li>
+
+<li>That this much can at least be claimed for their use&mdash;that
+they remove from nature a stumbling-block, which prevented her from
+exercising her marvelous recuperative powers. Diluted sulphuric
+acid is the best medicine to arrest the flux from the bowels,
+acting also as a tonic. It should be given in five-minim doses
+about every half hour, with rice gruel. By adopting this plan, the
+natural process is brought about, that of the starch being
+converted into grape sugar. Plenty of white of egg, well whipped
+up, so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach,
+which it will appropriate, should be given. Opium, in small
+quantities, and other stimulants, should be given according to the
+necessities of the case. May it not be well, through the medium of
+wet sponge over the thorax, to apply a continuous but gentle
+current of galvanism, so as to stimulate the heart's action, keep
+alive the respiratory movements, and thereby assist in the
+maintenance of the functions of the body?</li>
+</ol>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="26"></a></p>
+
+<h2>TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND PRESSURE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO
+HEALTH.</h2>
+
+<p>At the recent meteorological conference held at the Health
+Exhibition, Dr. J.W. Tripe read a paper of much interest on some
+relations of meteorological phenomena to health.</p>
+
+<p>In ages long past these relations excited much attention, but
+the knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind; and indeed,
+even now, no very great advance has been made, because it is only
+quite recently that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate
+record of deaths with observations taken at a number of reliable
+meteorological stations. The more useful and searching comparison
+between cases of sickness, instead of deaths, and meteorological
+phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large scale in this
+country, and especially as regards zymotic diseases. In Belgium
+there is a Society of Medical Practitioners, embracing nearly the
+whole country, that publishes a monthly record of cases of
+sickness, of deaths, and of meteorological observations; but the
+only attempt on a large scale in this country, which was started by
+the Society of Medical Officers of Health for the whole of London,
+failed partly from want of funds, and partly from irregularity in
+the returns. My remarks, which must necessarily be very brief, will
+refer to the relations between (1) meteorological phenomena and the
+bodily functions of man, and (2) between varying meteorological
+conditions and death-rates from certain diseases.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the first, I will commence with a few brief remarks
+on the effects of varying barometric pressures. A great deal too
+much attention is paid to the barometer if we regard it as
+indicating only, as it really does, variations in the weight of the
+column of air pressing upon our bodies, because, except at
+considerable elevations, where the barometer is always much lower
+than at sea level, these variations produce but little effect on
+health. At considerable elevations the diminished pressure
+frequently causes a great feeling of malaise, giddiness, loss of
+strength, palpitation, and even nausea; and at greater heights, as
+was noticed by Mr. Glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent, loss of
+sight, feeling, and consciousness. These were caused by a want of a
+sufficient supply of oxygen to remove effete matters from the
+system, and to carry on the organic functions necessary for the
+maintenance of life. On elevated mountain plateaus, or even in high
+residences among the Alps, an increased rapidity in the number of
+respirations and of the pulse, as well as increased evaporation
+from the lungs and skin, occur.</p>
+
+<p>For some years past, many persons suffering from consumption,
+gout, rheumatism, and an&aelig;mic affections have gone to mountain
+stations, chiefly in Switzerland, for relief, and many have derived
+much benefit from the change. It must not, however, be supposed
+that diminished atmospheric pressure was the chief cause of the
+improvement in health, as its concomitants, viz., a diminution in
+the quantity of oxygen and moisture contained in each cubic foot of
+air, probably the low temperature, with a total change in the daily
+habits of life, have assisted in the beneficial results. The
+diminution in the quantity of air, and consequently of oxygen,
+taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by
+an increased frequency and depth of the respirations, and a greater
+capacity of the chest. In this country, alterations in the
+barometric pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an
+approaching change in the wind, and as well as of the amount of
+moisture in the air; hence the instrument is often called "the
+weather glass." A sudden diminution in the atmospheric pressure is
+likely to be attended with an escape of ground air from the soil,
+and therefore to cause injury to health, especially among the
+occupants of basement rooms, unless the whole interior of the
+building be covered with concrete.</p>
+
+<p><i>Temperature.</i>&mdash;Experience has shown that man can bear
+greater variations of temperature than any other animal, as in the
+Arctic regions a temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit, or more
+than 100 degrees below freezing point, can be safely borne; that he
+can not only live but work, and remain in good health, in these
+regions provided that he be supplied with suitable clothing and
+plenty of proper food. On the other hand, man has existed and taken
+exercise in the interior of Australia when the thermometer showed a
+temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, or nearly 90 degrees above
+freezing point, so that he can live and be in fairly good health
+within a range of nearly 200 degrees Fahrenheit.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of a high temperature vary very much according to
+the amount of moisture in the air, as when the air is nearly
+saturated in hot climates, or even in summer in our own, more or
+less languor and malaise are felt, with great indisposition to
+bodily labor. With a dry air these are not so noticeable. The cause
+is evident; in the former case but little evaporation occurs from
+the skin, and the normal amount of moisture is not given off from
+the lungs, so that the body is not cooled down to such an extent as
+by dry air. Sunstroke is probably the result, not only of the
+direct action of the sun's rays, but partly from diminished cooling
+of the blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the
+mean for the day, month, or year, as on the extremes, as, when the
+days are hot and the nights comparatively cool, the energy of the
+system becomes partially restored, so that a residence near the
+sea, or in the vicinity of high mountains, in hot climates is,
+other things being equal, less enervating than in the plains, as
+the night air is generally cooler. It is commonly believed that hot
+climates are <i>necessarily</i> injurious to Europeans, by causing
+frequent liver derangements and diseases, dysentery, cholera, and
+fevers. This, however, is, to a certain extent, a mistake, as the
+recent medical statistical returns of our army in India show that
+in the new barracks, with more careful supervision as regards diet
+and clothing, the sickness and death-rates are much reduced.
+Planters and others, who ride about a good deal, as a rule keep in
+fairly good health; but the children of Europeans certainly
+degenerate, and after two or three generations die out, unless they
+intermarry with natives, and make frequent visits to colder
+climates. This fact shows that hot climates, probably by
+interfering with the due performance of the various processes
+concerned in the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues,
+eventually sap the foundations of life among Europeans; but how far
+this result has been caused by bad habits as regards food,
+exercise, and self-indulgence, I cannot say. Rapid changes of
+temperature in this country are often very injurious to the young
+and old, causing diarrh&oelig;a and derangements of the liver when
+great heat occurs, and inflammatory diseases of the lungs, colds,
+etc., when the air becomes suddenly colder, even in summer.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>direct</i> influence of rain on man is not very marked in
+this country, except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation
+from the ground and from vegetable life, and by altering the level
+of ground water. This is a subject almost overlooked by the public,
+and it is therefore as well that it should be known that when
+ground water has a level persistently less than five feet from the
+surface of the soil, the locality is usually unhealthy, and should
+not, if possible, be selected for a residence. Fluctuations in the
+level of ground water, especially if great and sudden, generally
+cause ill-health among the residents. Thus, Dr. Buchanan in his
+reports to the Privy Council in 1866-1867, showed that consumption
+(using the word in its most extended sense) is more prevalent in
+damp than on dry soils, and numerous reports of medical officers of
+health, and others, which have been published since then, show that
+an effective drainage of the land, and consequent carrying away of
+the ground water, has been followed by a diminution of these
+diseases.</p>
+
+<p>Varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the
+health and comfort of man. In this country, however, it is not only
+the absolute but the relative proportions of aerial moisture which
+materially influence mankind. The quantity of aqueous vapor that a
+cubic foot of air can hold in suspension, when it is saturated,
+varies very much with the temperature. Thus at 40 degrees Fahr. it
+will hold 2.86 grains of water; at 50 degrees, 4.10 grains; at 60
+degrees, 5.77 grains; at 70 degrees, 8.01 grains; and at 90 degrees
+as much as 14.85 grains. If saturation be represented by 100, more
+rapid evaporation from the skin will take place at 70 degrees, and
+75 per cent. of saturation, than at 60 degrees when saturated,
+although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is greater at
+the first named temperature than at the latter. As regards the
+lungs, however, the case is different, as the air breathed out is,
+if the respirations be regular and fairly deep, completely
+saturated with moisture at the temperature of the body. In cold
+climates the amount of moisture and of the effete matters given off
+from the lungs in the expired air is much greater than in hot
+climates, and the body is also cooled by the evaporation of water
+in the form of aqueous vapor. Moist air is a better conductor of
+heat than dry air, which accounts for much of the discomfort felt
+in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the feeling of
+elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather, therefore, moist
+air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, and
+colds consequently result. London fogs are injurious, not only on
+account of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal,
+but in consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated
+with moisture at a low temperature. The injuriousness of fogs and
+low temperatures will be presently dwelt upon at greater
+length.</p>
+
+<p>Variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere
+exert a considerable influence on the circulation of air contained
+in the soil, which is called ground air. As all the interstices of
+the ground are filled with air or water, the more porous the soil,
+the greater is the bulk of air. The quantity of air contained in
+soil varies very much according to the material of which the soil
+is composed, as it is evident that in a gravelly or sandy soil it
+must be greater than when the ground consists of loam or clay. The
+estimates vary from 3 to 30 per cent., but the latter is probably
+too high. If, therefore, a cesspool leak into the ground, the
+offensive effluvia, if in large quantities, will escape into the
+soil, and are given off at the surface of the ground, or are drawn
+into a house by the fire; but, if small, they are rendered
+innocuous by oxidation. The distance to which injurious gases and
+suspended or dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous
+soil is sometimes considerable, as I have known it pass for 130
+feet along a disused drain, and above 30 feet through loose
+soil.</p>
+
+<p>Winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and
+indirectly. Directly, by promoting evaporation from the skin, and
+abstracting heat from the body in proportion to their dryness and
+rapidity of motion. Their indirect action is more important, as the
+temperature and pressure of the air depend to a great extent on
+their direction. Thus winds from the north in this country are
+usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry weather; in
+summer with a pleasant feeling, but in winter with much cold.
+Southwest winds are the most frequent here of any, as about 24 per
+cent. of the winds come from this quarter against 16&frac12; from
+the west, 11&frac12; from the east, and the same from the
+northeast; 10&frac12; from the south, 8 from the north, and a
+smaller number from the other quarters. Southwest winds are also
+those which are most frequently accompanied by rain, as about 30
+per cent. of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds.
+Another set of observations give precisely the same order, but a
+considerable difference in their prevalence, viz., southwest 31 per
+cent., west 14&frac12;, and northeast 11&frac12; per cent. Easterly
+winds are the most unpleasant, as well as the most injurious to man
+of all that occur in this country.</p>
+
+<p>I now propose discussing very briefly the known relations
+between meteorological phenomena and disease. I say the known
+relations, because it is evident that there are many unknown
+relations of which at present we have had the merest glimpse. For
+instance, small-pox, while of an ordinary type, and producing only
+a comparatively small proportion of deaths to those attacked, will
+sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form, and spread with great
+rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological conditions
+when it usually declines in frequency. There are, however, in this
+country known relations between the temperature and, I may say,
+almost all diseases. As far back as 1847 I began a series of
+elaborate investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at
+different periods of the year, and the relations between this
+disease and the heat, moisture, and electricity of the air. I then
+showed that a mean monthly temperature below 44.6&deg; F. was
+adverse to the spread of this disease, that the greatest relative
+decrease took place when the mean temperature was below 40&deg;,
+and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months
+having a mean temperature of between 45&deg; and 57&deg; F.
+Diseases of the lungs, excluding consumption, are fatal in
+proportion to the lowness of the temperature and the presence of
+excess of moisture and fog. Thus, in January, 1882, the mean weekly
+temperature fell from 43.9&deg; F. in the second week to 36.2&deg;
+in the third, with fog and mist. The number of deaths registered in
+London during the third week, which may be taken as corresponding
+with the meteorological conditions of the second week, was 1,700,
+and in the next week 1,971. Unusual cold, with frequent fogs and
+little sunshine, continued for four weeks, the weekly number of
+deaths rising from 1,700 to 1,971, 2,023, 2,632, and 2,188. The
+deaths from acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were
+respectively 279, 481, 566, 881, and 689, showing that a large
+proportion of the excessive mortality was caused by these diseases.
+At the end of November and in December of the same year there was a
+rapid fall of temperature, when the number of deaths from acute
+diseases of the lungs rose from 297 to 358, 350, 387, 541, 553, and
+389 in the respective weeks. From November 29 to December 9 the sun
+was seen only on two days for 4&frac12; hours, and from December 9
+to the 18th also on two other days for less than 4 hours, making
+the total amount of sunshine 8.1 hours only in 20 days. In January
+and February the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases
+reached the large number of 504 deaths; in December it was less,
+the fogs not having been so dense, but the excess equaled 246
+deaths per week.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between a high summer temperature and excessive
+mortality from diarrh&oelig;a have long been well known, but the
+immediate cause of the disease as an epidemic is not known. Summer
+diarrh&oelig;a prevails to a greater extent in certain localities,
+notably in Leicester (and has done so for years); and the cause has
+been carefully sought for, but has not been found out. Recent
+researches, however, point to a kind of bacillus as the immediate
+cause, as it has been found in the air of water-closets, in the
+traps under the pans, and in the discharges from infants and young
+children. In order to indicate more readily how intimately the
+mortality from diarrh&oelig;a depends on temperature, I now lay
+before you a table showing the mean temperature for ten weeks in
+summer, of seven cold and hot summers, the temperature of Thames
+water, and the death-rates of infants under one year per million
+population of London:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><i>London.&mdash;Deaths under 1 Year, in July,
+August, and part of September, from Diarrh&oelig;a per 1,000,000
+Population Living at all Ages, arranged in the Order of
+Mortality.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='center' width='10%'>Years.</th>
+<th align='left' width='10%'>Mean<br>
+ temperature,<br>
+ 10 weeks.</th>
+<th align='left' width='10%'>Temperature<br>
+ of Thames water.</th>
+<th align='left' width='10%'>Age 0-1 year.<br>
+ Deaths from<br>
+ Diarrhoea per<br>
+ 1,000,000 population<br>
+ living at all ages.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1860</td>
+<td align='left'>58.1&deg;</td>
+<td align='left'>60.6&deg;</td>
+<td align='left'>151</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1862</td>
+<td align='left'>59.0</td>
+<td align='left'>62.0</td>
+<td align='left'>189</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1879</td>
+<td align='left'>58.7</td>
+<td align='left'>60.7</td>
+<td align='left'>228</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1877</td>
+<td align='left'>61.2</td>
+<td align='left'>63.3</td>
+<td align='left'>347</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1874</td>
+<td align='left'>61.7</td>
+<td align='left'>63.8</td>
+<td align='left'>447</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1878</td>
+<td align='left'>63.7</td>
+<td align='left'>64.1</td>
+<td align='left'>576</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='center'>1876</td>
+<td align='left'>64.4</td>
+<td align='left'>64.9</td>
+<td align='left'>643</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As may be seen, the deaths of infants under 1 year of age from
+diarrh&oelig;a per 1,000,000 population was only 151; while the
+mean summer temperature was only 58.1&deg; F. against 189 in 1862,
+when the mean temperature was 59.0&deg;. In 1879, when the mean
+temperature was 58.7&deg;, the deaths from diarrh&oelig;a rose to
+228 per million, but a few days were unusually hot. In 1877 the
+mean temperature of the air was 61.2&deg;, of the Thames water
+63.3&deg;, and the mortality of infants from diarrh&oelig;a 347 per
+million population. In 1874, when the mean temperature of the air
+was 61.7&deg;, the mortality rose to 447 per million; and in the
+hot summers of 1878 and 1876, when the mean air temperatures were
+64.1&deg; and 64.9&deg; respectively, the death-rates of infants
+were 576 and 642 per million population. The relations, therefore,
+between a high summer temperature and the mortality from
+diarrh&oelig;a in infants are very intimate. I have selected the
+mortality among infants in preference to that at all ages, as the
+deaths occur more quickly, and because young children suffer in
+greater proportion than other persons.</p>
+
+<p>The proportionate number of deaths at <i>all ages</i> from
+diarrh&oelig;a corresponds pretty closely with those of infants. To
+prove this, I made calculations for three years, and ascertained
+that only 3.9 per cent. of all the deaths from this disease were
+registered in the weeks having a temperature of less than 50&deg;;
+11.9 per cent. in the weeks having a temperature between 50&deg;
+and 60&deg;; while in the comparatively few weeks in which the
+temperature exceeded 60&deg; F., as many as 84.2 per cent. of the
+total number of deaths was registered. In the sixteen years,
+1840-56, for which many years ago I made a special inquiry, only
+18.9 per cent. of all the deaths from diarrh&oelig;a occurred in
+winter and spring, against 81.1 per cent. in summer and autumn. In
+the twenty years, 1860-79, there were seven years in which the
+summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per 100,000
+inhabitants of London was 200; while in ten summers, during which
+the temperature was in excess by 2&deg; or less, the mortality was
+317 per 100,000. The mean temperature was largely in excess, that
+is to say, more than 2&deg; plus in three of these summers, when
+the mortality reached 339 per 100,000 inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>These figures show that great care should be taken in hot
+weather to prevent diarrh&oelig;a, especially among young children;
+by frequent washing with soap and water to insure cleanliness, and
+proper action of the skin; by great attention to the food,
+especially of infants fed from the bottle; free ventilation of
+living rooms, and especially of bedrooms; and by protection, as far
+as possible, being afforded from a hot sun, as well as by avoiding
+excessive exercise. All animal and vegetable matter should be
+removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible
+(indeed, these should be burnt instead of being put in the
+dust-bin), the drains should be frequently disinfected and well
+flushed out, especially when the mean daily temperature of the air
+is above 60&deg; F.</p>
+
+<p>Time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations
+between meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other
+diseases and affections, such as apoplexy from heat, sunstroke,
+liver diseases, yellow fever, cholera, whooping-cough, measles,
+etc., especially as the state of our knowledge on the subject is so
+very limited. A comparison between the mortality from several
+diseases in this and other countries shows that certain of these do
+not prevail under closely corresponding conditions. Thus the curves
+of mortality from whooping-cough, typhoid fever, and scarlet fever
+do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both London and
+New York, and the same may be said of diarrh&oelig;a in India. It
+is therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying
+temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased
+death-rate from these diseases. The subject is of great importance,
+and I do not despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the
+agents through which meteorological phenomena act in the production
+of increased and decreased death rates from certain diseases, and
+the means by which, to a certain extent, these injurious effects on
+man may be presented.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p>P. Rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide
+diminishes the sensibility of the cortical substance of the
+cerebrum to electric excitement, while, the excitability of the
+underlying white substance remains unaltered.</p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="27"></a></p>
+
+<h2>CONSUMPTION SPREAD BY CHICKENS.</h2>
+
+<p>In a village, C., near Weimar, where for many years no case of
+tubercular phthisis had taken place, two years ago several families
+suddenly discovered one of their members to be suffering from the
+disease. After a long inquiry, it was discovered by accident that
+all these families had been buying their spring chickens from one
+and the same place, viz., from a private hospital in the
+neighborhood. A medical student brought the livers of two such
+chickens to Prof. Johne, in Dresden. The student, whose own sister
+had become affected with consumption, had lived during his vacation
+at home with his parents, in C., and he had there at dinner
+observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens.</p>
+
+<p>On examination, both organs were found to be full of tubercular
+bacilli. A thorough investigation was at once instituted, and it
+was then that the fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the
+families, members of which had been affected with tuberculosis, had
+all been brought from the institution mentioned. On further inquiry
+at the latter place the following facts were elicited:</p>
+
+<p>At about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in
+the village, an inmate or the hospital, Mrs. R., had died of the
+disease. Before her death, Mrs. R. used to feed the chickens raised
+there; she was often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it
+to the chickens. Further, the spittoons were emptied on a place in
+the yard where the chickens generally came to pick up any stray
+corn.</p>
+
+<p>As none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in
+the neighborhood&mdash;the hospital being situated at a
+considerable distance from the village&mdash;as no disease had
+happened among them until the arrival of Mrs. R., when soon after
+an epidemic seemed to break out among them, and many died, there is
+no doubt that they contracted the disease from Mrs. R., and in
+return infected those who ate their flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The case is very interesting, first, as it proves how such
+animals may become affected, then how they may spread the disease,
+and lastly, that some kind of a disposition must exist in the
+person infected; for here, of many who had eaten of the diseased
+flesh, only a few contracted the malady. The whole report teaches
+us how careful we have to be, and how necessary is the appointment
+of skillful experts by the State to inspect all food offered for
+sale.&mdash;<i>Med. and Surg. Reporter.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="28"></a></p>
+
+<h2>NEW METHOD OF REDUCING FEVER.</h2>
+
+<p>For many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly
+through the vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by
+means of which the high temperature often prevailing in typhoid,
+malarial, and other fevers might be reduced with rapidity and
+safety to the patient. A few substances have been found which
+produce a decline in temperature when administered in enormous and
+frequently repeated doses; but such administration has often been
+found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient, producing not
+infrequently serious injury to the stomach, kidneys, and sometimes
+the nervous system. So great is the danger of such injurious
+results, few careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic
+"antipyretic" medication recommended by experimenters, preferring
+to allow their patients to burn with fever, mitigated only by such
+simple means as are commonly employed by nurses, than to require
+them to combat the poisonous influences of a drug in addition to
+the morbid element of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>Happily, however, it is not necessary to leave the patient to
+the unaided efforts of nature. By cool sponging of the surface,
+persistently and thoroughly applied; by large, cool compresses
+placed over the abdomen and chest, or even the whole front of the
+body, and changed as often as warm, or every three to five minutes;
+by frequently repeated cool packs; by cold water drinking; by
+ice-packs to the spine; by constant application of ice or frozen
+compresses to the head; by forcing perspiration by copious hot
+drinks and a warm blanket pack&mdash;by any or all of these means
+the temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every
+case. However, cases will now and then occur in which the
+temperature remains dangerously high, notwithstanding the thorough
+application of the above means. What shall be done?</p>
+
+<p>Several years ago our attention was called to a series of
+experiments made by Dr. Winternitz, Professor of Hydropathy in the
+Medical University of Vienna, for the purpose of determining the
+influence upon temperature of enemas of water of different
+temperature in cases of fever. The results claimed by Prof.
+Winternitz were so striking that we improved the first opportunity
+to repeat his experiments, and with such results as have justified
+the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in fever,
+in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient. The
+only objection we have found to the method has been the
+inconvenience to the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the
+bed-pan. In a recent case in which we found it necessary to resort
+to this method, the nurse observed that if the tin can of the
+fountain syringe used in administering the enema happened to be
+lowered below the level of the bed on which the patient lay, water
+which had previously been introduced into the rectum returned
+readily through the tube into the can. On learning this fact, the
+attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way. From
+one to two pints of water, of 70&deg; or 75&deg; F. temperature,
+were allowed to pass into the bowels; and after being retained for
+five or ten minutes, or until the patient experienced uncomfortable
+sensations, it was made to pass out through the tube by simply
+lowering the reservoir to the level of the floor. A new supply of
+water of a proper temperature being introduced into the reservoir,
+it was again raised to the proper height, and the operation so
+continued until six quarts of water had been used. Then the patient
+was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour, according to the
+height of the fever, and the same process was repeated. Careful
+record was made of the temperature of the patient just before the
+treatment and immediately after. It was found to be invariably
+reduced from one to one and a half degrees by each treatment. The
+temperature, which had been exceedingly obstinate previous to the
+employment of this method, ranging from 104&deg; to 105&deg;,
+during the intervals between the treatments would, of course, rise
+somewhat; but each time it stopped short of the point reached
+during the previous interval, so that in the course of a few hours
+the fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature. The
+temperature of the water, when taken after passing through the
+bowels, was found to have risen each time from 10&deg; to
+13&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>The great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of
+the most useful of all substances for lowering the temperature; and
+it is readily apparent that, by the means described, heat may be
+abstracted from the body almost <i>ad libitum</i>, and the
+temperature may thus be controlled with a rapidity and a degree of
+certainty which cannot be approached by any other method. In a
+still more recent case, in which the same treatment was employed,
+the temperature of the patient had reached 106&deg; F., in spite of
+the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment, such as
+cold compresses, etc.; but it was, in four or five hours, brought
+down to nearly 100&deg; by the use of the cold enemas.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of this method are: 1. It may be employed without
+wetting or moving the patient; very frequently a patient will sleep
+continuously during the administration of the treatment. 2. It
+seldom causes chilliness, which is frequently a disturbing symptom,
+especially in fevers of a low type, and even, when the temperature
+is alarmingly high, causing the patient to dread the employment of
+sponging with cool or tepid water. 3. It is not necessary to employ
+cold water, a temperature of 80&deg; or even 85&deg; being
+thoroughly efficient. In the majority of cases, however, water of
+70&deg; or even 60&deg; may be employed without danger. The water
+comes in such immediate contact with surfaces filled with large
+blood-vessels that a temperature but a few degrees below that of
+the body is more effective than very much colder water applied to
+the surface.</p>
+
+<p>In cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by
+chilliness, this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by
+the application of a hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the
+pit of the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>The simple measures of treatment we have described will be found
+more effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other
+remedies which have ever been recommended for this
+purpose.&mdash;<i>Good Health.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="29"></a></p>
+
+<h2>THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE.</h2>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15a.png"><img src=
+"./images/15a_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG 1.&mdash;THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE EXHIBITION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.">
+</a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG 1.&mdash;THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE
+EXHIBITION OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.</p>
+
+<p>According to a recent law of Parliament, a large part of the
+crown jewels of France is destined to be sold. The exhibit that has
+been made of these riches for the last two months at the National
+Exhibition of the Industrial Arts, in the State Hall of the Louvre,
+has excited a lively interest among the visitors. Here are to be
+seen, heaped up in a large octagonal show-case, incomparable
+treasures, whose value exceeds quite a number of millions.
+According to the inventory of 1818, the 52,000 precious stones of
+the crown of France were estimated as worth more than 20 million
+francs ($4,000,000); but since that epoch the stones have increased
+in number, and money has singularly diminished in value, so that
+the total at present would be much less.</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><a href="./images/15b.png"><img src=
+"./images/15b_th.jpg" alt=
+" FIG. 2.&mdash;THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)"></a></p>
+
+<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.&mdash;THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)</p>
+
+<p>In order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was
+necessary to take precautions against thieves and fire, and this
+was done in a very sure and ingenious manner. The collection of
+crown jewels is distributed over the eight faces of an octagonal
+truncated cone, which is supported by a framework about three feet
+in height at the lower part. The stand is exhibited every day, at
+ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening, under an elegant
+octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of Fortune
+by Barbedienne. The whole is covered with a canopy, as shown in
+Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>A force of guardians of the Treasury is detailed to watch over
+the crown jewels, and it is to them that is confided the care of
+operating in the morning and evening the safety mechanism that we
+shall describe. The object of this mechanism is to lower into and
+lift out of the strong-box the entire stand with all its
+jewels.</p>
+
+<p>A winch, shown at A to the right of the engraving, sets in
+motion a system of gear wheels keyed at an angle, at B and C, upon
+intermediate shafts that transmit motion to the four vertical
+threaded rods of the frame, D. All these shaftings are 1&frac12;
+inch in diameter, and the cog-wheels, twenty in number, are about 5
+inches in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick, and is 20
+inches thick and 6 feet high. In the center of this masonry is
+embedded very thick iron plate. The bottom of the well is isolated
+from the flooring of the Exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler
+plate, by a filling of tire bricks, and finally by a second
+thickness of boiler plate. The well is closed by means of a large
+plate of iron 6 inches thick, 10 feet in length, and 88 feet in
+width. The winch which maneuvers this mass is placed at E. It
+actuates a system of bevel wheels, keyed at F, which transmit
+motion to two horizontal screws (hidden under the stage) that
+actuate the plate, H. This latter is provided with two parallel
+series of five rollers each that revolve over long and strong
+pieces of wood covered with rails. Electric alarms are located near
+the winches.</p>
+
+<p>A fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen
+feet of the exhibition building.</p>
+
+<p>A committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has
+been appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to
+indicate such as should be withheld from sale on account of their
+scientific, artistic, or historic interest. The members of the
+committee propose to preserve the following objects:</p>
+
+<p>1. The "Regent" (Fig. 2), by reason of its mineralogical value,
+the perfection of its cutting, the purity of its water, its
+incomparable luster, and its great size, it being the largest
+brilliant as yet known.</p>
+
+<p>2. The military sword of Charles the Tenth's coronation, the
+hilt of which is entirely of brilliants mounted by Bapst with
+wonderful art.</p>
+
+<p>3. The jewel called the "Reliquary," of the 15th century.</p>
+
+<p>To these riches must be added the following interesting objects:
+the Dey of Algiers' watch; the Elephant of Denmark; the
+decorations, etc., of foreign orders; crowns and diadems of
+sapphire; rubies; pearls that afford curious specimens of French
+art at the beginning of our century; one of the Mazarins bequeathed
+by the celebrated Cardinal; and lots of colored stones destined for
+our national museums.</p>
+
+<p>The same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other
+collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over
+in silence, such as the exhibit of the French diamond mines of the
+Cape, where one may see all the details of this prosperous
+exploitation by means of photographs and specimens. The art
+bronzes, the objects of jewelry, of goldsmith's work, and of
+morocco work, the music boxes, Trouve's and Aboilard's electric
+jewelry, and the retrospective art collections especially attracted
+the attention of the public.&mdash;<i>La Nature.</i></p>
+
+<hr>
+<p><a name="30"></a></p>
+
+<h2>A NEW MODE OF TESTING THE ECONOMY OF THE EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT
+IN LIFE INSURANCE.</h2>
+
+<p>How to determine the general ratios of the expenses of
+management of life insurance companies has hitherto been an
+unsettled question, and I think no serious attempt has been made
+before my own to study this question exhaustively, and reach a
+scientific conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>Believing that, one is contained in the following statement, I
+respectfully submit it to the criticism of others.</p>
+
+<p>It has generally been taken for granted that the measure of
+economy of life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single
+ratio of expenses to one feature of the business, such as the
+premium income, or the total income (premium and interest), or the
+mean amount of all policies outstanding. But this is not the case.
+No exhaustive reason has been shown for preferring one of these
+bases of ratio to another, and, indeed, no reason well supported by
+argument has been shown for employing either. On the other hand, no
+better evidence is needed of the importance of establishing a
+uniform and demonstrably sound basis, than the fact that it is
+common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior
+economy, and totally confuse the public, by opposing ratios found
+in one way by ratios found in another&mdash;that one of two
+companies which appears the most economical according to one test
+being apparently the least so according to another.</p>
+
+<p>The economy of the expense of any transaction, or work, can only
+be intelligently judged by the value of the <i>result</i>. This
+truth is too well recognized to need illustration, and it only
+needs to be called to mind, to perceive both the error of ratios of
+expense based on premium, which is not the result but the <i>raw
+material</i>, so to speak, of insurance transactions; and what, on
+the contrary, the true basis is.</p>
+
+<p>It is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must
+be judged, not by comparison with the premiums paid, but by
+comparison specifically with the resulting advantages in fact
+secured by such payments. Now these are of two kinds: which may be
+called the <i>insurance advantage</i> and the <i>investment
+advantage</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(1) Each death claim paid is an insurance advantage, though it
+is so only to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy
+which has become a claim over its premium reserve, or value, for
+the latter being the balance (with interest) of the policy holder's
+own premium money, could have been left or secured to his
+representatives without the intervention of the policy and
+company.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not
+consist in adding anything to the wealth of a company, but only
+consists in drawing from the premiums paid into its treasury by the
+policy holders generally, to meet each death claim which arises; or
+can only be called an <i>advantage of distribution</i>, or process
+of collecting aid from the living members, to assist the
+representatives or dependents of the deceased ones; but it is not
+the less on this account an advantage worth <i>same expense</i> in
+securing.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Interest realized by the investment of premium while it is
+in the keeping of a company is an advantage; in every sense so,
+since it comes wholly from outside sources, and accrues
+proportionally to all members; it may be called, as above, the
+investment advantage, and of course justifies some <i>expense</i>
+to secure it.</p>
+
+<p>Hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given; time must
+be divided into two parts, one being the expense incidental to
+insurance, and the other that incidental to investment, which parts
+are to be compared respectively with the insurance claims met, and
+interest receipts of the company for the same time; or what is
+equivalent in the latter case, the net rate of interest earned
+after deducting the incidental investment expense may be found.</p>
+
+<p>When this process shows that one company has earned a higher
+rate of interest than another, at the same time that its insurance
+expenses bear a lower ratio to its insurance claims paid, <i>there
+is no escape from the conclusion that during the period under
+observation it has served its policy-holders more economically</i>,
+and the test is therefore scientific. Though, if one company shows
+a higher rate of interest, while the other shows a lower ratio of
+insurance expense, it will still be necessary, to complete the
+test, to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of
+insurance expense (it does not practically matter which), and note
+how this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the
+other score.</p>
+
+<p>To be exact, if the average vitality of the members of the two
+companies differ (other things being equal, it is always cheapest
+to belong to that company which has the lowest death rate), the
+ratios of insurance expense to expected, as well as actual, claims
+of each must be found, and equated.</p>
+
+<p>The science of this procedure, or mode of testing expenses, and
+also its practical simplicity, may be more clearly perceived by
+reference to its practical application in the following table:</p>
+
+<p class="ctr"><i>Table Exhibiting Ratio of Expense, Determined by
+the New Mode, of Companies Doing Business in Massachusetts during
+the Year</i> 1883.</p>
+
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Name of Company.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Location.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Death claims paid.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Estimated Premiums. Reserve
+thereon.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Difference or Net insurance
+furnished.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Expense on the score of
+Insurance.</th>
+<th align='left' colspan='2'>Expense per $100 of claims paid.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Interest Receipts.</th>
+<th align='left' rowspan='2'>Expense on the score of
+investment.</th>
+<th align='left' colspan='2'>Net Rate of interest earned.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>Rate.</th>
+<th align='left'>Rank.</th>
+<th align='left'>Rate.</th>
+<th align='left'>Rank.</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Berkshire</td>
+<td align='right'>Mass.</td>
+<td align='right'>$208,147</td>
+<td align='right'>$46,605</td>
+<td align='right'>$161,524</td>
+<td align='right'>$122,779</td>
+<td align='right'>75.4</td>
+<td align='right'>14</td>
+<td align='right'>$194,067</td>
+<td align='right'>$15,809</td>
+<td align='right'>5.25</td>
+<td align='right'>16</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'><a href="#Footnote_7_2"><sup>[7]</sup></a>John
+Hancock</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>169,604</td>
+<td align='right'>25,117</td>
+<td align='right'>144,487</td>
+<td align='right'><a name="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_8_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>228,566</td>
+<td align='right'>158.2</td>
+<td align='right'>24</td>
+<td align='right'>135,597</td>
+<td align='right'>11,686</td>
+<td align='right'>3.65</td>
+<td align='right'>26</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mass. Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>426,995</td>
+<td align='right'>86,215</td>
+<td align='right'>340,780</td>
+<td align='right'>232,400</td>
+<td align='right'>68.2</td>
+<td align='right'>10</td>
+<td align='right'>428,255</td>
+<td align='right'>33,176</td>
+<td align='right'>6.03</td>
+<td align='right'>7</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>N. England Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>1,039,694</td>
+<td align='right'>235,630</td>
+<td align='right'>804,064</td>
+<td align='right'>311,879</td>
+<td align='right'>38.8</td>
+<td align='right'>3</td>
+<td align='right'>995,883</td>
+<td align='right'>69,908</td>
+<td align='right'>6.40</td>
+<td align='right'>4</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>State Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>121,969</td>
+<td align='right'>22,493</td>
+<td align='right'>99,476</td>
+<td align='right'>98,839</td>
+<td align='right'>99.4</td>
+<td align='right'>19</td>
+<td align='right'>143,751</td>
+<td align='right'>13,057</td>
+<td align='right'>4.51</td>
+<td align='right'>24</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>&AElig;tna</td>
+<td align='right'>Conn.</td>
+<td align='right'>1,302,807</td>
+<td align='right'>364,510</td>
+<td align='right'>938,297</td>
+<td align='right'>460,014</td>
+<td align='right'>49.0</td>
+<td align='right'>6</td>
+<td align='right'>1,760,372</td>
+<td align='right'>118,962</td>
+<td align='right'>6.22</td>
+<td align='right'>5</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Connecticut General</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>87,639</td>
+<td align='right'>15,624</td>
+<td align='right'>72,015</td>
+<td align='right'>46,113</td>
+<td align='right'>64.0</td>
+<td align='right'>9</td>
+<td align='right'>95,580</td>
+<td align='right'>5,407</td>
+<td align='right'>7.03</td>
+<td align='right'>1</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Connecticut Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>2,867,489</td>
+<td align='right'>881,600</td>
+<td align='right'>1,985,889</td>
+<td align='right'>622,941</td>
+<td align='right'>31.4</td>
+<td align='right'>1</td>
+<td align='right'>3,041,125</td>
+<td align='right'>238,944</td>
+<td align='right'>5.70</td>
+<td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Equitable</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>3,072,232</td>
+<td align='right'>483,950</td>
+<td align='right'>2,588,282</td>
+<td align='right'>1,884,108</td>
+<td align='right'>72.8</td>
+<td align='right'>12</td>
+<td align='right'>2,743,024</td>
+<td align='right'>216,725</td>
+<td align='right'>5.42</td>
+<td align='right'>12</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Germania</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>606,072</td>
+<td align='right'>149,950</td>
+<td align='right'>456,122</td>
+<td align='right'>325,662</td>
+<td align='right'>71.4</td>
+<td align='right'>11</td>
+<td align='right'>508,702</td>
+<td align='right'>47,193</td>
+<td align='right'>4.85</td>
+<td align='right'>22</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Home</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>205,921</td>
+<td align='right'>48,603</td>
+<td align='right'>157,318</td>
+<td align='right'>155,192</td>
+<td align='right'>98.6</td>
+<td align='right'>18</td>
+<td align='right'>260,506</td>
+<td align='right'>19,917</td>
+<td align='right'>4.86</td>
+<td align='right'>21</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Homoeopathic</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>35,610</td>
+<td align='right'>6,340</td>
+<td align='right'>29,270</td>
+<td align='right'>48,734</td>
+<td align='right'>166.5</td>
+<td align='right'>25</td>
+<td align='right'>42,814</td>
+<td align='right'>2,935</td>
+<td align='right'>6.20</td>
+<td align='right'>6</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Manhattan</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>687,171</td>
+<td align='right'>183,450</td>
+<td align='right'>503,721</td>
+<td align='right'>266,305</td>
+<td align='right'>44.9</td>
+<td align='right'>5</td>
+<td align='right'>627,628</td>
+<td align='right'>44,081</td>
+<td align='right'>5.82</td>
+<td align='right'>8</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'><a name="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href=
+"#Footnote_7_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>Metropolitan</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>638,639</td>
+<td align='right'>18,322</td>
+<td align='right'>620,317</td>
+<td align='right'>1,161,893</td>
+<td align='right'>187.3</td>
+<td align='right'>26</td>
+<td align='right'>106,916</td>
+<td align='right'>9,098</td>
+<td align='right'>4.90</td>
+<td align='right'>20</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mutual Life</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>5,172,275</td>
+<td align='right'>1,407,700</td>
+<td align='right'>3,764,575</td>
+<td align='right'>1,480,198</td>
+<td align='right'>39.3</td>
+<td align='right'>4</td>
+<td align='right'>5,042,964</td>
+<td align='right'>466,739</td>
+<td align='right'>5.01</td>
+<td align='right'>19</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Mutual Benefit</td>
+<td align='right'>N.J.</td>
+<td align='right'>2,160,991</td>
+<td align='right'>550,890</td>
+<td align='right'>1,610,101</td>
+<td align='right'>521,829</td>
+<td align='right'>32.4</td>
+<td align='right'>2</td>
+<td align='right'>2,072,629</td>
+<td align='right'>169,913</td>
+<td align='right'>5.61</td>
+<td align='right'>11</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>National</td>
+<td align='right'>Vt.</td>
+<td align='right'>174,767</td>
+<td align='right'>29,127</td>
+<td align='right'>145,640</td>
+<td align='right'>77,861</td>
+<td align='right'>53.5</td>
+<td align='right'>7</td>
+<td align='right'>149,010</td>
+<td align='right'>10,100</td>
+<td align='right'>5.26</td>
+<td align='right'>15</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>New York Life</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>2,408,636</td>
+<td align='right'>574,150</td>
+<td align='right'>1,834,484</td>
+<td align='right'>1,995,102</td>
+<td align='right'>108.8</td>
+<td align='right'>21</td>
+<td align='right'>2,676,592</td>
+<td align='right'>236,884</td>
+<td align='right'>5.03</td>
+<td align='right'>18</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Northwest'n Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>Wis.</td>
+<td align='right'>990,692</td>
+<td align='right'>190,500</td>
+<td align='right'>800,192</td>
+<td align='right'>630,582</td>
+<td align='right'>78.8</td>
+<td align='right'>15</td>
+<td align='right'>1,200,001</td>
+<td align='right'>88,527</td>
+<td align='right'>5.80</td>
+<td align='right'>9</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Penn. Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>Penn.</td>
+<td align='right'>601,625</td>
+<td align='right'>107,600</td>
+<td align='right'>494,025</td>
+<td align='right'>309,858</td>
+<td align='right'>62.7</td>
+<td align='right'>8</td>
+<td align='right'>463,567</td>
+<td align='right'>37,131</td>
+<td align='right'>5.38</td>
+<td align='right'>13</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Provident Life and Trust</td>
+<td align='right'>"</td>
+<td align='right'>280,817</td>
+<td align='right'>49,865</td>
+<td align='right'>230,952</td>
+<td align='right'>222,665</td>
+<td align='right'>96.4</td>
+<td align='right'>17</td>
+<td align='right'>340,115</td>
+<td align='right'>33,294</td>
+<td align='right'>4.26</td>
+<td align='right'>25</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Provident Savings</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>24,875</td>
+<td align='right'>1,828</td>
+<td align='right'>23,047</td>
+<td align='right'>51,608</td>
+<td align='right'>233.9</td>
+<td align='right'>27</td>
+<td align='right'>4,955</td>
+<td align='right'>2,579</td>
+<td align='right'>1.70</td>
+<td align='right'>27</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Travelers'</td>
+<td align='right'>Conn.</td>
+<td align='right'>235,001</td>
+<td align='right'>42,243</td>
+<td align='right'>192,758</td>
+<td align='right'>144,621</td>
+<td align='right'>75.0</td>
+<td align='right'>13</td>
+<td align='right'>331,623</td>
+<td align='right'>22,476</td>
+<td align='right'>6.42</td>
+<td align='right'>3</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Union Mutual</td>
+<td align='right'>Maine</td>
+<td align='right'>377,547</td>
+<td align='right'>88,520</td>
+<td align='right'>289,027</td>
+<td align='right'>237,913</td>
+<td align='right'>82.3</td>
+<td align='right'>16</td>
+<td align='right'>301,499</td>
+<td align='right'>28,754</td>
+<td align='right'>4.66</td>
+<td align='right'>23</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>United States</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>283,304</td>
+<td align='right'>69,245</td>
+<td align='right'>214,059</td>
+<td align='right'>277,919</td>
+<td align='right'>129.8</td>
+<td align='right'>23</td>
+<td align='right'>271,594</td>
+<td align='right'>23,460</td>
+<td align='right'>5.09</td>
+<td align='right'>17</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Vermont</td>
+<td align='right'>Vt.</td>
+<td align='right'>13,000</td>
+<td align='right'>1,542</td>
+<td align='right'>11,458</td>
+<td align='right'>13,613</td>
+<td align='right'>118.8</td>
+<td align='right'>22</td>
+<td align='right'>12,917</td>
+<td align='right'>822</td>
+<td align='right'>5.33</td>
+<td align='right'>14</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td align='left'>Washington</td>
+<td align='right'>N.Y.</td>
+<td align='right'>356,289</td>
+<td align='right'>71,820</td>
+<td align='right'>284,469</td>
+<td align='right'>289,461</td>
+<td align='right'>101.8</td>
+<td align='right'>20</td>
+<td align='right'>446,998</td>
+<td align='right'>32,249</td>
+<td align='right'>6.78</td>
+<td align='right'>2</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='left'>Totals</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$24,549,808</th>
+<th align='right'>$5,753,439</th>
+<th align='right'>$18,796,369</th>
+<th align='right'>$12,177,655</th>
+<th align='right'>64.8</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$24,398,684</th>
+<th align='right'>$1,999,826</th>
+<th align='right'>5.42</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='center' colspan='12'><i>Collective Business of
+Assessment Societies Doing Business in the State (excepting Secret
+Societies).</i></th>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<th align='center'>46 Societies</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$735,383</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>$237,770</th>
+<th align='right'>32.3</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+<th align='right'>&nbsp;</th>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual
+report of the Insurance Commissioner of Massachusetts, excepting
+the premium reserve on death claims, which, as well as the division
+of the total expenses of each company into insurance and investment
+expenses, I have estimated on a uniform rule. This was for lack of
+the actual data in these particulars, which the report did not
+give, as it is desirable that future ones may.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, does not injure the value of the table for
+illustrating the mode of procedure, for which purpose mainly it is
+presented. The companies whose figures I have used, moreover, have
+no occasion to complain of this, as my estimate certainly gives all
+ratios of insurance expense lower than they would appear if I had
+known, and used, the exact actual premium reserve on death claims,
+and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to each other as they
+would in that case.</p>
+
+<p>As the object of this statement is to explain the new method,
+and not to defend my particular estimates in applying it, I forbear
+to state on what rules I have made them. Expense which is not
+ascribed to insurance must be ascribed to investment, and as in
+comparing any two companies, their two ratios of one kind or the
+other must be equated, to decide the question of economy between
+them, it may well be left to any company to say what the fair
+division of its own expenses is.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, there can be but little motive to make a false
+division; for to successfully compete for business, a company
+having large investments has as much need to show a high net rate
+of interest earned as a low rate of insurance expense. Again, it is
+not my purpose to pass judgment on the economy or extravagance of
+any ratio of expense shown in the table. It is not a fact exhibited
+for the first time by my figures, that the ratios of some companies
+are more than double those of others. The same fact would be
+displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium
+income, or any other incorrect basis. Custom, the balance of
+opinions, and competition may well be left to decide what ratios of
+expense are high, and what are average, or low. And their decision
+is to be gathered only from <i>statistics</i>.</p>
+
+<p>What I do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein
+explained is the only intelligible and scientific one, and the only
+one proper to employ in <i>statistical tabulations</i> and
+<i>investigations</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As such, it calls attention to the fact that the amount of
+insurance claims met, and of interest receipts, <i>are limits</i>
+which the corresponding expenses cannot exceed, certainly for a
+series of years together, without making the <i>expense</i> more
+than the <i>advantage</i> of the business. To keep this fact in
+view, <i>as a preventive of extravagance</i>, is not the least
+valuable service the new mode may render. It may be seen that there
+are eight cases in the table, in which the ratio of insurance
+expense points to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in
+the same time, yet the reader need not hasten to conclude that the
+same companies will permanently show similar ratios, or have no
+good reasons to give for the ones which now appear. I may remark,
+however, that it is an evidence of the scientific mode in which the
+figures are presented, that it facilitates such explanations as are
+pertinent of any of the ratios.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the
+fact that the claims for the year of the company in question have
+been exceptionally high or low, or that the company (being of
+recent organization perhaps) has just incurred exceptional expense
+to increase its business, the advantage of which will appear later,
+etc. But I leave to the companies themselves to show to what extent
+such circumstances have affected their ratios; except that, in
+regard to the several net rates of interest earned, it is proper to
+say that in all cases in which they considerably exceed the average
+of 5.42 per cent. it will be found, by referring to the details of
+interest receipts reported to the Commissioner, that the excess is
+owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks, or
+recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss.</p>
+
+<p>WALTER C. WRIGHT.</p>
+
+<p>Medford, Mass., Sept., 1884.</p>
+
+<a name="Footnote_7_7"></a><a name="Footnote_7_2"></a><a href=
+"#FNanchor_7_7">[7]</a>
+<div class="note">Including industrial business.</div>
+
+<a name="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8">[8]</a>
+<div class="note">Includes $18.867 depreciation.</div>
+
+<hr>
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+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+455, September 20, 1884, by Various
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@@ -0,0 +1,4609 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 455,
+September 20, 1884, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 455, September 20, 1884
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 5, 2004 [EBook #13962]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks and the PG
+Distibuted Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 455
+
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 20, 1884
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVIII, No. 455.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+I.    CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Gallisin, an Unfermentable
+      Substance in Starch Sugar.
+
+      The Combining Weights, Volumes, and Specific Gravities of
+      Elements and Compounds.
+
+      Analysis of Zinc Ash and Calcined Pyrites by Means of
+      Ammonium Carbonate.
+
+
+II.   ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Petroleum as a Fuel in
+      Locomotive Engines.--By THOMAS URQUHART.--Spray
+      injector.--Driving locomotives.--Storage of petroleum.
+
+      Improved Gas Light Buoy.--2 figures.
+
+      Project for a Roadstead at Havre.--With map and views of
+      different breakwaters.
+
+      Improved Catch Basin.--2 figures.
+
+      Water Power with High Pressures and Wrought Iron Water
+      Pipe.--By HAMILTON SMITH, JR.--Methods of conducting water
+      and transmitting power.--Texas Creek pipe and aqueduct.--4
+      figures.
+
+      Parachute Hydraulic Motor.
+
+      Improved Shafting Lathe.--1 figure.
+
+      Power Straightening Machine.--1 figure.
+
+      Hydraulic Mining in California.--By GEO. O'BRIEN.
+
+
+III.  TECHNOLOGY.--Emerald Green: Its Properties and
+      Manufacture.--Use in wall paper.--ROBERT GALLOWAY.
+
+      Charcoal Kilns.--Extra yield.--2 figures.
+
+
+IV.   ARCHITECTURE--Entrance, Tiddington House, Oxon.--An
+      engraving.
+
+
+V.    ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT. ETC.--The Temperature of the
+      Earth as shown by Deep Mines.
+
+      New Arrangement of the Bichromate of Potash Pile.--3
+      figures.
+
+      The Distribution of Electricity by Induction.--1 figure.
+
+      Electricity Applied to the study of Seismic Movements.--Apparatus
+      for the study of horizontal and vertical seismic
+      movements, etc.--8 figures.
+
+      New Accumulators.--3 figures.
+
+      Industrial Model of the Reynier Zinc Accumulator.
+
+      The History of a Lightning Flash.--By W. SLINGO.
+
+      Researches on Magnetism.
+
+VI.   NATURAL HISTORY.--The Giraffe.--With engraving.
+
+VII.  MEDICINE, AND HYGIENE.--The Treatment of Cholera--By
+      Dr. H.A. RAWLINS.
+
+      Temperature. Moisture, and Pressure, in their Relations
+      to Health.--London deaths under 1 year in July, August,
+      and part of September.
+
+      Consumption Spread by Chickens.
+
+      New Method of Reducing Fever.
+
+VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Crown Diamonds of France at the
+      Exhibition of Industrial Arts.
+
+      A New Mode of Testing the Economy of the Expenses of
+      Management in Life Insurance.--By WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GIRAFFE.
+
+
+The spirited view herewith presented, representing the "Fall of the
+Giraffe" before the rifle of a sportsman, we take from the _Illustrated
+London News_. Hunting the giraffe has long been a favorite sport among the
+more adventurous of British sportsmen, its natural range being all the
+wooded parts of eastern, central, and southern Africa, though of late
+years it has been greatly thinned out before the settlements advancing
+from the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+[Illustration: THE FALL OF THE GIRAFFE.]
+
+The characteristics of this singular animal are in some particulars those
+of the camel, the ox, and the antelope. Its eyes are beautiful, extremely
+large, and so placed that the animal can see much of what is passing on
+all sides, and even behind it, so that it is approached with the greatest
+difficulty. The animal when full grown attains sometimes a height of
+fifteen to seventeen feet. It feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees
+principally, its immense length of legs and height at the withers
+rendering it difficult for the animal to graze on an even surface. It is
+not easily overtaken except by a swift horse, but when surprised or run
+down it can defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking, thus, it is
+said, often tiring out and beating off the lion. It was formerly almost
+universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder ones,
+but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch, the error
+having been caused by the great development and height of the withers, to
+give a proper base to the long neck and towering head. The color varies a
+good deal, the head being generally a reddish brown, and the neck, back,
+and sides marked with tessellated, rust colored spots with narrow white
+divisions. Many specimens have been brought to this country, the animal
+being extremely docile in confinement, feeding from the hand, and being
+very friendly to those who are kind to it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+An experiment has been made in Vienna which proves that even with
+incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid any risk of
+fire. A lamp having been enveloped with paper and lighted by a current,
+the heat generated was sufficient to set fire to the paper, which burnt
+out and caused the lamp to explode.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TEMPERATURE OF THE EARTH AS SHOWN BY DEEP MINES.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
+observations on the temperature of the earth, as shown by deep mines, were
+presented by Messrs. Hamilton Smith, Jr., and Edward B Dorsey. Mr. Smith
+said that the temperature of the earth varies very greatly at different
+localities and in different geological formations. There are decided
+exceptions to the general law that the temperature increased with the
+depth. At the New Almaden quicksilver mine, in California, at a depth of
+about 600 feet the temperature was very high--some 115 degrees; but in the
+deepest part of the same mine, 1,800 feet below the surface and 500 feet
+below sea level, the temperature is very pleasant, probably less than 80
+degrees. At the Eureka mines, in California, the air 1,200 feet below the
+surface appears nearly as cool as 100 feet below the surface. The normal
+temperature of the earth at a depth of 50 or 60 feet is probably near the
+mean annual temperature of the air at the particular place. At the
+Comstock mines, some years since, the miners could remain but a few
+moments at a time, on account of the heat. Ice water was given them as an
+experiment; it produced no ill effects, but the men worked to much better
+advantage; and since that time, ice water is furnished in all these mines,
+and drunk with apparently no bad results.
+
+Mr. E.B. Dorsey said that the mines on the Comstock vein, Nevada, were
+exceptionally hot. At depths of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, the thermometer
+placed in a freshly drilled hole will show 130 degrees. Very large bodies
+of water have run for years at 155 degrees, and smaller bodies at 170
+degrees. The temperature of the air is kept down to 110 degrees by forcing
+in fresh air cooled over ice.
+
+Captain Wheeler, U.S. Engineers, estimated the heat extracted annually
+from the Comstock by means of the water pumped out and cold air forced in,
+as equal to that generated by the combustion of 55,560 tons of anthracite
+coal or 97,700 cords of wood. Observations were then given upon
+temperature at every 100 feet in the Forman shaft of the Overman mine,
+running from 53 degrees at a depth of 100 feet to 121.2 degrees at a
+depth of 2,300 feet. The temperature increased:
+
+    100 to 1,000 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 29 feet.
+    100 to 1,800 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 30.5 feet.
+    100 to 2,300 feet deep, increase 1 degree in 32.3 feet.
+
+A table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number of deep
+mines, tunnels, and artesian wells. The two coolest mines or tunnels are
+in limestone, namely, Chanarcillo mines and Mont Cenis tunnel; and the two
+hottest are in trachyte and the "coal measures," namely, the Comstock
+mines in trachyte and the South Balgray in the "coal measures." Mr. Dorsey
+considered that experience showed that limestone was the coolest
+formation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+GALLISIN, AN UNFERMENTABLE SUBSTANCE IN STARCH SUGAR.
+
+
+C. Schmitt and A. Coblenzl have made a careful investigation of the
+unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars, and have
+succeeded in isolating a definite compound, to which they give the name
+gallisin. The method of separation and purification which they made use of
+is as follows: 5 kilogrammes of commercial starch sugar were allowed to
+ferment. At a temperature of 18-20 deg. C. and with a solution containing 20
+per cent. the fermentation was complete in five to six days. It was
+filtered; the perfectly clear, almost colorless, liquid evaporated as far
+as possible on the water-bath, and the sirup while still warm brought into
+a good-sized flask. The sirup was then well shaken with a large excess of
+absolute alcohol, when it became viscous, but did not mix with the
+alcohol. The latter was poured off, replaced by fresh alcohol, and again
+shaken. When this shaking with alcohol has been repeated several times,
+the sirup is finally changed to a yellowish-gray mass. This is now brought
+into a large mortar, and rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether.
+After some time the whole mass is transformed into a gray powder. It is
+quickly filtered off with the aid of an aspirator, washed with alcohol and
+then with ether, and brought under a desiccator with concentrated
+sulphuric acid. In order to purify the substance, it is dissolved in water
+and treated with bone-black. The solution is then evaporated to a sirup,
+and this poured into a mixture of equal parts of anhydrous alcohol and
+ether. In this way the new compound is obtained as a very fine, pure white
+powder which rapidly settles. It has much the appearance of starch. Under
+the microscope it is perfectly amorphous. In the air it deliquesces much
+more rapidly than ignited calcium chloride.
+
+Treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the water-bath
+gallisin is transformed into dextrose. It does not ferment when treated in
+water solution with fresh yeast. The analyses led to the formula
+C_{12}H_{24}O_{10}. When treated under pressure with three times its
+weight of acetic anhydride at 130-140 deg. it dissolves perfectly. From the
+solution a product was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing
+with the formula C_{12}H_{18}O_{10}(C_{2}H_{3}O)_{6}. The substance
+appears therefore to be hexacetylgallisin.
+
+Physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings demonstrated
+clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor indirectly any injurious
+effect on the health.--_Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
+17, 1000; Amer. Chem. Jour._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE COMBINING WEIGHTS, VOLUMES, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF ELEMENTS AND
+COMPOUNDS.
+
+
+Under the title of "Figures Worth Studying," Mr. William Farmer, of New
+York, read a paper before a recent meeting of the Society of Gas Lighting,
+from which the _American Gas Light Journal_ gives the following:
+
+I have prepared the following table, which contains some of the elements
+and compounds, with their combining weights, volumes, and specific
+gravities. When the combining weight of any of these elements and
+compounds is taken in pounds, then the gas or vapor therefrom will always
+occupy about 377.07 cubic feet of space, at 60 deg. Fahr. and 30 inches
+barometer. If we divide this constant 377.07 by the combining weight of
+any of the substances, then the quotient will be the number of cubic feet
+per pound of the same. If we divide the combining weight of any of the
+substances given in the table by 2, then the quotient will give the
+density of the same, as compared with hydrogen. If we divide the combining
+weight of any of the substances by the constant 28.87, then the quotient
+will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom, as compared
+with air. All the calculations are based on the atomic weights which are
+now generally adopted by the majority of chemists.
+
+-------------------------------------------------------------------
+                              |        |        |Cub. Ft.|        |
+                              |        |        |  per   |        |
+                              | Combi- |Cub. Ft.| Combi- |Specific|
+                              |  ning  |  per   |  ning  |Gravity |
+                              |Weight. | Pound. |Weight. |Air = 1.|
+------------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------|
+Hydrogen (H_{2})              |   2.00 | 188.53 | 377.07 | 0.0692 |
+Carbon vapour (C_{2})         |  23.94 |  15.75 | 377.07 | 0.8292 |
+Nitrogen (N_{2})              |  28.06 |  13.43 | 377.07 | 0.9719 |
+Oxygen (O_{2})                |  31.92 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1056 |
+Chlorine (Cl_{2})             |  71.00 |   5.31 | 377.07 | 2.4593 |
+Bromine (Br_{2})              | 160.00 |   2.35 | 377.07 | 5.5420 |
+Flourine (F_{2})              |  38.00 |   9.92 | 377.07 | 1.3162 |
+Iodine (I_{2})                | 253.20 |   1.48 | 377.07 | 8.7703 |
+Sulphur (S_{2})               |  63.96 |   5.89 | 377.07 | 2.2154 |
+Phosphorus (P_{4})            | 123.84 |   3.04 | 377.07 | 4.2895 |
+Carbonic oxide (CO)           |  27.03 |  13.50 | 377.07 | 0.9674 |
+Carbonic acid (CO_{2})        |  48.89 |   8.59 | 377.07 | 1.5202 |
+Water vapour (H_{2}O)         |  17.06 |  20.99 | 377.07 | 0.6221 |
+Hydrogen sulphide (H_{2}S)    |  33.08 |  11.09 | 377.07 | 1.1770 |
+Ammonia (H_{2}N)              |  17.03 |  22.14 | 377.07 | 0.5898 |
+Sulphurous oxide (SO_{2})     |  63.90 |   5.90 | 377.07 | 2.2133 |
+Sulphuric oxide (SO_{3})      |  79.86 |   4.72 | 377.07 | 2.7662 |
+Cyanogen (C_{2}N_{2})         |  52.00 |   7.25 | 377.07 | 1.8011 |
+Bisulphide of carbon (CS_{2}) |  75.93 |   4.96 | 377.07 | 2.6300 |
+Ethyl alcohol (C_{2}H_{6}O)   |  45.90 |   8.21 | 377.07 | 1.5898 |
+Ethyl ether (C_{4}H_{10}O)    |  73.84 |   5.10 | 377.07 | 2.5576 |
+Methyl alcohol (CH_{4}O)      |  31.93 |  11.81 | 377.07 | 1.1059 |
+Methyl chloride (CH_{3}Cl)    |  50.47 |   7.47 | 377.07 | 1.7482 |
+Carbonyl chloride (COCl_{2})  |  98.93 |   3.81 | 377.07 | 3.4267 |
+Phosphine gas (PH_{3})        |  33.96 |  11.10 | 377.07 | 1.1769 |
+Hydrochloric acid (HCl)       |  36.50 |  10.33 | 377.07 | 1.2642 |
+Methane (CH_{4})              |  15.98 |  26.61 | 377.07 | 0.5531 |
+Ethane (C_{2}H_{6})           |  29.94 |  12.50 | 377.07 | 1.0370 |
+Propane (C_{3}H_{8})          |  43.91 |   8.58 | 377.07 | 1.5209 |
+Butane (C_{4}H_{10})          |  57.88 |   6.51 | 377.07 | 2.0048 |
+Ethene (C_{2}H_{4})           |  27.94 |  13.49 | 377.07 | 0.9677 |
+Propene (C_{3}H_{6})          |  41.91 |   8.99 | 377.07 | 1.4516 |
+Butene (C_{4}H_{8})           |  55.88 |   6.74 | 377.07 | 1.9355 |
+Ethine (C_{2}H_{2})           |  25.94 |  14.53 | 377.07 | 0.8985 |
+Propine (C_{3}H_{4})          |  39.91 |   9.44 | 377.07 | 1.3824 |
+Butine (C_{4}H_{6})           |  53.88 |   6.98 | 377.07 | 1.8662 |
+Quintone (C_{5}H_{6})         |  65.85 |   5.72 | 377.07 | 2.2809 |
+Benzene (C_{6}H_{6})          |  77.82 |   4.84 | 377.07 | 2.6955 |
+Styrolene (C_{8}H_{8})        | 103.75 |   3.63 | 377.07 | 3.5936 |
+Naphtalene (C_{10}H_{8})      | 127.70 |   2.95 | 377.07 | 4.4232 |
+Turpentine (C_{10}H_{16})     | 135.70 |   2.77 | 377.07 | 4.7003 |
+Dry air                       |  28.87 |  13.06 |   --   | 1.0000 |
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+EMERALD-GREEN: ITS PROPERTIES AND MANUFACTURE.[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: This substance is also known by the name Schweinfurt green.]
+
+By ROBERT GALLOWAY, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green
+(aceto-arsenite of copper) appears to be a very favorite topic in many
+journals; it is continually reappearing in one form or another in
+different publications, especially medical ones; there has recently
+appeared a short reference to it under the title, "The Poisonous Effect of
+Wall-paper." As some years ago I became practically acquainted with its
+properties and manufacture, a few observations on these subjects may not
+be without interest.
+
+In the paragraph referred to, it is stated that the poisonous effect of
+this pigment cannot be _entirely_ due to its mere mechanical detachment
+from the paper. This writer therefore attributes the poisonous effects to
+the formation of the hydrogen compound of arsenic, viz., arseniureted
+hydrogen (AsH_{3}); the hydrogen, for the formation of this compound,
+being generated, the writer thinks probable, "by the joint action of
+moisture and organic matters, viz., of substances used in fixing to walls
+papers impregnated with arsenic." In some of our chemical manuals, Dr.
+Kolbe's "Inorganic Chemistry," for example, it is also stated that
+arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the _fermentation_ of the starch-paste
+employed for fastening the paper to the walls. It is perfectly obvious
+that the fermentation of the starch-paste must cease after a time, and
+therefore the poisonous effects of the paper must likewise cease if its
+injurious effects are caused by the fermentation. I do not think that
+arseniureted hydrogen could be formed under the _conditions_, for the
+oxygen compound of arsenic is in a state of combination, and the compound
+is in a dry solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two
+elements--arsenic and hydrogen--for each other are so exceedingly weak
+that they cannot be made to unite directly except they are both set free
+at the same moment in presence of each other. Further, for the formation
+of this hydrogen compound by the fermentation of the starch, or by the
+growth of minute fungi, the _entire_ compound must be broken up, and
+therefore the pigment would become discolored; but aceto-arsenite of
+copper
+
+    (3CuAs_{2}O_{4}+Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2})
+
+is a very stable compound, not readily undergoing decomposition, and is
+consequently a very permanent color. It has also been not unfrequently
+stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are due to the arsenious
+oxide volatilizing from the other constituents of the compound. This
+volatilization would likewise cause a breaking up of the entire compound,
+and would consequently cause a discoloration of the paper; but the
+volatilization of this arsenic compound is in every respect most
+improbable.
+
+The injurious effects, if any, of this pigment must therefore be due to
+its mechanical detachment from the paper; but has it ever been
+conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the wall-paper of which
+is stained with emerald-green suffer from arsenical poisoning? If it does
+occur, then the effects of what may be termed homoeopathic doses of this
+substance are totally different from the effects which arise from larger
+doses. During the packing of this substance in its dry state in the
+factory, clouds of its dust ascend in the air, and during the time I had
+to do with its manufacture I never heard that any of the factory hands
+suffered, nor did I suffer, from arsenical poisoning. If there is any
+abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore, and also the delicate
+lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected. It is in this way it acts in
+large doses; I am therefore very skeptical as to its supposed poisonous
+effects when wall-paper is stained with it.
+
+Different methods are given in works on chemistry for the manufacture of
+this pigment, but as they do not agree in every respect with the method
+which was followed in English color factories some years ago, it will be
+as well, for the full elucidation of the manufacture of this substance, to
+briefly recite some of these methods before describing the one that was,
+and probably is still, in use; and I will afterward describe a method
+which I invented, and which is practically superior to any other, both in
+the rapidity with which the color can be formed, and for producing it at a
+less cost.
+
+It is stated in Watts' "Dictionary of Chemistry" that it is "prepared on a
+large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric acetate and water. Five
+parts of verdigris are made up to a thin paste, and added to a boiling
+solution of 4 parts or rather more of arsenious acid in 50 parts of water.
+The boiling must be well kept up, otherwise the precipitate assumes a
+yellow-green color, from the formation of copper arsenite; in that case
+acetic acid must be added, and the boiling continued a few minutes longer.
+The precipitate then becomes crystalline, and acquires the fine green
+color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite." I do not know from personal
+knowledge, but I have always understood that the copper salt employed in
+its manufacture in France is the acetate. This would account, in my
+opinion, for the larger crystalline flakes in which it is obtained in
+France than can be produced by the English method of manufacturing it.
+Cupric acetate is never employed, I believe, in England--the much cheaper
+copper salt, the sulphate, being always employed.
+
+In "Miller's Chemistry" it is stated it "may be obtained by _boiling_
+solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate, and adding to the
+mixture an equal bulk of _cold_ water." Why it should be recommended to
+add _cold water_, I am at a loss to understand.
+
+In Drs. Roscoe and Schorlemmer's large work on "Chemistry," and in the
+English edition of "Wagner's Handbook of Chemical Technology," edited by
+Mr. Crookes, the process as described by Dr. Ehrmann in the "Ann. Pharm.,"
+xii., 92, is given. It is thus stated in Wagner's work: "This pigment is
+prepared by first separately dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious
+acid and neutral acetate of copper in boiling water, and next mixing these
+solutions while boiling. There is immediately formed a flocculent
+olive-green colored precipitate of arsenite of copper, while the
+supernatant liquid contains free acetic acid. After a while the
+precipitate becomes gradually crystalline, at the same time forming a
+beautiful green pigment, which is separated from the liquid by filtration,
+and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use. The mode of
+preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised by M.
+Braconnot, as follows: 15 kilos. of sulphate of copper are dissolved in
+the smallest quantity of boiling water, and mixed with a boiling and
+concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa, so prepared as to
+contain 20 kilos. of arsenious acid. There is immediately formed a dirty
+greenish-colored precipitate which is converted into Schweinfurt green by
+the addition of some 15 liters of concentrated wood-vinegar. This having
+been done, the precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed."
+
+As I have already stated, the copper salt used in the manufacture of this
+pigment in England is the sulphate, and it is carried out pretty much
+according to Braconnot's method as described by Dr Ehrmann; but any one
+would infer, from reading his description of the manufacturing process,
+that the compound, aceto-arsenite of copper, was formed almost immediately
+after the addition of the acetic acid, a higher or lower atmospheric
+temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the formation.
+Furthermore, it is not stated whether the compound forms more readily in
+an acid or neutral solution, or whether it can or cannot be formed in a
+neutral one; now both these points are important to notice in describing
+its manufacture. As regards the former I shall notice it presently, and,
+as far as my knowledge extends, the pigment will not form when the
+solution is neutral.
+
+The operation is conducted in the following manner in the factory: The
+requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in a large wooden vat,
+and hot water added to dissolve it; the requisite quantity of arsenic
+(arsenious anhydride) and carbonate of soda, the latter not in quantity
+quite sufficient to neutralize the whole of the sulphuric acid set free
+from the sulphate of copper on the precipitation of the copper as
+arsenite, are placed in another wooden vessel; water is then added, and
+the formation of the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the
+introduction of steam into the liquid. When complete solution has been
+effected the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the
+solution of the sulphate of copper, arsenite of copper being at once
+precipitated. The necessary quantity of acetic acid is afterward added. In
+_warm_ weather the formation of the aceto-arsenite soon commences after
+the addition of the vinegar; but, even in that case, it takes a week or
+more to have the whole of a big batch of arsenite converted into the
+aceto-arsenite; and perfect conversion is necessary, as the presence of a
+very minute quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of
+the emerald pigment, and a by no means large quantity renders the pigment
+unsalable, owing to its dirty yellowish-green color. In cold weather a
+much longer time is required for its complete conversion; even at the end
+of a fortnight or three weeks there frequently remains sufficient
+unconverted arsenite to affect seriously the selling price of the color;
+when this occurs the manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a
+most wasteful method viz, by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid. The
+acid of course dissolves the arsenite, but it dissolves in very much
+larger quantities the aceto-arsenite; and this costly solution is not
+utilized, but is run into the factory sewer.
+
+By my method of manufacturing it, it can be produced in winter as well as
+in summer in one or two hours, and the quantity of free acid required for
+its formation is reduced to the lowest amount. I proceed as follows: After
+having dissolved in hot water the requisite quantity of cupric sulphate, I
+decompose one-fourth of this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution
+of carbonate of soda to precipitate the copper, in that quantity of the
+sulphate, as carbonate. I then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert
+the carbonate into acetate. I have now got in solution--
+
+    3CuSO_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2},
+
+and I have to transform it into--
+
+    3CuAs_{2}O_{4} + Cu(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}.
+
+It is at once seen that I have got the requisite quantity of acetate
+formed. I next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious anhydride in
+an amount of carbonate of soda _rather less_ than is sufficient to
+neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric sulphate, and I then bring the
+solution to or near the boiling-point by introducing steam into it; the
+arsenic is dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt, but in a
+separate one. When the arsenic solution is fully heated, a small current
+of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper salts, and
+brisk stirring is kept up in the vat. The emerald green is at once formed;
+but if there should be the slightest formation of any arsenite, the flow
+of the arsenic solution is at once stopped until every trace of the
+arsenite has been converted; the arsenic solution is then allowed to flow
+in again, with the same precautions as before; in this way a large batch
+of emerald-green can he formed in one or two hours, without containing the
+slightest trace of the arsenite. I keep the arsenic solution near the
+boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the other
+vessel. By varying the proportions of water I could either make it coarse
+or fine, as I wished, which is an important matter to have complete
+control over in its manufacture.
+
+Two points of interest occurred to me during the time I was occupied with
+the research, which I had not time to complete; one was whether the
+aceto-arsenite can be formed, adopting the old method for its formation,
+if there is more than a certain quantity of water; from some experiments I
+made in this direction I was inclined to the opinion it could not. I have
+already stated that emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids,
+and that it is formed in a more or less acid solution; consequently a
+varying amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the
+supernatant liquid. To prevent to a certain extent this loss I
+precipitated the copper from it as arsenite; but I was not successful in
+the few experiments I had time to make on this part of the subject of
+reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained into the aceto-arsenite by
+the addition of acetic acid.--_Jour. of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF ZINC ASH AND CALCINED PYRITES BY MEANS OF AMMONIUM CARBONATE.
+
+
+In a recent issue of the _Chemiker Zeitung_ Dr. Kosmann has reported an
+analytical method for the examination of zinciferous products; according
+to this report, the ash and flue dust produced by the extraction of zinc
+from its ore comprise:
+
+1. Zinc dust, from the distillation of zinc,
+
+2. Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers,
+
+3. Zinc ash, of various assortments, from iron blast furnaces.
+
+Of these, zinc dust is the only ready product which is, as color or
+reducing agent, employed in analytical and technical processes. Its value,
+when serving the latter purpose, is determined by the percentage of finely
+divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained therein; of equal reducing
+power is cadmium, generally associating zinc; injurious, and therefore
+uneffective, are zinc oxide and oxides of other metals, also metallic
+lead.
+
+Flue dust, condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with Kleemann's
+receivers, is employed with zinc ores in the extraction of zinc, and in
+small quantities as substitute for zinc white; its commercial value is
+similarly estimated as that of zinc ores.
+
+The various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast furnaces
+are an object for continual demand, being both a valuable material for the
+production of zinc and, in its superior qualities, a desirable pigment. In
+the regeneration of zinc the presence of foreign substances is of some
+concern; detrimental are lead, sulphur, and sulphuric acid in form of
+lead, zinc, and lime sulphate.
+
+The chemico-technical analysis of these products has until recently been
+confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by means of sodium
+sulphide (Schaffner's method). But as a remnant of sulphur, as sulphuric
+acid, in roasted blende causes a material loss during distillation, and
+otherwise being induced to produce a zinc free of lead, the estimation of
+sulphur, sulphuric acid, and lead became necessary. These impurities are
+determined by well-known methods; sulphur is oxidized and precipitated
+with barium chloride, lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol. The examination
+of zinc dust, when used for the regeneration of metal, determines the
+quantity of zinc resident therein, and employed as reducing agent, the
+quantity of metal which causes the generation of hydrogen. Cadmium,
+showing the same deportment, must also be considered as well as lead and
+arsenic.
+
+A most complete and rapidly working method for the examination of
+zinciferous products has originated with the application of neutral
+ammonium carbonate as solvent. A solution of this preparation is made,
+according to H. Rose, by dissolving 230 grm. commercial ammon carbonate in
+180 c.c. ammoniacal liquor of 0.92 s.g., and, by addition of water,
+augmenting it to one liter.
+
+This solution dissolves the metallic components, their oxides, and basic
+zinc sulphate, and transfers cadmium and lead oxide, also lead, magnesium,
+and lime sulphate, into insoluble carbonates. Iron and manganese, when
+present as protoxide, are dissolved; of iron sesquioxide but traces, and
+of cadmium oxide _in statu nascendi_ a small portion enter into solution.
+The solution of ammonium carbonate contains in each 10 c.c. 1 grm.
+ammonia, which dissolves 1.5 grm. zinc.
+
+The sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed with an
+adequate volume of the solvent, is digested at 50-60 deg. C. until complete
+decomposition is effected. The heating of the liquid prevents the solution
+of iron, manganese, and cadmium. The content, sediment and liquid, is
+thrown on a filter and washed with hot water to which a small quantity of
+the solvent has been added. When the solution contains iron and manganese,
+it is separated by decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine
+(according to the method of Nic-Wolff) until a flocculent precipitate of
+iron sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible; it is united with
+the original residue and filtered.
+
+The filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy, boiled to expel ammonia,
+tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc, and, when freed of
+all zinc, decanted. The precipitate of zinc carbonate is filtered,
+exhausted with water, transferred into zinc oxide by ignition, and
+weighed. The gravimetric method can be substituted by the volumetric by
+introducing a solution of sodium sulphide of known strength into the
+ammoniacal filtrate. On dividing the filtered liquid into various equal
+portions other substances, arsenic and sulphuric acid, can be determined
+from the same sample. For this purpose the filtrate is concentrated;
+divided into two equal portions, one of which is acidified and treated
+with hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic, the other is
+acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of barium
+chloride. The original residue is dissolved in muriatic or acetic acid and
+filtered. The lead of the filtered liquid is thrown down by sulphuric
+acid, and alcohol, and cadmium, after dissipation of alcohol into gas,
+precipitated by hydrogen sulphide. Iron, manganese, alumina, and other
+substances present in the solution are determined by known methods.
+
+It is manifest that the determination of substances--zinc, lead, and
+sulphuric acid--which are of importance in technical analysis of zinc ash,
+can be executed by this method within a comparatively short time. The
+application of ammonium carbonate as solvent has the advantage, over the
+application of ammonia, that it is a far better solvent, that it
+decomposes insoluble basic sulphates, and that the remaining carbonates
+are readily dissolved by acids.
+
+The decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively evolution of
+gas; it is therefore necessary to continue the digestion of the sample
+till no more hydrogen is given off. Zinc dust contains both metals and
+their oxides, and methods which, from the volume of hydrogen generated,
+determine indirectly the percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real
+composition of the zinc dust. For the determination of the metallic
+components the material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate,
+which dissolves zinc and cadmium; the liquid is filtered, acidified, and
+decomposed with hydrogen sulphide, or treated with a solution of ammonium
+carbonate. The use of cupric chloride is not advisable, as it corrodes
+lead, and gives rise to the formation of soluble chloride of lead, which
+complicates the separation of zinc from cadmium. The best mode of
+operation is the following: Both copper sulphate and zinc dust are weighed
+separately, the former is dissolved in water and the latter introduced
+into the solution of copper sulphate in small portions until it appears
+colorless. During the operation the vessel is freely shaken, lumps are
+comminuted with a glass rod, and a few drops of the liquid are ultimately
+tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia. The remainder of zinc dust is
+then weighed, and its value deducted from the original weight. Zinc and
+cadmium of the filtrate are determined as above. On repeating this method
+several times most satisfactory results are obtained.
+
+Another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper sulphate and to
+determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate. The separation of copper
+from cadmium being difficult and laborious, and the volumetric estimation
+with potassium cyanide not practicable, it is not prudent to apply this
+method.
+
+When calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined, the estimation of
+zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of zinc ore. The sample
+is exhausted with water, filtered, and, to eliminate calcium sulphate and
+basic iron sulphate, evaporated to dryness. It is then dissolved in a
+small quantity of alcohol and water, refiltered, and the filtrate
+decomposed with ammonium carbonate. The original residue is treated with a
+solution of ammonium carbonate, which dissolves arsenious acid and basic
+zinc sulphate, filtered, and united with the first filtrate. When iron and
+manganese are present, the filtrates are treated with bromine. The united
+filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with sodium sulphide.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PETROLEUM AS FUEL IN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.[2]
+
+[Footnote 2: Abstract of paper read before the Institution of Mechanical
+Engineers.]
+
+By Mr. THOMAS URQUHART.
+
+
+Comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite, the former has a theoretical
+evaporative power of 16.2 lb. of water per lb. of fuel, and the latter of
+12.2 lb., at a pressure of 8 atm. or 120 lb. per square inch; hence
+petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent. higher evaporative value
+than anthracite. Now in locomotive practice a mean evaporation of from 7
+lb. to 71/2 lb. of water per lb. of anthracite is about what is generally
+obtained, thus giving about 60 per cent. efficiency, while 40 per cent. of
+the heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an evaporation
+of 12.25 lb. is practically obtained, giving 12.25/16.2 = 75 per cent.
+efficiency. Thus in the first place petroleum is theoretically 33 per
+cent. superior to anthracite in evaporative power; and secondly, its
+useful effect is 25 per cent. greater, being 75 percent. instead of 60
+percent.; while, thirdly, weight for weight, the practical evaporative
+value of petroleum must be reckoned as at least from (12.25 - 7.50)/7.50 =
+63 per cent. to (12.25 - 7.00)/7.00 = 75 per cent. higher than that of
+anthracite.
+
+_Spray injector._--Steam not superheated, being the most convenient for
+injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the furnace, it remains to be
+proved how far superheated steam or compressed air is really superior to
+ordinary saturated steam, taken from the highest point inside the boiler
+by a special internal pipe. In using several systems of spray injectors
+for locomotives, the author invariably noticed the impossibility of
+preventing leakage of tubes, accumulation of soot, and inequality of
+heating of the fire box. The work of a locomotive boiler is very different
+from that of a marine or stationary boiler, owing to the frequent changes
+of gradient on the line, and the frequent stoppages at stations. These
+conditions render firing with petroleum very difficult; and were it not
+for the part played by properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box,
+the spray jet alone would be quite inadequate. Hitherto the efforts of
+engineers have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of
+"spray injector," for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum into a
+fine spray, by the aid of steam or compressed air, as to render it
+inflammable and of easy ignition. For this object nearly all the known
+spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices for petroleum as well
+as for steam; the width of the orifices does not exceed from 1/2 mm. to 2
+mm. or 0.02 in. to 0.08 in., and in many instances is capable of
+adjustment. With such narrow orifices it is clear that any small solid
+particles which may find their way into the spray injector along with the
+petroleum will foul the nozzle and check the fire. Hence in many of the
+steamboats on the Caspian Sea, although a single spray injector suffices
+for one furnace, two are used, in order that when one gets fouled the
+other may still work; but, of course, the fouled orifices require
+incessant cleaning out.
+
+_Locomotives._--In arranging a locomotive for burning petroleum, several
+details are required to be added in order to render the application
+convenient. In the first place, for getting up steam to begin with, a gas
+pipe of 1 inch internal diameter is fixed along the outside of the boiler,
+and at about the middle of its length it is fitted with a three-way cock
+having a screw nipple and cap. The front end of the longitudinal pipe is
+connected to the blower in the chimney, and the back end is attached to
+the spray injector. Then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a
+shunting locomotive under steam, the spray jet is immediately started by
+the borrowed steam, by which at the same time a draught is also maintained
+in the chimney. In a fully equipped engine shed the borrowed steam would
+be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently placed and specially arranged
+for the purpose of raising steam. In practice steam can be raised from
+cold water to 3 atm. pressure--45 lb. per square inch--in twenty minutes.
+The use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with, and the spray jet is
+worked by steam from its own boiler; a pressure of 8 atm.--120 lb.--is
+thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the time the spray jet
+was first started. In daily practice, when it is only necessary to raise
+steam in boilers already full of hot water, the full pressure of 7 to 8
+atm. is obtained in from twenty to twenty-five minutes. While
+experimenting with liquid fuel for locomotives, a separate tank was placed
+on the tender for carrying the petroleum, having a capacity of about 3
+tons. But to have a separate tank on the tender, even though fixed in
+place, would be a source of danger from the possibility of its moving
+forward in case of collision. It was therefore decided, as soon as
+petroleum firing was permanently introduced, to place the tank for fuel in
+the tender between the two side compartments of the water tank, utilizing
+the original coal space. For a six-wheeled locomotive the capacity of the
+tank is 3-1/2 tons of oil--a quantity sufficient for 250 miles, with a
+train of 480 tons gross exclusive of engine and tender. In charging the
+tender tank with petroleum, it is of great importance to have strainers of
+wire cloth in the manhole of two different meshes, the outer one having
+openings, say, of 1/4 in., the inner, say 1/8 in.; these strainers are
+occasionally taken out and cleaned. If care be taken to prevent any solid
+particles from entering with the petroleum, no fouling of the spray
+injector is likely to occur; and even if an obstruction should arise, the
+obstacle being of small size can easily be blown through by screwing back
+the steam cone in the spray injector far enough to let the solid particles
+pass and be blown out into the fire-box by the steam. This expedient is
+easily resorted to even when running; and no more inconvenience arises
+than an extra puff of dense smoke for a moment, in consequence of the
+sudden admission of too much fuel. Besides the two strainers in the
+manhole of the petroleum tank on the tender, there should be another
+strainer at the outlet valve inside the tank, having a mesh of 1/3 in.
+holes.
+
+_Driving locomotives._--In lighting up, certain precise rules have to be
+followed, in order to prevent explosion of any gas that may have
+accumulated in the fire box. Such explosions do often take place through
+negligence; but they amount simply to a puff of gas, driving smoke out
+through the ash-pan dampers, without any disagreeably loud report. This is
+all prevented by adhering to the following simple rules: First clear the
+spray nozzle of water by letting a small quantity of steam blow through,
+with the ash-pan doors open; at the same time start the blower in the
+chimney for a few seconds, and the gas, if any, will be immediately drawn
+up the chimney. Next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece
+of cotton waste, or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum and
+burning with a flame. Then by opening first the steam valve of the spray
+injector, and next the petroleum valve gently, the very first spray of oil
+coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites without any explosion
+whatever; after which the quantity of fuel can be increased at pleasure.
+By looking at the top of the chimney, the supply of petroleum can be
+regulated by observing the smoke. The general rule is to allow a
+transparent light smoke to escape, thus showing that neither too much air
+is being admitted nor too little. The combustion is quite under the
+control of the driver, and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent
+smoke altogether. While running, it is indispensable that the driver and
+fireman should act together, the latter having at his side of the engine
+the four handles for regulating the fire, namely, the steam wheel and the
+petroleum wheel for the spray injector, and the two ash-pan door handles
+in which there are notches for regulating the air admission. Each
+alteration in the position of the reversing lever or screw, as well as in
+the degree of opening of the steam regulator or the blast pipe, requires a
+corresponding alteration of the fire. Generally the driver generally
+passes the word when he intends shutting off steam, so that the alteration
+in the firing can be effected before the steam is actually shut off; and
+in this way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually
+done together. All this care is necessary to prevent smoke, which is
+nothing less than a waste of fuel. When, for instance, the train arrives
+at the top of a bank, which it has to go down with the brakes on, exactly
+at the moment of the driver shutting off the steam and shifting the
+reversing lever into full forward gear, the petroleum and steam are shut
+off from the spray injector, the ash-pan doors are closed, and if the
+incline be a long one, the revolving iron damper over the chimney top is
+moved into position, closing the chimney, though not hermetically. The
+accumulated heat is thereby retained in the fire-box; and the steam even
+rises in pressure, from the action of the accumulated heat alone. As soon
+as the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again
+required, the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top; then the
+steam is turned on to the spray injector, and next a small quantity of
+petroleum is admitted, but without opening the ash-pan doors, a small fire
+being rendered possible by the entrance of air around the spray injector,
+as well as by possible leakage past the ash-pan doors. The spray
+immediately coming in contact with the hot chamber ignites without any
+audible explosion; and the ash-pan doors are finally opened, when
+considerable power is required, or when the air otherwise admitted is not
+sufficient to support complete combustion. By looking at the fire through
+the sight hole it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or
+dusky; in fact, with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after
+a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with petroleum. The
+better men contrive to burn less fuel than others, simply by greater care
+in attending to all the points essential to success. At present
+seventy-two locomotives are running with petroleum firing; ten of them are
+passenger engines, seventeen are eight-wheel coupled goods engines, and
+forty-five are six-wheel coupled. As might be expected, several points
+have arisen which must be dealt with in order to insure success. For
+instance, the distance ring between the plates around the firing door is
+apt to leak, in consequence of the intense heat driven against it, and the
+absence of water circulation; it is therefore either protected by having
+the brick arch built up against it, or, better still, it is taken out
+altogether when the engines are in for repairs, and a flange joint is
+substituted, similar to what is now used in the engines of the London and
+Northwestern Railway. This arrangement gives better results, and occasions
+no trouble whatever.
+
+_Storage of petroleum._--The length of line now worked with petroleum is
+from Tsaritsin to Burnack, 291 miles. There is a main iron reservoir for
+petroleum at each of the four engine sheds, namely at Tsaritsin, Archeda,
+Filonoff, and Borisoglebsk. Each reservoir is 66 ft. internal diameter and
+24 ft. high, and when full holds about 2,050 tons. The method of charging
+the reservoir, which stands a good way from the line, and is situated at a
+convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings, is as follows:
+On a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed ten cistern cars
+full of oil, the capacity of each being about ten tons. From each of these
+cars a connection is made by a flexible India rubber pipe to one of ten
+stand pipes which project 1 ft. above the ground line. Parallel with the
+rails is laid a main pipe, with which the ten stand pipes are all
+connected, thus forming one general suction main. About the middle of the
+length of the main, which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or
+other non-conducting material, is fixed a Blake steam pump. As soon as all
+the ten connections are made with the cistern cars, the pump is set to
+work, and in about one hour the whole of the cars are discharged into the
+main reservoir, the time depending of course upon the capacity of the
+pump. All the pipes used are of malleable iron, lap-welded, and of 5 in.
+internal diameter, having screwed coupling muffs for making the
+connections. At each engine shed, in addition to the main storage
+reservoir, there is a smaller distributing tank, which is erected at a
+sufficient height to supply the tenders, and very much resembles the
+ordinary water tanks. These distributing tanks are circular, about 81/2 ft.
+diameter and 6 ft. high, and of 1/4 in. plates; their inside mean area is
+calculated exactly, and a scale graduated in inches stands in the middle
+of the tank; a glass with scale is used outside in summer time. Each inch
+in height on the scale is converted into cubic feet, and then by means of
+a table is converted into Russian poods, according to the specific gravity
+at various temperatures. As it would be superfluous to graduate the table
+for each separate degree of temperature, the columns in the table show the
+weights for every 8 degrees Reaumur, which is quite sufficient: namely,
+from 24 deg. to 17 deg., from 16 deg. to 9 deg., and so on, down to -24
+deg.; the equivalent Fahrenheit range being from 86 deg. down to -22 deg.
+Suppose the filling of a tender tank draws off a height of 27 in. from the
+distributing tank, at a temperature of say -20 deg. R., these figures are
+shown by the table to correspond with 200.61 poods = 7,245 lb., or 3.23
+tons, of petroleum. This arrangement does very well in practice; both the
+quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill at the
+time of his taking in his supply.
+
+_Engines._--The engines used in the trials were built by Borsig, of
+Berlin, Schneider, of Creusot, and the Russian Mechanical and Mining
+Company, of St. Petersburg. Their main dimensions and weights were about
+the same, as follows, all of them having six wheels coupled, and 36 tons
+adhesive weight; as originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes
+for burning anthracite or wood; cylinders 18-1/8 in. diameter and 24 in.
+stroke; slide valves, outside lap 1-1/16 in., inside lap 3/32 in., maximum
+travel, 4-9/16 in.; Stephenson link motion; boiler pressure, 120 lb. per
+square inch; six wheels, all coupled, 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter; distance
+between centers of leading and middle wheels, 6 ft. 2-3/4 in.; between
+middle and trailing, 4 ft. 9-1/4 in.; total length of wheel base, 11 ft.;
+weight empty, on leading wheels, 12.041 tons; middle, 10.782 tons;
+trailing, 10.685 tons; total weight, 33.508 tons empty; weight in running
+order, on leading wheels, 12.563 tons; middle, 11.885 tons; trailing
+12.790 tons; total weight, 37.238 tons in running order. Tubes number 151;
+outside diameter, 2-1/8 in.; length between tube plates, 13 ft. 10-1/8
+in.; outside heating surface, 1,166 square feet; fire box heating surface,
+82 square feet; total heating surface, 1,248 square feet; fire grate area,
+17 square feet; tractive power =
+65 per cent. of boiler pressure x (cyl. diam.) squared x stroke / diameter of wheels
+= 0.65 x 120 x (18.125) squared x 24 / 51 = 5.383 tons. Ratio of tractive power
+to adhesion weight = 5.383 / 37.238 = 1 / 6.9.
+
+_Tender._--Contents: water, 310 cubic feet, or 1,933 gallons, or 81/2
+tons; anthracite, 600 poods, or 10 tons; or wood, 11/2 cubic sajene, or
+514 cubic feet; weight empty, 13.477 tons; weight in running order, 28.665
+tons; six wheels.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+_Petroleum Refuse--Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite,
+Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and Tsaritsin on Grazi and
+Tsaritsin Railway, in Winter Time._
+
+-----+---+-----+------+---+-----+------+-----------+-------------+------+------------
+     | L |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |
+     | o |     |  Train   |     |      |           | Consumption |      |
+     | c |     |  alone.  |     |      |           |  Including  |      |
+Date.| o |     |          |     |      |           | Lighting up.|      |
+1883.| m |     |----+-----|     |      |           |             | Cost |
+     | o |Train|Num-|     | Dis-| Car  |           |             |  of  |Atmospheric
+     | t |     |ber |Gross|tance|miles.|  Fuel.    |-------+-----| fuel |temperature
+     | i |     | of |load.| run.|      |           |       | Per | per  |   and
+     | v |     |Loa-|     |     |      |           | Total |train| train| weather.
+     | e |     |ded |     |     |      |           |       |mile.| mile.|
+     | . |     |cars|     |     |      |           |       |     |      |
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |   |     | No.| Tons|Miles|      |           |       |     |Pence.|
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     |  8|32-23| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Anthracite.| 31799 |81.90|11.957|-17 deg. to -18 deg.
+     |   |32-23|    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+ Feb.|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      | equiv. to
+  8  |   |24-21|    |     |     |      |           |       |     |      |-6 deg. to -81/2 deg.
+     | 14|24-21| 25 | 400 | 388 | 9,700|Bituminous |37557.5|96.53|14.093|   Fah.
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | Coal.     |  lb.  | lb. |      |
+     |  7|26-29| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,830|Petroleum  | 9462  |48.77| 5.487|   Strong
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+     | 24|32-23| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Anthracite.|12639.5|65.15| 9.512|-5 deg. to -9 deg.
+March|   |     |    |     |     |      |           |  lb.  | lb. |      |   Reau.,
+  6  | 21|24-21| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Wood, in   | 1071.8| 5.52| 8.5  | equiv. to
+     |   |     |    |     |     |      | billets.  | c. ft.|c. ft|      | 21 deg. to 12 deg.
+     |   |     |          |     |      |           |             |      |   Fah.
+     | 23|26-27| 25 | 400 | 194 | 4,850|Petroleum  | 7228  |37.28| 4.188|   Light
+     |   |     |          |     |      | refuse.   |  lb.  | lb. |      | side wind.
+-----+---+-----+----+-----+-----+------+-----------+-------+-----+------+------------
+
+Prices of fuel:
+  Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton; Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton;
+  Wood, in billets, 42s. per cubic sajene = 343 cubic feet;
+    equivalent to 1.47d. per cubic foot.
+
+Dimensions of locomotives:
+  Cylinders, 18 1/8 in. diam. and 24 in. stroke; Wheels, 4 feet 3 in. diam.;
+  Total heating surface, 1,248 sq. feet: Total adhesion weight, 36 tons;
+  Boiler pressure, 8 to 9 atm.
+
+The preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made in winter
+with different sorts of fuel, under exactly similar conditions as to type
+of engine, profile of line, and load of train. Two sets of comparative
+trials were made, both of them in winter. The three engines used were some
+of those built by Schneider. In comparison with anthracite, the economy in
+favor of petroleum refuse was 41 per cent. in weight, and 55 per cent. in
+cost. With bituminous coal there was a difference of 49 per cent. in favor
+of petroleum as to weight and 61 per cent. as to cost. As compared with
+wood petroleum was 50 per cent. cheaper. At a speed of fourteen miles an
+hour up an incline of 1 in 125 the steam pressure was easily kept up at 9
+to 91/2 atm. with a No. 9 injector feeding the boiler all the time.
+
+Up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two locomotives to
+burn petroleum; and from his own personal observations made on the foot
+plate with considerable frost he is satisfied that no other fuel can
+compare with petroleum either for locomotives or for other purposes. In
+illustration of its safety in case of accident, a photograph was exhibited
+of an accident that occurred on the author's line on 30th December, 1883,
+when a locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment,
+taking the train after it; no explosion or conflagration of any kind took
+place under such trying circumstances, thus affording some proof of the
+safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of firing. Although it is
+scarcely possible that petroleum firing will ever be of use for
+locomotives on the ordinary railways of coal-bearing England, yet the
+author is convinced chat, even in such a country, its employment would be
+an enormous boon on underground lines.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHARCOAL KILNS.
+
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+In answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal making, we
+offer two illustrations that show a method of manufacture differing from
+that usually adopted, which is that of burning on the bare ground, and
+covering with soil or sods to exclude the air. These kilns are made of
+brick, one course being sufficient, bands of iron or timber framework
+being added to strengthen the brickwork with greater economy. The usual
+style is conical, and the size is 24 feet in diameter, with an equal
+height, holding about 40 cords of wood. The difference in price is 1-1/8
+d. per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual mounds,
+the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns, and the timber
+standing, the kiln burning costing 2-1/8 d., and the other 3-1/4 d. The
+kilns must be lined to about halfway up with fire-brick, the cost of which
+will vary with the locality, but will be about L200, and as 40 to 50
+bushels of coal have been made per cord the extra yield on good charcoal
+and the lessening of the cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on
+the cost of the kilns. The wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight
+for 6 feet, when it is drawn in, so as to become bluntly conical. Upon the
+top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone of an arch,
+and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn tight with screw
+bolts and nuts to strengthen it. Double doors of sheet-iron are made at
+the bottom and near the tops, by which it is either filled or emptied, and
+a few air-holes (B), which may be stopped with loose bricks, left in the
+bottom. The second figure shows a kiln of another shape made to burn 3,000
+bushels of charcoal, or about 80 cords of wood. The shape is a
+parallelogram, having an arched roof, and it is strengthened by a
+framework of timber 10 inches square. As the pressure of the gas is
+sometimes very great, the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to
+prevent their bursting. The usual size is 16 feet wide and high, and 40
+feet in length, outside measure. The time occupied in filling, burning,
+and emptying a small cone is about three weeks, and four weeks is required
+for the larger ones.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle._
+
+[Illustration: KILN FOR BURNING CHARCOAL.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ENTRANCE, TIDDINGTON HOUSE, OXON.
+
+
+Our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to Tiddington House,
+Oxfordshire, the residence of the Rev. Joshua Bennett. The house is an old
+building of the Georgian period, and though originally plain and
+unpretentious, its bold coved cornices under the eaves, its rubbed and
+shaped arches, moulded strings, and thick sash bars, made it of
+considerable interest to the admirers of the "Queen Anne" school of
+architecture, and led to the adoption of that style in the alterations and
+additions made last year, of which the work shown in our illustration
+formed a small part. Between the "entrance facade" and the wall of the
+house there is a space of some twenty feet in length, which is inclosed by
+a substantially built conservatory-like erection of Queen Anne design,
+forming an outer hall.
+
+[Illustration: ENTRANCE TIDDINGTON HOUSE OXON.--Morris &
+Stallwood--Architects.]
+
+The works were executed by Messrs. Holly & Butler, of Nettlebed. The brick
+carving was beautifully done by the late Mr. Finlay; and the architects
+were Messrs. Morris & Stallwood, of Reading.--_The Architect._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE OF POTASH PILE.
+
+
+Since Poggendorff in 1842 thought of substituting in the Bunsen battery a
+solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for nitric acid, and
+of thus making a single liquid pile of it, in suppressing the porous
+vessel, his idea has been taken up a considerable number of times. Some
+rediscovered it simply, while others, who were better posted in regard to
+the work of their predecessors, took Poggendorff's pile as he conceived
+it, and, considering the future that was in store for it, thought only of
+modifying it in order to render it better. Among these, Mr. Grenet was one
+of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under a truly
+practical form. As long ago as 1856, in fact, he gave it the form that is
+still in use, and that is known as the bottle pile. Thus constructed, this
+pile, as is well known, presents a feeble internal resistance, and a
+greater electro-motive power than the Bunsen element. Unfortunately, its
+energy rapidly decreases, and the alteration of the liquid, as well as the
+large deposit of oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode,
+prevents its being employed in experiments of quite long duration. Mr.
+Grenet, it is true, obviated these two defects by first renewing the
+liquid slowly and continuously, and causing a current of air to bubble up
+in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in measure as the
+deposit formed. Thus improved, the bichromate pile was employed on a large
+scale in the lighting of the Comptoir d'Escompte. In an extensive
+application like this latter, the use of compressed air for renewing the
+liquid can be easily adapted to the bichromate pile, as the number of
+elements is great enough to allow of the putting in of all the piping
+necessary; but when it is only desired to use this pile for laboratory
+purposes, and when there is need of but a small number of elements, it is
+impossible to adopt Mr. Grenet's elements in the form required by an
+electric lighting installation. It becomes absolutely necessary, then, to
+come back to a simpler form, and attempt at the same time to obviate the
+defects which are inherent to its very principle. In accordance with this
+idea, it will be well to point out the arrangement adopted by Mr. Courtot
+for his bichromate of potash piles--an arrangement that is very simple,
+but, sufficiently well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a
+laboratory.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+Fig. 1 gives the most elementary form. It consists of an earthen vessel
+into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other by a copper
+ring which carries one of the terminals. In the center there is a
+cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute and feebly
+acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which dips a prism of
+zinc, which may be lifted by means of a rod when the pile ceases to
+operate. It is true that the presence of the porous vessel in the
+bichromate of potash element increases the internal resistance, but, as an
+offset, although it decreases the discharge, it secures constancy and
+quite a long duration for it.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The elements thus constituted may be grouped, to the number of six, in a
+frame analogous to that shown in the engraving, and, sum total, form a
+small sized battery adapted to the current experiments of the laboratory,
+and capable of supplying two small four volt lamps for ten or twelve
+hours. We have had occasion to make use of these elements for the
+graduation of galvanometers, and, after ascertaining the constancy of the
+discharge, have found that the internal resistance of each couple is
+nearly 0.175 ohm, with an electro-motive force of two volts. As may be
+seen, these elements should, in general, all be mounted for tension, as
+they are in the figure, inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits,
+according to circumstances, of employing a variable number of them without
+changing anything. Moreover, with zincs amalgamated in a special manner,
+the attack is imperceptible, and the work in open circuit need scarcely to
+be taken into consideration.
+
+Yet, despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we have just
+described, that defect common to all bichromate of potash piles--the
+deposit of oxide of chromium upon the carbon--is not here avoided. It
+occurs quite slowly, to be sure, but it does occur, and, from this point
+of view, the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 is preferable. The elements here
+are composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing, as before, the
+solution and porous vessel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--COURTOT'S ARRANGEMENT OF THE BICHROMATE PILE.]
+
+The whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the zinc and
+the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is not in operation
+the whole can be lifted from the liquid. Under such circumstances the
+deposit of oxide is notably diminished, and the duration of the discharge
+is consequently greatly increased.
+
+Fig. 3 shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting, according
+to circumstances, all the elements of the same trough or only a part of
+them. To effect this, the drum around which the chain winds that carries
+the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed upon the axle. This latter is
+actuated by a winch; and a ratchet wheel, R, joined to a click which is
+actuated by a spiral spring, prevents the ebonite plates from falling back
+when it is desired to place the bolt under the button, B, of the spring.
+
+When it is desired to put an element out of the circuit, it is only
+necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the lever, D. Under
+the action of the latter, the piece, _s_, which carries a groove for the
+passage of the screws that fix it to the upper cross-piece, takes on a
+longitudinal motion and consequently gears with the drum through the
+toothed sleeve, E. When an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be
+lifted from the liquid, and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming
+upon the carbon. As may be seen, the arrangements which we have just
+described exhibit nothing that is particularly original. The windlasses
+used for removing the elements from a pile when the circuit is open have
+been employed for a long time; the bichromate pile is itself old, and, as
+we said in the beginning, it has been modified in its details a number of
+times. In spite of this, we have thought it well to point out the mode of
+construction adopted by Mr. Courtot, since, owing to the simplicity of the
+arrangements, it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very
+great constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps, as
+well as for the most varied experiments of the laboratory.--_La Lumiere
+Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.
+
+
+There has been much said in recent times about the distribution of
+electricity by means of induction coils, and the use of this process has
+given rise to several systems that differ but little from one another in
+principle.
+
+The following are a few details in regard to a system due to a Dutch
+engineer:
+
+In the month of December, 1881, a patent relating to the distribution of
+electricity was taken out in Germany and other countries by Mr. B.
+Haitzema Enuma, whose system is based upon a series of successive
+inductions. The primary current developed by a dynamo-electric machine
+gives rise to secondary, tertiary, etc., currents. The principal line runs
+through the streets parallel with their axes, and, when the arrangement of
+the places is adapted thereto, it is closed upon the generator itself. In
+those frequent cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return
+over a path that it has already traversed, it is more advantageous to
+effect the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains
+or gas pipes as conductors. This return arrangement may likewise be
+applied to the lines of secondary, tertiary, etc., order, as may easily be
+seen.
+
+The induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior consists of
+a bundle of soft iron. The wire of the inducting current is wound directly
+around this core. The wire of the induced current is superposed upon the
+first and presents a large number of spirals. It is useless to say that
+these wires must be perfectly insulated from each other, as well as from
+the soft iron core. We shall call primary bobbins those which are
+interposed in the principal line, and secondary bobbins those in which the
+inducting current is a secondary one, and so on.
+
+It will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of continuing the
+distribution of electricity to the interior of buildings by the simple
+adjunction of one or several bobbins. Each electric apparatus, whether it
+be a lamp or other mechanism, is furnished with a special current. If the
+number of these apparatus be increased, it is only necessary to increase
+the number of bobbins in the same ratio, on condition, be it understood,
+that the intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper
+working of the apparatus in question. When such intensity diminishes to
+too great a degree, the bobbin must be replaced by a stronger one.
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICITY BY INDUCTION.]
+
+It results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in in such a
+way as to permit, of the opening and closing of the corresponding circuit.
+This arrangement, moreover, has no need of being dependent upon the
+apparatus, and may just as well be transferred to any part of this same
+circuit. As regards lighting, it is preferable to employ alternating
+current dynamo machines; yet there is nothing to prevent the use of
+continuous current ones, provided that there is an arrangement that
+permits of constantly opening and closing this same circuit. That portion
+of the line which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way
+at the places where it is necessary. As for the underground circuit and
+the induction coils connected therewith, these are protected against all
+external influence, and are at the same time insulated very economically
+by covering them with a coat of very fine silicious sand mixed with
+asphalt.
+
+It is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an accurate idea
+of this system of distribution. C represents the building in which the
+generator of electricity, D, is placed; B, the public street, and Q the
+house of a subscriber. The principal line, E, starts from the terminals,
+_a, b_, of the machine, passes through the primary bobbins, G, and is
+closed through the earth at F. It will be seen that the primary current
+communicates through _d_ and _c_ with the internal winding of the bobbins,
+G, while the secondary currents, H, are connected through _e_ and _f_ with
+the external winding. The same arrangement is repeated for the tertiary
+currents, M, and the quaternary ones, _o, p_. In the annexed example all
+the lines that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed
+through the earth, while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto
+enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit. In the interior
+of these houses the wires, as well as the induction coils, are insulated
+and applied to the walls. At Q is represented the arrangement that would
+have to be adopted in the case of a structure consisting of a vestibule,
+_r_, and two rooms, _s_, lighted by two electric lamps, R. In the portion
+of the figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed
+for insulating the line. A commencement is made by digging a ditch in the
+street and paving the bottom of it with bricks. Upon these latter there is
+laid a mixture of sand and asphalt, and then the wires and bobbins are put
+in, and the whole is finally covered with a new insulating layer.
+
+It is a simple statement that we make here, and it is therefore not for us
+to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the system. If we are to
+believe Mr. Enuma, the advantages are very numerous, to wit: (1) The
+cables have no need of being of large size; (2) the intensity is the same
+through the entire extent of the primary circuit, secondary one, etc.; (3)
+the resistance is invariable in all portions of the line; (4) the
+apparatus are independent of each other, and consequently there may be a
+disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering
+therefrom; (5) either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be produced,
+since, that depends only upon the size of the coil employed; (6) there is
+no style of lamp that may not be used, since each lamp is mounted upon a
+special circuit; (7) any number of lamps may be lighted or extinguished
+without the others being influenced thereby; (8) when a fire or other
+accident happens in a house, it in no wise interferes with the service in
+the rest of the line; (9) the system could, were it required, be connected
+with any other kind of existing line; and (10) the cost of installation is
+infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the same
+extent of ground.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE STUDY OF SEISMIC MOVEMENTS.
+
+
+Italy, with her volcanic nature, has very naturally made a specialty of
+movements of the ground, or seismic perturbations. So the larger part of
+the apparatus designed for such study are due to Italians. Several of
+these instruments have already been, described in this journal, and on the
+present occasion we shall make known a few others that will serve to give
+an idea of the methods employed.
+
+For the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of the ground,
+different apparatus are required. The following is a description of those
+constructed for each of such purposes by the Brassart Brothers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF HORIZONTAL SEISMIC
+MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for Studying Horizontal Movements._--A lever, (Fig. 1), movable
+about a horizontal axis, carries a corrugated funnel, _i_, at one of its
+extremities. At the other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise
+which permits of its being exactly balanced, while not interfering with
+its sensitiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 2 AND 3.--DETAILS OF THE APPARATUS.]
+
+The opening of the funnel passes freely around a column, _v_ (Fig. 2),
+upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that terminates in a weight, P.
+The corrugations of the funnel carry letters indicating the four cardinal
+points, and the funnel itself is capable of revolving in such a way that
+the marked indications shall always correspond to the real position of the
+cardinal points. When a horizontal shock occurs, the weight, P, falls in a
+direction opposite thereto, and into one of the corrugations, where it
+rests, so that the direction of the shock is indicated. But, in falling,
+it causes the lever, F, to tilt, and this brings about an electric contact
+between the screw, _h_, and the column, _n_, which sends a current into
+the electro, E, so that the armature of the latter is attracted. In its
+position of rest this armature holds a series of parts, S, A, L, which
+have the effect of stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same
+apparatus. At the moment, then, that the armature is attracted the
+pendulum is set free and the clockwork is started. As the current, at the
+same time, sets a bell ringing, the observer comes and arranges the
+apparatus again to await a new shock. Knowing the hour at which the hand
+of the clock was stopped, he sees how long it has been in motion again and
+deduces therefrom the precise moment of the shock.
+
+The small rod, _f_, which is seen at the extremity of F, is for the
+purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with, if need be. In this
+case the screw, _h_, is so regulated that F descends farther, and that _f_
+may depress the armature of the magnet just as the current would have
+done.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF VERTICAL MOVEMENTS.]
+
+_Apparatus for the Study of Vertical Movements._--In this apparatus (Fig.
+4), the contact is formed between a mercury cup, T, and a weight, D. The
+cup is capable of being raised and lowered by means of a screw, so that
+the two parts approach each other very closely without touching. At the
+moment of a vertical shock a contact occurs between the mercury and
+weight, and there results a current which, acting upon the electro, E,
+frees the pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus. In this
+case, in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may be
+rung, the piece, A, upon falling, sets up a permanent contact with the
+part, _a_ (Fig. 3).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--BRASSART'S SEISMIC CLOCK.]
+
+_Brassart's Seismic Clock._--This apparatus is designed for being put in
+connection at a distance with an indicator like the ones just described.
+It is a simple clock to which a few special devices have been added.
+Seismic clocks may be classed in two categories, according as they are
+stopped by the effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant
+one occurs. The Messrs. Brassart have always given preference to those of
+the second category, because there is no need of watching them during a
+seismic calm, and because they are much more easily constructed. It is to
+this class, then, that their seismic clock belongs. It is capable of being
+used for domestic purposes in place of any other clock, and of becoming a
+seismoscopic clock as soon as it is put in electric communication with the
+seismic telltales.
+
+To the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the inventors have
+added (Fig. 5) a support formed of a strip of brass, S, with whose
+extremity is jointed (at the lower part) a double lever, A. This latter is
+held in a horizontal position by a small counterpoise, _i_, so that the
+finger at the opposite extremity shall prevent the pendulum, P, from
+swinging. To keep the latter in a position of rest a bent lever, _n n'_,
+is jointed to the upper part of the support, S. The longer arm, _n'_, of
+this lever is bent forward at right angles, so that it may come into
+contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon as the lever
+has been lifted by means of a small cord which is connected with the
+larger arm, _n_, and runs up to a small hook, from whence it descends and
+makes its exit under the clock-case.
+
+In order to stop the clock, then, it is only necessary to pull on this
+cord slightly, when, by moving the pendulum to the left, it will thrust
+it against the inclined plane of the finger of the lever arm, A. It is
+clear that the extremity of the pendulum, upon striking against the
+finger, will depress it slightly and go beyond the projection against
+which it remains fixed owing to the counterpoise, _i_. The fever, _n n'_,
+is brought back to its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise
+at the extremity of the arm, _n_. When the lever, A, is depressed, the
+pendulum escapes and sets the clock running. This depression is effected
+by means of an electro-magnet, E, whose armature, which is connected with
+the rod, _t, t_, lifts the arm, _i_, of the lever, and depresses A. The
+wires of the two bobbins of the electro-magnet end in two clamps, 1 and 2.
+The second of these latter is insulated from the clock-case. Both
+communicate with the extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the
+seismic telltale that brings about a closing of the current. Having noted
+the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running, one can
+deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred that set the clock
+in motion.
+
+In addition to the parts that we have described, there are other accessory
+ones, R R_r_, and a third clamp, 3, which constitute a sort of rheotome
+that is designed to keep the circuit closed after the momentary closing
+that is produced by the telltale has occurred. This little mechanism is
+indispensable when the disturbed telltale has also to act upon an electric
+bell. This rheotome, which is very simple, is constructed as follows: A
+small brass rod, R, which is screwed to the support, S, carries at its
+left extremity a brass axis, X, which is insulated from the rod, R, by
+means of an ivory piece. Toward the center of this small rod, the bent
+lever, _r_, carries a small arm that is bent forward, and against which
+abuts the axis of the pendulum, thus causing it to be thrust toward the
+left when the pendulum is arrested by the projection of the finger, A. As
+soon as the pendulum is set free, the lever, _r_, redescends and places
+itself against the axis, X. This latter communicates with clamp 3, which
+is insulated, while the rod, R, communicates with clamp 1. The external
+communications are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is
+interposed remains definitely closed when the lever, _r_, is in contact
+with the rod, X.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--ROSSI'S TREMITOSCOPE.]
+
+_Rossi's Tremitoscope._--This instrument (Fig. 6) unites, upon the same
+stone base, three different arrangements for showing evidences of
+trepidations of the earth. On one side we find (protected by a glass tube)
+a weight suspended over a mercury cup by a spring, and designed to show
+vertical motions. The two other parts of the apparatus are designed for
+registering horizontal motions. The first is a pendulum which causes a
+contact with four distinct springs, and whose movements are watched with a
+spy-glass. The second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a
+heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock. This ball is provided with a
+point which is movable within a second ball, so that its motion produces
+a contact. All these different contacts are signaled or registered
+electrically.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SCATENI'S SEISMOGRAPH.]
+
+_Scateni's Registering Seismograph._--This apparatus, which is shown in
+Figs. 7 and 8, consists of two parts--of a transmitter and of a
+registering device.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--REGISTERING APPARATUS.]
+
+The transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a steel point
+and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected with a pile. All
+around this circle are four strips of platinum, against one of which abuts
+the circle at every movement of the glass. Each strip of platinum
+communicates, through a special wire, with one of the electro-magnets of
+the registering device (Fig. 8). This latter consists of an ordinary clock
+that carries three concentric dials--one for minutes, one for hours, and
+one for seconds. In a direction with the radii of these dials there are
+four superposed levers, each of which is actuated by one of the electros.
+On another hand, each dial is divided into four zones that correspond to
+the four cardinal points. When a shock coming from the north, for example,
+produces a contact, the corresponding electro is affected, and its lever
+falls and marks upon each of the dials a point in its north zone. We thus
+obtain the exact hour of the shock, as well as its direction. As may be
+seen, the apparatus, as regards principle, is one of the simplest of its
+kind.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW ACCUMULATORS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ARNOULD & TAMINE'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Messrs. Arnould and Tamine's accumulators, shown in Fig. 1, the
+formation is effected directly by the current, as in the Plante pile, but
+the plates are formed of wires connected horizontally at their extremities
+by soldering. These plates are held apart either by setting them into
+paraffined wooden grooves at the ends of the trough or by interposing
+between them pieces of paraffined wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--BARRIER & TOURVIELLE'S ELECTRODOCK.]
+
+In Messrs. Barrier and Tourville's _Electrodock_ (Fig. 2) the plates are
+formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a wooden cover. These tubes
+are threaded internally and externally, and the grooves thus produced are
+filled with a peculiar cement composed of litharge, powdered charcoal, and
+permanganate of potash, triturated together, sifted, and then mixed with
+glucose or sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them. This mixture forms a
+cement that is very adhesive after, as well as before, the electrolytic
+action.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--KORNBLUH'S ACCUMULATOR.]
+
+In Kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden gratings
+between which is compressed red lead prepared in a peculiar manner, and
+constituting, 48 hours after formation, a compact mass with the lead. The
+tangs of the plates are widened so as to touch one another while leaving a
+proper distance between the plates themselves, and are hollowed out for
+the reception of a rod provided at its extremities with a winged nut and
+jam nut for passing them up close to one another. The plates, properly so
+called, are held apart by rubber bauds. The glass vessels are placed in
+osier baskets.--_La Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL MODEL OF THE REYNIER ZINC ACCUMULATOR.
+
+
+The three models of a secondary battery that I recently made known to the
+readers of this journal have been the object of continuous experiment.
+Conformably to the provisions of theory, the zinc accumulator has shown
+itself practically superior to the two others, and I have therefore chosen
+this type for getting up an industrial model, which is shown in the
+annexed cut. The accumulator contains four Plante positives, having a wide
+surface, and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead covered
+with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of zinc sulphate
+in which the couple is immersed. Accidental contact with the interior of
+the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to the negatives by means of
+leaden bands. The seven electrodes are carried by as many distinct
+crosspieces of paraffined wood, which rest upon the edges of the trough
+and hold the plates at a certain distance from the bottom. These various
+crosspieces, which touch one another, take the place of a cover. Each
+plate is provided with a terminal. The four positive terminals are all on
+the same side, and the three negatives are on the opposite side. Two brass
+rods ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same
+name. The trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles, one within the
+other, and having a play of several millimeters. This space is lined with
+a tight, elastic, insulating cement having tar for a base.
+
+[Illustration: REYNIER'S ZINC ACCUMULATOR. (One-fifth actual size.)]
+
+The careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the apparatus, and
+the purity of the metal and its amalgamation, reduce the local attack of
+the zinc to almost nothing. So the coefficient of restitution is now
+comparable with that of accumulators of the Plante type.
+
+The following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc
+accumulator.
+
+           PHYSICAL DATA.
+
+E. Electromotive force.                                   2.36 volts.
+R. Mean resistance.                                       0.02 ohm.
+I. Normal intensity of the discharge current.             25 amperes.
+i. Intensity of the charge current.                       5 to 10 amperes.
+Q. Capacity of accumulation after 200 hours' formation.   550,000 couples.
+
+       DATA CONCERNING CONSTRUCTION.
+
+Efficient surface of the 4 positive electrodes.        200 square dec.
+Efficient surface of the 3 negative electrodes.         15 square dec.
+Weight of the positive electrodes.                       8.2 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the negative electrodes.                       1.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the trough.                                    2.7 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the liquid.                                    4.4 kilogrammes.
+Weight of the attachments.                               0.46 kilogrammes.
+Weight, total.                                          17.16 kilogrammes.
+
+The total electric work stored up is 130,000 kilogrammeters, or 7,600
+kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator. Theory indicates that a zinc
+accumulator might store up as much as 15,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme. If the present model gives half less, it is because I have
+purposely exaggerated the solidity of the trough and the mass of the
+electrodes.
+
+It should be remarked that this capacity of 7,600 kilogrammeters per
+kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator constructed
+in France. The new model possesses, then, despite the size of the
+positives and the box, a relative lightness that will permit it to take a
+place upon electric locomotives as well as in fixed installations.
+
+Independently of their use as accumulators, secondary zinc batteries may
+be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by incandescence, for
+deadening piston strokes, attenuating the irregularities in speed, and
+covering accidental stoppages.--_E. Reynier, in La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE HISTORY OF A LIGHTNING FLASH.
+
+By W. SLINGO.
+
+
+Lately we have all felt, I doubt not, a considerable amount of interest in
+the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually heavy
+thunderstorms, accompanied, as they have been, by vivid lightning
+discharges of a more or less hurtful nature. The list of disasters
+published in _Knowledge_, No. 143, might be very materially augmented were
+we to record such damage as has been wrought since that list was compiled.
+
+There is not, I suppose, in the mind of any intelligent man at the present
+day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning flash. The
+questions to be considered are rather whence comes the electricity, and in
+what way is the thunderstorm brought about. In attempting to answer these
+questions, sight must not be lost of the fact that the very nature of
+electricity is in itself almost sufficient to baffle any effort put forth
+to ascertain from lightning, as such, its whence and its whither.
+
+It is possible, however, with the aid of our knowledge of static
+electricity, to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical nature. In
+the first place, that our sphere is a more or less electrified body is
+generally admitted. More than this, it is demonstrated that the different
+parts of the earth's surface and its enveloping atmosphere are variously
+charged. As a consequence of these varying charges, there is a constant
+series of currents flowing through the various parts of the earth, which
+show themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction
+followed by the currents. Such currents are known as earth currents, and
+present phenomena of a highly interesting nature. But, apart from these
+electrical manifestations, there is generally a difference of electrical
+condition between the various parts of the earth's surface and those
+portions of the atmosphere adjacent to or above them. Inasmuch as air is
+one of the very best insulators, this difference of condition (or
+potential) in any particular region is in most cases incapable of being
+neutralized or equilibrated by an electric flow. Consequently the air
+remains more or less continually charged. With these points admitted as
+facts, the question arises, Whence this electricity? There have been very
+many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of terrestrial
+electricity, but far the greater portion of such theories lack fundamental
+probability, and indicate causes which cannot be regarded as sufficiently
+extensive or operative to produce such tremendous effects as are
+occasionally witnessed. I take it that we may safely regard the evolution
+of electricity as one of the ways in which force exhibits itself, that, in
+other words, when work is performed electricity may result. When two
+bodies are rubbed together, electricity is produced, so also is it when
+two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is dissolved,
+or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to a higher
+temperature than the other junction. I will go further than this, so far,
+in fact, as to maintain that there is a reasonable ground for supposing
+that every movement, whether it be of the mass or among the constituent
+particles, is attended by a change of electrical distribution; and if this
+is true, it may easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of
+the universe, there must be a constant series of electrical changes. Now,
+these changes do not all operate in one direction, nor are they all of
+similar character, whence it is that not only are there earth currents of
+feeble electro-motive force, but that this E.M.F. is constantly varying,
+and that, furthermore, electricity of high E.M.F. is to be met with in
+various parts of the atmosphere.
+
+With earth currents we have here very little to do. The rotation of the
+earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents, and the fact
+that they vary in strength at regular periods of the day and of the year
+enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts considerable electrical
+influence on the earth. Letting it be granted, however, that the earth is
+variously charged, how comes it that the air is also charged, and with
+electricity of greater tension than that of the earth itself? It was
+pointed out by Sir W. Grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum
+wire be placed in a candle flame, one at the bottom and the other near the
+top, an electric current will flow through the wire, indicating the
+presence of electricity. If an electrified body be heated, the electricity
+escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises. If a vessel of water be
+electrified, and the water then converted into steam, the electric charge
+will be rapidly dissipated. If a vessel containing water be electrified,
+and the water allowed to escape drop by drop, electricity will escape with
+each drop, and the vessel will soon be discharged.
+
+We regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a greater or
+less charge; whence it is safe to assume that in the process of
+evaporation which is going on all over the surface of the globe, more
+particularly in equatorial regions, every particle of water, as it rises
+into the air, carries with it its portion, however minute that portion may
+be, of the earth's electric charge. This small charge distributes itself
+over the surface of the aqueous particle, and the vapor rises higher and
+higher until it reaches that point above which the air is too rare to
+support it. It then flows away laterally, and as it approaches colder
+regions gets denser, sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface. The
+aqueous particles becoming reduced in size, the extent of their surfaces
+is proportionately reduced. It follows that as the particles and their
+surfaces are reduced, the charge is confined to a smaller surface, and
+attains, therefore, a greater "surface density," or in simpler language, a
+greater amount of electricity per unit of surface.
+
+Electricity, as above set forth, is in what is known as the "static"
+condition (to distinguish it from electricity which is being transferred
+in the form of a current), when it has the property of "repelling itself"
+to the utmost limits of any conductor upon which it may be confined. This
+will account for the charge finding its way to the surface of the water
+particles, and will furthermore account for the greater density of the
+charge as the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface
+rapidly diminished. It may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere
+varies as the cube of its radius.
+
+Returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing when the
+particles have reached their highest position in the atmosphere, we may
+imagine that they set themselves off on journeys toward either the north
+or the south pole. As they pass from the hotter to the colder regions, a
+number of particles coalesce; these again combine with others on the road
+until the vapor becomes visible as cloud. The increased density implies
+increased weight, and the cloud particles, as they sail poleward, descend
+toward the surface of the earth. Assuming that a spherical form is
+maintained throughout, the condensation of a number of particles implies a
+considerable reduction of surface. Thus, the contents of two spheres vary
+as the cubes of their radii, or eight (the cube of 2) drops on combining
+will form a drop twice the radius of one of the original drops. We may
+safely conceive hundreds and thousands of such combinations to take place
+until a cloud mass is formed, in which the constituent parts are more or
+less in contact, and, therefore, behave electrically as a single conductor
+of irregular surface, upon which is accumulated all the electricity that
+was previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of particles
+that now compose it.
+
+The tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a conductor is to
+take upon itself a position in which it may approach nearest to an equal
+and opposite charge; or, if possible, to attain neutrality. If, then, a
+cloud has a charge, and there is no other cloud above or near it, the
+charge _induces_ on the adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite
+kind. Thus, assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity,
+the subjacent earth will be in the negative state. The two
+electricities[3] exert a strong tendency to combine or to produce
+neutrality, whence there is a species of stress applied to the intervening
+air. Possibly the cloud will be drawn bodily toward the earth more or less
+rapidly, according as the charge is great or small. Or, on the other hand,
+the cloud may roll on for leagues, carrying its influence with it, so that
+the various portions of the earth underneath become successively charged
+and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey.
+
+[Footnote 3: We may speak of two electricities or two electric states
+without necessarily implying adherence either to the single or the double
+"fluid" theory. Whether electricity be of two kinds or no, the fact
+remains that there are two conditions, and all the features of this paper
+may be explained with equal facility by the supporters of either
+hypothesis.]
+
+Should the cloud be near the earth, or should it be very highly charged,
+the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to overcome the
+resistance of the intervening air; and if this resistance should prove too
+weak, what happens? How does the discharge show itself? It takes place in
+the form of a lightning flash, and passing from the one surface to the
+other--or, maybe, simultaneously from both--produces neutrality more or
+less complete.
+
+There has recently been a little discussion in these pages on the subject
+of lightning, some having stated that they discerned the discharge to take
+place upward--that is, from the earth toward the cloud. I will not venture
+so far as to say whether or not the direction of the discharge is
+discernible; possibly the flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one
+to tell; but I have never so seen it, and have always looked upon the eye
+as a deceitful member--very. "The lightning flash itself never lasts more
+than 1/100000 of a second." It is, however, just as likely that a
+discharge may travel upward as downward. What controls the discharge? Does
+the quality of the charge?--that is to say, is the positive or the
+negative more prone to break disruptively through the insulating medium?
+Investigations with Geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied
+gases have made it tolerably clear that there is a greater "tearing away"
+influence at the negative than at the positive pole, and if two equal
+balls, containing one a positive and the other a negative charge, be
+equally heated, the negative is more readily dissipated than the positive.
+But, so far as we at present know, this question enters into the
+discussion scarcely, if at all. Our knowledge seems rather to point to the
+substances upon which the charges are collected. The self-repellent nature
+of electricity compels it to manifest itself at the more prominent parts
+of the surface, the level being forsaken for the point. The tension of the
+charge, or its tendency to fly off, is proportionately increased. And if
+at a given moment the tension attains a certain intensity, the discharge
+follows, emanating from the surface which offers the greatest facilities
+for escape. The earth is generally flatter than the cloud, whence, in all
+probability, the discharge more frequently originates with the cloud.
+
+Should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct neutrality,
+it is possible that no damage will result, although this again is not
+always certain, because when the cloud charge acts inductively on the
+earth it produces the opposite (say negative) charge on the nearer parts,
+the similar (or positive) state is also produced at some place more or
+less distant. Sometimes this "freed" positive (which, by the way,
+accumulates gradually and physiologically imperceptibly) is collected at
+some portion of the earth's surface. When the negative is neutralized by
+the discharge, the freed positive is no longer confined to a particular
+region, but tends to dissipate itself, and a shock may be felt more or
+less severely by any person within the region. Or, again, a similar shock
+may be experienced by a person standing within the negative zone on the
+neutralization of the charge.
+
+I may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting and
+instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits during a
+thunderstorm. The storm may be taking place at some distance from the
+point of observation. The electrified cloud induces the opposite charge
+beneath it, the similar charge being repelled. It is noticeable that the
+needle of a galvanometer, starting from the middle position, goes
+gradually over to one side, eventually indicating a considerable
+deflection. Suddenly, owing apparently to a lightning discharge some
+distance away, the force which caused the deflection is withdrawn, and the
+needle rebounds with great violence to the opposite side. In a short time,
+the cloud becoming again charged on its under surface, and recommencing
+its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth, the needle starts again, and
+goes through the same series of movements, a violent counterthrow
+following every flash of lightning.
+
+If we can so far control our imagination, we may conceive the earth to be
+one large insulated conductor, susceptible to every influence around it.
+If then the earth, as a mass of matter, behaves as above indicated, there
+is no plausible reason for declining to regard any other large conducting
+mass in a similar light, and as a body capable of being subjected more or
+less completely to the various impulses affecting the earth. In other
+words, a large mass of conducting material, partially or perfectly
+insulated, is, during a thunderstorm, in considerable danger. With this
+portion of the subject I shall, however, deal more fully when discussing
+the merits of lightning protectors.
+
+Lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth only, but
+also, and perhaps more frequently, between too oppositely charged clouds.
+We then get atmospheric lightning, the flash often extending for miles.
+This form of lightning is harmless, and in all probability what we see is
+only a reflection of the discharge. The oft-told tale of the lightning
+flying in at the window, across the room, and out of the door, or up the
+chimney, is all moonshine, and before dealing with lightning protectors I
+intend to expose some of the fallacies concerning lightning. Were the
+discharge to pass through a house, it would infallibly leave more decided
+traces and do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now
+and again. Many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a
+thunderstorm, but it may be safely predicted that a person under a roof is
+infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level ground, and
+making himself a prominence inviting a discharge. Rain almost invariably
+accompanies the discharge, and the roof and sides of the house being wet,
+they form a more or less perfect channel of escape should a flash strike
+the building.--_Knowledge._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RESEARCHES ON MAGNETISM.
+
+By M. DUTER.
+
+
+If we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field, so that the
+lines of force of the field may be normal to the surface of the plate, we
+have a very flat magnet, the two faces of which are the two polar
+surfaces. The magnetic distribution thus obtained seems to disappear when
+the plate is no longer in the field. The following experiments show that
+this disappearance is not complete. I made use of plates of tempered steel
+of 1 millimeter in thickness, and varying in diameter from 0.040 to 0.005
+meter. With these plates I formed cylindrical batteries. In some of these
+batteries the plates are directly in contact, and in others they were
+separated by leaves of pasteboard, the thickness of which varied from that
+of the thinnest paper to 0.001 meter. The batteries were placed in the
+central portion of a very powerful magnetic field, and after they have
+been taken out they formed perfectly regular permanent magnets. The
+supporting power of these magnets was the greater the nearer its
+constituent plates were to each other. In a battery of 100 plates,
+touching each other directly, and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder,
+the portative force at each extremity rose to 30 grammes. This first
+result having been obtained, I dismounted the batteries, plate by plate,
+taking care to mark the upper and under side of each. I found then that
+each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism. Yet each of them
+still constituted a flat magnet, of which the two faces are the polar
+surfaces; for on rebuilding the battery it gave again a perfectly regular
+magnet, though weaker than it was at first. The separation of the magnet
+into its constituent plates, and its reconstruction, maybe repeated
+indefinitely.--_Comptes Rendus._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Dr. T. Tommasi (_Cosmos les Mondes_) notes that the thermic constant of
+thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants of potassium and
+lead, the two metals which it most resembles in its chemical character.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED GAS LIGHT BUOY.
+
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+The accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the Pintsch's
+Patent Lighting Company for the river Humber. The chief dimensions of the
+buoy are given in the engraving, which also shows that the gas holder is
+placed within the boat in such a way as to be protected from blows likely
+to cause any leakage. The buoy has a special form to meet its requirements
+as a lightship, and the conditions of its employment is the fast tidal
+current of the river. It was designed by Mr. C. Berthon, of Westminster,
+and is intended to carry a six months' supply of gas, the burner,
+regulator, and lamp being on the well known Pintsch system. The hull is
+formed of 3/8 inch plate, 24 feet 3 inches total length, and 9 feet beam
+at the line of flotation. The laps of the plates are 4 inches wide, and
+riveted with 3/4 inch rivets, spaced 2-1/4 inch apart center to center.
+The keel and stem are both in one piece, as shown, and to this the
+garboard strake is to be fastened. The bilge pieces are riveted on to the
+bilge, and made of 9 inches by 4-1/2 inches by 9/16 inch T-iron. A wooden
+fender, 4 inches by 4 inches wood, is fitted on both sides of hull,
+running from stern to stern, by 3 inches by 3-1/2 inches by 7/16 inch
+L-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown. The hull from water line
+falls in as shown, so as to describe at midships an arc of 4 feet 6
+inches, and a circular deck of 1/8 inch plate is riveted on the hull.
+There are two man-holes, each 16 inches diameter in the clear, placed in
+end plates of the circular deck as shown, and provided with covers 3/8
+inch thick, secured by twenty screws 3/4 inch diameter. The edge of each
+manhole is stiffened by a welded iron ring. The surface of the mooring
+link that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is steeled.
+The gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side, and riveted to the
+keelson, and is prevented from rolling by four gusset plates, with two
+short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto at the ends and coming in
+contact with the holder, and at the ends by angular plates, and angle iron
+riveted on each side and riveted to the keelson. The superstructure
+consists of four legs of angle iron 2-1/2 inches by 2-1/2 inches by 5/16
+inch, the upper ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate
+for supporting the lighting apparatus. Four wooden battens of pitch pine,
+4 inches by 1-1/2 inches, and bolted on to each cant of the angle iron
+superstructure, with 7/8 inch galvanized iron bolts and nuts.
+
+[Illustration: GAS LIGHT BUOY.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PROJECT FOR A ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.
+
+
+The present port of Havre is absolutely insufficient to answer the ever
+increasing requirements of commerce. Its entrance, which is too narrow and
+not deep enough, does not permit steamers to go in, come out, and perform
+their evolutions with the rapidity required by our epoch. So they are
+gradually abandoning our port, and going to load and unload at Anvers and
+elsewhere. A large number of wise heads, who are anxious about the future
+of this port and our national interests, have devoted themselves to
+finding a means of enlarging it, not by dredging _new_ basins, which would
+prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years, but by installing
+a true roadstead at the entrance to the present basins.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--PLAN OF THE PROJECTED ROADSTEAD AT HAVRE.]
+
+Upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen, under the name of
+the Little Roadstead, a vast extent of sea nearly two kilometers wide by
+three to four in length, bounded upon one side by the heights of Heve and
+St. Adresse, and upon the other by the rocky line of Eclat and of the
+heights of the roadstead (Fig. 1). This Little Roadstead, so called, in
+order to become a genuine one, would have to be protected against the
+great waves of the open sea. To thus protect it, to close it as quickly
+and as cheaply as possible--that is the problem.
+
+In 1838, Charles de Massas presented a project (the first in order of
+date), which consisted in constructing upon the Eclat reef a semi-lunate
+dike, and a breakwater at Cape Heve. Moreover, upon the emergent parts of
+the Eclat reef and heights of the roadstead he proposed to erect two
+forts.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--LEWIS' FLOATING BREAKWATER.]
+
+The defense of the port of Havre is a very important question, and one
+that appears to be completely abandoned. Since Engineer Degaulle in 1808
+advised the erection of a fort upon the Eclat, and requests have
+periodically been made and projects drawn. The requests are forgotten, but
+the drawings are in the Ministers' portfolios, and if France should
+to-morrow have a war with a maritime power our great northern port might
+be destroyed and burned by the smallest squadron.
+
+Some years after Massas' project, two officers, Deloffre and Bleve, and an
+engineer named Renaud, received a commission to search for a means of
+closing a portion of Seine Bay. These gentlemen advised the erection of
+two dikes, one on the Eclat shoal in the very axis of this reef, and the
+other at Heve. Between these two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating
+breakwater. This project, which was submitted to Admiral de Hell in 1845,
+had a favorable reception, and the Admiral especially applauded the trial
+of breakwaters, "which were much talked of in England, although the
+effects that they might produce were not well known." Deloffre, Bleve, and
+Renauds' project comprised two forts--one to the north and the other to
+the south of the roadstead. For a long time nothing more was said about
+it, and it is only during recent years, when the peril has become imminent
+for Havre (threatened as it is of being abandoned even by the French
+transatlantics), that the question has again became the order of the day.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--FROIDEVILLE'S FLOATING BREAKWATER.--END VIEW.]
+
+Mr. Bert, a merchant, would protect the Little Roadstead by means of two
+jetties, 1,000 and 1,600 meters in length, built, one of them upon the
+Eclat and the other upon the eminences of the roadstead. These would be
+constructed by forming a foundation of loose rocks, and using earth and
+brick above the level of the water. Mr. Vial has likewise proposed a
+rockwork of 2,000 meters in length, to form a dike 10 meters in height and
+width, whose platform would be on a level with the highest tides.
+
+Next comes the more recent project of Mr. Coulon. Seeing that it is the
+deposits of the ocean and not those of the Seine that accumulate upon the
+estuary, Mr. Coulon advises the construction of a dike about 2,000 meters
+in length, starting from the Havre jetty, and ending at the southwest
+extremity of the shoals at the roadstead heights, and a second one
+returning toward the northwest, of from 500 to 1,000 meters. A third and
+very long one of not less than 8 kilometers would be built from Honfleur
+to the Ratier shoals.
+
+This latter one, in contracting the bay, would contribute to increase the
+force of the current, which, throwing back at the ocean its mud and
+pebbles, would give us the depths of 15 and 20 meters indicated on the map
+of Beautemps-Beaupre.
+
+This year, again, two projects have arisen; one of them due to Mr.
+Thuillard-Froideville, and the other to Mr. Hersent.
+
+According to Mr. Hersent, it would be necessary to surround the Little
+Roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky shoals, which
+would begin at Cape Heve (which it would consolidate) and end opposite the
+entrance to the port at 1,600 meters from the jetties. Through it there
+would be five passages. Afterward another dike would be constructed,
+starting from the shore and running to meet the jetty designed to inclose
+the Little Roadstead. On turning the angle at which it met the jetty it
+would be continued as far as to Berville. Finally, a third dike, running
+from Honfleur to Berville, would complete the system.
+
+Mr. Hersent's project, which is one of the most remarkable of those that
+have been proposed, has one fault, and that is that it would require
+twelve years of work, and cost 158 million francs.
+
+Mr. Thuillard-Froideville, completely renouncing masonry dikes as being
+too costly and taking too long to construct, proposes to inclose the Havre
+roadstead by means of floating breakwaters. As we have already seen, the
+use of these between Cape Heve and the Eclat shoals had already been
+proposed in 1845. As the project was abandoned, the models of these
+breakwaters are rare.
+
+In Bouniceau's "Marine Constructions" we find a curious figure, a sort of
+open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular manner, and
+surmounted by rooms for watchmen, semaphores, posts for the shipwrecked,
+etc. It is, indeed, the most complicated and most impracticable type that
+could be imagined.
+
+Mr. Lewis' model, which was exhibited last year at the International
+Fisheries Exhibition, was, on the contrary, one of the simplest. It
+consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly triangular section, the
+sharpest angle of which, being turned oceanward, was designed to cut the
+waves and cause them to break over it (Fig. 2). If, by favor of divine
+Providence, this breakwater, which presents absolutely plane surfaces to
+the shock and pressure of the waves, is not broken to fragments in the
+first tempest, it will certainly acquit itself of the _role_ for which the
+inventor destined it. When we have a system of resistance to the sea,
+anchored and facing a certain direction, and consequently not being able
+to revolve around its axis as vessels do, care must be taken not to give
+it entire surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--FROIDEVILLE'S BREAKWATER.--MODE OF JOINING THE
+PARTS.]
+
+Mr. Froideville's breakwater consists of a framework 25 meters in length,
+and 9 in height and width, and having the form of an irregular 5-sided
+prism (Fig. 3). The smallest side of the prism is designed to serve as a
+flat keel. The axis is formed of a metallic float, from whence start radii
+that form the skeleton of the framework, and that are designed for
+connecting the center with five long spruce beams that form the angles of
+the prism. To these beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the
+openwork sides. Five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams, but not
+so strong as they, protect the cross pieces and secure them against
+breakage in the middle. All the angles of the breakwater and all points of
+juncture of the pieces are protected with iron, and it is in order to
+counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central float is
+used. Parallel with this first breakwater, there are two other and smaller
+ones, which are designed for reducing the effect of rolling as much as
+possible. Reduced to a single float, the breakwater might remain under the
+waves too long, but, owing to the two others, it rights itself, warps
+around, and always presents the spur of its sharp roof to the wave.
+
+In order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each other, they
+are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious manner. From each of
+them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar which terminates in a journal
+that permits the breakwater to oscillate. Between these two bars there is
+a sort of swivel, whose pieces, in playing upon one another, give the
+breakwaters elasticity, while always holding them apart (Fig. 4). From
+each side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which the
+anchorage chain is attached. This latter is of steel, without solderings,
+and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage need be feared. To the
+other extremity of the chain is attached an anchor having two flukes,
+which both engage with the bottom.
+
+Mr. Froideville proposes to set up two lines of these breakwaters, for a
+length of about 71/2 kilometers, starting at the north from Cape Heve,
+taking in depths of 15 meters (the best that are found in the Little
+Roadstead), passing in front of the Eclat shoal and the heights, and
+ending opposite the entrance of the present port.
+
+The first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves, and the
+second for lending its aid in times of high tempests, and stopping the
+surge that has escaped from the first.
+
+The extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its promoter to
+affirm that in a few months, and with nine millions, he can inclose the
+Havre roadstead.
+
+The Little Roadstead, being thenceforward protected, will become an
+excellent port of refuge in bad weather. In addition, a system of
+lighters, or, better, a few floats connected with the shore and forming a
+rock, will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with great rapidity.
+
+Mr. Froideville's project presents the further advantage of rendering it
+easier to put the port of Havre quickly in defense. A certain number of
+floating batteries, anchored behind the breakwaters and protecting the
+advances of torpedo boats by means of their firing, would make a
+formidable defense. Not having to perform any evolutions, they might
+without danger be invested with armor plate thicker than that of ordinary
+ironclads. In order to complete the system, there might be erected upon
+the Eclat shoal an ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of
+Portsmouth.
+
+An English chronicler of the fourteenth century, in speaking of his
+country, places it above all others, and declares that men are handsomer,
+whiter, and purer blooded there than elsewhere, and he says that this is
+so "because it is so." We would not like to imitate his naive reasoning,
+and yet, for defending the very original system proposed by Mr.
+Froideville, we have only our conviction, which we share, moreover, with a
+large number of sea-faring men and engineers. Mathematics are powerless to
+predict to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters
+will behave, but experiment remains. Let the promoter of the project,
+then, be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters, and if, as we
+suppose, the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a northwester, a
+maritime revolution will have been brought about.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.
+
+
+In 1882, M. Bacle published in _Le Genie Civil_ a study of the sewer
+systems in some of the large foreign cities. There may be found there a
+description of the Liernur system at Amsterdam, Leyden, and Dordrecht, in
+Holland, and in certain cities of Germany and the United States.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED CATCH BASIN.]
+
+This system consists in the employment of two distinct systems of ducts,
+one for the discharges from water-closets and the other for household
+wastes, rain water, and the discharges from factories when sufficiently
+purified. This arrangement allows the employment of sewers of small
+section, provided that it shall be unnecessary to enter them for the
+purpose of cleansing them. It has been necessary, therefore, to provide
+inlets with a separating apparatus called "gully" or "catch basin," which
+retains as completely as possible all solid matter, mud, excrement, and
+_debris_ of every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by
+rain-water, and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the sewers,
+the choking up being followed by fermentation and the emanation of noxious
+vapors.
+
+M.C. Pieper of Berlin suggests a device for a catch basin, which appears
+to meet the requirements. It is in the form of a cylindrical metal box,
+enlarged in its upper section to receive a filtering cylinder of
+perforated sheet iron, which occupies almost the upper half of the device
+and rests upon the smaller lower part. The entire apparatus is covered by
+a movable funnel, through which enter water and any rubbish which it may
+carry with it. From one side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged,
+while a siphon placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under
+certain circumstances, as will be explained.
+
+Figure 1 represents the apparatus discharging under normal conditions. The
+heavy matter, sand, stones, etc., falls to the bottom into a receptacle
+which can be lifted out from time to time and emptied. The lighter buoyant
+matters, straw, vegetable _debris_, paper, etc., remain at the surface,
+and are retained by the filter; the water passing through the holes in the
+sheet iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which
+exists in the upper part between the two cylinders, and escapes by the
+waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level. If at a given moment the
+quantity of water flowing in is too much to be discharged through this
+waste-pipe, the level of the water mounts in the cylinder until it reaches
+the top of the siphon. Immediately the siphon comes into play and empties
+the upper part of the apparatus, and the filtered water contained in the
+annular space already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the
+perforated sheet iron, and in so doing cleans out the perforations with
+considerable energy. This second period is represented in the second
+figure.
+
+The mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket, the heavy
+matters contained in the latter are not in the least disturbed, and the
+metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents the entrance of any
+floating matters. When siphonic action ceases, the water in the short arm
+of the siphon empties itself into the main receptacle, and by so doing
+cleanses the screen. During a rain or the washing of the streets, the
+siphon can work in concurrence with the ordinary discharge-pipe. It is
+evident of course that these two--pipes can be placed on the same side of
+the apparatus, if this prove the most convenient arrangement.
+
+We will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the Liernur
+system, but also can be used for preventing the entrance of obstructions
+into sewers of the ordinary type, where the grade is small or where the
+quantity of water is insufficient; and if we adopt the system of
+"everything to the sewer," can we not find in the employment of this
+apparatus an element for the realization of the famous formula, "Always in
+circulation, and never in stagnation?"--_Le Genie Civil._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 454, page 7249.]
+
+WATER-POWER WITH HIGH PRESSURES AND WROUGHT-IRON WATER-PIPE.
+
+By HAMILTON SMITH, JR., M. Am. Soc. C.E.
+
+METHODS OF CONDUCTING WATER AND TRANSMITTING POWER.
+
+
+A description of the mode of using water-power for driving the North
+Bloomfield tunnel in California, some years since, will give a good
+illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy. This tunnel was
+originally about 8,000 feet long, through a slate highly metamorphosed,
+with its general line passing under a good-sized stream, at a depth of
+about 190 feet. There were eight working-shafts, each about 200 feet deep,
+which, with the lower entrance or portal, gave sixteen working faces.
+Diamond drills were used at the lower heading requiring power; the other
+fifteen headings were driven by hand-work. It was uncertain how much water
+would be encountered; but from the location, it was evident that a large
+quantity might be struck in any shaft, and hence it became necessary to
+have ample power at hand at each opening, in readiness for such an
+emergency. A pipe main was laid along the general line of the tunnel, with
+its pen-stock 285 feet vertical above the surface at the upper shaft, and
+549 feet above the lowest shaft. It was made of single riveted sheet-iron,
+of No. 14 (Birmingham) gauge, in lengths of 20 feet, put together
+stove-pipe fashion, with the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and
+pine wedges. This pipe had a diameter of 15 inches at the pen-stock,
+diminishing from this to 13, 11, and 7 inches at its lower end. From it,
+short branches, 7 inches in diameter, were extended to the several shafts.
+It was in one place carried across the stream by a light suspension
+bridge, some 150 feet long, the trunk of a tree on each side forming a
+convenient tower. The aggregate length of the main and branches was 9,960
+feet, with some 2,500 feet additional, for the branch to the diamond
+drills. The pipe was laid on the surface of the ground, its only
+protection being in places a couple of 11/2-inch planks tacked together, and
+placed over it; the range of temperature was from 10 degrees to 107
+degrees Fahr. (in the shade). It was inspected by the foreman of the
+tunnel-work as he daily walked over the line; besides the occasional
+driving of a few wedges and putting on a band or two, it gave no trouble
+from leakage, which probably for its entire length did not amount to more
+than an average of 3 or 4 cubic feet a minute; from time to time, a little
+sawdust was put into the pen-stock. Three stop-gates were placed on the
+main, and a separate stop-gate at each shaft, operated by a fine-threaded
+screw, so that the water could be cut off when desired.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+Fig. 13 shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and pumping,
+which was identical at the several shafts, except that the hurdy-gurdies
+varied from 161/2 feet in diameter at the upper shaft to 21 feet at the
+lowest shaft. The water-wheel moved only in one direction; the pinion on
+the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel, to which the pitman of the pump-bob
+was attached. On the spur-wheel shaft was a friction-gear, driving the
+hoisting-reel; this reel was mounted on sliding blocks, so that hoisting
+was done by putting it in gear, the empty load being dropped by a
+friction-band. Changing the size of the water-wheel as the pressure
+increased permitted the use of the same pattern of machinery at the
+different shafts. The water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe,
+some nine feet long, having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint,
+so that at pleasure, by dropping the pipe, the machinery could be run at
+various speeds, or entirely stopped. At the end of this discharge-pipe
+was a cast tapered nozzle, about 31/2 inches in diameter, in which was
+inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having the desired diameter, and which
+was held in place by an annular screw-cap. By changing the ring, which
+only required a few moments' time, any desired amount of water, up to 3 or
+4 cubic feet a second, could be discharged against the wheel. The
+stop-gate was left wide open while the machinery was running. The pumping
+was done by eighteen pumps, of Cornish pattern; the largest amount of
+water pumped from any one shaft was something over 30 cubic feet a minute;
+the power at hand, however, was ample to pump more than twice that
+quantity. It was rather curious at, this shaft to see more water coming
+from the pumps than was used on the wheel. The two diamond drills were
+driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the rear of the drill carriage. This,
+but at another tunnel, was afterward modified by placing a separate
+hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on each drill-rod; the advance movement of the
+drill being given by hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston, thus doing
+away with all gearing. These eight sets of machinery were run for nearly
+21/2 years' time; the only break being that of a spur-wheel, doubtless
+caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it and its pinion.
+Aside from this accident, practically not a dollar was spent for repairs,
+and the machinery, including the pipe, was in about as good order when the
+tunnel was finished as when it was first erected. One man, on a twelve
+hour shift, operated the machinery at each shaft, besides dumping the
+cars; two men kept the 18 pumps on the line in order, the principal work
+being in keeping the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight; thus
+a force of 18 men was only required for the eight shafts. The cost of the
+pipe, gates, etc., when put in place, was $14,631, and of the machinery
+about $60,000.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+At the Idaho gold quartz mine, situated near Grass Valley, California,
+water-power has been introduced during the past year (1883), taking the
+place of steam. The supply main is of wrought-iron, 22 inches in diameter,
+8,764 feet long, buried in the ground below frost-line. The joints, as a
+rule, are riveted together, with occasional lead joints to admit of slight
+movements in the pipe.[4] The pipe was coated by placing each joint in a
+bath of boiling tar and asphaltum; to insure the most thorough coating, it
+is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or fifteen minutes in the boiling
+mixture. A cast-iron stop-gate is placed at the lower end of the main, and
+also one at each of the branches. Cast-iron man-holes are attached to the
+main, which, although they have given no trouble in this particular case,
+are very objectionable for high pressures, as it is difficult to avoid
+ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined, owing to the great
+difference in the elasticity of the two metals. The long seams of this
+pipe are double-riveted, and the round seams single riveted; at the lower
+end, iron of No. 6 gauge is used. From the end of the main, the water is
+led to the several wheels by branches of smaller diameter.
+
+[Footnote 4: With buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is unnecessary,
+as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the movement due to changes of
+temperature, without injury to the rivets.]
+
+The water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head of 542.6
+feet. For power and for mill uses, etc., the required supply is about 8
+cubic feet a second; this draught reduces the effective head to say 523
+feet.
+
+The work done consists in driving the following described machinery:
+
+A large air-compressor--2 cylinders, double acting, air compressed to 75
+pounds--requiring about 140 horse-power.
+
+A line of Cornish pumps, forcing the water from a depth of 1,450 feet
+vertical; 12-inch plungers for upper 800 feet, 6-inch plungers for lower
+650 feet, with 6-foot stroke, requiring from 55 to 70 horse-power.
+
+Hoisting from a double-compartment shaft--two connected winding reels,
+moving separate cages--requiring 35 horse-power, or more.
+
+A few small machine-tools and smithy forges, requiring 3 or 4 horse-power.
+
+A 35-stamp mill, with concentrating apparatus, etc., requiring about 70
+horse-power.
+
+The total amount of power required being say 320 horse-power, for which
+seven Pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed.
+
+The power in all cases is transmitted by systems of Manila rope belting;
+the rope is 2 inches in diameter; the grooves in the sheaves or pulleys
+are slightly oval, so that the rope does not go quite to the bottom; the
+ropes are horizontal, and run very slack (no tighteners), with no
+appreciable slip; the splices are made very long, to obtain uniformity in
+diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+This method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly and has
+given excellent satisfaction. It is thought, at the Idaho, to be greatly
+preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the works were driven by
+steam (for such work as pumping or hoisting, leather or rubber belting is
+never used), besides being much cheaper in first cost.
+
+The wheel driving the air-compressor is 6 feet in diameter, running 300
+turns[5] per minute, with 1-15/18-inch nozzle; three ropes are used from
+the wheel shaft to the counter-shaft, and six ropes from the latter to the
+fly-wheel shaft.
+
+[Footnote 5: The revolutions per minute, of these wheels, as here given,
+are only approximate, as the design was to have the bucket speed=1/2
+2(gh)^{1/2}.]
+
+For driving the pumps, there are two water-wheels, set on the same shaft,
+one 5 feet and the other 7 feet in diameter, either of which can be used
+at will, thus permitting different rates of speed; two nozzles are placed
+on each wheel, so that if necessary the power can at any time be doubled.
+The smaller wheel has a 1-1/4 inch nozzle, and runs 360 turns a minute;
+the larger has 1-1/8-inch nozzle, and makes 270 turns a minute. There are
+two ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft, and four ropes to the
+fly-wheel shaft, on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel attached to
+the pitman of the pump-bob. Hoisting is done by two wheels placed side by
+side on the same shaft, the buckets and nozzle of each wheel being placed
+in opposite directions. Both wheels are 8 feet in diameter, with
+15/16-inch nozzles, and make at full speed about 225 turns a minute.
+Reversing the movement of the shaft is done by shutting off water from one
+wheel, and turning water on the other wheel; the two water-gates for these
+nozzles are quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure, afforded
+from the water main. In addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels,
+a brake is placed on the wheel-shaft, so that it can be stopped in a very
+short period of time.
+
+The shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off the water at
+these hoisting-wheels (nearly one cubic foot per second) has not
+apparently had any injurious, effect. To lessen this shock, a compensating
+balance was designed, but which is not now in use. A wheel, of small
+diameter, is used for the smithy, etc., running at a very high velocity.
+The wheel driving the stamp-mill is 6 feet in diameter, makes 300
+revolutions a minute, and is supplied through a 1-3/16 inch nozzle. The
+head of water at this point is a few feet greater than at the other
+wheels. Power is transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by
+two and four ropes, the same as with the pumping rig. The amount of work
+done, or of water used, has not been carefully determined; judging from
+the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines, the managers of the
+Idaho believe that an efficiency of fully 80 per cent. of the theoretic
+power of the water is obtained on the main driving-shafts of the
+machinery. The substitution of water for steam-power has resulted in a
+large saving of expense. Although the hills near by are covered with fine
+forests, thus making wood cheap, and although a round price is charged for
+water by the company furnishing it, the cost of the water is considerably
+less than that of the wood formerly used as fuel. The cost of attendance
+is altogether in favor of the water-wheels, which hardly require any
+attention. The cost of the change from steam to water-power was
+$46,496.32.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEXAS CREEK PIPE AND AQUEDUCT.
+
+
+A description of this work will be of interest in showing the general
+practice followed in California for carrying water across deep mountain
+gorges. In order to augment its water supply, the North Bloomfield Gravel
+Mining Company desired to conduct water from a stream known as Texas
+Creek, in Nevada County, California, across the Big Canon branch of the
+South Yuba River into the main Bloomfield flume or aqueduct, which was
+located on the side of Big Canon Creek, at a vertical elevation of 620
+feet above the bed of the latter stream. The quantity of water to be
+carried was about 32 cubic feet a second (1,250 miner's inches), which
+could be diverted from Texas Creek at a point 480 feet vertical above the
+Bloomfield flume. An aqueduct about 4,000 feet long, partly of ditch and
+partly of flume, was needed to bring the water from the catchment dam on
+the creek to the brow of the gorge. The vertical head for the pipe could
+therefore be from a maximum of 460 feet down to any lesser head; with a
+head of 460 feet, the pipe would be 4,790 feet long; and with a head of
+220 feet, the length would be 4,290 feet. Assuming a maximum tensile
+strain upon the iron of 16,500 pounds per square inch, with the formula
+for the greatest head of about
+
+d = (.359 l/h)^{1/5}, [or, v = 68 (dh/l)^{1/2}, and Q = 32],
+
+and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for the lesser
+heads, it was found, by calculation, that the least cost could be obtained
+with a head from 300 to 350 feet. The head fixed upon was 303.6 feet, with
+a length of 4,438.7 feet. A profile of the pipe, with nearly the same
+horizontal and vertical scales (horizontal scale, showing slope lengths),
+is given in Fig. 14; details are given in Figs. 15 and 16. The pipe was of
+double riveted sheet iron, made in lengths of about 20 feet, and of the
+following thicknesses:
+
+  1,349 linear feet,    0.083 inch thick.
+    220    "            0.095     "
+    240    "            0.109     "
+    250    "            0.120     "
+    320    "            0.134     "
+    610    "            0.148     "
+  1,450    "            0.165     "
+
+Some of the iron was of the very poorest quality; the pipe was made by
+contract in San Francisco, without the supervision of an inspector, as the
+contractors were a firm of good reputation; the bad quality of the iron
+was not detected until too late to have it corrected. Since then, the
+writer has always had such pipes--the mines of which he has been the
+manager using large quantities--made directly on the ground where they are
+to be used; the pipe makers, in the latter case, always reject such sheets
+as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge, and those which
+show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of iron; tests of each
+joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too much to the cost.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+The maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of iron used
+was intended to be 16,500 pounds per square inch. Some of the sheets were
+below the standard gauge, so that, in reality, the tensile strain is
+sometimes as high as 18,000 pounds. The mean diameter of the pipe was
+1.416 feet. The entrance into the pen-stock was tapered, so that the
+coefficient of contraction was about 0.92. For pressures not exceeding say
+380 feet, the joints were put together stove-pipe fashion. For greater
+pressures, the joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of
+the joint, with an outer lap-welded band, as shown by Fig. 15; lead was
+run into the space between the outer band and the pipe, and then tightly
+driven up by calking-irons. The pipe was laid under the bed of the Big
+Canon Creek, a large stream when in freshet, where the head below the
+hydraulic grade line was 760 feet. Some of the lead joints leaked slightly
+at first, but this was soon remedied by more careful calking. No man-holes
+or escape-gates were used. The pipe for the larger part of the year is not
+filled at its upper end; when such is the case, the water at the inlet
+carries down the pipe a great quantity of air, for which escapes must be
+provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing, which would soon destroy the
+pipe. The escape air-valves used are shown by Fig. 16. They consist simply
+of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron, with recess for lead filling to give
+greater weight set on top the pipe, seating on a vulcanized rubber
+cushion, and swinging on a loose hinge. When the pipe is only partly
+filled with water, the valves drop down by their own weight, allowing the
+air to freely escape; when the water rises above the level of a valve, it
+is tightly closed by the resulting pressure. There are fourteen of these
+valves, those on the lower end being designed to allow air to freely enter
+the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper portion, and thus prevent
+any collapse from atmospheric pressure. The valves have answered the
+desired purposes most effectually. The pipe was hauled over a road built
+to the inlet end, and shot down the mountain side by means of a V-shaped
+trough of wood. For the lower end, the joints were hauled up the cliff
+side into place by a crab worked by horse-power. On steep inclinations,
+the pipe was held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in
+the solid rock, as shown by the sketch. The covering of earth and stone
+was 1 foot to 2 feet in depth; with steep slopes, the earth was kept from
+sliding by rough dry walls, or by cedar plank placed crosswise. The pipe
+was laid in 1878; the first year it broke twice, owing to the wretched
+quality of the iron; since then, it has given no trouble, and has required
+practically no attention. The cost of this work--ditch and flume 4,000
+feet, and pipe 4,440 feet--was $23,779.53.
+
+A comparison of the relative values of n, in the formula v = n (r s)^{1/2},
+for the foregoing ditch, flume, and pipe will be instructive. The ditch
+has a width on the bottom of 3 feet, on the top of 6 feet, with a depth of
+3 feet, and an inclination of 20 feet per mile; its sides are rough, being
+cut in part through the rock and with sharp curves, although fairly
+regular; with a flow of about 1,300 miner's inches (32.8 cubic feet per
+second) the ditch runs about full.
+
+Therefore:
+
+      6 + 3
+  a = ----- x 3 = 13.5 ;
+        2
+
+[TEX: a = \frac{6+3}{2} \times 3 = 13.5;]
+
+           a
+  r = ------------- = 1.41 ;
+      3.3 + 3 + 3.3
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{3.3 + 3 + 3.3} = 1.41;]
+
+        20       1
+  s = ------ = ----- ;
+       5280     264
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{20}{5280} = \frac{1}{264};]
+
+  Q = 32.8, hence
+
+       Q
+  v = --- = 2.43;
+       a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 2.43;]
+
+and
+
+     /              {1/2} \
+  n ( in v = n (r s)^    ) = 33.
+     \                  /
+
+[TEX: n\ (\text{in}\ v = n (r s)^\frac{1}{2}) = 33.]
+
+The flume is of unplaned boards, rectangular, 2.67 wide x 2.83 deep, with
+an inclination of 32 feet per mile. There are sharp curves, although these
+were made as regular as practicable; the boiling action of the water
+passing around these curves brought the flow line (Q = 32.8) nearly up to
+the top of the sides; with a straight flume of the same size, the water
+would have doubtless stood several inches lower.
+
+Therefore:
+
+    a = 2.67 x 2.83 = 7.56 ;
+
+                a
+    r =  -------------------- = 0.908 ;
+        2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{a}{2.83 + 2.67 + 2.83} = 0.908;]
+
+           32       1
+    s =  ------ = ----- ;
+          5280     165
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{32}{5280} = \frac{1}{165};]
+
+    Q = 32.8, hence
+
+         Q
+    v = --- = 4.34;
+         a
+
+[TEX: v = \frac{Q}{a} = 4.34;]
+
+    and n = 59.
+
+With the pipe,[6] 1.416 diameter,
+
+         d
+    r = --- = 0.354; Q = 31.69; v = 20.13.
+         4
+
+[TEX: r = \frac{d}{4} = 0.354;\ Q = 31.69;\ v = 20.13.]
+
+[Footnote 6: _Vide_ pages 120-122, Transactions American Society of Civil
+Engineers for 1883.]
+
+Allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water, and for
+contraction,
+
+         296.1
+    s= --------; and n = 131.
+        4438.7
+
+[TEX: s = \frac{296.1}{4438.7};\ \text{and}\ n = 131.]
+
+We hence have the following values of n, in v = n (r s)^{1/2}, Q being
+constant:
+
+    Rough ditch, with sharp curves.                    33
+    Rectangular flume, with sharp curves.              59
+    Wrought-iron pipe, with easy curves, coated with
+    asphalt, but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy
+    obstructions (m = 65.5, and 2m = n)               131
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.
+
+
+The very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate herewith
+is the invention of a Russian engineer, Mr. Jagn. It is scarcely as yet
+known in Western Europe, where, however, something will probably be heard
+of it ere long. Its true field would seem to be Egypt, India, or any
+country where canals or rivers are used for irrigation, and where it is
+desired to draw water from them at particular spots in the simplest and
+cheapest manner. At present in nearly all such cases water is raised by
+hand or steam power; nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of
+the canal itself, slow though it may be, is quite sufficient to raise a
+small portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally
+needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields. Why then is it
+not employed for the purpose? The answer is obvious, when we consider the
+various hydraulic motors at present in use. Of course, motors worked by
+water pressure must here be excluded; and we are left with scarcely
+anything but the undershot wheel, the turbine, and the screw pump. All
+these require expensive buildings and erections to set them to work,
+present but a very small fraction of their surface to the water at any one
+time, and must be very large and costly if they are to draw even a very
+moderate amount of power from such a source. There is no possibility of
+adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the current or
+in the quantity of water required, nor of moving them from place to place
+should this be convenient.
+
+[Illustration: PARACHUTE HYDRAULIC MOTOR.]
+
+The motor of Mr. Jagn is on a totally different principle. Its essential
+features consist, as shown, of an endless rope made of hemp or aloe fiber,
+which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums mounted on a barge or
+pontoon, and then passes down the channel to return over a pulley hung
+from a floating punt, at such a depth that the whole of the rope is
+immersed in the water. Along this rope are suspended at equal intervals a
+number of parachutes made of sail cloth. The rope passes through the
+center of each of these, and to it are attached a series of strings, the
+other ends of which are connected to the outside edge of the parachute.
+Thus they act like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from
+opening too far under the pressure of the current. The parachutes must be
+placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on each, and the sum
+of the pressures forms the force which draws the rope through the water.
+The moment, however, that any parachute has passed round the return
+pulley, the current acts upon it in the opposite direction. It then shuts
+up like an umbrella, and assumes a volume so small that its resistance on
+the return journey is insignificant. After passing round the drum at the
+upper end, it at once opens afresh of its own accord, and once more
+becomes part of the moving power of the whole system. The parachutes are
+formed by first cutting out a complete circle of cloth, and then taking
+from this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area. Such
+parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the water better
+than a surface originally spherical, although the latter would be
+theoretically more correct. The motion of the drum is transmitted by spur,
+gear, or otherwise as may be required, to give the requisite speed.
+
+It will be seen that the advantages of the system are as follows: First,
+the facility it offers for obtaining a large working area, which may be
+increased or diminished at will, according to the requirements of the
+moment, by lengthening or shortening the rope. Secondly, the ease with
+which it is erected and set to work. Thirdly, the small part of the river
+section which it occupies, so as to present no obstacle to navigation.
+Fourthly, the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind,
+and carried wherever it may be needed. Fifthly, it is not stopped, like
+all other hydraulic motors, by the appearance of ice--it has, in fact,
+already been worked under ice in the Neva. At the same time, winds and
+waves have no influence upon it.
+
+The principle of the apparatus is not altogether new. In 1872 there was
+tried on the Ohio River an arrangement termed the Brooks motor. It was
+composed of two drums, placed horizontally and parallel to each other.
+Round these there passed endless chains at equal spaces apart on the
+length of the drums, and to these chains were fixed wooden blades or arms
+of a curved form, and so jointed to the frames that they opened when
+moving in one direction, and closed down on the chain when moving in the
+other. In this machine the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to
+obtaining any large amount of power. The whole apparatus was mounted on a
+heavy wooden scaffold, which proved an impediment to the flow of the
+river. Again, the resistance due to the surface of the returning blades
+and to their stiffness was found to be far from insignificant.
+
+In the present system Mr. Jagn has found, after many experiments, that the
+best effect was obtained when the parachutes were spaced apart at twice
+their diameter, and when the rope made an angle of 8 degrees to 10 degrees
+with the current. It is found that when open and in motion the parachutes
+never touch the bottom. This was the case with a rope containing 180
+parachutes of 4 feet diameter, and working in a depth of only 6 feet. This
+is easily explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always
+diminishes as it approaches the bottom. Hence the pressure on the lower
+part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper part; but the
+former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward, while the latter
+tends to raise it to the top of the water. Thus, the latter being the
+larger, the parachute will always have a tendency to rise. In fact, it is
+necessary to sink the return pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that
+the parachutes will not emerge from the surface. For the same reason no
+intermediate supports are needed over the driving span; if any are needed
+it is for the return span, on which the parachutes are closed. Of course,
+if metal were used instead of hemp, the case would be entirely different,
+and intermediate supports would have to be used for anything but very
+moderate lengths.
+
+In practice, Mr. Jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same pair of
+drums, which are mounted upon a pontoon. The ropes are spread out from
+each other, as in Fig. 1, making an angle of about 10 degrees. The low
+specific gravity of the system enables ropes to be employed of as great a
+length as 450 yards, each of them carrying 350 parachutes of 17.2 square
+feet area. As half of these are in action at the same time, the total
+working area for the two cables is 5,860 square feet. This immense area
+furnishes a considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble
+current. Comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes
+employed, and supposing this to have only 172 square feet of working area,
+such a wheel must have a length of 46 feet, a diameter of 23 feet, and
+seventy-two floats, each 21/2 feet wide. The enormous dimensions thus
+required for a comparatively small working area point sufficiently clearly
+to the advantage which remains on the side of the parachute motor.
+
+The general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving. Behind
+the return pulleys, D D, are attached cords, A A, with some parachutes
+strung upon them. These present their openings to the current and preserve
+the tension of the connecting ropes. At the further end of each cord is a
+board, B, which is kept in a vertical plane, but lying at a slight angle
+to the direction of the current; and this acts to keep the two moving
+ropes apart from each other. The two return pulleys are, however,
+connected by a line, E, which can be shortened or lengthened from the
+pontoon, and in this way the angle of inclination between the two ropes
+can be varied if required. A grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span
+at the moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum. It is
+mounted on a screwed spindle, which is depressed by a nut, and thus makes
+the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly efficacious
+manner.
+
+The author has made a theoretical investigation of the power which may be
+developed by the system, and has worked out tables by which, when the
+velocity of the current and the other elements of the problem are known,
+the power developed by any given number of parachutes can be at once
+determined. We do not reproduce this investigation, which takes account of
+the resistance of the returning parachutes and other circumstances, but
+will content ourselves with quoting the final equation, which is as
+follows: T = 0.328 S V cubed. Here T is the work done in H.P., S is the total
+working area in sq. m., and V is the velocity of the current in m. per
+sec. Taking V = 1, and S = 1 sq. m., which is by no means an impracticable
+quantity, we have T = 0.328 H.P. per sq. m. We may check this result by
+the equation given, in English measures, by Rankine--"Applied Mechanics,"
+p. 398--for the pressure of a current upon a solid body immersed in it.
+This equation, F = 1.8 m A v squared / 2g, where m is the weight of a unit of
+volume of the fluid--say 62 lb.--A is the area exposed, and v the relative
+velocity of the current. Mr. Jagn finds that the maximum of efficiency is
+obtained when the rope moves at one-third the velocity of the stream. If
+this velocity be 3 feet per second, we shall have v = 2. and we then get F
+= 7 lb. per sq. ft. very nearly. Now 1 sq. meter = 10.76 sq. ft., and a
+speed of 1 ft. per second (which is that of the rope) is 60 ft. per
+minute. Hence the H.P. realized in the same case as that taken above will
+be 7 x 10.76 x 60 / 33,000 = 0.137 H.P. The difference between the two
+values is very large, but Rankine, of course, depends entirely on the
+value of the constant 1.8, which is quite empirical, and is for a flat
+band instead of a hollow parachute. Taking, however, his smaller figure,
+and an area of 544 square inches, which Mr. Jagn has actually employed, we
+get a gross power of = 0.137 x 544 = 7.43 H.P. Hence it will be seen that
+the amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from being
+inconsiderable.
+
+Lastly, we may point out that the durability of the apparatus will be
+considerable. There is no wear except at the moment when the rope is
+passing round the drum, and even then there need be no slipping or
+grinding. The apparatus worked in the Neva was in very good condition
+after running for four months day and night. After five months about
+one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced, but after seven months the
+hemp rope still showed no signs of wear. We think we have said enough to
+show that for certain purposes, and especially, as we have, already
+mentioned, for irrigation purposes, the new motor is well worthy of a
+careful and extended trial. It may be questioned even whether we have not
+here the germ of an idea which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the
+most interesting and important of engineering problems, viz., the
+utilization of the great store of power provided for us twice daily in the
+ebb and flow of the tide.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.
+
+
+Our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning lathes, and is
+the result of thirty years' experience in the manufacture of shafting,
+with many years' study, to perfect a machine of the greatest practical
+capacity and efficiency.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROVED SHAFTING LATHE.]
+
+The principal points of difference from a common engine lathe are readily
+distinguished, among which may be mentioned the absence of centers and
+tail stock, a traveling head with hollow driving spindle, and a stationary
+tool rest and water tank. By dispensing with a tail stock a much shorter
+bed may be used, and the hollow driving spindle enables any length shaft
+to be turned, with one setting of the tools. The tool rest is so arranged
+as to allow of perfect lubrication of the tools, keeping the shaft cool,
+and at the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong; the operator
+is not required to travel the length of the bed, but remains near the
+driving belt, feed gearing, etc. Power is communicated to the driving
+spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod inside the bed, the
+driving belt and gears being at the end.
+
+The driving head, after having traveled the length of the bed and turned a
+shaft, is returned by a quick feed, and stops automatically, allowing
+nearly time enough for the operator to grind tools and be ready with
+another shaft, thus economizing the time completely.
+
+Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass., are the makers, and they say that
+with a good quality of iron they have turned three hundred feet of two
+inch iron in ten hours.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.
+
+
+The machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the bed, which
+are adjustable for different lengths of shaft, and are made to revolve by
+power applied through suitable gearing and a splined rod inside the bed;
+the bar of iron being placed on the periphery of the rolls receives a
+rotary motion by friction, and shows the crooked places in the same way
+and with the same ease as though rotating on centers in the usual manner;
+vertically adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to
+support the iron; power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at
+the back of the machine, on which is a sliding clutch connecting, at the
+will of the operator, with an eccentric; the eccentric conveys motion and
+power through a link to the elbow joint at the front of the press, which
+forces a plunger down against the iron.
+
+[Illustration: POWER STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.]
+
+Sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by turning a
+nut at the top of the press.
+
+Any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the press on
+the bed. Any length of iron can be straightened, and the most laborious
+and disagreeable work in the process of making shafting is rendered easy
+and rapid. Made by Wood, Jennison & Co., Worcester, Mass.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA.
+
+By GEORGE O'BRIEN.
+
+
+Our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional, as we are only aware
+that from very early times the precious metal was collected and highly
+prized by them, and that they chiefly extracted the visible gold, which
+existed in prodigious quantities on or closely beneath the surface of the
+earth, and of its being particularly abundant in Asia and Africa. But we
+can draw more positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but
+effective contrivances used by them in later, but still remote, periods,
+with full evidence as to the extent of their operations, in the numerous
+perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other, over
+large areas of auriferous gravel in India, as well as from precisely
+similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also further
+demonstrations, in the abandoned "hill diggings," and shifted beds, and
+beds of rivers, in Peru South America, flowing between the sea and coast
+ranges of the Andes, descending in a northeasterly direction to the river
+Amazon, and that their much coveted and enormous productions were the
+accumulated riches of the Incas, transferred as spoils of war to their
+Spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century. And for similar explorations
+in the same class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times,
+and which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded to.
