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diff --git a/1397-h/1397-h.htm b/1397-h/1397-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8be9c18 --- /dev/null +++ b/1397-h/1397-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12425 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Ruins, by C. F. Volney, + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1397 ***</div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE RUINS, + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + OR, MEDITATION ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF EMPIRES: <br /> AND <br /> THE LAW OF + NATURE, <br /> <br /> by C. F. VOLNEY, + </h2> + <h4> + COMTE ET PAIR DE FRANCE. COMMANDEUR DE LA LEGION D'HONNEUR, MEMBRE DE<br /> + L'ACADEMIE FRANCAISE, ET DE PLUSIEURS AUTRES SOCIETES SAVANTES. <br /> + DEPUTY TO THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY OF 1789, AND AUTHOR OF "TRAVELS IN EGYPT + AND SYRIA," "NEW RESEARCHES ON ANCIENT HISTORY," ETC.<br /> <br /> <br /> TO + WHICH IS ADDED <br /> <br /> VOLNEY'S ANSWER TO DR. PRIESTLY, A BIOGRAPHICAL + NOTICE BY COUNT DARU, AND THE ZODIACAL SIGNS AND CONSTELLATIONS BY THE + EDITOR. + </h4> + <blockquote> + <p> + I will cherish in remembrance the love of man, I will employ myself on + the means of effecting good for him, and build my own happiness on the + promotion of his.—Volney. + </p> + </blockquote> + <h4> + NEW YORK, TWENTIETH CENTURY PUB. CO., 4 WARREN ST. 1890. + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + PUBLISHER'S PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + Having recently purchased a set of stereotyped plates of Volney's Ruins, + with a view of reprinting the same, I found, on examination, that they + were considerably worn by the many editions that had been printed from + them and that they greatly needed both repairs and corrections. A careful + estimate showed that the amount necessary for this purpose would go far + towards reproducing this standard work in modern type and in an improved + form. After due reflection this course was at length decided upon, and all + the more readily, as by discarding the old plates and resetting the entire + work, the publisher was enabled to greatly enhance its value, by inserting + the translator's preface as it appeared in the original edition, and also + to restore many notes and other valuable material which had been + carelessly omitted in the American reprint. + </p> + <p> + An example of an important omission of this kind may be found on the + fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth pages of this volume, which may be + appropriately referred to, in this connection. It is there stated, in + describing the ancient kingdom of Ethiopia, and the ruins of Thebes, her + opulent metropolis, that "There a people, now forgotten, discovered, while + others were yet barbarians, the elements of the arts and sciences. A race + of men, now rejected from society for their sable skin and frizzled hair, + founded on the study of the laws of nature, those civil and religious + systems which still govern the universe." + </p> + <p> + A voluminous note, in which standard authorities are cited, seems to prove + that this statement is substantially correct, and that we are in reality + indebted to the ancient Ethiopians, to the fervid imagination of the + persecuted and despised negro, for the various religious systems now so + highly revered by the different branches of both the Semitic and Aryan + races. This fact, which is so frequently referred to in Mr. Volney's + writings, may perhaps solve the question as to the origin of all + religions, and may even suggest a solution to the secret so long concealed + beneath the flat nose, thick lips, and negro features of the Egyptian + Sphinx. It may also confirm the statement of Dioderus, that "the + Ethiopians conceive themselves as the inventors of divine worship, of + festivals, of solemn assemblies, of sacrifices, and of every other + religious practice." + </p> + <p> + That an imaginative and superstitious race of black men should have + invented and founded, in the dim obscurity of past ages, a system of + religious belief that still enthralls the minds and clouds the intellects + of the leading representatives of modern theology,—that still clings + to the thoughts, and tinges with its potential influence the literature + and faith of the civilized and cultured nations of Europe and America, is + indeed a strange illustration of the mad caprice of destiny, of the + insignificant and apparently trivial causes that oft produce the most + grave and momentous results. + </p> + <p> + The translation here given closely follows that published in Paris by + Levrault, Quai Malaquais, in 1802, which was under the direction and + careful supervision of the talented author; and whatever notes Count + Volney then thought necessary to insert in his work, are here carefully + reproduced without abridgment or modification. + </p> + <p> + The portrait, maps and illustrations are from a French edition of Volney's + complete works, published by Bossange Freres at No. 12 Rue de Seine, + Paris, in 1821,—one year after the death of Mr. Volney. It is a + presentation copy "on the part of Madame, the Countess de Volney, and of + the nephew of the author," and it may therefore be taken for granted that + Mr. Volney's portrait, as here given, is correct, and was satisfactory to + his family. + </p> + <p> + An explanation of the figures and diagrams shown on the map of the + Astrological Heaven of the Ancients has been added in the appendix by the + publisher. + </p> + <p> + PETER ECKLER. + </p> + <p> + New York, January 3, 1890. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + </h2> + <h3> + OF THE ENGLISH EDITION PUBLISHED IN PARIS. + </h3> + <p> + To offer the public a new translation of Volney's Ruins may require some + apology in the view of those who are acquainted with the work only in the + English version which already exists, and which has had a general + circulation. But those who are conversant with the book in the author's + own language, and have taken pains to compare it with that version, must + have been struck with the errors with which the English performance + abounds. They must have regretted the loss of many original beauties, some + of which go far in composing the essential merits of the work. + </p> + <p> + The energy and dignity of the author's manner, the unaffected elevation of + his style, the conciseness, perspicuity and simplicity of his diction, are + everywhere suited to his subject, which is solemn, novel, luminous, + affecting,—a subject perhaps the most universally interesting to the + human race that has ever been presented to their contemplation. It takes + the most liberal and comprehensive view of the social state of man, + develops the sources of his errors in the most perspicuous and convincing + manner, overturns his prejudices with the greatest delicacy and + moderation, sets the wrongs he has suffered, and the rights he ought to + cherish, in the clearest point of view, and lays before him the true + foundation of morals—his only means of happiness. + </p> + <p> + As the work has already become a classical one, even in English, and as it + must become and continue to be so regarded in all languages in which it + shall be faithfully rendered, we wish it to suffer as little as possible + from a change of country;—that as much of the spirit of the original + be transfused and preserved as is consistent with the nature of + translation. + </p> + <p> + How far we have succeeded in performing this service for the English + reader we must not pretend to determine. We believe, however, that we have + made an improved translation, and this without claiming any particular + merit on our part, since we have had advantages which our predecessor had + not. We have been aided by his labors; and, what is of still more + importance, our work has been done under the inspection of the author, + whose critical knowledge of both languages has given us a great facility + in avoiding such errors as might arise from hurry or mistake. + </p> + <p> + Paris, November 1, 1802. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE OF THE LONDON EDITION.* + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Published by T. Allman, 42 Holborn Hill, London, 1851. +</pre> + <p> + The plan of this publication was formed nearly ten years ago; and + allusions to it may be seen in the preface to Travels in Syria and Egypt, + as well as at the end of that work, (published in 1787). The performance + was in some forwardness when the events of 1788 in France interrupted it. + Persuaded that a development of the theory of political truth could not + sufficiently acquit a citizen of his debt to society, the author wished to + add practice; and that particularly at a time when a single arm was of + consequence in the defence of the general cause. + </p> + <p> + The same desire of public benefit which induced him to suspend his work, + has since engaged him to resume it, and though it may not possess the same + merit as if it had appeared under the circumstances that gave rise to it, + yet he imagines that at a time when new passions are bursting forth,—passions + that must communicate their activity to the religious opinions of men,—it + is of importance to disseminate such moral truths as are calculated to + operate as a curb and restraint. It is with this view he has endeavored to + give to these truths, hitherto treated as abstract, a form likely to gain + them a reception. + </p> + <p> + It was found impossible not to shock the violent prejudices of some + readers; but the work, so far from being the fruit of a disorderly and + perturbed spirit, has been dictated by a sincere love of order and + humanity. + </p> + <p> + After reading this performance it will be asked, how it was possible in + 1784 to have had an idea of what did not take place till the year 1790? + The solution is simple. In the original plan the legislator was a + fictitious and hypothetical being: in the present, the author has + substituted an existing legislator; and the reality has only made the + subject additionally interesting. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF2" id="link2H_PREF2"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITION.* + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The copy from which this preface is reprinted was + published in Boston by Charles Gaylord, in 1833. It was + given to the writer, when a mere lad, by a lady—almost a + stranger—who was traveling through the little hamlet on the + banks of the Hudson where he then resided. This lady + assured me that the book was of great value, containing + noble and sublime truths; and the only condition she + attached to the gift was, that I should read it carefully + and endeavor to understand its meaning. This I willingly + promised and faithfully performed; and all who have "climbed + the heights," and escaped from the thraldom of superstitious + faith, will concede the inestimable value of such a gift— + rich with the peace and consolation that the truth imparts. + —Pub. +</pre> + <p> + If books were to be judged of by their volume, the following would have + but little value; if appraised by their contents, it will perhaps be + reckoned among the most instructive. + </p> + <p> + In general, nothing is more important than a good elementary book; but, + also, nothing is more difficult to compose and even to read: and why? + Because, as every thing in it should be analysis and definition, all + should be expressed with truth and precision. If truth and precision are + wanting, the object has not been attained; if they exist, its very force + renders it abstract. + </p> + <p> + The first of these defects has been hitherto evident in all books of + morality. We find in them only a chaos of incoherent maxims, precepts + without causes, and actions without a motive. The pedants of the human + race have treated it like a little child: they have prescribed to it good + behavior by frightening it with spirits and hobgoblins. Now that the + growth of the human race is rapid, it is time to speak reason to it; it is + time to prove to men that the springs of their improvement are to be found + in their very organization, in the interest of their passions, and in all + that composes their existence. It is time to demonstrate that morality is + a physical and geometrical science, subject to the rules and calculations + of the other mathematical sciences: and such is the advantage of the + system expounded in this book, that the basis of morality being laid in it + on the very nature of things, it is both constant and immutable; whereas, + in all other theological systems, morality being built upon arbritary + opinions, not demonstrable and often absurd, it changes, decays, expires + with them, and leaves men in an absolute depravation. It is true that + because our system is founded on facts and not on reveries, it will with + much greater difficulty be extended and adopted: but it will derive + strength from this very struggle, and sooner or later the eternal religion + of Nature must overturn the transient religions of the human mind. + </p> + <p> + This book was published for the first time in 1793, under the title of The + French Citizen's Catechism. It was at first intended for a national work, + but as it may be equally well entitled the Catechism of men of sense and + honor, it is to be hoped that it will become a book common to all Europe. + It is possible that its brevity may prevent it from attaining the object + of a popular classical work, but the author will be satisfied if he has at + least the merit of pointing out the way to make a better. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + ADVERTISEMENT OF THE AMERICAN EDITION. + </h2> + <h3> + VOLNEY'S RUINS; + </h3> + <p> + OR MEDITATION ON THE REVOLUTIONS OF EMPIRES. + </p> + <p> + The superior merits of this work are too well known to require + commendation; but as it is not generally known that there are in + circulation three English translations of it, varying materially in regard + to faithfulness and elegance of diction, the publisher of the present + edition inserts the following extracts for the information of purchasers + and readers: + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PARIS TRANSLATION, + </h2> + <h3> + First published in this Country by Dixon and Sickels. + </h3> + <p> + INVOCATION. + </p> + <p> + Hail, solitary ruins! holy sepulchres, and silent walls! you I invoke; to + you I address my prayer. While your aspect averts, with secret terror, the + vulgar regard, it excites in my heart the charm of delicious sentiments—sublime + contemplations. What useful lessons! what affecting and profound + reflections you suggest to him who knows how to consult you. When the + whole earth, in chains and silence, bowed the neck before its tyrants, you + had already proclaimed the truths which they abhor, and confounding the + dust of the king with that of the meanest slave, had announced to man the + sacred dogma of Equality! Within your pale, in solitary adoration of + Liberty, I saw her Genius arise from the mansions of the dead; not such as + she is painted by the impassioned multitude, armed with fire and sword, + but under the august aspect of justice, poising in her hand the sacred + balance, wherein are weighed the actions of men at the gates of eternity. + </p> + <p> + O Tombs! what virtues are yours! you appal the tyrant's heart, and poison + with secret alarm his impious joys; he flies, with coward step, your + incorruptible aspect, and erects afar his throne of insolence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LONDON TRANSLATION. + </h2> + <p> + INVOCATION. + </p> + <p> + Solitary ruins, sacred tombs, ye mouldering and silent walls, all hail! To + you I address my invocation. While the vulgar shrink from your aspect with + secret terror, my heart finds in the contemplation a thousand delicious + sentiments, a thousand admirable recollections. Pregnant, I may truly call + you, with useful lessons, with pathetic and irresistible advice to the man + who knows how to consult you. A while ago the whole world bowed the neck + in silence before the tyrants that oppressed it; and yet in that hopeless + moment you already proclaimed the truths that tyrants hold in abhorrence: + mixing the dust of the proudest kings with that of the meanest slaves, you + called upon us to contemplate this example of Equality. From your caverns, + whither the musing and anxious love of Liberty led me, I saw escape its + venerable shade, and with unexpected felicity, direct its flight and + marshal my steps the way to renovated France. + </p> + <p> + Tombs! what virtues and potency do you exhibit! Tyrants tremble at your + aspect—you poison with secret alarm their impious pleasures—they + turn from you with impatience, and, coward like, endeavor to forget you + amid the sumptuousness of their palaces. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PHILADELPHIA TRANSLATION. + </h2> + <p> + INVOCATION. + </p> + <p> + Hail, ye solitary ruins, ye sacred tombs, and silent walls! 'Tis your + auspicious aid that I invoke; 'tis to you my soul, wrapt in meditation, + pours forth its prayers! What though the profane and vulgar mind shrinks + with dismay from your august and awe-inspiring aspect; to me you unfold + the sublimest charms of contemplation and sentiment, and offer to my + senses the luxury of a thousand delicious and enchanting thoughts! How + sumptuous the feast to a being that has a taste to relish, and an + understanding to consult you! What rich and noble admonitions; what + exquisite and pathetic lessons do you read to a heart that is susceptible + of exalted feelings! When oppressed humanity bent in timid silence + throughout the globe beneath the galling yoke of slavery, it was you that + proclaimed aloud the birthright of those truths which tyrants tremble at + while they detect, and which, by sinking the loftiest head of the proudest + potentate, with all his boasted pageantry, to the level of mortality with + his meanest slave, confirmed and ratified by your unerring testimony the + sacred and immortal doctrine of Equality. + </p> + <p> + Musing within the precincts of your inviting scenes of philosophic + solitude, whither the insatiate love of true-born Liberty had led me, I + beheld her Genius ascending, not in the spurious character and habit of a + blood-thirsty Fury, armed with daggers and instruments of murder, and + followed by a frantic and intoxicated multitude, but under the placid and + chaste aspect of Justice, holding with a pure and unsullied hand the + sacred scales in which the actions of mortals are weighed on the brink of + eternity. + </p> + <p> + The first translation was made and published in London soon after the + appearance of the work in French, and, by a late edition, is still adopted + without alteration. Mr. Volney, when in this country in 1797, expressed + his disapprobation of this translation, alleging that the translator must + have been overawed by the government or clergy from rendering his ideas + faithfully; and, accordingly, an English gentleman, then in Philadelphia, + volunteered to correct this edition. But by his endeavors to give the true + and full meaning of the author with great precision, he has so overloaded + his composition with an exuberance of words, as in a great measure to + dissipate the simple elegance and sublimity of the original. Mr. Volney, + when he became better acquainted with the English language, perceived this + defect; and with the aid of our countryman, Joel Barlow, made and + published in Paris a new, correct, and elegant translation, of which the + present edition is a faithful and correct copy. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> PUBLISHER'S PREFACE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE OF THE LONDON EDITION.* </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF2"> PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITION.* </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> ADVERTISEMENT OF THE AMERICAN EDITION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> PARIS TRANSLATION, </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> LONDON TRANSLATION. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> PHILADELPHIA TRANSLATION. </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> <big><b>LIFE OF VOLNEY.</b></big> </a> + </p> + <p> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> + CHAPTER II. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> + CHAPTER V. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> + CHAPTER VIII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> + CHAPTER XI. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0014"> + CHAPTER XIV. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> + CHAPTER XVII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> <br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0020"> + CHAPTER XX. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0023"> + CHAPTER XXIII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> + </p> + <p> + <a href="#linknature"><b><big>THE LAW OF NATURE</big></b></a> + </p> + <p> + <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER I. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0026"> + CHAPTER II. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER III. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER IV. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0029"> + CHAPTER V. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER VI. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER VII. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0032"> + CHAPTER VIII. </a> <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER IX. + </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER X. </a><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER XI. </a><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0036"> + CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0046"> <big><b>VOLNEY'S ANSWER TO DR. PRIESTLY.</b></big> + </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + LIFE OF VOLNEY + </h2> + <h3> + By Count Daru. + </h3> + <p> + Constantine Francis Chassebeuf De Volney was born in 1757 at Craon, in + that intermediate condition of life, which is of all the happiest, since + it is deprived only of fortune's too dangerous favors, and can aspire to + the social and intellectual advantages reserved for a laudable ambition. + </p> + <p> + From his earliest youth, he devoted himself to the search after truth, + without being disheartened by the serious studies which alone can initiate + us into her secrets. After having become acquainted with the ancient + languages, the natural sciences and history, and being admitted into the + society of the most eminent literary characters, he submitted, at the age + of twenty, to an illustrious academy, the solution of one of the most + difficult problems that the history of antiquity has left open for + discussion. This attempt received no encouragement from the learned men + who were appointed his judges; and the author's only appeal from their + sentence was to his courage and his efforts. + </p> + <p> + Soon after, a small inheritance having fallen to his lot, the difficulty + was how to spend it (these are his own words.) He resolved to employ it in + acquiring, by a long voyage, a new fund of information, and determined to + visit Egypt and Syria. But these countries could not be explored to + advantage without a knowledge of the language. Our young traveller was not + to be discouraged by this difficulty. Instead of learning Arabic in + Europe, he withdrew to a convent of Copts, until he had made himself + master of an idiom that is spoken by so many nations of the East. This + resolution showed one of those undaunted spirits that remain unshaken amid + the trials of life. + </p> + <p> + Although, like other travellers, he might have amused us with an account + of his hardships and the perils surmounted by his courage, he overcame the + temptation of interrupting his narrative by personal adventures. He + disdained the beaten track. He does not tell us the road he took, the + accidents he met with, or the impressions he received. He carefully avoids + appearing upon the stage; he is an inhabitant of the country, who has long + and well observed it, and who describes its physical, political, and moral + state. The allusion would be entire if an old Arab could be supposed to + possess all the erudition, all the European philosophy, which are found + united and in their maturity in a traveller of twenty-five. + </p> + <p> + But though a master in all those artifices by which a narration is + rendered interesting, the young man is not to be discerned in the pomp of + labored descriptions. Although possessed of a lively and brilliant + imagination, he is never found unwarily explaining by conjectural systems + the physical or moral phenomena he describes. In his observations he + unites prudence with science. With these two guides he judges with + circumspection, and sometimes confesses himself unable to account for the + effects he has made known to us. + </p> + <p> + Thus his account has all the qualities that persuade—accuracy and + candor. And when, ten years later, a vast military enterprise transported + forty thousand travellers to the classic ground, which he had trod + unattended, unarmed and unprotected, they all recognized a sure guide and + an enlightened observer in the writer who had, as it seemed, only preceded + them to remove or point out a part of the difficulties of the way. + </p> + <p> + The unanimous testimony of all parties proved the accuracy of his account + and the justness of his observations; and his Travels in Egypt and Syria + were, by universal suffrage, recommended to the gratitude and the + confidence of the public. + </p> + <p> + Before the work had undergone this trial it had obtained in the learned + world such a rapid and general success, that it found its way into Russia. + The empress, then (in 1787) upon the throne, sent the author a medal, + which he received with respect, as a mark of esteem for his talents, and + with gratitude, as a proof of the approbation given to his principles. But + when the empress declared against France, Volney sent back the honorable + present, saying: "If I obtained it from her esteem, I can only preserve + her esteem by returning it." + </p> + <p> + The revolution of 1789, which had drawn upon France the menaces of + Catharine, had opened to Volney a political career. As deputy in the + assembly of the states-general, the first words he uttered there were in + favor of the publicity of their deliberations. He also supported the + organization of the national guards, and that of the communes and + departments. + </p> + <p> + At the period when the question of the sale of the domain lands was + agitated (in 1790), he published an essay in which he lays down the + following principles: "The force of a State is in proportion to its + population; population is in proportion to plenty; plenty is in proportion + to tillage; and tillage, to personal and immediate interest, that is to + the spirit of property. Whence it follows, that the nearer the cultivator + approaches the passive condition of a mercenary, the less industry and + activity are to be expected from him; and, on the other hand, the nearer + he is to the condition of a free and entire proprietor, the more extension + he gives to his own forces, to the produce of his lands, and the general + prosperity of the State." + </p> + <p> + The author draws this conclusion, that a State is so much the more + powerful as it includes a greater number of proprietors,—that is, a + greater division of property. + </p> + <p> + Conducted into Corsica by that spirit of observation which belongs only to + men whose information is varied and extensive, he perceived at the first + glance all that could be done for the improvement of agriculture in that + country: but he knew that, for a people firmly attached to ancient + customs, there can exist no other demonstration or means of persuasion + than example. He purchased a considerable estate, and made experiments on + those kinds of tillage that he hoped to naturalize in that climate. The + sugar-cane, cotton, indigo and coffee soon demonstrated the success of his + efforts. This success drew upon him the notice of the government. He was + appointed director of agriculture and commerce in that island, where, + through ignorance, all new methods are introduced with such difficulty. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to calculate all the good that might have resulted from + this peaceable magistracy; and we know that neither instruction, zeal, nor + a persevering courage was wanting to him who had undertaken it. Of this he + had given convincing proofs. It was in obedience to another sentiment, no + less respectable, that he voluntarily interrupted the course of his + labors. When his fellow citizens of Angers appointed him their deputy in + the constituent assembly, he resigned the employment he held under + government, upon the principle that no man can represent the nation and be + dependent for a salary upon those by whom it is administered. + </p> + <p> + Through respect for the independence of his legislative functions, he had + ceased to occupy the place he possessed in Corsica before his election, + but he had not ceased to be a benefactor of that country. He returned + thither after the session of the constituent assembly. Invited into that + island by the principal inhabitants, who were anxious to put into practice + his lessons, he spent there a part of the years 1792 and 1793. + </p> + <p> + On his return he published a work entitled: An Account of the Present + State of Corsica. This was an act of courage; for it was not a physical + description, but a political review of the condition of a population + divided into several factions and distracted by violent animosities. + Volney unreservedly revealed the abuses, solicited the interest of France + in favor of the Corsicans, without flattering them, and boldly denounced + their defects and vices; so that the philosopher obtained the only + recompense he could expect from his sincerity—he was accused by the + Corsicans of heresy. + </p> + <p> + To prove that he had not merited this reproach, he published soon after a + short treatise entitled: The Law of Nature, or Physical Principles of + Morality. + </p> + <p> + He was soon exposed to a much more dangerous charge, and this, it must be + confessed, he did merit. This philosopher, this worthy citizen, who in our + first National assembly had seconded with his wishes and his talents the + establishment of an order of things which he considered favorable to the + happiness of his country, was accused of not being sincerely attached to + that liberty for which he had contended; that is to say, of being averse + to anarchy. An imprisonment of ten months, which only ended after the 9th + of Thermidor, was a new trial reserved for his courage. + </p> + <p> + The moment at which he recovered his liberty, was when the horror inspired + by criminal excesses had recalled men to those noble sentiments which + fortunately are one of the first necessaries of civilized life. They + sought for consolations in study and literature after so many misfortunes, + and organized a plan of public instruction. + </p> + <p> + It was in the first place necessary to insure the aptitude of those to + whom education should be confided; but as the systems were various, the + best methods and a unity of doctrine were to be determined. It was not + enough to interrogate the masters, they were to be formed, new ones were + to be created, and for that purpose a school was opened in 1794, wherein + the celebrity of the professors promised new instruction even to the best + informed. This was not, as was objected, beginning the edifice at the + roof, but creating architects, who were to superintend all the arts + requisite for constructing the building. + </p> + <p> + The more difficult their functions were, the greater care was to be taken + in the choice of the professors; but France, though then accused of being + plunged in barbarism, possessed men of transcendent talents, already + enjoying the esteem of all Europe, and we may be bold to say, that by + their labors, our literary glory had likewise extended its conquests. + Their names were proclaimed by the public voice, and Volney's was + associated with those of the men most illustrious in science and in + literature.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Lagrange, Laplace, Berthollet, Garat, Bernardin de Saint- + Pierre, Daubenton, Hauy, Volney, Sicard, Monge, Thouin, La + Harpe, Buache Mentelle. +</pre> + <p> + This institution, however, did not answer the expectations that had been + formed of it, because the two thousand students that assembled from all + parts of France were not equally prepared to receive these transcendent + lessons, and because it had not been sufficiently ascertained how far the + theory of education should be kept distinct from education itself. + </p> + <p> + Volney's Lectures on History, which were attended by an immense concourse + of auditors, became one of his chief claims to literary glory. When forced + to interrupt them, by the suppression of the Normal school, he might have + reasonably expected to enjoy in his retirement that consideration which + his recent functions had added to his name. But, disgusted with the scenes + he had witnessed in his native land, he felt that passion revive within + him which, in his youth, had led him to visit Africa and Asia. America, + civilized within a century, and free only within a few years, fixed his + attention. There every thing was new,—the inhabitants, the + constitution, the earth itself. These were objects worthy of his + observation. When embarking for this voyage, however, he felt emotions + very different from those which formerly accompanied him into Turkey. Then + in the prime of life, he joyfully bid adieu to a land where peace and + plenty reigned, to travel amongst barbarians; now, mature in years, but + dismayed at the spectacle and experience of injustice and persecution, it + was with diffidence, as we learn from himself, that he went to implore + from a free people an asylum for a sincere friend of that liberty that had + been so profaned. + </p> + <p> + Our traveller had gone to seek for repose beyond the seas. He there found + himself exposed to aggression from a celebrated philosopher, Dr. + Priestley. Although the subject of this discussion was confined to the + investigation of some speculative opinions, published by the French writer + in his work entitled The Ruins, the naturalist in this attack employed a + degree of violence which added nothing to the force of his arguments, and + an acrimony of expression not to be expected from a philosopher. M. + Volney, though accused of Hottentotism and ignorance, preserved in his + defence, all the advantages that the scurrility of his adversary gave over + him. He replied in English, and Priestley's countrymen could only + recognize the Frenchman in the refinement and politeness of his answer. + </p> + <p> + Whilst M. Volney was travelling in America, there had been formed in + France a literary body which, under the name of Institute, had attained in + a very few years a distinguished rank amongst the learned societies of + Europe. The name of the illustrious traveller was inscribed in it at its + formation, and he acquired new rights to the academical honors conferred + on him during his absence, by the publication of his observations On the + Climate and Soil of the United States. + </p> + <p> + These rights were further augmented by the historical and physiological + labors of the Academician. An examination and justification of The + Chronology of Herodotus, with numerous and profound researches on The + History of the most Ancient Nations, occupied for a long time him who had + observed their monuments and traces in the countries they inhabited. The + trial he had made of the utility of the Oriental languages inspired him + with an ardent desire to propagate the knowledge of them; and to be + propagated, he felt how necessary it was to render it less difficult. In + this view he conceived the project of applying to the study of the idioms + of Asia, a part of the grammatical notions we possess concerning the + languages of Europe. It only appertains to those conversant with their + relations of dissimilitude or conformity to appreciate the possibility of + realizing this system. The author has, however, already received the most + flattering encouragement and the most unequivocal appreciation, by the + inscription of his name amongst the members of the learned and illustrious + society founded by English commerce in the Indian peninsula. + </p> + <p> + M. Volney developed his system in three works,* which prove that this idea + of uniting nations separated by immense distances and such various idioms, + had never ceased to occupy him for twenty-five years. Lest those essays, + of the utility of which he was persuaded, should be interrupted by his + death, with the clay-cold hand that corrected his last work, he drew up a + will which institutes a premium for the prosecution of his labors. Thus he + prolonged, beyond the term of a life entirely devoted to letters, the + glorious services he had rendered to them. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * On the Simplification of Oriental Languages, 1795. The + European Alphabet Applied to the Languages of Asia, 1819. + Hebrew Simplified, 1820. +</pre> + <p> + This is not the place, nor does it belong to me to appreciate the merit of + the writings which render Volney's name illustrious. His name had been + inscribed in the list of the Senate, and afterwards of the House of Peers. + The philosopher who had travelled in the four quarters of the world, and + observed their social state, had other titles to his admission into this + body, than his literary glory. His public life, his conduct in the + constituent assembly, his independent principles, the nobleness of his + sentiments, the wisdom and fixity of his opinions, had gained him the + esteem of those who can be depended upon, and with whom it is so agreeable + to discuss political interests. + </p> + <p> + Although no man had a better right to have an opinion, no one was more + tolerant for the opinions of others. In State assemblies as well as in + Academical meetings, the man whose counsels were so wise, voted according + to his conscience, which nothing could bias; but the philosopher forgot + his superiority to hear, to oppose with moderation, and sometimes to + doubt. The extent and variety of his information, the force of his reason, + the austerity of his manners, and the noble simplicity of his character, + had procured him illustrious friends in both hemispheres; and now that + this erudition is extinct in the tomb,* we may be allowed at least to + predict that he was one of the very few whose memory shall never die. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * He died in Paris on the 20th of April, 1820. +</pre> + <p> + A list of the Works Published by Count Volney. + </p> + <p> + TRAVELS IN EGYPT AND SYRIA during the years 1783, 1784, and 1785: 2 vols. + 8vo.—1787. + </p> + <p> + CHRONOLOGY OF THE TWELVE CENTURIES that preceded the entrance of Xerxes + into Greece. + </p> + <p> + CONSIDERATIONS ON THE TURKISH WAR, in 1788. + </p> + <p> + THE RUINS, or Meditations on the Revolutions of Empires—1791. + </p> + <p> + ACCOUNT OF THE PRESENT STATE OF CORSICA—1793. + </p> + <p> + THE LAW OF NATURE, or Physical Principles of Morality—1793. + </p> + <p> + ON THE SIMPLIFICATION OF ORIENTAL LANGUAGES—1795. A LETTER TO DR. + PRIESTLEY—1797. + </p> + <p> + LECTURES ON HISTORY, delivered at the Normal School in the year 3—1800. + </p> + <p> + ON THE CLIMATE AND SOIL OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, to which is added + an account of Florida, of the French colony of Scioto, of some Canadian + Colonies, and of the Savages—1803. + </p> + <p> + REPORT MADE TO THE CELTIC ACADEMY ON THE RUSSIAN WORK OF PROFESSOR PALLAS, + entitled "A Comparative Vocabulary of all the Languages in the World." + </p> + <p> + THE CHRONOLOGY OF HERODOTUS conformable with his Text—1808 and 1809. + </p> + <p> + NEW RESEARCHES ON ANCIENT HISTORY, 3 vols. 8vo.—1814 + </p> + <p> + THE EUROPEAN ALPHABET Applied to the Languages of Asia—1819. + </p> + <p> + A HISTORY OF SAMUEL—1819. HEBREW SIMPLIFIED—1820. INVOCATION. + </p> + <p> + Hail solitary ruins, holy sepulchres and silent walls! you I invoke; to + you I address my prayer. While your aspect averts, with secret terror, the + vulgar regard, it excites in my heart the charm of delicious sentiments—sublime + contemplations. What useful lessons, what affecting and profound + reflections you suggest to him who knows how to consult you! When the + whole earth, in chains and silence bowed the neck before its tyrants, you + had already proclaimed the truths which they abhor; and confounding the + dust of the king with that of the meanest slave, had announced to man the + sacred dogma of Equality. Within your pale, in solitary adoration of + Liberty, I saw her Genius arise from the mansions of the dead; not such as + she is painted by the impassioned multitude, armed with fire and sword, + but under the august aspect of Justice, poising in her hand the sacred + balance wherein are weighed the actions of men at the gates of eternity! + </p> + <p> + O Tombs! what virtues are yours! You appal the tyrant's heart, and poison + with secret alarm his impious joys. He flies, with coward step, your + incorruptible aspect, and erects afar his throne of insolence.* You punish + the powerful oppressor; you wrest from avarice and extortion their + ill-gotten gold, and you avenge the feeble whom they have despoiled; you + compensate the miseries of the poor by the anxieties of the rich; you + console the wretched, by opening to him a last asylum from distress; and + you give to the soul that just equipoise of strength and sensibility which + constitutes wisdom—the true science of life. Aware that all must + return to you, the wise man loadeth not himself with the burdens of + grandeur and of useless wealth: he restrains his desires within the limits + of justice; yet, knowing that he must run his destined course of life, he + fills with employment all its hours, and enjoys the comforts that fortune + has allotted him. You thus impose on the impetuous sallies of cupidity a + salutary rein! you calm the feverish ardor of enjoyments which disturb the + senses; you free the soul from the fatiguing conflict of the passions; + elevate it above the paltry interests which torment the crowd; and + surveying, from your commanding position, the expanse of ages and nations, + the mind is only accessible to the great affections—to the solid + ideas of virtue and of glory. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The cathedral of St. Denis is the tomb of the kings of + France; and it was because the towers of that edifice are + seen from the Castle of St. Germain, that Louis XIV. quitted + that admirable residence, and established a new one in the + savage forests of Versailles. + + (This note, like many others, has been omitted from the + American editions. It seems pertinent to the subject, and + is explanatory of the text.—Pub.) +</pre> + <p> + Ah! when the dream of life is over, what will then avail all its + agitations, if not one trace of utility remains behind? + </p> + <p> + O Ruins! to your school I will return! I will seek again the calm of your + solitudes; and there, far from the afflicting spectacle of the passions, I + will cherish in remembrance the love of man, I will employ myself on the + means of effecting good for him, and build my own happiness on the + promotion of his. + </p> + <p> + THE RUINS OF EMPIRES. <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> + <h3> + THE JOURNEY. + </h3> + <p> + In the eleventh year of the reign of Abd-ul-Hamid, son of Ahmid, emperor + of the Turks; when the Nogais-Tartars were driven from the Crimea, and a + Mussulman prince of the blood of Gengis-Kahn became the vassal and guard + of a Christian woman and queen,* I was travelling in the Ottoman + dominions, and through those provinces which were anciently the kingdoms + of Egypt and Syria. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the eleventh year of Abd-ul-Hamid, that is 1784 of the + Christian era, and 1198 of the Hegira. The emigration of + the Tartars took place in March, immediately on the + manifesto of the empress, declaring the Crimea to be + incorporated with Russia. The Mussulman prince of the blood + of Gengis-khan was Chahin-Guerai. Gengis-Khan was borne and + served by the kings whom he conquered: Chahin, on the + contrary, after selling his country for a pension of eighty + thousand roubles, accepted the commission of captain of + guards to Catherine II. He afterwards returned home, and + according to custom was strangled by the Turks. +</pre> + <p> + My whole attention bent on whatever concerns the happiness of man in a + social state, I visited cities, and studied the manners of their + inhabitants; entered palaces, and observed the conduct of those who + govern; wandered over fields, and examined the condition of those who + cultivated them: and nowhere perceiving aught but robbery and devastation, + tyranny and wretchedness, my heart was oppressed with sorrow and + indignation. + </p> + <p> + I saw daily on my road fields abandoned, villages deserted, and cities in + ruin. Often I met with ancient monuments, wrecks of temples, palaces and + fortresses, columns, aqueducts and tombs. This spectacle led me to + meditate on times past, and filled my mind with contemplations the most + serious and profound. + </p> + <p> + Arrived at the city of Hems, on the border of the Orontes, and being in + the neighborhood of Palmyra of the desert, I resolved to visit its + celebrated ruins. After three days journeying through arid deserts, having + traversed the Valley of Caves and Sepulchres, on issuing into the plain, I + was suddenly struck with a scene of the most stupendous ruins—a + countless multitude of superb columns, stretching in avenues beyond the + reach of sight. Among them were magnificent edifices, some entire, others + in ruins; the earth every where strewed with fragments of cornices, + capitals, shafts, entablatures, pilasters, all of white marble, and of the + most exquisite workmanship. After a walk of three-quarters of an hour + along these ruins, I entered the enclosure of a vast edifice, formerly a + temple dedicated to the Sun; and accepting the hospitality of some poor + Arabian peasants, who had built their hovels on the area of the temple, I + determined to devote some days to contemplate at leisure the beauty of + these stupendous ruins. + </p> + <p> + Daily I visited the monuments which covered the plain; and one evening, + absorbed in reflection, I had advanced to the Valley of Sepulchres. I + ascended the heights which surround it from whence the eye commands the + whole group of ruins and the immensity of the desert. The sun had sunk + below the horizon: a red border of light still marked his track behind the + distant mountains of Syria; the full-orbed moon was rising in the east, on + a blue ground, over the plains of the Euphrates; the sky was clear, the + air calm and serene; the dying lamp of day still softened the horrors of + approaching darkness; the refreshing night breezes attempered the sultry + emanations from the heated earth; the herdsmen had given their camels to + repose, the eye perceived no motion on the dusky and uniform plain; + profound silence rested on the desert; the howlings only of the jackal,* + and the solemn notes of the bird of night, were heard at distant + intervals. Darkness now increased, and through the dusk could only be + discerned the pale phantasms of columns and walls. The solitude of the + place, the tranquillity of the hour, the majesty of the scene, impressed + on my mind a religious pensiveness. The aspect of a great city deserted, + the memory of times past, compared with its present state, all elevated my + mind to high contemplations. I sat on the shaft of a column, my elbow + reposing on my knee, and head reclining on my hand, my eyes fixed, + sometimes on the desert, sometimes on the ruins, and fell into a profound + reverie. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An animal resembling a dog and a fox. It preys on other + small animals, and upon the bodies of the dead on the field + of battle. It is the Canis aureus of Linnaeus. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> + <h3> + THE REVERIE. + </h3> + <p> + Here, said I, once flourished an opulent city; here was the seat of a + powerful empire. Yes! these places now so wild and desolate, were once + animated by a living multitude; a busy crowd thronged in these streets, + now so solitary. Within these walls, where now reigns the silence of + death, the noise of the arts, and the shouts of joy and festivity + incessantly resounded; these piles of marble were regular palaces; these + fallen columns adorned the majesty of temples; these ruined galleries + surrounded public places. Here assembled a numerous people for the sacred + duties of their religion, and the anxious cares of their subsistence; here + industry, parent of enjoyments, collected the riches of all climes, and + the purple of Tyre was exchanged for the precious thread of Serica;* the + soft tissues of Cassimere for the sumptuous tapestry of Lydia; the amber + of the Baltic for the pearls and perfumes of Arabia; the gold of Ophir for + the tin of Thule. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The precious thread of Serica.—That is, the silk + originally derived from the mountainous country where the + great wall terminates, and which appears to have been the + cradle of the Chinese empire. The tissues of Cassimere.— + The shawls which Ezekiel seems to have described under the + appellation of Choud-choud. The gold of Ophir.—This + country, which was one of the twelve Arab cantons, and which + has so much and so unsuccessfully been sought for by the + antiquarians, has left, however, some trace of itself in + Ofor, in the province of Oman, upon the Persian Gulf, + neighboring on one side to the Sabeans, who are celebrated + by Strabo for their abundance of gold, and on the other to + Aula or Hevila, where the pearl fishery was carried on. See + the 27th chapter of Ezekiel, which gives a very curious and + extensive picture of the commerce of Asia at that period. +</pre> + <p> + And now behold what remains of this powerful city: a miserable skeleton! + What of its vast domination: a doubtful and obscure remembrance! To the + noisy concourse which thronged under these porticoes, succeeds the + solitude of death. The silence of the grave is substituted for the busy + hum of public places; the affluence of a commercial city is changed into + wretched poverty; the palaces of kings have become a den of wild beasts; + flocks repose in the area of temples, and savage reptiles inhabit the + sanctuary of the gods. Ah! how has so much glory been eclipsed? how have + so many labors been annihilated? Do thus perish then the works of men—thus + vanish empires and nations? + </p> + <p> + And the history of former times revived in my mind; I remembered those + ancient ages when many illustrious nations inhabited these countries; I + figured to myself the Assyrian on the banks of the Tygris, the Chaldean on + the banks of the Euphrates, the Persian reigning from the Indus to the + Mediterranean. I enumerated the kingdoms of Damascus and Idumea, of + Jerusalem and Samaria, the warlike states of the Philistines, and the + commercial republics of Phoenicia. This Syria, said I, now so depopulated, + then contained a hundred flourishing cities, and abounded with towns, + villages, and hamlets.* In all parts were seen cultivated fields, + frequented roads, and crowded habitations. Ah! whither have flown those + ages of life and abundance?—whither vanished those brilliant + creations of human industry? Where are those ramparts of Nineveh, those + walls of Babylon, those palaces of Persepolis, those temples of Balbec and + of Jerusalem? Where are those fleets of Tyre, those dock-yards of Arad, + those work-shops of Sidon, and that multitude of sailors, of pilots, of + merchants, and of soldiers? Where those husbandmen, harvests, flocks, and + all the creation of living beings in which the face of the earth rejoiced? + Alas! I have passed over this desolate land! I have visited the palaces, + once the scene of so much splendor, and I beheld nothing but solitude and + desolation. I sought the ancient inhabitants and their works, and found + nothing but a trace, like the foot-prints of a traveller over the sand. + The temples are fallen, the palaces overthrown, the ports filled up, the + cities destroyed; and the earth, stripped of inhabitants, has become a + place of sepulchres. Great God! whence proceed such fatal revolutions? + What causes have so changed the fortunes of these countries? Wherefore are + so many cities destroyed? Why has not this ancient population been + reproduced and perpetuated? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to Josephus and Strabo, there were in Syria + twelve millions of souls, and the traces that remain of + culture and habitation confirm the calculation. +</pre> + <p> + Thus absorbed in meditation, a crowd of new reflections continually poured + in upon my mind. Every thing, continued I, bewilders my judgment, and + fills my heart with trouble and uncertainty. When these countries enjoyed + what constitutes the glory and happiness of man, they were inhabited by + infidel nations: It was the Phoenician, offering human sacrifices to + Moloch, who gathered into his stores the riches of all climates; it was + the Chaldean, prostrate before his serpent-god,* who subjugated opulent + cities, laid waste the palaces of kings, and despoiled the temples of the + gods; it was the Persian, worshipper of fire, who received the tribute of + a hundred nations; they were the inhabitants of this very city, adorers of + the sun and stars, who erected so many monuments of prosperity and luxury. + Numerous herds, fertile fields, abundant harvests—whatsoever should + be the reward of piety—was in the hands of these idolaters. And now, + when a people of saints and believers occupy these fields, all is become + sterility and solitude. The earth, under these holy hands, produces only + thorns and briers. Man soweth in anguish, and reapeth tears and cares. + War, famine, pestilence, assail him by turns. And yet, are not these the + children of the prophets? The Mussulman, Christian, Jew, are they not the + elect children of God, loaded with favors and miracles? Why, then, do + these privileged races no longer enjoy the same advantages? Why are these + fields, sanctified by the blood of martyrs, deprived of their ancient + fertility? Why have those blessings been banished hence, and transferred + for so many ages to other nations and different climes? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The dragon Bell. +</pre> + <p> + At these words, revolving in my mind the vicissitudes which have + transmitted the sceptre of the world to people so different in religion + and manners from those in ancient Asia to the most recent of Europe, this + name of a natal land revived in me the sentiment of my country; and + turning my eyes towards France, I began to reflect on the situation in + which I had left her.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the year 1782, at the close of the American war. +</pre> + <p> + I recalled her fields so richly cultivated, her roads so admirably + constructed, her cities inhabited by a countless people, her fleets spread + over every sea, her ports filled with the produce of both the Indies: and + then comparing the activity of her commerce, the extent of her navigation, + the magnificence of her buildings, the arts and industry of her + inhabitants, with what Egypt and Syria had once possessed, I was gratified + to find in modern Europe the departed splendor of Asia; but the charm of + my reverie was soon dissolved by a last term of comparison. Reflecting + that such had once been the activity of the places I was then + contemplating, who knows, said I, but such may one day be the abandonment + of our countries? Who knows if on the banks of the Seine, the Thames, the + Zuyder-Zee, where now, in the tumult of so many enjoyments, the heart and + the eye suffice not for the multitude of sensations,—who knows if + some traveller, like myself, shall not one day sit on their silent ruins, + and weep in solitude over the ashes of their inhabitants, and the memory + of their former greatness. + </p> + <p> + At these words, my eyes filled with tears: and covering my head with the + fold of my mantle, I sank into gloomy meditations on all human affairs. + Ah! hapless man, said I in my grief, a blind fatality sports with thy + destiny!* A fatal necessity rules with the hand of chance the lot of + mortals! But no: it is the justice of heaven fulfilling its decrees!—a + God of mystery exercising his incomprehensible judgments! Doubtless he has + pronounced a secret anathema against this land: blasting with maledictions + the present, for the sins of past generations. Oh! who shall dare to + fathom the depths of the Omnipotent? + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Fatality is the universal and rooted prejudice of the + East. "It was written," is there the answer to every thing. + Hence result an unconcern and apathy, the most powerful + impediments to instruction and civilization. +</pre> + <p> + And sunk in profound melancholy, I remained motionless. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> + <h3> + THE APPARITION. + </h3> + <p> + While thus absorbed, a sound struck my ear, like the agitation of a + flowing robe, or that of slow footsteps on dry and rustling grass. + Startled, I opened my mantle, and looking about with fear and trembling, + suddenly, on my left, by the glimmering light of the moon, through the + columns and ruins of a neighboring temple, I thought I saw an apparition, + pale, clothed in large and flowing robes, such as spectres are painted + rising from their tombs. I shuddered: and while agitated and hesitating + whether to fly or to advance toward the object, a distinct voice, in + solemn tones, pronounced these words: + </p> + <p> + How long will man importune heaven with unjust complaint? How long, with + vain clamors, will he accuse Fate as the author of his calamities? Will he + forever shut his eyes to the light, and his heart to the admonitions of + truth and reason? The light of truth meets him everywhere; yet he sees it + not! The voice of reason strikes his ear; and he hears it not! Unjust man! + if for a moment thou canst suspend the delusion which fascinates thy + senses, if thy heart can comprehend the language of reason, interrogate + these ruins! Read the lessons which they present to thee! And you, + evidences of twenty centuries, holy temples! venerable tombs! walls once + so glorious, appear in the cause of nature herself! Approach the tribunal + of sound reason, and bear testimony against unjust accusations! Come and + confound the declamations of a false wisdom or hypocritical piety, and + avenge the heavens and the earth of man who calumniates them both! + </p> + <p> + What is that blind fatality, which without order and without law, sports + with the destiny of mortals? What is that unjust necessity, which + confounds the effect of actions, whether of wisdom or of folly? In what + consist the anathemas of heaven over this land? Where is that divine + malediction which perpetuates the abandonment of these fields? Say, + monuments of past ages! have the heavens changed their laws and the earth + its motion? Are the fires of the sun extinct in the regions of space? Do + the seas no longer emit their vapors? Are the rains and the dews suspended + in the air? Do the mountains withhold their springs? Are the streams dried + up? And do the plants no longer bear fruit and seed? Answer, generation of + falsehood and iniquity, hath God deranged the primitive and settled order + of things which he himself assigned to nature? Hath heaven denied to + earth, and earth to its inhabitants, the blessings they formerly + dispensed? If nothing hath changed in the creation, if the same means now + exist which before existed, why then are not the present what former + generations were? Ah! it is falsely that you accuse fate and heaven! it is + unjustly that you accuse God as the cause of your evils! Say, perverse and + hypocritical race! if these places are desolate, if these powerful cities + are reduced to solitude, is it God who has caused their ruin? Is it his + hand which has overthrown these walls, destroyed these temples, mutilated + these columns, or is it the hand of man? Is it the arm of God which has + carried the sword into your cities, and fire into your fields, which has + slaughtered the people, burned the harvests, rooted up trees, and ravaged + the pastures, or is it the hand of man? And when, after the destruction of + crops, famine has ensued, is it the vengeance of God which has produced + it, or the mad fury of mortals? When, sinking under famine, the people + have fed on impure aliments, if pestilence ensues, is it the wrath of God + which sends it, or the folly of man? When war, famine and pestilence, have + swept away the inhabitants, if the earth remains a desert, is it God who + has depopulated it? Is it his rapacity which robs the husbandman, ravages + the fruitful fields, and wastes the earth, or is it the rapacity of those + who govern? Is it his pride which excites murderous wars, or the pride of + kings and their ministers? Is it the venality of his decisions which + overthrows the fortunes of families, or the corruption of the organs of + the law? Are they his passions which, under a thousand forms, torment + individuals and nations, or are they the passions of man? And if, in the + anguish of their miseries, they see not the remedies, is it the ignorance + of God which is to blame, or their ignorance? Cease then, mortals, to + accuse the decrees of Fate, or the judgments of the Divinity! If God is + good, will he be the author of your misery? If he is just, will he be the + accomplice of your crimes? No, the caprice of which man complains is not + the caprice of fate; the darkness that misleads his reason is not the + darkness of God; the source of his calamities is not in the distant + heavens, it is beside him on the earth; it is not concealed in the bosom + of the divinity; it dwells within himself, he bears it in his own heart. + </p> + <p> + Thou murmurest and sayest: What! have an infidel people then enjoyed the + blessings of heaven and earth? Are the holy people of God less fortunate + than the races of impiety? Deluded man! where then is the contradiction + which offends thee? Where is the inconsistency which thou imputest to the + justice of heaven? Take into thine own hands the balance of rewards and + punishments, of causes and effects. Say: when these infidels observed the + laws of the heavens and the earth, when they regulated well-planned labors + by the order of the seasons and the course of the stars, should the + Almighty have disturbed the equilibrium of the universe to defeat their + prudence? When their hands cultivated these fields with toil and care, + should he have diverted the course of the rains, suspended the refreshing + dews, and planted crops of thorns? When, to render these arid fields + productive, their industry constructed aqueducts, dug canals, and led the + distant waters across the desert, should he have dried up their sources in + the mountains? Should he have blasted the harvests which art had + nourished, wasted the plains which peace had peopled, overthrown cities + which labor had created, or disturbed the order established by the wisdom + of man? And what is that infidelity which founded empires by its prudence, + defended them by its valor, and strengthened them by its justice—which + built powerful cities, formed capacious ports, drained pestilential + marshes, covered the ocean with ships, the earth with inhabitants; and, + like the creative spirit, spread life and motion throughout the world? If + such be infidelity, what then is the true faith? Doth sanctity consist in + destruction? The God who peoples the air with birds, the earth with + animals, the waters with fishes—the God who animates all nature—is + he then a God of ruins and tombs? Demands he devastation for homage, and + conflagration for sacrifice? Requires he groans for hymns, murderers for + votaries, a ravaged and desolate earth for his temple? Behold then, holy + and believing people, what are your works! behold the fruits of your + piety! You have massacred the people, burned their cities, destroyed + cultivation, reduced the earth to a solitude; and you ask the reward of + your works! Miracles then must be performed! The people whom you + extirpated must be recalled to life, the walls rebuilt which you have + overthrown, the harvests reproduced which you have destroyed, the waters + regathered which you have dispersed; the laws, in fine, of heaven and + earth reversed; those laws, established by God himself, in demonstration + of his magnificence and wisdom; those eternal laws, anterior to all codes, + to all the prophets those immutable laws, which neither the passions nor + the ignorance of man can pervert. But that passion which mistaketh, that + ignorance which observeth neither causes nor effects, hath said in its + folly: "All things flow from chance; a blind fatality poureth out good and + evil upon the earth; success is not to the prudent, nor felicity to the + wise;" or, assuming the language of hypocrisy, she hath said, "all things + are from God; he taketh pleasure in deceiving wisdom and confounding + reason." And Ignorance, applauding herself in her malice, hath said, "thus + will I place myself on a par with that science which confounds me—thus + will I excel that prudence which fatigues and torments me." And Avarice + hath added: "I will oppress the weak, and devour the fruits of his labors; + and I will say, it is fate which hath so ordained." But I! I swear by the + laws of heaven and earth, and by the law which is written in the heart of + man, that the hypocrite shall be deceived in his cunning—the + oppressor in his rapacity! The sun shall change his course, before folly + shall prevail over wisdom and knowledge, or ignorance surpass prudence, in + the noble and sublime art of procuring to man his true enjoyments, and of + building his happiness on an enduring foundation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> + <h3> + THE EXPOSITION + </h3> + <p> + Thus spoke the Phantom. Confused with this discourse, and my heart + agitated with different reflections, I remained long in silence. At + length, taking courage, I thus addressed him: Oh, Genius of tombs and + ruins! Thy presence, thy severity, hath disordered my senses; but the + justice of thy discourse restoreth confidence to my soul. Pardon my + ignorance. Alas, if man is blind, shall his misfortune be also his crime? + I may have mistaken the voice of reason; but never, knowingly, have I + rejected its authority. Ah! if thou readest my heart, thou knowest with + what enthusiasm it seeketh truth. Is it not in its pursuit that thou seest + me in this sequestered spot? Alas! I have wandered over the earth, I have + visited cities and countries; and seeing everywhere misery and desolation, + a sense of the evils which afflict my fellow men hath deeply oppressed my + soul. I have said, with a sigh: is man then born but for sorrow and + anguish? And I have meditated upon human misery that I might discover a + remedy. I have said, I will separate myself from the corruption of + society; I will retire far from palaces where the mind is depraved by + satiety and from the hovel where it is debased by misery. I will go into + the desert and dwell among ruins; I will interrogate ancient monuments on + the wisdom of past ages; I will invoke from the bosom of the tombs the + spirit which once in Asia gave splendor to states, and glory to nations; I + will ask of the ashes of legislators, by what secret causes do empires + rise and fall; from what sources spring the Prosperity and misfortunes of + nations, on what principles can the Peace of Society, and the happiness of + man be established? + </p> + <p> + I ceased, and with submissive look awaited the answer of the Genius. + </p> + <p> + Peace and happiness, said he, attend those who practice justice! Since thy + heart, O mortal, with sincerity seeketh truth; since thine eyes can still + recognize her through the mist of prejudice, thy prayer shall not be in + vain. I will unfold to thy view that truth thou invokest; I will teach thy + reason that knowledge thou seekest; I will reveal to thee the science of + ages and the wisdom of the tombs. + </p> + <p> + Then approaching and laying his hand on my head, he said: + </p> + <p> + Rise, mortal, and extricate thy senses from the dust in which thou movest. + </p> + <p> + Suddenly a celestial flame seemed to dissolve the bands which held us to + the earth; and, like a light vapor, borne on the wings of the Genius, I + felt myself wafted to the regions above. Thence, from the aerial heights, + looking down upon the earth, I perceived a scene altogether new. Under my + feet, floating in the void, a globe like that of the moon, but smaller and + less luminous, presented to me one of its phases; and that phase* had the + aspect of a disk varigated with large spots, some white and nebulous, + others brown, green or gray, and while I strained my sight to distinguish + what they were, the Genius exclaimed: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Plate representing half the terrestrial globe, + opposite page 10. +</pre> + <p> + Disciple of Truth, knowest thou that object? + </p> + <p> + O Genius, answered I, if I did not see the moon in another quarter of the + heavens, I should have supposed that to be her globe. It has the + appearance of that planet seen through the telescope during the + obscuration of an eclipse. These varigated spots might be mistaken for + seas and continents. + </p> + <p> + They are seas and continents, said he, and those of the very hemisphere + which you inhabit. + </p> + <p> + What! said I, is that the earth—the habitation of man? + </p> + <p> + Yes, replied he, that brown space which occupies irregularly a great + portion of the disk, and envelops it almost on every side, is what you + call the great ocean, which advancing from the south pole towards the + equator, forms first the great gulf of India and Africa, then extends + eastward across the Malay islands to the confines of Tartary, while + towards the west it encircles the continents of Africa and of Europe, even + to the north of Asia. + </p> + <p> + That square peninsula under our feet is the arid country of the Arabs; the + great continent on its left, almost as naked in its interior, with a + little verdure only towards its borders, is the parched soil inhabited by + black-men.* To the north, beyond a long, narrow and irregular sea,** are + the countries of Europe, rich in meadows and cultivated fields. On its + right, from the Caspian Sea, extend the snowy and naked plains of Tartary. + Returning in this direction that white space is the vast and barren desert + of Cobi, which separates China from the rest of the world. You see that + empire in the furrowed plain which obliquely rounds itself off from our + sight. On yonder coasts, those ragged tongues of land and scattered points + are the peninsulas and islands of the Malays, the wretched possessors of + the spices and perfumes. That triangle which advances so far into the sea, + is the too famous peninsula of India.*** You see the winding course of the + Ganges, the rough mountains of Thibet, the lovely valley of Cachemere, the + briny deserts of Persia, the banks of the Euphrates and Tygris, the deep + bed of the Jordan and the canals of the solitary Nile. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Africa. + + ** The Mediterranean. + + *** Of what real good has been the commerce of India to the + mass of the people? On the contrary, how great the evil + occasioned by the superstition of this country having been + added the general superstition! +</pre> + <p> + O Genius, said I, interrupting him, the sight of a mortal reaches not to + objects at such a distance. He touched my eyes, and immediately they + became piercing as those of an eagle; nevertheless the rivers still + appeared like waving lines, the mountains winding furrows, and the cities + little compartments like the squares of a chess-board. + </p> + <p> + And the Genius proceeded to enumerate and point out the objects to me: + Those piles of ruins, said he, which you see in that narrow valley watered + by the Nile, are the remains of opulent cities, the pride of the ancient + kingdom of Ethiopia.* Behold the wrecks of her metropolis, of Thebes with + her hundred palaces,** the parent of cities, and monument of the caprice + of destiny. There a people, now forgotten, discovered, while others were + yet barbarians, the elements of the arts and sciences. A race of men now + rejected from society for their sable skin and frizzled hair, founded on + the study of the laws of nature, those civil and religious systems which + still govern the universe. Lower down, those dusky points are the pyramids + whose masses have astonished you. Beyond that, the coast, hemmed in + between the sea and a narrow ridge of mountains, was the habitation of the + Phoenicians. These were the famous cities of Tyre, of Sidon, of Ascalon, + of Gaza, and of Berytus. That thread of water with no outlet, is the river + Jordan; and those naked rocks were once the theatre of events that have + resounded throughout the world. Behold that desert of Horeb, and that + Mount Sinai; where, by means beyond vulgar reach, a genius, profound and + bold, established institutions which have weighed on the whole human race. + On that dry shore which borders it, you perceive no longer any trace of + splendor; yet there was an emporium of riches. There were those famous + Ports of Idumea, whence the fleets of Phoenicia and Judea, coasting the + Arabian peninsula, went into the Persian gulf, to seek there the pearls of + Hevila, the gold of Saba and of Ophir. Yes, there on that coast of Oman + and of Barhain was the seat of that commerce of luxuries, which, by its + movements and revolutions, fixed the destinies of ancient nations.*** + Thither came the spices and precious stones of Ceylon, the shawls of + Cassimere, the diamonds of Golconda, the amber of Maldivia, the musk of + Thibet, the aloes of Cochin, the apes and peacocks of the continent of + India, the incense of Hadramaut, the myrrh, the silver, the gold dust and + ivory of Africa; thence passing, sometimes by the Red Sea on the vessels + of Egypt and Syria, these luxuries nourished successively the wealth of + Thebes, of Sidon, of Memphis and of Jerusalem; sometimes, ascending the + Tygris and Euphrates, they awakened the activity of the Assyrians, Medes, + Chaldeans, and Persians; and that wealth, according to the use or abuse of + it, raised or reversed by turns their domination. Hence sprung the + magnificence of Persepolis, whose columns you still perceive; of Ecbatana, + whose sevenfold wall is destroyed; of Babylon,**** now leveled with the + earth; of Nineveh, of which scarce the name remains; of Thapsacus, of + Anatho, of Gerra, and of desolated Palmyra. O names for ever glorious! + fields of renown! countries of never-dying memory! what sublime lessons + doth your aspect offer! what profound truths are written on the surface of + your soil! remembrances of times past, return into my mind! places, + witnesses of the life of man in so many different ages, retrace for me the + revolutions of his fortune! say, what were their springs and secret + causes! say, from what sources he derived success and disgrace! unveil to + himself the causes of his evils! correct him by the spectacle of his + errors! teach him the wisdom which belongeth to him, and let the + experience of past ages become a means of instruction, and a germ of + happiness to present and future generations. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the new Encyclopedia 3rd vol. Antiquities is published + a memoir, respecting the chronology of the twelve ages + anterior to the passing of Xerxes into Greece, in which I + conceive myself to have proved that upper Egypt formerly + composed a distinct kingdom known to the Hebrews by the name + of Kous and to which the appellation of Ethiopia was + specially given. This kingdom preserved its independence to + the time of Psammeticus; at which period, being united to + the Lower Egypt, it lost its name of Ethiopia, which + thenceforth was bestowed upon the nations of Nubia and upon + the different tribes of blacks, including Thebes, their + metropolis. + + ** The idea of a city with a hundred gates, in the common + acceptation of the word, is so absurd, that I am astonished + the equivoque has not before been felt. + + It has ever been the custom of the East to call palaces and + houses of the great by the name of gates, because the + principal luxury of these buildings consists in the singular + gate leading from the street into the court, at the farthest + extremity of which the palace is situated. It is under the + vestibule of this gate that conversation is held with + passengers, and a sort of audience and hospitality given. + All this was doubtless known to Homer; but poets make no + commentaries, and readers love the marvellous. + + This city of Thebes, now Lougsor, reduced to the condition + of a miserable village, has left astonishing monuments of + its magnificence. Particulars of this may be seen in the + plates of Norden, in Pocock, and in the recent travels of + Bruce. These monuments give credibility to all that Homer + has related of its splendor, and lead us to infer its + political power and external commerce. + + Its geographical position was favorable to this twofold + object. For, on one side, the valley of the Nile, singularly + fertile, must have early occasioned a numerous population; + and, on the other, the Red Sea, giving communication with + Arabia and India, and the Nile with Abyssinia and the + Mediterranean, Thebes was thus naturally allied to the + richest countries on the globe; an alliance that procured it + an activity so much the greater, as Lower Egypt, at first a + swamp, was nearly, if not totally, uninhabited. But when at + length this country had been drained by the canals and dikes + which Sesostris constructed, population was introduced + there, and wars arose which proved fatal to the power of + Thebes. Commerce then took another route, and descended to + the point of the Red Sea, to the canals of Sesostris (see + Strabo), and wealth and activity were transferred to + Memphis. This is manifestly what Diodorus means when he + tells us (lib. i. sect. 2), that as soon as Memphis was + established and made a wholesome and delicious abode, kings + abandoned Thebes to fix themselves there. Thus Thebes + continued to decline, and Memphis to flourish, till the time + of Alexander, who, building Alexandria on the border of the + sea, caused Memphis to fall in its turn; so that prosperity + and power seem to have descended historically step by step + along the Nile; whence it results, both physically and + historically, that the existence of Thebes was prior to that + of the other cities. The testimony of writers is very + positive in this respect. "The Thebans," says Diodorus, + "consider themselves as the most ancient people of the + earth, and assert, that with them originated philosophy and + the science of the stars. Their situation, it is true, is + infinitely favorable to astronomical observation, and they + have a more accurate division of time into mouths and years + than other nations" etc. + + What Diodorus says of the Thebans, every author, and himself + elsewhere, repeat of the Ethiopians, which tends more firmly + to establish the identity of this place of which I have + spoken. "The Ethiopians conceive themselves," says he, lib. + iii., "to be of greater antiquity than any other nation: and + it is probable that, born under the sun's path, its warmth + may have ripened them earlier than other men. They suppose + themselves also to be the inventors of divine worship, of + festivals, of solemn assemblies, of sacrifices, and every + other religious practice. They affirm that the Egyptians + are one of their colonies, and that the Delta, which was + formerly sea, became land by the conglomeration of the earth + of the higher country which was washed down by the Nile. + They have, like the Egyptians, two species of letters, + hieroglyphics, and the alphabet; but among the Egyptians the + first was known only to the priests, and by them transmitted + from father to son, whereas both species were common among + the Ethiopians." + + "The Ethiopians," says Lucian, page 985, "were the first who + invented the science of the stars, and gave names to the + planets, not at random and without meaning, but descriptive + of the qualities which they conceived them to possess; and + it was from them that this art passed, still in an imperfect + state, to the Egyptians." + + It would be easy to multiply citations upon this subject; + from all which it follows, that we have the strongest + reasons to believe that the country neighboring to the + tropic was the cradle of the sciences, and of consequence + that the first learned nation was a nation of Blacks; for it + is incontrovertible, that, by the term Ethiopians, the + ancients meant to represent a people of black complexion, + thick lips, and woolly hair. I am therefore inclined to + believe, that the inhabitants of Lower Egypt were originally + a foreign colony imported from Syria and Arabia, a medley of + different tribes of savages, originally shepherds and + fishermen, who, by degrees formed themselves into a nation, + and who, by nature and descent, were enemies of the Thebans, + by whom they were no doubt despised and treated as + barbarians. + + I have suggested the same ideas in my Travels into Syria, + founded upon the black complexion of the Sphinx. I have + since ascertained that the antique images of Thebias have + the same characteristic; and Mr. Bruce has offered a + multitude of analogous facts; but this traveller, of whom I + heard some mention at Cairo, has so interwoven these facts + with certain systematic opinions, that we should have + recourse to his narratives with caution. + + It is singular that Africa, situated so near us, should be + the least known country on the earth. The English are at + this moment making explorations, the success of which ought + to excite our emulation. + + *** Ailah (Eloth), and Atsiom-Gaber (Hesien-Geber.) The + name of the first of these towns still subsists in its + ruins, at the point of the gulf of the Red Sea, and in the + route which the pilgrims take to Mecca. Hesion has at + present no trace, any more than Quolzoum and Faran: it was, + however, the harbor for the fleets of Solomon. The vessels + of this prince conducted by the Tyrians, sailed along the + coast of Arabia to Ophir, in the Persian Gulf, thus opening + a communication with the merchants of India and Ceylon. + That this navigation was entirely of Tyrian invention, + appears both from the pilots and shipbuilders employed by + the Jews, and the names that were given to the trading + islands, viz. Tyrus and Aradus, now Barhain. The voyage was + performed in two different modes, either in canoes of osier + and rushes, covered on the outside with skins done over with + pitch: (these vessels were unable to quit the Red Sea, or so + much as to leave the shore.) The second mode of carrying on + the trade was by means of vessels with decks of the size of + our river boats, which were able to pass the strait and to + weather the dangers of time ocean; but for this purpose it + was necessary to bring the wood from Mount Libanus and + Cilicia, where it is very fine and in great abundance. This + wood was first conveyed in floats from Tarsus to Phoenicia, + for which reason the vessels were called ships of Tarsus; + from whence it has been ridiculously inferred, that they + went round the promontory of Africa as far as Tortosa in + Spain. From Phoenicia it was transported on the backs of + camels to the Red Sea, which practice still continues, + because the shores of this sea are absolutely unprovided + with wood even for fuel. These vessels spent a complete + year in their voyage, that is, sailed one year, sojourned + another, and did not return till the third. This + tediousness was owing first to their cruising from port to + port, as they do at present; secondly, to their being + detained by the Monsoon currents; and thirdly, because, + according to the calculations of Pliny and Strabo, it was + the ordinary practice among the ancients to spend three + years in a voyage of twelve hundred leagues. Such a + commerce must have been very expensive, particularly as they + were obliged to carry with them their provisions, and even + fresh water. For this reason Solomon made himself master of + Palmyra, which was at that time inhabited, and was already + the magazine and high road of merchants by the way of the + Euphrates. This conquest brought Solomon much nearer to the + country of gold and pearls. This alternative of a route + either by the Red Sea or by the river Euphrates was to the + ancients, what in later times has been the alternative in a + voyage to the Indies, either by crossing the isthmus of Suez + or doubling the cape of Good Hope. It appears that till the + time of Moses, this trade was carried on across the desert + of Syria and Thebais; that afterwards it fell into the hands + of the Phoenicians, who fixed its site upon the Red Sea; and + that it was mutual jealousy that induced the kings of + Nineveh and Babylon to undertake the destruction of Tyre and + Jerusalem. I insist the more upon these facts, because I + have never seen any thing reasonable upon the subject. + + **** It appears that Babylon occupied on the eastern banks + of the Euphrates a space of ground six leagues in length. + Throughout this space bricks are found by means of which + daily additions are made to the town of Helle. Upon many of + these are characters written with a nail similar to those of + Persepolis. I am indebted for these facts to M. de + Beauchamp, grand vicar of Babylon, a traveller equally + distinguished for his knowledge of astronomy and for his + veracity. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> + <h3> + CONDITION OF MAN IN THE UNIVERSE. + </h3> + <p> + The Genius, after some moments of silence, resumed in these words: + </p> + <p> + I have told thee already, O friend of truth! that man vainly ascribes his + misfortunes to obscure and imaginary agents; in vain he seeks as the + source of his evils mysterious and remote causes. In the general order of + the universe his condition is, doubtless, subject to inconveniences, and + his existence governed by superior powers; but those powers are neither + the decrees of a blind fatality, nor the caprices of whimsical and + fantastic beings. Like the world of which he forms a part, man is governed + by natural laws, regular in their course, uniform in their effects, + immutable in their essence; and those laws,—the common source of + good and evil,—are not written among the distant stars, nor hidden + in codes of mystery; inherent in the nature of terrestrial beings, + interwoven with their existence, at all times and in all places, they are + present to man; they act upon his senses, they warn his understanding, and + give to every action its reward or punishment. Let man then know these + laws! let him comprehend the nature of the elements which surround him, + and also his own nature, and he will know the regulators of his destiny; + he will know the causes of his evils and the remedies he should apply. + </p> + <p> + When the hidden power which animates the universe, formed the globe which + man inhabits, he implanted in the beings composing it, essential + properties which became the law of their individual motion, the bond of + their reciprocal relations, the cause of the harmony of the whole; he + thereby established a regular order of causes and effects, of principles + and consequences, which, under an appearance of chance, governs the + universe, and maintains the equilibrium of the world. Thus, he gave to + fire, motion and activity; to air, elasticity; weight and density to + matter; he made air lighter than water, metal heavier than earth, wood + less cohesive than steel; he decreed flame to ascend, stones to fall, + plants to vegetate; to man, who was to be exposed to the action of so many + different beings, and still to preserve his frail life, he gave the + faculty of sensation. By this faculty all action hurtful to his existence + gives him a feeling of pain and evil, and all which is salutary, of + pleasure and happiness. By these sensations, man, sometimes averted from + that which wounds his senses, sometimes allured towards that which soothes + them, has been obliged to cherish and preserve his own life; thus, + self-love, the desire of happiness, aversion to pain, become the essential + and primary laws imposed on man by nature herself—the laws which the + directing power, whatever it be, has established for his government—and + which laws, like those of motion in the physical world, are the simple and + fruitful principle of whatever happens in the moral world. + </p> + <p> + Such, then, is the condition of man: on one side, exposed to the action of + the elements which surround him, he is subject to many inevitable evils; + and if, in this decree, nature has been severe, on the other hand, just + and even indulgent she has not only tempered the evils with equivalent + good, she has also enabled him to increase the good and alleviate the + evil. She seems to say: + </p> + <p> + "Feeble work of my hands, I owe thee nothing, and I give thee life; the + world wherein I placed thee was not made for thee, yet I give thee the use + of it; thou wilt find in it a mixture of good and evil; it is for thee to + distinguish them; for thee to guide thy footsteps in a path containing + thorns as well as roses. Be the arbiter of thine own fate; I put thy + destiny into thine own hands!" + </p> + <p> + Yes, man is made the architect of his own destiny; he, himself, hath been + the cause of the successes or reverses of his own fortune; and if, on a + review of all the pains with which he has tormented his own life, he finds + reason to weep over his own weakness or imprudence yet, considering the + beginnings from which he sat out, and the height attained, he has, + perhaps, still reason to presume on his strength, and to pride himself on + his genius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> + <h3> + THE PRIMITIVE STATE OF MAN. + </h3> + <p> + Formed naked in body and in mind, man at first found himself thrown, as it + were by chance, on a rough and savage land: an orphan, abandoned by the + unknown power which had produced him, he saw not by his side beings + descended from heaven to warn him of those wants which arise only from his + senses, nor to instruct him in those duties which spring only from his + wants. Like to other animals, without experience of the past, without + foresight of the future, he wandered in the bosom of the forest, guided + only and governed by the affections of his nature. By the pain of hunger, + he was led to seek food and provide for his subsistence; by the inclemency + of the air, he was urged to cover his body, and he made him clothes; by + the attraction of a powerful pleasure, he approached a being like himself, + and he perpetuated his kind. + </p> + <p> + Thus the impressions which he received from every object, awakening his + faculties, developed by degrees his understanding, and began to instruct + his profound ignorance: his wants excited industry, dangers formed his + courage; he learned to distinguish useful from noxious plants, to combat + the elements, to seize his prey, to defend his life; and thus he + alleviated its miseries. + </p> + <p> + Thus self-love, aversion to pain, the desire of happiness, were the simple + and powerful excitements which drew man from the savage and barbarous + condition in which nature had placed him. And now, when his life is + replete with enjoyments, when he may count each day by the comforts it + brings, he may applaud himself and say: + </p> + <p> + "It is I who have produced the comforts which surround me; it is I who am + the author of my own happiness; a safe dwelling, convenient clothing, + abundant and wholesome nourishment, smiling fields, fertile hills, + populous empires, all is my work; without me this earth, given up to + disorder, would have been but a filthy fen, a wild wood, a dreary desert." + </p> + <p> + Yes, creative man, receive my homage! Thou hast measured the span of the + heavens, calculated the volume of the stars, arrested the lightning in its + clouds, subdued seas and storms, subjected all the elements. Ah! how are + so many sublime energies allied to so many errors? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <h3> + PRINCIPLES OF SOCIETY. + </h3> + <p> + Wandering in the woods and on the banks of rivers in pursuit of game and + fish, the first men, beset with dangers, assailed by enemies, tormented by + hunger, by reptiles, by ravenous beasts, felt their own individual + weakness; and, urged by a common need of safety, and a reciprocal + sentiment of like evils, they united their resources and their strength; + and when one incurred a danger, many aided and succored him; when one + wanted subsistence, another shared his food with him. Thus men associated + to secure their existence, to augment their powers, to protect their + enjoyments; and self-love thus became the principle of society. + </p> + <p> + Instructed afterwards by the experience of various and repeated accidents, + by the fatigues of a wandering life, by the distress of frequent scarcity, + men reasoned with themselves and said: + </p> + <p> + "Why consume our days in seeking scattered fruits from a parsimonious + soil? why exhaust ourselves in pursuing prey which eludes us in the woods + or waters? why not collect under our hands the animals that nourish us? + why not apply our cares in multiplying and preserving them? We will feed + on their increase, be clothed in their skins, and live exempt from the + fatigues of the day and solicitude for the morrow." + </p> + <p> + And men, aiding one another, seized the nimble goat, the timid sheep; they + tamed the patient camel, the fierce bull, the impetuous horse; and, + applauding their own industry, they sat down in the joy of their souls, + and began to taste repose and comfort: and self-love, the principle of all + reasoning, became the incitement to every art, and every enjoyment. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, men could pass long days in leisure, and in communication + of their thoughts, they began to contemplate the earth, the heavens, and + their own existence as objects of curiosity and reflection; they remarked + the course of the seasons, the action of the elements, the properties of + fruits and plants; and applied their thoughts to the multiplication of + their enjoyments. And in some countries, having observed that certain + seeds contained a wholesome nourishment in a small volume, convenient for + transportation and preservation, they imitated the process of nature; they + confided to the earth rice, barley, and corn, which multiplied to the full + measure of their hope; and having found the means of obtaining within a + small compass and without removal, plentiful subsistence and durable + stores, they established themselves in fixed habitations; they built + houses, villages, and towns; formed societies and nations; and self-love + produced all the developments of genius and of power. + </p> + <p> + Thus by the aid of his own faculties, man has raised himself to the + astonishing height of his present fortune. Too happy if, observing + scrupulously the law of his being, he had faithfully fulfilled its only + and true object! But, by a fatal imprudence, sometimes mistaking, + sometimes transgressing its limits, he has launched forth into a labyrinth + of errors and misfortunes; and self-love, sometimes unruly, sometimes + blind, became a principle fruitful in calamities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <h3> + SOURCES OF THE EVILS OF SOCIETY. + </h3> + <p> + In truth, scarcely were the faculties of men developed, when, inveigled by + objects which gratify the senses, they gave themselves up to unbridled + desires. The sweet sensations which nature had attached to their real + wants, to endear to them their existence, no longer satisfied them. Not + content with the abundance offered by the earth or produced by industry, + they wished to accumulate enjoyments and coveted those possessed by their + fellow men. The strong man rose up against the feeble, to take from him + the fruit of his labor; the feeble invoked another feeble one to repel the + violence. Two strong ones then said: + </p> + <p> + "Why fatigue ourselves to produce enjoyments which we may find in the + hands of the weak? Let us join and despoil them; they shall labor for us, + and we will enjoy without labor." + </p> + <p> + And the strong associating for oppression and the weak for resistance, men + mutually afflicted each other; and a general and fatal discord spread over + the earth, in which the passions, assuming a thousand new forms, have + generated a continued chain of misfortunes. + </p> + <p> + Thus the same self-love which, moderate and prudent, was a principle of + happiness and perfection, becoming blind and disordered, was transformed + into a corrupting poison; and cupidity, offspring and companion of + ignorance, became the cause of all the evils that have desolated the + earth. + </p> + <p> + Yes, ignorance and cupidity! these are the twin sources of all the + torments of man! Biased by these into false ideas of happiness, he has + mistaken or broken the laws of nature in his own relation with external + objects; and injuring his own existence, has violated individual morality; + shutting through these his heart to compassion, and his mind to justice, + he has injured and afflicted his equal, and violated social morality. From + ignorance and cupidity, man has armed against man, family against family, + tribe against tribe; and the earth is become a theatre of blood, of + discord, and of rapine. By ignorance and cupidity, a secret war, + fermenting in the bosom of every state, has separated citizen from + citizen; and the same society has divided itself into oppressors and + oppressed, into masters and slaves; by these, the heads of a nation, + sometimes insolent and audacious, have forged its chains within its own + bowels; and mercenary avarice has founded political despotism. Sometimes, + hypocritical and cunning, they have called from heaven a lying power, and + a sacrilegious yoke; and credulous cupidity has founded religious + despotism. By these have been perverted the ideas of good and evil, just + and unjust, vice and virtue; and nations have wandered in a labyrinth of + errors and calamities. + </p> + <p> + The cupidity of man and his ignorance,—these are the evil genii + which have wasted the earth! These are the decrees of fate which have + overthrown empires! These are the celestial anathemas which have smitten + these walls once so glorious, and converted the splendor of a populous + city into a solitude of mourning and of ruins! But as in the bosom of man + have sprung all the evils which have afflicted his life, there he also is + to seek and to find their remedies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> + <h3> + ORIGIN OF GOVERNMENT AND LAWS. + </h3> + <p> + In fact, it soon happened that men, fatigued with the evils they + reciprocally inflicted, began to sigh for peace; and reflecting on their + misfortunes and the causes of them, they said: + </p> + <p> + "We are mutually injuring each other by our passions; and, aiming to grasp + every thing, we hold nothing. What one seizes to-day, another takes + to-morrow, and our cupidity reacts upon ourselves. Let us establish + judges, who shall arbitrate our rights, and settle our differences! When + the strong shall rise against the weak, the judge shall restrain him, and + dispose of our force to suppress violence; and the life and property of + each shall be under the guarantee and protection of all; and all shall + enjoy the good things of nature." + </p> + <p> + Conventions were thus formed in society, sometimes express, sometimes + tacit, which became the rule for the action of individuals, the measure of + their rights, the law of their reciprocal relations; and persons were + appointed to superintend their observance, to whom the people confided the + balance to weigh rights, and the sword to punish transgressions. + </p> + <p> + Thus was established among individuals a happy equilibrium of force and + action, which constituted the common security. The name of equity and of + justice was recognized and revered over the earth; every one, assured of + enjoying in peace, the fruits of his toil, pursued with energy the objects + of his attention; and industry, excited and maintained by the reality or + the hope of enjoyment, developed, all the riches of art and of nature. The + fields were covered with harvests, the valleys with flocks, the hills with + fruits, the sea with vessels, and man became happy and powerful on the + earth. Thus did his own wisdom repair the disorder which his imprudence + had occasioned; and that wisdom was only the effect of his own + organization. He respected the enjoyments of others in order to secure his + own; and cupidity found its corrective in the enlightened love of self. + </p> + <p> + Thus the love of self, the moving principle of every individual, becomes + the necessary foundation of every association; and on the observance of + that law of our nature has depended the fate of nations. Have the + factitious and conventional laws tended to that object and accomplished + that aim? Every one, urged by a powerful instinct, has displayed all the + faculties of his being; and the sum of individual felicities has + constituted the general felicity. Have these laws, on the contrary, + restrained the effort of man toward his own happiness? His heart, deprived + of its exciting principle, has languished in inactivity, and from the + oppression of individuals has resulted the weakness of the state. + </p> + <p> + As self-love, impetuous and improvident, is ever urging man against his + equal, and consequently tends to dissolve society, the art of legislation + and the merit of administrators consists in attempering the conflict of + individual cupidities, in maintaining an equilibrium of powers, and + securing to every one his happiness, in order that, in the shock of + society against society, all the members may have a common interest in the + preservation and defence of the public welfare. + </p> + <p> + The internal splendor and prosperity of empires then, have had for their + efficient cause the equity of their laws and government; and their + respective external powers have been in proportion to the number of + persons interested, and their degree of interest in the public welfare. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the multiplication of men, by complicating their + relations, having rendered the precise limitation of their rights + difficult, the perpetual play of the passions having produced incidents + not foreseen—their conventions having been vicious, inadequate, or + nugatory—in fine, the authors of the laws having sometimes mistaken, + sometimes disguised their objects; and their ministers, instead of + restraining the cupidity of others, having given themselves up to their + own; all these causes have introduced disorder and trouble into societies; + and the viciousness of laws and the injustice of governments, flowing from + cupidity and ignorance, have become the causes of the misfortunes of + nations, and the subversion of states. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> + <h3> + GENERAL CAUSES OF THE PROSPERITY OF ANCIENT STATES. + </h3> + <p> + Such, O man who seekest wisdom, such have been the causes of revolution in + the ancient states of which thou contemplatest the ruins! To whatever spot + I direct my view, to whatever period my thoughts recur, the same + principles of growth or destruction, of rise or fall, present themselves + to my mind. Wherever a people is powerful, or an empire prosperous, there + the conventional laws are conformable with the laws of nature—the + government there procures for its citizens a free use of their faculties, + equal security for their persons and property. If, on the contrary, an + empire goes to ruin, or dissolves, it is because its laws have been + vicious, or imperfect, or trodden under foot by a corrupt government. If + the laws and government, at first wise and just, become afterwards + depraved, it is because the alternation of good and evil is inherent to + the heart of man, to a change in his propensities, to his progress in + knowledge, to a combination of circumstances and events; as is proved by + the history of the species. + </p> + <p> + In the infancy of nations, when men yet lived in the forest, subject to + the same wants, endowed with the same faculties, all were nearly equal in + strength; and that equality was a circumstance highly advantageous in the + composition of society: as every individual, thus feeling himself + sufficiently independent of every other, no one was the slave, none + thought of being the master of another. Man, then a novice, knew neither + servitude nor tyranny; furnished with resources sufficient for his + existence, he thought not of borrowing from others; owning nothing, + requiring nothing, he judged the rights of others by his own, and formed + ideas of justice sufficiently exact. Ignorant, moreover, in the art of + enjoyments, unable to produce more than his necessaries, possessing + nothing superfluous, cupidity remained dormant; or if excited, man, + attacked in his real wants, resisted it with energy, and the foresight of + such resistance ensured a happy balance. + </p> + <p> + Thus original equality, in default of compact, maintained freedom of + person, security of property, good manners, and order. Every one labored + by himself and for himself; and the mind of man, being occupied, wandered + not to culpable desires. He had few enjoyments, but his wants were + satisfied; and as indulgent nature had made them less than his resources, + the labor of his hands soon produced abundance—abundance, + population; the arts unfolded, culture extended, and the earth, covered + with numerous inhabitants, was divided into different dominions. + </p> + <p> + The relations of man becoming complicated, the internal order of societies + became more difficult to maintain. Time and industry having generated + riches, cupidity became more active; and because equality, practicable + among individuals, could not subsist among families, the natural + equilibrium was broken; it became necessary to supply it by a factitious + equilibrium; to set up chiefs, to establish laws; and in the primitive + inexperience, it necessarily happened that these laws, occasioned by + cupidity, assumed its character. But different circumstances concurred to + correct the disorder, and oblige governments to be just. + </p> + <p> + States, in fact, being weak at first, and having foreign enemies to fear, + the chiefs found it their interest not to oppress their subjects; for, by + lessening the confidence of the citizens in their government, they would + diminish their means of resistance—they would facilitate foreign + invasion, and by exercising arbitrary power, have endangered their very + existence. + </p> + <p> + In the interior, the firmness of the people repelled tyranny; men had + contracted too long habits of independence; they had too few wants, and + too much consciousness of their own strength. + </p> + <p> + States being of a moderate size, it was difficult to divide their citizens + so as to make use of some for the oppression of others. Their + communications were too easy, their interest too clear and simple: + besides, every one being a proprietor and cultivator, no one needed to + sell himself, and the despot could find no mercenaries. + </p> + <p> + If, then, dissensions arose, they were between family and family, faction + and faction, and they interested a great number. The troubles, indeed, + were warmer; but fears from abroad pacified discord at home. If the + oppression of a party prevailed, the earth being still unoccupied, and + man, still in a state of simplicity, finding every where the same + advantages, the oppressed party emigrated, and carried elsewhere their + independence. + </p> + <p> + The ancient states then enjoyed within themselves numerous means of + prosperity and power. Every one finding his own well-being in the + constitution of his country, took a lively interest in its preservation. + If a stranger attacked it, having to defend his own field, his own house, + he carried into combat all the passions of a personal quarrel; and, + devoted to his own interests, he was devoted to his country. + </p> + <p> + As every action useful to the public attracted its esteem and gratitude, + every one became eager to be useful; and self-love multiplied talents and + civic virtues. + </p> + <p> + Every citizen contributing equally by his talents and person, armies and + funds were inexhaustible, and nations displayed formidable masses of + power. + </p> + <p> + The earth being free, and its possession secure and easy, every one was a + proprietor; and the division of property preserved morals, and rendered + luxury impossible. + </p> + <p> + Every one cultivating for himself, culture was more active, produce more + abundant; and individual riches became public wealth. + </p> + <p> + The abundance of produce rendering subsistence easy, population was rapid + and numerous, and states attained quickly the term of their plenitude. + </p> + <p> + Productions increasing beyond consumption, the necessity of commerce + arose; and exchanges took place between people and people; which augmented + their activity and reciprocal advantages. + </p> + <p> + In fine, certain countries, at certain times, uniting the advantages of + good government with a position on the route of the most active + circulation, they became emporiums of flourishing commerce and seats of + powerful domination. And on the shores of the Nile and Mediterranean, of + the Tygris and Euphrates, the accumulated riches of India and of Europe + raised in successive splendor a hundred different cities. + </p> + <p> + The people, growing rich, applied their superfluity to works of common and + public use; and this was in every state, the epoch of those works whose + grandeur astonishes the mind; of those wells of Tyre, of those dykes of + the Euphrates, of those subterranean conduits of Media,* of those + fortresses of the desert, of those aqueducts of Palmyra, of those temples, + of those porticoes. And such labors might be immense, without oppressing + the nations; because they were the effect of an equal and common + contribution of the force of individuals animated and free. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See respecting these monuments my Travels into Syria, vol. + ii. p. 214. +</pre> + <p> + From the town or village of Samouat the course of the Euphrates is + accompanied with a double bank, which descends as far as its junction with + the Tygris, and from thence to the sea, being a length of about a hundred + leagues, French measure. The height of these artificial banks is not + uniform, but increases as you advance from the sea; it may be estimated at + from twelve to fifteen feet. But for them, the inundation of the river + would bury the country around, which is flat, to an extent of twenty or + twenty-five leagues and even notwithstanding these banks, there has been + in modern times an overflow, which has covered the whole triangle formed + by the junction of this river to the Tygris, being a space of country of + one hundred and thirty square leagues. By the stagnation of these waters + an epidemical disease of the most fatal nature was occasioned. It follows + from hence, 1. That all the flat country bordering upon these rivers, was + originally a marsh; 2. That this marsh could not have been inhabited + previously to the construction of the banks in question; 3. That these + banks could not have been the work but of a population prior as to date; + and the elevation of Babylon, therefore, must have been posterior to that + of Nineveh, as I think I have chronologically demonstrated in the memoir + above cited. See Encyclopedia, vol. xiii, of Antiquities. + </p> + <p> + The modern Aderbidjan, which was a part of Medea, the mountains of + Koulderstan, and those of Diarbekr, abound with subterranean canals, by + means of which the ancient inhabitants conveyed water to their parched + soil in order to fertilize it. It was regarded as a meritorious act and a + religious duty prescribed by Zoroaster, who, instead of preaching + celibacy, mortifications, and other pretended virtues of the monkish sort, + repeats continually in the passages that are preserved respecting him in + the Sad-der and the Zend-avesta: + </p> + <p> + "That the action most pleasing to God is to plough and cultivate the + earth, to water it with running streams, to multiply vegetation and living + beings, to have numerous flocks, young and fruitful virgins, a multitude + of children," etc., etc. + </p> + <p> + Among the aqueducts of Palmyra it appears certain, that, besides those + which conducted water from the neighboring hills, there was one which + brought it even from the mountains of Syria. It is to be traced a long way + into the Desert where it escapes our search by going under ground. + </p> + <p> + Thus ancient states prospered, because their social institutions conformed + to the true laws of nature; and because men, enjoying liberty and security + for their persons and their property, might display all the extent of + their faculties,—all the energies of their self-love. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> + <h3> + GENERAL CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTIONS AND RUIN OF ANCIENT STATES. + </h3> + <p> + Cupidity had nevertheless excited among men a constant and universal + conflict, which incessantly prompting individuals and societies to + reciprocal invasions, occasioned successive revolutions, and returning + agitations. + </p> + <p> + And first, in the savage and barbarous state of the first men, this + audacious and fierce cupidity produced rapine, violence, and murder, and + retarded for a long time the progress of civilization. + </p> + <p> + When afterwards societies began to be formed, the effect of bad habits, + communicated to laws and governments, corrupted their institutions and + objects, and established arbitrary and factitious rights, which depraved + the ideas of justice, and the morality of the people. + </p> + <p> + Thus one man being stronger than another, their inequality—an + accident of nature—was taken for her law;* and the strong being able + to take the life of the weak, and yet sparing him, arrogated over his + person an abusive right of property; and the slavery of individuals + prepared the way for the slavery of nations. + </p> + <p> + *Almost all the ancient philosophers and politicians have laid it down as + a principle that men are born unequal, that nature his created some to be + free, and others to be slaves. Expressions of this kind are to be found in + Aristotle, and even in Plato, called the divine, doubtless in the same + sense as the mythological reveries which he promulgated. With all the + people of antiquity, the Gauls, the Romans, the Athenians, the right of + the strongest was the right of nations; and from the same principle are + derived all the political disorders and public national crimes that at + present exist. + </p> + <p> + Because the head of a family could be absolute in his house, he made his + own affections and desires the rule of his conduct; he gave or resumed his + goods without equality, without justice; and paternal despotism laid the + foundation of despotism in government.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Upon this single expression it would be easy to write a + long and important chapter. We might prove in it, beyond + contradiction, that all the abuses of national governments, + have sprung from those of domestic government, from that + government called patriarchal, which superficial minds have + extolled without having analyzed it. Numberless facts + demonstrate, that with every infant people, in every savage + and barbarous state, the father, the chief of the family, is + a despot, and a cruel and insolent despot. The wife is his + slave, the children his servants. This king sleeps or + smokes his pipe, while his wife and daughters perform all + the drudgery of the house, and even that of tillage and + cultivation, as far as occupations of this nature are + practised in such societies; and no sooner have the boys + acquired strength then they are allowed to beat the females + and make them serve and wait upon them as they do upon their + fathers. Similar to this is the state of our own + uncivilized peasants. In proportion as civilization + spreads, the manners become milder, and the condition of the + women improves, till, by a contrary excess, they arrive at + dominion, and then a nation becomes effeminate and corrupt. + It is remarkable that parental authority is great in + proportion as the government is despotic. China, India, and + Turkey are striking examples of this. One would suppose that + tyrants gave themselves accomplices and interested subaltern + despots to maintain their authority. In opposition to this + the Romans will be cited, but it remains to be proved that + the Romans were men truly free and their quick passage from + their republican despotism to their abject servility under + the emperors, gives room at least for considerable doubt as + to that freedom. +</pre> + <p> + In societies formed on such foundations, when time and labor had developed + riches, cupidity restrained by the laws, became more artful, but not less + active. Under the mask of union and civil peace, it fomented in the bosom + of every state an intestine war, in which the citizens, divided into + contending corps of orders, classes, families, unremittingly struggled to + appropriate to themselves, under the name of supreme power, the ability to + plunder every thing, and render every thing subservient to the dictates of + their passions; and this spirit of encroachment, disguised under all + possible forms, but always the same in its object and motives, has never + ceased to torment the nations. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes, opposing itself to all social compact, or breaking that which + already existed, it committed the inhabitants of a country to the + tumultuous shock of all their discords; and states thus dissolved, and + reduced to the condition of anarchy, were tormented by the passions of all + their members. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes a nation, jealous of its liberty, having appointed agents to + administer its government, these agents appropriated the powers of which + they had only the guardianship: they employed the public treasures in + corrupting elections, gaining partisans, in dividing the people among + themselves. By these means, from being temporary they became perpetual; + from elective, hereditary; and the state, agitated by the intrigues of the + ambitious, by largesses from the rich and factious, by the venality of the + poor and idle, by the influence of orators, by the boldness of the wicked, + and the weakness of the virtuous, was convulsed with all the + inconveniences of democracy. + </p> + <p> + The chiefs of some countries, equal in strength and mutually fearing each + other, formed impious pacts, nefarious associations; and, apportioning + among themselves all power, rank, and honor, unjustly arrogated privileges + and immunities; erected themselves into separate orders and distinct + classes; reduced the people to their control; and, under the name of + aristocracy, the state was tormented by the passions of the wealthy and + the great. + </p> + <p> + Sacred impostors, in other countries, tending by other means to the same + object, abused the credulity of the ignorant. In the gloom of their + temples, behind the curtain of the altar, they made their gods act and + speak; gave forth oracles, worked miracles, ordered sacrifices, levied + offerings, prescribed endowments; and, under the names of theocracy and of + religion, the state became tormented by the passions of the priests. + </p> + <p> + Sometimes a nation, weary of its dissensions or of its tyrants, to lessen + the sources of evil, submitted to a single master; but if it limited his + powers, his sole aim was to enlarge them; if it left them indefinite, he + abused the trust confided to him; and, under the name of monarchy, the + state was tormented by the passions of kings and princes. + </p> + <p> + Then the factions, availing themselves of the general discontent, + flattered the people with the hope of a better master; dealt out gifts and + promises, deposed the despot to take his place; and their contests for the + succession, or its partition, tormented the state with the disorders and + devastations of civil war. + </p> + <p> + In fine, among these rivals, one more adroit, or more fortunate, gained + the ascendency, and concentrated all power within himself. By a strange + phenomenon, a single individual mastered millions of his equals, against + their will and without their consent; and the art of tyranny sprung also + from cupidity. + </p> + <p> + In fact, observing the spirit of egotism which incessantly divides + mankind, the ambitious man fomented it with dexterity, flattered the + vanity of one, excited the jealousy of another, favored the avarice of + this, inflamed the resentment of that, and irritated the passions of all; + then, placing in opposition their interests and prejudices, he sowed + divisions and hatreds, promised to the poor the spoils of the rich, to the + rich the subjection of the poor; threatened one man by another, this class + by that; and insulating all by distrust, created his strength out of their + weakness, and imposed the yoke of opinion, which they mutually riveted on + each other. With the army he levied contributions, and with contributions + he disposed of the army: dealing out wealth and office on these + principles, he enchained a whole people in indissoluble bonds, and they + languished under the slow consumption of despotism. + </p> + <p> + Thus the same principle, varying its action under every possible form, was + forever attenuating the consistence of states, and an eternal circle of + vicissitudes flowed from an eternal circle of passions. + </p> + <p> + And this spirit of egotism and usurpation produced two effects equally + operative and fatal: the one a division and subdivision of societies into + their smallest fractions, inducing a debility which facilitated their + dissolution; the other, a preserving tendency to concentrate power in a + single hand,* which, engulfing successively societies and states, was + fatal to their peace and social existence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is remarkable that this has in all instances been the + constant progress of societies; beginning with a state of + anarchy or democracy, that is, with a great division of + power they have passed to aristocracy, and from aristocracy + to monarchy. Does it not hence follow that those who + constitute states under the democratic form, destine them to + undergo all the intervening troubles between that and + monarchy; but it should at the same time be proved that + social experience is already exhausted for the human race, + and that this spontaneous movement is not solely the effect + of ignorance. +</pre> + <p> + Thus, as in a state, a party absorbed the nation, a family the party, and + an individual the family; so a movement of absorption took place between + state and state, and exhibited on a larger scale in the political order, + all the particular evils of the civil order. Thus a state having subdued a + state, held it in subjection in the form of a province; and two provinces + being joined together formed a kingdom; two kingdoms being united by + conquest, gave birth to empires of gigantic size; and in this + conglomeration, the internal strength of states, instead of increasing, + diminished; and the condition of the people, instead of ameliorating, + became daily more abject and wretched, for causes derived from the nature + of things. + </p> + <p> + Because, in proportion as states increased in extent, their administration + becoming more difficult and complicated, greater energies of power were + necessary to move such masses; and there was no longer any proportion + between the duties of sovereigns and their ability to perform their + duties: + </p> + <p> + Because despots, feeling their weakness, feared whatever might develop the + strength of nations, and studied only how to enfeeble them: + </p> + <p> + Because nations, divided by the prejudices of ignorance and hatred, + seconded the wickedness of their governments; and availing themselves + reciprocally of subordinate agents, aggravated their mutual slavery: + </p> + <p> + Because, the balance between states being destroyed, the strong more + easily oppressed the weak. + </p> + <p> + Finally, because in proportion as states were concentrated, the people, + despoiled of their laws, of their usages, and of the government of their + choice, lost that spirit of personal identification with their government, + which had caused their energy. + </p> + <p> + And despots, considering empires as their private domains and the people + as their property, gave themselves up to depredations, and to all the + licentiousness of the most arbitrary authority. + </p> + <p> + And all the strength and wealth of nations were diverted to private + expense and personal caprice; and kings, fatigued with gratification, + abandoned themselves to all the extravagancies of factitious and depraved + taste.* They must have gardens mounted on arcades, rivers raised over + mountains, fertile fields converted into haunts for wild beasts; lakes + scooped in dry lands, rocks erected in lakes, palaces built of marble and + porphyry, furniture of gold and diamonds. Under the cloak of religion, + their pride founded temples, endowed indolent priests, built, for vain + skeletons, extravagant tombs, mausoleums and pyramids;** millions of hands + were employed in sterile labors; and the luxury of princes, imitated by + their parasites, and transmitted from grade to grade to the lowest ranks, + became a general source of corruption and impoverishment. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is equally worthy of remark, that the conduct and + manners of princes and kings of every country and every age, + are found to be precisely the same at similar periods, + whether of the formation or dissolution of empires. History + every where presents the same pictures of luxury and folly; + of parks, gardens, lakes, rocks, palaces, furniture, excess + of the table, wine, women, concluding with brutality. + + The absurd rock in the garden of Versailles has alone cost + three millions. I have sometimes calculated what might have + been done with the expense of the three pyramids of Gizah, + and I have found that it would easily have constructed from + the Red Sea to Alexandria, a canal one hundred and fifty + feet wide and thirty deep, completely covered in with cut + stones and a parapet, together with a fortified and + commercial town, consisting of four hundred houses, + furnished with cisterns. What a difference in point of + utility between such a canal and these pyramids! + + ** The learned Dupuis could not be persuaded that the + pyramids were tombs; but besides the positive testimony of + historians, read what Diodorus says of the religious and + superstitious importance every Egyptian attached to building + his dwelling eternal, b. 1. + + During twenty years, says Herodotus, a hundred thousand men + labored every day to build the pyramid of the Egyptian + Cheops. Supposing only three hundred days a year, on + account of the sabbath, there will be 30 millions of days' + work in a year, and 600 millions in twenty years; at 15 sous + a day, this makes 450 millions of francs lost, without any + further benefit. With this sum, if the king had shut the + isthmus of Suez by a strong wall, like that of China, the + destinies of Egypt might have been entirely changed. + Foreign invasions would have been prevented, and the Arabs + of the desert would neither have conquered nor harassed that + country. Sterile labors! how many millions lost in putting + one stone upon another, under the forms of temples and + churches! Alchymists convert stones into gold; but + architects change gold into stone. Woe to the kings (as + well as subjects) who trust their purse to these two classes + of empirics! +</pre> + <p> + And in the insatiable thirst of enjoyment, the ordinary revenues no longer + sufficing, they were augmented; the cultivator, seeing his labors increase + without compensation, lost all courage; the merchant, despoiled, was + disgusted with industry; the multitude, condemned to perpetual poverty, + restrained their labor to simple necessaries; and all productive industry + vanished. + </p> + <p> + The surcharge of taxes rendering lands a burdensome possession, the poor + proprietor abandoned his field, or sold it to the powerful; and fortune + became concentrated in a few hands. All the laws and institutions favoring + this accumulation, the nation became divided into a group of wealthy + drones, and a multitude of mercenary poor; the people were degraded with + indigence, the great with satiety, and the number of those interested in + the preservation of the state decreasing, its strength and existence + became proportionally precarious. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, emulation finding no object, science no encouragement, + the mind sunk into profound ignorance. + </p> + <p> + The administration being secret and mysterious, there existed no means of + reform or amelioration. The chiefs governing by force or fraud, the people + viewed them as a faction of public enemies; and all harmony ceased between + the governors and governed. + </p> + <p> + And these vices having enervated the states of the wealthy part of Asia, + the vagrant and indigent people of the adjacent deserts and mountains + coveted the enjoyments of the fertile plains; and, urged by a cupidity + common to all, attacked the polished empires, and overturned the thrones + of their despots. These revolutions were rapid and easy; because the + policy of tyrants had enfeebled the subjects, razed the fortresses, + destroyed the warriors; and because the oppressed subjects remained + without personal interest, and the mercenary soldiers without courage. + </p> + <p> + And hordes of barbarians having reduced entire nations to slavery, the + empires, formed of conquerors and conquered, united in their bosom two + classes essentially opposite and hostile. All the principles of society + were dissolved: there was no longer any common interest, no longer any + public spirit; and there arose a distinction of casts and races, which + reduced to a regular system the maintenance of disorder; and he who was + born of this or that blood, was born a slave or a tyrant—property or + proprietor. + </p> + <p> + The oppressors being less numerous than the oppressed it was necessary to + perfect the science of oppression, in order to support this false + equilibrium. The art of governing became the art of subjecting the many to + the few. To enforce an obedience so contrary to instinct, the severest + punishments were established, and the cruelty of the laws rendered manners + atrocious. The distinction of persons establishing in the state two codes, + two orders of criminal justice, two sets of laws, the people, placed + between the propensities of the heart and the oath uttered from the mouth, + had two consciences in contradiction with each other; and the ideas of + justice and injustice had no longer any foundation in the understanding. + </p> + <p> + Under such a system, the people fell into dejection and despair; and the + accidents of nature were added to the other evils which assailed them. + Prostrated by so many calamities, they attributed their causes to superior + and hidden powers; and, because they had tyrants on earth, they fancied + others in heaven; and superstition aggravated the misfortunes of nations. + </p> + <p> + Fatal doctrines and gloomy and misanthropic systems of religion arose, + which painted their gods, like their despots, wicked and envious. To + appease them, man offered up the sacrifice of all his enjoyments. He + environed himself in privations, and reversed the order of nature. + Conceiving his pleasures to be crimes, his sufferings expiations, he + endeavored to love pain, and to abjure the love of self. He persecuted his + senses, hated his life; and a self-denying and anti-social morality + plunged nations into the apathy of death. + </p> + <p> + But provident nature having endowed the heart of man with hope + inexhaustible, when his desires of happiness were baffled on this earth, + he pursued it into another world. By a sweet illusion he created for + himself another country—an asylum where, far from tyrants, he should + recover the rights of nature, and thence resulted new disorders. Smitten + with an imaginary world, man despised that of nature. For chimerical + hopes, he neglected realities. His life began to appear a troublesome + journey—a painful dream; his body a prison, the obstacle to his + felicity; and the earth, a place of exile and of pilgrimage, not worthy of + culture. Then a holy indolence spread over the political world; the fields + were deserted, empires depopulated, monuments neglected and deserts + multiplied; ignorance, superstition and fanaticism, combining their + operations, overwhelmed the earth with devastation and ruin. + </p> + <p> + Thus agitated by their own passions, men, whether collectively or + individually taken, always greedy and improvident, passing from slavery to + tyranny, from pride to baseness, from presumption to despondency, have + made themselves the perpetual instruments of their own misfortunes. + </p> + <p> + These, then, are the principles, simple and natural, which regulated the + destiny of ancient states. By this regular and connected series of causes + and effects, they rose or fell, in proportion as the physical laws of the + human heart were respected or violated; and in the course of their + successive changes, a hundred different nations, a hundred different + empires, by turns humbled, elevated, conquered, overthrown, have repeated + for the earth their instructive lessons. Yet these lessons were lost for + the generations which have followed! The disorders in times past have + reappeared in the present age! The chiefs of the nations have continued to + walk in the paths of falsehood and tyranny!—the people to wander in + the darkness of superstition and ignorance! + </p> + <p> + Since then, continued the Genius, with renewed energy, since the + experience of past ages is lost for the living—since the errors of + progenitors have not instructed their descendants, the ancient examples + are about to reappear; the earth will see renewed the tremendous scenes it + has forgotten. New revolutions will agitate nations and empires; powerful + thrones will again be overturned, and terrible catastrophes will again + teach mankind that the laws of nature and the precepts of wisdom and truth + cannot be infringed with impunity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> + <h3> + LESSONS OF TIMES PAST REPEATED ON THE PRESENT. + </h3> + <p> + Thus spoke the Genius. Struck with the justice and coherence of his + discourse, assailed with a crowd of ideas, repugnant to my habits yet + convincing to my reason, I remained absorbed in profound silence. At + length, while with serious and pensive mien, I kept my eyes fixed on Asia, + suddenly in the north, on the shores of the Black sea, and in the fields + of the Crimea, clouds of smoke and flame attracted my attention. They + appeared to rise at the same time from all parts of the peninsula; and + passing by the isthmus into the continent, they ran, as if driven by a + westerly wind, along the oozy lake of Azof, and disappeared in the grassy + plains of Couban; and following more attentively the course of these + clouds, I observed that they were preceded or followed by swarms of moving + creatures, which, like ants or grasshoppers disturbed by the foot of a + passenger, agitated themselves with vivacity. Sometimes these swarms + appeared to advance and rush against each other; and numbers, after the + concussion, remained motionless. While disquieted at this spectacle, I + strained my sight to distinguish the objects. + </p> + <p> + Do you see, said the Genius, those flames which spread over the earth, and + do you comprehend their causes and effects? + </p> + <p> + Oh! Genius, I answered, I see those columns of flame and smoke, and + something like insects, accompanying them; but, when I can scarcely + discern the great masses of cities and monuments, how should I discover, + such little creatures? I can just perceive that these insects mimic + battle, for they advance, retreat, attack and pursue. + </p> + <p> + It is no mimicry, said the Genius, these are real battles. + </p> + <p> + And what, said I, are those mad animalculae, which destroy each other? + Beings of a day! will they not perish soon enough? + </p> + <p> + Then the Genius, touching my sight and hearing, again directed my eyes + towards the same object. Look, said he, and listen! + </p> + <p> + Ah! wretches, cried I, oppressed with grief, these columns of flame! these + insects! oh! Genius, they are men. These are the ravages of war! These + torrents of flame rise from towns and villages! I see the squadrons who + kindle them, and who, sword in hand overrun the country: they drive before + them crowds of old men, women, and children, fugitive and desolate: I + perceive other horsemen, who with shouldered lances, accompany and guide + them. I even recognize them to be Tartars by their led horses,* their + kalpacks, and tufts of hair: and, doubtless, they who pursue, in + triangular hats and green uniforms, are Muscovites. Ah! I now comprehend, + a war is kindled between the empire of the Czars and that of the Sultans. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A Tartar horseman has always two horses, of which he leads + one in hand. The Kalpeck is a bonnet made of the skin of a + sheep or other animal. The part of the head covered by this + bonnet is shaved, with the exception of a tuft, about the + size of a crown piece, and which is suffered to grow to the + length of seven or eight inches, precisely where our priests + place their tonsure. It is by this tuft of hair, worn by + the majority of Mussulmen, that the angel of the tomb is to + take the elect and carry them into paradise. +</pre> + <p> + Not yet, replied the Genius; this is only a preliminary. These Tartars + have been, and might still he troublesome neighbors. The Muscovites are + driving them off, finding their country would be a convenient extension of + their own limits; and as a prelude to another revolution, the throne of + the Guerais is destroyed. + </p> + <p> + And in fact, I saw the Russian standards floating over the Crimea: and + soon after their flag waving on the Euxine. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, at the cry of the flying Tartars, the Mussulman empire was in + commotion. They are driving off our brethren, cried the children of + Mahomet: the people of the prophet are outraged! infidels occupy a + consecrated land and profane the temples of Islamism.* Let us arm; let us + rush to combat, to avenge the glory of God and our own cause. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is not in the power of the Sultan to cede to a foreign + power a province inhabited by true believers. The people, + instigated by the lawyers, would not fail to revolt. This + is one reason which has led those who know the Turks, to + regard as chimerical the ceding of Candia, Cyprus, and + Egypt, projected by certain European potentates. +</pre> + <p> + And a general movement of war took place in both empires. In every part + armed men assembled. Provisions, stores, and all the murderous apparatus + of battle were displayed. The temples of both nations, besieged by an + immense multitude, presented a spectacle which fixed all my attention. + </p> + <p> + On one side, the Mussulmen gathered before their mosques, washed their + hands and feet, pared their nails, and combed their beards; then spreading + carpets upon the ground, and turning towards the south, with their arms + sometimes crossed and sometimes extended, they made genuflexions and + prostrations, and recollecting the disasters of the late war, they + exclaimed: + </p> + <p> + God of mercy and clemency! hast thou then abandoned thy faithful people? + Thou who hast promised to thy Prophet dominion over nations, and stamped + his religion by so many triumphs, dost thou deliver thy true believers to + the swords of infidels? + </p> + <p> + And the Imans and the Santons said to the people: + </p> + <p> + It is in chastisement of your sins. You eat pork; you drink wine; you + touch unclean things. God hath punished you. Do penance therefore; purify; + repeat the profession of faith;* fast from the rising to the setting sun; + give the tenth of your goods to the mosques; go to Mecca; and God will + render you victorious. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There is but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet. +</pre> + <p> + And the people, recovering courage, uttered loud cries: + </p> + <p> + There is but one God, said they transported with fury, and Mahomet is his + prophet! Accursed be he who believeth not! + </p> + <p> + God of goodness, grant us to exterminate these Christians; it is for thy + glory we fight, and our death is a martyrdom for thy name. And then, + offering victims, they prepared for battle. + </p> + <p> + On the other side, the Russians, kneeling, said: + </p> + <p> + We render thanks to God, and celebrate his power. He hath strengthened our + arm to humble his enemies. Hear our prayers, thou God of mercy! To please + thee, we will pass three days without eating either meat or eggs. Grant us + to extirpate these impious Mahometans, and to overturn their empire. To + thee we will consecrate the tenth of our spoil; to thee we will raise new + temples. + </p> + <p> + And the priests filled the churches with clouds of smoke, and said to the + people: + </p> + <p> + We pray for you, God accepteth our incense, and blesseth your arms. + Continue to fast and to fight; confess to us your secret sins; give your + wealth to the church; we will absolve you from your crimes, and you shall + die in a state of grace. + </p> + <p> + And they sprinkled water upon the people, dealt out to them, as amulets + and charms, small relics of the dead, and the people breathed war and + combat. + </p> + <p> + Struck with this contrast of the same passions, and grieving for their + fatal consequences, I was considering the difficulty with which the common + judge could yield to prayers so contradictory; when the Genius, glowing + with anger, spoke with vehemence: + </p> + <p> + What accents of madness strike my ear? What blind and perverse delirium + disorders the spirits of the nations? Sacrilegious prayers rise not from + the earth! and you, oh Heavens, reject their homicidal vows and impious + thanksgivings! Deluded mortals! is it thus you revere the Divinity? Say + then; how should he, whom you style your common father, receive the homage + of his children murdering one another? Ye victors! with what eye should he + view your hands reeking in the blood he hath created? And, what do you + expect, oh vanquished, from useless groans? Hath God the heart of a + mortal, with passions ever changing? Is he, like you, agitated with + vengeance or compassion, with wrath or repentance? What base conception of + the most sublime of beings! According to them, it would seem, that God + whimsical and capricious, is angered or appeased as a man: that he loves + and hates alternately; that he punishes or favors; that, weak or wicked, + he broods over his hatred; that, contradictory or perfidious, he lays + snares to entrap; that he punishes the evils he permits; that he foresees + but hinders not crimes; that, like a corrupt judge, he is bribed by + offerings; like an ignorant despot, he makes laws and revokes them; that, + like a savage tyrant, he grants or resumes favors without reason, and can + only be appeased by servility. Ah! now I know the lying spirit of man! + Contemplating the picture which he hath drawn of the Divinity: No, said I, + it is not God who hath made man after the image of God; but man hath made + God after the image of man; he hath given him his own mind, clothed him + with his own propensities; ascribed to him his own judgments. And when in + this medley he finds the contradiction of his own principles, with + hypocritical humility, he imputes weakness to his reason, and names the + absurdities of his own mind the mysteries of God. + </p> + <p> + He hath said, God is immutable, yet he offers prayers to change him; he + hath pronounced him incomprehensible, yet he interprets him without + ceasing. + </p> + <p> + Imposters have arisen on the earth who have called themselves the + confidants of God; and, erecting themselves into teachers of the people, + have opened the ways of falsehood and iniquity; they have ascribed merit + to practices indifferent or ridiculous; they have supposed a virtue, in + certain postures, in pronouncing certain words, articulating certain + names; they have transformed into a crime the eating of certain meats, the + drinking of certain liquors, on one day rather than another. The Jew would + rather die than labor on the sabbath; the Persian would endure + suffocation, before he would blow the fire with his breath; the Indian + places supreme perfection in besmearing himself with cow-dung, and + pronouncing mysteriously the word Aum;* the Mussulman believes he has + expiated everything in washing his head and arms; and disputes, sword in + hand, whether the ablution should commence at the elbow, or finger ends;** + the Christian would think himself damned, if he ate flesh instead of milk + or butter. Oh sublime doctrines! Doctrines truly from heaven! Oh perfect + morals, and worthy of martyrdom or the apostolate! I will cross the seas + to teach these admirable laws to the savage people—to distant + nations; I will say unto them: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This word is, in the religion of the Hindoos, a sacred + emblem of the Divinity. It is only to be pronounced in + secret, without being heard by any one. It is formed of + three letters, of which the first, a, signifies the + principal of all, the creator, Brama; the second, u, the + conservator, Vichenou; and the last, m, the destroyer, who + puts an end to all, Chiven. It is pronounced like the + monosyllable om, and expresses the unity of those three + Gods. The idea is precisely that of the Alpha and Omega + mentioned in the New Testament. + + ** This is one of the grand points of schism between the + partisans of Omar and those of Ali. Suppose two Mahometans + to meet on a journey, and to accost each other with + brotherly affection: the hour of prayer arrives; one begins + his ablution at his fingers, the other at the elbow, and + instantly they are mortal enemies. O sublime importance of + religious opinions! O profound philosophy of the authors of + them! +</pre> + <p> + Children of nature, how long will you walk in the paths of ignorance? how + long will you mistake the true principles of morality and religion? Come + and learn its lessons from nations truly pious and learned, in civilized + countries. They will inform you how, to gratify God, you must in certain + months of the year, languish the whole day with hunger and thirst; how you + may shed your neighbor's blood, and purify yourself from it by professions + of faith and methodical ablutions; how you may steal his property and be + absolved on sharing it with certain persons, who devote themselves to its + consumption. + </p> + <p> + Sovereign and invisible power of the universe! mysterious mover of nature! + universal soul of beings! thou who art unknown, yet revered by mortals + under so many names! being incomprehensible and infinite! God, who in the + immensity of the heavens directest the movement of worlds, and peoplest + the abyss of space with millions of suns! say what do these human insects, + which my sight no longer discerns on the earth, appear in thy eyes? To + thee, who art guiding stars in their orbits, what are those wormlings + writhing themselves in the dust? Of what import to thy immensity, their + distinctions of parties and sects? And of what concern the subtleties with + which their folly torments itself? + </p> + <p> + And you, credulous men, show me the effect of your practices! In so many + centuries, during which you have been following or altering them, what + changes have your prescriptions wrought in the laws of nature? Is the sun + brighter? Is the course of the seasons varied? Is the earth more fruitful, + or its inhabitants more happy? If God be good, can your penances please + him? If infinite, can your homage add to his glory? If his decrees have + been formed on foresight of every circumstance, can your prayers change + them? Answer, O inconsistent mortals! + </p> + <p> + Ye conquerors of the earth, who pretend you serve God! doth he need your + aid? If he wishes to punish, hath he not earthquakes, volcanoes, and + thunder? And cannot a merciful God correct without extermination? + </p> + <p> + Ye Mussulmans, if God chastiseth you for violating the five precepts, how + hath he raised up the Franks who ridicule them? If he governeth the earth + by the Koran, by what did he govern it before the days of the prophet, + when it was covered with so many nations who drank wine, ate pork, and + went not to Mecca, whom he nevertheless permitted to raise powerful + empires? How did he judge the Sabeans of Nineveh and of Babylon; the + Persian, worshipper of fire; the Greek and Roman idolators; the ancient + kingdoms of the Nile; and your own ancestors, the Arabians and Tartars? + How doth he yet judge so many nations who deny, or know not your worship—the + numerous castes of Indians, the vast empire of the Chinese, the sable race + of Africa, the islanders of the ocean, the tribes of America? + </p> + <p> + Presumptuous and ignorant men, who arrogate the earth to yourselves! if + God were to gather all the generations past and present, what would be, in + their ocean, the sects calling themselves universal, of Christians and + Mussulmans? What would be the judgments of his equal and common justice + over the real universality of mankind? Therein it is that your knowledge + loseth itself in incoherent systems; it is there that truth shines with + evidence; and there are manifested the powerful and simple laws of nature + and reason—laws of a common and general mover—of a God + impartial and just, who sheds rain on a country without asking who is its + prophet; who causeth his sun to shine alike on all the races of men, on + the white as on the black, on the Jew, on the Mussulman, the Christian, + and the Idolater; who reareth the harvest wherever cultivated with + diligence; who multiplieth every nation where industry and order + prevaileth; who prospereth every empire where justice is practised, where + the powerful are restrained, and the poor protected by the laws; where the + weak live in safety, and all enjoy the rights given by nature and a + compact formed in justice. + </p> + <p> + These are the principles by which people are judged! this the true + religion which regulates the destiny of empires, and which, O Ottomans, + hath governed yours! Interrogate your ancestors, ask of them by what means + they rose to greatness; when few, poor and idolaters, they came from the + deserts of Tartary and encamped in these fertile countries; ask if it was + by Islamism, till then unknown to them, that they conquered the Greeks and + the Arabs, or was it by their courage, their prudence, moderation, spirit + of union—the true powers of the social state? Then the Sultan + himself dispensed justice, and maintained discipline. The prevaricating + judge, the extortionate governor, were punished, and the multitude lived + at ease. The cultivator was protected from the rapine of the janissary, + and the fields prospered; the highways were safe, and commerce caused + abundance. You were a band of plunderers, but just among yourselves. You + subdued nations, but did not oppress them. Harassed by their own princes, + they preferred being your tributaries. What matters it, said the + Christian, whether my ruler breaks or adores images, if he renders justice + to me? God will judge his doctrines in the heavens above. + </p> + <p> + You were sober and hardy; your enemies timid and enervated; you were + expert in battle, your enemies unskillful; your leaders were experienced, + your soldiers warlike and disciplined. Booty excited ardor, bravery was + rewarded, cowardice and insubordination punished, and all the springs of + the human heart were in action. Thus you vanquished a hundred nations, and + of a mass of conquered kingdoms compounded an immense empire. + </p> + <p> + But other customs have succeeded; and in the reverses attending them, the + laws of nature have still exerted their force. After devouring your + enemies, your cupidity, still insatiable, has reacted on itself, and, + concentrated in your own bowels, has consumed you. + </p> + <p> + Having become rich, you have quarrelled for partition and enjoyment, and + disorder hath arisen in every class of society. + </p> + <p> + The Sultan, intoxicated with grandeur, has mistaken the object of his + functions; and all the vices of arbitrary power have been developed. + Meeting no obstacle to his appetites, he has become a depraved being; weak + and arrogant, he has kept the people at a distance; and their voice has no + longer instructed and guided him. Ignorant, yet flattered, neglecting all + instruction, all study, he has fallen into imbecility; unfit for business, + he has thrown its burdens on hirelings, and they have deceived him. To + satisfy their own passions, they have stimulated and nourished his; they + have multiplied his wants, and his enormous luxury has consumed + everything. The frugal table, plain clothing, simple dwelling of his + ancestors no longer sufficed. To supply his pomp, earth and sea have been + exhausted. The rarest furs have been brought from the poles; the most + costly tissues from the equator. He has devoured at a meal the tribute of + a city, and in a day that of a province. He has surrounded himself with an + army of women, eunuchs, and satellites. They have instilled into him that + the virtue of kings is to be liberal, and the munificence and treasures of + the people have been delivered into the hands of flatterers. In imitation + of their master, his servants must also have splendid houses, the most + exquisite furniture; carpets embroidered at great cost, vases of gold and + silver for the lowest uses, and all the riches of the empire have been + swallowed up in the Serai. + </p> + <p> + To supply this inordinate luxury, the slaves and women have sold their + influence, and venality has introduced a general depravation. The favor of + the sovereign has been sold to his vizier, and the vizier has sold the + empire. The law has been sold to the cadi, and the cadi has made sale of + justice. The altar has been sold to the priest, and the priest has sold + the kingdom of heaven. And gold obtaining everything, they have sacrificed + everything to obtain gold. For gold, friend has betrayed friend, the child + his parent, the servant his master, the wife her honor, the merchant his + conscience; and good faith, morals, concord, and strength were banished + from the state. + </p> + <p> + The pacha, who had purchased the government of his province, farmed it out + to others, who exercised every extortion. He sold in turn the collection + of the taxes, the command of the troops, the administration of the + villages; and as every employ has been transient, rapine, spread from rank + to rank, has been greedy and implacable. The revenue officer has fleeced + the merchant, and commerce was annihilated; the aga has plundered the + husbandman, and culture has degenerated. The laborer, deprived of his + stock, has been unable to sow; the tax was augmented, and he could not pay + it; the bastinado has been threatened, and he has borrowed. Money, from + want of security, being locked up from circulation, interest was therefore + enormous, and the usury of the rich has aggravated the misery of the + laborer. + </p> + <p> + When excessive droughts and accidents of seasons have blasted the harvest, + the government has admitted no delay, no indulgence for the tax; and + distress bearing hard on the village, a part of its inhabitants have taken + refuge in the cities; and their burdens falling on those who remained, has + completed their ruin, and depopulated the country. + </p> + <p> + If driven to extremity by tyranny and outrage, the villages have revolted, + the pacha rejoices. He wages war on them, assails their homes, pillages + their property, carries off their stock; and when the fields have become a + desert, he exclaims: + </p> + <p> + "What care I? I leave these fields to-morrow." + </p> + <p> + The earth wanting laborers, the rain of heaven and overflowing of torrents + have stagnated in marshes; and their putrid exhalations in a warm climate, + have caused epidemics, plagues, and maladies of all sorts, whence have + flowed additional suffering, penury, and ruin. + </p> + <p> + Oh! who can enumerate all the calamities of tyrannical government? + </p> + <p> + Sometimes the pachas declare war against each other, and for their + personal quarrels the provinces of the same state are laid waste. + Sometimes, fearing their masters, they attempt independence, and draw on + their subjects the chastisement of their revolt. Sometimes dreading their + subjects, they invite and subsidize strangers, and to insure their + fidelity set no bounds to their depredations. Here they persecute the rich + and despoil them under false pretences; there they suborn false witnesses, + and impose penalties for suppositious offences; everywhere they excite the + hatred of parties, encourage informations to obtain amercements, extort + property, seize persons; and when their short-sighted avarice has + accumulated into one mass all the riches of a country, the government, by + an execrable perfidy, under pretence of avenging its oppressed people, + takes to itself all their spoils, as if they were the culprits, and + uselessly sheds the blood of its agents for a crime of which it is the + accomplice. + </p> + <p> + Oh wretches, monarchs or ministers, who sport with the lives and fortunes + of the people! Is it you who gave breath to man, that you dare take it + from him? Do you give growth to the plants of the earth, that you may + waste them? Do you toil to furrow the field? Do you endure the ardor of + the sun, and the torment of thirst, to reap the harvest or thrash the + grain? Do you, like the shepherd, watch through the dews of the night? Do + you traverse deserts, like the merchant? Ah! on beholding the pride and + cruelty of the powerful, I have been transported with indignation, and + have said in my wrath, will there never then arise on the earth men who + will avenge the people and punish tyrants? A handful of brigands devour + the multitude, and the multitude submits to be devoured! Oh! degenerate + people! Know you not your rights? All authority is from you, all power is + yours. Unlawfully do kings command you on the authority of God and of + their lance—Soldiers be still; if God supports the Sultan he needs + not your aid; if his sword suffices, he needs not yours; let us see what + he can do alone. The soldiers grounded their arms; and behold these + masters of the world, feeble as the meanest of their subjects! People! + know that those who govern are your chiefs, not your masters; your agents, + not your owners; that they have no authority over you, but by you, and for + you; that your wealth is yours and they accountable for it; that, kings or + subjects, God has made all men equal, and no mortal has the right to + oppress his fellow-creatures. + </p> + <p> + But this nation and its chiefs have mistaken these holy truths. They must + abide then the consequences of their blindness. The decree is past; the + day approaches when this colossus of power shall be crushed and crumbled + under its own mass. Yes, I swear it, by the ruins of so many empires + destroyed. The empire of the Crescent shall follow the fate of the + despotism it has copied. A nation of strangers shall drive the Sultan from + his metropolis. The throne of Orkhan shall be overturned. The last shoot + of his trunk shall be broken off; and the horde of Oguzians,* deprived of + their chief, shall disperse like that of the Nagois. In this dissolution, + the people of the empire, loosened from the yoke which united them, shall + resume their ancient distinctions, and a general anarchy shall follow, as + happened in the empire of the Sophis;** until there shall arise among the + Arabians, Armenians, or Greeks, legislators who may compose new states. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Before the Turks took the name of their chief, Othman I., + they bore that of Oguzians; and it was under this + appellation that they were driven out of Tartary by Gengis, + and came from the borders of Giboun to settle themselves in + Anatolia. + + ** In Persia, after the death of Thamas-Koulikan, each + province had its chief, and for forty years these chiefs + were in a constant state of war. In this view the Turks do + not say without reason: "Ten years of a tyrant are less + destructive than a single night of anarchy." +</pre> + <p> + Oh! if there were on earth men profound and bold! what elements for + grandeur and glory! But the hour of destiny has already come; the cry of + war strikes my ear; and the catastrophe begins. In vain the Sultan leads + forth his armies; his ignorant warriors are beaten and dispersed. In vain + he calls his subjects; their hearts are ice. Is it not written? say they, + what matters who is our master? We cannot lose by the change. + </p> + <p> + In vain the true believers invoke heaven and the prophet. The prophet is + dead; and heaven without pity answers: + </p> + <p> + Cease to invoke me. You have caused your own misfortunes; cure them + yourselves. Nature has established laws; your part is to obey them. + Observe, reason, and profit by experience. It is the folly of man which + ruins him; let his wisdom save him. The people are ignorant; let them gain + instruction. Their chiefs are wicked; let them correct and amend; for such + is Nature's decree. Since the evils of society spring from cupidity and + ignorance, men will never cease to be persecuted, till they become + enlightened and wise; till they practise justice, founded on a knowledge + of their relations and of the laws of their organization.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A singular moral phenomenon made its appearance in Europe + in the year 1788. A great nation, jealous of its liberty, + contracted a fondness for a nation the enemy of liberty; a + nation friendly to the arts, for a nation that detests them; + a mild and tolerant nation, for a persecuting and fanatic + one; a social and gay nation, for a nation whose + characteristics are gloom and misanthropy; in a word, the + French were smitten with a passion for the Turks: they were + desirous of engaging in a war for them, and that at a time + when revolution in their own country was just at its + commencement. A man, who perceived the true nature of the + situation, wrote a book to dissuade them from the war: it + was immediately pretended that he was paid by the + government, which in reality wished the war, and which was + upon the point of shutting him up in a state prison. Another + man wrote to recommend the war: he was applauded, and his + word taken for the science, the politeness, and importance + of the Turks. It is true that he believed in his own + thesis, for he has found among them people who cast a + nativity, and alchymists who ruined his fortune; as he found + Martinists at Paris, who enabled him to sup with Sesostris, + and Magnetizers who concluded with destroying his existence. + Notwithstanding this, the Turks were beaten by the Russians, + and the man who then predicted the fall of their empire, + persists in the prediction. The result of this fall will be + a complete change of the political system, as far as it + relates to the coast of the Mediterranean. If, however, the + French become important in proportion as they become free, + and if they make use of the advantage they will obtain, + their progress may easily prove of the most honorable sort; + inasmuch as, by the wise decrees of fate, the true interest + of mankind evermore accords with their true morality. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. + </h2> + <h3> + WILL THE HUMAN RACE IMPROVE? + </h3> + <p> + At these words, oppressed with the painful sentiment with which their + severity overwhelmed me: Woe to the nations! cried I, melting in tears; + woe to myself! Ah! now it is that I despair of the happiness of man! Since + his miseries proceed from his heart; since the remedy is in his own power, + woe for ever to his existence! Who, indeed will ever be able to restrain + the lust of wealth in the strong and powerful? Who can enlighten the + ignorance of the weak? Who can teach the multitude to know their rights, + and force their chiefs to perform their duties? Thus the race of man is + always doomed to suffer! Thus the individual will not cease to oppress the + individual, a nation to attack a nation; and days of prosperity, of glory, + for these regions, shall never return. Alas! conquerors will come; they + will drive out the oppressors, and fix themselves in their place; but, + inheriting their power, they will inherit their rapacity; and the earth + will have changed tyrants, without changing the tyranny. + </p> + <p> + Then, turning to the Genius, I exclaimed: + </p> + <p> + O Genius, despair hath settled on my soul. Knowing the nature of man, the + perversity of those who govern, and the debasement of the governed—this + knowledge hath disgusted me with life; and since there is no choice but to + be the accomplice or the victim of oppression, what remains to the man of + virtue but to mingle his ashes with those of the tomb? + </p> + <p> + The Genius then gave me a look of severity, mingled with compassion; and + after a few moments of silence, he replied: + </p> + <p> + Virtue, then, consists in dying! The wicked man is indefatigable in + consummating his crime, and the just is discouraged from doing good at the + first obstacle he encounters! But such is the human heart. A little + success intoxicates man with confidence; a reverse overturns and confounds + him. Always given up to the sensation of the moment, he seldom judges + things from their nature, but from the impulse of his passion. + </p> + <p> + Mortal, who despairest of the human race, on what profound combination of + facts hast thou established thy conclusion? Hast thou scrutinized the + organization of sentient beings, to determine with precision whether the + instinctive force which moves them on to happiness is essentially weaker + than that which repels them from it? or, embracing in one glance the + history of the species, and judging the future by the past, hast thou + shown that all improvement is impossible? Say! hath human society, since + its origin, made no progress toward knowledge and a better state? Are men + still in their forests, destitute of everything, ignorant, stupid and + ferocious? Are all the nations still in that age when nothing was seen + upon the globe but brutal robbers and brutal slaves? If at any time, in + any place, individuals have ameliorated, why shall not the whole mass + ameliorate? If partial societies have made improvements, what shall hinder + the improvement of society in general? And if the first obstacles are + overcome, why should the others be insurmountable? + </p> + <p> + Art thou disposed to think that the human race degenerates? Guard against + the illusion and paradoxes of the misanthrope. Man, discontented with the + present, imagines for the past a perfection which never existed, and which + only serves to cover his chagrin. He praises the dead out of hatred to the + living, and beats the children with the bones of their ancestors. + </p> + <p> + To prove this pretended retrograde progress from perfection we must + contradict the testimony of reason and of fact; and if the facts of + history are in any measure uncertain, we must contradict the living fact + of the organization of man; we must prove that he is born with the + enlightened use of his senses; that, without experience, he can + distinguish aliment from poison; that the child is wiser than the old man; + that the blind walks with more safety than the clear-sighted; that the + civilized man is more miserable than the savage; and, indeed, that there + is no ascending scale in experience and instruction. + </p> + <p> + Believe, young man, the testimony of monuments, and the voice of the + tombs. Some countries have doubtless fallen from what they were at certain + epochs; but if we weigh the wisdom and happiness of their inhabitants, + even in those times, we shall find more of splendor than of reality in + their glory; we shall find, in the most celebrated of ancient states, + enormous vices and cruel abuses, the true causes of their decay; we shall + find in general that the principles of government were atrocious; that + insolent robberies, barbarous wars and implacable hatreds were raging from + nation to nation;* that natural right was unknown; that morality was + perverted by senseless fanaticism and deplorable superstition; that a + dream, a vision, an oracle, were constantly the causes of vast commotions. + Perhaps the nations are not yet entirely cured of all these evils; but + their intensity at least is diminished, and the experience of the past has + not been wholly lost. For the last three centuries, especially, knowledge + has increased and been extended; civilization, favored by happy + circumstances, has made a sensible progress; inconveniences and abuses + have even turned to its advantage; for if states have been too much + extended by conquest, the people, by uniting under the same yoke, have + lost the spirit of estrangement and division which made them all enemies + one to the other. If the powers of government have been more concentrated, + there has been more system and harmony in their exercise. If wars have + become more extensive in the mass, they are less bloody in detail. If men + have gone to battle with less personality, less energy, their struggles + have been less sanguinary and less ferocious; they have been less free, + but less turbulent; more effeminate, but more pacific. Despotism itself + has rendered them some service; for if governments have been more + absolute, they have been more quiet and less tempestuous. If thrones have + become a property and hereditary, they have excited less dissensions, and + the people have suffered fewer convulsions; finally, if the despots, + jealous and mysterious, have interdicted all knowledge of their + administration, all concurrence in the management of public affairs, the + passions of men, drawn aside from politics, have fixed upon the arts, and + the sciences of nature; and the sphere of ideas in every direction has + been enlarged; man, devoted to abstract studies, has better understood his + place in the system of nature, and his relations in society; principles + have been better discussed, final causes better explained, knowledge more + extended, individuals better instructed, manners more social, and life + more happy. The species at large, especially in certain countries, has + gained considerably; and this amelioration cannot but increase in future, + because its two principal obstacles, those even which, till then, had + rendered it slow and sometimes retrograde,—the difficulty of + transmitting ideas and of communicating them rapidly,—have been at + last removed. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Read the history of the wars of Rome and Carthage, of + Sparta and Messina, of Athens and Syracuse, of the Hebrews + and the Phoenicians: yet these are the nations of which + antiquity boasts as being most polished! +</pre> + <p> + Indeed, among the ancients, each canton, each city, being isolated from + all others by the difference of its language, the consequence was + favorable to ignorance and anarchy. There was no communication of ideas, + no participation of discoveries, no harmony of interests or of wills, no + unity of action or design; besides, the only means of transmitting and of + propagating ideas being that of speech, fugitive and limited, and that of + writing, tedious of execution, expensive and scarce, the consequence was a + hindrance of present instruction, loss of experience from one generation + to another, instability, retrogression of knowledge, and a perpetuity of + confusion and childhood. + </p> + <p> + But in the modern world, especially in Europe, great nations having allied + themselves in language, and established vast communities of opinions, the + minds of men are assimilated, and their affections extended; there is a + sympathy of opinion and a unity of action; then that gift of heavenly + Genius, the holy art of printing, having furnished the means of + communicating in an instant the same idea to millions of men, and of + fixing it in a durable manner, beyond the power of tyrants to arrest or + annihilate, there arose a mass of progressive instruction, an expanding + atmosphere of science, which assures to future ages a solid amelioration. + This amelioration is a necessary effect of the laws of nature; for, by the + law of sensibility, man as invincibly tends to render himself happy as the + flame to mount, the stone to descend, or the water to find its level. His + obstacle is his ignorance, which misleads him in the means, and deceives + him in causes and effects. He will enlighten himself by experience; he + will become right by dint of errors; he will grow wise and good because it + is his interest so to be. Ideas being communicated through the nation, + whole classes will gain instruction; science will become a vulgar + possession, and all men will know what are the principles of individual + happiness and of public prosperity. They will know the relations they bear + to society, their duties and their rights; they will learn to guard + against the illusions of the lust of gain; they will perceive that the + science of morals is a physical science, composed, indeed, of elements + complicated in their operation, but simple and invariable in their nature, + since they are only the elements of the organization of man. They will see + the propriety of being moderate and just, because in that is found the + advantage and security of each; they will perceive that the wish to enjoy + at the expense of another is a false calculation of ignorance, because it + gives rise to reprisal, hatred, and vengeance, and that dishonesty is the + never-failing offspring of folly. + </p> + <p> + Individuals will feel that private happiness is allied to public good: + </p> + <p> + The weak, that instead of dividing their interests, they ought to unite + them, because equality constitutes their force: + </p> + <p> + The rich, that the measure of enjoyment is bounded by the constitution of + the organs, and that lassitude follows satiety: + </p> + <p> + The poor, that the employment of time, and the peace of the heart, compose + the highest happiness of man. And public opinion, reaching kings on their + thrones, will force them to confine themselves to the limits of regular + authority. + </p> + <p> + Even chance itself, serving the cause of nations, will sometimes give them + feeble chiefs, who, through weakness, will suffer them to become free; and + sometimes enlightened chiefs, who, from a principle of virtue, will free + them. + </p> + <p> + And when nations, free and enlightened, shall become like great + individuals, the whole species will have the same facilities as particular + portions now have; the communication of knowledge will extend from one to + another, and thus reach the whole. By the law of imitation, the example of + one people will be followed by others, who will adopt its spirit and its + laws. Even despots, perceiving that they can no longer maintain their + authority without justice and beneficence, will soften their sway from + necessity, from rivalship; and civilization will become universal. + </p> + <p> + There will be established among the several nations an equilibrium of + force, which, restraining them all within the bounds of the respect due to + their reciprocal rights, shall put an end to the barbarous practice of + war, and submit their disputes to civil arbitration.* The human race will + become one great society, one individual family, governed by the same + spirit, by common laws, and enjoying all the happiness of which their + nature is susceptible. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * What is a people? An individual of the society at large. + What a war? A duel between two individual people. In what + manner ought a society to act when two of its members fight? + Interfere and reconcile, or repress them. In the days of + the Abbe de Saint Pierre this was treated as a dream, but + happily for the human race it begins to be realized. +</pre> + <p> + Doubtless this great work will be long accomplishing; because the same + movement must be given to an immense body; the same leaven must assimilate + an enormous mass of heterogeneous parts. But this movement shall be + effected; its presages are already to be seen. Already the great society, + assuming in its course the same characters as partial societies have done, + is evidently tending to a like result. At first disconnected in all its + parts, it saw its members for a long time without cohesion; and this + general solitude of nations formed its first age of anarchy and childhood; + divided afterwards by chance into irregular sections, called states and + kingdoms, it has experienced the fatal effects of an extreme inequality of + wealth and rank; and the aristocracy of great empires has formed its + second age; then, these lordly states disputing for preeminence, have + exhibited the period of the shock of factions. + </p> + <p> + At present the contending parties, wearied with discord, feel the want of + laws, and sigh for the age of order and of peace. Let but a virtuous chief + arise! a just, a powerful people appear! and the earth will raise them to + supreme power. The world is waiting for a legislative people; it wishes + and demands it; and my heart attends the cry. + </p> + <p> + Then turning towards the west: Yes, continued he, a hollow sound already + strikes my ear; a cry of liberty, proceeding from far distant shores, + resounds on the ancient continent. At this cry, a secret murmur against + oppression is raised in a powerful nation; a salutary inquietude alarms + her respecting her situation; she enquires what she is, and what she ought + to be; while, surprised at her own weakness, she interrogates her rights, + her resources, and what has been the conduct of her chiefs. + </p> + <p> + Yet another day—a little more reflection—and an immense + agitation will begin; a new-born age will open! an age of astonishment to + vulgar minds, of terror to tyrants, of freedom to a great nation, and of + hope to the human race! + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. + </h2> + <h3> + THE GREAT OBSTACLE TO IMPROVEMENT. + </h3> + <p> + The Genius ceased. But preoccupied with melancholy thoughts, my mind + resisted persuasion; fearing, however, to shock him by my resistance, I + remained silent. After a while, turning to me with a look which pierced my + soul, he said: + </p> + <p> + Thou art silent, and thy heart is agitated with thoughts which it dares + not utter. + </p> + <p> + At last, troubled and terrified, I replied: + </p> + <p> + O Genius, pardon my weakness. Doubtless thy mouth can utter nothing but + truth; but thy celestial intelligence can seize its rays, where my gross + faculties can discern nothing but clouds. I confess it; conviction has not + penetrated my soul, and I feared that my doubts might offend thee. + </p> + <p> + And what is doubt, replied he, that it should be a crime? Can man feel + otherwise than as he is affected? If a truth be palpable, and of + importance in practice, let us pity him that misconceives it. His + punishment will arise from his blindness. If it be uncertain or equivocal, + how is he to find in it what it has not? To believe without evidence or + proof, is an act of ignorance and folly. The credulous man loses himself + in a labyrinth of contradictions; the man of sense examines and discusses, + that he may be consistent in his opinions. The honest man will bear + contradiction; because it gives rise to evidence. Violence is the argument + of falsehood; and to impose a creed by authority is the act and indication + of a tyrant. + </p> + <p> + O Genius, said I, encouraged by these words, since my reason is free, I + strive in vain to entertain the flattering hope with which you endeavor to + console me. The sensible and virtuous soul is easily caught with dreams of + happiness; but a cruel reality constantly awakens it to suffering and + wretchedness. The more I meditate on the nature of man, the more I examine + the present state of societies, the less possible it appears to realize a + world of wisdom and felicity. I cast my eye over the whole of our + hemisphere; I perceive in no place the germ, nor do I foresee the + instinctive energy of a happy revolution. All Asia lies buried in profound + darkness. The Chinese, governed by an insolent despotism,* by strokes of + the bamboo and the cast of lots, restrained by an immutable code of + gestures, and by the radical vices of an ill-constructed language,** + appear to be in their abortive civilization nothing but a race of + automatons. The Indian, borne down by prejudices, and enchained in the + sacred fetters of his castes, vegetates in an incurable apathy. The + Tartar, wandering or fixed, always ignorant and ferocious, lives in the + savageness of his ancestors. The Arab, endowed with a happy genius, loses + its force and the fruits of his virtue in the anarchy of his tribes and + the jealousy of his families. The African, degraded from the rank of man, + seems irrevocably doomed to servitude. In the North I see nothing but + vilified serfs, herds of men with which landlords stock their estates. + Ignorance, tyranny, and wretchedness have everywhere stupified the + nations; and vicious habits, depraving the natural senses, have destroyed + the very instinct of happiness and of truth. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The emperor of China calls himself the son of heaven; that + is, of God: for in the opinion of the Chinese, the material + of heaven, the arbiter of fatality, is the Deity himself. + "The emperor only shows himself once in ten months, lest the + people, accustomed to see him, might lose their respect; for + he holds it as a maxim that power can only be supported by + force, that the people have no idea of justice, and are not + to be governed but by coercion." Narrative of two Mahometan + travellers in 851 and 877, translated by the Abbe Renaudot + in 1718. + + Notwithstanding what is asserted by the missionaries, this + situation has undergone no change. The bamboo still reigns + in China, and the son of heaven bastinades, for the most + trivial fault, the Mandarin, who in his turn bastinades the + people. The Jesuits may tell us that this is the best + governed country in the world, and its inhabitants the + happiest of men: but a single letter from Amyot has + convinced me that China is a truly Turkish government, and + the account of Sonnerat confirms it. See Vol. II. of Voyage + aux Indes, in 4to. + + ** As long as the Chinese shall in writing make use of their + present characters, they can be expected to make no progress + in civilization. The necessary introductory step must be + the giving them an alphabet like our own, or of substituting + in the room of their language that of the Tartars. The + improvement made in the latter by M. de Lengles, is + calculated to introduce this change. See the Mantchou + alphabet, the production of a mind truly learned in the + formation of language. +</pre> + <p> + In some parts of Europe, indeed, reason has begun to dawn, but even there, + do nations partake of the knowledge of individuals? Are the talents and + genius of governors turned to the benefit of the people? And those nations + which call themselves polished, are they not the same that for the last + three centuries have filled the earth with their injustice? Are they not + those who, under the pretext of commerce, have desolated India, + depopulated a new continent, and, at present, subject Africa to the most + barbarous slavery? Can liberty be born from the bosom of despots? and + shall justice be rendered by the hands of piracy and avarice? O Genius, I + have seen the civilized countries; and the mockery of their wisdom has + vanished before my sight. I saw wealth accumulated in the hands of a few, + and the multitude poor and destitute. I have seen all rights, all powers + concentered in certain classes, and the mass of the people passive and + dependent. I have seen families of princes, but no families of the nation. + I have seen government interests, but no public interests or spirit. I + have seen that all the science of government was to oppress prudently; and + the refined servitude of polished nations appeared to me only the more + irremediable. + </p> + <p> + One obstacle above all has profoundly struck my mind. On looking over the + world, I have seen it divided into twenty different systems of religion. + Every nation has received, or formed, opposite opinions; and every one + ascribing to itself the exclusive possession of the truth, must believe + the other to be wrong. Now if, as must be the fact in this discordance of + opinion, the greater part are in error, and are honest in it, then it + follows that our mind embraces falsehood as it does truth; and if so, how + is it to be enlightened? When prejudice has once seized the mind, how is + it to be dissipated? How shall we remove the bandage from our eyes, when + the first article in every creed, the first dogma in all religion, is the + absolute proscription of doubt, the interdiction of examination, and the + rejection of our own judgment? How is truth to make herself known?—If + she resorts to arguments and proofs, the timid man stifles the voice of + his own conscience; if she invokes the authority of celestial powers, he + opposes it with another authority of the same origin, with which he is + preoccupied; and he treats all innovation as blasphemy. Thus man in his + blindness, has riveted his own chains, and surrendered himself forever, + without defence, to the sport of his ignorance and his passions. + </p> + <p> + To dissolve such fatal chains, a miraculous concurrence of happy events + would be necessary. A whole nation, cured of the delirium of superstition, + must be inaccessible to the impulse of fanaticism. Freed from the yoke of + false doctrine, a whole people must impose upon itself that of true + morality and reason. This people should be courageous and prudent, wise + and docile. Each individual, knowing his rights, should not transgress + them. The poor should know how to resist seduction, and the rich the + allurements of avarice. There should be found leaders disinterested and + just, and their tyrants should be seized with a spirit of madness and + folly. This people, recovering its rights, should feel its inability to + exercise them in person, and should name its representatives. Creator of + its magistrates, it should know at once to respect them and to judge them. + In the sudden reform of a whole nation, accustomed to live by abuses, each + individual displaced should bear with patience his privations, and submit + to a change of habits. This nation should have the courage to conquer its + liberty; the power to defend it, the wisdom to establish it, and the + generosity to extend it to others. And can we ever expect the union of so + many circumstances? But suppose that chance in its infinite combinations + should produce them, shall I see those fortunate days. Will not my ashes + long ere then be mouldering in the tomb? + </p> + <p> + Here, sunk in sorrow, my oppressed heart no longer found utterance. The + Genius answered not, but I heard him whisper to himself: + </p> + <p> + Let us revive the hope of this man; for if he who loves his fellow + creatures be suffered to despair, what will become of nations? The past is + perhaps too discouraging; I must anticipate futurity, and disclose to the + eye of virtue the astonishing age that is ready to begin; that, on viewing + the object she desires, she may be animated with new ardor, and redouble + her efforts to attain it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. + </h2> + <h3> + THE NEW AGE. + </h3> + <p> + Scarcely had he finished these words, when a great tumult arose in the + west; and turning to that quarter, I perceived, at the extremity of the + Mediterranean, in one of the nations of Europe, a prodigious movement—such + as when a violent sedition arises in a vast city—a numberless + people, rushing in all directions, pour through the streets and fluctuate + like waves in the public places. My ear, struck with the cries which + resounded to the heavens, distinguished these words: + </p> + <p> + What is this new prodigy? What cruel and mysterious scourge is this? We + are a numerous people and we want hands! We have an excellent soil, and we + are in want of subsistence? We are active and laborious, and we live in + indigence! We pay enormous tributes, and we are told they are not + sufficient! We are at peace without, and our persons and property are not + safe within. Who, then, is the secret enemy that devours us? + </p> + <p> + Some voices from the midst of the multitude replied: + </p> + <p> + Raise a discriminating standard; and let all those who maintain and + nourish mankind by useful labors gather round it; and you will discover + the enemy that preys upon you. + </p> + <p> + The standard being raised, this nation divided itself at once into two + bodies of unequal magnitude and contrasted appearance. The one, + innumerable, and almost total, exhibited in the poverty of its clothing, + in its emaciated appearance and sun-burnt faces, the marks of misery and + labor; the other, a little group, an insignificant faction, presented in + its rich attire embroidered with gold and silver, and in its sleek and + ruddy faces, the signs of leisure and abundance. + </p> + <p> + Considering these men more attentively, I found that the great body was + composed of farmers, artificers, merchants, all professions useful to + society; and that the little group was made up of priests of every order, + of financiers, of nobles, of men in livery, of commanders of armies; in a + word, of the civil, military, and religious agents of government. + </p> + <p> + These two bodies being assembled face to face, and regarding each other + with astonishment, I saw indignation and rage arising in one side, and a + sort of panic in the other. And the large body said to the little one: Why + are you separated from us? Are you not of our number? + </p> + <p> + No, replied the group; you are the people; we are a privileged class, who + have our laws, customs, and rights, peculiar to ourselves. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—And what labor do you perform in our society? + </p> + <p> + PRIVILEGED CLASS.—None; we are not made to work. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—How, then, have you acquired these riches? + </p> + <p> + PRIVILEGED CLASS.—By taking the pains to govern you. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—What! is this what you call governing? We toil and you + enjoy! we produce and you dissipate! Wealth proceeds from us, and you + absorb it. Privileged men! class who are not the people; form a nation + apart, and govern yourselves.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This dialogue between the people and the indolent classes, + is applicable to every society; it contains the seeds of all + the political vices and disorders that prevail, and which + may thus be defined: Men who do nothing, and who devour the + substance of others; and men who arrogate to themselves + particular rights and exclusive privileges of wealth and + indolence. Compare the Mamlouks of Egypt, the nobility of + Europe, the Nairs of India, the Emirs of Arabia, the + patricians of Rome, the Christian clergy, the Imans, the + Bramins, the Bonzes, the Lamas, etc., etc., and you will + find in all the same characteristic feature:—Men living in + idleness at the expense of those who labor. +</pre> + <p> + Then the little group, deliberating on this new state of things, some of + the most honorable among them said: We must join the people and partake of + their labors and burdens, for they are men like us, and our riches come + from them; but others arrogantly exclaimed: It would be a shame, an + infamy, for us to mingle with the crowd; they are born to serve us. Are we + not men of another race—the noble and pure descendants of the + conquerors of this empire? This multitude must be reminded of our rights + and its own origin. + </p> + <p> + THE NOBLES.—People! know you not that our ancestors conquered this + land, and that your race was spared only on condition of serving us? This + is our social compact! this the government constituted by custom and + prescribed by time. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—O conquerors, pure of blood! show us your genealogies! we + shall then see if what in an individual is robbery and plunder, can be + virtuous in a nation. + </p> + <p> + And forthwith, voices were heard in every quarter calling out the nobles + by their names; and relating their origin and parentage, they told how the + grandfather, great-grandfather, or even father, born traders and + mechanics, after acquiring wealth in every way, had purchased their + nobility for money: so that but very few families were really of the + original stock. See, said these voices, see these purse-proud commoners + who deny their parents! see these plebian recruits who look upon + themselves as illustrious veterans! and peals of laughter were heard. + </p> + <p> + And the civil governors said: these people are mild, and naturally + servile; speak to them of the king and of the law, and they will return to + their duty. People! the king wills, the sovereign ordains! + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—The king can will nothing but the good of the people; the + sovereign can only ordain according to law. + </p> + <p> + CIVIL GOVERNORS.—The law commands you to be submissive. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—The law is the general will; and we will a new order of + things. + </p> + <p> + CIVIL GOVERNORS.—You are then a rebel people. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—A nation cannot revolt; tyrants only are rebels. + </p> + <p> + CIVIL GOVERNORS.—The king is on our side; he commands you to submit. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Kings are inseparable from their nations. Our king cannot be + with you; you possess only his phantom. + </p> + <p> + And the military governors came forward. The people are timorous, said + they; we must threaten them; they will submit only to force. Soldiers, + chastise this insolent multitude. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Soldiers, you are of our blood! Will you strike your + brothers, your relatives? If the people perish who will nourish the army? + </p> + <p> + And the soldiers, grounding their arms, said to the chiefs: + </p> + <p> + We are likewise the people; show us the enemy! + </p> + <p> + Then the ecclesiastical governors said: There is but one resource left. + The people are superstitious; we must frighten them with the names of God + and religion. + </p> + <p> + Our dear brethren! our children! God has ordained us to govern you. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Show us your credentials from God! + </p> + <p> + PRIESTS.—You must have faith; reason leads astray. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Do you govern without reason? + </p> + <p> + PRIESTS.—God commands peace! Religion prescribes obedience. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Peace supposes justice. Obedience implies conviction of a + duty. + </p> + <p> + PRIESTS.—Suffering is the business of this world. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Show us the example. + </p> + <p> + PRIESTS.—Would you live without gods or kings? + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—We would live without oppressors. + </p> + <p> + PRIESTS.—You must have mediators, intercessors. + </p> + <p> + PEOPLE.—Mediators with God and with the king! courtiers and priests, + your services are too expensive: we will henceforth manage our own + affairs. + </p> + <p> + And the little group said: We are lost! the multitude are enlightened. + </p> + <p> + And the people answered: You are safe; since we are enlightened we will + commit no violence; we only claim our rights. We feel resentments, but we + will forget them. We were slaves, we might command; but we only wish to be + free, and liberty is but justice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. + </h2> + <h3> + A FREE AND LEGISLATIVE PEOPLE. + </h3> + <p> + Considering that all public power was now suspended, and that the habitual + restraint of the people had suddenly ceased, I shuddered with the + apprehension that they would fall into the dissolution of anarchy. But, + taking their affairs into immediate deliberation, they said: + </p> + <p> + It is not enough that we have freed ourselves from tyrants and parasites; + we must prevent their return. We are men, and experience has abundantly + taught us that every man is fond of power, and wishes to enjoy it at the + expense of others. It is necessary, then, to guard against a propensity + which is the source of discord; we must establish certain rules of duty + and of right. But the knowledge of our rights, and the estimation of our + duties, are so abstract and difficult as to require all the time and all + the faculties of a man. Occupied in our own affairs, we have not leisure + for these studies; nor can we exercise these functions in our own persons. + Let us choose, then, among ourselves, such persons as are capable of this + employment. To them we will delegate our powers to institute our + government and laws. They shall be the representatives of our wills and of + our interests. And in order to attain the fairest representation possible + of our wills and our interests, let it be numerous, and composed of men + resembling ourselves. + </p> + <p> + Having made the election of a numerous body of delegates, the people thus + addressed them: + </p> + <p> + We have hitherto lived in a society formed by chance, without fixed + agreements, without free conventions, without a stipulation of rights, + without reciprocal engagements,—and a multitude of disorders and + evils have arisen from this precarious state. We are now determined on + forming a regular compact; and we have chosen you to adjust the articles. + Examine, then, with care what ought to be its basis and its conditions; + consider what is the end and the principles of every association; + recognize the rights which every member brings, the powers which he + delegates, and those which he reserves to himself. Point out to us the + rules of conduct—the basis of just and equitable laws. Prepare for + us a new system of government; for we realize that the one which has + hitherto guided us is corrupt. Our fathers have wandered in the paths of + ignorance, and habit has taught us to follow in their footsteps. + Everything has been done by fraud, violence, and delusion; and the true + laws of morality and reason are still obscure. Clear up, then, their + chaos; trace out their connection; publish their code, and we will adopt + it. + </p> + <p> + And the people raised a large throne, in the form of a pyramid, and + seating on it the men they had chosen, said to them: + </p> + <p> + We raise you to-day above us, that you may better discover the whole of + our relations, and be above the reach of our passions. But remember that + you are our fellow-citizens; that the power we confer on you is our own; + that we deposit it with you, but not as a property or a heritage; that you + must be the first to obey the laws you make; that to-morrow you redescend + among us, and that you will have acquired no other right but that of our + esteem and gratitude. And consider what a tribute of glory the world, + which reveres so many apostles of error, will bestow on the first assembly + of rational men, who shall have declared the unchangeable principles of + justice, and consecrated, in the face of tyrants, the rights of nations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. + </h2> + <h3> + UNIVERSAL BASIS OF ALL RIGHT AND ALL LAW. + </h3> + <p> + The men chosen by the people to investigate the true principles of morals + and of reason then proceeded in the sacred object of their mission; and, + after a long examination, having discovered a fundamental and universal + principle, a legislator arose and said to the people: + </p> + <p> + Here is the primordial basis, the physical origin of all justice and of + all right. + </p> + <p> + Whatever be the active power, the moving cause, that governs the universe, + since it has given to all men the same organs, the same sensations, and + the same wants, it has thereby declared that it has given to all the same + right to the use of its treasures, and that all men are equal in the order + of nature. + </p> + <p> + And, since this power has given to each man the necessary means of + preserving his own existence, it is evident that it has constituted them + all independent one of another; that it has created them free; that no one + is subject to another; that each one is absolute proprietor of his own + person. + </p> + <p> + Equality and liberty are, therefore, two essential attributes of man, two + laws of the Divinity, constitutional and unchangeable, like the physical + properties of matter. + </p> + <p> + Now, every individual being absolute master of his own person, it follows + that a full and free consent is a condition indispensable to all contracts + and all engagements. + </p> + <p> + Again, since each individual is equal to another, it follows that the + balance of what is received and of what is given, should be strictly in + equilibrium; so that the idea of justice, of equity, necessarily imports + that of equality.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The etymology of the words themselves trace out to us this + connection: equilibrium, equalitas, equitas, are all of one + family, and the physical idea of equality, in the scales of + a balance, is the source and type of all the rest. +</pre> + <p> + Equality and liberty are therefore the physical and unalterable basis of + every union of men in society, and of course the necessary and generating + principle of every law and of every system of regular government.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the Declaration of Rights, there is an inversion of + ideas in the first article, liberty being placed before + equality, from which it in reality springs. This defect is + not to be wondered at; the science of the rights of man is a + new science: it was invented yesterday by the Americans, + to-day the French are perfecting it, but there yet remains a + great deal to be done. In the ideas that constitute it + there is a genealogical order which, from us basis, physical + equality, to the minutest and most remote branches of + government, ought to proceed in an uninterrupted series of + inferences. +</pre> + <p> + A disregard of this basis has introduced in your nation, and in every + other, those disorders which have finally roused you. It is by returning + to this rule that you may reform them, and reorganize a happy order of + society. + </p> + <p> + But observe, this reorganization will occasion a violent shock in your + habits, your fortunes, and your prejudices. Vicious contracts and abusive + claims must be dissolved, unjust distinctions and ill founded property + renounced; you must indeed recur for a moment to a state of nature. + Consider whether you can consent to so many sacrifices. + </p> + <p> + Then, reflecting on the cupidity inherent in the heart of man, I thought + that this people would renounce all ideas of amelioration. + </p> + <p> + But, in a moment, a great number of men, advancing toward the pyramid, + made a solemn abjuration of all their distinctions and all their riches. + </p> + <p> + Establish for us, said they, the laws of equality and liberty; we will + possess nothing in future but on the title of justice. + </p> + <p> + Equality, liberty, justice,—these shall be our code, and shall be + written on our standards. + </p> + <p> + And the people immediately raised a great standard, inscribed with these + three words, in three different colors. They displayed it over the pyramid + of the legislators, and for the first time the flag of universal justice + floated on the face of the earth. + </p> + <p> + And the people raised before the pyramid a new altar, on which they placed + a golden balance, a sword, and a book with this inscription: + </p> + <p> + TO EQUAL LAW, WHICH JUDGES AND PROTECTS. + </p> + <p> + And having surrounded the pyramid and the altar with a vast amphitheatre, + all the people took their seats to hear the publication of the law. And + millions of men, raising at once their hands to heaven, took the solemn + oath to live equal, free, and just; to respect their reciprocal properties + and rights; to obey the law and its regularly chosen representatives. + </p> + <p> + A spectacle so impressive and sublime, so replete with generous emotions, + moved me to tears; and addressing myself to the Genius, I exclaimed: Let + me now live, for in future I have everything to hope. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. + </h2> + <h3> + CONSTERNATION AND CONSPIRACY OF TYRANTS. + </h3> + <p> + But scarcely had the solemn voice of liberty and equality resounded + through the earth, when a movement of confusion, of astonishment, arose in + different nations. On the one hand, the people, warmed with desire, but + wavering between hope and fear, between the sentiment of right and the + habit of obedience, began to be in motion. The kings, on the other hand, + suddenly awakened from the sleep of indolence and despotism, were alarmed + for the safety of their thrones; while, on all sides, those clans of civil + and religious tyrants, who deceive kings and oppress the people, were + seized with rage and consternation; and, concerting their perfidious + plans, they said: Woe to us, if this fatal cry of liberty comes to the + ears of the multitude! Woe to us, if this pernicious spirit of justice be + propagated! + </p> + <p> + And, pointing to the floating banner, they continued: + </p> + <p> + Consider what a swarm of evils are included in these three words! If all + men are equal, where is our exclusive right to honors and to power? If all + men are to be free, what becomes of our slaves, our vassals, our property? + If all are equal in the civil state, where is our prerogative of birth, of + inheritance? and what becomes of nobility? If they are all equal in the + sight of God, what need of mediators?—where is the priesthood? Let + us hasten, then, to destroy a germ so prolific, and so contagious. We must + employ all our cunning against this innovation. We must frighten the + kings, that they may join us in the cause. We must divide the people by + national jealousies, and occupy them with commotions, wars, and conquests. + They must be alarmed at the power of this free nation. Let us form a + league against the common enemy, demolish that sacrilegious standard, + overturn that throne of rebellion, and stifle in its birth the flame of + revolution. + </p> + <p> + And, indeed, the civil and religious tyrants of nations formed a general + combination; and, multiplying their followers by force and seduction, they + marched in hostile array against the free nation; and, surrounding the + altar and the pyramid of natural law, they demanded with loud cries: + </p> + <p> + What is this new and heretical doctrine? what this impious altar, this + sacrilegious worship? True believers and loyal subjects! can you suppose + that truth has been first discovered to-day, and that hitherto you have + been walking in error? that those men, more fortunate than you, have the + sole privilege of wisdom? And you, rebel and misguided nation, perceive + you not that your new leaders are misleading you? that they destroy the + principles of your faith, and overturn the religion of your ancestors? Ah, + tremble! lest the wrath of heaven should kindle against you; and hasten by + speedy repentance to retrieve your error. + </p> + <p> + But, inaccessible to seduction as well as to fear, the free nation kept + silence, and rising universally in arms, assumed an imposing attitude. + </p> + <p> + And the legislator said to the chiefs of nations: + </p> + <p> + If while we walked with a bandage on our eyes the light guided our steps, + why, since we are no longer blindfold, should it fly from our search? If + guides, who teach mankind to see for themselves, mislead and deceive them, + what can be expected from those who profess to keep them in darkness? + </p> + <p> + But hark, ye leaders of nations! If you possess the truth, show it to us, + and we will receive it with gratitude, for we seek it with ardor, and have + a great interest in finding it. We are men, and liable to be deceived; but + you are also men, and equally fallible. Aid us then in this labyrinth, + where the human race has wandered for so many ages; help us to dissipate + the illusion of so many prejudices and vicious habits. Amid the shock of + so many opinions which dispute for our acceptance, assist us in + discovering the proper and distinctive character of truth. Let us this day + terminate the long combat with error. Let us establish between it and + truth a solemn contest, to which we will invite the opinions of men of all + nations. Let us convoke a general assembly of the nations. Let them be + judges in their own cause; and in the debate of all systems, let no + champion, no argument, be wanting, either on the side of prejudice or of + reason; and let the sentiment of a general and common mass of evidence + give birth to a universal concord of opinions and of hearts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. + </h2> + <h3> + GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE NATIONS. + </h3> + <p> + Thus spoke the legislator; and the multitude, seized with those emotions + which a reasonable proposition always inspires, expressed its applause; + while the tyrants, left without support, were overwhelmed with confusion. + </p> + <p> + A scene of a new and astonishing nature then opened to my view. All that + the earth contains of people and of nations; men of every race and of + every region, converging from their various climates, seemed to assemble + in one allotted place; where, forming an immense congress, distinguished + in groups by the vast variety of their dresses, features, and complexion, + the numberless multitude presented a most unusual and affecting sight. + </p> + <p> + On one side I saw the European, with his short close coat, pointed + triangular hat, smooth chin, and powdered hair; on the other side the + Asiatic, with a flowing robe, long beard, shaved head, and round turban. + Here stood the nations of Africa, with their ebony skins, their woolly + hair, their body girt with white and blue tissues of bark, adorned with + bracelets and necklaces of coral, shells, and glass; there the tribes of + the north, enveloped in their leathern bags; the Laplander, with his + pointed bonnet and his snow-shoes; the Samoyede, with his feverish body + and strong odor; the Tongouse, with his horned cap, and carrying his idols + pendant from his neck; the Yakoute, with his freckled face; the Kalmuc, + with his flat nose and little retorted eyes. Farther distant were the + Chinese, attired in silk, with their hair hanging in tresses; the + Japanese, of mingled race; the Malays, with wide-spreading ears, rings in + their noses, and palm-leaf hats of vast circumference;* and the tattooed + races of the isles of the southern ocean and of the continent of the + antipodes.** The view of so many varieties of the same species, of so many + extravagant inventions of the same understanding, and of so many + modifications of the same organization, affected me with a thousand + feelings and a thousand thoughts.*** I contemplated with astonishment this + gradation of color, which, passing from a bright carnation to a light + brown, a deeper brown, dusky, bronze, olive, leaden, copper, ends in the + black of ebony and of jet. And finding the Cassimerian, with his rosy + cheek, next to the sun-burnt Hindoo, and the Georgian by the side of the + Tartar, I reflected on the effects of climate hot or cold, of soil high or + low, marshy or dry, open or shaded. I compared the dwarf of the pole with + the giant of the temperate zones, the slender body of the Arab with the + ample chest of the Hollander; the squat figure of the Samoyede with the + elegant form of the Greek and the Sclavonian; the greasy black wool of the + Negro with the bright silken locks of the Dane; the broad face of the + Kalmuc, his little angular eyes and flattened nose, with the oval + prominent visage, large blue eyes, and aquiline nose of the Circassian and + Abazan. I contrasted the brilliant calicoes of the Indian, the + well-wrought stuffs of the European, the rich furs of the Siberian, with + the tissues of bark, of osiers, leaves and feathers of savage nations; and + the blue figures of serpents, flowers, and stars, with which they painted + their bodies. Sometimes the variegated appearance of this multitude + reminded me of the enamelled meadows of the Nile and the Euphrates, when, + after rains or inundations, millions of flowers are rising on every side. + Sometimes their murmurs and their motions called to mind the numberless + swarms of locusts which, issuing from the desert, cover in the spring the + plains of Hauran. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This species of the palm-tree is called Latanier. Its + leaf, similar to a fan-mount, grows upon a stalk issuing + directly from the earth. A specimen may be seen in the + botanic garden. + + ** The country of the Papons of New Guinea. + + *** A hall of costumes in one of the galleries of the Louvre + would, in every point of view, be an interesting + establishment. It would furnish an admirable treat to the + curiosity of a great number of persons, excellent models to + the artist, and useful subjects of meditation to the + physician, the philosopher and the legislator. + + Picture to yourself a collection of the various faces and + figures of every country and nation, exhibiting accurately, + color, features and form; what a field for investigation and + enquiry as to the influence of climate, customs, food, etc. + It might truly be called the science of man! Buffon has + attempted a chapter of this nature, but it only serves to + exhibit more strikingly our actual ignorance. Such a + collection is said to have been begun at St. Petersburg, but + it is also said at the same time to be as imperfect as the + vocabulary of the three hundred languages. The enterprise + would be worthy of the French nation. +</pre> + <p> + At the sight of so many rational beings, considering on the one hand the + immensity of thoughts and sensations assembled in this place, and on the + other hand, reflecting on the opposition of so many opinions, and the + shock of so many passions of men so capricious, I struggled between + astonishment, admiration, and secret dread—when the legislator + commanded silence, and attracted all my attention. + </p> + <p> + Inhabitants of earth! a free and powerful nation addresses you with words + of justice and peace, and she offers you the sure pledges of her + intentions in her own conviction and experience. Long afflicted with the + same evils as yourselves, we sought for their source, and found them all + derived from violence and injustice, erected into law by the inexperience + of past ages, and maintained by the prejudices of the present. Then + abolishing our artificial and arbitrary institutions, and recurring to the + origin of all right and reason, we have found that there existed in the + very order of nature and in the physical constitution of man, eternal and + immutable laws, which only waited his observance to render him happy. + </p> + <p> + O men! cast your eyes on the heavens that give you light, and on the earth + that gives you bread! Since they offer the same bounties to you all—since + from the power that gives them motion you have all received the same life, + the same organs, have you not likewise all received the same right to + enjoy its benefits? Has it not hereby declared you all equal and free? + What mortal shall dare refuse to his fellow that which nature gives him? + </p> + <p> + O nations! let us banish all tyranny and all discord; let us form but one + society, one great family; and, since human nature has but one + constitution, let there exist in future but one law, that of nature—but + one code, that of reason—but one throne, that of justice—but + one altar, that of union. + </p> + <p> + He ceased; and an immense acclamation resounded to the skies. Ten thousand + benedictions announced the transports of the multitude; and they made the + earth re-echo JUSTICE, EQUALITY and UNION. + </p> + <p> + But different emotions soon succeeded; soon the doctors and the chiefs of + nations exciting a spirit of dispute, there was heard a sullen murmur, + which growing louder, and spreading from group to group, became a vast + disorder; and each nation setting up exclusive pretensions, claimed a + preference for its own code and opinion. + </p> + <p> + You are in error, said the parties, pointing one to the other. We alone + are in possession of reason and truth. We alone have the true law, the + real rule of right and justice, the only means of happiness and + perfection. All other men are either blind or rebellious. + </p> + <p> + And great agitation prevailed. + </p> + <p> + Then the legislator, after enforcing silence, loudly exclaimed: + </p> + <p> + What, O people! is this passionate emotion? Whither will this quarrel + conduct you? What can you expect from this dissension? The earth has been + for ages a field of disputation, and you have shed torrents of blood in + your controversies. What have you gained by so many battles and tears? + When the strong has subjected the weak to his opinion, has he thereby + aided the cause of truth? + </p> + <p> + O nations! take counsel of your own wisdom. When among yourselves disputes + arise between families and individuals, how do you reconcile them? Do you + not give them arbitrators? + </p> + <p> + Yes, cried the whole multitude. + </p> + <p> + Do so then to the authors of your present dissensions. Order those who + call themselves your instructors, and who force their creeds upon you, to + discuss before you their reasons. Since they appeal to your interests, + inform yourselves how they support them. + </p> + <p> + And you, chiefs and governors of the people! before dragging the masses + into the quarrels resulting from your diverse opinions, let the reasons + for and against your views be given. Let us establish one solemn + controversy, one public scrutiny of truth—not before the tribunal of + a corruptible individual, or of a prejudiced party, but in the grand forum + of mankind—guarded by all their information and all their interests. + Let the natural sense of the whole human race be our arbiter and judge. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. + </h2> + <h3> + THE SEARCH OF TRUTH. + </h3> + <p> + The people expressed their applause, and the legislator continued: To + proceed with order, and avoid all confusion, let a spacious semicircle be + left vacant in front of the altar of peace and union; let each system of + religion, and each particular sect, erect its proper distinctive standard + on the line of this semicircle; let its chiefs and doctors place + themselves around the standard, and their followers form a column behind + them. + </p> + <p> + The semicircle being traced, and the order published, there instantly rose + an innumerable multitude of standards, of all colors and of every form, + like what we see in a great commercial port, when, on a day of rejoicing, + a thousand different flags and streamers are floating from a forest of + masts. + </p> + <p> + At the sight of this prodigious diversity, I turned towards the Genius and + said: + </p> + <p> + I thought that the earth was divided only into eight or ten systems of + faith, and I then despaired of a reconciliation; I now behold thousands of + different sects, and how can I hope for concord? + </p> + <p> + But these, replied the Genius, are not all; and yet they will be + intolerant! + </p> + <p> + Then, as the groups advanced to take their stations, he pointed out to me + their distinctive marks, and thus began to explain their characters: + </p> + <p> + That first group, said he, with a green banner bearing a crescent, a + bandage, and a sabre, are the followers of the Arabian prophet. To say + there is a God, without knowing what he is; to believe the words of a man, + without understanding his language; to go into the desert to pray to God, + who is everywhere; to wash the hands with water, and not abstain from + blood; to fast all day, and eat all night; to give alms of their own + goods, and to plunder those of others; such are the means of perfection + instituted by Mahomet—such are the symbols of his followers; and + whoever does not bear them is a reprobate, stricken with anathema, and + devoted to the sword. + </p> + <p> + A God of clemency, the author of life, has instituted these laws of + oppression and murder: he made them for all the world, but has revealed + them only to one man; he established them from all eternity, though he + made them known but yesterday. These laws are abundantly sufficient for + all purposes, and yet a volume is added to them. This volume was to + diffuse light, to exhibit evidence, to lead men to perfection and + happiness; and yet every page was so full of obscurities, ambiguities, and + contradictions, that commentaries and explanations became necessary, even + in the life-time of its apostle. Its interpreters, differing in opinion, + divided into opposite and hostile sects. One maintains that Ali is the + true successor; the other contends for Omar and Aboubekre. This denies the + eternity of the Koran; that the necessity of ablutions and prayers. The + Carmite forbids pilgrimages, and allows the use of wine; the Hakemite + preaches the transmigration of souls. Thus they make up the number of + seventy-two sects, whose banners are before you.* In this contestation, + every one attributing the evidence of truth exclusively to himself, and + taxing all others with heresy and rebellion, turns against them its + sanguinary zeal. And their religion, which celebrates a mild and merciful + God, the common father of all men,—changed to a torch of discord, a + signal for war and murder, has not ceased for twelve hundred years to + deluge the earth in blood, and to ravage and desolate the ancient + hemisphere from centre to circumference.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Mussulmen enumerate in common seventy-two sects, but I + read, while I resided among them, a work which gave an + account of more than eighty,—all equally wise and + important. + + ** Read the history of Islamism by its own writers, and you + will be convinced that one of the principal causes of the + wars which have desolated Asia and Africa, since the days of + Mahomet, has been the apostolical fanaticism of its + doctrine. Caesar has been supposed to have destroyed three + millions of men: it would be interesting to make a similar + calculation respecting every founder of a religious system. +</pre> + <p> + Those men, distinguished by their enormous white turbans, their broad + sleeves, and their long rosaries, are the Imans, the Mollas, and the + Muftis; and near them are the Dervishes with pointed bonnets, and the + Santons with dishevelled hair. Behold with what vehemence they recite + their professions of faith! They are now beginning a dispute about the + greater and lesser impurities—about the matter and the manner of + ablutions,—about the attributes of God and his perfections—about + the Chaitan, and the good and wicked angels,—about death, the + resurrection, the interrogatory in the tomb, the judgment, the passage of + the narrow bridge not broader than a hair, the balance of works, the pains + of hell, and the joys of paradise. + </p> + <p> + Next to these, that second more numerous group, with white banners + intersected with crosses, are the followers of Jesus. Acknowledging the + same God with the Mussulmans, founding their belief on the same books, + admitting, like them, a first man who lost the human race by eating an + apple, they hold them, however, in a holy abhorrence; and, out of pure + piety, they call each other impious blasphemers. + </p> + <p> + The great point of their dissension consists in this, that after admitting + a God one and indivisible the Christian divides him into three persons, + each of which he believes to be a complete and entire God, without ceasing + to constitute an identical whole, by the indivisibility of the three. And + he adds, that this being, who fills the universe, has reduced himself to + the body of a man; and has assumed material, perishable, and limited + organs, without ceasing to be immaterial, infinite, and eternal. The + Mussulman who does not comprehend these mysteries, rejects them as + follies, and the visions of a distempered brain; though he conceives + perfectly well the eternity of the Koran, and the mission of the prophet: + hence their implacable hatreds. + </p> + <p> + Again, the Christians, divided among themselves on many points, have + formed parties not less violent than the Mussulmans; and their quarrels + are so much the more obstinate, as the objects of them are inaccessible to + the senses and incapable of demonstration: their opinions, therefore, have + no other basis but the will and caprice of the parties. Thus, while they + agree that God is a being incomprehensible and unknown, they dispute, + nevertheless, about his essence, his mode of acting, and his attributes. + While they agree that his pretended transformation into man is an enigma + above the human understanding, they dispute on the junction or distinction + of his two wills and his two natures, on his change of substance, on the + real or fictitious presence, on the mode of incarnation, etc. + </p> + <p> + Hence those innumerable sects, of which two or three hundred have already + perished, and three or four hundred others, which still subsist, display + those numberless banners which here distract your sight. + </p> + <p> + The first in order, surrounded by a group in varied and fantastic dress, + that confused mixture of violet, red, white, black and speckled garments—with + heads shaved, or with tonsures, or with short hair—with red hats, + square bonnets, pointed mitres, or long beards, is the standard of the + Roman pontiff, who, uniting the civil government to the priesthood, has + erected the supremacy of his city into a point of religion, and made of + his pride an article of faith. + </p> + <p> + On his right you see the Greek pontiff, who, proud of the rivalship of his + metropolis, sets up equal pretensions, and supports them against the + Western church by the priority of that of the East. On the left are the + standards of two recent chiefs,* who, shaking off a yoke that had become + tyrannical, have raised altar against altar in their reform, and wrested + half of Europe from the pope. Behind these are the subaltern sects, + subdivided from the principal divisions, the Nestorians, the Eutycheans, + the Jacobites, the Iconoclasts, the Anabaptists, the Presbyterians, the + Wicliffites, the Osiandrians, the Manicheans, the Pietists, the Adamites, + the Contemplatives, the Quakers, the Weepers, and a hundred others,** all + of distinct parties, persecuting when strong, tolerant when weak, hating + each other in the name of a God of peace, forming each an exclusive heaven + in a religion of universal charity, dooming each other to pains without + end in a future state, and realizing in this world the imaginary hell of + the other. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Luther and Calvin. + + ** Consult upon this subject Dictionnaire des Herseies par + l'Abbe Pluquet, in two volumes 8vo.: a work admirably + calculated to inspire the mind with philosophy, in the sense + that the Lacedemonians taught the children temperance by + showing to them the drunken Helots. +</pre> + <p> + After this group, observing a lonely standard of the color of hyacinth, + round which were assembled men clad in all the different dresses of Europe + and Asia: + </p> + <p> + At least, said I, to the Genius, we shall find unanimity here. + </p> + <p> + Yes, said he, at first sight and by a momentary accident. Dost thou not + know that system of worship? + </p> + <p> + Then, perceiving in Hebrew letters the monogram of the name of God, and + the palms which the Rabbins held in their hands: + </p> + <p> + True, said I, these are the children of Moses, dispersed even to this day, + abhorring every nation, and abhorred and persecuted by all. + </p> + <p> + Yes, he replied, and for this reason, that, having neither the time nor + liberty to dispute, they have the appearance of unanimity. But no sooner + will they come together, compare their principles, and reason on their + opinions, than they will separate as formerly, at least into two principal + sects;* one of which, taking advantage of the silence of their legislator, + and adhering to the literal sense of his books, will deny everything that + is not clearly expressed therein; and on this principle will reject as + profane inventions, the immortality of the soul, its transmigration to + places of pain or pleasure, its resurrection, the final judgment, the good + and bad angels, the revolt of the evil Genius, and all the poetical belief + of a world to come. And this highly-favored people, whose perfection + consists in a slight mutilation of their persons,—this atom of a + people, which forms but a small wave in the ocean of mankind, and which + insists that God has made nothing but for them, will by its schism reduce + to one-half, its present trifling weight in the scale of the universe. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Sadducees and Pharisees. +</pre> + <p> + He then showed me a neighboring group, composed of men dressed in white + robes, wearing a veil over their mouths, and ranged around a banner of the + color of the morning sky, on which was painted a globe cleft in two + hemispheres, black and white: The same thing will happen, said he, to + these children of Zoroaster,* the obscure remnant of a people once so + powerful. At present, persecuted like the Jews, and dispersed among all + nations, they receive without discussion the precepts of the + representative of their prophet. But as soon as the Mobed and the + Destours** shall assemble, they will renew the controversy about the good + and the bad principle; on the combats of Ormuzd, God of light, and + Ahrimanes, God of darkness; on the direct and allegorical sense; on the + good and evil Genii; on the worship of fire and the elements; on + impurities and ablutions; on the resurrection of the soul and body, or + only of the soul;*** on the renovation of the present world, and on that + which is to take its place. And the Parses will divide into sects, so much + the more numerous, as their families will have contracted, during their + dispersion, the manners and opinions of different nations. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * They are the Parses, better known by the opprobrious name + of Gaures or Guebres, another word for infidels. They are + in Asia what the Jews are in Europe. The name of their pope + or high priest is Mobed. + + ** That is to say, their priests. See, respecting the rites + of this religion, Henry Lord Hyde, and the Zendavesta. + Their costume is a robe with a belt of four knots, and a + veil over their mouth for fear of polluting the fire with + their breath. + + *** The Zoroastrians are divided between two opinions; one + party believing that both soul and body will rise, the other + that it will be the soul only. The Christians and + Mahometans have embraced the most solid of the two. +</pre> + <p> + Next to these, remark those banners of an azure ground, painted with + monstrous figures of human bodies, double, triple, and quadruple, with + heads of lions, boars, and elephants, and tails of fishes and tortoises; + these are the ensigns of the sects of India, who find their gods in + various animals, and the souls of their fathers in reptiles and insects. + These men support hospitals for hawks, serpents, and rats, and they abhor + their fellow creatures! They purify themselves with the dung and urine of + cows, and think themselves defiled by the touch of a man! They wear a net + over the mouth, lest, in a fly, they should swallow a soul in a state of + penance,* and they can see a Pariah** perish with hunger! They acknowledge + the same gods, but they separate into hostile bands. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to the system of the Metempsychosis, a soul, to + undergo purification, passes into the body of some insect or + animal. It is of importance not to disturb this penance, as + the work must in that case begin afresh. + + ** This is the name of a cast or tribe reputed unclean, + because they eat of what has enjoyed life. +</pre> + <p> + The first standard, retired from the rest, bearing a figure with four + heads, is that of Brama, who, though the creator of the universe, is + without temples or followers; but, reduced to serve as a pedestal to the + Lingam,* he contents himself with a little water which the Bramin throws + every morning on his shoulder, reciting meanwhile an idle canticle in his + praise. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Sonnerat, Voyage aux Indes, vol. 1. +</pre> + <p> + The second, bearing a kite with a scarlet body and a white head, is that + of Vichenou, who, though preserver of the world, has passed part of his + life in wicked actions. You sometimes see him under the hideous form of a + boar or a lion, tearing human entrails, or under that of a horse,* shortly + to come armed with a sword to destroy the human race, blot out the stars, + annihilate the planets, shake the earth, and force the great serpent to + vomit a fire which shall consume the spheres. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the incarnations of Vichenou, or metamorphoses + of the sun. He is to come at the end of the world, that is, + at the expiration of the great period, in the form of a + horse, like the four horses of the Apocalypse. +</pre> + <p> + The third is that of Chiven, God of destruction and desolation, who has, + however, for his emblem the symbol of generation. He is the most wicked of + the three, and he has the most followers. These men, proud of his + character, express in their devotions to him their contempt for the other + gods,* his equals and brothers; and, in imitation of his inconsistencies, + while they profess great modesty and chastity, they publicly crown with + flowers, and sprinkle with milk and honey, the obscene image of the + Lingam. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * When a sectary of Chiven hears the name of Vichenou + pronounced, he stops his ears, runs, and purifies himself. +</pre> + <p> + In the rear of these, approach the smaller standards of a multitude of + gods—male, female, and hermaphrodite. These are friends and + relations of the principal gods, who have passed their lives in wars among + themselves, and their followers imitate them. These gods have need of + nothing, and they are constantly receiving presents; they are omnipotent + and omnipresent, and a priest, by muttering a few words, shuts them up in + an idol or a pitcher, to sell their favors for his own benefit. + </p> + <p> + Beyond these, that cloud of standards, which, on a yellow ground, common + to them all, bear various emblems, are those of the same god, who reins + under different names in the nations of the East. The Chinese adores him + in Fot,* the Japanese in Budso, the Ceylonese in Bedhou, the people of + Laos in Chekia, of Pegu in Phta, of Siam in Sommona-Kodom, of Thibet in + Budd and in La. Agreeing in some points of his history, they all celebrate + his life of penitence, his mortifications, his fastings, his functions of + mediator and expiator, the enmity between him and another god, his + adversary, their battles, and his ascendency. But as they disagree on the + means of pleasing him, they dispute about rites and ceremonies, and about + the dogmas of interior doctrine and of public doctrine. That Japanese + Bonze, with a yellow robe and naked head, preaches the eternity of souls, + and their successive transmigrations into various bodies; near him, the + Sintoist denies that souls can exist separate from the senses,** and + maintains that they are only the effect of the organs to which they + belong, and with which they must perish, as the sound of the flute + perishes with the flute. Near him, the Siamese, with his eyebrows shaved, + and a talipat screen*** in his hand, recommends alms, offerings, and + expiations, at the same time that he preaches blind necessity and + inexorable fate. The Chinese vo-chung sacrifices to the souls of his + ancestors; and next him, the follower of Confucius interrogates his + destiny in the cast of dice and the movement of the stars.**** That child, + surrounded by a swarm of priests in yellow robes and hats, is the Grand + Lama, in whom the god of Thibet has just become incarnate.*5 But a rival + has arisen who partakes this benefit with him; and the Kalmouc on the + banks of the Baikal, has a God similar to the inhabitant of Lasa. And they + agree, also, in one important point—that god can inhabit only a + human body. They both laugh at the stupidity of the Indian who pays homage + to cow-dung, though they themselves consecrate the excrements of their + high-priest.*6 + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The original name of this god is Baits, which in Hebrew + signifies an egg. The Arabs pronounce it Baidh, giving to + the dh an emphatic sound which makes it approach to dz. + Kempfer, an acurate traveler, writes it Budso, which must be + pronounced Boudso, whence is derived the name of Budsoist + and of Bonze, applied to the priests. Clement of + Alexandria, in his Stromata, writes it Bedou, as it is + pronounced also by the Chingulais; and Saint Jerome, Boudda + and Boutta. At Thibet they call it Budd; and hence the name + of the country called Boud-tan and Ti-budd: it was in this + province that this system of religion was first inculcated + in Upper Asia; La is a corruption of Allah, the name of God + in the Syriac language, from which many of the eastern + dialects appear to be derived. The Chinese having neither b + nor d, have supplied their place by f and t, and have + therefore said Fout. + + ** See in Kempfer the doctrine of the Sintoists, which is a + mixture of that of Epicurus and of the Stoics. + + *** It is a leaf of the Latanier species of the palm-tree. + Hence the bonzes of Siam take the appellation of Talapoin. + The use of this screen is an exclusive privilege. + + **** The sectaries of Confucius are no less addicted to + astrology than the bonzes. It is indeed the malady of every + eastern nation. + + *5 The Delai-La-Ma, or immense high priest of La, is the + same person whom we find mentioned in our old books of + travels, by the name of Prester John, from a corruption of + the Persian word Djehan, which signifies the world, to which + has been prefixed the French word prestre or pretre, priest. + Thus the priest world, and the god world are in the Persian + idiom the same. + + *6 In a recent expedition the English have found certain + idols of the Lamas filled in the inside with sacred pastils + from the close stool of the high priest. Mr. Hastings, and + Colonel Pollier, who is now at Lausanne, are living + witnesses of this fact, and undoubtedly worthy of credit. + It will be very extraordinary to observe, that this + disgusting ceremony is connected with a profound + philosophical system, to wit, that of the metempsychosis, + admitted by the Lamas. When the Tartars swallow, the sacred + relics, which they are accustomed to do, they imitate the + laws of the universe, the parts of which are incessantly + absorbed and pass into the substance of each other. It is + upon the model of the serpent who devours his tail, and this + serpent is Budd and the world. +</pre> + <p> + After these, a crowd of other banners, which no man could number, came + forward into sight; and the genius exclaimed: + </p> + <p> + I should never finish the detail of all the systems of faith which divide + these nations. Here the hordes of Tartars adore, in the forms of beasts, + birds, and insects, the good and evil Genii; who, under a principal, but + indolent god, govern the universe. In their idolatry they call to mind the + ancient paganism of the West. You observe the fantastical dress of the + Chamans; who, under a robe of leather, hung round with bells and rattles, + idols of iron, claws of birds, skins of snakes and heads of owls, invoke, + with frantic cries and factitious convulsions, the dead to deceive the + living. There, the black tribes of Africa exhibit the same opinions in the + worship of their fetiches. See the inhabitant of Juida worship god in a + great snake, which, unluckily, the swine delight to eat.* The Teleutean + attires his god in a coat of several colors, like a Russian soldier.** The + Kamchadale, observing that everything goes wrong in his frozen country, + considers god as an old ill-natured man, smoking his pipe and hunting + foxes and martins in his sledge.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It frequently happens that the swine devour the very + species of serpents the negroes adore, which is a source of + great desolation in the country. President de Brosses has + given us, in his History of the Fetiche, a curious + collection of absurdities of this nature. + + ** The Teleuteans, a Tartar nation, paint God as wearing a + vesture of all colors, particularly red and green; and as + these constitute the uniform of the Russian dragoons, they + compare him to this description of soldiers. The Egyptians + also dress the God World in a garment of every color. + Eusebius Proep. Evang. p 115. The Teleuteans call God Bou, + which is only an alteration of Boudd, the God Egg and World. + + *** Consult upon this subject a work entitled, Description + des Peuples, soumis a la Russie, and it will be found that + the picture is not overcharged. +</pre> + <p> + But you may still behold a hundred savage nations who have none of the + ideas of civilized people respecting God, the soul, another world, and a + future life; who have formed no system of worship; and who nevertheless + enjoy the rich gifts of nature in the irreligion in which she has created + them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. + </h2> + <h3> + PROBLEM OF RELIGIOUS CONTRADICTIONS. + </h3> + <p> + The various groups having taken their places, an unbounded silence + succeeded to the murmurs of the multitude; and the legislator said: + </p> + <p> + Chiefs and doctors of mankind! You remark how the nations, living apart, + have hitherto followed different paths, each believing its own to be that + of truth. If, however, truth is one, and opinions are various, it is + evident that some are in error. If, then, such vast numbers of us are in + the wrong, who shall dare to say, "I am in the right?" Begin, therefore, + by being indulgent in your dissensions. Let us all seek truth as if no one + possessed it. The opinions which to this day have governed the world, + originating from chance, propagated in obscurity, admitted without + discussion, accredited by a love of novelty and imitation, have usurped + their empire in a clandestine manner. It is time, if they are well + founded, to give a solemn stamp to their certainty, and legitimize their + existence. Let us summon them this day to a general scrutiny, let each + propound his creed, let the whole assembly be the judge, and let that + alone be acknowledged as true which is so for the whole human race. + </p> + <p> + Then, by order of position, the representative of the first standard on + the left was allowed to speak: + </p> + <p> + "You are not permitted to doubt," said their chief, "that our doctrine is + the only true and infallible one. FIRST, it is revealed by God himself—" + </p> + <p> + "So is ours," cried all the other standards, "and you are not permitted to + doubt it." + </p> + <p> + "But at least," said the legislator, "you must prove it, for we cannot + believe what we do not know." + </p> + <p> + "Our doctrine is proved," replied the first standard, "by numerous facts, + by a multitude of miracles, by resurrections of the dead, by rivers dried + up, by mountains removed—" + </p> + <p> + "And we also have numberless miracles," cried all the others, and each + began to recount the most incredible things. + </p> + <p> + "THEIR miracles," said the first standard, "are imaginary, or the fictions + of the evil spirit, who has deluded them." + </p> + <p> + "They are yours," said the others, "that are imaginary;" and each group, + speaking of itself, cried out: + </p> + <p> + "None but ours are true, all the others are false." + </p> + <p> + The legislator then asked: "Have you living witnesses of the facts?" + </p> + <p> + "No," replied they all; "the facts are ancient, the witnesses are dead, + but their writings remain." + </p> + <p> + "Be it so," replied the legislator; "but if they contradict each other, + who shall reconcile them?" + </p> + <p> + "Just judge!" cried one of the standards, "the proof that our witnesses + have seen the truth is, that they died to confirm it; and our faith is + sealed by the blood of martyrs." + </p> + <p> + "And ours too," said the other standards; "we have thousands of martyrs + who have died in the most excruciating torments, without ever denying the + truth." + </p> + <p> + Then the Christians of every sect, the Mussulmans, the Indians, the + Japanese, recited endless legends of confessors, martyrs, penitents, etc. + </p> + <p> + And one of these parties, having denied the martyrology of the others: + "Well," said they, "we will then die ourselves to prove the truth of our + belief." + </p> + <p> + And instantly a crowd of men, of every religion and of every sect, + presented themselves to suffer the torments of death. Many even began to + tear their arms, and to beat their heads and breasts, without discovering + any symptom of pain. + </p> + <p> + But the legislator, preventing them—"O men!" said he, "hear my words + with patience. If you die to prove that two and two make four, will your + death add any thing to this truth?" + </p> + <p> + "No!" answered all. + </p> + <p> + "And if you die to prove that they make five, will that make them five?" + </p> + <p> + Again they all answered, "No." + </p> + <p> + "What, then, is your persuasion to prove, if it changes not the existence + of things? Truth is one—your persuasions are various; many of you, + therefore, are in error. Now, if man, as is evident, can persuade himself + of error, what is the persuasion of man to prove? + </p> + <p> + "If error has its martyrs, what is the sure criterion of truth? + </p> + <p> + "If the evil spirit works miracles, what is the distinctive character of + God? + </p> + <p> + "Besides, why resort forever to incomplete and insufficient miracles? + Instead of changing the course of nature, why not rather change opinions? + Why murder and terrify men, instead of instructing and correcting them? + </p> + <p> + "O credulous, but opinionated mortals! none of us know what was done + yesterday, what is doing to-day even under our eyes; and we swear to what + was done two thousand years ago! + </p> + <p> + "Oh, the weakness and yet the pride of men! The laws of nature are + unchangeable and profound—our minds are full of illusion and + frivolity—and yet we would comprehend every thing—determine + every thing! Forgetting that it is easier for the whole human race to be + in error, than to change the nature of the smallest atom." + </p> + <p> + "Well, then," said one of the doctors, "let us lay aside the evidence of + fact, since it is uncertain; let us come to argument—to the proofs + inherent in the doctrine." + </p> + <p> + Then came forward, with a look of confidence, an Iman of the law of + Mahomet; and, having advanced into the circle, turned towards Mecca, and + recited with great fervor his confession of faith. "Praise be to God," + said he, with a solemn and imposing voice, "the light shines with full + evidence, and the truth has no need of examination." Then, showing the + Koran, he exclaimed: "Here is the light of truth in its proper essence. + There is no doubt in this book. It conducts with safety him who walks in + darkness, and who receives without discussion the divine word which + descended on the prophet, to save the simple and confound the wise. God + has established Mahomet his minister on earth; he has given him the world, + that he may subdue with the sword whoever shall refuse to receive his law. + Infidels dispute, and will not believe; their obduracy comes from God, who + has hardened their hearts to deliver them to dreadful punishments."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This passage contains the sense and nearly the very words + of the first chapter of the Koran; and the reader will + observe in general, that, in the pictures that follow, the + writer has endeavored to give as accurately as possible the + letter and spirit of the opinions of each party. +</pre> + <p> + At these words a violent murmur arose on all sides, and silenced the + speaker. "Who is this man," cried all the groups, "who thus insults us + without a cause? What right has he to impose his creed on us as conqueror + and tyrant? Has not God endowed us, as well as him, with eyes, + understanding, and reason? And have we not an equal right to use them, in + choosing what to believe and what to reject? If he attacks us, shall we + not defend ourselves? If he likes to believe without examination, must we + therefore not examine before we believe? + </p> + <p> + "And what is this luminous doctrine that fears the light? What is this + apostle of a God of clemency, who preaches nothing but murder and carnage? + What is this God of justice, who punishes blindness which he himself has + made? If violence and persecution are the arguments of truth, are + gentleness and charity the signs of falsehood?" + </p> + <p> + A man then advancing from a neighboring group, said to the Iman: + </p> + <p> + "Admitting that Mahomet is the apostle of the best doctrine,—the + prophet of the true religion,—have the goodness at least to tell us + whether, in the practice of his doctrine, we are to follow his son-in-law + Ali, or his vicars Omar and Aboubekre?"* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the two grand parties into which the Mussulmans + are divided. The Turks have embraced the second, the + Persians the first. +</pre> + <p> + At the sound of these names a terrible schism arose among the Mussulmans + themselves. The partisans of Ali and those of Omar, calling out heretics + and blasphemers, loaded each other with execrations. The quarrel became so + violent that neighboring groups were obliged to interfere, to prevent + their coming to blows. At length, tranquillity being somewhat restored, + the legislator said to the Imans: + </p> + <p> + "See the consequences of your principles! If you yourselves were to carry + them into practice, you would destroy each other to the last man. Is it + not the first law of God that man should live?" + </p> + <p> + Then, addressing himself to the other groups, he continued: + </p> + <p> + "Doubtless this intolerant and exclusive spirit shocks every idea of + justice, and overturns the whole foundation of morals and society; but + before we totally reject this code of doctrine, is it not proper to hear + some of its dogmas? Let us not pronounce on the forms, without having some + knowledge of the substance." + </p> + <p> + The groups having consented, the Iman began to expound how God, having + sent to the nations lost in idolatry twenty-four thousand prophets, had + finally sent the last, the seal and perfection of all, Mahomet; on whom be + the salvation of peace: how, to prevent the divine word from being any + longer perverted by infidels, the supreme goodness had itself written the + pages of the Koran. Then, explaining the particular dogmas of Islamism, + the Iman unfolded how the Koran, partaking of the divine nature, was + uncreated and eternal, like its author: how it had been sent leaf by leaf, + in twenty-four thousand nocturnal apparitions of the angel Gabriel: how + the angel announced himself by a gentle knocking, which threw the prophet + into a cold sweat: how in the vision of one night he had travelled over + ninety heavens, riding on the beast Borack, half horse and half woman: + how, endowed with the gift of miracles, he walked in the sunshine without + a shadow, turned dry trees to green, filled wells and cisterns with water, + and split in two the body of the moon: how, by divine command, Mahomet had + propagated, sword in hand, the religion the most worthy of God by its + sublimity, and the most proper for men by the simplicity of its practice; + since it consisted in only eight or ten points:—To profess the unity + of God; to acknowledge Mahomet as his only prophet; to pray five times a + day; to fast one month in the year; to go to Mecca once in our life; to + pay the tenth of all we possess; to drink no wine; to eat no pork; and to + make war upon the infidels.* He taught that by these means every Mussulman + becoming himself an apostle and martyr, should enjoy in this world many + blessings; and at his death, his soul, weighed in the balance of works, + and absolved by the two black angels, should pass the infernal pit on the + bridge as narrow as a hair and as sharp as the edge of a sword, and should + finally be received to a region of delight, which is watered with rivers + of milk and honey, and embalmed in all the perfumes of India and Arabia; + and where the celestial Houris—virgins always chaste—are + eternally crowning with repeated favors the elect of God, who preserve an + eternal youth. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Whatever the advocates for the philosophy and civilization + of the Turks may assert, to make war upon infidels is + considered by them as an obligatory precept and an act of + religion. See Reland de Relig. Mahom. +</pre> + <p> + At these words an involuntary smile was seen on all their lips; and the + various groups, reasoning on these articles of faith, exclaimed with one + voice: + </p> + <p> + "Is it possible that reasonable beings can admit such reveries? Would you + not think it a chapter from The Thousand and One Nights?" + </p> + <p> + A Samoyede advanced into the circle: "The paradise of Mahomet," said he, + "appears to me very good; but one of the means of gaining it is + embarrassing: for if we must neither eat nor drink between the rising and + setting sun, as he has ordered, how are we to practise that fast in my + country, where the sun continues above the horizon six months without + setting?" + </p> + <p> + "That is impossible," cried all the Mussulman doctors, to support the + teaching of the prophet; but a hundred nations having attested the fact, + the infallibility of Mahomet could not but receive a severe shock. + </p> + <p> + "It is singular," said an European, "that God should be constantly + revealing what takes place in heaven, without ever instructing us what is + doing on the earth." + </p> + <p> + "For my part," said an American, "I find a great difficulty in the + pilgrimage. For suppose twenty-five years to a generation, and only a + hundred millions of males on the globe,—each being obliged to go to + Mecca once in his life,—there must be four millions a year on the + journey; and as it would be impracticable for them to return the same + year, the numbers would be doubled—that is, eight millions: where + would you find provisions, lodgings, water, vessels, for this universal + procession? Here must be miracles indeed!" + </p> + <p> + "The proof," said a catholic doctor, "that the religion of Mahomet is not + revealed, is that the greater part of the ideas which serve for its basis + existed a long time before, and that it is only a confused mixture of + truths disfigured and taken from our holy religion and from that of the + Jews; which an ambitious man has made to serve his projects of domination, + and his worldly views. Look through his book; you will see nothing there + but the histories of the Bible and the Gospel travestied into absurd + fables—into a tissue of vague and contradictory declamations, and + ridiculous or dangerous precepts. + </p> + <p> + "Analyze the spirit of these precepts, and the conduct of their apostle; + you will find there an artful and audacious character, which, to obtain + its end, works ably it is true, on the passions of the people it had to + govern. It is speaking to simple men, and it entertains them with + miracles; they are ignorant and jealous, and it flatters their vanity by + despising science; they are poor and rapacious, and it excites their + cupidity by the hope of pillage; having nothing at first to give them on + earth, it tells them of treasures in heaven; it teaches them to desire + death as a supreme good; it threatens cowards with hell; it rewards the + brave with paradise; it sustains the weak with the opinion of fatality; in + short, it produces the attachment it wants by all the allurements of + sense, and all the power of the passions. + </p> + <p> + "How different is the character of our religion! and how completely does + its empire, founded on the counteraction of the natural temper, and the + mortification of all our passions, prove its divine origin! How forcibly + does its mild and compassionate morality, its affections altogether + spiritual, attest its emanation from God! Many of its doctrines, it is + true, soar above the reach of the understanding, and impose on reason a + respectful silence; but this more fully demonstrates its revelation, since + the human mind could never have imagined such mysteries." + </p> + <p> + Then, holding the Bible in one hand and the four Gospels in the other, the + doctor began to relate that, in the beginning, God, after passing an + eternity in idleness, took the resolution, without any known cause, of + making the world out of nothing; that having created the whole universe in + six days, he found himself fatigued on the seventh; that having placed the + first human pair in a garden of delights, to make them completely happy, + he forbade their tasting a particular fruit which he placed within their + reach; that these first parents, having yielded to the temptation, all + their race (which were not yet born) had been condemned to bear the + penalty of a fault which they had not committed; that, after having left + the human race to damn themselves for four or five thousand years, this + God of mercy ordered a well beloved son, whom he had engendered without a + mother, and who was as old as himself, to go and be put to death on the + earth; and this for the salvation of mankind; of whom much the greater + portion, nevertheless, have ever since continued in the way of perdition; + that to remedy this new difficulty, this same God, born of a virgin, + having died and risen from the dead, assumes a new existence every day, + and in the form of a piece of bread, multiplies himself by millions at the + voice of one of the basest of men. Then, passing on to the doctrine of the + sacraments, he was going to treat at large on the power of absolution and + reprobation, of the means of purging all sins by a little water and a few + words, when, uttering the words indulgence, power of the pope, sufficient + grace, and efficacious grace, he was interrupted by a thousand cries. + </p> + <p> + "It is a horrible abuse," cried the Lutherans, "to pretend to remit sins + for money." + </p> + <p> + "The notion of the real presence," cried the Calvinists, "is contrary to + the text of the Gospel." + </p> + <p> + "The pope has no right to decide anything of himself," cried the + Jansenists; and thirty other sects rising up, and accusing each other of + heresies and errors, it was no longer possible to hear anything + distinctly. + </p> + <p> + Silence being at last restored, the Mussulmans observed to the legislator: + </p> + <p> + "Since you have rejected our doctrine as containing things incredible, can + you admit that of the Christians? Is not theirs still more contrary to + common sense and justice? A God, immaterial and infinite, to become a man! + to have a son as old as himself! This god-man to become bread, to be eaten + and digested! Have we any thing equal to that? Have the Christians an + exclusive right of setting up a blind faith? And will you grant them + privileges of belief to our detriment?" + </p> + <p> + Some savage tribes then advanced: "What!" said they, "because a man and + woman ate an apple six thousand years ago, all the human race are damned? + And you call God just? What tyrant ever rendered children responsible for + the faults of their fathers? What man can answer for the actions of + another? Does not this overturn every idea of justice and of reason?" + </p> + <p> + Others exclaimed: "Where are the proofs, the witnesses of these pretended + facts? Can we receive them without examining the evidence? The least + action in a court of justice requires two witnesses; and we are ordered to + believe all this on mere tradition and hearsay!" + </p> + <p> + A Jewish Rabbin then addressing the assembly, said: "As to the fundamental + facts, we are sureties; but with regard to their form and their + application, the case is different, and the Christians are here condemned + by their own arguments. For they cannot deny that we are the original + source from which they are derived—the primitive stock on which they + are grafted; and hence the reasoning is very short: Either our law is from + God, and then theirs is a heresy, since it differs from ours, or our law + is not from God, and then theirs falls at the same time." + </p> + <p> + "But you must make this distinction," replied the Christian: "Your law is + from God as typical and preparative, but not as final and absolute: you + are the image of which we are the substance." + </p> + <p> + "We know," replied the Rabbin, "that such are your pretensions; but they + are absolutely gratuitous and false. Your system turns altogether on + mystical meanings, visionary and allegorical interpretations.* With + violent distortions on the letter of our books, you substitute the most + chimerical ideas for the true ones, and find in them whatever pleases you; + as a roving imagination will find figures in the clouds. Thus you have + made a spiritual Messiah of that which, in the spirit of our prophets, is + only a temporal king. You have made a redemption of the human race out of + the simple re-establishment of our nation. Your conception of the Virgin + is founded on a single phrase, of which you have changed the meaning. Thus + you make from our Scriptures whatever your fancy dictates; you even find + there your trinity; though there is not a word that has the most distant + allusion to such a thing; and it is an invention of profane writers, + admitted into your system with a host of other opinions, of every religion + and of every sect, during the anarchy of the first three centuries of your + era." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * When we read the Fathers of the church, and see upon what + arguments they have built the edifice of religion, we are + inexpressibly astonished with their credulity or their + knavery: but allegory was the rage of that period; the + Pagans employed it to explain the actions of their gods, and + the Christians acted in the same spirit when they employed + it after their fashion. +</pre> + <p> + At these words, the Christian doctors, crying sacrilege and blasphemy, + sprang forward in a transport of fury to fall upon the Jew; and a troop of + monks, in motley dresses of black and white, advanced with a standard on + which were painted pincers, gridirons, lighted fagots, and the words + Justice, Charity, Mercy.* "It is necessary," said they, "to make an + example of these impious wretches, and burn them for the glory of God." + They began even to prepare the pile, when a Mussulman answered in a strain + of irony: + </p> + <p> + "This, then, is that religion of peace, that meek and beneficent system + which you so much extol! This is that evangelical charity which combats + infidelity with persuasive mildness, and repays injuries with patience! Ye + hypocrites! It is thus that you deceive mankind—thus that you + propagate your accursed errors! When you were weak, you preached liberty, + toleration, peace; when you are strong, you practise persecution and + violence—" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This description answers exactly to the banner of the + Inquisition of Spanish Jacobins. +</pre> + <p> + And he was going to begin the history of the wars and slaughters of + Christianity, when the legislator, demanding silence, suspended this scene + of discord. + </p> + <p> + The monks, affecting a tone of meekness and humility, exclaimed: "It is + not ourselves that we would avenge; it is the cause of God; it is the + glory of God that we defend." + </p> + <p> + "And what right have you, more than we," said the Imans, "to constitute + yourselves the representatives of God? Have you privileges that we have + not? Are you not men like us?" + </p> + <p> + "To defend God," said another group, "to pretend to avenge him, is to + insult his wisdom and his power. Does he not know, better than men, what + befits his dignity?" + </p> + <p> + "Yes," replied the monks, "but his ways are secret." + </p> + <p> + "And it remains for you to prove," said the Rabbins, "that you have the + exclusive privilege of understanding them." + </p> + <p> + Then, proud of finding supporters to their cause, the Jews thought that + the books of Moses were going to be triumphant, when the Mobed (high + priest) of the Parses obtained leave to speak. + </p> + <p> + "We have heard," said he, "the account of the Jews and Christians of the + origin of the world; and, though greatly mutilated, we find in it some + facts which we admit. But we deny that they are to be attributed to the + legislator of the Hebrews. It was not he who made known to men these + sublime truths, these celestial events. It was not to him that God + revealed them, but to our holy prophet Zoroaster: and the proof of this is + in the very books that they refer to. Examine with attention the laws, the + ceremonies, the precepts established by Moses in those books; you will not + find the slightest indication, either expressed or understood, of what + constitutes the basis of the Jewish and Christian theology. You nowhere + find the least trace of the immortality of the soul, or of a future life, + or of heaven, or of hell, or of the revolt of the principal angel, author + of the evils of the human race. These ideas were not known to Moses, and + the reason is very obvious: it was not till four centuries afterwards that + Zoroaster first evangelized them in Asia.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the Chronology of the Twelve Ages, in which I conceive + myself to have clearly proved that Moses lived about 1,400 + years before Jesus Christ, and Zoroaster about a thousand. +</pre> + <p> + "Thus," continued the Mobed, turning to the Rabbins, "it was not till + after that epoch, that is to say, in the time of your first kings, that + these ideas began to appear in your writers; and then their appearance was + obscure and gradual, according to the progress of the political relations + between your ancestors and ours. It was especially when, having been + conquered by the kings of Nineveh and Babylon and transported to the banks + of the Tygris and the Euphrates, where they resided for three successive + generations, that they imbibed manners and opinions which had been + rejected as contrary to their law. When our king Cyrus had delivered them + from slavery, their heart was won to us by gratitude; they became our + disciples and imitators; and they admitted our dogmas in the revision of + their books;* for your Genesis, in particular, was never the work of + Moses, but a compilation drawn up after the return from the Babylonian + captivity, in which are inserted the Chaldean opinions of the origin of + the world. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the first periods of the Christian church, not only the + most learned of those who have since been denominated + heretics, but many of the orthodox conceived Moses to have + written neither the law nor the Pentateuch, but that the + work was a compilation made by the elders of the people and + the Seventy, who, after the death of Moses, collected his + scattered ordinances, and mixed with them things that were + extraneous; similar to what happened as to the Koran of + Mahomet. See Les Clementines, Homel. 2. sect. 51. and + Homel. 3. sect. 42. + + Modern critics, more enlightened or more attentive than the + ancients, have found in Genesis in particular, marks of its + having been composed on the return from the captivity; but + the principal proofs have escaped them. These I mean to + exhibit in an analysis of the book of Genesis, in which I + shall demonstrate that the tenth chapter, among others, + which treats of the pretended generations of the man called + Noah, is a real geographical picture of the world, as it was + known to the Hebrews at the epoch of the captivity, which + was bounded by Greece or Hellas at the West, mount Caucasus + at the North, Persia at the East, and Arabia and Upper Egypt + at the South. All the pretended personages from Adam to + Abraham, or his father Terah, are mythological beings, + stars, constellations, countries. Adam is Bootes: Noah is + Osiris: Xisuthrus Janus, Saturn; that is to say Capricorn, + or the celestial Genius that opened the year. The + Alexandrian Chronicle says expressly, page 85, that Nimrod + was supposed by the Persians to be their first king, as + having invented the art of hunting, and that he was + translated into heaven, where he appears under the name of + Orion. +</pre> + <p> + "At first the pure followers of the law, opposing to the emigrants the + letter of the text and the absolute silence of the prophet, endeavored to + repel these innovations; but they ultimately prevailed, and our doctrine, + modified by your ideas, gave rise to a new sect. + </p> + <p> + "You expected a king to restore your political independence; we announced + a God to regenerate and save mankind. From this combination of ideas, your + Essenians laid the foundation of Christianity: and whatever your + pretensions may be, Jews, Christians, Mussulmans, you are, in your system + of spiritual beings, only the blundering followers of Zoroaster." + </p> + <p> + The Mobed, then passing on to the details of his religion, quoting from + the Zadder and the Zendavesta, recounted, in the same order as they are + found in the book of Genesis, the creation of the world in six gahans,* + the formation of a first man and a first woman, in a divine place, under + the reign of perfect good; the introduction of evil into the world by the + great snake, emblem of Ahrimanes; the revolt and battles of the Genius of + evil and darkness against Ormuzd, God of good and of light; the division + of the angels into white and black, or good and bad; their hierarchal + orders, cherubim, seraphim, thrones, dominions, etc.; the end of the world + at the close of six thousand years; the coming of the lamb, the + regenerator of nature; the new world; the future life, and the regions of + happiness and misery; the passage of souls over the bridge of the + bottomless pit; the celebration of the mysteries of Mithras; the + unleavened bread which the initiated eat; the baptism of new-born + children; the unction of the dead; the confession of sins; and, in a word, + he recited so many things analagous to those of the three preceding + religions, that his discourse seemed like a commentary or a continuation + of the Koran or the Apocalypse.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Or periods, or in six gahan-bars, that is six periods of + time. These periods are what Zoroaster calls the thousands + of God or of light, meaning the six summer months. In the + first, say the Persians, God created (arranged in order) the + heavens; in the second the waters; in the third the earth; + in the fourth trees; in the fifth animals; and in the sixth + man; corresponding with the account in Genesis. For + particulars see Hyde, ch. 9, and Henry Lord, ch. 2, on the + religion of the ancient Persians. It is remarkable that the + same tradition is found in the sacred books of the + Etrurians, which relate that the fabricator of all things + had comprised the duration of his work in a period of twelve + thousand years, which period was distributed to the twelve + houses of the sun. In the first thousand, God made heaven + and earth; in the second the firmament; in the third the sea + and the waters; in the fourth the sun, moon and stars; in + the fifth the souls of animals, birds, and reptiles; in the + sixth man. See Suidas, at the word Tyrrhena; which shows + first the identity of their theological and astrological + opinions; and, secondly, the identity, or rather confusion + of ideas, between absolute and systematical creation; that + is, the periods assigned for renewing the face of nature, + which were at first the period of the year, and afterwards + periods of 60, of 600, of 25,000, of 36,000 and of 432,000 + years. + + ** The modern Parses and the ancient Mithriacs, who are the + same sect, observe all the Christian sacraments, even the + laying on of hands in confirmation. The priest of Mithra, + says Tertullian, (de Proescriptione, ch. 40) promises + absolution from sin on confession and baptism; and, if I + rightly remember, Mithra marks his soldiers in the forehead, + with the chrism called in the Egyptian Kouphi; he celebrates + the sacrifice of bread, which is the resurrection, and + presents the crown to his followers, menacing them at the + same time with the sword, etc. + + In these mysteries they tried the courage of the initiated + with a thousand terrors, presenting fire to his face, a + sword to his breast, etc.; they also offered him a crown, + which he refused, saying, God is my crown: and this crown is + to be seen in the celestial sphere by the side of Bootes. + The personages in these mysteries were distinguished by the + names of the animal constellations. The ceremony of mass is + nothing more than an imitation of these mysteries and those + of Eleusis. The benediction, the Lord be with you, is a + literal translation of the formula of admission chou-k, am, + p-ka. See Beausob. Hist. Du Manicheisme, vol. ii. +</pre> + <p> + But the Jewish, Christian, and Mahometan doctors, crying out against this + recital, and treating the Parses as idolaters and worshippers of fire, + charged them with falsehood, interpolations, falsification of facts; and + there arose a violent dispute as to the dates of the events, their order + and succession, the origin of the doctrines, their transmission from + nation to nation, the authenticity of the books on which they are founded, + the epoch of their composition, the character of their compilers, and the + validity of their testimony. And the various parties, pointing out + reciprocally to each other, the contradictions, improbabilities, and + forgeries, accused one another of having established their belief on + popular rumors, vague traditions, and absurd fables, invented without + discernment, and admitted without examination by unknown, partial, or + ignorant writers, at uncertain or unknown epochs. + </p> + <p> + A great murmur now arose from under the standards of the various Indian + sects; and the Bramins, protesting against the pretensions of the Jews and + the Parses, said: + </p> + <p> + "What are these new and almost unheard of nations, who arrogantly set + themselves up as the sources of the human race, and the depositaries of + its archives? To hear their calculations of five or six thousand years, it + would seem that the world was of yesterday; whereas our monuments prove a + duration of many thousands of centuries. And for what reason are their + books to be preferred to ours? Are then the Vedes, the Chastres, and the + Pourans inferior to the Bibles, the Zendavestas, and the Zadders?* And is + not the testimony of our fathers and our gods as valid as that of the + fathers and the gods of the West? Ah! if it were permitted to reveal our + mysteries to profane men! if a sacred veil did not justly conceal them + from every eye!" + </p> + <p> + These are the sacred volumes of the Hindoos; they are sometimes written + Vedams, Pouranams, Chastrans, because the Hindoos, like the Persians, are + accustomed to give a nasal sound to the terminations of their words, which + we represent by the affixes on and an, and the Portuguese by the affixes + om and am. Many of these books have been translated, thanks to the liberal + spirit of Mr. Hastings, who has founded at Calcutta a literary society, + and a printing press. At the same time, however, that we express our + gratitude to this society, we must be permitted to complain of its + exclusive spirit; the number of copies printed of each book being such as + it is impossible to purchase them even in England; they are wholly in the + hands of the East India proprietors. Scarcely even is the Asiatic + Miscellany known in Europe; and a man must be very learned in oriental + antiquity before he so much as hears of the Jones's, the Wilkins's, and + the Halhed's, etc. As to the sacred books of the Hindoos, all that are yet + in our hands are the Bhagvat Geeta, the Ezour-Vedam, the Bagavadam, and + certain fragments of the Chastres printed at the end of the Bhagvat Geeta. + These books are in Indostan what the Old and New Testament are in + Christendom, the Koran in Turkey, the Zadder and the Zendavesta among the + Parses, etc. When I have taken an extensive survey of their contents, I + have sometimes asked myself, what would be the loss to the human race if a + new Omar condemned them to the flames; and, unable to discover any + mischief that would ensue, I call the imaginary chest that contains them, + the box of Pandora. + </p> + <p> + The Bramins stopping short at these words: "How can we admit your + doctrine," said the legislator, "if you will not make it known? And how + did its first authors propagate it, when, being alone possessed of it, + their own people were to them profane? Did heaven reveal it to be kept a + secret?"* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Vedas or Vedams are the sacred volumes of the Hindoos, + as the Bibles with us. They are three in number; the Rick + Veda, the Yadjour Veda, and the Sama Veda; they are so + scarce in India, that the English could with great + difficulty find an original one, of which a copy is + deposited in the British Museum; they who reckon four Vedas, + include among them the Attar Veda, concerning ceremonies, + but which is lost. There are besides commentaries named + Upanishada, one of which was published by Anquetil du Peron, + and entitled Oupnekhat, a curious work. The date of these + books is more than twenty-five centuries prior to our era; + their contents prove that all the reveries of the Greek + metaphysicians come from India and Egypt. Since the year + 1788, the learned men of England are working in India a mine + of literature totally unknown in Europe, and which proves + that the civilization of India ascends to a very remote + antiquity. After the Vedas come the Chastras amounting to + six. They treat of theology and the Sciences. Afterwards + eighteen Pouranas, treating of Mythology and History. See + the Bahgouet-guita, the Baga Vadam, and the Ezour-Vedam, + etc. +</pre> + <p> + But the Bramins persisting in their silence: "Let them have the honor of + the secret," said a European: "Their doctrine is now divulged; we have + their books, and I can give you the substance of them." + </p> + <p> + Then beginning with an abstract of the four Vedes, the eighteen Pourans, + and the five or six Chastres, he recounted how a being, infinite, eternal, + immaterial and round, after having passed an eternity in + self-contemplation, and determining at last to manifest himself, separated + the male and female faculties which were in him, and performed an act of + generation, of which the Lingam remains an emblem; how that first act gave + birth to three divine powers, Brama, Bichen or Vichenou, and Chib or + Chiven;* whose functions were—the first to create, the second to + preserve, and the third to destroy, or change the form of the universe. + Then, detailing the history of their operations and adventures, he + explained how Brama, proud of having created the world and the eight + bobouns, or spheres of probation, thought himself superior to Chib, his + equal; how his pride brought on a battle between them, in which these + celestial globes were crushed like a basket of eggs; how Brama, vanquished + in this conflict, was reduced to serve as a pedestal to Chib, + metamorphosed into a Lingam; how Vichenou, the god mediator, has taken at + different times to preserve the world, nine mortal forms of animals; how + first, in shape of a fish, he saved from the universal deluge a family who + repeopled the earth; how afterwards, in the form of a tortoise,** he drew + from the sea of milk the mountain Mandreguiri (the pole); then, becoming a + boar, he tore the belly of the giant Ereuniachessen, who was drowning the + earth in the abyss of Djole, from whence he drew it out with his tusks; + how, becoming incarnate in a black shepherd, and under the name of + Christ-en, he delivered the world of the enormous serpent Calengem, and + then crushed his head, after having been wounded by him in the heel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These names are differently pronounced according to the + different dialects; thus they say Birmah, Bremma, Brouma. + Bichen has been turned into Vichen by the easy exchange of a + B for a V, and into Vichenou by means of a grammatical + affix. In the same manner Chib, which is synonymous with + Satan, and signifies adversary, is frequently written Chiba + and Chiv-en; he is called also Rouder and Routr-en, that is, + the destroyer. + + ** This is the constellation testudo, or the lyre, which was + at first a tortoise, on account of its slow motion round the + Pole; then a lyre, because it is the shell of this reptile + on which the strings of the lyre are mounted. See an + excellent memoir of M. Dupuis sur l'Origine des + Constellations. +</pre> + <p> + Then, passing on to the history of the secondary Genii, he related how the + Eternal, to display his own glory, created various orders of angels, whose + business it was to sing his praises and to direct the universe; how a part + of these angels revolted under the guidance of an ambitious chief, who + strove to usurp the power of God, and to govern all; how God plunged them + into a world of darkness, there to undergo the punishment for their + crimes; how at last, touched with compassion, he consented to release + them, to receive them into favor, after they should undergo a long series + of probations; how, after creating for this purpose fifteen orbits or + regions of planets, and peopling them with bodies, he ordered these rebel + angels to undergo in them eighty-seven transmigrations; he then explained + how souls, thus purified, returned to the first source, to the ocean of + life and animation from which they had proceeded; and since all living + creatures contain portions of this universal soul, he taught how criminal + it was to deprive them of it. He was finally proceeding to explain the + rites and ceremonies, when, speaking of offerings and libations of milk + and butter made to gods of copper and wood, and then of purifications by + the dung and urine of cows, there arose a universal murmur, mixed with + peals of laughter, which interrupted the orator. + </p> + <p> + Each of the different groups began to reason on that religion: "They are + idolators," said the Mussulmans; "and should be exterminated." "They are + deranged in their intellect," said the followers of Confucius; "we must + try to cure them." "What ridiculous gods," said others, "are these + puppets, besmeared with grease and smoke! Are gods to be washed like dirty + children, from whom you must brush away the flies, which, attracted by + honey, are fouling them with their excrements!" + </p> + <p> + But a Bramin exclaimed with indignation: "These are profound mysteries,—emblems + of truth, which you are not worthy to hear." + </p> + <p> + "And in what respect are you more worthy than we?" exclaimed a Lama of + Tibet. "Is it because you pretend to have issued from the head of Brama, + and the rest of the human race from the less noble parts of his body? But + to support the pride of your distinctions of origin and castes, prove to + us in the first place that you are different from other men; establish, in + the next place, as historical facts, the allegories which you relate; show + us, indeed, that you are the authors of all this doctrine; for we will + demonstrate, if necessary, that you have only stolen and disfigured it; + that you are only the imitators of the ancient paganism of the West; to + which, by an ill assorted mixture, you have allied the pure and spiritual + doctrine of our gods—a doctrine totally detached from the senses, + and entirely unknown on earth till Beddou taught it to the nations."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All the ancient opinions of the Egyptian and Grecian + theologians are to be found in India, and they appear to + have been introduced, by means of the commerce of Arabia and + the vicinity of Persia, time immemorial. +</pre> + <p> + A number of groups having asked what was this doctrine, and who was this + god, of whom the greater part had never heard the name, the Lama resumed + and said: + </p> + <p> + "In the beginning, a sole-existent and self-existent God, having passed an + eternity in the contemplation of his own being, resolved to manifest his + perfections out of himself, and created the matter of the world. The four + elements being produced, but still in a state of confusion, he breathed on + the face of the waters, which swelled like an immense bubble in form of an + egg, which unfolding, became the vault or orb of heaven, enclosing the + world.* Having made the earth, and the bodies of animals, this God, + essence of motion, imparted to them a part of his own being to animate + them; for this reason, the soul of everything that breathes being a + portion of the universal soul, no one of them can perish; they only change + their form and mould in passing successively into different bodies. Of all + these forms, the one most pleasing to God is that of man, as most + resembling his own perfections. When a man, by an absolute disengagement + from his senses, is wholly absorbed in self-contemplation, he then + discovers the divinity, and becomes himself God. Of all the incarnations + of this kind that God has hitherto taken, the greatest and most solemn was + that in which he appeared thirty centuries ago in Kachemire, under the + name of Fot or Beddou, to preach the doctrines of self-denial and + self-annihilation." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This cosmogony of the Lamas, the Bonzes, and even the + Bramins, as Henry Lord asserts, is literally that of the + ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians, says Porphyry, call Kneph, + intelligence, or efficient cause of the universe. They + relate that this God vomited an egg, from which was produced + another God named Phtha or Vulcan, (igneous principle or the + sun) and they add, that this egg is the world. Euseb. + Proep. Evang. p. 115. + + They represent, says the same author in another place, the + God Kneph, or efficient cause, under the form of a man in + deep blue (the color of the sky) having in his hand a + sceptre, a belt round his body, and a small bonnet royal of + light feathers on his head, to denote how very subtile and + fugacious the idea of that being is. Upon which I shall + observe that Kneph in Hebrew signifies a wing, a feather, + and that this color of sky-blue is to be found in the + majority of the Indian Gods, and is, under the name of + Narayan, one of their most distinguishing epithets. +</pre> + <p> + Then, pursuing the history of Fot, the Lama continued: + </p> + <p> + "He was born from the right flank of a virgin of royal blood, who did not + cease to be a virgin for having become a mother; that the king of the + country, uneasy at his birth, wished to destroy him, and for this purpose + ordered a massacre of all the males born at that period, that being saved + by shepherds, Beddou lived in the desert till the age of thirty years, at + which time he began his mission to enlighten men and cast out devils; that + he performed a multitude of the most astonishing miracles; that he spent + his life in fasting and severe penitence, and at his death, bequeathed to + his disciples a book containing his doctrines." + </p> + <p> + And the Lama began to read: + </p> + <p> + "He that leaveth his father and mother to follow me," says Fot, "becomes a + perfect Samanean (a heavenly man). + </p> + <p> + "He that practices my precepts to the fourth degree of perfection, + acquires the faculty of flying in the air, of moving heaven and earth, of + prolonging or shortening his life (rising from the dead). + </p> + <p> + "The Samanean despises riches, and uses only what is strictly necessary; + he mortifies his body, silences his passions, desires nothing, forms no + attachments, meditates my doctrines without ceasing, endures injuries with + patience, and bears no malice to his neighbor. + </p> + <p> + "Heaven and earth shall perish," says Fot: "despise therefore your bodies, + which are composed of the four perishable elements, and think only of your + immortal soul. + </p> + <p> + "Listen not to the flesh: fear and sorrow spring from the passions: stifle + the passions and you destroy fear and sorrow. + </p> + <p> + "Whoever dies without having embraced my religion," says Fot, "returns + among men, until he embraces it." + </p> + <p> + The Lama was going on with his reading, when the Christians interrupted + him, crying out that this was their own religion adulterated—that + Fot was no other than Jesus himself disfigured, and that the Lamas were + the Nestorians and the Manicheans disguised and bastardized.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is asserted by our missionaries, and among others by + Georgi in his unfinished work of the Thibetan alphabet: but + if it can be proved that the Manicheans were but + plagiarists, and the ignorant echo of a doctrine that + existed fifteen hundred years before them, what becomes of + the declarations of Georgi? See upon this subject, Beausob. + Hist. du Manicheisme. +</pre> + <p> + But the Lama, supported by the Chamans, Bonzes, Gonnis, Talapoins of Siam, + of Ceylon, of Japan, and of China, proved to the Christians, even from + their own authors, that the doctrine of the Samaneans was known through + the East more than a thousand years before the Christian era; that their + name was cited before the time of Alexander, and that Boutta, or Beddou, + was known before Jesus.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The eastern writers in general agree in placing the birth + of Beddou 1027 years before Jesus Christ, which makes him + the contemporary of Zoroaster, with whom, in my opinion, + they confound him. It is certain that his doctrine + notoriously existed at that epoch; it is found entire in + that of Orpheus, Pythagoras, and the Indian gymnosophists. + But the gymnosophists are cited at the time of Alexander as + an ancient sect already divided into Brachmans and + Samaneans. See Bardesanes en Saint Jerome, Epitre a Jovien. + Pythagoras lived in the ninth century before Jesus Christ; + See chronology of the twelve ages; and Orpheus is of still + greater antiquity. If, as is the case, the doctrine of + Pythagoras and that of Orpheus are of Egyptian origin, that + of Beddou goes back to the common source; and in reality the + Egyptian priests recite, that Hermes as he was dying said: + "I have hitherto lived an exile from my country, to which I + now return. Weep not for me, I ascend to the celestial + abode where each of you will follow in his turn: there God + is: this life is only death."—Chalcidius in Thinaeum. + + Such was the profession of faith of the Samaneans, the + sectaries of Orpheus, and the Pythagoreans. Farther, Hermes + is no other than Beddou himself; for among the Indians, + Chinese, Lamas, etc., the planet Mercury and the + corresponding day of the week (Wednesday) bear the name of + Beddou, and this accounts for his being placed in the rank + of mythological beings, and discovers the illusion of his + pretended existence as a man; since it is evident that + Mercury was not a human being, but the Genius or Decan, who, + placed at the summer solstice, opened the Egyptian year; + hence his attributes taken from the constellation Syrius, + and his name of Anubis, as well as that of Esculapius, + having the figure of a man and the head of a dog: hence his + serpent, which is the Hydra, emblem of the Nile (Hydor, + humidity); and from this serpent he seems to have derived + his name of Hermes, as Remes (with a schin) in the oriental + languages, signifies serpent. Now Beddou and Hermes being + the same names, it is manifest of what antiquity is the + system ascribed to the former. As to the name of Samanean, + it is precisely that of Chaman, still preserved in Tartary, + China, and India. The interpretation given to it is, man of + the woods, a hermit mortifying the flesh, such being the + characteristic of this sect; but its literal meaning is, + celestial (Samaoui) and explains the system of those who are + called by it.—The system is the same as that of the + sectaries of Orpheus, of the Essenians, of the ancient + Anchorets of Persia, and the whole eastern country. See + Porphyry, de Abstin. Animal. + + These celestial and penitent men carried in India their + insanity to such an extreme as to wish not to touch the + earth, and they accordingly lived in cages suspended from + the trees, where the people, whose admiration was not less + absurd, brought them provisions. During the night there + were frequent robberies, rapes and murders, and it was at + length discovered that they were committed by those men, + who, descending from their cages, thus indemnified + themselves for their restraint during the day. The Bramins, + their rivals, embraced the opportunity of exterminating + them; and from that time their name in India has been + synonymous with hypocrite. See Hist. de la Chine, in 5 + vols. quarto, at the note page 30; Hist. de Huns, 2 vols. + and preface to the Ezour-Vedam. +</pre> + <p> + Then, retorting the pretensions of the Christians against themselves: + "Prove to us," said the Lama, "that you are not Samaneans degenerated, and + that the man you make the author of your sect is not Fot himself + disguised. Prove to us by historical facts that he even existed at the + epoch you pretend; for, it being destitute of authentic testimony,* we + absolutely deny it; and we maintain that your very gospels are only the + books of some Mithriacs of Persia, and the Essenians of Syria, who were a + branch of reformed Samaneans."** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There are absolutely no other monuments of the existence + of Jesus Christ as a human being, than a passage in Josephus + (Antiq. Jud. lib. 18, c.3,) a single phrase in Tacitus + (Annal. lib. 15, c. 44), and the Gospels. But the passage + in Josephus is unanimously acknowledged to be apocryphal, + and to have been interpolated towards the close of the third + century, (See Trad. de joseph, par M. Gillet); and that of + Tacitus in so vague and so evidently taken from the + deposition of the Christians before the tribunals, that it + may be ranked in the class of evangelical records. It + remains to enquire of what authority are these records. + "All the world knows," says Faustus, who, though a + Manichean, was one of the most learned men of the third + century, "All the world knows that the gospels were neither + written by Jesus Christ, nor his apostles, but by certain + unknown persons, who rightly judging that they should not + obtain belief respecting things which they had not seen, + placed at the head of their recitals the names of + contemporary apostles." See Beausob. vol. i. and Hist. des + Apologistes de la Relig. Chret. par Burigni, a sagacious + writer, who has demonstrated the absolute uncertainty of + those foundations of the Christian religion; so that the + existence of Jesus is no better proved than that of Osiris + and Hercules, or that of Fot or Beddou, with whom, says M. + de Guignes, the Chinese continually confound him, for they + never call Jesus by any other name than Fot. Hist. de Huns. + + ** That is to say, from the pious romances formed out of the + sacred legends of the mysteries of Mithra, Ceres, Isis, + etc., from whence are equally derived the books of the + Hindoos and the Bonzes. Our missionaries have long remarked + a striking resemblance between those books and the gospels. + M. Wilkins expressly mentions it in a note in the Bhagvat + Geeta. All agree that Krisna, Fot, and Jesus have the same + characteristic features: but religious prejudice has stood + in the way of drawing from this circumstance the proper and + natural inference. To time and reason must it be left to + display the truth. +</pre> + <p> + At these words, the Christians set up a general cry, and a new dispute was + about to begin; when a number of Chinese Chamans, and Talapoins of Siam, + came forward and said that they would settle the whole controversy. And + one of them speaking for the whole exclaimed: "It is time to put an end to + these frivolous contests by drawing aside the veil from the interior + doctrine that Fot himself revealed to his disciples on his death bed.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Budsoists have two doctrines, the one public and + ostensible, the other interior and secret, precisely like + the Egyptian priests. It may be asked, why this distinction? + It is, that as the public doctrine recommends offerings, + expiations, endowments, etc., the priests find their profit + in preaching it to the people; whereas the other, teaching + the vanity of worldly things, and attended with no lucre, it + is thought proper to make it known only to adepts. Can the + teachers and followers of this religion be better classed + than under the heads of knavery and credulity? +</pre> + <p> + "All these theological opinions," continued he, "are but chimeras. All the + stories of the nature of the gods, of their actions and their lives, are + but allegories and mythological emblems, under which are enveloped + ingenious ideas of morals, and the knowledge of the operations of nature + in the action of the elements and the movement of the planets. + </p> + <p> + "The truth is, that all is reduced to nothing—that all is illusion, + appearance, dream; that the moral metempsychosis is only the figurative + sense of the physical metempsychosis, or the successive movement of the + elements of bodies which perish not, but which, having composed one body, + pass when that is dissolved, into other mediums and form other + combinations. The soul is but the vital principle which results from the + properties of matter, and from the action of the elements in those bodies + where they create a spontaneous movement. To suppose that this product of + the play of the organs, born with them, matured with them, and which + sleeps with them, can subsist when they cease, is the romance of a + wandering imagination, perhaps agreeable enough, but really chimerical. + </p> + <p> + "God itself is nothing more than the moving principle, the occult force + inherent in all beings—the sum of their laws and properties—the + animating principle; in a word, the soul of the universe; which on account + of the infinite variety of its connections and its operations, sometimes + simple, sometimes multiple, sometimes active, sometimes passive, has + always presented to the human mind an unsolvable enigma. All that man can + comprehend with certainty is, that matter does not perish; that it + possesses essentially those properties by which the world is held together + like a living and organized being; that the knowledge of these laws with + respect to man is what constitutes wisdom; that virtue and merit consist + in their observance; and evil, sin, and vice, in the ignorance and + violation of them; that happiness and misery result from these by the same + necessity which makes heavy bodies descend and light ones rise, and by a + fatality of causes and effects, whose chain extends from the smallest atom + to the greatest of the heavenly bodies."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the very expressions of La Loubre, in his + description of the kingdom of Siam and the theology of the + Bronzes. Their dogmas, compared with those of the ancient + philosophers of Greece and Italy, give a complete + representation of the whole system of the Stoics and + Epicureans, mixed with astrological superstitious, and some + traits of Pythagorism. +</pre> + <p> + At these words, a crowd of theologians of every sect cried out that this + doctrine was materialism, and that those who profess it were impious + atheists, enemies to God and man, who must be exterminated. "Very well," + replied the Chamans, "suppose we are in error, which is not impossible, + since the first attribute of the human mind is to be subject to illusion; + but what right have you to take away from men like yourselves, the life + which Heaven has given them? If Heaven holds us guilty and in abhorrence, + why does it impart to us the same blessings as to you? And if it treats us + with forbearance, what authority have you to be less indulgent? Pious men! + who speak of God with so much certainty and confidence, be so good as to + tell us what it is; give us to comprehend what those abstract and + metaphysical beings are, which you call God and soul, substance without + matter, existence without body, life without organs or sensation. If you + know those beings by your senses or their reflections, render them in like + manner perceptible to us; or if you speak of them on testimony and + tradition, show us a uniform account, and give a determinate basis to our + creed." + </p> + <p> + There now arose among the theologians a great controversy respecting God + and his nature, his manner of acting, and of manifesting himself; on the + nature of the soul and its union with the body; whether it exists before + the organs, or only after they are formed; on the future life, and the + other world. And every sect, every school, every individual, differing on + all these points, and each assigning plausible reasons, and respectable + though opposite authorities for his opinion, they fell into an + inextricable labyrinth of contradictions. + </p> + <p> + Then the legislator, having commanded silence and recalled the dispute to + its true object, said: "Chiefs and instructors of nations; you came + together in search of truth. At first, every one of you, thinking he + possessed it, demanded of the others an implicit faith; but perceiving the + contrariety of your opinions, you found it necessary to submit them to a + common rule of evidence, and to bring them to one general term of + comparison; and you agreed that each should exhibit the proofs of his + doctrine. You began by alleging facts; but each religion and every sect, + being equally furnished with miracles and martyrs, each producing an equal + number of witnesses, and offering to support them by a voluntary death, + the balance on this first point, by right of parity, remained equal. + </p> + <p> + "You then passed to the trial of reasoning; but the same arguments + applying equally to contrary positions—the same assertions, equally + gratuitous, being advanced and repelled with equal force, and all having + an equal right to refuse his assent, nothing was demonstrated. What is + more, the confrontation of your systems has brought up more and + extraordinary difficulties; for amid the apparent or adventitious + diversities, you have discovered a fundamental resemblance, a common + groundwork; and each of you pretending to be the inventor, and first + depositary, have taxed each other with adulterations and plagiarisms; and + thence arises a difficult question concerning the transmission of + religious ideas from people to people. + </p> + <p> + "Finally, to complete your embarrassment: when you endeavored to explain + your doctrines to each other, they appeared confused and foreign, even to + their adherents; they were founded on ideas inaccessible to your senses; + you consequently had no means of judging of them, and you confessed + yourselves in this respect to be only the echoes of your fathers. Hence + follows this other question: how came they to the knowledge of your + fathers, who themselves had no other means than you to conceive them? So + that, on the one hand, the succession of these ideas being unknown, and on + the other, their origin and existence being a mystery, all the edifice of + your religious opinions becomes a complicated problem of metaphysics and + history. + </p> + <p> + "Since, however, these opinions, extraordinary as they may be, must have + had some origin; since even the most abstract and fantastical ideas have + some physical model, it may be useful to recur to this origin, and + discover this model—in a word, to find out from what source the + human understanding has drawn these ideas, at present so obscure, of God, + of the soul, of all immaterial beings, which make the basis of so many + systems; to unfold the filiation which they have followed, and the + alterations which they have undergone in their transmissions and + ramifications. If, then, there are any persons present who have made a + study of these objects, let them come forward, and endeavor, in the face + of nations, to dissipate the obscurity in which their opinions have so + long remained." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. + </h2> + <h3> + ORIGIN AND FILIATION OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. + </h3> + <p> + At these words, a new group, formed in an instant by men from various + standards, but not distinguished by any, came forward into the circle; and + one of them spoke in the name of the whole: + </p> + <p> + "Delegates, friends of evidence and virtue! It is not surprising that the + subject in question should be enveloped in so many clouds, since, besides + its inherent difficulties, thought itself has always been encumbered with + superadded obstacles peculiar to this study, where all free enquiry and + discussion have been interdicted by the intolerance of every system. But + now that our views are permitted to expand, we will expose to open day, + and submit to the judgment of nations, that which unprejudiced minds, + after long researches, have found to be the most reasonable; and we do + this, not with the pretension of imposing a new creed, but with the hope + of provoking new lights, and obtaining better information. + </p> + <p> + "Doctors and instructors of nations! You know what thick darkness covers + the nature, the origin, the history of the dogmas which you teach. Imposed + by authority, inculcated by education, and maintained by example, they + pass from age to age, and strengthen their empire from habit and + inattention. But if man, enlightened by reflection and experience, brings + to mature examination the prejudices of his childhood, he soon discovers a + multitude of incongruities and contradictions which awaken his sagacity + and excite his reasoning powers. + </p> + <p> + "At first, remarking the diversity and opposition of the creeds which + divide the nations, he takes courage to question the infallibility which + each of them claims, and arming himself with their reciprocal pretensions, + he conceives that his senses and his reason, derived immediately from God, + are a law not less holy, a guide not less sure, than the mediate and + contradictory codes of the prophets. + </p> + <p> + "If he then examines the texture of these codes themselves, he observes + that their laws, pretended to be divine, that is, immutable and eternal, + have arisen from circumstances of times, places, and persons; that they + have issued one from the other, in a kind of genealogical order, borrowing + from each other reciprocally a common and similar fund of ideas, which + every lawgiver modifies according to his fancy. + </p> + <p> + "If he ascends to the source of these ideas, he finds it involved in the + night of time, in the infancy of nations, even to the origin of the world, + to which they claim alliance; and there, placed in the darkness of chaos, + in the empire of fables and traditions, they present themselves, + accompanied with a state of things so full of prodigies, that it seems to + forbid all access to the judgment: but this state itself excites a first + effort of reason, which resolves the difficulty; for if the prodigies, + found in the theological systems, have really existed—if, for + instance, the metamorphoses, the apparitions, the conversations with one + or many gods, recorded in the books of the Indians, the Hebrews, the + Parses, are historical events, he must agree that nature in those times + was totally different from what it is at present; that the present race of + men are quite another species from those who then existed; and, therefore, + he ought not to trouble his head about them. + </p> + <p> + "If, on the contrary, these miraculous events have really not existed in + the physical order of things, then he readily conceives that they are + creatures of the human intellect; and this faculty being still capable of + the most fantastical combinations, explains at once the phenomenon of + these monsters in history. It only remains, then, to find how and + wherefore they have been formed in the imagination. Now, if we examine + with care the subjects of these intellectual creations, analyze the ideas + which they combine and associate, and carefully weigh all the + circumstances which they allege, we shall find that this first obscure and + incredible state of things is explained by the laws of nature. We find + that these stories of a fabulous kind have a figurative sense different + from the apparent one; that these events, pretended to be marvellous, are + simple and physical facts, which, being misconceived or misrepresented, + have been disfigured by accidental causes dependent on the human mind, by + the confusion of signs employed to represent the ideas, the want of + precision in words, permanence in language, and perfection in writing; we + find that these gods, for instance, who display such singular characters + in every system, are only the physical agents of nature, the elements, the + winds, the stars, and the meteors, which have been personified by the + necessary mechanism of language and of the human understanding; that their + lives, their manners, their actions, are only their mechanical operations + and connections; and that all their pretended history is only the + description of these phenomena, formed by the first naturalists who + observed them, and misconceived by the vulgar who did not understand them, + or by succeeding generations who forgot them. In a word, all the + theological dogmas on the origin of the world, the nature of God, the + revelation of his laws, the manifestation of his person, are known to be + only the recital of astronomical facts, only figurative and emblematical + accounts of the motion of the heavenly bodies. We are convinced that the + very idea of a God, that idea at present so obscure, is, in its first + origin, nothing but that of the physical powers of the universe, + considered sometimes as a plurality by reason of their agencies and + phenomena, sometimes as one simple and only being by reason of the + universality of the machine and the connection of its parts; so that the + being called God has been sometimes the wind, the fire, the water, all the + elements; sometimes the sun, the stars, the planets, and their influence; + sometimes the matter of the visible world, the totality of the universe; + sometimes abstract and metaphysical qualities, such as space, duration, + motion, intelligence; and we everywhere see this conclusion, that the idea + of God has not been a miraculous revelation of invisible beings, but a + natural offspring of the human intellect—an operation of the mind, + whose progress it has followed and whose revolutions it has undergone, in + all the progress that has been made in the knowledge of the physical world + and its agents. + </p> + <p> + "It is then in vain that nations attribute their religion to heavenly + inspirations; it is in vain that their dogmas pretend to a primeval state + of supernatural events: the original barbarity of the human race, attested + by their own monuments,* belies these assertions at once. But there is one + constant and indubitable fact which refutes beyond contradiction all these + doubtful accounts of past ages. From this position, that man acquires and + receives no ideas but through the medium of his senses,** it follows with + certainty that every notion which claims to itself any other origin than + that of sensation and experience, is the erroneous supposition of a + posterior reasoning: now, it is sufficient to cast an eye upon the sacred + systems of the origin of the world, and of the actions of the gods, to + discover in every idea, in every word, the anticipation of an order of + things which could not exist till a long time after. Reason, strengthened + by these contradictions, rejecting everything that is not in the order of + nature, and admitting no historical facts but those founded on + probabilities, lays open its own system, and pronounces itself with + assurance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is the unanimous testimony of history, and even of + legends, that the first human beings were every where + savages, and that it was to civilize them, and teach them to + make bread, that the Gods manifested themselves. + + ** The rock on which all the ancients have split, and which + has occasioned all their errors, has been their supposing + the idea of God to be innate and co-eternal with the soul; + and hence all the reveries developed in Plato and Jamblicus. + See the Timoeus, the Phedon, and De Mysteriis Egyptiorum, + sect. I, c. 3. +</pre> + <p> + "Before one nation had received from another nation dogmas already + invented; before one generation had inherited ideas acquired by a + preceding generation, none of these complicated systems could have existed + in the world. The first men, being children of nature, anterior to all + events, ignorant of all science, were born without any idea of the dogmas + arising from scholastic disputes; of rites founded on the practice of arts + not then known; of precepts framed after the development of passions; or + of laws which suppose a language, a state of society not then in being; or + of God, whose attributes all refer to physical objects, and his actions to + a despotic state of government; or of the soul, or of any of those + metaphysical beings, which we are told are not the objects of sense, and + for which, however, there can be no other means of access to the + understanding. To arrive at so many results, the necessary circle of + preceding facts must have been observed; slow experience and repeated + trials must have taught the rude man the use of his organs; the + accumulated knowledge of successive generations must have invented and + improved the means of living; and the mind, freed from the cares of the + first wants of nature, must have raised itself to the complicated art of + comparing ideas, of digesting arguments, and seizing abstract + similitudes." + </p> + <p> + I. Origin of the idea of God: Worship of the elements and of the physical + powers of nature. + </p> + <p> + "It was not till after having overcome these obstacles, and gone through a + long career in the night of history, that man, reflecting on his + condition, began to perceive that he was subjected to forces superior to + his own, and independent of his will. The sun enlightened and warmed him, + the fire burned him, the thunder terrified him, the wind beat upon him, + the water overwhelmed him. All beings acted upon him powerfully and + irresistibly. He sustained this action for a long time, like a machine, + without enquiring the cause; but the moment he began his enquiries, he + fell into astonishment; and, passing from the surprise of his first + reflections to the reverie of curiosity, he began a chain of reasoning. + </p> + <p> + "First, considering the action of the elements on him, he conceived an + idea of weakness and subjection on his part, and of power and domination + on theirs; and this idea of power was the primitive and fundamental type + of every idea of God. + </p> + <p> + "Secondly, the action of these natural existences excited in him + sensations of pleasure or pain, of good or evil; and by a natural effect + of his organization, he conceived for them love or aversion; he desired or + dreaded their presence; and fear or hope gave rise to the first idea of + religion. + </p> + <p> + "Then, judging everything by comparison, and remarking in these beings a + spontaneous movement like his own, he supposed this movement directed by a + will,—an intelligence of the nature of his own; and hence, by + induction, he formed a new reasoning. Having experienced that certain + practices towards his fellow creatures had the effect to modify their + affections and direct their conduct to his advantage, he resorted to the + same practices towards these powerful beings of the universe. He reasoned + thus with himself: When my fellow creature, stronger than I, is disposed + to do me injury, I abase myself before him, and my prayer has the art to + calm him. I will pray to these powerful beings who strike me. I will + supplicate the intelligences of the winds, of the stars, of the waters, + and they will hear me. I will conjure them to avert the evil and give me + the good that is at their disposal; I will move them by my tears, I will + soften them by offerings, and I shall be happy. + </p> + <p> + "Thus simple man, in the infancy of his reason, spoke to the sun and to + the moon; he animated with his own understanding and passions the great + agents of nature; he thought by vain sounds, and vain actions, to change + their inflexible laws. Fatal error! He prayed the stone to ascend, the + water to mount above its level, the mountains to remove, and substituting + a fantastical world for the real one, he peopled it with imaginary beings, + to the terror of his mind and the torment of his race. + </p> + <p> + "In this manner the ideas of God and religion have sprung, like all + others, from physical objects; they were produced in the mind of man from + his sensations, from his wants, from the circumstances of his life, and + the progressive state of his knowledge. + </p> + <p> + "Now, as the ideas of God had their first models in physical agents, it + followed that God was at first varied and manifold, like the form under + which he appeared to act. Every being was a Power, a Genius; and the first + men conceived the universe filled with innumerable gods. + </p> + <p> + "Again the ideas of God have been created by the affections of the human + heart; they became necessarily divided into two classes, according to the + sensations of pleasure or pain, love or hatred, which they inspired. + </p> + <p> + "The forces of nature, the gods and genii, were divided into beneficent + and malignant, good and evil powers; and hence the universality of these + two characters in all the systems of religion. + </p> + <p> + "These ideas, analogous to the condition of their inventors, were for a + long time confused and ill-digested. Savage men, wandering in the woods, + beset with wants and destitute of resources, had not the leisure to + combine principles and draw conclusions; affected with more evils than + they found pleasures, their most habitual sentiment was that of fear, + their theology terror; their worship was confined to a few salutations and + offerings to beings whom they conceived as greedy and ferocious as + themselves. In their state of equality and independence, no man offered + himself as mediator between men and gods as insubordinate and poor as + himself. No one having superfluities to give, there existed no parasite by + the name of priest, no tribute by the name of victim, no empire by the + name of altar. Their dogmas and their morals were the same thing, it was + only self-preservation; and religion, that arbitrary idea, without + influence on the mutual relations of men, was a vain homage rendered to + the visible powers of nature. + </p> + <p> + "Such was the necessary and original idea of God." + </p> + <p> + And the orator, addressing himself to the savage nations, continued: + </p> + <p> + "We appeal to you, men who have received no foreign and factitious ideas; + tell us, have you ever gone beyond what I have described? And you, learned + doctors, we call you to witness; is not this the unanimous testimony of + all ancient monuments?* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It clearly results, says Plutarch, from the verses of + Orpheus and the sacred books of the Egyptians and Phrygians, + that the ancient theology, not only of the Greeks, but of + all nations, was nothing more than a system of physics, a + picture of the operations of nature, wrapped up in + mysterious allegories and enigmatical symbols, in a manner + that the ignorant multitude attended rather to their + apparent than to their hidden meaning, and even in what they + understood of the latter, supposed there to be something + more deep than what they perceived. Fragment of a work of + Plutarch now lost, quoted by Eusebius, Proepar. Evang. lib. + 3, ch. 1, p. 83. + + The majority of philosophers, says Porphyry, and among + others Haeremon (who lived in Egypt in the first age of + Christianity), imagine there never to have been any other + world than the one we see, and acknowledged no other Gods of + all those recognized by the Egyptians, than such as are + commonly called planets, signs of the Zodiac, and + constellations; whose aspects, that is, rising and setting, + are supposed to influence the fortunes of men; to which they + add their divisions of the signs into decans and dispensers + of time, whom they style lords of the ascendant, whose + names, virtues in relieving distempers, rising, setting, and + presages of future events, are the subjects of almanacs (for + be it observed, that the Egyptian priests had almanacs the + exact counterpart of Matthew Lansberg's); for when the + priests affirmed that the sun was the architect of the + universe, Chaeremon presently concludes that all their + narratives respecting Isis and Osiris, together with their + other sacred fables, referred in part to the planets, the + phases of the moon, and the revolution of the sun, and in + part to the stars of the daily and nightly hemispheres and + the river Nile; in a word, in all cases to physical and + natural existences and never to such as might be immaterial + and incorporeal. . . . + + All these philosophers believe that the acts of our will and + the motion of our bodies depend on those of the stars to + which they are subjected, and they refer every thing to the + laws of physical necessity, which they call destiny or + Fatum, supposing a chain of causes and effects which binds, + by I know not what connection, all beings together, from the + meanest atom to the supremest power and primary influence of + the Gods; so that, whether in their temples or in their + idols, the only subject of worship is the power of destiny. + Porphyr. Epist. ad Janebonem. +</pre> + <p> + II. Second system: Worship of the Stars, or Sabeism. + </p> + <p> + "But those same monuments present us likewise a system more methodical and + more complicated—that of the worship of all the stars; adored + sometimes in their proper forms, sometimes under figurative emblems and + symbols; and this worship was the effect of the knowledge men had acquired + in physics, and was derived immediately from the first causes of the + social state; that is, from the necessities and arts of the first degree, + which are among the elements of society. + </p> + <p> + "Indeed, as soon as men began to unite in society, it became necessary for + them to multiply the means of subsistence, and consequently to attend to + agriculture: agriculture, to be carried on with success, requires the + observation and knowledge of the heavens. It was necessary to know the + periodical return of the same operations of nature, and the same phenomena + in the skies; indeed to go so far as to ascertain the duration and + succession of the seasons and the months of the year. It was indispensable + to know, in the first place, the course of the sun, who, in his zodiacal + revolution, shows himself the supreme agent of the whole creation; then, + of the moon, who, by her phases and periods, regulates and distributes + time; then, of the stars, and even of the planets, which by their + appearance and disappearance on the horizon and nocturnal hemisphere, + marked the minutest divisions. Finally, it was necessary to form a whole + system of astronomy,* or a calendar; and from these works there naturally + followed a new manner of considering these predominant and governing + powers. Having observed that the productions of the earth had a regular + and constant relation with the heavenly bodies; that the rise, growth, and + decline of each plant kept pace with the appearance, elevation, and + declination of the same star or the same group of stars; in short, that + the languor or activity of vegetation seemed to depend on celestial + influences, men drew from thence an idea of action, of power, in those + beings, superior to earthly bodies; and the stars, dispensing plenty or + scarcity, became powers, genii,** gods, authors of good and evil. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It continues to be repeated every day, on the indirect + authority of the book of Genesis, that astronomy was the + invention of the children of Noah. It has been gravely + said, that while wandering shepherds in the plains of + Shinar, they employed their leisure in composing a planetary + system: as if shepherds had occasion to know more than the + polar star; and if necessity was not the sole motive of + every invention! If the ancient shepherds were so studious + and sagacious, how does it happen that the modern ones are + so stupid, ignorant, and inattentive? And it is a fact that + the Arabs of the desert know not so many as six + constellations, and understand not a word of astronomy. + + ** It appears that by the word genius, the ancients denoted + a quality, a generative power; for the following words, + which are all of one family, convey this meaning: generare, + genos, genesis, genus, gens. +</pre> + <p> + "As the state of society had already introduced a regular hierarchy of + ranks, employments and conditions, men, continuing to reason by + comparison, carried their new notions into their theology, and formed a + complicated system of divinities by gradation of rank, in which the sun, + as first god,* was a military chief or a political king: the moon was his + wife and queen; the planets were servants, bearers of commands, + messengers; and the multitude of stars were a nation, an army of heroes, + genii, whose office was to govern the world under the orders of their + chiefs. All the individuals had names, functions, attributes, drawn from + their relations and influences; and even sexes, from the gender of their + appellations.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Sabeans, ancient and modern, says Maimonides, + acknowledge a principal God, the maker and inhabitant of + heaven; but on account of his great distance they conceive + him to be inaccessible; and in imitation of the conduct of + people towards their kings, they employ as mediators with + him, the planets and their angels, whom they call princes + and potentates, and whom they suppose to reside in those + luminous bodies as in palaces or tabernacles, etc. More- + Nebuchim. + + ** According as the gender of the object was in the language + of the nation masculine or feminine, the Divinity who bore + its name was male or female. Thus the Cappadocians called + the moon God, and the sun Goddess: a circumstance which + gives to the same beings a perpetual variety in ancient + mythology. +</pre> + <p> + "And as the social state had introduced certain usages and ceremonies, + religion, keeping pace with the social state, adopted similar ones; these + ceremonies, at first simple and private, became public and solemn; the + offerings became rich and more numerous, and the rites more methodical; + they assigned certain places for the assemblies, and began to have chapels + and temples; they instituted officers to administer them, and these became + priests and pontiffs: they established liturgies, and sanctified certain + days, and religion became a civil act, a political tie. + </p> + <p> + "But in this arrangement, religion did not change its first principles; + the idea of God was always that of physical beings, operating good or + evil, that is, impressing sensations of pleasure or pain: the dogma was + the knowledge of their laws, or their manner of acting; virtue and sin, + the observance or infraction of these laws; and morality, in its native + simplicity, was the judicious practice of whatever contributes to the + preservation of existence, the well-being of one's self and his fellow + creatures.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We may add, says Plutarch, that these Egyptian priests + always regarded the preservation of health as a point of the + first importance, and as indispensably necessary to the + practice of piety and the service of the gods. See his + account of Isis and Osiris, towards the end. +</pre> + <p> + "Should it be asked at what epoch this system took its birth, we shall + answer on the testimony of the monuments of astronomy itself; that its + principles appear with certainty to have been established about seventeen + thousand years ago,* and if it be asked to what people it is to be + attributed, we shall answer that the same monuments, supported by + unanimous traditions, attribute it to the first tribes of Egypt; and when + reason finds in that country all the circumstances which could lead to + such a system; when it finds there a zone of sky, bordering on the tropic, + equally free from the rains of the equator and the fogs of the North;** + when it finds there a central point of the sphere of the ancients, a + salubrious climate, a great, but manageable river, a soil fertile without + art or labor, inundated without morbid exhalations, and placed between two + seas which communicate with the richest countries, it conceives that the + inhabitant of the Nile, addicted to agriculture from the nature of his + soil, to geometry from the annual necessity of measuring his lands, to + commerce from the facility of communications, to astronomy from the state + of his sky, always open to observation, must have been the first to pass + from the savage to the social state; and consequently to attain the + physical and moral sciences necessary to civilized life. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The historical orator follows here the opinion of M. + Dupuis, who, in his learned memoirs concerning the Origin of + the Constellations and Origin of all Worship, has assigned + many plausible reasons to prove that Libra was formerly the + sign of the vernal, and Aries of the autumnal equinox; that + is, that since the origin of the actual astronomical system, + the precession of the equinoxes has carried forward by seven + signs the primitive order of the zodiac. Now estimating the + precession at about seventy years and a half to a degree, + that is, 2,115 years to each sign; and observing that Aries + was in its fifteenth degree, 1,447 years before Christ, it + follows that the first degree of Libra could not have + coincided with the vernal equinox more lately than 15,194 + years before Christ; now, if you add 1790 years since + Christ, it appears that 16,984 years have elapsed since the + origin of the Zodiac. The vernal equinox coincided with the + first degree of Aries, 2,504 years before Christ, and with + the first degree of Taurus 4,619 years before Christ. Now + it is to be observed, that the worship of the Bull is the + principal article in the theological creed of the Egyptians, + Persians, Japanese, etc.; from whence it clearly follows, + that some general revolution took place among these nations + at that time. The chronology of five or six thousand years + in Genesis is little agreeable to this hypothesis; but as + the book of Genesis cannot claim to be considered as a + history farther back than Abraham, we are at liberty to make + what arrangements we please in the eternity that preceded. + See on this subject the analysis of Genesis, in the first + volume of New Researches on Ancient History; see also Origin + of Constellatians, by Dupuis, 1781; the Origin of Worship, + in 3 vols. 1794, and the Chronological Zodiac, 1806. + + ** M. Balli, in placing the first astronomers at + Selingenakoy, near the Bailkal paid no attention to this + twofold circumstance: it equally argues against their being + placed at Axoum on account of the rains, and the Zimb fly of + which Mr. Bruce speaks. +</pre> + <p> + "It was, then, on the borders of the upper Nile, among a black race of + men, that was organized the complicated system of the worship of the + stars, considered in relation to the productions of the earth and the + labors of agriculture; and this first worship, characterized by their + adoration under their own forms and natural attributes, was a simple + proceeding of the human mind. But in a short time, the multiplicity of the + objects of their relations, and their reciprocal influence, having + complicated the ideas, and the signs that represented them, there followed + a confusion as singular in its cause as pernicious in its effects." + </p> + <p> + III. Third system. Worship of Symbols, or Idolatry. + </p> + <p> + "As soon as this agricultural people began to observe the stars with + attention, they found it necessary to individualize or group them; and to + assign to each a proper name, in order to understand each other in their + designation. A great difficulty must have presented itself in this + business: First, the heavenly bodies, similar in form, offered no + distinguishing characteristics by which to denominate them; and, secondly, + the language in its infancy and poverty, had no expressions for so many + new and metaphysical ideas. Necessity, the usual stimulus of genius, + surmounted everything. Having remarked that in the annual revolution, the + renewal and periodical appearance of terrestrial productions were + constantly associated with the rising and setting of certain stars, and to + their position as relative to the sun, the fundamental term of all + comparison, the mind by a natural operation connected in thought these + terrestrial and celestial objects, which were connected in fact; and + applying to them a common sign, it gave to the stars, and their groups, + the names of the terrestrial objects to which they answered.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "The ancients," says Maimonides, "directing all their + attention to agriculture, gave names to the stars derived + from their occupation during the year." More Neb. pars 3. +</pre> + <p> + "Thus the Ethopian of Thebes named stars of inundation, or Aquarius, those + stars under which the Nile began to overflow;* stars of the ox or the + bull, those under which they began to plow; stars of the lion, those under + which that animal, driven from the desert by thirst, appeared on the banks + of the Nile; stars of the sheaf, or of the harvest virgin, those of the + reaping season; stars of the lamb, stars of the two kids, those under + which these precious animals were brought forth: and thus was resolved the + first part of the difficulty. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This must have been June. +</pre> + <p> + "Moreover, man having remarked in the beings which surrounded him certain + qualities distinctive and proper to each species, and having thence + derived a name by which to designate them, he found in the same source an + ingenious mode of generalizing his ideas; and transferring the name + already invented to every thing which bore any resemblance or analogy, he + enriched his language with a perpetual round of metaphors. + </p> + <p> + "Thus the same Ethiopian having observed that the return of the inundation + always corresponded with the rising of a beautiful star which appeared + towards the source of the Nile, and seemed to warn the husbandman against + the coming waters, he compared this action to that of the animal who, by + his barking, gives notice of danger, and he called this star the dog, the + barker (Sirius). In the same manner he named the stars of the crab, those + where the sun, having arrived at the tropic, retreated by a slow + retrograde motion like the crab or cancer. He named stars of the wild + goat, or Capricorn, those where the sun, having reached the highest point + in his annuary tract, rests at the summit of the horary gnomon, and + imitates the goat, who delights to climb the summit of the rocks. He named + stars of the balance, or libra, those where the days and nights, being + equal, seemed in equilibrium, like that instrument; and stars of the + scorpion, those where certain periodical winds bring vapors, burning like + the venom of the scorpion. In the same manner he called by the name of + rings and serpents the figured traces of the orbits of the stars and the + planets, and such was the general mode of naming all the stars and even + the planets, taken by groups or as individuals, according to their + relations with husbandry and terrestrial objects, and according to the + analogies which each nation found between them and the objects of its + particular soil and climate.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The ancients had verbs from the substantives crab, goat, + tortoise, as the French have at present the verbs serpenter, + coquetter. The history of all languages is nearly the same. +</pre> + <p> + "From this it appeared that abject and terrestrial beings became + associated with the superior and powerful inhabitants of heaven; and this + association became stronger every day by the mechanism of language and the + constitution of the human mind. Men would say by a natural metaphor: The + bull spreads over the earth the germs of fecundity (in spring) he restores + vegetation and plenty: the lamb (or ram) delivers the skies from the + maleficent powers of winter; he saves the world from the serpent (emblem + of the humid season) and restores the empire of goodness (summer, joyful + season): the scorpion pours out his poison on the earth, and scatters + diseases and death. The same of all similar effects. + </p> + <p> + "This language, understood by every one, was attended at first with no + inconvenience; but in the course of time, when the calendar had been + regulated, the people, who had no longer any need of observing the + heavens, lost sight of the original meaning of these expressions; and the + allegories remaining in common use became a fatal stumbling block to the + understanding and to reason. Habituated to associate to the symbols the + ideas of their archetypes, the mind at last confounded them: then the same + animals, whom fancy had transported to the skies, returned again to the + earth; but being thus returned, clothed in the livery of the stars, they + claimed the stellary attributes, and imposed on their own authors. Then it + was that the people, believing that they saw their gods among them, could + pray to them with more convenience: they demanded from the ram of their + flock the influences which might be expected from the heavenly ram; they + prayed the scorpion not to pour out his venom upon nature; they revered + the crab of the sea, the scarabeus of the mud, the fish of the river; and + by a series of corrupt but inseparable analogies, they lost themselves in + a labyrinth of well connected absurdities. + </p> + <p> + "Such was the origin of that ancient whimsical worship of the animals; + such is the train of ideas by which the character of the divinity became + common to the vilest of brutes, and by which was formed that theological + system, extremely comprehensive, complicated, and learned, which, rising + on the borders of the Nile, propagated from country to country by + commerce, war, and conquest, overspread the whole of the ancient world; + and which, modified by time, circumstances and prejudices, is still seen + entire among a hundred nations, and remains as the essential and secret + basis of the theology of those even who despise and reject it." + </p> + <p> + Some murmurs at these words being heard from various groups: "Yes!" + continued the orator, "hence arose, for instance, among you, nations of + Africa, the adoration of your fetiches, plants, animals, pebbles, pieces + of wood, before which your ancestors would not have had the folly to bow, + if they had not seen in them talismans endowed with the virtue of the + stars.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The ancient astrologers, says the most learned of the Jews + (Maimonides), having sacredly assigned to each planet a + color, an animal, a tree, a metal, a fruit, a plant, formed + from them all a figure or representation of the star, taking + care to select for the purpose a proper moment, a fortunate + day, such as the conjunction of the star, or some other + favorable aspect. They conceived that by their magic + ceremonies they could introduce into those figures or idols + the influences of the superior beings after which they were + modeled. These were the idols that the Chaldean-Sabeans + adored; and in the performance of their worship they were + obliged to be dressed in the proper color. The astrologers, + by their practices, thus introduced idolatry, desirous of + being regarded as the dispensers of the favors of heaven; + and as agriculture was the sole employment of the ancients, + they succeeded in persuading them that the rain and other + blessings of the seasons were at their disposal. Thus the + whole art of agriculture was exercised by rules of + astrology, and the priests made talismans or charms which + were to drive away locusts, flies, etc. See Maimonides, + More Nebuchim, pars 3, c. 29. + + The priests of Egypt, Persia, India, etc., pretended to bind + the Gods to their idols, and to make them come from heaven + at their pleasure. They threatened the sun and moon, if + they were disobedient, to reveal the secret mysteries, to + shake the skies, etc., etc. Euseb. Proecep. Evang. p. 198, + and Jamblicus de Mysteriis Aegypt. +</pre> + <p> + "Here, ye nations of Tartary, is the origin of your marmosets, and of all + that train of animals with which your chamans ornament their magical + robes. This is the origin of those figures of birds and of snakes which + savage nations imprint upon their skins with sacred and mysterious + ceremonies. + </p> + <p> + "Ye inhabitants of India! in vain you cover yourselves with the veil of + mystery: the hawk of your god Vichenou is but one of the thousand emblems + of the sun in Egypt; and your incarnations of a god in the fish, the boar, + the lion, the tortoise, and all his monstrous adventures, are only the + metamorphoses of the sun, who, passing through the signs of the twelve + animals (or the zodiac), was supposed to assume their figures, and perform + their astronomical functions.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the very words of Jamblicus de Symbolis + Aegyptiorum, c. 2, sect. 7. The sun was the grand Proteus, + the universal metamorphist. +</pre> + <p> + "People of Japan, your bull, which breaks the mundane egg, is only the + bull of the zodiac, which in former times opened the seasons, the age of + creation, the vernal equinox. It is the same bull Apis which Egypt adored, + and which your ancestors, Jewish Rabbins, worshipped in the golden calf. + This is still your bull, followers of Zoroaster, which, sacrificed in the + symbolic mysteries of Mithra, poured out his blood which fertilized the + earth. And ye Christians, your bull of the Apocalypse, with his wings, + symbol of the air, has no other origin; and your lamb of God, sacrificed, + like the bull of Mithra, for the salvation of the world, is only the same + sun, in the sign of the celestial ram, which, in a later age, opening the + equinox in his turn, was supposed to deliver the world from evil, that is + to say, from the constellation of the serpent, from that great snake, the + parent of winter, the emblem of the Ahrimanes, or Satan of the Persians, + your school masters. Yes, in vain does your imprudent zeal consign + idolaters to the torments of the Tartarus which they invented; the whole + basis of your system is only the worship of the sun, with whose attributes + you have decorated your principal personage. It is the sun which, under + the name of Horus, was born, like your God, at the winter solstice, in the + arms of the celestial virgin, and who passed a childhood of obscurity, + indigence, and want, answering to the season of cold and frost. It is he + that, under the name of Osiris, persecuted by Typhon and by the tyrants of + the air, was put to death, shut up in a dark tomb, emblem of the + hemisphere of winter, and afterwards, ascending from the inferior zone + towards the zenith of heaven, arose again from the dead triumphant over + the giants and the angels of destruction. + </p> + <p> + "Ye priests! who murmur at this relation, you wear his emblems all over + your bodies; your tonsure is the disk of the sun; your stole is his + zodiac;* your rosaries are symbols of the stars and planets. Ye pontiffs + and prelates! your mitre, your crozier, your mantle are those of Osiris; + and that cross whose mystery you extol without comprehending it, is the + cross of Serapis, traced by the hands of Egyptian priests on the plan of + the figurative world; which, passing through the equinoxes and the + tropics, became the emblem of the future life and of the resurrection, + because it touched the gates of ivory and of horn, through which the soul + passed to heaven." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "The Arabs," says Herodotus, "shave their heads in a + circle and about the temples, in imitation of Bacchus (that + is the sun), who shaves himself is this manner." Jeremiah + speaks also of this custom. The tuft of hair which the + Mahometans preserve, is taken also from the sun, who was + painted by the Egyptians at the winter solstice, as having + but a single hair upon his head. . . . + + The robes of the goddess of Syria and of Diana of Ephesus, + from whence are borrowed the dress of the priests; have the + twelve animals of the zodiac painted on them. . . . + + Rosaries are found upon all the Indian idols, constructed + more than four thousand years ago, and their use in the East + has been universal from time immemorial. . . . + + The crozier is precisely the staff of Bootes or Osiris. + (See plate.) + + All the Lamas wear the mitre or cap in the shape of a cone, + which was an emblem of the sun. +</pre> + <p> + At these words, the doctors of all the groups began to look at each other + with astonishment; but no one breaking silence, the orator proceeded: + </p> + <p> + "Three principal causes concur to produce this confusion of ideas: First, + the figurative expressions under which an infant language was obliged to + describe the relations of objects; expressions which, passing afterwards + from a limited to a general sense, and from a physical to a moral one, + caused, by their ambiguities and synonymes, a great number of mistakes. + </p> + <p> + "Thus, it being first said that the sun had surmounted, or finished, + twelve animals, it was thought afterwards that he had killed them, fought + them, conquered them; and of this was composed the historical life of + Hercules.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the memoir of Dupuis on the Origin of the + Constellations, before cited. +</pre> + <p> + "It being said that he regulated the periods of rural labor, the seed time + and the harvest, that he distributed the seasons and occupations, ran + through the climates and ruled the earth, etc., he was taken for a + legislative king, a conquering warrior; and they framed from this the + history of Osiris, of Bacchus, and others of that description. + </p> + <p> + "Having said that a planet entered into a sign, they made of this + conjunction a marriage, an adultery, an incest.* Having said that the + planet was hid or buried, when it came back to light, and ascended to its + exaltation, they said that it had died, risen again, was carried into + heaven, etc. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the very words of Plutarch in his account of + Isis and Osiris. The Hebrews say, in speaking of the + generations of the Patriarchs, et ingressus est in eam. + From this continual equivoke of ancient language, proceeds + every mistake. +</pre> + <p> + "A second cause of confusion was the material figures themselves, by which + men first painted thoughts; and which, under the name of hieroglyphics, or + sacred characters, were the first invention of the mind. Thus, to give + warning of the inundation, and of the necessity of guarding against it, + they painted a boat, the ship Argo; to express the wind, they painted the + wing of a bird; to designate the season, or the month, they painted the + bird of passage, the insect, or the animal which made its appearance at + that period; to describe the winter, they painted a hog or a serpent, + which delight in humid places, and the combination of these figures + carried the known sense of words and phrases.* But as this sense could not + be fixed with precision, as the number of these figures and their + combinations became excessive, and overburdened the memory, the immediate + consequence was confusion and false interpretations. Genius afterwards + having invented the more simple art of applying signs to sounds, of which + the number is limited, and painting words, instead of thoughts, + alphabetical writing thus threw into disuetude hieroglyphical painting; + and its signification, falling daily into oblivion, gave rise to a + multitude of illusions, ambiguities, and errors. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The reader will doubtless see with pleasure some examples + of ancient hieroglyphics. + + "The Egyptians (says Hor-appolo) represent eternity by the + figures of the sun and moon. They designate the world by + the blue serpent with yellow scales (stars, it is the + Chinese Dragon). If they were desirous of expressing the + year, they drew a picture of Isis, who is also in their + language called Sothis, or dog-star, one of the first + constellations, by the rising of which the year commences; + its inscription at Sais was, It is I that rise in the + constellation of the Dog. + + "They also represent the year by a palm tree, and the month + by one of its branches, because it is the nature of this + tree to produce a branch every month. They farther + represent it by the fourth part of an acre of land." The + whole acre divided into four denotes the bissextile period + of four years. The abbreviation of this figure of a field + in four divisions, is manifestly the letter ha or het, the + seventh in the Samaritan alphabet; and in general all the + letters of the alphabet are merely astronomical + hieroglyphics; and it is for this reason that the mode of + writing is from right to left, like the march of the stars. + —"They denote a prophet by the image of a dog, because the + dog star (Anoubis) by its rising gives notice of the + inundation. Noubi, in Hebrew signifies prophet—They + represent inundation by a lion, because it takes place under + that sign: and hence, says Plutarch, the custom of placing + at the gates of temples figures of lions with water issuing + from their mouths.—They express the idea of God and destiny + by a star. They also represent God, says Porphyry, by a + black stone, because his nature is dark and obscure. All + white things express the celestial and luminous Gods: all + circular ones the world, the moon, the sun, the orbits; all + semicircular ones, as bows and crescents are descriptive of + the moon. Fire and the Gods of Olympus they represent by + pyramids and obelisks (the name of the sun, Baal, is found + in this latter word): the sun by a cone (the mitre of + Osiris): the earth, by a cylinder (which revolves): the + generative power of the air by the phalus, and that of the + earth by a triangle, emblem of the female organ. Euseb. + Proecep. Evang. p. 98. + + "Clay, says Jamblicus de Symbolis, sect. 7, c. 2. denotes + matter, the generative and nutrimental power, every thing + which receives the warmth and fermentation of life." + + "A man sitting upon the Lotos or Nenuphar, represents the + moving spirit (the sun) which, in like manner as that plant + lives in the water without any communication with clay, + exists equally distinct from matter, swimming in empty + space, resting on itself: it is round also in all its parts, + like the leaves, the flowers, and the fruit of the Lotos. + (Brama has the eyes of the Lotos, says Chasler Nesdirsen, to + denote his intelligence: his eye swims over every thing, + like the flower of the Lotos on the waters.) A man at the + helm of a ship, adds Jamblicus, is descriptive of the sun + which governs all. And Porphyry tells us that the sun is + also represented by a man in a ship resting upon an + amphibious crocodile (emblem of air and water). + + "At Elephantine they worshipped the figure of a man in a + sitting posture, painted blue, having the head of a ram, and + the horns of a goat which encompassed a disk; all which + represented the sun and moon's conjunction at the sign of + the ram; the blue color denoting the power of the moon, at + the period of junction, to raise water into the clouds. + Euseb. Proecep. Evang. p. 116. + + "The hawk is an emblem of the sun and of light, on account + of his rapid flight and his soaring into the highest regions + of the air where light abounds. + + A fish is the emblem of aversion, and the Hippopotamus of + violence, because it is said to kill its father and to + ravish its mother. Hence, says Plutarch, the emblematical + inscription of the temple of Sais, where we see painted on + the vestibule, 1. A child, 2. An old man, 3. A hawk, 4. A + fish, 5. A hippopotamus: which signify, 1. Entrance, into + life, 2. Departure, 3. God, 4. Hates, 5. Injustice. See + Isis and Osiris. + + "The Egyptians, adds he, represent the world by a Scarabeus, + because this insect pushes, in a direction contrary to that + in which it proceeds, a ball containing its eggs, just as + the heaven of the fixed stars causes the revolution of the + sun, (the yolk of an egg) in an opposite direction to its + own. + + "They represent the world also by the number five, being + that of the elements, which, says Diodorus, are earth, + water, air, fire, and ether, or spiritus. The Indians have + the same number of elements, and according to Macrobius's + mystics, they are the supreme God, or primum mobile, the + intelligence, or mens, born of him, the soul of the world + which proceeds from him, the celestial spheres, and all + things terrestrial. Hence, adds Plutarch, the analogy + between the Greek pente, five, and pan all. + + "The ass," says he again, "is the emblem of Typhon, because + like that animal he is of a reddish color. Now Typhon + signifies whatever is of a mirey or clayey nature; (and in + Hebrew I find the three words clay, red, and ass to be + formed from the same root hamr). Jamblicus has farther told + us that clay was the emblem of matter and he elsewhere adds, + that all evil and corruption proceeded from matter; which + compared with the phrase of Macrobius, all is perishable, + liable to change in the celestial sphere, gives us the + theory, first physical, then moral, of the system of good + and evil of the ancients." +</pre> + <p> + "Finally, a third cause of confusion was the civil organization of ancient + states. When the people began to apply themselves to agriculture, the + formation of a rural calendar, requiring a continued series of + astronomical observations, it became necessary to appoint certain + individuals charged with the functions of watching the appearance and + disappearance of certain stars, to foretell the return of the inundation, + of certain winds, of the rainy season, the proper time to sow every kind + of grain. These men, on account of their service, were exempt from common + labor, and the society provided for their maintenance. With this + provision, and wholly employed in their observations, they soon became + acquainted with the great phenomena of nature, and even learned to + penetrate the secret of many of her operations. They discovered the + movement of the stars and planets, the coincidence of their phases and + returns with the productions of the earth and the action of vegetation; + the medicinal and nutritive properties of plants and fruits; the action of + the elements, and their reciprocal affinities. Now, as there was no other + method of communicating the knowledge of these discoveries but the + laborious one of oral instruction, they transmitted it only to their + relations and friends, it followed therefore that all science and + instruction were confined to a few families, who, arrogating it to + themselves as an exclusive privilege, assumed a professional distinction, + a corporation spirit, fatal to the public welfare. This continued + succession of the same researches and the same labors, hastened, it is + true, the progress of knowledge; but by the mystery which accompanied it, + the people were daily plunged in deeper shades, and became more + superstitious and more enslaved. Seeing their fellow mortals produce + certain phenomena, announce, as at pleasure, eclipses and comets, heal + diseases, and handle venomous serpents, they thought them in alliance with + celestial powers; and, to obtain the blessings and avert the evils which + they expected from above, they took them for mediators and interpreters; + and thus became established in the bosom of every state sacrilegious + corporations of hypocritical and deceitful men, who centered all powers in + themselves; and the priests, being at once astronomers, theologians, + naturalists, physicians, magicians, interpreters of the gods, oracles of + men, and rivals of kings, or their accomplices, established, under the + name of religion, an empire of mystery and a monopoly of instruction, + which to this day have ruined every nation. . . ." + </p> + <p> + Here the priests of all the groups interrupted the orator, and with loud + cries accused him of impiety, irreligion, blasphemy; and endeavored to cut + short his discourse; but the legislator observing that this was only an + exposition of historical facts, which, if false or forged, would be easily + refuted; that hitherto the declaration of every opinion had been free, and + without this it would be impossible to discover the truth, the orator + proceeded: + </p> + <p> + "Now, from all these causes, and from the continual associations of + ill-assorted ideas, arose a mass of disorders in theology, in morals, and + in traditions; first, because the animals represented the stars, the + characters of the animals, their appetites, their sympathies, their + aversions, passed over to the gods, and were supposed to be their actions; + thus, the god Ichneumon made war against the god Crocodile; the god Wolf + liked to eat the god Sheep; the god Ibis devoured the god Serpent; and the + deity became a strange, capricious, and ferocious being, whose idea + deranged the judgment of man, and corrupted his morals and his reason. + </p> + <p> + "Again, because in the spirit of their worship every family, every nation, + took for its special patron a star or a constellation, the affections or + antipathies of the symbolic animal were transferred to its sectaries; and + the partisans of the god Dog were enemies to those of the god Wolf;* those + who adored the god Ox had an abhorrence to those who ate him; and religion + became the source of hatred and hostility,—the senseless cause of + frenzy and superstition. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are properly the words of Plutarch, who relates that + those various worships were given by a king of Egypt to the + different towns to disunite and enslave them, and these + kings had been taken from the cast of priests. See Isis and + Osiris. +</pre> + <p> + "Besides, the names of those animal-stars having, for this same reason of + patronage, been conferred on countries, nations, mountains, and rivers, + these objects were taken for gods, and hence followed a mixture of + geographical, historical, and mythological beings, which confounded all + traditions. + </p> + <p> + "Finally, by the analogy of actions which were ascribed to them, the + god-stars, having been taken for men, for heroes, for kings, kings and + heroes took in their turn the actions of gods for models, and by imitation + became warriors, conquerors, proud, lascivious, indolent, sanguinary; and + religion consecrated the crimes of despots, and perverted the principles + of government." + </p> + <p> + IV. Fourth system. Worship of two Principles, or Dualism. + </p> + <p> + "In the mean time, the astronomical priests, enjoying peace and abundance + in their temples, made every day new progress in the sciences, and the + system of the world unfolding gradually to their view, they raised + successively various hypotheses as to its agents and effects, which became + so many theological systems. + </p> + <p> + "The voyages of the maritime nations and the caravans of the nomads of + Asia and Africa, having given them a knowledge of the earth from the + Fortunate Islands to Serica, and from the Baltic to the sources of the + Nile, the comparison of the phenomena of the various zones taught them the + rotundity of the earth, and gave birth to a new theory. Having remarked + that all the operations of nature during the annual period were reducible + to two principal ones, that of producing and that of destroying; that on + the greater part of the globe these two operations were performed in the + intervals of the two equinoxes; that is to say, during the six months of + summer every thing was procreating and multiplying, and that during winter + everything languished and almost died; they supposed in Nature two + contrary powers, which were in a continual state of contention and + exertion; and considering the celestial sphere in this view, they divided + the images which they figured upon it into two halves or hemispheres; so + that the constellations which were on the summer heaven formed a direct + and superior empire; and those which were on the winter heaven composed an + antipode and inferior empire. Therefore, as the constellations of summer + accompanied the season of long, warm, and unclouded days, and that of + fruits and harvests, they were considered as the powers of light, + fecundity, and creation; and, by a transition from a physical to a moral + sense, they became genii, angels of science, of beneficence, of purity and + virtue. And as the constellations of winter were connected with long + nights and polar fogs, they were the genii of darkness, of destruction, of + death; and by transition, angels of ignorance, of wickedness, of sin and + vice. By this arrangement the heaven was divided into two domains, two + factions; and the analogy of human ideas already opened a vast field to + the errors of imagination; but the mistake and the illusion were + determined, if not occasioned by a particular circumstance. (Observe plate + Astrological Heaven of the Ancients.) + </p> + <p> + "In the projection of the celestial sphere, as traced by the astronomical + priests,* the zodiac and the constellations, disposed in circular order, + presented their halves in diametrical opposition; the hemisphere of + winter, antipode of that of summer, was adverse, contrary, opposed to it. + By a continual metaphor, these words acquired a moral sense; and the + adverse genii, or angels, became revolted enemies.** From that moment all + the astronomical history of the constellations was changed into a + political history; the heavens became a human state, where things happened + as on the earth. Now, as the earthly states, the greater part despotic, + had already their monarchs, and as the sun was apparently the monarch of + the skies, the summer hemisphere (empire of light) and its constellations + (a nation of white angels) had for king an enlightened God, a creator + intelligent and good. And as every rebel faction must have its chief, the + heaven of winter, the subterranean empire of darkness and woe, and its + stars, a nation of black angels, giants and demons, had for their chief a + malignant genius, whose character was applied by different people to the + constellation which to them was the most remarkable. In Egypt it was at + first the Scorpion, first zodiacal sign after Libra, and for a long time + chief of the winter signs ; then it was the Bear, or the polar Ass, called + Typhon, that is to say, deluge,** on account of the rains which deluge the + earth during the dominion of that star. At a later period,*** in + Persia,**** it was the Serpent, who, under the name of Abrimanes, formed + the basis of the system of Zoroaster; and it is the same, O Christians and + Jews! that has become your serpent of Eve (the celestial virgin,) and that + of the cross; in both cases it is the emblem of Satan, the enemy and great + adversary of the Ancient of Days, sung by Daniel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The ancient priests had three kinds of spheres, which it + may be useful to make known to the reader. + + "We read in Eusebius," says Porphyry, "that Zoroaster was + the first who, having fixed upon a cavern pleasantly + situated in the mountains adjacent to Persia, formed the + idea of consecrating it to Mithra (the sun) creator and + father of all things: that is to say, having made in this + cavern several geometrical divisions, representing the + seasons and the elements, he imitated on a small scale the + order and disposition of the universe by Mithra. After + Zoroaster, it became a custom to consecrate caverns for the + celebration of mysteries: so that in like manner as temples + were dedicated to the Gods, rural altars to heroes and + terrestrial deities, etc., subterranean abodes to infernal + deities, so caverns and grottoes were consecrated to the + world, to the universe, and to the nymphs: and from hence + Pythagoras and Plato borrowed the idea of calling the earth + a cavern, a cave, de Antro Nympharum. + + Such was the first projection of the sphere in relief; + though the Persians give the honor of the invention to + Zoroaster, it is doubtless due to the Egyptians; for we may + suppose from this projection being the most simple that it + was the most ancient; the caverns of Thebes, full of similar + pictures, tend to strengthen this opinion. + + The following was the second projection: "The prophets or + hierophants," says Bishop Synnesius, "who had been initiated + in the mysteries, do not permit the common workmen to form + idols or images of the Gods; but they descend themselves + into the sacred caves, where they have concealed coffers + containing certain spheres upon which they construct those + images secretly and without the knowledge of the people, who + despise simple and natural things and wish for prodigies and + fables." (Syn. in Calvit.) That is, the ancient priests + had armillary spheres like ours; and this passage, which so + well agrees with that of Chaeremon, gives us the key to all + their theological astrology. + + Lastly, they had flat models of the nature of Plate V. with + the difference that they were of a very complicated nature, + having every fictitious division of decan and subdecan, with + the hieroglyphic signs of their influence. Kircher has + given us a copy of one of them in his Egyptian Oedipus, and + Gybelin a figured fragment in his book of the calendar + (under the name of the Egyptian Zodiac). The ancient + Egyptians, says the astrologer Julius Firmicus, (Astron. + lib. ii. and lib. iv., c. 16), divide each sign of the + Zodiac into three sections; and each section was under the + direction of an imaginary being whom they called decan or + chief of ten; so that there were three decans a month, and + thirty-six a year. Now these decans, who were also called + Gods (Theoi), regulated the destinies of mankind—and they + were placed particularly in certain stars. They afterwards + imagined in every ten three other Gods, whom they called + arbiters; so that there were nine for every month, and these + were farther divided into an infinite number of powers. The + Persians and Indians made their spheres on similar plans; + and if a picture thereof were to be drawn from the + description given by Scaliger at the end of Manilius, we + should find in it a complete explanation of their + hieroglyphics, for every article forms one. + + ** If it was for this reason the Persians always wrote the + name of Ahrimanes inverted thus: ['Ahrimanes' upside down + and backwards]. + + *** Typhon, pronounced Touphon by the Greeks, is precisely + the touphan of the Arabs, which signifies deluge; and these + deluges in mythology are nothing more than winter and the + rains, or the overflowing of the Nile: as their pretended + fires which are to destroy the world, are simply the summer + season. And it is for this reason that Aristotle (De + Meteor, lib. I. c. xiv), says, that the winter of the great + cyclic year is a deluge; and its summer a conflagration. + "The Egyptians," says Porphyry, "employ every year a + talisman in remembrance of the world: at the summer solstice + they mark their houses, flocks and trees with red, supposing + that on that day the whole world had been set on fire. It + was also at the same period that they celebrated the pyrric + or fire dance." And this illustrates the origin of + purification by fire and by water; for having denominated + the tropic of Cancer the gate of heaven, and the genial heat + of celestial fire, and that of Capricorn the gate of deluge + or of water, it was imagined that the spirit or souls who + passed through these gates in their way to and from heaven, + were roasted or bathed: hence the baptism of Mithra; and the + passage through flames, observed throughout the East long + before Moses. + + **** That is when the ram became the equinoctial sign, or + rather when the alteration of the skies showed that it was + no longer the bull. +</pre> + <p> + "In Syria, it was the hog or wild boar, enemy of Adonis; because in that + country the functions of the Northern Bear were performed by the animal + whose inclination for mire and dirt was emblematic of winter. And this is + the reason, followers of Moses and Mahomet! that you hold him in horror, + in imitation of the priests of Memphis and Balbec, who detested him as the + murderer of their God, the sun. This likewise, O Indians! is the type of + your Chib-en; and it has been likewise the Pluto of your brethren, the + Romans and Greeks; in like manner, your Brama, God the creator, is only + the Persian Ormuzd, and the Egyptian Osiris, whose very name expresses + creative power, producer of forms. And these gods received a worship + analogous to their attributes, real or imaginary; which worship was + divided into two branches, according to their characters. The good god + receives a worship of love and joy, from which are derived all religious + acts of gaiety, such as festivals, dances, banquets, offerings of flowers, + milk, honey, perfumes; in a word, everything grateful to the senses and to + the soul.* The evil god, on the contrary, received a worship of fear and + pain; whence originated all religious acts of the gloomy sort,** tears, + desolations, mournings, self-denials, bloody offerings, and cruel + sacrifices. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All the ancient festivals respecting the return and + exaltation of the sun were of this description: hence the + hilaria of the Roman calendar at the period of the passage, + Pascha, of the vernal equinox. The dances were imitations + of the march of the planets. Those of the Dervises still + represent it to this day. + + ** "Sacrifices of blood," says Porphyry, "were only offered + to Demons and evil Genii to avert their wrath. Demons are + fond of blood, humidity, stench." Apud. Euseb. Proep. Ev., + p. 173. + + "The Egyptians," says Plutarch, "only offer bloody victims + to Typhon. They sacrifice to him a red ox, and the animal + immolated is held in execration and loaded with all the sins + of the people." The goat of Moses. See Isis and Osiris. + + Strabo says, speaking of Moses, and the Jews, "Circumcision + and the prohibition of certain kinds of meat sprung from + superstition." And I observe, respecting the ceremony of + circumcision, that its object was to take from the symbol of + Osiris, (Phallus) the pretended obstacle to fecundity: an + obstacle which bore the seal of Typhon, "whose nature," says + Plutarch, "is made up of all that hinders, opposes, causes + obstruction." +</pre> + <p> + "Hence arose that distinction of terrestrial beings into pure and impure, + sacred and abominable, according as their species were of the number of + the constellations of one of these two gods, and made part of his domain; + and this produced, on the one hand, the superstitions concerning + pollutions and purifications; and, on the other, the pretended efficacious + virtues of amulets and talismans. + </p> + <p> + "You conceive now," continued the orator, addressing himself to the + Persians, the Indians, the Jews, the Christians, the Mussulmans, "you + conceive the origin of those ideas of battles and rebellions, which + equally abound in all your mythologies. You see what is meant by white and + black angels, your cherubim and seraphim, with heads of eagles, of lions, + or of bulls; your deus, devils, demons, with horns of goats and tails of + serpents; your thrones and dominions, ranged in seven orders or + gradations, like the seven spheres of the planets; all beings acting the + same parts, and endowed with the same attributes in your Vedas, Bibles, + and Zend-avestas, whether they have for chiefs Ormuzd or Brama, Typhon or + Chiven, Michael or Satan;—whether they appear under the form of + giants with a hundred arms and feet of serpents, or that of gods + metamorphosed into lions, storks, bulls or cats, as they are in the sacred + fables of the Greeks and Egyptians. You perceive the successive filiation + of these ideas, and how, in proportion to their remoteness from their + source, and as the minds of men became refined, their gross forms have + been polished, and rendered less disgusting. + </p> + <p> + "But in the same manner as you have seen the system of two opposite + principles or gods arise from that of symbols, interwoven into its + texture, your attention shall now be called to a new system which has + grown out of this, and to which this has served in its turn as the basis + and support. + </p> + <p> + V. Moral and Mystical Worship, or System of a Future State. + </p> + <p> + "Indeed, when the vulgar heard speak of a new heaven and another world, + they soon gave a body to these fictions; they erected therein a real + theatre of action, and their notions of astronomy and geography served to + strengthen, if not to originate, this illusion. + </p> + <p> + "On the one hand, the Phoenician navigators who passed the pillars of + Hercules, to fetch the tin of Thule and the amber of the Baltic, related + that at the extremity of the world, the end of the ocean (the + Mediterranean), where the sun sets for the countries of Asia, were the + Fortunate Islands, the abode of eternal spring; and beyond were the + hyperborean regions, placed under the earth (relatively to the tropics) + where reigned an eternal night.* From these stories, misunderstood, and no + doubt confusedly related, the imagination of the people composed the + Elysian fields,** regions of delight, placed in a world below, having + their heaven, their sun, and their stars; and Tartarus, a place of + darkness, humidity, mire, and frost. Now, as man, inquisitive of that + which he knows not, and desirous of protracting his existence, had already + interrogated himself concerning what was to become of him after his death, + as he had early reasoned on the principle of life which animates his body, + and which leaves it without deforming it, and as he had imagined airy + substances, phantoms, and shades, he fondly believed that he should + continue, in the subterranean world, that life which it was too painful + for him to lose; and these lower regions seemed commodious for the + reception of the beloved objects which he could not willingly resign. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Nights of six months duration. + + ** Aliz, in the Phoenician or Hebrew language signifies + dancing and joyous. +</pre> + <p> + "On the other hand, the astrological and geological priests told such + stories and made such descriptions of their heavens, as accorded perfectly + well with these fictions. Having, in their metaphorical language, called + the equinoxes and solstices the gates of heaven, the entrance of the + seasons, they explained these terrestrial phenomena by saying, that + through the gate of horn (first the bull, afterwards the ram) and through + the gate of Cancer, descended the vivifying fires which give life to + vegetation in the spring, and the aqueous spirits which bring, at the + solstice, the inundation of the Nile; that through the gate of ivory + (Libra, formerly Sagittarius, or the bowman) and that of Capricorn, or the + urn, the emanations or influences of the heavens returned to their source, + and reascended to their origin; and the Milky Way, which passed through + the gates of the solstices, seemed to be placed there to serve them as a + road or vehicle.* Besides, in their atlas, the celestial scene presented a + river (the Nile, designated by the windings of the hydra), a boat, (the + ship Argo) and the dog Sirius, both relative to this river, whose + inundation they foretold. These circumstances, added to the preceding, and + still further explaining them, increased their probability, and to arrive + at Tartarus or Elysium, souls were obliged to cross the rivers Styx and + Acheron in the boat of the ferryman Charon, and to pass through the gates + of horn or ivory, guarded by the dog Cerberus. Finally, these inventions + were applied to a civil use, and thence received a further consistency. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + *See Macrob. Som. Scrip. c. 12. +</pre> + <p> + "Having remarked that in their burning climate the putrefaction of dead + bodies was a cause of pestilential diseases, the Egyptians, in many of + their towns, had adopted the practice of burying their dead beyond the + limits of the inhabited country, in the desert of the West. To go there, + it was necessary to pass the channels of the river, and consequently to be + received into a boat, and pay something to the ferryman, without which the + body, deprived of sepulture, must have been the prey of wild beasts. This + custom suggested to the civil and religious legislators the means of a + powerful influence on manners; and, addressing uncultivated and ferocious + men with the motives of filial piety and a reverence for the dead, they + established, as a necessary condition, their undergoing a previous trial, + which should decide whether the deceased merited to be admitted to the + rank of the family in the black city. Such an idea accorded too well with + all the others, not to be incorporated with them: the people soon adopted + it; and hell had its Minos and its Rhadamanthus, with the wand, the bench, + the ushers, and the urn, as in the earthly and civil state. It was then + that God became a moral and political being, a lawgiver to men, and so + much the more to be dreaded, as this supreme legislator, this final judge, + was inaccessible and invisible. Then it was that this fabulous and + mythological world, composed of such odd materials and disjointed parts, + became a place of punishments and of rewards, where divine justice was + supposed to correct what was vicious and erroneous in the judgment of men. + This spiritual and mystical system acquired the more credit, as it took + possession of man by all his natural inclinations. The oppressed found in + it the hope of indemnity, and the consolation of future vengeance; the + oppressor, expecting by rich offerings to purchase his impunity, formed + out of the errors of the vulgar an additional weapon of oppression; the + chiefs of nations, the kings and priests, found in this a new instrument + of domination by the privilege which they reserved to themselves of + distributing the favors and punishments of the great judge, according to + the merit or demerit of actions, which they took care to characterize as + best suited their system. + </p> + <p> + "This, then, is the manner in which an invisible and imaginary world has + been introduced into the real and visible one; this is the origin of those + regions of pleasure and pain, of which you Persians have made your + regenerated earth, your city of resurrection, placed under the equator, + with this singular attribute, that in it the blessed cast no shade.