+
+Thus in the year 1849, after the cession of the northern portion of Mexico
+to the United States of North America, the rich mineral district of
+California was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent bands of mining
+adventurers from all parts of the world, who, with little other means at
+their disposal but pick, shovel, and pan, soon fell on the productive bars
+of rivers and rich ravines where the gold was trapped, derived from its
+original birthplaces, where it had been sparsely disseminated, to be
+dispersed by the subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the
+mountains themselves, and deposited in a disengaged form for the first
+comer; and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations, in certain
+localities where water once streamed, that, divested of its earthy matrix,
+the cleansed pure metal was found deposited, detained by its superior
+specific gravity, on the bare rock, and only hidden from vision by a
+slight covering of vegetable mould. In this manner, as an example of such
+concentration, a "pot" or "find" (in mining parlance) to the value of
+L10,000 was collected in a space of 15 square yards, or within the limits
+of a particular "mining claim," at the foot of Mokulumne Hill, in a
+southern county of California, soon after the territorial transfer from
+Mexico. And in search of such locations we must account for the numberless
+shafts which still exist both in India and Peru, and sometimes sunk within
+a few feet of each other, passing through the alluvium to a depth of 40
+feet to the bed rock.
+
+These mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over the other
+recently acquired territories, and built Virginia City, the capital of
+Montana, with the gold derived from the alluvium of a river channel which
+they excavated; and its inhabitants were the founders of an institution
+called the Vigilance Committee, with "Lynch law," and by it ruled
+supremely for many years. But their surface diggings, by the manual
+operations alone of multitudes, were soon exhausted in every direction,
+and then their energies and powers of invention were dedicated to discover
+and explore deeper and more permanent depositions, along the western
+slopes of the Sierra Nevada, the Andes of the Western Territories, and
+which originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at
+the present time--probably 20,000 feet above the sea-level--and of which,
+or whatever superior elevation they formerly had, the greater portion of
+it has already been removed, by the continuous natural action of
+centuries, to form there, as elsewhere, the plains and prairies of the
+earth, burying and diverting by the mutation the ancient river system,
+whose sources of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of
+these altitudes. These denudations and subsequent depositions have been
+caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air, water,
+and time since the creation of the world; and powerful demonstrations of
+these transformations instruct us in all directions, if we care to observe
+them. Thus in "Little Cottonwood" ravine, in the Wahsatch range of
+mountains in Utah Territory, lie isolated in the center of the valley huge
+masses of metamorphic granite, some blocks of which weigh individually
+thousands of tons, and were dislodged from the hills--which on either side
+are of limestone formation--with no visible granite in them, having been
+undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by denudation, and
+which is the material now forming the tablelands, the foundation, of Salt
+Lake City. The blocks of granite, having alone resisted the atmospheric
+changes, were precipitated into the valley beneath, and the Mormons are
+now constructing their cathedral church from these granitic remains.
+
+The melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges of
+mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the extinguished
+channels of ancient rivers, and whose now diverted waters were also the
+powerful agent to assist in causing these marvelous alternations; and by
+the means of hydraulic mining we can advance our feeble knowledge on the
+subject.
+
+These mighty changes have gradually been accomplished, and the accumulated
+denudations of the mineral zones have defended themselves by strata of
+crystallized silicates of quartz of various thicknesses, and thus in
+places beneath such system of defense, or by their own concretion, have
+preserved in many localities a thickness of from 500 to 600 feet of
+conglomerate, but without this necessary cementation its further removal
+is very certain when again attacked by water. An example of this
+continuous process is very observable in "Death Valley," Lower California,
+where a width of about 100 miles has been filled up from the hills to the
+gulf of same name, invading and occupying its former bed; and this
+activity is still proceeding, and a temporary formation of tableland
+above it is in course of removal, although already overgrown with forest
+trees, which are toppling over the side which is being attacked. But
+eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these Sierras, and a
+period of comparative repose may be expected, as the distribution has
+already been far advanced by the excessive reduction of the mountains.
+
+The deep and extensive depositions which I now attempt to describe
+attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers, and were called
+"hill diggings," but not being properly understood were therefore not
+immediately operated upon, and remained in abeyance, while the lower,
+richer, and more manifest alluvials endured. They were designated "blue
+gravel," the color being due to the action of sulphuret of iron and other
+salts, the cementing auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate,
+and on exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet,
+losing also its firmness by oxidation.
+
+The "great blue lead" is another important mining term and designates the
+alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on the bed rock, being
+the well-worn path of an ancient river; and it is obvious that the
+material in these channels should be richer than the general mass beyond
+their limits.
+
+"Rim rock" is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel, and, like
+the bottom, is well worn and corrugated by the running water into cavities
+and "pot holes," where the force of the stream eddied. The width of these
+channels varies from 60 to 400 feet, and the cement near the rim and
+bottom is always richer than elsewhere. The wider and deeper channels
+generally course from N. to N.W. The richest and most explored belt of
+gold-bearing alluvium in California lies between the South and Middle Yuba
+Rivers, commencing near Eureka, in Nevada county, and extends downwards to
+Smartsville and Timbuctoo, in Yuba county, a distance of 40 miles; and
+from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from where the
+ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers, which are 2,000 feet
+beneath the auriferous gravel and region near Smartsville, and 2,000 feet
+above the Yuba River, where snow is unknown, and near its terminus the
+ancient river bed courses more westerly than it does above it, and crosses
+Yuba below Timbuctoo, where the auriferous depositions disappear. The
+whole distance of 40 miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers,
+and around the village of Timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful
+yield of gold, obtained chiefly in the ravines, in holes, and depressions
+in the bed rock. These hollows detained the concentrations of the
+denudated alluvium from the altitudes, and were generally closely beneath
+the surface, and by such guidance and means of discovery the miners traced
+the gold up the ravines to their sources in the lofty mounds and deposits,
+or hills of cemented conglomerate, near Eureka in Nevada county; and by
+constructing canals from a higher level began the new system of "hydraulic
+mining" and washing, and gradually extended their operations over the area
+of the metallic zone mentioned, of 40 miles long by 20 wide, using the
+Yuba River below Timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings, or
+refuse from their operations. The result in gold was considerable, but the
+system is from its violent nature difficult to control, by presuming to
+handle and remove such huge depositions in order to collect the richest
+material. The idea was bold, being an anticipation of Nature's operations;
+but the equitable disposal of the "tailings" in a cultivated country is
+impossible, as the silt runs down the rivers, creating banks and bars in
+their channels, obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements.
+
+_General Description of Hydraulic Mining._
+
+The first work to be accomplished, after calculating that the amount or
+value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient to guarantee the
+cost of the undertaking in general, is the construction of a canal or
+canals, to convey the requisite volume of water from the fountain-head,
+and of sufficient elevation to command the ground to be worked upon,
+having also in view the levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as
+outlets for the discharge of the gravel through them, these being
+engineering operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless
+after-cost.
+
+Aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed across deep
+valleys, and the speculation is at all times problematical, as the ground
+cannot be properly tested until the water arrives upon it, and disputes
+may arise between the shareholders of the canal and the mining company,
+ending frequently in the one devouring the other, unless the two interests
+be quickly amalgamated.
+
+The starting point should be the lowest level, or "bed rock," on the white
+cement in the ancient channel, which is probably the original silt
+collected in it, and is harder than the conglomerate above it, which is
+more easily removed. The courses of these beds can be easily traced by
+landmarks and undulations, and occasional exposures of the bed rock at low
+levels; also trial shafts are sunk in various places in search of it, to a
+depth of 100 feet, passing through blue gravel. The grades of these beds
+are not steep, being from 10 to 40 feet per mile as of an ordinary river,
+and the calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about 600
+feet in many places across the ridge between the South and Middle Yuba
+River across the Columbia.
+
+The power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given volume
+deposited in a reservoir, and at sufficient elevation above the points of
+discharge, as on this depends effectivity to tear down the gravel. It is
+delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of wrought iron, and laid down
+to follow the curvatures of the surface of the ground; and the pipe I now
+treat of, belonging to the Excelsior Water Company, has a diameter of 40
+inches on a length of 6,000 feet, and 20 inches on the rest of its length
+of 8,000 feet, being 9,000 feet in all; and this large pipe forms an
+inverted siphon across a valley, following on the gravel, to the top of
+the hill into the reservoir.
+
+These pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning chasms,
+and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys; being also cheaper to
+construct in general, and less liable to accidents from fire and storms,
+and have the convenience for conveying the water from point to point, as
+the work of excavation advances, necessitating the removal of portions of
+the aqueduct forward. The watershed, or reservoir, of the Excelsior
+Company embraces the valley of the South Yuba and its affluents, and the
+entire cost of its eight amalgamated canals was 750,000 dollars.
+
+The rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged 49 inches
+annually, while the medium in the same period did not exceed 20 inches in
+the plains beneath. The height of the reservoir above the tailing, or Yuba
+River, is 393 feet: and the height of the head above the floor, or outlet
+sluice-tunnel, of the Blue Gravel Mining Company was 197 feet.
+
+The exact quantity of water required to wash every class of gravel is
+difficult to estimate, but no quantity or pressure would be excessive if
+properly arranged. The measurement of water is effected by miner's
+inches, by allowing it to flow from the reservoir of the seller to the
+purchaser through a box 10 or 12 feet square, with divisions to obtain a
+quiet head, with a slide or opening capable of adjustment to any required
+measure; thus an opening of 25 inches by 2 inches, with a quiet head of 6
+inches above the middle of the orifice, would give 50 inches, or about
+89,259 cubic feet of water, flowing during ten hours per day, being an
+amount necessary for a first-class operation. The capability of the
+Excelsior Canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in twenty-four
+hours, to the various mining companies, of 21,120,000 cubic feet of water,
+or 8,000 miner's inches, and the value of the water paid for by the Blue
+Gravel Company in forty-three months ending November 9, 1867, was 157,261
+dollars, being at the rate of 15 cents of a dollar per miner's inch; and
+the proportion of water used to wash down 989,165 cubic yards of gravel
+was 17,074,758 cubic yards, or 171/4 cubic yards of water to 1 cubic yard of
+gravel; and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was 1,298
+cubic yards, and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of gravel was 5
+and 7/10 cents of a dollar. But in the face of contingencies the Blue
+Gravel Company moved 1,000,000 cubic yards of gravel in four years, or at
+the rate of 250,000 cubic yards per annum, and the cost of washing each
+cubic yard stands thus:
+
+                                                 Cents.
+  Cost of water, at 15 cents per miner's inch     5.77
+  Cost of labor, gunpowder, sluices, and
+      superintendence                            16.10
+                                                 -----
+                                                 21.87
+    Or 213/4 cents of a dollar per cubic yard.
+
+Thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of 22 cents of a dollar
+per cubic yard to cover cost, and the value of the gravel referred to
+ranged from 20 to 45 cents per cubic yard; and the cost of work done in
+shafts and tunnels, in the said Blue Gravel Company's Mining claim,
+reached 100,000 dollars. But with the cost of the necessary canals paid
+for by the Excelsior Water Company apart, the total cost amounted to about
+1,000,000 dollars, and we must note that the latter company sold water to
+other mining companies.
+
+The gross yield in gold of the Blue Gravel Company in four years was
+837,399 dollars, and in the year 1866 the returns from the Blue Gravel
+Company paid all the costs of the developments; but in 1867 assessments
+were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising from the cost of
+sinking two new shafts, and driving fresh tunnels on the lowest levels,
+which evidently contain on the bed rock the richest concentrations.
+
+In smaller mining adventures of this description, involving less capital,
+large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone treated of, by also
+not having invested in costly canals, which would not have repaid the
+latter investment; and thus it is evident that the water companies are
+dependent blindly on the prosperity of the miners.
+
+I will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations. The mining
+ground being selected, a tunnel is projected from the nearest and most
+convenient ravine, so that the starting-point on the bed rock toward the
+face of the ravine shall approach the center of the material to be removed
+at a gradient of 1 in 10 to 1 in 30. The dimensions of such tunnels are
+usually 6 feet in width by 7 in height, and continuing in contact with the
+hard river-bed, for the greater ease of excavation, collection of gold,
+and conservation of quicksilver amalgam.
+
+These tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile, and some
+of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in execution, at a
+cost of from 10 to 60 dollars per foot of frontage. The tunnel of the Blue
+Gravel Company, with length of 1,358 feet, cost in labor alone 70,000
+dollars, but it could now be driven for 35,000 dollars, as skilled labor
+is cheaper now than then. The grade in this tunnel is about 12 per cent.,
+and the end of the tunnel is designed to be 170 feet of elevation, and
+reaching to a point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being
+operated upon, and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed
+rock or gravel, until it intersects the tunnel.
+
+The object of this laborious operation is obvious, as the long tunnel
+becomes a sluiceway, and through the whole length of which sluice boxes
+are laid, for the double motive of carrying off the material and saving
+the gold, and for this purpose a trough of strong planks is placed in the
+tunnel, 21/2 feet wide, and with sides high enough to contain the stream.
+The pavement of the trough is generally laid of blocks of wood 6 inches in
+thickness, cut across the grain, and placed on their ends, to the width of
+the sluiceway. The wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections of
+stone pavement, the stones being set endwise, and in the interstices
+between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is distributed, and as
+much as 2 tons of this metal is required to charge a long sluice. The
+water in the canal is brought by aqueducts, or other means, to the head of
+the mining ground, having an elevation of 100 to 200 ft. above the lowest
+level of the mining ground, and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes,
+sometimes sustained on a strong incline of timber.
+
+These pipes are of sheet iron, of adequate strength, riveted at the
+joints, and measure from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, and communicate at
+the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron, on the top and sides
+of which are openings for the adaptation of flexible tubes, made of very
+strong fabric of canvas, strengthened by cording, and terminating in
+nozzles of metal of 21/2 to 3 inches in diameter. From these nozzles the
+streams of water are directed against the face of the gravel to be washed,
+exercising incredible effectivity.
+
+The volume of water employed varies of course with the work to be done;
+but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting simultaneously on
+the same bank, each conveying from 100 to 600 inches of water per
+hour--1,000 miner's inches being equal to 106,600 cubic feet of water per
+hour, constantly exerting its force under a pressure of 90 to 200 pounds
+to the square inch, varying with the height of the column.
+
+Under the continuous action of this enormous force, aided by the softening
+power of the water, large sections of the gravelly mass are dislodged, and
+fall with great violence, the _debris_ speedily disintegrating and
+disappearing under the resistless force of the water, and is hurried
+forward in the sluices to the mouth of the shaft, down which it is
+precipitated with the whole volume of turbid water. Bowlders of 100 to 200
+lb. in weight are dislodged and shot forward by the impetuous stream,
+accompanied by masses of the harder cement which meet in the fall, and by
+the concussion from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency
+required is found to disintegrate it. The heavy banks, of 80 feet and
+upward, are usually worked in two benches, the upper never being so rich
+as the lower, and also less firm, and therefore worked away with greater
+rapidity.
+
+The lower section is much the more compact, as this stratum on the bed
+rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure, and even sometimes
+the full force of the streams of water, until it has been loosened by
+gunpowder or other explosives. For this purpose adits are driven in on its
+foundation-point of from 40 to 70 feet and more from the face of the bank,
+and drifts are extended at right angles therefrom to a short distance on
+each side of the adit, and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder
+is placed (from 1 to 3 tons), and fired at one blast, having been
+previously built in with masonry. And in this manner the compact
+conglomerate is broken up, and then the water easily completes its work.
+Sometimes in the soft, upper strata the systems of tunnel is extended, as
+in a coal-mine, by cross alleys, leaving blocks which are afterward washed
+away, and then the whole mass settles, and is disintegrated under the
+influence of water. The wooden sluices in the tunnels already described
+are often made double for the convenience of "cleaning up" one of them,
+while the other remains in action. The process of cleaning up is performed
+according to the quantity and richness of the material worked upon, at
+intervals of twenty to forty days, and consists in removing the pavement
+and blocks from the bed of the sluice, and then gathering all the amalgam
+of gold and rich dirt collected, and replacing the locks in the same way
+as at first. Advantage is taken on this occasion to reverse the position
+of the blocks and stones when they are worn irregularly, or substitute new
+ones for those which are worn through. The mechanical action of the
+washing process on the blocks is of course very rapid and severe,
+requiring complete renewal of them once in eight to ten weeks. Some miners
+prefer a pavement of egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring,
+the gold being deposited in the interstices. Most of the sluiceways are,
+however, paved with rectangular wooden blocks, with or without stones as
+described. Standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full
+action, any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with
+astonishment, amounting almost to terror, as the muddy mass sweeps onward,
+bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders, which add their din to
+the roar of the water, the whole being precipitated down a series of
+falls, at each of which it is caught up again by new sluices of timber,
+lined like the first, and so onward and downward many hundreds of feet
+until the level of the river is reached, at a distance of about a half
+mile or more from the mouth of the first tunnel.
+
+At each of these new falls of 25 to 50 feet the process of comminution
+begun in the first shaft is carried on, and a fresh portion of gold
+obtained. Rude as this plan of saving gold appears to be, more gold is
+procured by it than by any other method of washing yet devised for this
+process of work, and the economical advantages obtained by it cannot be
+surpassed, as it would be impossible to handle such vast quantities of
+material in any other way, and we can compare the cost of washing and
+handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows:
+
+                                        Dollars.
+By manual labor with the pan              15.00
+    "       "   with rocker                3.75
+    "       "   with the long tom           .75
+By the hydraulic process                    .15
+
+But this process, even if effective or profitable as a mining operation,
+may be prejudicial to the interests of the general public, if conducted on
+a large scale, as the vast quantity of material which it so suddenly
+removes is merely shifted into the shallows beneath, to be redistributed
+by every freshet to points lower and lower down until it reaches the
+sea-coast, creating bars at the mouths of rivers in its course, and
+changing the hydrography of harbors--as it has done with the Bay of San
+Francisco by its silt.
+
+The hills behind, torn up and washed by the gold miner, are abandoned as
+desolate and irredeemable; and the costly canals, constructed with
+peculiar conveniences for mining purposes, eventually fall into disuse
+from being too expensive to maintain or alter for general agricultural
+uses.--_Journal of Science._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TREATMENT OF CHOLERA.
+
+
+From the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging the
+European medical press, we select the following from Dr. Henry A. Rawlins,
+in the _London Med. Times_, July 12. 1884:
+
+The man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by diarrhoea of
+an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his blood. This loss is one of
+simple transudation, increasing as the powers of life decrease. This
+_sudden_ loss produces intense prostration, and renders the heart
+powerless to perfect the circulation. The body, thus deprived of oxygen,
+speedily runs into decomposition, even before life is extinct. Have we any
+agent by which we can collect and press forward these scattered and
+lethargic drops of blood to the heart, and enable it to renew the
+circulation, and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body? My reply is
+emphatically--Yes! Flannel bandages from the toes to the trunk, around the
+abdomen, and from the fingers to the body, will effect this object
+perfectly. Remark that the effect is gradual, increasing with every turn
+of the roller, but would be in full force in about twenty minutes. By thus
+exposing the blood in the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted
+form, as it is in the air, instead of pure oxygen, the reaction would
+neither be too rapid nor too dangerous. In confirmation of my views, I
+have this day learned that it is the custom in India to wear a double roll
+of flannel around the abdomen, as a preventive to cholera. The other
+advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are:
+
+1. That they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor creature
+who is already in a state of refrigeration.
+
+2. By their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor muscles
+alike, they are steadied, and rendered much less likely to be affected
+with spasmodic action or cramp.
+
+3. By their steady _elastic_ pressure and support of about 160 pounds,
+they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of the blood, which
+they had previously restored.
+
+4. That the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will, I believe, prove
+quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison, and also destroy its
+effects.
+
+5. That this much can at least be claimed for their use--that they remove
+from nature a stumbling-block, which prevented her from exercising her
+marvelous recuperative powers. Diluted sulphuric acid is the best medicine
+to arrest the flux from the bowels, acting also as a tonic. It should be
+given in five-minim doses about every half hour, with rice gruel. By
+adopting this plan, the natural process is brought about, that of the
+starch being converted into grape sugar. Plenty of white of egg, well
+whipped up, so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach,
+which it will appropriate, should be given. Opium, in small quantities,
+and other stimulants, should be given according to the necessities of the
+case. May it not be well, through the medium of wet sponge over the
+thorax, to apply a continuous but gentle current of galvanism, so as to
+stimulate the heart's action, keep alive the respiratory movements, and
+thereby assist in the maintenance of the functions of the body?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TEMPERATURE, MOISTURE, AND PRESSURE IN THEIR RELATIONS TO HEALTH.
+
+
+At the recent meteorological conference held at the Health Exhibition, Dr.
+J.W. Tripe read a paper of much interest on some relations of
+meteorological phenomena to health.
+
+In ages long past these relations excited much attention, but the
+knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind; and indeed, even now,
+no very great advance has been made, because it is only quite recently
+that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate record of deaths with
+observations taken at a number of reliable meteorological stations. The
+more useful and searching comparison between cases of sickness, instead of
+deaths, and meteorological phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large
+scale in this country, and especially as regards zymotic diseases. In
+Belgium there is a Society of Medical Practitioners, embracing nearly the
+whole country, that publishes a monthly record of cases of sickness, of
+deaths, and of meteorological observations; but the only attempt on a
+large scale in this country, which was started by the Society of Medical
+Officers of Health for the whole of London, failed partly from want of
+funds, and partly from irregularity in the returns. My remarks, which must
+necessarily be very brief, will refer to the relations between (1)
+meteorological phenomena and the bodily functions of man, and (2) between
+varying meteorological conditions and death-rates from certain diseases.
+
+As regards the first, I will commence with a few brief remarks on the
+effects of varying barometric pressures. A great deal too much attention
+is paid to the barometer if we regard it as indicating only, as it really
+does, variations in the weight of the column of air pressing upon our
+bodies, because, except at considerable elevations, where the barometer is
+always much lower than at sea level, these variations produce but little
+effect on health. At considerable elevations the diminished pressure
+frequently causes a great feeling of malaise, giddiness, loss of strength,
+palpitation, and even nausea; and at greater heights, as was noticed by
+Mr. Glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent, loss of sight, feeling, and
+consciousness. These were caused by a want of a sufficient supply of
+oxygen to remove effete matters from the system, and to carry on the
+organic functions necessary for the maintenance of life. On elevated
+mountain plateaus, or even in high residences among the Alps, an increased
+rapidity in the number of respirations and of the pulse, as well as
+increased evaporation from the lungs and skin, occur.
+
+For some years past, many persons suffering from consumption, gout,
+rheumatism, and anaemic affections have gone to mountain stations, chiefly
+in Switzerland, for relief, and many have derived much benefit from the
+change. It must not, however, be supposed that diminished atmospheric
+pressure was the chief cause of the improvement in health, as its
+concomitants, viz., a diminution in the quantity of oxygen and moisture
+contained in each cubic foot of air, probably the low temperature, with a
+total change in the daily habits of life, have assisted in the beneficial
+results. The diminution in the quantity of air, and consequently of
+oxygen, taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by
+an increased frequency and depth of the respirations, and a greater
+capacity of the chest. In this country, alterations in the barometric
+pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an approaching change in the
+wind, and as well as of the amount of moisture in the air; hence the
+instrument is often called "the weather glass." A sudden diminution in the
+atmospheric pressure is likely to be attended with an escape of ground air
+from the soil, and therefore to cause injury to health, especially among
+the occupants of basement rooms, unless the whole interior of the building
+be covered with concrete.
+
+_Temperature._--Experience has shown that man can bear greater variations
+of temperature than any other animal, as in the Arctic regions a
+temperature of -70 degrees Fahrenheit, or more than 100 degrees below
+freezing point, can be safely borne; that he can not only live but work,
+and remain in good health, in these regions provided that he be supplied
+with suitable clothing and plenty of proper food. On the other hand, man
+has existed and taken exercise in the interior of Australia when the
+thermometer showed a temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit, or nearly 90
+degrees above freezing point, so that he can live and be in fairly good
+health within a range of nearly 200 degrees Fahrenheit.
+
+The effects of a high temperature vary very much according to the amount
+of moisture in the air, as when the air is nearly saturated in hot
+climates, or even in summer in our own, more or less languor and malaise
+are felt, with great indisposition to bodily labor. With a dry air these
+are not so noticeable. The cause is evident; in the former case but little
+evaporation occurs from the skin, and the normal amount of moisture is not
+given off from the lungs, so that the body is not cooled down to such an
+extent as by dry air. Sunstroke is probably the result, not only of the
+direct action of the sun's rays, but partly from diminished cooling of the
+blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin.
+
+The effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the mean for
+the day, month, or year, as on the extremes, as, when the days are hot and
+the nights comparatively cool, the energy of the system becomes partially
+restored, so that a residence near the sea, or in the vicinity of high
+mountains, in hot climates is, other things being equal, less enervating
+than in the plains, as the night air is generally cooler. It is commonly
+believed that hot climates are _necessarily_ injurious to Europeans, by
+causing frequent liver derangements and diseases, dysentery, cholera, and
+fevers. This, however, is, to a certain extent, a mistake, as the recent
+medical statistical returns of our army in India show that in the new
+barracks, with more careful supervision as regards diet and clothing, the
+sickness and death-rates are much reduced. Planters and others, who ride
+about a good deal, as a rule keep in fairly good health; but the children
+of Europeans certainly degenerate, and after two or three generations die
+out, unless they intermarry with natives, and make frequent visits to
+colder climates. This fact shows that hot climates, probably by
+interfering with the due performance of the various processes concerned in
+the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues, eventually sap the
+foundations of life among Europeans; but how far this result has been
+caused by bad habits as regards food, exercise, and self-indulgence, I
+cannot say. Rapid changes of temperature in this country are often very
+injurious to the young and old, causing diarrhoea and derangements of the
+liver when great heat occurs, and inflammatory diseases of the lungs,
+colds, etc., when the air becomes suddenly colder, even in summer.
+
+The _direct_ influence of rain on man is not very marked in this country,
+except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation from the ground and
+from vegetable life, and by altering the level of ground water. This is a
+subject almost overlooked by the public, and it is therefore as well that
+it should be known that when ground water has a level persistently less
+than five feet from the surface of the soil, the locality is usually
+unhealthy, and should not, if possible, be selected for a residence.
+Fluctuations in the level of ground water, especially if great and sudden,
+generally cause ill-health among the residents. Thus, Dr. Buchanan in his
+reports to the Privy Council in 1866-1867, showed that consumption (using
+the word in its most extended sense) is more prevalent in damp than on dry
+soils, and numerous reports of medical officers of health, and others,
+which have been published since then, show that an effective drainage of
+the land, and consequent carrying away of the ground water, has been
+followed by a diminution of these diseases.
+
+Varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the health and
+comfort of man. In this country, however, it is not only the absolute but
+the relative proportions of aerial moisture which materially influence
+mankind. The quantity of aqueous vapor that a cubic foot of air can hold
+in suspension, when it is saturated, varies very much with the
+temperature. Thus at 40 degrees Fahr. it will hold 2.86 grains of water;
+at 50 degrees, 4.10 grains; at 60 degrees, 5.77 grains; at 70 degrees,
+8.01 grains; and at 90 degrees as much as 14.85 grains. If saturation be
+represented by 100, more rapid evaporation from the skin will take place
+at 70 degrees, and 75 per cent. of saturation, than at 60 degrees when
+saturated, although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is
+greater at the first named temperature than at the latter. As regards the
+lungs, however, the case is different, as the air breathed out is, if the
+respirations be regular and fairly deep, completely saturated with
+moisture at the temperature of the body. In cold climates the amount of
+moisture and of the effete matters given off from the lungs in the expired
+air is much greater than in hot climates, and the body is also cooled by
+the evaporation of water in the form of aqueous vapor. Moist air is a
+better conductor of heat than dry air, which accounts for much of the
+discomfort felt in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the
+feeling of elasticity when the air is dry. In cold weather, therefore,
+moist air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air, and
+colds consequently result. London fogs are injurious, not only on account
+of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal, but in
+consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated with moisture
+at a low temperature. The injuriousness of fogs and low temperatures will
+be presently dwelt upon at greater length.
+
+Variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere exert a
+considerable influence on the circulation of air contained in the soil,
+which is called ground air. As all the interstices of the ground are
+filled with air or water, the more porous the soil, the greater is the
+bulk of air. The quantity of air contained in soil varies very much
+according to the material of which the soil is composed, as it is evident
+that in a gravelly or sandy soil it must be greater than when the ground
+consists of loam or clay. The estimates vary from 3 to 30 per cent., but
+the latter is probably too high. If, therefore, a cesspool leak into the
+ground, the offensive effluvia, if in large quantities, will escape into
+the soil, and are given off at the surface of the ground, or are drawn
+into a house by the fire; but, if small, they are rendered innocuous by
+oxidation. The distance to which injurious gases and suspended or
+dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous soil is sometimes
+considerable, as I have known it pass for 130 feet along a disused drain,
+and above 30 feet through loose soil.
+
+Winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and indirectly.
+Directly, by promoting evaporation from the skin, and abstracting heat
+from the body in proportion to their dryness and rapidity of motion. Their
+indirect action is more important, as the temperature and pressure of the
+air depend to a great extent on their direction. Thus winds from the north
+in this country are usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry
+weather; in summer with a pleasant feeling, but in winter with much cold.
+Southwest winds are the most frequent here of any, as about 24 per cent.
+of the winds come from this quarter against 161/2 from the west, 111/2 from
+the east, and the same from the northeast; 101/2 from the south, 8 from the
+north, and a smaller number from the other quarters. Southwest winds are
+also those which are most frequently accompanied by rain, as about 30 per
+cent. of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds. Another set
+of observations give precisely the same order, but a considerable
+difference in their prevalence, viz., southwest 31 per cent., west 141/2,
+and northeast 111/2 per cent. Easterly winds are the most unpleasant, as
+well as the most injurious to man of all that occur in this country.
+
+I now propose discussing very briefly the known relations between
+meteorological phenomena and disease. I say the known relations, because
+it is evident that there are many unknown relations of which at present we
+have had the merest glimpse. For instance, small-pox, while of an ordinary
+type, and producing only a comparatively small proportion of deaths to
+those attacked, will sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form, and
+spread with great rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological
+conditions when it usually declines in frequency. There are, however, in
+this country known relations between the temperature and, I may say,
+almost all diseases. As far back as 1847 I began a series of elaborate
+investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at different periods of
+the year, and the relations between this disease and the heat, moisture,
+and electricity of the air. I then showed that a mean monthly temperature
+below 44.6 deg. F. was adverse to the spread of this disease, that the
+greatest relative decrease took place when the mean temperature was below
+40 deg., and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months having
+a mean temperature of between 45 deg. and 57 deg. F. Diseases of the lungs,
+excluding consumption, are fatal in proportion to the lowness of the
+temperature and the presence of excess of moisture and fog. Thus, in
+January, 1882, the mean weekly temperature fell from 43.9 deg. F. in the
+second week to 36.2 deg. in the third, with fog and mist. The number of deaths
+registered in London during the third week, which may be taken as
+corresponding with the meteorological conditions of the second week, was
+1,700, and in the next week 1,971. Unusual cold, with frequent fogs and
+little sunshine, continued for four weeks, the weekly number of deaths
+rising from 1,700 to 1,971, 2,023, 2,632, and 2,188. The deaths from
+acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were respectively 279, 481,
+566, 881, and 689, showing that a large proportion of the excessive
+mortality was caused by these diseases. At the end of November and in
+December of the same year there was a rapid fall of temperature, when the
+number of deaths from acute diseases of the lungs rose from 297 to 358,
+350, 387, 541, 553, and 389 in the respective weeks. From November 29 to
+December 9 the sun was seen only on two days for 41/2 hours, and from
+December 9 to the 18th also on two other days for less than 4 hours,
+making the total amount of sunshine 8.1 hours only in 20 days. In January
+and February the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases reached the
+large number of 504 deaths; in December it was less, the fogs not having
+been so dense, but the excess equaled 246 deaths per week.
+
+The relations between a high summer temperature and excessive mortality
+from diarrhoea have long been well known, but the immediate cause of the
+disease as an epidemic is not known. Summer diarrhoea prevails to a greater
+extent in certain localities, notably in Leicester (and has done so for
+years); and the cause has been carefully sought for, but has not been
+found out. Recent researches, however, point to a kind of bacillus as the
+immediate cause, as it has been found in the air of water-closets, in the
+traps under the pans, and in the discharges from infants and young
+children. In order to indicate more readily how intimately the mortality
+from diarrhoea depends on temperature, I now lay before you a table showing
+the mean temperature for ten weeks in summer, of seven cold and hot
+summers, the temperature of Thames water, and the death-rates of infants
+under one year per million population of London:
+
+_London.--Deaths under 1 Year, in July, August, and part of
+September, from Diarrhoea per 1,000,000 Population Living
+at all Ages, arranged in the Order of Mortality._
+
+                                      Age 0-1 year.
+           Mean       Temperature  Deaths from Diarrhoea
+Years.  temperature,   of Thames       per 1,000,000
+         10 weeks.      water.     population living at
+                                       all ages.
+1860       58.1 deg.         60.6 deg.             151
+1862       59.0          62.0              189
+1879       58.7          60.7              228
+1877       61.2          63.3              347
+1874       61.7          63.8              447
+1878       63.7          64.1              576
+1876       64.4          64.9              643
+
+As may be seen, the deaths of infants under 1 year of age from diarrhoea
+per 1,000,000 population was only 151; while the mean summer temperature
+was only 58.1 deg. F. against 189 in 1862, when the mean temperature was
+59.0 deg.. In 1879, when the mean temperature was 58.7 deg., the deaths from
+diarrhoea rose to 228 per million, but a few days were unusually hot. In
+1877 the mean temperature of the air was 61.2 deg., of the Thames water 63.3 deg.,
+and the mortality of infants from diarrhoea 347 per million population. In
+1874, when the mean temperature of the air was 61.7 deg., the mortality rose
+to 447 per million; and in the hot summers of 1878 and 1876, when the mean
+air temperatures were 64.1 deg. and 64.9 deg. respectively, the death-rates of
+infants were 576 and 642 per million population. The relations, therefore,
+between a high summer temperature and the mortality from diarrhoea in
+infants are very intimate. I have selected the mortality among infants in
+preference to that at all ages, as the deaths occur more quickly, and
+because young children suffer in greater proportion than other persons.
+
+The proportionate number of deaths at _all ages_ from diarrhoea corresponds
+pretty closely with those of infants. To prove this, I made calculations
+for three years, and ascertained that only 3.9 per cent. of all the deaths
+from this disease were registered in the weeks having a temperature of
+less than 50 deg.; 11.9 per cent. in the weeks having a temperature between
+50 deg. and 60 deg.; while in the comparatively few weeks in which the temperature
+exceeded 60 deg. F., as many as 84.2 per cent. of the total number of deaths
+was registered. In the sixteen years, 1840-56, for which many years ago I
+made a special inquiry, only 18.9 per cent. of all the deaths from
+diarrhoea occurred in winter and spring, against 81.1 per cent. in summer
+and autumn. In the twenty years, 1860-79, there were seven years in which
+the summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per 100,000
+inhabitants of London was 200; while in ten summers, during which the
+temperature was in excess by 2 deg. or less, the mortality was 317 per
+100,000. The mean temperature was largely in excess, that is to say, more
+than 2 deg. plus in three of these summers, when the mortality reached 339 per
+100,000 inhabitants.
+
+These figures show that great care should be taken in hot weather to
+prevent diarrhoea, especially among young children; by frequent washing
+with soap and water to insure cleanliness, and proper action of the skin;
+by great attention to the food, especially of infants fed from the bottle;
+free ventilation of living rooms, and especially of bedrooms; and by
+protection, as far as possible, being afforded from a hot sun, as well as
+by avoiding excessive exercise. All animal and vegetable matter should be
+removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible
+(indeed, these should be burnt instead of being put in the dust-bin), the
+drains should be frequently disinfected and well flushed out, especially
+when the mean daily temperature of the air is above 60 deg. F.
+
+Time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations between
+meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other diseases and
+affections, such as apoplexy from heat, sunstroke, liver diseases, yellow
+fever, cholera, whooping-cough, measles, etc., especially as the state of
+our knowledge on the subject is so very limited. A comparison between the
+mortality from several diseases in this and other countries shows that
+certain of these do not prevail under closely corresponding conditions.
+Thus the curves of mortality from whooping-cough, typhoid fever, and
+scarlet fever do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both
+London and New York, and the same may be said of diarrhoea in India. It is
+therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying
+temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased death-rate
+from these diseases. The subject is of great importance, and I do not
+despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the agents through which
+meteorological phenomena act in the production of increased and decreased
+death rates from certain diseases, and the means by which, to a certain
+extent, these injurious effects on man may be presented.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+P. Rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide diminishes
+the sensibility of the cortical substance of the cerebrum to electric
+excitement, while, the excitability of the underlying white substance
+remains unaltered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONSUMPTION SPREAD BY CHICKENS.
+
+
+In a village, C., near Weimar, where for many years no case of tubercular
+phthisis had taken place, two years ago several families suddenly
+discovered one of their members to be suffering from the disease. After a
+long inquiry, it was discovered by accident that all these families had
+been buying their spring chickens from one and the same place, viz., from
+a private hospital in the neighborhood. A medical student brought the
+livers of two such chickens to Prof. Johne, in Dresden. The student, whose
+own sister had become affected with consumption, had lived during his
+vacation at home with his parents, in C., and he had there at dinner
+observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens.
+
+On examination, both organs were found to be full of tubercular bacilli. A
+thorough investigation was at once instituted, and it was then that the
+fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the families, members of
+which had been affected with tuberculosis, had all been brought from the
+institution mentioned. On further inquiry at the latter place the
+following facts were elicited:
+
+At about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in the
+village, an inmate or the hospital, Mrs. R., had died of the disease.
+Before her death, Mrs. R. used to feed the chickens raised there; she was
+often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it to the chickens.
+Further, the spittoons were emptied on a place in the yard where the
+chickens generally came to pick up any stray corn.
+
+As none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in the
+neighborhood--the hospital being situated at a considerable distance from
+the village--as no disease had happened among them until the arrival of
+Mrs. R., when soon after an epidemic seemed to break out among them, and
+many died, there is no doubt that they contracted the disease from Mrs.
+R., and in return infected those who ate their flesh.
+
+The case is very interesting, first, as it proves how such animals may
+become affected, then how they may spread the disease, and lastly, that
+some kind of a disposition must exist in the person infected; for here, of
+many who had eaten of the diseased flesh, only a few contracted the
+malady. The whole report teaches us how careful we have to be, and how
+necessary is the appointment of skillful experts by the State to inspect
+all food offered for sale.--_Med. and Surg. Reporter._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW METHOD OF REDUCING FEVER.
+
+
+For many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly through the
+vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by means of which the high
+temperature often prevailing in typhoid, malarial, and other fevers might
+be reduced with rapidity and safety to the patient. A few substances have
+been found which produce a decline in temperature when administered in
+enormous and frequently repeated doses; but such administration has often
+been found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient, producing not
+infrequently serious injury to the stomach, kidneys, and sometimes the
+nervous system. So great is the danger of such injurious results, few
+careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic "antipyretic"
+medication recommended by experimenters, preferring to allow their
+patients to burn with fever, mitigated only by such simple means as are
+commonly employed by nurses, than to require them to combat the poisonous
+influences of a drug in addition to the morbid element of the disease.
+
+Happily, however, it is not necessary to leave the patient to the unaided
+efforts of nature. By cool sponging of the surface, persistently and
+thoroughly applied; by large, cool compresses placed over the abdomen and
+chest, or even the whole front of the body, and changed as often as warm,
+or every three to five minutes; by frequently repeated cool packs; by cold
+water drinking; by ice-packs to the spine; by constant application of ice
+or frozen compresses to the head; by forcing perspiration by copious hot
+drinks and a warm blanket pack--by any or all of these means the
+temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every case. However,
+cases will now and then occur in which the temperature remains dangerously
+high, notwithstanding the thorough application of the above means. What
+shall be done?
+
+Several years ago our attention was called to a series of experiments made
+by Dr. Winternitz, Professor of Hydropathy in the Medical University of
+Vienna, for the purpose of determining the influence upon temperature of
+enemas of water of different temperature in cases of fever. The results
+claimed by Prof. Winternitz were so striking that we improved the first
+opportunity to repeat his experiments, and with such results as have
+justified the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in
+fever, in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient. The
+only objection we have found to the method has been the inconvenience to
+the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the bed-pan. In a recent
+case in which we found it necessary to resort to this method, the nurse
+observed that if the tin can of the fountain syringe used in administering
+the enema happened to be lowered below the level of the bed on which the
+patient lay, water which had previously been introduced into the rectum
+returned readily through the tube into the can. On learning this fact, the
+attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way. From one to
+two pints of water, of 70 deg. or 75 deg. F. temperature, were allowed to pass
+into the bowels; and after being retained for five or ten minutes, or
+until the patient experienced uncomfortable sensations, it was made to
+pass out through the tube by simply lowering the reservoir to the level of
+the floor. A new supply of water of a proper temperature being introduced
+into the reservoir, it was again raised to the proper height, and the
+operation so continued until six quarts of water had been used. Then the
+patient was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour, according to the
+height of the fever, and the same process was repeated. Careful record was
+made of the temperature of the patient just before the treatment and
+immediately after. It was found to be invariably reduced from one to one
+and a half degrees by each treatment. The temperature, which had been
+exceedingly obstinate previous to the employment of this method, ranging
+from 104 deg. to 105 deg., during the intervals between the treatments would, of
+course, rise somewhat; but each time it stopped short of the point reached
+during the previous interval, so that in the course of a few hours the
+fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature. The
+temperature of the water, when taken after passing through the bowels, was
+found to have risen each time from 10 deg. to 13 deg..
+
+The great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of the most
+useful of all substances for lowering the temperature; and it is readily
+apparent that, by the means described, heat may be abstracted from the
+body almost _ad libitum_, and the temperature may thus be controlled with
+a rapidity and a degree of certainty which cannot be approached by any
+other method. In a still more recent case, in which the same treatment was
+employed, the temperature of the patient had reached 106 deg. F., in spite of
+the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment, such as cold
+compresses, etc.; but it was, in four or five hours, brought down to
+nearly 100 deg. by the use of the cold enemas.
+
+The advantages of this method are: 1. It may be employed without wetting
+or moving the patient; very frequently a patient will sleep continuously
+during the administration of the treatment. 2. It seldom causes
+chilliness, which is frequently a disturbing symptom, especially in fevers
+of a low type, and even, when the temperature is alarmingly high, causing
+the patient to dread the employment of sponging with cool or tepid water.
+3. It is not necessary to employ cold water, a temperature of 80 deg. or even
+85 deg. being thoroughly efficient. In the majority of cases, however, water
+of 70 deg. or even 60 deg. may be employed without danger. The water comes in such
+immediate contact with surfaces filled with large blood-vessels that a
+temperature but a few degrees below that of the body is more effective
+than very much colder water applied to the surface.
+
+In cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by chilliness,
+this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by the application of a
+hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the pit of the stomach.
+
+The simple measures of treatment we have described will be found more
+effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other remedies which
+have ever been recommended for this purpose.--_Good Health._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1.--THE CROWN DIAMONDS OF FRANCE AT THE EXHIBITION
+OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS.]
+
+According to a recent law of Parliament, a large part of the crown jewels
+of France is destined to be sold. The exhibit that has been made of these
+riches for the last two months at the National Exhibition of the
+Industrial Arts, in the State Hall of the Louvre, has excited a lively
+interest among the visitors. Here are to be seen, heaped up in a large
+octagonal show-case, incomparable treasures, whose value exceeds quite a
+number of millions. According to the inventory of 1818, the 52,000
+precious stones of the crown of France were estimated as worth more than
+20 million francs ($4,000,000); but since that epoch the stones have
+increased in number, and money has singularly diminished in value, so that
+the total at present would be much less.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--THE REGENT. (Actual Size.)]
+
+In order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was necessary to
+take precautions against thieves and fire, and this was done in a very
+sure and ingenious manner. The collection of crown jewels is distributed
+over the eight faces of an octagonal truncated cone, which is supported by
+a framework about three feet in height at the lower part. The stand is
+exhibited every day, at ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening,
+under an elegant octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of
+Fortune by Barbedienne. The whole is covered with a canopy, as shown in
+Fig. 1.
+
+A force of guardians of the Treasury is detailed to watch over the crown
+jewels, and it is to them that is confided the care of operating in the
+morning and evening the safety mechanism that we shall describe. The
+object of this mechanism is to lower into and lift out of the strong-box
+the entire stand with all its jewels.
+
+A winch, shown at A to the right of the engraving, sets in motion a system
+of gear wheels keyed at an angle, at B and C, upon intermediate shafts
+that transmit motion to the four vertical threaded rods of the frame, D.
+All these shaftings are 11/2 inch in diameter, and the cog-wheels, twenty in
+number, are about 5 inches in diameter.
+
+The well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick, and is 20 inches
+thick and 6 feet high. In the center of this masonry is embedded very
+thick iron plate. The bottom of the well is isolated from the flooring of
+the Exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler plate, by a filling of tire
+bricks, and finally by a second thickness of boiler plate. The well is
+closed by means of a large plate of iron 6 inches thick, 10 feet in
+length, and 88 feet in width. The winch which maneuvers this mass is
+placed at E. It actuates a system of bevel wheels, keyed at F, which
+transmit motion to two horizontal screws (hidden under the stage) that
+actuate the plate, H. This latter is provided with two parallel series of
+five rollers each that revolve over long and strong pieces of wood covered
+with rails. Electric alarms are located near the winches.
+
+A fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen feet of the
+exhibition building.
+
+A committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has been
+appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to indicate such as
+should be withheld from sale on account of their scientific, artistic, or
+historic interest. The members of the committee propose to preserve the
+following objects:
+
+1. The "Regent" (Fig. 2), by reason of its mineralogical value, the
+perfection of its cutting, the purity of its water, its incomparable
+luster, and its great size, it being the largest brilliant as yet known.
+
+2. The military sword of Charles the Tenth's coronation, the hilt of which
+is entirely of brilliants mounted by Bapst with wonderful art.
+
+3. The jewel called the "Reliquary," of the 15th century.
+
+To these riches must be added the following interesting objects: the Dey
+of Algiers' watch; the Elephant of Denmark; the decorations, etc., of
+foreign orders; crowns and diadems of sapphire; rubies; pearls that afford
+curious specimens of French art at the beginning of our century; one of
+the Mazarins bequeathed by the celebrated Cardinal; and lots of colored
+stones destined for our national museums.
+
+The same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other
+collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over in
+silence, such as the exhibit of the French diamond mines of the Cape,
+where one may see all the details of this prosperous exploitation by means
+of photographs and specimens. The art bronzes, the objects of jewelry, of
+goldsmith's work, and of morocco work, the music boxes, Trouve's and
+Aboilard's electric jewelry, and the retrospective art collections
+especially attracted the attention of the public.--_La Nature._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A NEW MODE OF TESTING THE ECONOMY OF THE EXPENSES OF MANAGEMENT IN
+LIFE INSURANCE.
+
+
+How to determine the general ratios of the expenses of management of life
+insurance companies has hitherto been an unsettled question, and I think
+no serious attempt has been made before my own to study this question
+exhaustively, and reach a scientific conclusion.
+
+Believing that, one is contained in the following statement, I
+respectfully submit it to the criticism of others.
+
+It has generally been taken for granted that the measure of economy of
+life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single ratio of expenses
+to one feature of the business, such as the premium income, or the total
+income (premium and interest), or the mean amount of all policies
+outstanding. But this is not the case. No exhaustive reason has been shown
+for preferring one of these bases of ratio to another, and, indeed, no
+reason well supported by argument has been shown for employing either. On
+the other hand, no better evidence is needed of the importance of
+establishing a uniform and demonstrably sound basis, than the fact that it
+is common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior
+economy, and totally confuse the public, by opposing ratios found in one
+way by ratios found in another--that one of two companies which appears
+the most economical according to one test being apparently the least so
+according to another.
+
+The economy of the expense of any transaction, or work, can only be
+intelligently judged by the value of the _result_. This truth is too well
+recognized to need illustration, and it only needs to be called to mind,
+to perceive both the error of ratios of expense based on premium, which is
+not the result but the _raw material_, so to speak, of insurance
+transactions; and what, on the contrary, the true basis is.
+
+It is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must be judged,
+not by comparison with the premiums paid, but by comparison specifically
+with the resulting advantages in fact secured by such payments. Now these
+are of two kinds: which may be called the _insurance advantage_ and the
+_investment advantage_.
+
+(1) Each death claim paid is an insurance advantage, though it is so only
+to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy which has become a
+claim over its premium reserve, or value, for the latter being the balance
+(with interest) of the policy holder's own premium money, could have been
+left or secured to his representatives without the intervention of the
+policy and company.
+
+It is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not consist in
+adding anything to the wealth of a company, but only consists in drawing
+from the premiums paid into its treasury by the policy holders generally,
+to meet each death claim which arises; or can only be called an _advantage
+of distribution_, or process of collecting aid from the living members, to
+assist the representatives or dependents of the deceased ones; but it is
+not the less on this account an advantage worth _same expense_ in
+securing.
+
+(2) Interest realized by the investment of premium while it is in the
+keeping of a company is an advantage; in every sense so, since it comes
+wholly from outside sources, and accrues proportionally to all members; it
+may be called, as above, the investment advantage, and of course justifies
+some _expense_ to secure it.
+
+Hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given; time must be
+divided into two parts, one being the expense incidental to insurance, and
+the other that incidental to investment, which parts are to be compared
+respectively with the insurance claims met, and interest receipts of the
+company for the same time; or what is equivalent in the latter case, the
+net rate of interest earned after deducting the incidental investment
+expense may be found.
+
+When this process shows that one company has earned a higher rate of
+interest than another, at the same time that its insurance expenses bear a
+lower ratio to its insurance claims paid, _there is no escape from the
+conclusion that during the period under observation it has served its
+policy-holders more economically_, and the test is therefore scientific.
+Though, if one company shows a higher rate of interest, while the other
+shows a lower ratio of insurance expense, it will still be necessary, to
+complete the test, to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of
+insurance expense (it does not practically matter which), and note how
+this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the other score.
+
+To be exact, if the average vitality of the members of the two companies
+differ (other things being equal, it is always cheapest to belong to that
+company which has the lowest death rate), the ratios of insurance expense
+to expected, as well as actual, claims of each must be found, and equated.
+
+The science of this procedure, or mode of testing expenses, and also its
+practical simplicity, may be more clearly perceived by reference to its
+practical application in the following table:
+
+_Table Exhibiting Ratio of Expense, Determined by the New Mode, of Companies
+Doing Business in Massachusetts during the Year 1883._
+___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |         |           |           |
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |Expense  |           |           |Net Rate
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |per $100 |           |           |   of
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |of claims|           |           |interest
+                   |     |   Death   |Estimated |Difference |Expense    |paid.    | Interest  |  Expense  | earned.
+Name of Company.   |Loca-|   claims  |Premiums. | or Net    | on the    |---------| Receipts. |  on the   |--------
+                   |tion.|   paid.   | Reserve  |Insurance  |score of   | R   | R |           | score of  | R  | R
+                   |     |           | thereon. |furnished. |Insurance. | a   | a |           |investment.| a  | a
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | t   | n |           |           | t  | n
+                   |     |           |          |           |           | e.  | k.|           |           | e. | k.
+-------------------+-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------|----|---
+Berkshire          |Mass.|   $208,147|   $46,605|   $161,524|   $122,779| 75.4| 14|   $194,067|    $15,809|5.25| 16
+[1]John Hancock    |  "  |    169,604|    25,117|    144,487| [8]228,566|158.2| 24|    135,597|     11,686|3.65| 26
+Mass. Mutual       |  "  |    426,995|    86,215|    340,780|    232,400| 68.2| 10|    428,255|     33,176|6.03|  7
+N. England Mutual  |  "  |  1,039,694|   235,630|    804,064|    311,879| 38.8|  3|    995,883|     69,908|6.40|  4
+State Mutual       |  "  |    121,969|    22,493|     99,476|     98,839| 99.4| 19|    143,751|     13,057|4.51| 24
+AEtna               |Conn.|  1,302,807|   364,510|    938,297|    460,014| 49.0|  6|  1,760,372|    118,962|6.22|  5
+Connecticut General|  "  |     87,639|    15,624|     72,015|     46,113| 64.0|  9|     95,580|      5,407|7.03|  1
+     "      Mutual |  "  |  2,867,489|   881,600|  1,985,889|    622,941| 31.4|  1|  3,041,125|    238,944|5.70| 10
+Equitable          | N.Y.|  3,072,232|   483,950|  2,588,282|  1,884,108| 72.8| 12|  2,743,024|    216,725|5.42| 12
+Germania           |  "  |    606,072|   149,950|    456,122|    325,662| 71.4| 11|    508,702|     47,193|4.85| 22
+Home               |  "  |    205,921|    48,603|    157,318|    155,192| 98.6| 18|    260,506|     19,917|4.86| 21
+Homoeopathic       |  "  |     35,610|     6,340|     29,270|     48,734|166.5| 25|     42,814|      2,935|6.20|  6
+Manhattan          |  "  |    687,171|   183,450|    503,721|    266,305| 44.9|  5|    627,628|     44,081|5.82|  8
+[7]Metropolitan    |  "  |    638,639|    18,322|    620,317|  1,161,893|187.3| 26|    106,916|      9,098|4.90| 20
+Mutual Life        |  "  |  5,172,275| 1,407,700|  3,764,575|  1,480,198| 39.3|  4|  5,042,964|    466,739|5.01| 19
+Mutual Benefit     | N.J.|  2,160,991|   550,890|  1,610,101|    521,829| 32.4|  2|  2,072,629|    169,913|5.61| 11
+National           | Vt. |    174,767|    29,127|    145,640|     77,861| 53.5|  7|    149,010|     10,100|5.26| 15
+New York Life      | N.Y.|  2,408,636|   574,150|  1,834,484|  1,995,102|108.8| 21|  2,676,592|    236,884|5.03| 18
+Northwest'n Mutual | Wis.|    990,692|   190,500|    800,192|    630,582| 78.8| 15|  1,200,001|     88,527|5.80|  9
+Penn. Mutual       |Penn.|    601,625|   107,600|    494,025|    309,858| 62.7|  8|    463,567|     37,131|5.38| 13
+Provident Life and |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+   Trust           |  "  |    280,817|    49,865|    230,952|    222,665| 96.4| 17|    340,115|     33,294|4.26| 25
+Provident Savings  | N.Y.|     24,875|     1,828|     23,047|     51,608|233.9| 27|      4,955|      2,579|1.70| 27
+Travelers'         |Conn.|    235,001|    42,243|    192,758|    144,621| 75.0| 13|    331,623|     22,476|6.42|  3
+Union Mutual       |Maine|    377,547|    88,520|    289,027|    237,913| 82.3| 16|    301,499|     28,754|4.66| 23
+United States      | N.Y.|    283,304|    69,245|    214,059|    277,919|129.8| 23|    271,594|     23,460|5.09| 17
+Vermont            | Vt. |     13,000|     1,542|     11,458|     13,613|118.8| 22|     12,917|        822|5.33| 14
+Washington         | N.Y.|    356,289|    71,820|    284,469|    289,461|101.8| 20|    446,998|     32,249|6.78|  2
+                   |     |           |          |           |           |     |   |           |           |    |
+                   +-----+-----------+----------+-----------+-----------+-----+---+-----------+-----------+----+---
+   Totals          |     |$24,549,808|$5,753,439|$18,796,369|$12,177,655| 64.8|   |$24,398,684| $1,999,826|5.42|
+
+_Collective Business of Assessment Societies Doing Business in the State (excepting Secret Societies_).
+
+46 Societies       |     |   $735,383|          |           |   $237,770| 32.3|   |           |           |    |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+[Footnote 7: Including industrial business.]
+
+[Footnote 8: Includes $18.867 depreciation.]
+
+The figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual report of
+the Insurance Commissioner of Massachusetts, excepting the premium reserve
+on death claims, which, as well as the division of the total expenses of
+each company into insurance and investment expenses, I have estimated on a
+uniform rule. This was for lack of the actual data in these particulars,
+which the report did not give, as it is desirable that future ones may.
+
+This, however, does not injure the value of the table for illustrating the
+mode of procedure, for which purpose mainly it is presented. The companies
+whose figures I have used, moreover, have no occasion to complain of this,
+as my estimate certainly gives all ratios of insurance expense lower than
+they would appear if I had known, and used, the exact actual premium
+reserve on death claims, and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to
+each other as they would in that case.
+
+As the object of this statement is to explain the new method, and not to
+defend my particular estimates in applying it, I forbear to state on what
+rules I have made them. Expense which is not ascribed to insurance must be
+ascribed to investment, and as in comparing any two companies, their two
+ratios of one kind or the other must be equated, to decide the question of
+economy between them, it may well be left to any company to say what the
+fair division of its own expenses is.
+
+Moreover, there can be but little motive to make a false division; for to
+successfully compete for business, a company having large investments has
+as much need to show a high net rate of interest earned as a low rate of
+insurance expense. Again, it is not my purpose to pass judgment on the
+economy or extravagance of any ratio of expense shown in the table. It is
+not a fact exhibited for the first time by my figures, that the ratios of
+some companies are more than double those of others. The same fact would
+be displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium income,
+or any other incorrect basis. Custom, the balance of opinions, and
+competition may well be left to decide what ratios of expense are high,
+and what are average, or low. And their decision is to be gathered only
+from _statistics_.
+
+What I do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein explained is
+the only intelligible and scientific one, and the only one proper to
+employ in _statistical tabulations_ and _investigations_.
+
+As such, it calls attention to the fact that the amount of insurance
+claims met, and of interest receipts, _are limits_ which the corresponding
+expenses cannot exceed, certainly for a series of years together, without
+making the _expense_ more than the _advantage_ of the business. To keep
+this fact in view, _as a preventive of extravagance_, is not the least
+valuable service the new mode may render. It may be seen that there are
+eight cases in the table, in which the ratio of insurance expense points
+to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in the same time, yet the
+reader need not hasten to conclude that the same companies will
+permanently show similar ratios, or have no good reasons to give for the
+ones which now appear. I may remark, however, that it is an evidence of
+the scientific mode in which the figures are presented, that it
+facilitates such explanations as are pertinent of any of the ratios.
+
+For instance, some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the fact that
+the claims for the year of the company in question have been exceptionally
+high or low, or that the company (being of recent organization perhaps)
+has just incurred exceptional expense to increase its business, the
+advantage of which will appear later, etc. But I leave to the companies
+themselves to show to what extent such circumstances have affected their
+ratios; except that, in regard to the several net rates of interest
+earned, it is proper to say that in all cases in which they considerably
+exceed the average of 5.42 per cent. it will be found, by referring to the
+details of interest receipts reported to the Commissioner, that the excess
+is owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks, or
+recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss.
+
+WALTER C. WRIGHT.
+
+Medford, Mass., Sept., 1884.
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