* Of + these materials, Jews and Christians, disciples of the Persians, have you + formed your New Jerusalem of the Apocalypse, your paradise, your heaven, + copied in all its parts from the astrological heaven of Hermes: and your + hell, ye Mussulmans, your bottomless pit, surmounted by a bridge, your + balance for weighing souls and good works, your last judgment by the + angels Monkir and Nekir, are likewise modeled from the mysterious + ceremonies of the cave of Mithras** and your heaven differs not in the + least from that of Osiris, of Ormuzd, and of Brama. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There is on this subject a passage in Plutarch, so + interesting and explanatory of the whole of this system, + that we shall cite it entire. Having observed that the + theory of good and evil had at all times occupied the + attention of philosophers and theologians, he adds: "Many + suppose there to be two gods of opposite inclinations, one + delighting in good, the other in evil; the first of these is + called particularly by the name of God, the second by that + of Genius or Demon. Zoroaster has denominated them Oromaze + and Ahrimanes, and has said that of whatever falls under the + cognizance of our senses, light is the best representation + of the one, and darkness and ignorance of the other. He + adds, that Mithra is an intermediate being, and it is for + this reason the Persians call Mithra the mediator or + intermediator. Each of these Gods has distinct plants and + animals consecrated to him: for example, dogs, birds and + hedge-hogs belong to the good Genius, and all aquatic + animals to the evil one. + + "The Persians also say, that Oromaze was born or formed out + of the purest light; Ahrimanes, on the contrary, out of the + thickest darkness: that Oromaze made six gods as good as + himself, and Ahrimanes opposed to them six wicked ones: that + Oromaze afterwards multiplied himself threefold (Hermes + trismegistus) and removed to a distance as remote from the + sun as the sun is remote from the earth that he there formed + stars, and, among others, Sirius, which he placed in the + heavens as a guard and sentinel. He made also twenty-four + other Gods, which he inclosed in an egg; but Ahrimanes + created an equal number on his part, who broke the egg, and + from that moment good and evil were mixed (in the universe). + But Ahrimanes is one day to be conquered, and the earth to + be made equal and smooth, that all men may live happy. + + "Theopompus adds, from the books of the Magi, that one of + these Gods reigns in turn every three thousand years during + which the other is kept in subjection; that they afterwards + contend with equal weapons during a similar portion of time, + but that in the end the evil Genius will fall (never to rise + again). Then men will become happy, and their bodies cast + no shade. The God who mediates all these things reclines at + present in repose, waiting till he shall be pleased to + execute them." See Isis and Osiris. + + There is an apparent allegory through the whole of this + passage. The egg is the fixed sphere, the world: the six + Gods of Oromaze are the six signs of summer, those of + Ahrimanes the six signs of winter. The forty-eight other + Gods are the forty-eight constellations of the ancient + sphere, divided equally between Ahrimanes and Oronmze. The + office of Sirius, as guard and sentinel, tells us that the + origin of these ideas was Egyptian: finally, the expression + that the earth is to become equal and smooth, and that the + bodies of happy beings are to cast no shade, proves that the + equator was considered as their true paradise. + + ** In the caves which priests every where constructed, they + celebrated mysteries which consisted (says Origen against + Celsus) in imitating the motion of the stars, the planets + and the heavens. The initiated took the name of + constellations, and assumed the figures of animals. One was + a lion, another a raven, and a third a ram. Hence the use + of masks in the first representation of the drama. See Ant. + Devoile, vol. iii., p. 244. "In the mysteries of Ceres the + chief in the procession called himself the creator; the + bearer of the torch was denominated the sun; the person + nearest to the altar, the moon; the herald or deacon, + Mercury. In Egypt there was a festival in which the men and + women represented the year, the age, the seasons, the + different parts of the day, and they walked in precession + after Bacchus. Athen. lib. v., ch. 7. In the cave of + Mithra was a ladder with seven steps, representing the seven + spheres of the planets, by means of which souls ascended and + descended. This is precisely the ladder in Jacob's vision, + which shows that at that epoch a the whole system was + formed. There is in the French king's library a superb + volume of pictures of the Indian Gods, in which the ladder + is represented with the souls of men mounting it." +</pre> + <p> + VI. Sixth System. The Animated World, or Worship of the Universe under + diverse Emblems. + </p> + <p> + "While the nations were wandering in the dark labyrinth of mythology and + fables, the physical priests, pursuing their studies and enquiries into + the order and disposition of the universe, came to new conclusions, and + formed new systems concerning powers and first causes. + </p> + <p> + "Long confined to simple appearances, they saw nothing in the movement of + the stars but an unknown play of luminous bodies rolling round the earth, + which they believed the central point of all the spheres; but as soon as + they discovered the rotundity of our planet, the consequences of this + first fact led them to new considerations; and from induction to induction + they rose to the highest conceptions in astronomy and physics. + </p> + <p> + "Indeed, after having conceived this luminous idea, that the terrestrial + globe is a little circle inscribed in the greater circle of the heavens, + the theory of concentric circles came naturally into their hypothesis, to + determine the unknown circle of the terrestrial globe by certain known + portions of the celestial circle; and the measurement of one or more + degrees of the meridian gave with precision the whole circumference. Then, + taking for a compass the known diameter of the earth, some fortunate + genius applied it with a bold hand to the boundless orbits of the heavens; + and man, the inhabitant of a grain of sand, embracing the infinite + distances of the stars, launches into the immensity of space and the + eternity of time: there he is presented with a new order of the universe + of which the atom-globe which he inhabited appeared no longer to be the + centre; this important post was reserved to the enormous mass of the sun; + and that body became the flaming pivot of eight surrounding spheres, whose + movements were henceforth subjected to precise calculations. + </p> + <p> + "It was indeed a great effort for the human mind to have undertaken to + determine the disposition and order of the great engines of nature; but + not content with this first effort, it still endeavored to develop the + mechanism, and discover the origin and the instinctive principle. Hence, + engaged in the abstract and metaphysical nature of motion and its first + cause, of the inherent or incidental properties of matter, its successive + forms and its extension, that is to say, of time and space unbounded, the + physical theologians lost themselves in a chaos of subtile reasoning and + scholastic controversy.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Consult the Ancient Astronomy of M. Bailly, and you will + find our assertions respecting the knowledge of the priests + amply proved. +</pre> + <p> + "In the first place, the action of the sun on terrestrial bodies, teaching + them to regard his substance as a pure and elementary fire, they made it + the focus and reservoir of an ocean of igneous and luminous fluid, which, + under the name of ether, filled the universe and nourished all beings. + Afterwards, having discovered, by a physical and attentive analysis, this + same fire, or another perfectly resembling it, in the composition of all + bodies, and having perceived it to be the essential agent of that + spontaneous movement which is called life in animals and vegetation in + plants, they conceived the mechanism and harmony of the universe, as of a + homogeneous whole, of one identical body, whose parts, though distant, had + nevertheless an intimate relation;* and the world was a living being, + animated by the organic circulation of an igneous and even electrical + fluid,** which, by a term of comparison borrowed first from men and + animals, had the sun for a heart and a focus.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the very words of Jamblicus. De Myst. Egypt. + + ** The more I consider what the ancients understood by ether + and spirit, and what the Indians call akache, the stronger + do I find the analogy between it and the electrial fluid. A + luminous fluid, principle of warmth and motion, pervading + the universe, forming the matter of the stars, having small + round particles, which insinuate themselves into bodies, and + fill them by dilating itself, be their extent what it will. + What can more strongly resemble electricity? + + *** Natural philosophers, says Macrobius, call the sun the + heart of the world. Som. Scrip. c. 20. The Egyptians, says + Plutarch, call the East the face, the North the right side, + and the South the left side of the world, because there the + heart is placed. They continually compare the universe to a + man; and hence the celebrated microcosm of the Alchymists. + We observe, by the bye, that the Alchymists, Cabalists, + Free-masons, Magnetisers, Martinists, and every other such + sort of visionaries, are but the mistaken disciples of this + ancient school: we say mistaken, because, in spite of their + pretensions, the thread of the occult science is broken. +</pre> + <p> + "From this time the physical theologians seem to have divided into several + classes; one class, grounding itself on these principles resulting from + observation; that nothing can be annihilated in the world; that the + elements are indestructible; that they change their combinations but not + their nature; that the life and death of beings are but the different + modifications of the same atoms; that matter itself possesses properties + which give rise to all its modes of existence; that the world is eternal,* + or unlimited in space and duration; said that the whole universe was God; + and, according to them, God was a being, effect and cause, agent and + patient, moving principle and thing moved, having for laws the invariable + properties that constitute fatality; and this class conveyed their idea by + the emblem of Pan (the great whole); or of Jupiter, with a forehead of + stars, body of planets, and feet of animals; or of the Orphic Egg,** whose + yolk, suspended in the center of a liquid, surrounded by a vault, + represented the globe of the sun, swimming in ether in the midst of the + vault of heaven;*** sometimes by a great round serpent, representing the + heavens where they placed the moving principle, and for that reason of an + azure color, studded with spots of gold, (the stars) devouring his tail—that + is, folding and unfolding himself eternally, like the revolutions of the + spheres; sometimes by that of a man, having his feet joined together and + tied, to signify immutable existence, wrapped in a cloak of all colors, + like the face of nature, and bearing on his head a sphere of gold,**** + emblem of the sphere of the stars; or by that of another man, sometimes + seated on the flower of the lotos borne on the abyss of waters, sometimes + lying on a pile of twelve cushions, denoting the twelve celestial signs. + And here, Indians, Japanese, Siamese, Tibetans, and Chinese, is the + theology, which, founded by the Egyptians and transmitted to you, is + preserved in the pictures which you compose of Brama, of Beddou, of + Somona-Kodom of Omito. This, ye Jews and Christians, is likewise the + opinion of which you have preserved a part in your God moving on the face + of the waters, by an allusion to the wind*5 which, at the beginning of the + world, that is, the departure of the sun from the sign of Cancer, + announced the inundation of the Nile, and seemed to prepare the creation." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See the Pythagorean, Ocellus Lacunus. + + ** Vide Oedip. Aegypt. Tome II., page 205. + + *** This comparison of the sun with the yolk of an egg + refers: 1. To its round and yellow figure; 2. To its central + situation; 3. To the germ or principle of life contained in + the yolk. May not the oval form of the egg allude to the + elipsis of the orbs? I am inclined to this opinion. The + word Orphic offers a farther observation. Macrobius says + (Som. Scrip. c. 14. and c. 20), that the sun is the brain of + the universe, and that it is from analogy that the skull of + a human being is round, like the planet, the seat of + intelligence. Now the word Oerph signifies in Hebrew the + brain and its seat (cervix): Orpheus, then, is the same as + Bedou or Baits; and the Bonzes are those very Orphics which + Plutarch represents as quacks, who ate no meat, vended + talismans and little stones, and deceived individuals, and + even governments themselves. See a learned memoir of Freret + sur les Orphiques, Acad. des Inscrp. vol. 25, in quarto. + + **** See Porphyry in Eusebus. Proep. Evang., lib. 3, p. 115. + + *5 The Northern or Etesian wind, which commences regularly + at the solstice, with the inundation. +</pre> + <p> + VII. Seventh System. Worship of the SOUL of the WORLD, that is to say, the + Element of Fire, vital Principle of the Universe. + </p> + <p> + "But others, disgusted at the idea of a being at once effect and cause, + agent and patient, and uniting contrary natures in the same nature, + distinguished the moving principle from the thing moved; and premising + that matter in itself was inert they pretended that its properties were + communicated to it by a distinct agent, of which itself was only the cover + or the case. This agent was called by some the igneous principle, known to + be the author of all motion; by others it was supposed to be the fluid + called ether, which was thought more active and subtile; and, as in + animals the vital and moving principle was called a soul, a spirit, and as + they reasoned constantly by comparisons, especially those drawn from human + beings, they gave to the moving principle of the universe the name of + soul, intelligence, spirit; and God was the vital spirit, which extended + through all beings and animated the vast body of the world. And this class + conveyed their idea sometimes by Youpiter,* essence of motion and + animation, principle of existence, or rather existence itself; sometimes + by Vulcan or Phtha, elementary principle of fire; or by the altar of + Vesta, placed in the center of her temple like the sun in the heavens; + sometimes by Kneph, a human figure, dressed in dark blue, having in one + hand a sceptre and a girdle (the zodiac), with a cap of feathers to + express the fugacity of thought, and producing from his mouth the great + egg. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the true pronunciation of the Jupiter of the + Latins. . . . Existence itself. This is the signification + of the word You. +</pre> + <p> + "Now, as a consequence of this system, every being containing in itself a + portion of the igneous and etherial fluid, common and universal mover, and + this fluid soul of the world being God, it followed that the souls of all + beings were portions of God himself partaking of all his attributes, that + is, being a substance indivisible, simple, and immortal; and hence the + whole system of the immortality of the soul, which at first was eternity.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the system of the first spiritualists, the soul was not + created with, or at the same time as the body, in order to + be inserted in it: its existence was supposed to be anterior + and from all eternity. Such, in a few words, is the + doctrine of Macrobius on this head. Som. Seip. passim. + + "There exists a luminous, igneous, subtile fluid, which + under the name of ether and spiritus, fills the universe. + It is the essential principle and agent of motion and life, + it is the Deity. When an earthly body is to be animated, a + small round particle of this fluid gravitates through the + milky way towards the lunar sphere; where, when it arrives, + it unites with a grosser air, and becomes fit to associate + with matter: it then enters and entirely fills the body, + animates it, suffers, grows, increases, and diminishes with + it; lastly, when the body dies, and its gross elements + dissolve, this incorruptible particle takes its leave of it, + and returns to the grand ocean of ether, if not retained by + its union with the lunar air: it is this air or gas, which, + retaining the shape of the body, becomes a phantom or ghost, + the perfect representation of the deceased. The Greeks + called this phantom the image or idol of the soul; the + Pythagoreans, its chariot, its frame; and the Rabbinical + school, its vessel, or boat. When a man had conducted + himself well in this world, his whole soul, that is its + chariot and ether, ascended to the moon, where a separation + took place: the chariot lived in the lunar Elysium, and the + ether returned to the fixed sphere, that is, to God: for the + fixed heaven, says Macrobius, was by many called by the name + of God (c. 14). If a man had not lived virtuously, the soul + remained on earth to undergo purification, and was to wander + to and fro, like the ghosts of Homer, to whom this doctrine + must have been known, since he wrote after the time of + Pherecydes and Pythagoras, who were its promulgators in + Greece. Herodotus upon this occasion says, that the whole + romance of the soul and its transmigrations was invented by + the Egyptians, and propagated in Greece by men, who + pretended to be its authors. I know their names, adds he, + but shall not mention them (lib. 2). Cicero, however, has + positively informed us, that it was Pherecydes, master of + Pythagoras. Tuscul. lib. 1, sect. 16. Now admitting that + this system was at that period a novelty, it accounts for + Solomon's treating it as a fable, who lived 130 years before + Pherecydes. 'Who knoweth,' said he, 'the spirit of a man + that it goeth upwards? I said in my heart concerning the + estate of the sons of men, that God might manifest them and + that they might see that they themselves are beasts. For + that which befalleth the sons of men, befalleth beasts; even + one thing befalleth them: as the one dieth, so dieth the + other; yea they have all one breath, so that a man hath no + pre-eminence above a beast: for all is vanity.'" Eccles. c. + iii: v. 18. + + And such had been the opinion of Moses, as a translator of + Herodotus (M. Archer of the Academy of Inscriptions) justly + observes in note 389 of the second book; where he says also + that the immortality of the soul was not introduced among + the Hebrews till their intercourse with the Assyrians. In + other respects, the whole Pythagorean system, properly + analysed, appears to be merely a system of physics badly + understood. +</pre> + <p> + "Hence, also its transmigrations, known by the name of metempsychosis, + that is, the passage of the vital principle from one body to another; an + idea which arose from the real transmigration of the material elements. + And behold, ye Indians, ye Boudhists, ye Christians, ye Mussulmans! whence + are derived all your opinions on the spirituality of the soul; behold what + was the source of the dreams of Pythagoras and Plato, your masters, who + were themselves but the echoes of another, the last sect of visionary + philosophers, which we will proceed to examine. + </p> + <p> + VIII. Eighth system. The WORLD-MACHINE: Worship of the Demi-Ourgos, or + Grand Artificer. + </p> + <p> + "Hitherto the theologians, employing themselves in examining the fine and + subtile substances of ether or the generating fire, had not, however, + ceased to treat of beings palpable and perceptible to the senses; and + theology continued to be the theory of physical powers, placed sometimes + exclusively in the stars, and sometimes disseminated through the universe; + but at this period, certain superficial minds, losing the chain of ideas + which had directed them in their profound studies, or ignorant of the + facts on which they were founded, distorted all the conclusions that + flowed from them by the introduction of a strange and novel chimera. They + pretended that this universe, these heavens, these stars, this sun, + differed in no respect from an ordinary machine; and applying to this + first hypothesis a comparison drawn from the works of art, they raised an + edifice of the most whimsical sophisms. A machine, said they, does not + make itself; it has had an anterior workman; its very existence proves it. + The world is a machine; therefore it had an artificer.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All the arguments of the spiritualists are founded on + this. See Macrobius, at the end of the second book, and + Plato, with the comments of Marcilius Ficinus. +</pre> + <p> + "Here, then, is the Demi-Ourgos or grand artificer, constituted God + autocratical and supreme. In vain the ancient philosophy objected to this + by saying that the artificer himself must have had parents and + progenitors; and that they only added another step to the ladder by taking + eternity from the world, and giving it to its supposed author. The + innovators, not content with this first paradox, passed on to a second; + and, applying to their artificer the theory of the human understanding, + they pretended that the Demi-Ourgos had framed his machine on a plan + already existing in his understanding. Now, as their masters, the + naturalists, had placed in the regions of the fixed stars the great primum + mobile, under the name of intelligence and reason, so their mimics, the + spiritualists, seizing this idea, applied it to their Demi-Ourgos, and + making it a substance distinct and self-existent, they called it mens or + logos (reason or word). And, as they likewise admitted the existence of + the soul of the world, or solar principle, they found themselves obliged + to compose three grades of divine beings, which were: first, the + Demi-Ourgos, or working god; secondly, the logos, word or reason; thirdly, + the spirit or soul (of the world).* And here, Christians! is the romance + on which you have founded your trinity; here is the system which, born a + heretic in the temples of Egypt, transported a pagan into the schools of + Greece and Italy, is now found to be good, catholic, and orthodox, by the + conversion of its partisans, the disciples of Pythagoras and Plato, to + Christianity. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are the real types of the Christian Trinity. +</pre> + <p> + "It is thus that God, after having been, First, The visible and various + action of the meteors and the elements; + </p> + <p> + "Secondly, The combined powers of the stars, considered in their relations + to terrestrial beings; + </p> + <p> + Thirdly, These terrestrial beings themselves, by confounding the symbols + with their archetypes; + </p> + <p> + Fourthly, The double power of nature in its two principal operations of + producing and destroying; + </p> + <p> + "Fifthly, The animated world, with distinction of agent and patient, of + effect and cause; + </p> + <p> + "Sixthly, The solar principle, or the element of fire considered as the + only mover; + </p> + <p> + "Has thus become, finally, in the last resort, a chimerical and abstract + being, a scholastic subtilty, of substance without form, a body without a + figure, a very delirium of the mind, beyond the power of reason to + comprehend. But vainly does it seek in this last transformation to elude + the senses; the seal of its origin is imprinted upon it too deep to be + effaced; and its attributes, all borrowed from the physical attributes of + the universe, such as immensity, eternity, indivisibility, + incomprehensibility; or on the moral affections of man, such as goodness, + justice, majesty; its names* even, all derived from the physical beings + which were its types, and especially from the sun, from the planets, and + from the world, constantly bring to mind, in spite of its corrupters, + indelible marks of its real nature. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In our last analysis we found all the names of the Deity + to be derived from some material object in which it was + supposed to reside. We have given a considerable number of + instances; let us add one more relative to our word God. + This is known to be the Deus of the Latins, and the Theos of + the Greeks. Now by the confession of Plato (in Cratylo), of + Macrobius (Saturn, lib. 1, c. 24,) and of Plutarch (Isis and + Osiris) its root is thein, which signifies to wander, like + planein, that is to say, it is synonymous with planets; + because, add our authors, both the ancient Greeks and + Barbarians particularly worshipped the planets. I know that + such enquiries into etymologies have been much decried: but + if, as is the case, words are the representative signs of + ideas, the genealogy of the one becomes that of the other, + and a good etymological dictionary would be the most perfect + history of the human understanding. It would only be + necessary in this enquiry to observe certain precautions, + which have hitherto been neglected, and particularly to make + an exact comparison of the value of the letters of the + different alphabets. But, to continue our subject, we shall + add, that in the Phoenician language, the word thah (with + ain) signifies also to wander, and appears to be the + derivation of thein. If we suppose Deus to be derived from + the Greek Zeus, a proper name of You-piter, having zaw, I + live, for its root, its sense will be precisely that of you, + and will mean soul of the world, igneous principle. (See + note p. 143). Div-us, which only signifies Genius, God of + the second order, appears to me to come from the oriental + word div substituted for dib, wolf and chacal, one of the + emblems of the sun. At Thebes, says Macrobius, the sun was + painted under the form of a wolf or chacal, for there are no + wolves in Egypt. The reason of this emblem, doubtless, is + that the chacal, like the cock announces by its cries the + sun's rising; and this reason is confirmed by the analogy of + the words lykos, wolf, and lyke, light of the morning, + whence comes lux. + + Dius, which is to be understood also of the sun, must be + derived from dih, a hawk. "The Egyptians," says Porphyry + (Euseb. Proecep. Evang. p. 92,) "represent the sun under the + emblem of a hawk, because this bird soars to the highest + regions of air where light abounds." And in reality we + continually see at Cairo large flights of these birds, + hovering in the air, from whence they descend not but to + stun us with their shrieks, which are like the monosyllable + dih: and here, as in the preceding example, we find an + analogy between the word dies, day, light, and dius, god, + sun. +</pre> + <p> + "Such is the chain of ideas which the human mind had already run through + at an epoch previous to the records of history; and since their continuity + proves that they were the produce of the same series of studies and + labors, we have every reason to place their origin in Egypt, the cradle of + their first elements. This progress there may have been rapid; because the + physical priests had no other food, in the retirement of the temples, but + the enigma of the universe, always present to their minds; and because in + the political districts into which that country was for a long time + divided, every state had its college of priests, who, being by turns + auxiliaries or rivals, hastened by their disputes the progress of science + and discovery.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * One of the proofs that all these systems were invented in + Egypt, is that this is the only country where we see a + complete body of doctrine formed from the remotest + antiquity. + + Clemens Alexandrinus has transmitted to us (Stromat. lib. + 6,) a curious detail of the forty-two volumes which were + borne in the procession of Isis. "The priest," says he, "or + chanter, carries one of the symbolic instruments of music, + and two of the books of Mercury; one containing hymns of the + gods, the other the list of kings. Next to him the + horoscope (the regulator of time,) carries a palm and a + dial, symbols of astrology; he must know by heart the four + books of Mercury which treat of astrology: the first on the + order of the planets, the second on the risings of the sun + and moon, and the two last on the rising and aspect of the + stars. Then comes the sacred author, with feathers on his + head (like Kneph) and a book in his hand, together with ink, + and a reed to write with, (as is still the practice among + the Arabs). He must be versed in hieroglyphics, must + understand the description of the universe, the course of + the sun, moon, stars, and planets, be acquainted with the + division of Egypt into thirty-six nomes, with the course of + the Nile, with instruments, measures, sacred ornaments, and + sacred places. Next comes the stole bearer, who carries the + cubit of justice, or measure of the Nile, and a cup for the + libations; he bears also in the procession ten volumes on + the subject of sacrifices, hymns, prayers, offerings, + ceremonies, festivals. Lastly arrives the prophet, bearing + in his bosom a pitcher, so as to be exposed to view; he is + followed by persons carrying bread (as at the marriage of + Cana.) This prophet, as president of the mysteries, learns + ten other sacred volumes, which treat of the laws, the gods, + and the discipline of the priests. Now there are in all + forty-two volumes, thirty-six of which are studied and got + by heart by these personages, and the remaining six are set + apart to be consulted by the pastophores; they treat of + medicine, the construction of the human body (anatomy), + diseases, remedies, instruments, etc., etc." + + We leave the reader to deduce all the consequences of an + Encyclopedia. It is ascribed to Mercury; but Jamblicus + tells us that each book, composed by priests, was dedicated + to that god, who, on account of his title of genius or decan + opening the zodiac, presided over every enterprise. He is + the Janus of the Romans, and the Guianesa of the Indians, + and it is remarkable that Yanus and Guianes are homonymous. + In short it appears that these books are the source of all + that has been transmitted to us by the Greeks and Latins in + every science, even in alchymy, necromancy, etc. What is + most to be regretted in their loss is that part which + related to the principles of medicine and diet, in which the + Egyptians appear to have made a considerable progress, and + to have delivered many useful observations. +</pre> + <p> + "There happened early on the borders of the Nile, what has since been + repeated in every country; as soon as a new system was formed its novelty + excited quarrels and schisms; then, gaining credit by persecution itself, + sometimes it effaced antecedent ideas, sometimes it modified and + incorporated them; then, by the intervention of political revolutions, the + aggregation of states and the mixture of nations confused all opinions; + and the filiation of ideas being lost, theology fell into a chaos, and + became a mere logogriph of old traditions no longer understood. Religion, + having strayed from its object was now nothing more than a political + engine to conduct the credulous vulgar; and it was used for this purpose, + sometimes by men credulous themselves and dupes of their own visions, and + sometimes by bold and energetic spirits in pursuit of great objects of + ambition. + </p> + <p> + IX. Religion of Moses, or Worship of the Soul of the World (You-piter). + </p> + <p> + "Such was the legislator of the Hebrews; who, wishing to separate his + nation from all others, and to form a distinct and solitary empire, + conceived the design of establishing its basis on religious prejudices, + and of raising around it a sacred rampart of opinions and of rites. But in + vain did he prescribe the worship of the symbols which prevailed in lower + Egypt and in Phoenicia;* for his god was nevertheless an Egyptian god, + invented by those priests of whom Moses had been the disciple; and + Yahouh,** betrayed by its very name, essence (of beings), and by its + symbol, the burning bush, is only the soul of the world, the moving + principle which the Greeks soon after adopted under the same denomination + in their you-piter, regenerating being, and under that of Ei, + existence,*** which the Thebans consecrated by the name of Kneph, which + Sais worshipped under the emblem of Isis veiled, with this inscription: I + am al that has been, all that is, and all that is to come, and no mortal + has raised my veil; which Pythagoras honored under the name of Vesta, and + which the stoic philosophy defined precisely by calling it the principle + of fire. In vain did Moses wish to blot from his religion every thing + which had relation to the stars; many traits call them to mind in spite of + all he has done. The seven planetary luminaries of the great candlestick; + the twelve stones, or signs in the Urim of the high priests; the feast of + the two equinoxes, (entrances and gates of the two hemispheres); the + ceremony of the lamb, (the celestial ram then in his fifteenth degree); + lastly, the name even of Osiris preserved in his song,**** and the ark, or + coffer, an imitation of the tomb in which that God was laid, all remain as + so many witnesses of the filiation of his ideas, and of their extraction + from the common source. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "At a certain period," says Plutarch (de Iside) "all the + Egyptians have their animal gods painted. The Thebans are + the only people who do not employ painters, because they + worship a god whose form comes not under the senses, and + cannot be represented." And this is the god whom Moses, + educated at Heliopolis, adopted; but the idea was not of his + invention. + + ** Such is the true pronunciation of the Jehovah of the + moderns, who violate, in this respect, every rule of + criticism; since it is evident that the ancients, + particularly the eastern Syrians and Phoenicians, were + acquainted neither with the J nor the P which are of Tartar + origin. The subsisting usage of the Arabs, which we have + re-established here, is confirmed by Diodorus, who calls the + god of Moses Iaw, (lib. 1), and Iaw and Yahouh are + manifestly the same word: the identity continues in that of + You-piter; but in order to render it more complete, we shall + demonstrate the signification to be the same. + + In Hebrew, that is to say, in one of the dialects of the + common language of lower Asia, Yahouh is the participle of + the verb hih, to exist, to be, and signifies existing: in + other words, the principle of life, the mover or even motion + (the universal soul of beings). Now what is Jupiter? Let + us hear the Greeks and Latins explain their theology. "The + Egyptians," says Diodorus, after Manatho, priest of Memphis, + "in giving names to the five elements, called spirit, or + ether, You-piter, on account of the true meaning of that + word: for spirit is the source of life, author of the vital + principle in animals; and for this reason they considered + him as the father, the generator of beings." For the same + reason Homer says, father, and king of men and gods. (Diod. + lib. 1, sect 1). + + "Theologians," says Macrobius, "consider You-piter as the + soul of the world." Hence the words of Virgil: " Muses let + us begin with You-piter; the world is full of You-piter." + (Somn. Scrip., ch. 17). And in the Saturnalia, he says, + "Jupiter is the sun himself." It was this also which made + Virgil say, "The spirit nourishes the life (of beings), and + the soul diffused through the vast members (of the + universe), agitates the whole mass, and forms but one + immense body." + + "Ioupiter," says the ancient verses of the Orphic sect, + which originated in Egypt; verses collected by Onomacritus + in the days of Pisistratus, "Ioupiter, represented with the + thunder in his hand, is the beginning, origin, end, and + middle of all things: a single and universal power, he + governs every thing; heaven, earth, fire, water, the + elements, day, and night. These are what constitute his + immense body: his eyes are the sun and moon: he is space and + eternity: in fine," adds Porphyry. "Jupiter is the world, + the universe, that which constitutes the essence and life of + all beings. Now," continues the same author, "as + philosophers differed in opinion respecting the nature and + constituent parts of this god, and as they could invent no + figure that should represent all his attributes, they + painted him in the form of a man. He is in a sitting + posture, in allusion to his immutable essence; the upper + part of his body is uncovered, because it is in the upper + regions of the universe (the stars) that he most + conspicuously displays himself. He is covered from the + waist downwards, because respecting terrestrial things he is + more secret and concealed. He holds a scepter in his left + hand, because on the left side is the heart, and the heart + is the seat of the understanding, which, (in human beings) + regulates every action." Euseb. Proeper. Evang., p 100. + + The following passage of the geographer and philosopher, + Strabo, removes every doubt as to the identity of the ideas + of Moses and those of the heathen theologians. + + "Moses, who was one of the Egyptian priests, taught his + followers that it was an egregious error to represent the + Deity under the form of animals, as the Egyptians did, or in + the shape of man, as was the practice of the Greeks and + Africans. That alone is the Deity, said he, which + constitutes heaven, earth, and every living thing; that + which we call the world, the sum of all things, nature; and + no reasonable person will think of representing such a being + by the image of any one of the objects around us. It is for + this reason, that, rejecting every species of images or + idols, Moses wished the Deity to be worshipped without + emblems, and according to his proper nature; and he + accordingly ordered a temple worthy of him to be erected, + etc. Geograph. lib. 16, p. 1104, edition of 1707. + + The theology of Moses has, then, differed in no respect from + that of his followers, that is to say, from that of the + Stoics and Epicureans, who consider the Deity as the soul of + the world. This philosophy appears to have taken birth, or + to have been disseminated when Abraham came into Egypt (200 + years before Moses), since he quitted his system of idols + for that of the god Yahouh; so that we may place its + promulgation about the seventeenth or eighteenth century + before Christ; which corresponds with what we have said + before. + + As to the history of Moses, Diodorus properly represents it + when he says, lib. 34 and 40, "That the Jews were driven out + of Egypt at a time of dearth, when the country was full of + foreigners, and that Moses, a man of extraordinary prudence + seized this opportunity of establishing his religion in the + mountains of Judea." It will seem paradoxical to assert, + that the 600,000 armed men whom he conducted thither ought + to be reduced to 6,000; but I can confirm the assertion by + so many proofs drawn from the books themselves, that it will + be necessary to correct an error which appears to have + arisen from the mistake of the transcribers. + + *** This was the monosyllable written on the gates of the + temple of Delphos. Plutarch has made it the subject of a + dissertation. + + **** These are the literal expressions of the book of + Deuteronomy, chap. XXXII. "The works of Tsour are perfect." + Now Tsour has been translated by the word creator; its + proper signification is to give forms, and this is one of + the definitions of Osiris in Plutarch. +</pre> + <p> + X. Religion of Zoroaster. + </p> + <p> + "Such also was Zoroaster; who, five centuries after Moses, and in the time + of David, revived and moralized among the Medes and Bactrians, the whole + Egyptian system of Osiris and Typhon, under the names Ormuzd and + Ahrimanes; who called the reign of summer, virtue and good; the reign of + winter, sin and evil; the renewal of nature in spring, creation of the + world; the conjunction of the spheres at secular periods, resurrection; + and the Tartarus and Elysium of the astrologers and geographers were named + future life, hell and paradise. In a word, he did nothing but consecrate + the existing dreams of the mystical system. + </p> + <p> + XI. Budsoism, or Religion of the Samaneans. + </p> + <p> + "Such again are the propagators of the dismal doctrine of the Samaneans; + who, on the basis of the Metempsychosis, have erected the misanthropic + system of self-denial, and of privations; who, laying it down as a + principle that the body is only a prison where the soul lives in an impure + confinement, that life is only a dream, an illusion, and the world only a + passage to another country, to a life without end, placed virtue and + perfection in absolute immobility, in the destruction of all sentiment, in + the abnegation of physical organs, in the annihilation of all our being; + whence resulted fasts, penances, macerations, solitude, contemplations, + and all the practices of the deplorable delirium of the Anchorites. + </p> + <p> + XII. Brahmism, or Indian System. + </p> + <p> + "And such, too, were the founders of the Indian System; who, refining + after Zoroaster on the two principles of creation and destruction, + introduced an intermediary principle, that of preservation, and on their + trinity in unity, of Brama, Chiven, and Vichenou, accumulated the + allegories of their ancient traditions, and the alembicated subtilities of + their metaphysics. + </p> + <p> + "These are the materials which existed in a scattered state for many + centuries in Asia; when a fortuitous concourse of events and + circumstances, on the borders of the Euphrates and the Mediterranean, + served to form them into new combinations. + </p> + <p> + XIII. Christianity, or the Allegorical Worship of the Sun, under the + cabalistical names of Chrish-en, or Christ, and Ye-sus or Jesus. + </p> + <p> + "In constituting a separate nation, Moses strove in vain to defend it + against the invasion of foreign ideas. An invisible inclination, founded + on the affinity of their origin, had constantly brought back the Hebrews + towards the worship of the neighboring nations; and the commercial and + political relations which necessarily existed between them, strengthened + this propensity from day to day. As long as the constitution of the state + remained entire, the coercive force of the government and the laws opposed + these innovations, and retarded their progress; nevertheless the high + places were full of idols; and the god Sun had his chariot and horses + painted in the palaces of the kings, and even in the temples of Yahouh; + but when the conquests of the sultans of Nineveh and Babylon had dissolved + the bands of civil power, the people, left to themselves and solicited by + their conquerors, restrained no longer their inclination for profane + opinions, and they were publicly established in Judea. First, the Assyrian + colonies, which came and occupied the lands of the tribes, filled the + kingdom of Samaria with dogmas of the Magi, which very soon penetrated + into the kingdom of Judea. Afterwards, Jerusalem being subjugated, the + Egyptians, the Syrians, the Arabs, entering this defenceless country, + introduced their opinions; and the religion of Moses was doubly mutilated. + Besides the priests and great men, being transported to Babylon and + educated in the sciences of the Chaldeans, imbibed, during a residence of + seventy years, the whole of their theology; and from that moment the + dogmas of the hostile Genius (Satan), the archangel Michael,* the ancient + of days (Ormuzd), the rebel angels, the battles in heaven, the immortality + of the soul, and the resurrection, all unknown to Moses, or rejected by + his total silence respecting them, were introduced and naturalized among + the Jews. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "The names of the angels and of the months, such as + Gabriel, Michael, Yar, Nisan, etc., came from Babylon with + the Jews:" says expressly the Talmud of Jerusalem. See + Beousob. Hist. du Manich. Vol. II, p. 624, where he proves + that the saints of the Almanac are an imitation of the 365 + angels of the Persians; and Jamblicus in his Egyptian + Mysteries, sect. 2, c. 3, speaks of angels, archangels, + seraphims, etc., like a true Christian. +</pre> + <p> + "The emigrants returned to their country with these ideas; and their + innovation at first excited disputes between their partisans the + Pharisees, and their opponents the Saducees, who maintained the ancient + national worship; but the former, aided by the propensities of the people + and their habits already contracted, and supported by the Persians, their + deliverers and masters, gained the ascendant over the latter; and the Sons + of Moses consecrated the theology of Zoroaster.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "The whole philosophy of the gymnosophists," says Diogenes + Laertius on the authority of an ancient writer, "is derived + from that of the Magi, and many assert that of the Jews to + have the same origin." Lib. 1. c. 9. Megasthenes, an + historian of repute in the days of Seleucus Nicanor, and who + wrote particularly upon India, speaking of the philosophy of + the ancients respecting natural things, puts the Brachmans + and the Jews precisely on the same footing. +</pre> + <p> + "A fortuitous analogy between two leading ideas was highly favorable to + this coalition, and became the basis of a last system, not less surprising + in the fortune it has had in the world, than in the causes of its + formation. + </p> + <p> + "After the Assyrians had destroyed the kingdom of Samaria, some judicious + men foresaw the same destiny for Jerusalem, which they did not fail to + predict and publish; and their predictions had the particular turn of + being terminated by prayers for a re-establishment and regeneration, + uttered in the form of prophecies. The Hierophants, in their enthusiasm, + had painted a king as a deliverer, who was to re-establish the nation in + its ancient glory; the Hebrews were to become once more a powerful, a + conquering nation, and Jerusalem the capital of an empire extended over + the whole earth. + </p> + <p> + "Events having realized the first part of these predictions, the ruin of + Jerusalem, the people adhered to the second with a firmness of belief in + proportion to their misfortunes; and the afflicted Jews expected, with the + impatience of want and desire, this victorious king and deliverer, who was + to come and save the nation of Moses, and restore the empire of David. + </p> + <p> + "On the other hand, the sacred and mythological traditions of preceding + times had spread through all Asia a dogma perfectly analogous. The cry + there was a great mediator, a final judge, a future saviour, a king, god, + conqueror and legislator, who was to restore the golden age upon earth,* + to deliver it from the dominion of evil, and restore men to the empire of + good, peace, and happiness. The people seized and cherished these ideas + with so much the more avidity, as they found in them a consolation under + that deplorable state of suffering into which they had been plunged by the + devastations of successive conquests, and the barbarous despotism of their + governments. This conformity between the oracles of different nations, and + those of the prophets, excited the attention of the Jews; and doubtless + the prophets had the art to compose their descriptions after the style and + genius of the sacred books employed in the Pagan mysteries. There was + therefore a general expectation in Judea of a great ambassador, a final + Saviour; when a singular circumstance determined the epoch of his coming. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the reason of the application of the many Pagan + oracles to Jesus, and particularly the fourth eclogue of + Virgil, and the Sybilline verses so celebrated among the + ancients. +</pre> + <p> + "It is found in the sacred books of the Persians and Chaldeans, that the + world, composed of a total revolution of twelve thousand, was divided into + two partial revolutions; one of which, the age and reign of good, + terminated in six thousand; the other, the age and reign of evil, was to + terminate in six thousand more. + </p> + <p> + "By these records, the first authors had understood the annual revolution + of the great celestial orb called the world, (a revolution composed of + twelve months or signs, divided each into a thousand parts), and the two + systematic periods, of winter and summer, composed each of six thousand. + These expressions, wholly equivocal and badly explained, having received + an absolute and moral, instead of a physical and astrological sense, it + happened that the annual world was taken for the secular world, the + thousand of the zodiacal divisions, for a thousand of years; and + supposing, from the state of things, that they lived in the age of evil, + they inferred that it would end with the six thousand pretended years.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We have already seen this tradition current among the + Tuscans; it was disseminated through most nations, and shows + us what we ought to think of all the pretended creations and + terminations of the world, which are merely the beginnings + and endings of astronomical periods invented by astrologers. + That of the year or solar revolution, being the most simple + and perceptible, served as a model to the rest, and its + comparison gave rise to the most whimsical ideas. Of this + description is the idea of the four ages of the world among + the Indians. Originally these four ages were merely the + four seasons; and as each season was under the supposed + influence of a planet, it bore the name of the metal + appropriated to that planet; thus spring was the age of the + sun, or of gold; summer the age of the moon, or of silver; + autumn the age of Venus, or of brass; and winter the age of + Mars, or of iron. Afterwards when astronomers invented the + great year of 25 and 36 thousand common years, which had for + its object the bringing back all the stars to one point of + departure and a general conjunction, the ambiguity of the + terms introduced a similar ambiguity of ideas; and the + myriads of celestial signs and periods of duration which + were thus measured were easily converted into so many + revolutions of the sun. Thus the different periods of + creation which have been so great a source of difficulty and + misapprehension to curious enquirers, were in reality + nothing more than hypothetical calculations of astronomical + periods. In the same manner the creation of the world has + been attributed to different seasons of the year, just as + these different seasons have served for the fictitious + period of these conjunctions; and of consequence has been + adopted by different nations for the commencement of an + ordinary year. Among the Egyptians this period fell upon + the summer solstice, which was the commencement of their + year; and the departure of the spheres, according to their + conjectures, fell in like manner upon the period when the + sun enters cancer. Among the Persians the year commenced at + first in the spring, or when the sun enters Aries; and from + thence the first Christians were led to suppose that God + created the world in the spring: this opinion is also + favored by the book of Genesis; and it is farther + remarkable, that the world is not there said to be created + by the God of Moses (Yahouh), but by the Elohim or gods in + the plural, that is by the angels or genii, for so the word + constantly means in the Hebrew books. If we farther observe + that the root of the word Elohim signifies strong or + powerful, and that the Egyptians called their decans strong + and powerful leaders, attributing to them the creation of + the world, we shall presently perceive that the book of + Genesis affirms neither more nor less than that the world + was created by the decans, by those very genii whom, + according to Sanchoniathon, Mercury excited against Saturn, + and who were called Elohim. It may be farther asked why the + plural substantive Elohim is made to agree with the singular + verb bara (the Elohim creates). The reason is that after the + Babylonish captivity the unity of the Supreme Being was the + prevailing opinion of the Jews; it was therefore thought + proper to introduce a pious solecism in language, which it + is evident had no existence before Moses; thus in the names + of the children of Jacob many of them are compounded of a + plural verb, to which Elohim is the nominative case + understood, as Raouben (Reuben), they have looked upon me, + and Samaonni (Simeon), they have granted me my prayer; to + wit, the Elohim. The reason of this etymology is to be + found in the religious creeds of the wives of Jacob, whose + gods were the taraphim of Laban, that is, the angels of the + Persians, and Egyptian decans. +</pre> + <p> + "Now, according to calculations admitted by the Jews, they began to reckon + near six thousand years since the supposed creation of the world.* This + coincidence caused a fermentation in the public mind. Nothing was thought + of but the approaching end. They consulted the hierophants and the + mystical books, which differed as to the term; the great mediator, the + final judge, was expected and desired, to put an end to so many + calamities. This being was so much spoken of, that some person finally was + said to have seen him; and a first rumor of this sort was sufficient to + establish a general certainty. Popular report became an established fact: + the imaginary being was realized; and all the circumstances of + mythological tradition, being assembled around this phantom, produced a + regular history, of which it was no longer permitted to doubt. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to the computation of the Seventy, the period + elapsed consisted of about 5,600 years, and this computation + was principally followed. It is well known how much, in the + first ages of the church, this opinion of the end of the + world agitated the minds of men. In the sequel, the general + councils encouraged by finding that the general + conflagration did not come, pronounced the expectation that + prevailed heretical, and its believers were called + Millenarians; a circumstance curious enough, since it is + evident from the history of the gospels that Jesus Christ + was a Millenarian, and of consequence a heretic. +</pre> + <p> + "These mythological traditions recounted that, in the beginning, a woman + and a man had by their fall introduced sin and misery into the world. + (Consult plate of the Astrological Heaven of the Ancients.) + </p> + <p> + "By this was denoted the astronomical fact, that the celestial virgin and + the herdsman (Bootes), by setting heliacally at the autumnal equinox, + delivered the world to the wintry constellations, and seemed, on falling + below the horizon, to introduce into the world the genius of evil, + Ahrimanes, represented by the constellation of the Serpent.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "The Persians," says Chardin, "call the constellation of + the serpent Ophiucus, serpent of Eve: and this serpent + Ophiucas or Ophioneus plays a similar part in the theology + of the Phoenicians," for Pherecydes, their disciple and the + master of Pythagoras, said "that Ophioneus Serpentinus had + been chief of the rebels against Jupiter." See Mars. Ficin. + Apol. Socrat. p. m. 797, col. 2. I shall add that ephah + (with ain) signifies in Hebrew, serpent. +</pre> + <p> + These traditions related that the woman had decoyed and seduced the man.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In a physical sense to seduce, seducere, means only to + attract, to draw after us. +</pre> + <p> + "And in fact, the virgin, setting first, seems to draw the herdsman after + her. + </p> + <p> + "That the woman tempted him by offering him fruit fair to the sight and + good to eat, which gave the knowledge of good and evil. + </p> + <p> + "And in fact, the Virgin holds in her hand a branch of fruit, which she + seems to offer to the Herdsman; and the branch, emblem of autumn, placed + in the picture of Mithra* between winter and summer, seems to open the + door and give knowledge, the key of good and evil. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See this picture in Hyde, page 111, edition of 1760. +</pre> + <p> + That this couple had been driven from the celestial garden, and that a + cherub with a flaming sword had been placed at the gate to guard it. + </p> + <p> + "And in fact, when the virgin and the herdsman fall beneath the horizon, + Perseus rises on the other side;* and this Genius, with a sword in his + hand, seems to drive them from the summer heaven, the garden and dominion + of fruits and flowers. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Rather the head of Medusa; that head of a woman once so + beautiful, which Perseus cut off and which beholds in his + hand, is only that of the virgin, whose head sinks below the + horizon at the very moment that Perseus rises; and the + serpents which surround it are Orphiucus and the Polar + Dragon, who then occupy the zenith. This shows us in what + manner the ancients composed all their figures and fables. + They took such constellations as they found at the same time + on the circle of the horizon, and collecting the different + parts, they formed groups which served them as an almanac in + hieroglyphic characters. Such is the secret of all their + pictures, and the solution of all their mythological + monsters. The virgin is also Andromeda, delivered by + Perseus from the whale that pursues her (pro-sequitor). +</pre> + <p> + That of this virgin should be born, spring up, an offspring, a child, who + should bruise the head of the serpent, and deliver the world from sin. + </p> + <p> + "This denotes the son, which, at the moment of the winter solstice, + precisely when the Persian Magi drew the horoscope of the new year, was + placed on the bosom of the Virgin, rising heliacally in the eastern + horizon; on this account he was figured in their astrological pictures + under the form of a child suckled by a chaste virgin,* and became + afterwards, at the vernal equinox, the ram, or the lamb, triumphant over + the constellation of the Serpent, which disappeared from the skies. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Such was the picture of the Persian sphere, cited by Aben + Ezra in the Coelam Poeticum of Blaeu, p. 71. "The picture + of the first decan of the Virgin," says that writer. + "represents a beautiful virgin with flowing hair; sitting in + a chair, with two ears of corn in her hand, and suckling an + infant, called Jesus by some nations, and Christ in Greek." + + In the library of the king of France is a manuscript in + Arabic, marked 1165, in which is a picture of the twelve + signs; and that of the Virgin represents a young woman with + an infant by her side: the whole scene indeed of the birth + of Jesus is to be found in the adjacent part of the heavens. + The stable is the constellation of the charioteer and the + goat, formerly Capricorn: a constellation called proesepe + Jovis Heniochi, stable of Iou; and the word Iou is found in + the name Iou-seph (Joseph). At no great distance is the ass + of Typhon (the great she-bear), and the ox or bull, the + ancient attendants of the manger. Peter the porter, is + Janus with his keys and bald forehead: the twelve apostles + are the genii of the twelve months, etc. This Virgin has + acted very different parts in the various systems of + mythology: she has been the Isis of the Egyptians, who said + of her in one of their inscriptions cited by Julian, the + fruit I have brought forth is the sun. The majority of + traits drawn by Plutarch apply to her, in the same manner as + those of Osiris apply to Bootes: also the seven principal + stars of the she-bear, called David's chariot, were called + the chariot of Osiris (See Kirker); and the crown that is + situated behind, formed of ivy, was called Chen-Osiris, the + tree of Osiris. The Virgin has likewise been Ceres, whose + mysteries were the same with those of Isis and Mithra; she + has been the Diana of the Ephesians; the great goddess of + Syria, Cybele, drawn by lions; Minerva, the mother of + Bacchus; Astraea, a chaste virgin taken up into heaven at + the end of a golden age; Themis at whose feet is the balance + that was put in her hands; the Sybil of Virgil, who descends + into hell, or sinks below the hemisphere with a branch in + her hand, etc. +</pre> + <p> + That, in his infancy, this restorer of divine and celestial nature would + live abased, humble, obscure and indigent. + </p> + <p> + "And this, because the winter sun is abased below the horizon; and that + this first period of his four ages or seasons, is a time of obscurity, + scarcity, fasting, and want. + </p> + <p> + "That, being put to death by the wicked, he had risen gloriously; that he + had reascended from hell to heaven, where he would reign forever + </p> + <p> + "This is a sketch of the life of the sun; who, finishing his career at the + winter solstice, when Typhon and the rebel angels gain the dominion, seems + to be put to death by them; but who soon after is born again, and rises* + into the vault of heaven, where he reigns. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Resurgere, to rise a second time, cannot signify to return + to life, but in a metaphorical sense; but we see continually + mistakes of this kind result from the ambiguous meaning of + the words made use of in ancient tradition. +</pre> + <p> + "Finally, these traditions went so far as to mention even his astrological + and mythological names, and inform us that he was called sometimes Chris, + that is to say, preserver,* and from that, ye Indians, you have made your + god Chrish-en or Chrish-na; and, ye Greek and Western Christians, your + Chris-tos, son of Mary, is the same; sometimes he is called Yes, by the + union of three letters, which by their numerical value form the number + 608, one of the solar periods.** And this, Europeans, is the name which, + with the Latin termination, is become your Yes-us or Jesus, the ancient + and cabalistic name attributed to young Bacchus, the clandestine son + (nocturnal) of the Virgin Minerva, who, in the history of his whole life, + and even of his death, brings to mind the history of the god of the + Christians, that is, of the star of day, of which they are each of them + the emblems." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Greeks used to express by X, or Spanish iota, the + aspirated ha of the Orientals, who said haris. In Hebrew + heres signifies the sun, but in Arabic the meaning of the + radical word is, to guard, to preserve, and of haris, + guardian, preserver. It is the proper epithet of Vichenou, + which demonstrates at once the identity of the Indian and + Christian Trinities, and their common origin. It is + manifestly but one system, which divided into two branches, + one extending to the east, and the other to the west, + assumed two different forms: Its principal trunk is the + Pythagorean system of the soul of the world, or Iou-piter. + The epithet piter, or father, having been applied to the + demi-ourgos of Plato, gave rise to an ambiguity which caused + an enquiry to be made respecting the son of this father. In + the opinion of the philosophers the son was understanding, + Nous and Logos, from which the Latins made their Verbum. + And thus we clearly perceive the origin of the eternal + father and of the Verbum his son, proceeding from him (Mens + Ex Deo nata, says Macrobius): the oenima or spiritus mundi, + was the Holy Ghost; and it is for this reason that Manes, + Pasilides, Valentinius, and other pretended heretics of the + first ages, who traced things to their source, said, that + God the Father was the supreme inaccessible light (that of + the heaven, the primum mobile, or the aplanes); the Son the + secondary light resident in the sun, and the Holy Ghost the + atmosphere of the earth (See Beausob. vol. II, p. 586): + hence, among the Syrians, the representation of the Holy + Ghost by a dove, the bird of Venus Urania, that is of the + air. The Syrians (says Nigidius de Germaico) assert that a + dove sat for a certain number of days on the egg of a fish, + and that from this incubation Venus was born: Sextus + Empiricus also observes (Inst. Pyrrh. lib. 3, c. 23) that + the Syrians abstain from eating doves; which intimates to us + a period commencing in the sign Pisces, in the winter + solstice. We may farther observe, that if Chris comes from + Harisch by a chin, it will signify artificer, an epithet + belonging to the sun. These variations, which must have + embarrassed the ancients, prove it to be the real type of + Jesus, as had been already remarked in the time of + Tertullian. "Many, says this writer, suppose with greater + probability that the sun is our God, and they refer us to + the religion of the Persians." Apologet. c. 16. + + ** See a curious ode to the sun, by Martianus Capella, + translated by Gebelin. +</pre> + <p> + Here a great murmur having arisen among all the Christian groups, the + Lamas, the Mussulmans and the Indians called them to order, and the orator + went on to finish his discourse: + </p> + <p> + "You know at present," said he, "how the rest of this system was composed + in the chaos and anarchy of the three first centuries; what a multitude of + singular opinions divided the minds of men, and armed them with an + enthusiasm and a reciprocal obstinacy; because, being equally founded on + ancient tradition, they were equally sacred. You know how the government, + after three centuries, having embraced one of these sects, made it the + orthodox, that is to say, the pre-dominant religion, to the exclusion of + the rest; which, being less in number, became heretics; you know how and + by what means of violence and seduction this religion was propagated, + extended, divided, and enfeebled; how, six hundred years after the + Christian innovation, another system was formed from it and from that of + the Jews; and how Mahomet found the means of composing a political and + theological empire at the expense of those of Moses and the vicars of + Jesus. + </p> + <p> + "Now, if you take a review of the whole history of the spirit of all + religion, you will see that in its origin it has had no other author than + the sensations and wants of man; that the idea of God has had no other + type and model than those of physical powers, material beings, producing + either good or evil, by impressions of pleasure or pain on sensitive + beings; that in the formation of all these systems the spirit of religion + has always followed the same course, and been uniform in its proceedings; + that in all of them the dogma has never failed to represent, under the + name of gods, the operations of nature, and passions and prejudices of + men; that the moral of them all has had for its object the desire of + happiness and the aversion to pain; but that the people, and the greater + part of legislators, not knowing the route to be pursued, have formed + false, and therefore discordant, ideas of virtue and vice of good and + evil, that is to say, of what renders man happy or miserable; that in + every instance, the means and the causes of propagating and establishing + systems have exhibited the same scenes of passion and the same events; + everywhere disputes about words, pretexts for zeal, revolutions and wars + excited by the ambition of princes, the knavery of apostles, the credulity + of proselytes, the ignorance of the vulgar, the exclusive cupidity and + intolerant arrogance of all. Indeed, you will see that the whole history + of the spirit of religion is only the history of the errors of the human + mind, which, placed in a world that it does not comprehend, endeavors + nevertheless to solve the enigma; and which, beholding with astonishment + this mysterious and visible prodigy, imagines causes, supposes reasons, + builds systems; then, finding one defective, destroys it for another not + less so; hates the error that it abandons, misconceives the one that it + embraces, rejects the truth that it is seeking, composes chimeras of + discordant beings; and thus, while always dreaming of wisdom and + happiness, wanders blindly in a labyrinth of illusion and doubt." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. + </h2> + <h3> + ALL RELIGIONS HAVE THE SAME OBJECT. + </h3> + <p> + Thus spoke the orator in the name of those men who had studied the origin + and succession of religious ideas. + </p> + <p> + The theologians of various systems, reasoning on this discourse: "It is an + impious representation," said some, "whose tendency is nothing less than + to overturn all belief, to destroy subordination in the minds of men, and + annihilate our ministry and power." "It is a romance," said others, "a + tissue of conjectures, composed with art, but without foundation." The + moderate and prudent men added: "Supposing all this to be true, why reveal + these mysteries? Doubtless our opinions are full of errors; but these + errors are a necessary restraint on the multitude. The world has gone thus + for two thousand years; why change it now?" + </p> + <p> + A murmur of disapprobation, which never fails to rise at every innovation, + now began to increase; when a numerous group of the common classes of + people, and of untaught men of all countries and of every nation, without + prophets, without doctors, and without doctrine, advancing in the circle, + drew the attention of the whole assembly; and one of them, in the name of + all, thus addressed the multitude: + </p> + <p> + "Mediators and arbiters of nations! the strange relations which have + occupied the present debate were unknown to us until this day. Our + understanding, confounded and amazed at so many statements, some of them + learned, others absurd and all incomprehensible, remains in uncertainty + and doubt. One only reflection has struck us: on reviewing so many + prodigious facts, so many contradictory assertions, we ask ourselves: What + are all these discussions to us? What need have we of knowing what passed + five or six thousand years ago, in countries we never heard of, and among + men who will ever be unknown to us? True or false, what interest have we + in knowing whether the world has existed six thousand, or twenty-five + thousand years? Whether it was made of nothing, or of something; by + itself, or by a maker, who in his turn would require another maker? What! + we are not sure of what happens near us, and shall we answer for what + happens in the sun, in the moon, or in imaginary regions of space? We have + forgotten our own infancy, and shall we know the infancy of the world? And + who will attest what no one has seen? who will certify what no man + comprehends? + </p> + <p> + "Besides, what addition or diminution will it make to our existence, to + answer yes or no to all these chimeras? Hitherto neither our fathers nor + ourselves have had the least knowledge or notion of them, and we do not + perceive that we have had on this account either more or less of the sun, + more or less of subsistence, more or less of good or of evil. + </p> + <p> + "If the knowledge of these things is so necessary, why have we lived as + well without it as those who have taken so much trouble concerning it? If + this knowledge is superfluous, why should we burden ourselves with it + to-day?" + </p> + <p> + Then addressing himself to the doctors and theologians: + </p> + <p> + "What!" said he, "is it necessary that we, poor and ignorant men, whose + every moment is scarcely sufficient for the cares of life, and the labors + of which you take the profit,—is it necessary for us to learn the + numberless histories that you have recounted, to read the quantity of + books that you have cited, and to study the various languages in which + they are composed! A thousand years of life would not suffice—" + </p> + <p> + "It is not necessary," replied the doctors, "that you should acquire all + this science; we have it for you—" + </p> + <p> + "But even you," replied the simple men, "with all your science, you are + not agreed; of what advantage, then, is your science? Besides, how can you + answer for us? If the faith of one man is applicable to many, what need + have even you to believe? your fathers may have believed for you; and this + would be reasonable, since they have seen for you. + </p> + <p> + "Farther, what is believing, if believing influences no action? And what + action is influenced by believing, for instance, that the world is or is + not eternal?" + </p> + <p> + "The latter would be offensive to God," said the doctors. + </p> + <p> + "How prove you that?" replied the simple men. + </p> + <p> + "In our books," answered the doctors. + </p> + <p> + "We do not understand them," returned the simple men. + </p> + <p> + "We understand them for you," said the doctors. + </p> + <p> + "That is the difficulty," replied the simple men. "By what right do you + constitute yourselves mediators between God and us?" + </p> + <p> + "By his orders," said the doctors. + </p> + <p> + "Where is the proof of these orders?" said the simple men. + </p> + <p> + "In our books," said the doctors. + </p> + <p> + "We understand them not," said the simple men; "and how came this just God + to give you this privilege over us? Why did this common father oblige us + to believe on a less degree of evidence than you? He has spoken to you; be + it so; he is infallible, and deceives you not. But it is you who speak to + us! And who shall assure us that you are not in error yourselves, or that + you will not lead us into error? And if we should be deceived, how will + that just God save us contrary to law, or condemn us on a law which we + have not known?" + </p> + <p> + "He has given you the natural law," said the doctors. + </p> + <p> + "And what is the natural law?" replied the simple men. "If that law is + sufficient, why has he given any other? If it is not sufficient, why did + he make it imperfect?" + </p> + <p> + "His judgments are mysteries," said the doctors, "and his justice is not + like that of men." + </p> + <p> + "If his justice," replied the simple men, "is not like ours, by what rule + are we to judge of it? And, moreover, why all these laws, and what is the + object proposed by them?" + </p> + <p> + "To render you more happy," replied a doctor, "by rendering you better and + more virtuous. It is to teach man to enjoy his benefits, and not injure + his fellows, that God has manifested himself by so many oracles and + prodigies." + </p> + <p> + "In that case," said the simple men, "there is no necessity for so many + studies, nor of such a variety of arguments; only tell us which is the + religion that best answers the end which they all propose." + </p> + <p> + Immediately, on this, every group, extolling its own morality above that + of all others, there arose among the different sects a new and most + violent dispute. + </p> + <p> + "It is we," said the Mussulmans, "who possess the most excellent morals, + who teach all the virtues useful to men and agreeable to God. We profess + justice, disinterestedness, resignation to providence, charity to our + brethren, alms-giving, and devotion; we torment not the soul with + superstitious fears; we live without alarm, and die without remorse." + </p> + <p> + "How dare you speak of morals," answered the Christian priests, "you, + whose chief lived in licentiousness and preached impurity? You, whose + first precept is homicide and war? For this we appeal to experience: for + these twelve hundred years your fanatical zeal has not ceased to spread + commotion and carnage among the nations. If Asia, so flourishing in former + times, is now languishing in barbarity and depopulation, it is in your + doctrine that we find the cause; in that doctrine, the enemy of all + instruction, which sanctifies ignorance, which consecrates the most + absolute despotism in the governors, imposes the most blind and passive + obedience in the people, that has stupefied the faculties of man, and + brutalized the nations. + </p> + <p> + "It is not so with our sublime and celestial morals; it was they which + raised the world from its primitive barbarity, from the senseless and + cruel superstitions of idolatry, from human sacrifices,* from the shameful + orgies of pagan mysteries; they it was that purified manners, proscribed + incest and adultery, polished savage nations, banished slavery, and + introduced new and unknown virtues, charity for men, their equality in the + sight of God, forgiveness and forgetfulness of injuries, the restraint of + all the passions, the contempt of worldly greatness, a life completely + spiritual and completely holy!" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Read the cold declaration of Eusebius (Proep. Evang. lib. + I, p. 11,), who pretends that, since the coming of Christ, + there have been neither wars, nor tyrants, nor cannibals, + nor sodomites, nor persons committing incest, nor savages + destroying their parents, etc. When we read these fathers + of the church we are astonished at their insincerity or + infatuation. +</pre> + <p> + "We admire," said the Mussulmans, "the ease with which you reconcile that + evangelical meekness, of which you are so ostentatious, with the injuries + and outrages with which you are constantly galling your neighbors. When + you criminate so severely the great man whom we revere, we might fairly + retort on the conduct of him whom you adore; but we scorn such advantages, + and confining ourselves to the real object in question, we maintain that + the morals of your gospel have by no means that perfection which you + ascribe to them; it is not true that they have introduced into the world + new and unknown virtues: for example, the equality of men in the sight of + God,—that fraternity and that benevolence which follow from it, were + formal doctrines of the sect of the Hermatics or Samaneans,* from whom you + descend. As to the forgiveness of injuries, the Pagans themselves had + taught it; but in the extent that you give it, far from being a virtue, it + becomes an immorality, a vice. Your so much boasted precept of turning one + cheek after the other, is not only contrary to every sentiment of man, but + is opposed to all ideas of justice. It emboldens the wicked by impunity, + debases the virtuous by servility, delivers up the world to despotism and + tyranny, and dissolves all society. Such is the true spirit of your + doctrines. Your gospels in their precepts and their parables, never + represent God but as a despot without any rules of equity; a partial + father treating a debauched and prodigal son with more favor than his + respectful and virtuous children; a capricious master, who gives the same + wages to workmen who had wrought but one hour, as to those who had labored + through the whole day; one who prefers the last comers to the first. The + moral is everywhere misanthropic and antisocial; it disgusts men with life + and with society; and tends only to encourage hermitism and celibacy. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The equality of mankind in a state of nature and in the + eyes of God was one of the principal tenets of the + Samaneans, and they appear to be the only ancients that + entertained this opinion. +</pre> + <p> + "As to the manner in which you have practised these morals, we appeal in + our turn to the testimony of facts. We ask whether it is this evangelical + meekness which has excited your interminable wars between your sects, your + atrocious persecutions of pretended heretics, your crusades against + Arianism, Manicheism, Protestantism, without speaking of your crusades + against us, and of those sacrilegious associations, still subsisting, of + men who take an oath to continue them?* We ask you whether it be gospel + charity which has made you exterminate whole nations in America, to + annihilate the empires of Mexico and Peru; which makes you continue to + dispeople Africa and sell its inhabitants like cattle, notwithstanding + your abolition of slavery; which makes you ravage India and usurp its + dominions; and whether it be the same charity which, for three centuries + past, has led you to harrass the habitations of the people of three + continents, of whom the most prudent, the Chinese and Japanese, were + constrained to drive you off, that they might escape your chains and + recover their internal peace?" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The oath taken by the knights of the Order of Malta, is to + kill, or make the Mahometans prisoners, for the glory of + God. +</pre> + <p> + Here the Bramins, the Rabbins, the Bonzes, the Chamans, the Priests of the + Molucca islands, and the coasts of Guinea, loading the Christian doctors + with reproaches: "Yes!" cried they, "these men are robbers and hypocrites, + who preach simplicity, to surprise confidence; humility, to enslave with + more ease; poverty, to appropriate all riches to themselves. They promise + another world, the better to usurp the present; and while they speak to + you of tolerance and charity, they burn, in the name of God, the men who + do not worship him in their manner." + </p> + <p> + "Lying priests," retorted the missionaries, "it is you who abuse the + credulity of ignorant nations to subjugate them. It is you who have made + of your ministry an art of cheating and imposture; you have converted + religion into a traffic of cupidity and avarice. You pretend to hold + communications with spirits, and they give for oracles nothing but your + wills. You feign to read the stars, and destiny decrees only your desires. + You cause idols to speak, and the gods are but the instruments of your + passions. You have invented sacrifices and libations, to collect for your + own profit the milk of flocks, and the flesh and fat of victims; and under + the cloak of piety you devour the offerings of the gods, who cannot eat, + and the substance of the people who are forced to labor." + </p> + <p> + "And you," replied the Bramins, the Bonzes, the Chamans, "you sell to the + credulous living, your vain prayers for the souls of the dead. With your + indulgences and your absolutions you have usurped the power of God + himself; and making a traffic of his favors and pardons, you have put + heaven at auction; and by your system of expiations you have formed a + tariff of crimes, which has perverted all consciences."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As long as it shall be possible to obtain purification + from crimes and exemption from punishment by means of money + or other frivolous practices; as long as kings and great men + shall suppose that building temples or instituting + foundations, will absolve them from the guilt of oppression + and homicide; as long as individuals shall imagine that they + may rob and cheat, provided they observe fast during Lent, + go to confession, and receive extreme unction, it is + impossible there should exist in society any morality or + virtue; and it is from a deep conviction of truth, that a + modern philosopher has called the doctrine of expiations la + verola des societes. +</pre> + <p> + "Add to this," said the Imans, "that these men have invented the most + insidious of all systems of wickedness,—the absurd and impious + obligation of recounting to them the most intimate secrets of actions and + of thoughts (confessions); so their insolent curiosity has carried their + inquisition even into the sanctuary of the marriage bed,* and the + inviolable recesses of the heart." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Confession is a very ancient invention of the priests, who + did not fail to avail themselves of that means of governing. + It was practised in the Egyptian, Greek, Phrygian, Persian + mysteries, etc. Plutarch has transmitted us the remarkable + answer of a Spartan whom a priest wanted to confess. "Is it + to you or to God I am to confess?" "To God," answered the + priest: "In that case," replied the Spartan, "man, begone!" + (Remarkable Savings of the Lacedemonians.) The first + Christians confessed their faults publicly, like the + Essenians. Afterwards, priests began to be established, + with power of absolution from the sin of idolatry. In the + time of Theodosius, a woman having publicly confessed an + intrigue with a deacon, bishop Necterius, and his successor + Chrysostom, granted communion without confession. It was + not until the seventh century that the abbots of convents + exacted from monks and nuns confession twice a year; and it + was at a still later period that bishops of Rome generalized + it. + + The Mussulmen, who suppose women to have no souls, are + shocked at the idea of confession; and say; How can an + honest man think of listening to the recital of the actions + or the secret thoughts of a woman? May we not also ask, on + the other hand, how can an honest woman consent to reveal + them? +</pre> + <p> + Thus by mutual reproaches the doctors of the different sects began to + reveal all the crimes of their ministry—all the vices of their + craft; and it was found that among all nations the spirit of the + priesthood, their system of conduct, their actions their morals, were + absolutely the same: + </p> + <p> + That they had everywhere formed secret associations and corporations at + enmity with the rest of society:* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * That we may understand the general feelings of priests + respecting the rest of mankind, whom they always call by the + name of the people, let us hear one of the doctors of the + church. "The people," says Bishop Synnesius, in Calvit. + page 315, "are desirous of being deceived, we cannot act + otherwise respecting them. The case was similar with the + ancient priests of Egypt, and for this reason they shut + themselves up in their temples, and there composed their + mysteries, out of the reach of the eye of the people." And + forgetting what he has before just said, he adds: "for had + the people been in the secret they might have been offended + at the deception played upon them. In the mean time how is + it possible to conduct one's self otherwise with the people + so long as they are people? For my own part, to myself I + shall always be a philosopher, but in dealing with the mass + of mankind, I shall be a priest." + + "A little jargon," says Geogory Nazianzen to St. Jerome + (Hieron. ad. Nep.) "is all that is necessary to impose on + the people. The less they comprehend, the more they admire. + Our forefathers and doctors of the church have often said, + not what they thought, but what circumstances and necessity + dictated to them." + + "We endeavor," says Sanchoniaton, "to excite admiration by + means of the marvellous." (Proep. Evang. lib. 3.) + + Such was the conduct of all the priests of antiquity, and is + still that of the Bramins and Lamas who are the exact + counterpart of the Egyptian priests. Such was the practice + of the Jesuits, who marched with hasty strides in the same + career. It is useless to point out the whole depravity of + such a doctrine. In general every association which has + mystery for its basis, or an oath of secrecy, is a league of + robbers against society, a league divided in its very bosom + into knaves and dupes, or in other words agents and + instruments. It is thus we ought to judge of those modern + clubs, which, under the name of Illuminatists, Martinists, + Cagliostronists, and Mesmerites, infest Europe. These + societies are the follies and deceptions of the ancient + Cabalists, Magicians, Orphies, etc., "who," says Plutarch, + "led into errors of considerable magnitude, not only + individuals, but kings and nations." +</pre> + <p> + That they had everywhere attributed to themselves prerogatives and + immunities, by means of which they lived exempt from the burdens of other + classes: + </p> + <p> + That they everywhere avoided the toils of the laborer, the dangers of the + soldier, and the disappointments of the merchant: + </p> + <p> + That they lived everywhere in celibacy, to shun even the cares of a + family: + </p> + <p> + That, under the cloak of poverty, they found everywhere the secret of + procuring wealth and all sorts of enjoyments: + </p> + <p> + That under the name of mendicity they raised taxes to a greater amount + than princes: + </p> + <p> + That in the form of gifts and offerings they had established fixed and + certain revenues exempt from charges: + </p> + <p> + That under pretence of retirement and devotion they lived in idleness and + licentiousness: + </p> + <p> + That they had made a virtue of alms-giving, to live quietly on the labors + of others: + </p> + <p> + That they had invented the ceremonies of worship, as a means of attracting + the reverence of the people, while they were playing the parts of gods, of + whom they styled themselves the interpreters and mediators, to assume all + their powers; that, with this design, they had (according to the degree of + ignorance or information of their people) assumed by turns the character + of astrologers, drawers of horoscopes, fortune-tellers, magicians,* + necromancers, quacks, physicians, courtiers, confessors of princes, always + aiming at the great object to govern for their own advantage: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * What is a magician, in the sense in which people + understand the word? A man who by words and gestures + pretends to act on supernatural beings, and compel them to + descend at his call and obey his orders. Such was the + conduct of the ancient priests, and such is still that of + all priests in idolatrous nations; for which reason we have + given them the denomination of Magicians. + + And when a Christian priest pretends to make God descend + from heaven, to fix him to a morsel of leaven, and render, + by means of this talisman, souls pure and in a state of + grace, what is this but a trick of magic? And where is the + difference between a Chaman of Tartary who invokes the + Genii, or an Indian Bramin, who makes Vichenou descend in a + vessel of water to drive away evil spirits? Yes, the + identity of the spirit of priests in every age and country + is fully established! Every where it is the assumption of + an exclusive privilege, the pretended faculty of moving at + will the powers of nature; and this assumption is so direct + a violation of the right of equality, that whenever the + people shall regain their importance, they will forever + abolish this sacrilegious kind of nobility, which has been + the type and parent stock of the other species of nobility. +</pre> + <p> + That sometimes they had exalted the power of kings and consecrated their + persons, to monopolize their favors, or participate their sway: + </p> + <p> + That sometimes they had preached up the murder of tyrants (reserving it to + themselves to define tyranny), to avenge themselves of their contempt or + their disobedience: + </p> + <p> + And that they always stigmatised with impiety whatever crossed their + interests; that they hindered all public instruction, to exercise the + monopoly of science; that finally, at all times and in all places, they + had found the secret of living in peace in the midst of the anarchy they + created, in safety under the despotism that they favored, in idleness + amidst the industry they preached, and in abundance while surrounded with + scarcity; and all this by carrying on the singular trade of selling words + and gestures to credulous people, who purchase them as commodities of the + greatest value.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A curious work would be the comparative history of the + agnuses of the pope and the pastils of the grand Lama. It + would be worth while to extend this idea to religions + ceremonies in general, and to confront column by column, the + analogous or contrasting points of faith and superstitious + practices in all nations. There is one more species of + superstition which it would be equally salutary to cure, + blind veneration for the great; and for this purpose it + would be alone sufficient to write a minute detail of the + private life of kings and princes. No work could be so + philosophical as this; and accordingly we have seen what a + general outcry was excited among kings and the panders of + kings, when the Anecdotes of the Court of Berlin first + appeared. What would be the alarm were the public put in + possession of the sequel of this work? Were the people + fairly acquainted with all the absurdities of this species + of idol, they would no longer be exposed to covet their + specious pleasures of which the plausible and hollow + appearance disturbs their peace, and hinders them from + enjoying the much more solid happiness of their own + condition. +</pre> + <p> + Then the different nations, in a transport of fury, were going to tear in + pieces the men who had thus abused them; but the legislator, arresting + this movement of violence, addressed the chiefs and doctors: + </p> + <p> + "What!" said he, "instructors of nations, is it thus that you have + deceived them?" + </p> + <p> + And the terrified priests replied. + </p> + <p> + "O legislator! we are men. The people are so superstitious! they have + themselves encouraged these errors."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Consider in this view the Brabanters. +</pre> + <p> + And the kings said: + </p> + <p> + "O legislator! the people are so servile and so ignorant! they prostrated + themselves before the yoke, which we scarcely dared to show them."* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The inhabitants of Vienna, for example, who harnessed + themselves like cattle and drew the chariot of Leopold. +</pre> + <p> + Then the legislator, turning to the people—"People!" said he, + "remember what you have just heard; they are two indelible truths. Yes, + you yourselves cause the evils of which you complain; yourselves encourage + the tyrants, by a base adulation of their power, by an imprudent + admiration of their false beneficence, by servility in obedience, by + licentiousness in liberty, and by a credulous reception of every + imposition. On whom shall you wreak vengeance for the faults committed by + your own ignorance and cupidity?" + </p> + <p> + And the people, struck with confusion, remained in mournful silence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. + </h2> + <h3> + SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF CONTRADICTIONS. + </h3> + <p> + The legislator then resumed his discourse: "O nations!" said he, "we have + heard the discussion of your opinions. The different sentiments which + divide you have given rise to many reflections, and furnished several + questions which we shall propose to you to solve. + </p> + <p> + "First, considering the diversity and opposition of the creeds to which + you are attached, we ask on what motives you found your persuasion? Is it + from a deliberate choice that you follow the standard of one prophet + rather than another? Before adopting this doctrine, rather than that, did + you first compare? did you carefully examine them? Or have you received + them only from the chance of birth, from the empire of education and + habit? Are you not born Christians on the borders of the Tiber, Mussulmans + on those of the Euphrates, Idolaters on the Indus, just as you are born + fair in cold climates, and sable under the scorching sun of Africa? And if + your opinions are the effect of your fortuitous position on the earth, of + consanguinity, of imitation, how is it that such a hazard should be a + ground of conviction, an argument of truth? + </p> + <p> + "Secondly, when we reflect on the mutual proscriptions and arbitrary + intolerance of your pretensions, we are frightened at the consequences + that flow from your own principles. Nations! who reciprocally devote each + other to the bolts of heavenly wrath, suppose that the universal Being, + whom you revere, should this moment descend from heaven on this multitude; + and, clothed with all his power, should sit on this throne to judge you; + suppose that he should say to you: Mortals! it is your own justice that I + am going to exercise upon you. Yes, of all the religious systems that + divide you, one alone shall this day be preferred; all the others, all + this multitude of standards, of nations, of prophets, shall be condemned + to eternal destruction. This is not enough: among the particular sects of + the chosen system, one only can be favored; all the others must be + condemned: neither is this enough;—from this little remnant of a + group I must exclude all those who have not fulfilled the conditions + enjoined by its precepts. O men! to what a small number of elect have you + limited your race! to what a penury of beneficence do you reduce the + immensity of my goodness! to what a solitude of beholders do you condemn + my greatness and my glory! + </p> + <p> + "But," said the legislator rising, "no matter you have willed it so. + Nations! here is an urn in which all your names are placed: one only is a + prize: approach, and draw this tremendous lottery!" And the nations, + seized with terror cried: "No, no; we are all brothers, all equal; we + cannot condemn each other." + </p> + <p> + "Then," said the legislator, resuming his seat: "O men! who dispute on so + many subjects, lend an attentive ear to one problem which you exhibit, and + which you ought to decide yourselves." + </p> + <p> + And the people, giving great attention, he lifted an arm towards heaven, + and, pointing to the sun, said: + </p> + <p> + "Nations, does that sun, which enlightens you, appear square or + triangular?" + </p> + <p> + "No," answered they with one voice, "it is round." + </p> + <p> + Then, taking the golden balance that was on the altar: + </p> + <p> + "This gold," said the legislator, "that you handle every day, is it + heavier than the same volume of copper?" + </p> + <p> + "Yes," answered all the people, "gold is heavier than Copper." + </p> + <p> + Then, taking the sword: + </p> + <p> + "Is this iron," said the legislator, "softer than lead?" + </p> + <p> + "No," said the people. + </p> + <p> + "Is sugar sweet, and gall bitter?" + </p> + <p> + "Yes." + </p> + <p> + "Do you love pleasure and hate pain?" + </p> + <p> + "Yes." + </p> + <p> + "Thus, then, you are agreed in these points, and many others of the same + nature. + </p> + <p> + "Now, tell us, is there a cavern in the centre of the earth, or + inhabitants in the moon?" + </p> + <p> + This question caused a universal murmur. Every one answered differently—some + yes, others no; one said it was probable, another said it was an idle and + ridiculous question; some, that it was worth knowing. And the discord was + universal. + </p> + <p> + After some time the legislator, having obtained silence, said: + </p> + <p> + "Explain to us, O Nations! this problem: we have put to you several + questions which you have answered with one voice, without distinction of + race or of sect: white men, black men, followers of Mahomet and of Moses, + worshippers of Boudha and of Jesus, all have returned the same answer. We + then proposed another question, and you have all disagreed! Why this + unanimity in one case, and this discordance in the other?" + </p> + <p> + And the group of simple men and savages answered and said: "The reason of + this is plain. In the first case we see and feel the objects, and we speak + from sensation; in the second, they are beyond the reach of our senses—we + speak of them only from conjecture." + </p> + <p> + "You have resolved the problem," said the legislator; "and your own + consent has established this first truth: + </p> + <p> + "That whenever objects can be examined and judged of by your senses, you + are agreed in opinion; and that you only differ when the objects are + absent and beyond your reach. + </p> + <p> + "From this first truth flows another equally clear and worthy of notice. + Since you agree on things which you know with certainty, it follows that + you disagree only on those which you know not with certainty, and about + which you are not sure; that is to say, you dispute, you quarrel, you + fight, for that which is uncertain, that of which you doubt. O men! is + this wisdom? + </p> + <p> + "Is it not, then, demonstrated that truth is not the object of your + contests? that it is not her cause which you defend, but that of your + affections, and your prejudices? that it is not the object, as it really + is in itself, that you would verify, but the object as you would have it; + that is to say, it is not the evidence of the thing that you would + enforce, but your own personal opinion, your particular manner of seeing + and judging? It is a power that you wish to exercise, an interest that you + wish to satisfy, a prerogative that you arrogate to yourself; it is a + contest of vanity. Now, as each of you, on comparing himself to every + other, finds himself his equal and his fellow, he resists by a feeling of + the same right. And your disputes, your combats, your intolerance, are the + effect of this right which you deny each other, and of the intimate + conviction of your equality. + </p> + <p> + "Now, the only means of establishing harmony is to return to nature, and + to take for a guide and regulator the order of things which she has + founded; and then your accord will prove this other truth: + </p> + <p> + "That real beings have in themselves an identical, constant and uniform + mode of existence; and that there is in your organs a like mode of being + affected by them. + </p> + <p> + "But at the same time, by reason of the mobility of these organs as + subject to your will, you may conceive different affections, and find + yourselves in different relations with the same objects; so that you are + to them like a mirror, capable of reflecting them truly as they are, or of + distorting and disfiguring them. + </p> + <p> + "Hence it follows, that whenever you perceive objects as they are, you + agree among yourselves, and with the objects; and this similitude between + your sensations and their manner of existence, is what constitutes their + truth with respect to you; and, on the contrary, whenever you differ in + opinion, your disagreement is a proof that you do not represent them such + as they are,—that you change them. + </p> + <p> + "Hence, also, it follows, that the causes of your disagreement exist not + in the objects themselves, but in your minds, in your manner of perceiving + or judging. + </p> + <p> + "To establish, therefore, a uniformity of opinion, it is necessary first + to establish the certainty, completely verified, that the portraits which + the mind forms are perfectly like the originals; that it reflects the + objects correctly as they exist. Now, this result cannot be obtained but + in those cases where the objects can be brought to the test, and submitted + to the examination of the senses. Everything which cannot be brought to + this trial is, for that reason alone, impossible to be determined; there + exists no rule, no term of comparison, no means of certainty, respecting + it. + </p> + <p> + "From this we conclude, that, to live in harmony and peace, we must agree + never to decide on such subjects, and to attach to them no importance; in + a word, we must trace a line of distinction between those that are capable + of verification, and those that are not; and separate by an inviolable + barrier the world of fantastical beings from the world of realities; that + is to say, all civil effect must be taken away from theological and + religious opinions. + </p> + <p> + "This, O ye people of the earth! is the object proposed by a great nation + freed from her fetters and her prejudices; this is the work which, under + her eye and by her orders, we had undertaken, when your kings and your + priests came to interrupt it. O kings and priests! you may suspend, yet + for a while, the solemn publication of the laws of nature; but it is no + longer in your power to annihilate or to subvert them." + </p> + <p> + A general shout then arose from every part of the assembly; and the + nations universally, and with one voice, testified their assent to the + proposals of the delegates: "Resume," said they, "your holy and sublime + labors, and bring them to perfection. Investigate the laws which nature, + for our guidance, has implanted in our breasts, and collect from them an + authentic and immutable code; nor let this code be any longer for one + family only, but for us all without exception. Be the legislators of the + whole human race, as you are the interpreters of nature herself. Show us + the line of partition between the world of chimeras and that of realities; + and teach us, after so many religions of error and delusion, the religion + of evidence and truth!" + </p> + <p> + Then the delegates, having resumed their enquiries into the physical and + constituent attributes of man, and examined the motives and affections + which govern him in his individual and social state, unfolded in these + words the laws on which nature herself has founded his happiness. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <a name="linknature" id="linknature"></a> + </p> + <h1> + THE LAW OF NATURE. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER 1. + </h2> + <h3> + OF THE LAW OF NATURE. + </h3> + <p> + Q. What is the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. It is the constant and regular order of events, by which God governs + the universe; an order which his wisdom presents to the senses and reason + of men, as an equal and common rule for their actions, to guide them, + without distinction of country or sect, towards perfection and happiness. + </p> + <p> + Q. Give a clear definition of the word law. + </p> + <p> + A. The word law, taken literary, signifies lecture,* because originally, + ordinances and regulations were the lectures, preferably to all others, + made to the people, in order that they might observe them, and not incur + the penalties attached to their infraction: whence follows the original + custom explaining the true idea. + </p> + <p> + The definition of law is, "An order or prohibition to act with the express + clause of a penalty attached to the infraction, or of a recompense + attached to the observance of that order." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * From the Latin word lex, lectio. Alcoran likewise + signifies lecture and is only a literal translation of the + word law. +</pre> + <p> + Q. Do such orders exist in nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes. + </p> + <p> + Q. What does the word nature signify? + </p> + <p> + A. The word nature bears three different significations. + </p> + <p> + 1. It signifies the universe, the material world: in this first sense we + say the beauties of nature, the riches of nature, that is to say, the + objects in the heavens and on the earth exposed to our sight; + </p> + <p> + 2. It signifies the power that animates, that moves the universe, + considering it as a distinct being, such as the soul is to the body; in + this second sense we say, "The intentions of nature, the incomprehensible + secrets of nature." + </p> + <p> + 3. It signifies the partial operations of that power on each being, or on + each class of beings; and in this third sense we say, "The nature of man + is an enigma; every being acts according to its nature." + </p> + <p> + Wherefore, as the actions of each being, or of each species of beings, are + subjected to constant and general rules, which cannot be infringed without + interrupting and troubling the general or particular order, those rules of + action and of motion are called natural laws, or laws of nature. + </p> + <p> + Q. Give me examples of those laws. + </p> + <p> + A. It is a law of nature, that the sun illuminates successively the + surface of the terrestrial globe;—that its presence causes both + light and heat;—that heat acting upon water, produces vapors;—that + those vapors rising in clouds into the regions of the air, dissolve into + rain or snow, and renew incessantly the waters of fountains and rivers. + </p> + <p> + It is a law of nature, that water flows downwards; that it endeavors to + find its level; that it is heavier than air; that all bodies tend towards + the earth; that flame ascends towards the heavens;—that it + disorganizes vegetables and animals; that air is essential to the life of + certain animals; that, in certain circumstances, water suffocates and + kills them; that certain juices of plants, certain minerals attack their + organs, and destroy their life, and so on in a multitude of other + instances. + </p> + <p> + Wherefore, as all those and similar facts are immutable, constant, and + regular, so many real orders result from them for man to conform himself + to, with the express clause of punishment attending the infraction of + them, or of welfare attending their observance. So that if man pretends to + see clear in darkness, if he goes in contradiction to the course of the + seasons, or the action of the elements; if he pretends to remain under + water without being drowned, to touch fire without burning himself, to + deprive himself of air without being suffocated, to swallow poison without + destroying himself, he receives from each of those infractions of the laws + of nature a corporeal punishment proportionate to his fault; but if on the + contrary, he observes and practises each of those laws according to the + regular and exact relations they have to him he preserves his existence, + and renders it as happy as it can be: and as the only and common end of + all those laws, considered relatively to mankind, is to preserve, and + render them happy, it has been agreed upon to reduce the idea to one + simple expression, and to call them collectively the law of nature. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. + </h2> + <h3> + CHARACTERS OF THE LAW OF NATURE. + </h3> + <p> + Q. What are the characters of the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. There can be assigned ten principal ones. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the first? + </p> + <p> + A. To be inherent to the existence of things, and, consequently, primitive + and anterior to every other law: so that all those which man has received, + are only imitations of it, and their perfection is ascertained by the + resemblance they bear to this primordial model. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the second? + </p> + <p> + A. To be derived immediately from God, and presented by him to each man, + whereas all other laws are presented to us by men, who may be either + deceived or deceivers. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the third? + </p> + <p> + A. To be common to all times, and to all countries, that is to say, one + and universal. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is no other law universal? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for no other is agreeable or applicable to all the people of the + earth; they are all local and accidental, originating from circumstances + of places and of persons; so that if such a man had not existed, or such + an event happened, such a law would never have been enacted. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the fourth character? + </p> + <p> + A. To be uniform and invariable. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is no other law uniform and invariable? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for what is good and virtue according to one, is evil and vice + according to another; and what one and the same law approves of at one + time, it often condemns at another. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the fifth character? + </p> + <p> + A. To be evident and palpable, because it consists entirely of facts + incessantly present to the senses, and to demonstration. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are not other laws evident? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for they are founded on past and doubtful facts, on equivocal and + suspicious testimonies, and on proofs inaccessible to the senses. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the sixth character? + </p> + <p> + A. To be reasonable, because its precepts and entire doctrine are + conformable to reason, and to the human understanding. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is no other law reasonable? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for all are in contradiction to the reason and the understanding of + men, and tyrannically impose on him a blind and impracticable belief. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the seventh character? + </p> + <p> + A. To be just, because in that law, the penalties are proportionate to the + infractions. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are not other laws just? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for they often exceed bounds, either in rewarding deserts, or in + punishing delinquencies, and consider as meritorious or criminal, null or + indifferent actions. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the eighth character? + </p> + <p> + A. To be pacific and tolerant, because in the law of nature, all men being + brothers and equal in rights, it recommends to them only peace and + toleration, even for errors. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are not other laws pacific? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for all preach dissension, discord, and war, and divide mankind by + exclusive pretensions of truth and domination. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the ninth character? + </p> + <p> + A. To be equally beneficent to all men, in teaching them the true means of + becoming better and happier. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are not other laws beneficent likewise? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for none of them teach the real means of attaining happiness; all + are confined to pernicious or futile practices; and this is evident from + facts, since after so many laws, so many religions, so many legislators + and prophets, men are still as unhappy and ignorant, as they were six + thousand years ago. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the last character of the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. That it is alone sufficient to render men happier and better, because + it comprises all that is good and useful in other laws, either civil or + religious, that is to say, it constitutes essentially the moral part of + them; so that if other laws were divested of it, they would be reduced to + chimerical and imaginary opinions devoid of any practical utility. + </p> + <p> + Q. Recapitulate all those characters. + </p> + <p> + A. We have said that the law of nature is, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Primitive; 6. Reasonable; + 2. Immediate; 7. Just; + 3. Universal; 8. Pacific; + 4. Invariable; 9. Beneficent: and + 5. Evident; 10. Alone sufficient. +</pre> + <p> + And such is the power of all these attributes of perfection and truth, + that when in their disputes the theologians can agree upon no article of + belief, they recur to the law of nature, the neglect of which, say they, + forced God to send from time to time prophets to proclaim new laws; as if + God enacted laws for particular circumstances, as men do; especially when + the first subsists in such force, that we may assert it to have been at + all times and in all countries the rule of conscience for every man of + sense or understanding. + </p> + <p> + Q. If, as you say, it emanates immediately from God, does it teach his + existence? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, most positively: for, to any man whatever, who observes with + reflection the astonishing spectacle of the universe, the more he + meditates on the properties and attributes of each being, on the admirable + order and harmony of their motions, the more it is demonstrated that there + exists a supreme agent, a universal and identic mover, designated by the + appellation of God; and so true it is that the law of nature suffices to + elevate him to the knowledge of God, that all which men have pretended to + know by supernatural means, has constantly turned out ridiculous and + absurd, and that they have ever been obliged to recur to the immutable + conceptions of natural reason. + </p> + <p> + Q. Then it is not true that the followers of the law of nature are + atheists? + </p> + <p> + A. No; it is not true; on the contrary, they entertain stronger and nobler + ideas of the Divinity than most other men; for they do not sully him with + the foul ingredients of all the weaknesses and passions entailed on + humanity. + </p> + <p> + Q. What worship do they pay to him? + </p> + <p> + A. A worship wholly of action; the practice and observance of all the + rules which the supreme wisdom has imposed on the motion of each being; + eternal and unalterable rules, by which it maintains the order and harmony + of the universe, and which, in their relations to man, constitute the law + of nature. + </p> + <p> + Q. Was the law of nature known before this period: + </p> + <p> + A. It has been at all times spoken of: most legislators pretend to adopt + it as the basis of their laws; but they only quote some of its precepts, + and have only vague ideas of its totality. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why. + </p> + <p> + A. Because, though simple in its basis, it forms in its developements and + consequences, a complicated whole which requires an extensive knowledge of + facts, joined to all the sagacity of reasoning. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does not instinct alone teach the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for by instinct is meant nothing more than that blind sentiment by + which we are actuated indiscriminately towards everything that flatters + the senses. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why, then, is it said that the law of nature is engraved in the hearts + of all men. + </p> + <p> + A. It is said for two reasons: first, because it has been remarked, that + there are acts and sentiments common to all men, and this proceeds from + their common organization; secondly, because the first philosophers + believed that men were born with ideas already formed, which is now + demonstrated to be erroneous. + </p> + <p> + Q. Philosophers, then, are fallible? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, sometimes. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why so? + </p> + <p> + A. First, because they are men; secondly, because the ignorant call all + those who reason, right or wrong, philosophers; thirdly, because those who + reason on many subjects, and who are the first to reason on them, are + liable to be deceived. + </p> + <p> + Q. If the law of nature be not written, must it not become arbitrary and + ideal? + </p> + <p> + A. No: because it consists entirely in facts, the demonstration of which + can be incessantly renewed to the senses, and constitutes a science as + accurate and precise as geometry and mathematics; and it is because the + law of nature forms an exact science, that men, born ignorant and living + inattentive and heedless, have had hitherto only a superficial knowledge + of it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> + <h3> + PRINCIPLES OF THE LAW OF NATURE RELATING TO MAN. + </h3> + <p> + Q. Explain the principles of the law of nature with relation to man. + </p> + <p> + A. They are simple; all of them are comprised in one fundamental and + single precept. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is that precept? + </p> + <p> + A. It is self-preservation. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is not happiness also a precept of the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes: but as happiness is an accidental state, resulting only from the + development of man's faculties and his social system, it is not the + immediate and direct object of nature; it is in some measure, a + superfluity annexed to the necessary and fundamental object of + preservation. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does nature order man to preserve himself? + </p> + <p> + A. By two powerful and involuntary sensations, which it has attached, as + two guides, two guardian Geniuses to all his actions: the one a sensation + of pain, by which it admonishes him of, and deters him from, everything + that tends to destroy him; the other, a sensation of pleasure, by which it + attracts and carries him towards everything that tends to his preservation + and the development of his existence. + </p> + <p> + Q. Pleasure, then, is not an evil, a sin, as casuists pretend? + </p> + <p> + A. No, only inasmuch as it tends to destroy life and health which, by the + avowal of those same casuists, we derive from God himself. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is pleasure the principal object of our existence, as some philosophers + have asserted? + </p> + <p> + A. No; not more than pain; pleasure is an incitement to live as pain is a + repulsion from death. + </p> + <p> + Q. How do you prove this assertion? + </p> + <p> + A. By two palpable facts: One, that pleasure, when taken immoderately, + leads to destruction; for instance, a man who abuses the pleasure of + eating or drinking, attacks his health, and injures his life. The other, + that pain sometimes leads to self-preservation; for instance, a man who + permits a mortified member to be cut off, suffers pain in order not to + perish totally. + </p> + <p> + Q. But does not even this prove that our sensations can deceive us + respecting the end of our preservation? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; they can momentarily. + </p> + <p> + Q. How do our sensations deceive us? + </p> + <p> + A. In two ways: by ignorance, and by passion. + </p> + <p> + Q. When do they deceive us by ignorance? + </p> + <p> + A. When we act without knowing the action and effect of objects on our + senses: for example, when a man touches nettles without knowing their + stinging quality, or when he swallows opium without knowing its + soporiferous effects. + </p> + <p> + Q. When do they deceive us by passion? + </p> + <p> + A. When, conscious of the pernicious action of objects, we abandon + ourselves, nevertheless, to the impetuosity of our desires and appetites: + for example, when a man who knows that wine intoxicates, does nevertheless + drink it to excess. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is the result? + </p> + <p> + A. That the ignorance in which we are born, and the unbridled appetites to + which we abandon ourselves, are contrary to our preservation; that, + therefore, the instruction of our minds and the moderation of our passions + are two obligations, two laws, which spring directly from the first law of + preservation. + </p> + <p> + Q. But being born ignorant, is not ignorance a law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. No more than to remain in the naked and feeble state of infancy. Far + from being a law of nature, ignorance is an obstacle to the practice of + all its laws. It is the real original sin. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why, then, have there been moralists who have looked upon it as a + virtue and perfection? + </p> + <p> + A. Because, from a strange or perverted disposition, they confounded the + abuse of knowledge with knowledge itself; as if, because men abuse the + power of speech, their tongues should be cut out; as if perfection and + virtue consisted in the nullity, and not in the proper development of our + faculties. + </p> + <p> + Q. Instruction, then, is indispensable to man's existence? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, so indispensable, that without it he is every instant assailed and + wounded by all that surrounds him; for if he does not know the effects of + fire, he burns himself; those of water he drowns himself; those of opium, + he poisons himself; if, in the savage state, he does not know the wiles of + animals, and the art of seizing game, he perishes through hunger; if in + the social state, he does not know the course of the seasons, he can + neither cultivate the ground, nor procure nourishment; and so on, of all + his actions, respecting all his wants. + </p> + <p> + Q. But can man individually acquire this knowledge necessary to his + existence, and to the development of his faculties? + </p> + <p> + A. No; not without the assistance of his fellow men, and by living in + society. + </p> + <p> + Q. But is not society to man a state against nature? + </p> + <p> + A. No: it is on the contrary a necessity, a law that nature imposed on him + by the very act of his organization; for, first, nature has so constituted + man, that he cannot see his species of another sex without feeling + emotions and an attraction which induce him to live in a family, which is + already a state of society; secondly, by endowing him with sensibility, + she organized him so that the sensations of others reflect within him, and + excite reciprocal sentiments of pleasure and of grief, which are + attractions, and indissoluble ties of society; thirdly, and finally, the + state of society, founded on the wants of man, is only a further means of + fulfilling the law of preservation: and to pretend that this state is out + of nature, because it is more perfect, is the same as to say, that a + bitter and wild fruit of the forest, is no longer the production of + nature, when rendered sweet and delicious by cultivation in our gardens. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why, then, have philosophers called the savage state the state of + perfection? + </p> + <p> + A. Because, as I have told you, the vulgar have often given the name of + philosophers to whimsical geniuses, who, from moroseness, from wounded + vanity, or from a disgust to the vices of society, have conceived + chimerical ideas of the savage state, in contradiction with their own + system of a perfect man. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is the true meaning of the word philosopher? + </p> + <p> + A. The word philosopher signifies a lover of wisdom; and as wisdom + consists in the practice of the laws of nature, the true philosopher is he + who knows those laws, and conforms the whole tenor of his conduct to them. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is man in the savage state? + </p> + <p> + A. A brutal, ignorant animal, a wicked and ferocious beast. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is he happy in that state? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for he only feels momentary sensations, which are habitually of + violent wants which he cannot satisfy, since he is ignorant by nature, and + weak by being isolated from his race. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is he free? + </p> + <p> + A. No; he is the most abject slave that exists; for his life depends on + everything that surrounds him: he is not free to eat when hungry, to rest + when tired, to warm himself when cold; he is every instant in danger of + perishing; wherefore nature offers but fortuitous examples of such beings; + and we see that all the efforts of the human species, since its origin, + sorely tends to emerge from that violent state by the pressing necessity + of self-preservation. + </p> + <p> + Q. But does not this necessity of preservation engender in individuals + egotism, that is to say self-love? and is not egotism contrary to the + social state? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for if by egotism you mean a propensity to hurt our neighbor, it is + no longer self-love, but the hatred of others. Self-love, taken in its + true sense, not only is not contrary to society, but is its firmest + support, by the necessity we lie under of not injuring others, lest in + return they should injure us. + </p> + <p> + Thus mans preservation, and the unfolding of his faculties, directed + towards this end, teach the true law of nature in the production of the + human being; and it is from this essential principle that are derived, are + referred, and in its scale are weighed, all ideas of good and evil, of + vice and virtue, of just and unjust, of truth or error, of lawful or + forbidden, on which is founded the morality of individual, or of social + man. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> + <p> + BASIS OF MORALITY; OF GOOD, OF EVIL, OF SIN, OF CRIME, OF VICE AND OF + VIRTUE. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is good, according to the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. It is everything that tends to preserve and perfect man. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is evil? + </p> + <p> + A. That which tends to man's destruction or deterioration. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is meant by physical good and evil, and by moral good and evil? + </p> + <p> + A. By the word physical is understood, whatever acts immediately on the + body. Health is a physical good; and sickness a physical evil. By moral, + is meant what acts by consequences more or less remote. Calumny is a moral + evil; a fair reputation is a moral good, because both one and the other + occasion towards us, on the part of other men, dispositions and + habitudes,* which are useful or hurtful to our preservation, and which + attack or favor our means of existence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is from this word habitudes, (reiterated actions,) in + Latin mores, that the word moral, and all its family, are + derived. +</pre> + <p> + Q. Everything that tends to preserve, or to produce is therefore a good? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; and it is for that reason that certain legislators have classed + among the works agreeable to the divinity, the cultivation of a field and + the fecundity of a woman. + </p> + <p> + Q. Whatever tends to cause death is, therefore, an evil? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; and it is for that reason some legislators have extended the idea + of evil and of sin even to the killing of animals. + </p> + <p> + Q. The murdering of a man is, therefore, a crime in the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, and the greatest that can be committed; for every other evil can + be repaired, but murder alone is irreparable. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is a sin in the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Whatever tends to disturb the order established by nature for the + preservation and perfection of man and of society. + </p> + <p> + Q. Can intention be a merit or a crime? + </p> + <p> + A. No, for it is only an idea void of reality: but it is a commencement of + sin and evil, by the impulse it gives to action. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is virtue according to the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. It is the practice of actions useful to the individual and to society. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is meant by the word individual? + </p> + <p> + A. It means a man considered separately from every other. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is vice according to the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. It is the practice of actions prejudicial to the individual and to + society. + </p> + <p> + Q. Have not virtue and vice an object purely spiritual and abstracted from + the senses? + </p> + <p> + A. No; it is always to a physical end that they finally relate, and that + end is always to destroy or preserve the body. + </p> + <p> + Q. Have vice and virtue degrees of strength and intensity? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes: according to the importance of the faculties, which they attack or + which they favor; and according to the number of persons in whom those + faculties are favored or injured. + </p> + <p> + Q. Give me some examples? + </p> + <p> + A. The action of saving a man's life is more virtuous than that of saving + his property; the action of saving the lives of ten men, than that of + saving only the life of one, and an action useful to the whole human race + is more virtuous than an action that is only useful to one single nation. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does the law of nature prescribe the practice of good and virtue, + and forbid that of evil and vice? + </p> + <p> + A. By the advantages resulting from the practice of good and virtue for + the preservation of our body, and by the losses which result to our + existence from the practice of evil and vice. + </p> + <p> + Q. Its precepts are then in action? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes: they are action itself, considered in its present effect and in + its future consequences. + </p> + <p> + Q. How do you divide the virtues? + </p> + <p> + A. We divide them in three classes, first, individual virtues, as relative + to man alone; secondly, domestic virtues, as relative to a family; + thirdly, social virtues, as relative to society. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> + <h3> + OF INDIVIDUAL VIRTUES. + </h3> + <p> + Q. Which are the individual virtues? + </p> + <p> + A. There are five principal ones, to wit: first, science, which comprises + prudence and wisdom; secondly, temperance, comprising sobriety and + chastity; thirdly, courage, or strength of body and mind; fourthly, + activity, that is to say, love of labor and employment of time; fifthly, + and finally, cleanliness, or purity of body, as well in dress as in + habitation. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does the law of nature prescribe science? + </p> + <p> + A. Because the man acquainted with the causes and effects of things + attends in a careful and sure manner to his preservation, and to the + development of his faculties. Science is to him the eye and the light, + which enable him to discern clearly and accurately all the objects with + which he is conversant, and hence by an enlightened man is meant a learned + and well-informed man. With science and instruction a man never wants for + resources and means of subsistence; and upon this principle a philosopher, + who had been shipwrecked, said to his companions, that were inconsolable + for the loss of their wealth: "For my part, I carry all my wealth within + me." + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the vice contrary to science? + </p> + <p> + A. It is ignorance. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does the law of nature forbid ignorance? + </p> + <p> + A. By the grievous detriments resulting from it to our existence; for the + ignorant man who knows neither causes nor effects, commits every instant + errors most pernicious to himself and to others; he resembles a blind man + groping his way at random, and who, at every step, jostles or is jostled + by every one he meets. + </p> + <p> + Q. What difference is there between an ignorant and a silly man? + </p> + <p> + A. The same difference as between him who frankly avows his blindness and + the blind man who pretends to sight; silliness is the reality of + ignorance, to which is superadded the vanity of knowledge. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are ignorance and silliness common? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, very common; they are the usual and general distempers of mankind: + more than three thousand years ago the wisest of men said: "The number of + fools is infinite;" and the world has not changed. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is the reason of it? + </p> + <p> + A. Because much labor and time are necessary to acquire instruction, and + because men, born ignorant and indolent, find it more convenient to remain + blind, and pretend to see clear. + </p> + <p> + Q. What difference is there between a learned and a wise man? + </p> + <p> + A. The learned knows, and the wise man practices. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is prudence? + </p> + <p> + A. It is the anticipated perception, the foresight of the effects and + consequences of every action; by means of which foresight, man avoids the + dangers which threaten him, while he seizes on and creates opportunities + favorable to him: he thereby provides for his present and future safety in + a certain and secure manner, whereas the imprudent man, who calculates + neither his steps nor his conduct, nor efforts, nor resistance, falls + every instant into difficulties and dangers, which sooner or later impair + his faculties and destroy his existence. + </p> + <p> + Q. When the Gospel says, "Happy are the poor of spirit," does it mean the + ignorant and imprudent? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for, at the same time that it recommends the simplicity of doves, + it adds the prudent cunning of serpents. By simplicity of mind is meant + uprightness, and the precept of the Gospel is that of nature. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> + <h3> + ON TEMPERANCE. + </h3> + <p> + Q. What is temperance? + </p> + <p> + A. It is a regular use of our faculties, which makes us never exceed in + our sensations the end of nature to preserve us; it is the moderation of + the passions. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which is the vice contrary to temperance? + </p> + <p> + A. The disorder of the passions, the avidity of all kind of enjoyments, in + a word, cupidity. + </p> + <p> + Q. Which are the principal branches of temperance? + </p> + <p> + A. Sobriety, and continence or chastity. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does the law of nature prescribe sobriety? + </p> + <p> + A. By its powerful influence over our health. The sober man digests with + comfort; he is not overpowered by the weight of aliments; his ideas are + clear and easy; he fulfills all his functions properly; he conducts his + business with intelligence; his old age is exempt from infirmity; he does + not spend his money in remedies, and he enjoys, in mirth and gladness, the + wealth which chance and his own prudence have procured him. Thus, from one + virtue alone, generous nature derives innumerable recompenses. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does it prohibit gluttony? + </p> + <p> + A. By the numerous evils that are attached to it. The glutton, oppressed + with aliments, digests with anxiety; his head, troubled by the fumes of + indigestion, is incapable of conceiving clear and distinct ideas; he + abandons himself with violence to the disorderly impulse of lust and + anger, which impair his health; his body becomes bloated, heavy, and unfit + for labor; he endures painful and expensive distempers; he seldom lives to + be old; and his age is replete with infirmities and sorrow. + </p> + <p> + Q. Should abstinence and fasting be considered as virtuous actions? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, when one has eaten too much; for then abstinence and fasting are + simple and efficacious remedies; but when the body is in want of aliment, + to refuse it any, and let it suffer from hunger or thirst, is delirium and + a real sin against the law of nature. + </p> + <p> + Q. How is drunkenness considered in the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. As a most vile and pernicious vice. The drunkard, deprived of the sense + and reason given us by God, profanes the donations of the divinity: he + debases himself to the condition of brutes; unable even to guide his + steps, he staggers and falls as if he were epileptic; he hurts and even + risks killing himself; his debility in this state exposes him to the + ridicule and contempt of every person that sees him; he makes in his + drunkenness, prejudicial and ruinous bargains, and injures his fortune; he + makes use of opprobrious language, which creates him enemies and + repentance; he fills his house with trouble and sorrow, and ends by a + premature death or by a cacochymical old age. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature interdict absolutely the use of wine? + </p> + <p> + A. No; it only forbids the abuse; but as the transition from the use to + the abuse is easy and prompt among the generality of men, perhaps the + legislators, who have proscribed the use of wine, have rendered a service + to humanity. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature forbid the use of certain kinds of meat, or of + certain vegetables, on particular days, during certain seasons? + </p> + <p> + A. No; it absolutely forbids only whatever is injurious to health; its + precepts, in this respect, vary according to persons, and even constitute + a very delicate and important science for the quality, the quantity, and + the combination of aliments have the greatest influence, not only over the + momentary affections of the soul, but even over its habitual disposition. + A man is not the same when fasting as after a meal, even if he were sober. + A glass of spirituous liquor, or a dish of coffee, gives degrees of + vivacity, of mobility, of disposition to anger, sadness, or gaiety; such a + meat, because it lies heavy on the stomach, engenders moroseness and + melancholy; such another, because it facilitates digestion, creates + sprightliness, and an inclination to oblige and to love. The use of + vegetables, because they have little nourishment, enfeebles the body, and + gives a disposition to repose, indolence, and ease; the use of meat, + because it is full of nourishment, and of spirituous liquors, because they + stimulate the nerves, creates vivacity, uneasiness, and audacity. Now from + those habitudes of aliment result habits of constitution and of the + organs, which form afterwards different kinds of temperaments, each of + which is distinguished by a peculiar characteristic. And it is for this + reason that, in hot countries especially, legislators have made laws + respecting regimen or food. The ancients were taught by long experience + that the dietetic science constituted a considerable part of morality; + among the Egyptians, the ancient Persians, and even among the Greeks, at + the Areopagus, important affairs were examined fasting; and it has been + remarked that, among those people, where public affairs were discussed + during the heat of meals, and the fumes of digestion, deliberations were + hasty and violent, and the results of them frequently unreasonable, and + productive of turbulence and confusion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <h3> + ON CONTINENCE. + </h3> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature prescribe continence? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes: because a moderate use of the most lively of pleasures is not only + useful, but indispensable, to the support of strength and health: and + because a simple calculation proves that, for some minutes of privation, + you increase the number of your days, both in vigor of body and of mind. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does it forbid libertinism? + </p> + <p> + A. By the numerous evils which result from it to the physical and the + moral existence. He who carries it to an excess enervates and pines away; + he can no longer attend to study or labor; he contracts idle and expensive + habits, which destroy his means of existence, his public consideration, + and his credit; his intrigues occasion continual embarrassment, cares, + quarrels and lawsuits, without mentioning the grievous deep-rooted + distempers, and the loss of his strength by an inward and slow poison; the + stupid dullness of his mind, by the exhaustion of the nervous system; and, + in fine, a premature and infirm old age. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature look on that absolute chastity so recommended in + monastical institutions, as a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for that chastity is of no use either to the society that + witnesses, or the individual who practises it; it is even prejudicial to + both. First, it injures society by depriving it of population, which is + one of its principal sources of wealth and power; and as bachelors confine + all their views and affections to the term of their lives, they have in + general an egotism unfavorable to the interests of society. + </p> + <p> + In the second place, it injures the individuals who practise it, because + it deprives them of a number of affections and relations which are the + springs of most domestic and social virtues; and besides, it often + happens, from circumstances of age, regimen, or temperament, that absolute + continence injures the constitution and causes severe diseases, because it + is contrary to the physical laws on which nature has founded the system of + the reproduction of beings; and they who recommend so strongly chastity, + even supposing them to be sincere, are in contradiction with their own + doctrine, which consecrates the law of nature by the well known + commandment: increase and multiply. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why is chastity considered a greater virtue in women than in men? + </p> + <p> + A. Because a want of chastity in women is attended with inconveniences + much more serious and dangerous for them and for society; for, without + taking into account the pains and diseases they have in common with men, + they are further exposed to all the disadvantages and perils that precede, + attend, and follow child-birth. When pregnant contrary to law, they become + an object of public scandal and contempt, and spend the remainder of their + lives in bitterness and misery. Moreover, all the expense of maintaining + and educating their fatherless children falls on them: which expense + impoverishes them, and is every way prejudicial to their physical and + moral existence. In this situation, deprived of the freshness and health + that constitute their charm, carrying with them an extraneous and + expensive burden, they are less prized by men, they find no solid + establishment, they fall into poverty, misery, and wretchedness, and thus + drag on in sorrow their unhappy existence. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature extend so far as the scruples of desires and + thoughts. + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; because, in the physical laws of the human body, thoughts and + desires inflame the senses, and soon provoke to action: now, by another + law of nature in the organization of our body, those actions become + mechanical wants which recur at certain periods of days or of weeks, so + that, at such a time, the want is renewed of such an action and such a + secretion; if this action and this secretion be injurious to health, the + habitude of them becomes destructive of life itself. Thus thoughts and + desires have a true and natural importance. + </p> + <p> + Q. Should modesty be considered as a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; because modesty, inasmuch as it is a shame of certain actions, + maintains the soul and body in all those habits useful to good order, and + to self-preservation. The modest woman is esteemed, courted, and + established, with advantages of fortune which ensure her existence, and + render it agreeable to her, while the immodest and prostitute are + despised, repulsed, and abandoned to misery and infamy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0032" id="link2HCH0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <h3> + ON COURAGE AND ACTIVITY. + </h3> + <p> + Q. Are courage and strength of body and mind virtues in the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, and most important virtues; for they are the efficacious and + indispensable means of attending to our preservation and welfare. The + courageous and strong man repulses oppression, defends his life, his + liberty, and his property; by his labor he procures himself an abundant + subsistence, which he enjoys in tranquillity and peace of mind. If he + falls into misfortunes, from which his prudence could not protect him, he + supports them with fortitude and resignation; and it is for this reason + that the ancient moralists have reckoned strength and courage among the + four principal virtues. + </p> + <p> + Q. Should weakness and cowardice be considered as vices? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, since it is certain that they produce innumerable calamities. The + weak or cowardly man lives in perpetual cares and agonies; he undermines + his health by the dread, oftentimes ill founded, of attacks and dangers: + and this dread which is an evil, is not a remedy; it renders him, on the + contrary, the slave of him who wishes to oppress him; and by the servitude + and debasement of all his faculties, it degrades and diminishes his means + of existence, so far as the seeing his life depend on the will and caprice + of another man. + </p> + <p> + Q. But, after what you have said on the influence of aliments, are not + courage and force, as well as many other virtues, in a great measure the + effect of our physical constitution and temperament? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, it is true; and so far, that those qualities are transmitted by + generation and blood, with the elements on which they depend: the most + reiterated and constant facts prove that in the breed of animals of every + kind, we see certain physical and moral qualities, attached to the + individuals of those species, increase or decay according to the + combinations and mixtures they make with other breeds. + </p> + <p> + Q. But, then, as our will is not sufficient to procure us those qualities, + is it a crime to be destitute of them? + </p> + <p> + A. No, it is not a crime, but a misfortune; it is what the ancients call + an unlucky fatality; but even then we have it yet in our power to acquire + them; for, as soon as we know on what physical elements such or such a + quality is founded, we can promote its growth, and hasten its + developments, by a skillful management of those elements; and in this + consists the science of education, which, according as it is directed, + meliorates or degrades individuals, or the whole race, to such a pitch as + totally to change their nature and inclinations; for which reason it is of + the greatest importance to be acquainted with the laws of nature by which + those operations and changes are certainly and necessarily effected. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why do you say that activity is a virtue according to the law of + nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Because the man who works and employs his time usefully, derives from + it a thousand precious advantages to his existence. If he is born poor, + his labor furnishes him with subsistence; and still more so, if he is + sober, continent, and prudent, for he soon acquires a competency, and + enjoys the sweets of life; his very labor gives him virtues; for, while he + occupies his body and mind, he is not affected with unruly desires, time + does not lie heavy on him, he contracts mild habits, he augments his + strength and health, and attains a peaceful and happy old age. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are idleness and sloth vices in the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, and the most pernicious of all vices, for they lead to all the + others. By idleness and sloth man remains ignorant, he forgets even the + science he had acquired, and falls into all the misfortunes which + accompany ignorance and folly; by idleness and sloth man, devoured with + disquietude, in order to dissipate it, abandons himself to all the desires + of his senses, which, becoming every day more inordinate, render him + intemperate, gluttonous, lascivious, enervated, cowardly, vile, and + contemptible. By the certain effect of all those vices, he ruins his + fortune, consumes his health, and terminates his life in all the agonies + of sickness and of poverty. + </p> + <p> + Q. From what you say, one would think that poverty was a vice? + </p> + <p> + A. No, it is not a vice; but it is still less a virtue, for it is by far + more ready to injure than to be useful; it is even commonly the result, or + the beginning of vice, for the effect of all individual vices is to lead + to indigence, and to the privation of the necessaries of life; and when a + man is in want of necessaries, he is tempted to procure them by vicious + means, that is to say, by means injurious to society. All the individual + virtues tend, on the contrary, to procure to a man an abundant + subsistence; and when he has more than he can consume, it is much easier + for him to give to others, and to practice the actions useful to society. + </p> + <p> + Q. Do you look upon opulence as a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. No; but still less as a vice: it is the use alone of wealth that can be + called virtuous or vicious, according as it is serviceable or prejudicial + to man and to society. Wealth is an instrument, the use and employment + alone of which determine its virtue or vice. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0033" id="link2HCH0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> + <h3> + ON CLEANLINESS. + </h3> + <p> + Q. Why is cleanliness included among the virtues? + </p> + <p> + A. Because it is, in reality, one of the most important among them, on + account of its powerful influence over the health and preservation of the + body. Cleanliness, as well in dress as in residence, obviates the + pernicious effects of the humidity, baneful odors, and contagious + exhalations, proceeding from all things abandoned to putrefaction. + Cleanliness, maintains free transpiration; it renews the air, refreshes + the blood, and disposes even the mind to cheerfulness. + </p> + <p> + From this it appears that persons attentive to the cleanliness of their + bodies and habitations are, in general, more healthy, and less subject to + disease, than those who live in filth and nastiness; and it is further + remarked, that cleanliness carries with it, throughout all the branches of + domestic administration, habits of order and arrangement, which are the + chief means and first elements of happiness. + </p> + <p> + Q. Uncleanliness or filthiness is, then, a real vice? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, as real a one as drunkenness, or as idleness, from which in a + great measure it is derived. Uncleanliness is the second, and often the + first, cause of many inconveniences, and even of grievous disorders; it is + a fact in medicine, that it brings on the itch, the scurf, tetters, + leprosies, as much as the use of tainted or sour aliments; that it favors + the contagious influence of the plague and malignant fevers, that it even + produces them in hospitals and prisons; that it occasions rheumatisms, by + incrusting the skin with dirt, and thereby preventing transpiration; + without reckoning the shameful inconvenience of being devoured by vermin—the + foul appendage of misery and depravity. + </p> + <p> + Most ancient legislators, therefore, considered cleanliness, which they + called purity, as one of the essential dogmas of their religions. It was + for this reason that they expelled from society, and even punished + corporeally those who were infected with distempers produced by + uncleanliness; that they instituted and consecrated ceremonies of + ablutions baths, baptisms, and of purifications, even by fire and the + aromatic fumes of incense, myrrh, benjamin, etc., so that the entire + system of pollutions, all those rites of clean and unclean things, + degenerated since into abuses and prejudices, were only founded originally + on the judicious observation, which wise and learned men had made, of the + extreme influence that cleanliness in dress and abode exercises over the + health of the body, and by an immediate consequence over that of the mind + and moral faculties. + </p> + <p> + Thus all the individual virtues have for their object, more or less + direct, more or less near, the preservation of the man who practises them + and by the preservation of each man, they lead to that of families and + society, which are composed of the united sum of individuals. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0034" id="link2HCH0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> + <h3> + ON DOMESTIC VIRTUES. + </h3> + <p> + Q. What do you mean be domestic virtues? + </p> + <p> + A. I mean the practice of actions useful to a family, supposed to live in + the same house.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Domestic is derived from the Latin word domus, a house. +</pre> + <p> + Q. What are those virtues? + </p> + <p> + A. They are economy, paternal love, filial love, conjugal love, fraternal + love, and the accomplishment of the duties of master and servant. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is economy? + </p> + <p> + A. It is, according to the most extensive meaning of the word, the proper + administration of every thing that concerns the existence of the family or + house; and as subsistence holds the first rank, the word economy in + confined to the employment of money for the wants of life. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why is economy a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. Because a man who makes no useless expenses acquires a superabundancy, + which is true wealth, and by means of which he procures for himself and + his family everything that is really convenient and useful; without + mentioning his securing thereby resources against accidental and + unforeseen losses, so that he and his family enjoy an agreeable and + undisturbed competency, which is the basis of human felicity. + </p> + <p> + Q. Dissipation and prodigality, therefore, are vices? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, for by them man, in the end, is deprived of the necessaries of + life; he falls into poverty and wretchedness; and his very friends, + fearing to be obliged to restore to him what he has spent with or for + them, avoid him as a debtor does his creditor, and he remains abandoned by + the whole world. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is paternal love? + </p> + <p> + A. It is the assiduous care taken by parents to make their children + contract the habit of every action useful to themselves and to society. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why is paternal tenderness a virtue in parents? + </p> + <p> + A. Because parents, who rear their children in those habits, procure for + themselves, during the course of their lives, enjoyments and helps that + give a sensible satisfaction at every instant, and which assure to them, + when advanced in years, supports and consolations against the wants and + calamities of all kinds with which old age is beset. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is paternal love a common virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. No; notwithstanding the ostentation made of it by parents, it is a rare + virtue. They do not love their children, they caress and spoil them. In + them they love only the agents of their will, the instruments of their + power, the trophies of their vanity, the pastime of their idleness. It is + not so much the welfare of their children that they propose to themselves, + as their submission and obedience; and if among children so many are seen + ungrateful for benefits received, it is because there are among parents as + many despotic and ignorant benefactors. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why do you say that conjugal love is a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. Because the concord and union resulting from the love of the married, + establish in the heart of the family a multitude of habits useful to its + prosperity and preservation. The united pair are attached to, and seldom + quit their home; they superintend each particular direction of it; they + attend to the education of their children; they maintain the respect and + fidelity of domestics; they prevent all disorder and dissipation; and from + the whole of their good conduct, they live in ease and consideration; + while married persons who do not love one another, fill their house with + quarrels and troubles, create dissension between their children and the + servants, leaving both indiscriminately to all kinds of vicious habits; + every one in turn spoils, robs, and plunders the house; the revenues are + absorbed without profit; debts accumulate; the married pair avoid each + other, or contend in lawsuits; and the whole family falls into disorder, + ruin, disgrace and want. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is adultery an offence in the law of nature? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; for it is attended with a number of habits injurious to the + married and to their families. The wife or husband, whose affections are + estranged, neglect their house, avoid it, and deprive it, as much as they + can, of its revenues or income, to expend them with the object of their + affections; hence arise quarrels, scandal, lawsuits, the neglect of their + children and servants, and at last the plundering and ruin of the whole + family; without reckoning that the adulterous woman commits a most + grievous theft, in giving to her husband heirs of foreign blood, who + deprive his real children of their legitimate portion. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is filial love? + </p> + <p> + A. It is, on the side of children, the practice of those actions useful to + themselves and to their parents. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does the law of nature prescribe filial love? + </p> + <p> + A. By three principal motives: + </p> + <p> + 1. By sentiment; for the affectionate care of parents inspires, from the + most tender age, mild habits of attachment. + </p> + <p> + 2. By justice; for children owe to their parents a return and indemnity + for the cares, and even for the expenses, they have caused them. + </p> + <p> + 3. By personal interest; for, if they use them ill, they give to their own + children examples of revolt and ingratitude, which authorize them, at a + future day, to behave to themselves in a similar manner. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are we to understand by filial love a passive and blind submission? + </p> + <p> + A. No; but a reasonable submission, founded on the knowledge of the mutual + rights and duties of parents and children; rights and duties, without the + observance of which their mutual conduct is nothing but disorder. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why is fraternal love a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. Because the concord and union, which result from the love of brothers, + establish the strength, security, and conservation of the family: brothers + united defend themselves against all oppression, they aid one another in + their wants, they help one another in their misfortunes, and thus secure + their common existence; while brothers disunited, abandoned each to his + own personal strength, fall into all the inconveniences attendant on an + insulated state and individual weakness. This is what a certain Scythian + king ingeniously expressed when, on his death-bed, calling his children to + him, he ordered them to break a bundle of arrows. The young men, though + strong, being unable to effect it, he took them in his turn, and untieing + them, broke each of the arrows separately with his fingers. "Behold," said + he, "the effects of union; united together, you will be invincible; taken + separately, you will be broken like reeds." + </p> + <p> + Q. What are the reciprocal duties of masters and of servants? + </p> + <p> + A. They consist in the practice of the actions which are respectively and + justly useful to them; and here begin the relations of society; for the + rule and measure of those respective actions is the equilibrium or + equality between the service and the recompense, between what the one + returns and the other gives; which is the fundamental basis of all + society. + </p> + <p> + Thus all the domestic and individual virtues refer, more or less + mediately, but always with certitude, to the physical object of the + amelioration and preservation of man, and are thereby precepts resulting + from the fundamental law of nature in his formation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0035" id="link2HCH0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> + <h3> + THE SOCIAL VIRTUES; JUSTICE. + </h3> + <p> + Q. What is society? + </p> + <p> + A. It is every reunion of men living together under the clauses of an + expressed or tacit contract, which has for its end their common + preservation. + </p> + <p> + Q. Are the social virtues numerous? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; they are in as great number as the kinds of actions useful to + society; but all may be reduced to one principle. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is that fundamental principle? + </p> + <p> + A. It is justice, which alone comprises all the virtues of society. + </p> + <p> + Q. Why do you say that justice is the fundamental and almost only virtue + of society? + </p> + <p> + A. Because it alone embraces the practice of all the actions useful to it; + and because all the other virtues, under the denominations of charity, + humanity, probity, love of one's country, sincerity, generosity, + simplicity of manners, and modesty, are only varied forms and diversified + applications of the axiom, "Do not to another what you do not wish to be + done to yourself," which is the definition of justice. + </p> + <p> + Q. How does the law of nature prescribe justice? + </p> + <p> + A. By three physical attributes, inherent in the organization of man. + </p> + <p> + Q. What are those attributes? + </p> + <p> + A. They are equality, liberty, and property. + </p> + <p> + Q. How is equality a physical attribute of man? + </p> + <p> + A. Because all men, having equally eyes, hands, mouths, ears, and the + necessity of making use of them, in order to live, have, by this reason + alone, an equal right to life, and to the use of the aliments which + maintain it; they are all equal before God. + </p> + <p> + Q. Do you suppose that all men hear equally, see equally, feel equally, + have equal wants, and equal passions? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for it is evident, and daily demonstrated, that one is short, and + another long-sighted; that one eats much, another little; that one has + mild, another violent passions; in a word, that one is weak in body and + mind, while another is strong in both. + </p> + <p> + Q. They are, therefore, really unequal? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, in the development of their means, but not in the nature and + essence of those means. They are made of the same stuff, but not in the + same dimensions; nor are the weight and value equal. Our language + possesses no one word capable of expressing the identity of nature, and + the diversity of its form and employment. It is a proportional equality; + and it is for this reason I have said, equal before God, and in the order + of nature. + </p> + <p> + Q. How is liberty a physical attribute of man? + </p> + <p> + A. Because all men having senses sufficient for their preservation—no + one wanting the eye of another to see, his ear to hear, his mouth to eat, + his feet to walk—they are all, by this very reason, constituted + naturally independent and free; no man is necessarily subjected to + another, nor has he a right to dominate over him. + </p> + <p> + Q. But if a man is born strong, has he a natural right to master the weak + man? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for it is neither a necessity for him, nor a convention between + them; it is an abusive extension of his strength; and here an abuse is + made of the word right, which in its true meaning implies, justice or + reciprocal faculty. + </p> + <p> + Q. How is property a physical attribute of man? + </p> + <p> + A. Inasmuch as all men being constituted equal or similar to one another, + and consequently independent and free, each is the absolute master, the + full proprietor of his body and of the produce of his labor. + </p> + <p> + Q. How is justice derived from these three attributes? + </p> + <p> + A. In this, that men being equal and free, owing nothing to each other, + have no right to require anything from one another only inasmuch as they + return an equal value for it; or inasmuch as the balance of what is given + is in equilibrium with what is returned: and it is this equality, this + equilibrium which is called justice, equity;* that is to say that equality + and justice are but one and the same word, the same law of nature, of + which the social virtues are only applications and derivatives. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Aequitas, aequilibrium, aequalitas, are all of the same + family. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0036" id="link2HCH0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> + <h3> + DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIAL VIRTUES. + </h3> + <p> + Q. Explain how the social virtues are derived from the law of nature. How + is charity or the love of one's neighbor a precept and application of it? + </p> + <p> + A. By reason of equality and reciprocity; for when we injure another, we + give him a right to injure us in return; thus, by attacking the existence + of our neighbor, we endanger our own, from the effect of reciprocity; on + the other hand, by doing good to others, we have room and right to expect + an equivalent exchange; and such is the character of all social virtues, + that they are useful to the man who practises them, by the right of + reciprocity which they give him over those who are benefited by them. + </p> + <p> + Q. Charity is then nothing but justice? + </p> + <p> + A. No: it is only justice; with this slight difference, that strict + justice confines itself to saying, "Do not to another the harm you would + not wish he should do to you;" and that charity, or the love of one's + neighbor, extends so far as to say, "Do to another the good which you + would wish to receive from him." Thus when the gospel said, that this + precept contained the whole of the law and the prophets, it announced + nothing more than the precept of the law of nature. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does it enjoin forgiveness of injuries? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, when that forgiveness implies self-preservation. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does it prescribe to us, after having received a blow on one cheek, to + hold out the other? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for it is, in the first place, contrary to the precept of loving + our neighbor as ourselves, since thereby we should love, more than + ourselves, him who makes an attack on our preservation. Secondly, such a + precept in its literal sense, encourages the wicked to oppression and + injustice. The law of nature has been more wise in prescribing a + calculated proportion of courage and moderation, which induces us to + forget a first or unpremediated injury, but which punishes every act + tending to oppression. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature prescribe to do good to others beyond the bounds + of reason and measure? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for it is a sure way of leading them to ingratitude. Such is the + force of sentiment and justice implanted in the heart of man, that he is + not even grateful for benefits conferred without discretion. There is only + one measure with them, and that is to be just. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is alms-giving a virtuous action? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, when it is practised according to the rule first mentioned; + without which it degenerates into imprudence and vice, inasmuch as it + encourages laziness, which is hurtful to the beggar and to society; no one + has a right to partake of the property and fruits of another's labor, + without rendering an equivalent of his own industry. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature consider as virtues faith and hope, which are + often joined with charity? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for they are ideas without reality; and if any effects result from + them, they turn rather to the profit of those who have not those ideas, + than of those who have them; so that faith and hope may be called the + virtues of dupes for the benefit of knaves. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature prescribe probity? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, for probity is nothing more than respect for one's own rights in + those of another; a respect founded on a prudent and well combined + calculation of our interests compared to those of others. + </p> + <p> + Q. But does not this calculation, which embraces the complicated interests + and rights of the social state, require an enlightened understanding and + knowledge, which make it a difficult science? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, and a science so much the more delicate as the honest man + pronounces in his own cause. + </p> + <p> + Q. Probity, then, shows an extension and justice in the mind? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, for an honest man almost always neglects a present interest, in + order not to destroy a future one; whereas the knave does the contrary, + and loses a great future interest for a present smaller one. + </p> + <p> + Q. Improbity, therefore, is a sign of false judgment and a narrow mind? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, and rogues may be defined ignorant and silly calculators; for they + do not understand their true interest, and they pretend to cunning: + nevertheless, their cunning only ends in making known what they are—in + losing all confidence and esteem, and the good services resulting from + them for their physical and social existence. They neither live in peace + with others, nor with themselves; and incessantly menaced by their + conscience and their enemies, they enjoy no other real happiness but that + of not being hanged. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature forbid robbery? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, for the man who robs another gives him a right to rob him; from + that moment there is no security in his property, nor in his means of + preservation: thus in injuring others, he, by a counterblow, injures + himself. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does it interdict even an inclination to rob? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; for that inclination leads naturally to action, and it is for this + reason that envy is considered a sin? + </p> + <p> + Q. How does it forbid murder? + </p> + <p> + A. By the most powerful motives of self-preservation; for, first, the man + who attacks exposes himself to the risk of being killed, by the right of + defence; secondly, if he kills, he gives to the relations and friends of + the deceased, and to society at large, an equal right of killing him; so + that his life is no longer in safety. + </p> + <p> + Q. How can we, by the law of nature, repair the evil we have done? + </p> + <p> + A. By rendering a proportionate good to those whom we have injured. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does it allow us to repair it by prayers, vows, offerings to God, + fasting and mortifications? + </p> + <p> + A. No: for all those things are foreign to the action we wish to repair: + they neither restore the ox to him from whom it has been stolen, honor to + him whom we have deprived of it, nor life to him from whom it has been + taken away; consequently they miss the end of justice; they are only + perverse contracts by which a man sells to another goods which do not + belong to him; they are a real depravation of morality, inasmuch as they + embolden to commit crimes through the hope of expiating them; wherefore, + they have been the real cause of all the evils by which the people among whom + those expiatory practices were used, have been continually tormented. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does the law of nature order sincerity? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; for lying, perfidy, and perjury create distrust, quarrels, hatred, + revenge, and a crowd of evils among men, which tend to their common + destruction; while sincerity and fidelity establish confidence, concord, + and peace, besides the infinite good resulting from such a state of things + to society. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does it prescribe mildness and modesty? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes; for harshness and obduracy, by alienating from us the hearts of + other men, give them an inclination to hurt us; ostentation and vanity, by + wounding their self-love and jealousy, occasion us to miss the end of a + real utility. + </p> + <p> + Q. Does it prescribe humility as a virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. No; for it is a propensity in the human heart to despise secretly + everything that presents to it the idea of weakness; and self-debasement + encourages pride and oppression in others; the balance must be kept in + equipoise. + </p> + <p> + Q. You have reckoned simplicity of manners among the social virtues; what + do you understand by that word? + </p> + <p> + A. I mean the restricting our wants and desires to what is truly useful to + the existence of the citizen and his family; that is to say, the man of + simple manners has but few wants, and lives content with a little. + </p> + <p> + Q. How is this virtue prescribed to us? + </p> + <p> + A. By the numerous advantages which the practice of it procures to the + individual and to society; for the man whose wants are few, is free at + once from a crowd of cares, perplexities, and labors; he avoids many + quarrels and contests arising from avidity and a desire of gain; he spares + himself the anxiety of ambition, the inquietudes of possession, and the + uneasiness of losses; finding superfluity everywhere, he is the real rich + man; always content with what he has, he is happy at little expense; and + other men, not fearing any competition from him, leave him in quiet, and + are disposed to render him the services he should stand in need of. And if + this virtue of simplicity extends to a whole people, they insure to + themselves abundance; rich in everything they do not consume, they acquire + immense means of exchange and commerce; they work, fabricate, and sell at + a lower price than others, and attain to all kinds of prosperity, both at + home and abroad. + </p> + <p> + Q. What is the vice contrary to this virtue? + </p> + <p> + A. It is cupidity and luxury. + </p> + <p> + Q. Is luxury a vice in the individual and in society? + </p> + <p> + A. Yes, and to that degree, that it may be said to include all the others; + for the man who stands in need of many things, imposes thereby on himself + all the anxiety, and submits to all the means just or unjust of acquiring + them. Does he possess an enjoyment, he covets another; and in the bosom of + superfluity, he is never rich; a commodious dwelling is not sufficient for + him, he must have a beautiful hotel; not content with a plenteous table, + he must have rare and costly viands: he must have splendid furniture, + expensive clothes, a train of attendants, horses, carriages, women, + theatrical representations and games. Now, to supply so many expenses, + much money must be had; and he looks on every method of procuring it as + good and even necessary; at first he borrows, afterwards he steals, robs, + plunders, turns bankrupt, is at war with every one, ruins and is ruined. + </p> + <p> + Should a nation be involved in luxury, it occasions on a larger scale the + same devastations; by reason that it consumes its entire produce, it finds + itself poor even with abundance; it has nothing to sell to foreigners; its + manufactures are carried on at a great expense, and are sold too dear; it + becomes tributary for everything it imports; it attacks externally its + consideration, power, strength, and means of defence and preservation, + while internally it undermines and falls into the dissolution of its + members. All its citizens being covetous of enjoyments, are engaged in a + perpetual struggle to obtain them; all injure or are near injuring + themselves; and hence arise those habits and actions of usurpation, which + constitute what is denominated moral corruption, intestine war between + citizen and citizen. From luxury arises avidity, from avidity, invasion by + violence and perfidy; from luxury arises the iniquity of the judge, the + venality of the witness, the improbity of the husband, the prostitution of + the wife, the obduracy of parents, the ingratitude of children, the + avarice of the master, the dishonesty of the servant, the dilapidation of + the administrator, the perversity of the legislator, lying, perfidy, + perjury, assassination, and all the disorders of the social state; so that + it was with a profound sense of truth, that ancient moralists have laid + the basis of the social virtues on simplicity of manners, restriction of + wants, and contentment with a little; and a sure way of knowing the extent + of a man's virtues and vices is, to find out if his expenses are + proportionate to his fortune, and calculate, from his want of money, his + probity, his integrity in fulfilling his engagements, his devotion to the + public weal, and his sincere or pretended love of his country. + </p> + <p> + Q. What do you mean by the word country? + </p> + <p> + A. I mean the community of citizens who, united by fraternal sentiments, + and reciprocal wants, make of their respective strength one common force, + the reaction of which on each of them assumes the noble and beneficent + character of paternity. In society, citizens form a bank of interest; in + our country we form a family of endearing attachments; it is charity, the + love of one's neighbor extended to a whole nation. Now as charity cannot + be separated from justice, no member of the family can pretend to the + enjoyment of its advantages, except in proportion to his labor; if he + consumes more than it produces, he necessarily encroaches on his + fellow-citizens; and it is only by consuming less than what he produces or + possesses, that he can acquire the means of making sacrifices and being + generous. + </p> + <p> + Q. What do you conclude from all this? + </p> + <p> + A. I conclude from it that all the social virtues are only the habitude of + actions useful to society and to the individual who practices them; That + they refer to the physical object of man's preservation; That nature + having implanted in us the want of that preservation, has made a law to us + of all its consequences, and a crime of everything that deviates from it; + That we carry in us the seed of every virtue, and of every perfection; + That it only requires to be developed; That we are only happy inasmuch as + we observe the rules established by nature for the end of our + preservation; And that all wisdom, all perfection, all law, all virtue, + all philosophy, consist in the practice of these axioms founded on our own + organization: + </p> + <p> + Preserve thyself; Instruct thyself; Moderate thyself; Live for thy fellow + citizens, that they may live for thee. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0046" id="link2H_4_0046"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VOLNEY'S ANSWER TO DR. PRIESTLY.* + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In 1797, Dr. Priestly published a pamphlet, entitled, + "Observation on the increase of infidelity, with + animadversions upon the writings of several modern + unbelievers, and especially the Ruins of Mr. Volney." The + motto to this tract was: +</pre> + <p> + "Minds of little penetration rest naturally on the surface of things. They + do not like to pierce deep into them, for fear of labor and trouble; + sometimes still more for fear of truth." + </p> + <p> + This Letter is an answer from Volney, taken from the Anti-Jacobin Review + of March and April, 1799. + </p> + <p> + SIR.—I received in due time your pamphlet on the increase of + infidelity, together with the note without date which accompanied it.* My + answer has been delayed by the incidents of business, and even by ill + health, which you will surely excuse: this delay has, besides, no + inconvenience in it. The question between us is not of a very urgent + nature: the world would not go on less well with or without my answer as + with or without your book. I might, indeed, have dispensed with returning + you any answer at all; and I should have been warranted in so doing, by + the manner in which you have stated the debate, and by the opinion pretty + generally received that, on certain occasions, and with certain persons, + the most noble reply is silence. You seem to have been aware of this + yourself, considering the extreme precautions you have taken to deprive me + of this resource; but as according to our French customs, any answer is an + act of civility, I am not willing to concede the advantage of politeness—besides, + although silence is sometimes very significant, its eloquence is not + understood by every one, and the public which has not leisure to analyze + disputes (often of little interest) has a reasonable right to require at + least some preliminary explanations; reserving to itself, should the + discussion degenerate into the recriminative clamors of an irritated + self-love, to allow the right of silence to him in whom it becomes the + virtue of moderation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Dr. Priestly sent his pamphlet to Volney, desiring his + answer to the strictures on his opinions in his Ruins of + Empires. +</pre> + <p> + I have read, therefore, your animadversions on my Ruins, which you are + pleased to class among the writings of modern unbelievers, and since you + absolutely insist on my expressing my opinion before the public, I shall + now fulfill this rather disagreeable task with all possible brevity, for + the sake of economizing the time of our readers. In the first place, sir, + it appears evidently, from your pamphlet, that your design is less to + attack my book than my personal and moral character; and in order that the + public may pronounce with accuracy on this point, I submit several + passages fitted to throw light on the subject. + </p> + <p> + You say, in the preface of your discourses, p. 12, "There are, however, + unbelievers more ignorant than Mr. Paine, Mr. Volney, Lequino, and others + in France say," &c. + </p> + <p> + Also in the preface of your present observations, p. 20. "I can truly say + that in the writings of Hume, Mr. Gibbon, Voltaire, Mr. Volney—there + is nothing of solid argument: all abound in gross mistakes and + misrepresentations." Idem, p. 38—"Whereas had he (Mr. Volney) given + attention to the history of the times in which Christianity was + promulgated . . . he could have no more doubt . . . &c., it is as much + in vain to argue with such a person as this, as with a Chinese or even a + Hottentot." + </p> + <p> + Idem, p. 119—"Mr. Volney, if we may judge from his numerous + quotations of ancient writers in all the learned languages, oriental as + well as occidental, must be acquainted with all; for he makes no mention + of any translation, and yet if we judge from this specimen of his + knowledge of them, he cannot have the smallest tincture of that of the + Hebrew or even of the Greek." + </p> + <p> + And, at last, after having published and posted me in your very title + page, as an unbeliever and an infidel; after having pointed me out in your + motto as one of those superficial spirits who know not how to find out, + and are unwilling to encounter, truth; you add, p. 124, immediately after + an article in which you speak of me under all these denominations— + </p> + <p> + "The progress of infidelity, in the present age, is attended with a + circumstance which did not so frequently accompany it in any former + period, at least, in England, which is, that unbelievers in revelation + generally proceed to the disbelief of the being and providence of God so + as to become properly Atheists." So that, according to you, I am a + Chinese, a Hottentot, an unbeliever, an Atheist, an ignoramus, a man of no + sincerity; whose writings are full of nothing but gross mistakes and + misrepresentations. Now I ask you, sir, What has all this to do with the + main question? What has my book in common with my person? And how can you + hold any converse with a man of such bad connexions? In the second place, + your invitation, or rather, your summons to me, to point out the mistakes + which I think you have made with respect to my opinions, suggest to me + several observations. + </p> + <p> + First. You suppose that the public attaches a high importance to your + mistakes and to my opinions: but I cannot act upon a supposition. Am I not + an unbeliever? + </p> + <p> + Secondly. You say, p. 18, that the public will expect it from me: Where + are the powers by which you make the public speak and act? Is this also a + revelation? + </p> + <p> + Thirdly. You require me to point out your mistakes. I do not know that I + am under any such obligation: I have not reproached you with them; it is + not, indeed, very correct to ascribe to me, by selection or + indiscriminately, as you have done, all the opinions scattered through my + book, since, having introduced many different persons, I was under the + necessity of making them deliver different sentiments, according to their + different characters. The part which belongs to me is that of a traveler, + resting upon the ruins and meditating on the causes of the misfortunes of + the human race. To be consistent with yourself you ought to have assigned + to me that of the Hottentot or Samoyde savage, who argues with the + Doctors, chap. xxiii, and I should have accepted it; you have preferred + that of the erudite historian, chap. xxii, nor do I look upon this as a + mistake; I discover on the contrary, an insidious design to engage me in a + duel of self-love before the public, wherein you would excite the + exclusive interest of the spectators by supporting the cause which they + approve; while the task which you would impose on me, would only, in the + event of success, be attended with sentiments of disapprobation. Such is + your artful purpose, that, in attacking me as doubting the existence of + Jesus, you might secure to yourself, by surprise, the favor of every + Christian sect, although your own incredulity in his divine nature is not + less subversive of Christianity than the profane opinion, which does not + find in history the proof required by the English law to establish a fact: + to say nothing of the extraordinary kind of pride assumed in the silent, + but palpable, comparison of yourself to Paul and to Christ, by likening + your labors to theirs as tending to the same object, p. 10, preface. + Nevertheless, as the first impression of an attack always confers an + advantage, you have some ground for expecting you may obtain the apostolic + crown; unfortunately for your purpose I entertain no disposition to that + of martrydom: and however glorious it might be to me to fall under the arm + of him who has overcome Hume, Gibbon, Voltaire and even Frederick II., I + find myself under the necessity of declining your theological challenge, + for a number of substantial reasons. + </p> + <p> + 1. Because, to religious quarrels there is no end, since the prejudices of + infancy and education almost unavoidably exclude impartial reasoning, and + besides, the vanity of the champions becomes committed by the very + publicity of the contest, never to give up a first assertion, whence + result a spirit of sectarism and faction. + </p> + <p> + 2. Because no one has a right to ask of me an account of my religious + opinions. Every inquisition of this kind is a pretension to sovereignty, a + first step towards persecution; and the tolerant spirit of this country, + which you invoke, has much less in view to engage men to speak, than to + invite them to be silent. + </p> + <p> + 3. Because, supposing I do hold the opinions you attribute to me, I wish + not to engage my vanity so as never to retract, nor to deprive myself of + the resource of a conversion on some future day after more ample + information. + </p> + <p> + 4. And because, reverend sir, if, in the support of your own thesis, you + should happen to be discomfited before the Christian audience, it would be + a dreadful scandal; and I will not be a cause for scandal, even for the + sake of good. + </p> + <p> + 5. Because in this metaphysical contest our arms are too unequal; you + speaking in your mother tongue, which I scarcely lisp, might bring forth + huge volumes, while I could hardly oppose pages; and the public, who would + read neither production, might take the weight of the books for that of + reasoning. + </p> + <p> + 6. And because, being endowed with the gift of faith in a pretty + sufficient quantity, you might swallow in a quarter of an hour more + articles than my logic would digest in a week. + </p> + <p> + 7. Because again, if you were to oblige me to attend your sermons, as you + have compelled me to read your pamphlet, the congregation would never + believe that a man powdered and adorned like any worldling, could be in + the right against a man dressed out in a large hat, with straight hair,* + and a mortified countenance, although the gospel, speaking of the + pharisees of other times, who were unpowdered, says that when one fasts he + must anoint his head and wash his face.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Dr. Priestly has discarded his wig since he went to + America, and wears his own hair. Editor A. J. Reveiw. + + ** St. Matthew, Chapter VI. verses 16 and 17. +</pre> + <p> + 8. Because, finally, a dispute to one having nothing else to do would be a + gratification, while to me, who can employ my time better, it would be an + absolute loss. + </p> + <p> + I shall not then, reverend sir, make you my confessor in matters of + religion, but I will disclose to you my opinion, as a man of letters, on + the composition of your book. Having in former days, read many works of + theology, I was curious to learn whether by any chemical process you had + discovered real beings in that world of invisibles. Unfortunately, I am + obliged to declare to the public, which, according to your expression, p. + 19, "hopes to be instructed, to be led into truth, and not into error by + me," that I have not found in your book a single new argument, but the + mere repetition of what is told over and over in thousands of volumes, the + whole fruit of which has been to procure for their authors a cursory + mention in the dictionary of heresies. You everywhere lay down that as + proved which remains to be proved; with this peculiarity, that, as Gibbon + says, firing away your double battery against those who believe too much, + and those who believe too little, you hold out your own peculiar + sensations, as to the precise criterion of truth; so that we must all be + just of your size in order to pass the gate of that New Jerusalem which + you are building. After this, your reputation as a divine might have + become problematical with me; but recollecting the principle of the + association of ideas so well developed by Locke, whom you hold in + estimation, and whom, for that reason I am happy to cite to you, although + to him I owe that pernicious use of my understanding which makes me + disbelieve what I do not comprehend—I perceive why the public having + originally attached the idea of talents to the name of Mr. Priestly, + doctor in chemistry, continued by habit to associate it with the name of + Mr. Priestly, doctor in divinity; which, however, is not the same thing: + an association of ideas the more vicious as it is liable to be moved + inversely.* Happily you have yourself raised a bar of separation between + your admirers, by advising us in the first page of your preface, that your + present book is especially destined for believers. To cooperate, however, + with you, sir, in this judicious design, I must observe that it is + necessary to retrench two passages, seeing they afford the greatest + support to the arguments of unbelievers. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Mr. Blair, doctor of divinity, and Mr. Black, doctor in + chemistry, met at the coffee house in Edinburg: a new + theological pamphlet written by doctor Priestly was thrown + upon the table, "Really," said Dr. Blair, "this man had + better confine himself to chemistry, for he is absolutely + ignorant in theology:"—"I beg your pardon," answered Dr. + Black, "he is in the right, he is a minister of the gospel, + he ought to adhere to his profession, for in truth he knows + nothing of chemistry." +</pre> + <p> + You say, p. 15, "What is manifestly contrary to natural reason cannot be + received by it;"—and p. 62, "With respect to intellect, men and + brute animals are born in the same state, having the same external senses, + which are the only inlets to all ideas, and consequently the source of all + the knowledge and of all the mental habits they ever acquire." + </p> + <p> + Now if you admit, with Locke, and with us infidels, that every one has the + right of rejecting whatever is contrary to his natural reason, and that + all our ideas and all our knowledge are acquired only by the inlets of our + external senses; What becomes of the system of revelation, and of that + order of things in times past, which is so contradictory to that of the + time present? unless we consider it as a dream of the human brain during + the state of superstitious ignorance. + </p> + <p> + With these two single phrases, I could overturn the whole edifice of your + faith. Dread not, however, sir, in me such overflowing zeal. For the same + reason that I have not the frenzy of martyrdom, I have not that of making + proselytes. It becomes those ardent, or rather acrimonious tempers, who + mistake the violence of their sentiments for the enthusiasm of truth; the + ambition of noise and rumor, for the love of glory; and for the love of + their neighbor, the detestation of his opinions, and the secret desire of + dominion. + </p> + <p> + As for me, who have not received from nature the turbulent qualities of an + apostle, and never sustained in Europe the character of a dissenter, I am + come to America neither to agitate the conscience of men, nor to form a + sect, nor to establish a colony, in which, under the pretext of religion, + I might erect a little empire to myself. I have never been seen + evangelizing my ideas, either in temples or in public meetings. I have + never likewise practiced that quackery of beneficence, by which a certain + divine, imposing a tax upon the generosity of the public, procures for + himself the honors of a more numerous audience, and the merit of + distributing at his pleasure a bounty which costs him nothing, and for + which he receives grateful thanks dexterously stolen from the original + donors. + </p> + <p> + Either in the capacity of a stranger, or in that of a citizen, a sincere + friend to peace, I carry into society neither the spirit of dissension, + nor the desire of commotion; and because I respect in every one what I + wish him to respect in me, the name of liberty is in my mind nothing else + but the synonyma of justice. + </p> + <p> + As a man, whether from moderation or indolence, a spectator of the world + rather than an actor in it, I am every day less tempted to take on me the + management of the minds or bodies of men: it is sufficient for an + individual to govern his own passions and caprices. + </p> + <p> + If by one of these caprices, I am induced to think it may be useful, + sometimes, to publish my reflections, I do it without obstinacy or + pretension to that implicit faith, the ridicule of which you desire to + impart to me, p. 123. My whole book of the Ruins which you treat so + ungratefully, since you thought it amusing, p. 122, evidently bears this + character. By means of the contrasted opinions I have scattered through + it, it breathes that spirit of doubt and uncertainty which appears to me + the best suited to the weakness of the human mind, and the most adapted to + its improvement, inasmuch as it always leaves a door open to new truths; + while the spirit of dogmatism and immovable belief, limiting our progress + to a first received opinion, binds us at hazard, and without resource, to + the yoke of error or falsehood, and occasions the most serious mischiefs + to society; since by combining with the passions, it engenders fanaticism, + which, sometimes misled and sometimes misleading, though always intolerant + and despotic, attacks whatever is not of its own nature; drawing upon + itself persecution when it is weak, and practising persecution when it is + powerful; establishing a religion of terror, which annihilates the + faculties, and vitiates the conscience: so that, whether under a political + or a religious aspect, the spirit of doubt is friendly to all ideas of + liberty, truth, or genius, while a spirit of confidence is connected with + the ideas of tyranny, servility, and ignorance. + </p> + <p> + If, as is the fact, our own experience and that of others daily teaches us + that what at one time appeared true, afterwards appeared demonstrably + false, how can we connect with our judgments that blind and presumptuous + confidence which pursues those of others with so much hatred? + </p> + <p> + No doubt it is reasonable, and even honest, to act according to our + present feelings and conviction: but if these feelings and their causes do + vary by the very nature of things, how dare we impose upon ourselves or + others an invariable conviction? How, above all, dare we require this + conviction in cases where there is really no sensation, as happens in + purely speculative questions, in which no palpable fact can be presented? + </p> + <p> + Therefore, when opening the book of nature, (a more authentic one and more + easy to be read than leaves of paper blackened over with Greek or Hebrew,) + and when I reflected that the slightest change in the material world has + not been in times past, nor is at present effected by the difference of so + many religions and sects which have appeared and still exist on the globe, + and that the course of the seasons, the path of the sun, the return of + rain and drought, are the same for the inhabitants of each country, + whether Christians, Mussulmans, Idolaters, Catholics, Protestants, etc., I + am induced to believe that the universe is governed by laws of wisdom and + justice, very different from those which human ignorance and intolerance + would enact. + </p> + <p> + And as in living with men of very opposite religious persuasions, I have + had occasion to remark that their manners were, nevertheless, very + analogous; that is to say, among the different Christian sects, among the + Mahometans, and even among those people who were of no sect, I have found + men who practise all the virtues, public and private, and that too without + affectation; while others, who were incessantly declaiming of God and + religion, abandoned themselves to every vicious habit which their belief + condemned, I thereby became convinced that Ethics, the doctrines of + morality, are the only essential, as they are only demonstrable, part of + religion. And as, by your own avowal, the only end of religion is to + render men better, in order to add to their happiness, p. 62, I have + concluded that there are but two great systems of religion in the world, + that of good sense and beneficence, and that of malice and hypocrisy. + </p> + <p> + In closing this letter, I find myself embarrassed by the nature of the + sentiment which I ought to express to you, for in declaring as you have + done, p. 123, that you do not care for the contempt of such as me* + (ignorant as you were of my opinion), you tell me plainly that you do not + care for their esteem. I leave, therefore, to your discernment and taste + to determine the sentiment most congenial to my situation and your desert. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "And what does it do for me here, except, perhaps, expose + me to the contempt of such men as Mr. Volney, which, + however, I feel myself pretty well able to bear?" p. 124. + This language is the more surprising, as Dr. Priestly never + received anything from me but civilities. In the year 1791 + I sent him a dissertation of mine on the Chronology of the + Ancients, in consequence of some charts which he had himself + published. His only answer was to abuse me in a pamphlet in + 1792. After this first abuse, on meeting me here last + winter, he procured me an invitation to dine with his friend + Mr. Russell, at whose house he lodged; after having shown me + polite attention at that dinner, he abuses me in his new + pamphlet. After this second abuse he meets me in Spruce + Street, and takes me by the hand as a friend, and speaks of + me in a large company under that denomination. Now I ask + the public, what kind of a man is Dr. Priestly? +</pre> + <p> + C. F. VOLNEY. + </p> + <p> + Philadelphia, March 10, 1797. + </p> + <p> + P. S. I do not accompany this public letter with a private note to Dr. + Priestly, because communications of that nature carry an appearance of + bravado, which, even in exercising the right of a necessary defence, + appear to me imcompatible with decency and politeness. + </p> + <p> + THE ZODIACAL SIGNS AND CONSTELLATIONS. + </p> + <p> + (Compiled by the publisher from recognized authorities.) + </p> + <p> + The Zodiac is an imaginary girdle or belt in the celestial sphere, which + extends about eight degrees on each side of the Ecliptic. It is divided + into twelve portions, called the signs of the Zodiac, within which all the + planets make their revolutions. The Zodiac is so called from the animals + represented upon it, and is supposed to have originated in remote ages and + in latitudes where the camel and elephant were comparatively unknown. This + pictorial representation of the zodiac was probably the origin, as M. + Dupuis suggests, of the Arabian and Egyptian adoration of animals and + birds, and has led in the natural progress of events to the adoration of + images by both Christians and pagans. + </p> + <p> + "The Signs of the Zodiac, (says Godfrey Higgins in The Anacalypsis) with + the exception of the Scorpion, which was exchanged by Dan for the Eagle, + were carried by the different tribes of the Israelites on their standards; + and Taurus, Leo, Aquarius, and Scorpio or the Eagle—the four signs + of Reuben, Judah, Ephriam, and Dan—were placed at the four corners, + (the four cardinal points), of their encampment, evidently in allusion to + the cardinal points of the sphere, the equinoxes and solstices, when the + equinox was in Taurus. (See Parkhurst's Lexicon.) These coincidences prove + that this religious system had its origin before the bull ceased to be an + equinoctial sign, and prove also, that the religion of Moses was + originally the same in its secret mysteries as that of the Heathen, or, if + my reader likes it better, that the Heathen secret mysteries were the same + as those of Moses." + </p> + <p> + The Ecliptic, a great circle of the sphere, (shown on the preceding map by + two parallel lines), is supposed to be drawn through the middle of the + Zodiac, cutting the Equator at two points, (called the Equinoctial + points), at an angle with the equinoctial of 23 degrees 28 minutes, (the + sun's greatest declination), and is the path which the earth is supposed + to describe amidst the fixed stars in performing its annual circuit around + the sun. It is called the Ecliptic because the eclipses of the sun and + moon always occur under it. + </p> + <p> + The Signs are each the twelfth part of the Ecliptic or Zodiac, (30 + degrees,) and are reckoned from the point of intersection of the ecliptic + and equator at the vernal equinox. They are named respectively Aries, + Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, + Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces. These names are borrowed from the + constellations of the zodiac of the same denomination, which corresponded + when these divisions were originally made; but in consequence of the + precession, recession, or retrocession of the equinoxes, (about 50 1/10" + yearly, at the rate of about 72 years to a degree, displacing an entire + sign in about 2152 years, and making an entire revolution of the + equinoctial in about 25,868 years), the positions of these constellations + in the heavens no longer correspond with the divisions of the ecliptic of + the same name, but are in advance of them. Thus, the constellation Aries + is now in that part of the ecliptic called Taurus, and the stars of Taurus + are in Gemini, those of Gemini in Cancer, and so on throughout the + ecliptic. + </p> + <p> + The relative positions of the signs and constellations in the zodiac and + ecliptic seem thus to have gradually changed with the revolving years; and + the worship of the three constellations, Taurus, Aries, and Pisces, with + which Christianity is so intimately connected, seems to have changed in a + corresponding degree. The worship of the bull of Egypt—the celestial + Taurus—has given place to that of the lamb of Palestine—the + celestial Aries; and under the astronomical emblem Pisces—the + twelfth sign of the zodiac—the dominant faith of to-day was + appropriately taught by the twelve apostolic fishermen. + </p> + <p> + It is from one of these chosen fishermen, St. Peter, that the Pope of Rome + claims to have derived his arbitrary power for binding and loosing on + earth those who are to be bound and loosed in heaven. (Matt. xvi, 19.) The + grave responsibility of wielding with justice and equity this tremendous + power over the future destiny of mankind, seems never to have disconcerted + any of the successors of St. Peter. They have all proved to be equally + arrogant and intolerant, zealous for both temporal and spiritual + domination, and merciless to those who have opposed their pretensions. The + present incumbent of the papal chair, who modestly claims the attribute of + infallibility, seems proud of his inherited title, The Great Fisherman! + and hopes in the progress of time, with the assistance of his monks, + bishops, and cardinals, to entangle all nations in his net of faith, and + to dictate with unquestioned authority the religious worship of the entire + human race. + </p> + <p> + As the precession of the equinoxes still continues as of yore, and as the + masses still continue credulous and devout, they may in succeeding ages be + again called upon to worship the god Apis, when the sign of Taurus shall + again coincide in the zodiac and the ecliptic; and Aries, "the lamb of + God," may again be offered in the "fullness of time" as a sacrifice for + mankind, again be crucified, and again shed his redeeming blood to wash + away the sins of a believing world. + </p> + <p> + M. Dupuis has satisfactorily shown in The History of all Religions that + the twelve labors of the god and saviour Hercules were astronomical + allegories—the history of the passage of the sun through the twelve + signs of the zodiac—and these labors are so similar to the + sufferings of Jesus, that the Rev. Mr. Parkhurst has been obliged, much + against his inclination, to acknowledge that they "were types of what the + real Saviour was to do and suffer." (Parkhurst, p.47.) An intimate + connection, if not identity, is thus shown between ancient and modern + belief—between the paganism of the past and the orthodoxy of the + present. + </p> + <p> + THE ZODIACAL SIGNS. + </p> + <p> + ARIES, the Ram: (marked [symbol for ARIES])—A northern + constellation, usually named as the first sign in the zodiac, into which, + when the sun enters at the vernal equinox in March, the days and nights + are of equal length. Aries has been regarded by the devout during many + ages as the celestial representative, visible in the heavens, of "the Lamb + of God that taketh away the sins of the world." + </p> + <p> + TAURUS, the Bull:(marked thus, [symbol for TAURUS])—The second sign + in the zodiac, which by the Arabians is called Ataur. This constellation + was worshipped for ages by the idolatrous Egyptians as the heavenly + representative of their god Osiris; and derives its name, according to + Grecian fable, from the bull into which Jupiter transformed himself in + order to carry Europa over into Crete; but the constellation was probably + so named by the Egyptians to designate that period of the year, (April), + in which cows mostly bring forth their young. + </p> + <p> + "The Rev. Mr. Maurice in his work on the antiquities of India, has shown + that the May-day festival and the May-pole of Great Britain with its + garlands, etc., are the remains of an ancient festival of Egypt and India, + and probably of Phoenicia, when these nations, in countries very distant, + and from times very remote, have all, with one consent, celebrated the + entrance of the sun into the sign of Taurus at the vernal equinox." + </p> + <p> + GEMINI, the Twins: (marked thus, [symbol for GEMINI])—A zodiacal + constellation, visible in May, containing the two bright stars Castor and + Pollux, the fabled sons of Leda and Jupiter, who during their lives had + cleared the Hellespont and neighboring seas of pirates, and were therefore + deemed the protectors of navigators and sailors. + </p> + <p> + CANCER, the Crab: (marked thus, [symbol for CANCER])—Is the fourth + sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters on the 21st day of June, and is + thence called the summer solstice. According to Grecian fable, the crab + was transported to heaven at the request of Juno, after it had been slain + by Hercules during his battle with the serpent Python, but the evident + design of the name is to represent the apparent backward motion of the sun + in June, which is said to resemble the motions of a crab. + </p> + <p> + LEO, the Lion: ([symbol for LEO]).—Is the fifth sign in the zodiac, + and contains one star of the first magnitude, called Regulus, or Cor + Leonis—the Lion's Heart. The fervid heat of July, when the sun has + attained its greatest power, is now symbolized in our almanacs by the + figure of an enraged lion; and the feasts or sacrifices formerly + celebrated among the ancients during this month, in honor of the sun, + (which they also represented under the form of a lion,) were called + Leonitica. The priests who performed the sacred rites were called Leones. + This feast was sometimes called Mithriaca, because Mithra was the name of + the sun among the Persians. The sacred writings abound with references to + the "king of beasts;" among the most interesting of which is the story of + the battle between the lion and Samson, the Jewish Herculus; while the + most wonderful example of animal evolution on record is found in the + sixty-fifth chapter of Isaiah, where we are gravely informed that "the + lion shall eat straw like the bullock." + </p> + <p> + VIRGO, Virgin Mother, Venus, Eve, Isis, &c.—([symbol for + VIRGO]).—Is the sixth sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters about + the 21st of August. The myths and fables regarding the virgin which abound + among all nations and all religions, are both various and voluminous, and + we may add somewhat improbable. They all agree, however, in this, that the + female, shown on the preceding diagram, holding in her right hand a branch + of ripened fruit,—the apples of Paradise,—was intended to + represent the reproductive powers of nature,—the abundance, + satisfaction and contentment which mortals enjoy during the happy period + of harvest. + </p> + <p> + LIBRA, the Balance.—The seventh sign of the zodiac, directly + opposite to Aries, from which it is distant 180 degrees. It is marked thus + [symbol for LIBRA], after the manner of a pair of scales; to denote, + probably, that when the sun arrives at this part of the ecliptic, the days + and nights are equal, as if weighed in a balance. Hence the period when + the sun enters Libra, (about September 21st,) is called the Autumnal + equinox. On the 25th of September was born John the Baptist, the + forerunner of his cousin Jesus, who came to his exaltation of glory on the + 25th of March, the Vernal equinox. "The equinoxes and solstices," says + Higgins, "equally marked the births and deaths of John and Jesus." The one + preceded and prepared the way for the other, who receded. One advanced, + the other declined. Jesus ascended, John descended. Astrologically + speaking, "He must increase, but I must decrease." (John iii, 30.) + </p> + <p> + SCORPIO, the Scorpion.—The eighth sign of the zodiac, which the sun + enters on the 23d of October, is marked thus [symbol for SCORPIO]. Scorpio + is fabled to have killed the great hunter Orion, and for that exploit to + have been placed among the constellations. For this reason it is also said + that when Scorpio rises Orion sets. + </p> + <p> + SAGITTARIUS, the Archer: (marked thus, [symbol for SAGITTARIUS]) is the + ninth zodiacal sign, and corresponds with the month of November. This sign + is represented like a centaur and was fabled to be Crotus, the son of + Eupheme, the nurse of the Muses. + </p> + <p> + CAPRICORNUS, the Goat.([symbol for CAPRICORNUS])—The tenth sign of + the zodiac, which the sun enters the 21st of December, (the longest night + in the year,) called the winter solstice. This sign is drawn to represent + the horns of a goat, and is fabled to have been Pan, who in the war of the + giants was taken to heaven in the shape of a goat. Others claim that it + was the goat of Amalthaea, which fed Jupiter with her milk. Macrobius, who + calls Cancer and Capricorn the gates of the sun, makes the latter sign to + represent his motion, after the manner of a goat climbing the mountains. + </p> + <p> + AQUARIUS, the Water Bearer.—A constellation in the heavens so + called, because during its rising there is usually an abundance of rain. + It is the eleventh sign in the zodiac, reckoned from Aries, and is marked + thus, [symbol for AQUARIUS]. It rises in January and sets in February, and + is supposed by the poets to be Ganymede. + </p> + <p> + PISCES, the Fishes, [symbol for PISCES].—The twelfth sign of the + zodiac, rises in February and is represented by two fishes tied together + by the tails. These fishes are fabled by the Greeks to be those into which + Venus and Cupid were changed to escape from the giant Typhon. This fable + may not be true, but that wonderful miracles were once performed with two + small fishes is stated in the ninth chapter of the Gospel of St. Luke, + where it is said that 5000 hungry mortals were cheaply, if not sumptuously + regaled with two small fishes and five loaves of bread; while a large + surplus of this piscatory diet, larger indeed than the original stock, + still remained intact. + </p> + <p> + In the vestibule or approaches to catholic churches is usually found a + vase filled with water, (called Piscina,) and this water is considered + holy. The Fish-days are observed as holy days, or fast days, in which Fish + may be eaten and meat is forbidden; and learned writers have asserted that + in the worship of Pisces may be found the true secret of the origin of the + rite of baptism. The Fish-god Oannes, is said to have come out of the + Erythraean Sea and taught the Babylonians all kinds of useful knowledge. + Ionnes or Jonas went headlong into the sea and into a fish, and has kindly + recorded for our instruction his remarkable adventures. The miraculous + draughts of fishes in the apostolic age still excite the emulation of + modern fishermen, who cannot even hope to rival the wonders that have been + recorded. St. Peter is said to have secured ready money from the mouth of + a fish that he caught with a hook and line in the sea of Galilee. (Matthew + xvii, 27.) His success was justly rewarded, and to him was delegated the + power of ruling the infant church. Pisces thus displaced Aries. The + fisherman succeeded the shepherd. The precession of the equinoxes produced + a new avatar; a new sign arose in the heavens; and a new saviour was born + to save mankind. + </p> + <p> + THE CONSTELLATIONS. + </p> + <p> + SIRIUS, the Dog Star.—A bright star of the first magnitude in the + mouth of the constellation Canis Major. This is the brightest star that + appears in our firmament, and is supposed by some to be the nearest. + </p> + <p> + LEPUS.—One of the southern constellations, placed near Orion, + according to Grecian fable, because it was one of the animals which he + hunted. + </p> + <p> + ERIDANUS.—A winding southern constellation, near the Cetus, + containing the bright star Achemar. + </p> + <p> + CETUS, the Whale.—A southern constellation, and one of the + forty-eight old asterisms. It is fabled to have been the sea monster sent + by Neptune to devour Andromeda, which was killed by Perseus. + </p> + <p> + CRATER, the Cup.—A southern constellation, near Hydra. This is + supposed by Hyainus to be the cup which Apollo gave to the Corvus, or + Raven. + </p> + <p> + CORVUS.—One of the old constellations in the southern hemisphere, + near Sagittarius. This bird is fabled to have been translated to heaven by + Apollo for discovering to him the infidelity of the nymph Coronis. + </p> + <p> + ARGO NAVIS, the Ship.—A constellation near to the Canis Major, and + the name of the ship which carried Jason and his fifty-four companions to + Colchis in quest of the golden fleece, and was said to have been + translated into the heavens. + </p> + <p> + CANOPUS.—The name formerly given to a star in the second bend of + Eridanus. A bright star of the first magnitude in the rudder of the ship + Argo, which, according to Pliny, was visible at Alexandria in Egypt. + </p> + <p> + CENTAURUS.—One of the forty-eight old constellations in the southern + hemisphere, represented in the form of half man and half horse, who was + fabled by the Greeks to have been Chiron, the tutor of Achilles. + </p> + <p> + AVA, or ALTAR.—One of the old constellations, and fabled to have + been that at which the giants entered into their conspiracy against the + gods; wherefore Jupiter, in commemoration of the event, transplanted the + altar into the heavens. + </p> + <p> + PEGASUS.—One of the forty-eight old constellations of the northern + hemisphere, figured in the form of a flying horse. + </p> + <p> + DELPHINUS, or DOLPHIN.—A northern constellation, near Pegasus. The + Dolphin is fabled to have been translated to heaven by Neptune. + </p> + <p> + AQUILA, the Eagle.—In the Arabic Altair, but in the Persian tables + the Flying Vulture. This is one of the old constellations, situated near + Delphinus in the northern hemisphere. According to Grecian fable, Aquila + represented Ganymede or Hebe, who was transported to heaven and made + cup-bearer to Jupiter. + </p> + <p> + SAGITTA—the Dart or Arrow, called by the Arabians Schahan. One of + the old constellations in the northern hemisphere, near Aquila and + Delphinus. It is fabled to have been the arrow with which Hercules slew + the vulture that was devouring the liver of Prometheus who was, like + Jesus, crucified for loving mankind. + </p> + <p> + CYGNUS, the Swan.—An old constellation in the milky-way, between + Equus and the Dragon. This is fabled to be the swan into which Jupiter + transformed himself in order to deceive the virtuous Leda, wife of + Tyndareus, king of Sparta. The Grecian matron, like the Jewish virgin, + thus became the mother of a God. + </p> + <p> + LYRA.—A northern constellation between Hercules and Cygnus, + containing a white star of the first magnitude. + </p> + <p> + MILKY-WAY.—Galaxy, or Via Lactia.—A broad luminous path or + circle encompassing the heavens, which is easily discernible by its white + appearance, from which it derives its name. It is supposed to be the + blended light of innumerable fixed stars, which are not distinguishable + with ordinary telescopes. + </p> + <p> + HYDRA, the Serpent.—A southern constellation of great length, which + is drawn to represent a serpent. The Hydra is fabled to have been placed + in the heavens by Apollo, to frighten the Raven from drinking. + </p> + <p> + ORION, the hunter.—A constellation of the southern hemisphere with + respect to the ecliptic, but half southern and half northern with respect + to the equinoctial. It is placed near the feet of the bull, and is + composed of seventeen stars in the form of a sword, which has given + occasion to the poets to speak of Orion's sword. He was described by the + Greeks as a "mighty hunter," who for his exploits was placed in the + heavens by Jupiter, between the Canis and the Lepus. He is believed by + many to have been the "mighty hunter" spoken of in the bible, under the + name of Nimrod. (See Gen. x: 8, 9; 1 Chron. i: 10; Micha v: 6, Job ix, 9; + Amos v, 8.) + </p> + <p> + PERSEUS.—This constellation is named from Perseus, the son of + Jupiter by Danae, who was translated into the heavens by the assistance of + Minerva, for having released Andromeda from her confinement on the rock to + which she was chained. He is represented in the preceding illustration + holding a drawn sword in his right hand and in his left the head of + Medusa, the Gorgon, whose terrifying appearance changed all who beheld her + into stone, and whom he had destroyed with the assistance of the wings he + had borrowed from Mercury, the helmet from Pluto, the sword from Vulcan, + and the shield from Minerva. + </p> + <p> + JOSEPH'S STABLE; AURIGA, the Wagoner:—A northern constellation + between Perseus and Gemini, represented by the figure of an old man + supporting a goat. He is said to have been taken to heaven by Jupiter + after the invention of wagons. + </p> + <p> + URSA MAJOR, the Bear.—One of the prominent northern constellations, + situated near the north pole. It contains the stars called the Dipper. + Ursa Minor contains the pole-star, which is shown in the extremity of the + tail of the bear. + </p> + <p> + ANDROMEDA.—A northern constellation, represented by a woman chained; + as, according to Grecian fable, Andromeda, the daughter of Cassiopia, was + bound to a rock by the Nereides, and afterwards released by Perseus. + Minerva changed her into a constellation after her death, and placed her + in the heavens. + </p> + <p> + DRACO OR DRAGON.—A northern constellation, supposed to represent the + Dragon that guarded the Hesperian fruit, and was killed by Hercules. It is + said that Juno took it up to heaven and placed it among the + constellations. + </p> + <p> + BOOTIS, the Ox driver: so called because this constellation seems to + follow the Great Bear as the driver follows his oxen. Bootis is + represented as grasping in his right hand a sickle and in his left a club, + and is fabled to have been Icarius, who was transported to heaven because + he was a great cultivator of the vine; for when Bootes rises the works of + ploughing and cultivation go forward. + </p> + <p> + CORONA BOREALIS. Northern Crown.—One of the old northern + constellations, between Hercules and Bootes. + </p> + <p> + CORONA AUSTRALIS—Southern Crown.—One of the old constellations + in the southern hemisphere, between Sagittarius and Scorpio. The Corona + were fabled to be Menippe and Metioche, two daughters of Orion, who + sacrificed themselves at the suggestion of an oracle, to protect Boeotia, + their native country, from the ravages of a pestilence: it being the + belief of idolatrous nations that an angry god could be propitiated by + human sacrifices, and that the death of the innocent might atone for the + sins of the guilty. The deities of Hades were astonished, it is said, at + the patriotism and devotion of these Grecian maidens, who had so + generously and uselessly sacrificed their lives. After their death two + stars were seen to issue from the altars that still smoked with their + blood, and these stars were placed in the heavens in the form of a crown + or coronet. + </p> + <p> + CEPHEUS AND CASSIOPIA.—One of the old asterism in the northern + hemisphere, near the pole. According to Grecian fables, Cassiopia and her + husband Cepheus, king of Etheopia, were placed among the constellations to + witness the punishment inflicted on their daughter, Andromeda. + </p> + <p> + TRIANGULARIUM.—A name for both one of the old and new constellations + in the northern hemisphere, between Andromeda and Aries. + </p> + <p> + SERPENTARIUS, called Ophiucus, is a constellation in the northern + hemisphere, between Scorpio and Hercules. + </p> + <p> + HERCULES, one of the old northern constellations. In Grecian mythology it + was taught and believed that Hercules, the Theban, was born of a human + mother and an immortal father, like other so-called saviours of mankind. + His mother, the fair Alcmena, wife of Amphitryon, having found favor in + the eyes of the god Jupiter, soon fell an unwilling victim to his + celestial wiles. The life of the infant Hercules, born of this unnatural + union, was threatened by the jealous Juno, the same as the life of the + infant Jesus was threatened by the tyrant Herod. Like Jesus, Hercules + devoted his life to the benefit of the human race, and like Jesus he was + also worshipped after his death as a God in heaven. He is shown in the + astrological chart, enveloped in the skin of the lion he has slain, with + his club upraised, and his foot placed threateningly above the head of the + Dragon, as if about to fulfill the scriptural prophecy, that "the seed of + the woman shall bruise the serpent's head." + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1397 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |