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diff --git a/old/14357-8.txt b/old/14357-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bc93bcc --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14357-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3413 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, Rudolph Eucken, by Abel J. Jones + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Rudolph Eucken + +Author: Abel J. Jones + +Release Date: December 15, 2004 [eBook #14357] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDOLPH EUCKEN*** + + +E-text prepared by David Garcia, Karina Aleksandrova, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +RUDOLF EUCKEN + +A Philosophy of Life + +by + +ABEL J. JONES, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. + + Formerly Member of the University of Jena, Scholar of Clare + College, Cambridge, and Assistant Lecturer at the University + College, Cardiff + +London: T. C. & E. C. Jack +67 Long Acre, W.C., and Edinburgh +New York: Dodge Publishing Co. + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +PREFACE + + +The name of Eucken has become a familiar one in philosophical and +religious circles. Until recent years the reading of his books was +confined to those possessing a knowledge of German, but of late several +have been translated into the English language, and now the students of +philosophy and religion are agog with accounts of a new philosopher who +is at once a great ethical teacher and an optimistic prophet. There is +no doubt that Eucken has a great message, and those who cannot find time +to make a thorough study of his works should not fail to know something +of the man and his teachings. The aim of this volume is to give a brief +and clear account of his philosophical ideas, and to inspire the reader +to study for himself Eucken's great works. + +Professor Rudolf Eucken was born in 1846, at Aurich in Frisia. He +attended school in his native town, and then proceeded to study at the +Universities of Göttingen and Berlin. In 1874 he was invited to the +Professorship of Philosophy at the University of Jena, and here he has +laboured for thirty-eight years; during this period he has been listened +to and admired by many of the more advanced students of philosophy of +all countries and continents. + +His earliest writings were historical in character, and consisted mainly +of learned essays upon the classical and German philosophers. + +Following upon these appeared valuable studies in the history of +philosophy, which brought out, too, to some extent, Eucken's own +philosophical ideas. + +His latest works have been more definitely constructive. In _Life's +Basis and Life's Ideal_, and _The Truth of Religion_, he gives +respectively a full account of his philosophical system, and of his +ideas concerning religion. + +Several smaller works contain his ideas in briefer and more popular +form. + +As a lecturer he is charming and inspiring. He is not always easy to +understand; his sentences are often long, florid, and complex. +Sometimes, indeed, he is quite beyond the comprehension of his +students--but when they do not understand, they admire, and feel they +are in the presence of greatness. His writings contain many of the +faults of his lectures. They are often laboured and obscure, diffuse and +verbose. + +But these faults are minor in character, compared with the greatness of +his work. There is no doubt that his is one of the noblest attempts ever +made to solve the great question of life. Never was a philosophy more +imbued with the spirit of battle against the evil and sordid, and with +the desire to find in life the highest and greatest that can be found in +it. + +I have to thank Professor Eucken for the inspiration of his lectures and +books, various writers, translators, and friends for suggestions, and +especially my wife, whose help in various ways has been invaluable. + +Passages are quoted from several of the works mentioned in the +Bibliography, especially from Eucken's "The Truth of Religion," with the +kind permission of Messrs. Williams & Norgate--the publishers. + +ABEL J. JONES. + +CARDIFF. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + + I. THE PROBLEM OF LIFE + + II. HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN SOLVED? + + III. ANOTHER SEARCH FOR TRUTH + + IV. THE PAST, PRESENT, AND THE ETERNAL + + V. THE "HIGH" AND THE "LOW" + + VI. THE ASCENT TO FREEDOM AND PERSONALITY + + VII. THE PERSONAL AND THE UNIVERSAL + +VIII. RELIGION: HISTORICAL AND ABSOLUTE + + IX. CONCLUSION: CRITICISM AND APPRECIATION + + BIBLIOGRAPHY + + INDEX + + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE PROBLEM OF LIFE + + +Before we proceed to outline Eucken's philosophical position, it will be +well if we can first be clear as to the special problem with which he +concerns himself. Philosophers have at some time or other considered all +the problems of heaven and earth to be within their province, especially +the difficult problems for which a simple solution is impossible. Hence +it is, perhaps, that philosophy has been in disrepute, especially in +English-speaking countries, the study of the subject has been very +largely limited to a small class of students, and the philosopher has +been regarded as a dreamy, theorising, and unpractical individual. + +Many people, when they hear of Eucken, will put him out of mind as an +ordinary member of a body of cranks. From Eucken's point of view this is +the most unfortunate thing that can happen, for his message is not +directed to a limited number of advanced students of philosophy, but is +meant for all thinking members of the human race. + +The problem he endeavours to solve is far from being one of mere +theoretical interest; on the contrary it has to do with matters of +immediate practical concern to the life of the individual and of the +community. To ignore him will be to fail to take account of one of the +most rousing philosophies of modern times. + +The apathy that exists in regard to the subject of philosophy is not +easy to explain. It is not that philosophising is only possible to the +greatest intellects; it is indeed natural for the normal mind to do so. +In a quiet hour, when the world with its rush and din leaves us to +ourselves and the universe, we begin to ask ourselves "Why" and "How," +and then almost unconsciously we philosophise. Nothing is more natural +to the human mind than to wonder, and to wonder is to begin to +philosophise. + +Perhaps philosophers have been largely to blame for the indifference +shown; their terms have often been needlessly difficult, their language +obscure, and their ideas abstruse. Too often, too, their abstract +speculations have caused them to ignore or forget the actual experience +of mankind. + +Those who have quarrelled with philosophy for these or other reasons +will do well to lay their prejudices aside when they start a study of +Eucken, for though he has some of the faults of his class, he has many +striking and exceptional excellences. + +Philosophers in general set out to solve the riddle of the universe. +They differ in their statement of the problem, in the purpose of the +attempt, and in their methods of attempting the solution. Some will +wonder how this marvellous universe ever came into existence, and will +consider the question of the existence of things to be the problem of +philosophy. Others in observing the diversity of things in the universe +wonder what is behind it all; they seek to go beyond mere appearances, +and to investigate the nature of that behind the appearances, which they +call the reality. In their attempts to solve one or both of these +problems, thinkers are led to marvel how it is that we get to know +things at all; they are tempted to investigate the possibility of +knowledge, and are in this way side-tracked from the main problem. +Others in their investigations are struck with amazement at the +intricate organisation of the human mind; they leave the riddle of the +universe to study the processes of human thought, and examine as far as +they are able the phenomena of consciousness. Then thought itself claims +the attention of other philosophers; they seek to find what are the laws +of valid thought, what rules must be followed in order that through +reasoning we may arrive at correct conclusions. Others become attracted +to an investigation of the good in the universe, and their question +changes from "What is?" to "What ought to be?" Others interest +themselves in the problem of the beautiful, and endeavour to determine +the essence of the beautiful and of its appreciation. In this way the +subject of philosophy separates out into a number of branches. The study +of the beautiful is called Æsthetics; of the good, Ethics; of the laws +of thought, Logic; of the mind processes, Psychology; of the possibility +of knowledge, the Theory of knowledge; while the deeper problems of the +existence of things, of reality and unity in the universe, are generally +included under Metaphysics. + +It need hardly be pointed out that all these branches are very closely +related, and that a discussion of any one of them involves to some +extent a reference to the others. One cannot, for example, attempt to +solve the great question of reality without touching upon the +possibility of knowledge, without some reference to the processes of the +human mind, and the standards of the validity of thought, of the good, +and of the beautiful. + +It is however essential, if one is to appreciate a philosopher, to +understand clearly what his main problem is. Therein lies frequently the +differences among philosophers--that is, in the special emphasis laid on +one problem, and the attention to, or neglect of other aspects. To fail +to be clear on this matter frequently means to misunderstand a +philosopher. + +And it would seem that many critics have failed to appreciate the work +of Eucken to the extent they should, because they have expected him to +deal in detail with problems which it is not his intention to discuss, +and have failed to appreciate what special problem it is that he +attempts to solve. + +Eucken's special problem is that of the reality in the universe, of the +unity there exists in the diversity of things. In so far as he makes +this his problem, he is at one with other philosophers in investigating +what may perhaps be considered to be the most profound problem that the +human mind has ever conceived. The fact that distinguishes Eucken from a +large number of other thinkers is that he starts where they leave off. +At a rule, philosophers begin their investigation with a consideration +of matter, and proceed by slow degrees to attempt to explain the reality +at the basis of it. Some never get further, and dispense with the +question of human life and thought as mere aspects or manifestations of +the material world. But the problem of life is for Eucken the one +problem--he seeks to find the reality beneath the superficialities of +human existence, and he has little to say concerning the world of +matter. And, after all, it is the problem of life that urgently calls +for solution, for upon the solution that is accepted, the life of the +individual is to a large extent based. It is, of course, very +interesting to meditate and speculate upon the material world, its +origin and evolution, but the question is very largely one of mere +theoretical interest--a kind of game or puzzle for studious minds. It is +the question of life itself that is ultimately of practical interest to +every human soul. And this is the problem that Eucken would solve. Hence +those who expect to find a closely reasoned philosophy on matter and its +manifestations must look elsewhere, for Eucken has little for them. +Eucken's philosophy is a philosophy of life, and he only touches +incidentally those aspects of philosophy that are not immediately +concerned with his special problem. He refuses to be allured from the +main problem by subsidiary investigations, and perhaps rightly so, for +one problem of such magnitude would seem to be enough for one human mind +to attempt. Eucken is a philosopher who lays foundations and deals with +broad outlines and principles; it must be left to his many disciples to +fill in any gaps that exist on this account, by attempting to solve the +subsidiary problems with which Eucken cannot for the present concern +himself. + +If Eucken's problem differs fundamentally from that of most other +philosophers, perhaps the purpose of his investigations is still a more +striking characteristic. He is anxious to solve the riddle of the +universe in order that there may be drawn from the solution an +inspiration which shall help the human race to concentrate its energies +upon the highest ideals of life. The desire to find a meaning which will +explain, and at the same time infuse zest and gladness into every +department of life has become a passion with him, and in finding that +meaning, his great endeavour is to prove the truth of human freedom and +personality. He wishes to solve the riddle in order that man may become +a better man, the world a better world. His aim is definitely an +ethical aim, and his purpose a practical one of the noblest order, and +not one of mere intellectual interest. + +There is much, too, that is original in his methods--this will become +evident in the chapters that follow. He begins with an inquiry into the +solutions that have been offered. After careful investigation he finds +they all fail to satisfy the conditions which a solution should satisfy. +His discussions of these theories are most illuminating, and those who +do not agree with his conclusions cannot fail to admire his masterly +treatment. + +Having arrived at this conclusion, he searches the story of the past, +studies the conditions of the present, and gazes into the maze of the +future, and finds revealed in them all an eternal something, unaffected +by time, which was, is, and ever shall be--the eternal, universal, +spiritual his, which then must be the great reality. + +Upon this basis he builds a system of philosophy, which he considers to +be more satisfactory than the solutions already offered; with which +contention, there is little doubt, the majority of his readers will be +inclined to agree. + +After the brief statement of Eucken's special problem, of the purpose +and methods of his investigation, we can proceed to outline his theories +in greater detail, beginning in the next chapter with his discussion of +the solutions that have in the past been offered and accepted. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN SOLVED? + + +What is the meaning, the value, and purpose of life, and what is the +highest and the eternal in life--the great reality? This is the question +that Eucken would solve. Before attempting a solution of his own, he +examines those that have already been offered. His discussion of these +theories is remarkable for the fairness, breadth of view, sympathy, +insight, and accurate knowledge that is shown. There is no superficial +criticism, neither does he concern himself with the inessential details +of the theories. + +Jest-books tell us of a defendant against whom a claim for compensation +was made by a complainant who alleged that the former's dog had bitten +him. The defence was, first, that the dog was lame, blind, and +toothless; second, that it had died a week before; and third, that the +defendant never possessed a dog. A sensible judge would wish to be +satisfied in regard to the third statement before wasting time +discussing the others; if it proved to be true, then the case would be +at an end. The defences of philosophical systems are often similar, and +the critic is tempted to waste time discussing details when he should go +to the root of the matter. Eucken does not fall into this error. His +special method is to seek the idea or ideas which lie at the root of the +proposed solution; if these are unsatisfactory, then he does not +consider it necessary to discuss them further. Hence his work is free +from the flippant and superficial argument so common to-day; he makes a +fair and serious endeavour to find out the truth (if any) that is at the +basis of the proposed solutions, and does not hesitate to give them +their due meed of praise even though he considers them to be ultimately +unsatisfactory. + +Before a solution can be regarded as a satisfactory one, Eucken holds +that it should satisfy certain conditions. It should offer an +explanation for life which can be a firm basis for life, it must admit +of the possibility of human freedom, and must release the human being +from sordid motives--unless it satisfy these conditions, then it cannot +be accepted as final. + +The solutions of the problem of life that have been offered he considers +to be five--Religion and Immanental Idealism, Naturalism, Socialism and +Individualism, the first two regarding the invisible world as the +reality in life, the others laying emphasis on man's life in the present +world. The reader will perhaps wonder how his choice has fallen upon +these systems of thought and these alone. The explanation is a simple +one: he considers it necessary to deal only with those theories which +can form, and have formed, bases for a whole system of life. Mere +theoretical ideas of life, especially negative ideas such as those of +agnosticism and scepticism, do not form such a basis, but the five +chosen for discussion can, and have to some extent, posed as complete +theories of life, upon which a system of life can be built. + +Has _Religion_ solved the question? If it has, then it must have done so +in that which must be considered its highest form--in Christianity. +Christianity has attempted the solution by placing stress upon a higher +invisible world, a world in sharp contrast with the mere world of sense, +and far superior to it. It unites life to a supernatural world, and +raises mankind above the level of the natural world. It has brought out +with great clearness the contrast between the higher world and the world +of sin, and has shown the need for a break with the evil in the world. +It has given to man a belief in freedom, and in the necessity for a +complete change of heart. It has proved a source of deliverance from the +feeling, of guilt, and a comfort in suffering. Indeed, considering all +the facts, there seems to be no doubt that, of all the solutions +offered, religion has been the most powerful factor in the history of +mankind. + +Its influence would continue for the present and future, were it not +that doubt has been cast upon its very foundations, and had not +circumstances arisen to take men's minds away from thoughts of a higher +and invisible world, and to concentrate them to a greater extent than +formerly upon the world of sense. The progress of the natural sciences +has done much to bring about the change. Christianity made man the +centre of the universe, for whom all things existed, but the sciences +have insisted upon a broader view of the universe, and have deposed man +from his throne, and given him a much humbler position. Then as the +conception of law became more prominent, and scientists became more and +more inclined to explain all things as the result of natural laws, the +idea of a personal God in constant communion with, and supervision over +mankind, fell into disfavour. + +And the study of history has caused questions to be raised. Some +historians have endeavoured to show that the idea of an overworld is +merely the characteristic of a certain stage in the evolution of +mankind, and that the ideas of religion are, after all, little more than +the mental construction of a God upon the image of man's own self. +History has attacked the doctrinal form of religion, and has endeavoured +to show that religions have been very largely coloured and influenced by +the prevailing ideas of the time; and the question naturally arises as +to whether there is anything more in religion than these temporary +elements. + +And this is not all. In the present age the current of human activity is +strong. Man is beginning to accomplish things in the material world, and +is becoming anxious to accomplish more. His railways cover the lands, +his ships sail the seas, and his aeroplanes fly through the air. He has +acquired a taste for this world, a zest for the conquest and the +utilising for his own pleasure and benefit of the world of nature. And +when this occurs, the overworld sinks into the background--he is +satisfied with the present, and feels no need, except under special +circumstances, of a higher world. The sense world at present makes a +strong appeal--and the stronger it becomes, the less he listens to the +call of an overworld. + +The sciences, history, and the special phases of human activity have +drawn attention from a higher, invisible world, and have cast doubts +upon its very existence. + +As a result of this, "Religion (in the traditional form), despite all it +has effected, is for the man of to-day a question rather than an answer. +It is itself too much of a problem to interpret to us the meaning of our +life, and make us feel that it is worth the living." + +In these words Eucken states his conviction that Christianity in its +orthodox forms cannot solve the problem of the present. This, however, +is not all he has to say concerning religion. He is, in truth, a great +believer in religion, and as will be seen, he believes that later it +will again step forth in a changed form as "the fact of facts" to wield +a power perhaps greater than ever before. + +As in the case of religion, _Immanent Idealism_ is a theory that gives +life an invisible basis, but the invisible has been regarded as that +which lies at the root of the present world, and not as a separate +higher world outside our own. The Divine it considers not as a personal +being apart from the world, but as a power existing in and permeating +it, that indeed which gives to the world its truth and depth. Man +belongs to the visible world, but inwardly he is alive to the presence +of a deeper reality, and his ambition must be to become himself a part +of this deeper whole. If by turning from his superficial life he can set +himself in the depths of reality, then a magnificent life, with the +widest prospects, opens out before him. "He may win the whole of +infinity for his own, and set himself free from the triviality of the +merely human without losing himself in an alien world." And if he does +so, he is led to place greater emphasis upon the high ideals of life +than upon material progress. He learns to value the beautiful far above +the merely useful; the inner life above mere existence, a genuine +spiritual culture above the mere perfecting of natural and social +conditions. There is brought into view a new and deeper life in which +the emphasis is placed upon the good, the beautiful, and the true. In +this way idealism has inspired many men to put forth their energies for +the highest aims, has lifted the individual above the narrowness of a +life devoted to himself alone, and has produced characters of +exceptional beauty and strength. It claims, indeed, to be able to shape +the world of man more satisfactorily than religion can, for it has no +need for doctrines of the Divine, the Divine being immediately present +in the world. But despite its great influence in the past, its power +has of late been considerably weakened. + +The question of the existence of a deeper invisible reality in the world +has become as problematic as the doctrines of religion. + +To be a whole-hearted believer in the older forms of idealism it is +necessary that the universe be regarded as ultimately reasonable and +harmonious, and there must be a belief in the possibilities of great +development on the part of the human being. But a serious study of +things reveals to us the fact that the universe is not entirely +reasonable and harmonious. If it were, then man's effort towards the +ideal would be helped by the whole universe, but that is far from being +the case; progress means fight, and difficult fight; there is definite +opposition to the efforts of man to raise himself. Moreover, there is +evil in the world, let pantheists and others say what they will. Eucken +refuses to close his eyes to, or to explain away, opposition, pain, and +evil--the world is far from being wholly reasonable and harmonious, and +idealists must acknowledge this fact. The natural sciences, too, by +emphasising the reign of law, tend to limit more and more the +possibilities of the human being, ultimately robbing him of all +freedom--hence of all possibility of creation. And how can one be an +enthusiastic devotee of idealism if he is led to doubt man's power to +aim at, fight towards, or even choose the highest? + +Idealism was at its height in those red-letter days when a high state of +culture had been attained, and great personalities produced masterpieces +in art, music, and literature. The progress of the sciences and of man's +natural activity has directed the spirit of the age towards material +progress; the ideals of mankind tend to become external and +superficial, and the interest in the invisible world falls to a minimum. + +To some extent, too, idealism breathes of aristocracy--a most unpopular +characteristic in a democratic age. Experience shows that man is raised +above himself only in rare cases, and that the great things in the +realms of art, music, and literature are very largely the monopoly of +the few, and these mainly of the leisured classes. Hence the appeal of +idealism to certain types of men and women must necessarily be a feeble +one. + +Then, again, there is the general indifference of mankind to lofty aims; +this militates against the power of idealism even more than in the case +of religion, for while in the latter there is the idea of a personal God +who is pleased or displeased urging men to renewed effort, the teachings +of idealism may appear to be mere abstractions, and can, as such, +possess little driving-power for the ordinary mind. + +Idealism, too, seems to be a mere compromise between religion and a life +devoted to sense experience, and like most compromises it lacks the +enthusing power of the original ideas. + +Finally, the whole theory leaves us in uncertainty--"that which was +intended to give a firm support, and to point out a clear course to our +life, has itself become a difficult problem." + +But Eucken has more to say concerning idealism, even though in a +different form from the theories of the past. Indeed, his philosophy is +generally classed amongst the idealisms. Eucken makes a great endeavour, +however, to avoid the difficulties and objections to the idealistic +position; later we shall see that a great measure of success has crowned +his efforts. + +Having discussed the two solutions that place special stress on the +invisible world, he proceeds to deal with the theories which emphasise +the relation of the life of man to the material world. + +He first treats of _Naturalism_, that solution of the problem that makes +the sense experience of surrounding nature the basis of life, +subordinating even the life of the soul to the level of the natural, +material world. + +Nature in the early ages had been superficially explained, often in the +light of religious doctrine. Man gave to nature a variety of +explanations and of colouring, depending largely upon his ideas of the +place of nature in relation to himself and to the invisible world. But +such anthropomorphic explanations could not long survive the progress of +the sciences, for a scientific comprehension of nature could only be +attained by getting rid of all human colouring, and by investigating +nature entirely by itself, out of all relation to the human soul. Man +then investigated nature more and more as an object apart from himself. + +The first result of these investigations was to impress upon him the +reality of nature as something independent, and to increase on a very +large scale his knowledge of, and control over nature. When man began to +formulate and understand nature, he began, too, to invent machines to +profit from the knowledge he gained. Hence followed a marvellously +fruitful period of human activity, an activity which at first +strengthened man in his own soul, and gave him increased consciousness +of independence and power. While he was compelled to admit the greatness +of the natural world, he became more and more convinced that he himself +was far greater, for could he not put the laws of nature to his own use +and profit? Hence the gain to man at this stage of the development of +the sciences was very great, for he had come to appreciate more than +before the superiority of the human soul over the material world. Hence +resulted a more robust type of life, "a life energetic, masculine, +pressing forward unceasingly." Matters, however, were not destined to +remain long at this stage. As man's knowledge of the processes of nature +increased further, a twofold result followed. On the one hand, the sense +world of nature became increasingly absorbing in interest; on the other +hand, laws were formulated and nature was conceived of as being a chain +of cause and effect, a combination of mechanical elements whose +interactions were according to law, and could be foretold with the +utmost precision. + +These two factors worked in the same direction, namely, that of +rendering less necessary the conception of a spiritual world. The +interest of mankind became so concentrated upon material things that the +interest in the invisible decreased, while the mechanical, soulless +elements with their ceaseless actions and reactions in definite order, +and according to inviolable law, were held sufficient to account for the +phenomena of nature. The keynote was "relation to environment"; a +constantly changing environment, changing according to law, called for +ceaseless readjustment, and the adaptation to environment was held to be +the stimulus to all activity in the natural world. + +The later development of biology, and the doctrine of the evolution of +species, gradually extended this conception of nature to include man +himself. + +What he had regarded as his distinctive characteristics were held to be +but the product of natural factors, and his life was regarded, too, as +under the domain of rigid, inviolable law. There was no room for, and no +need of, the conception of free, originative thought. Thought was +simply an answer to the demand that the sense world was making, entirely +dependent upon the external stimulus, just as any other activity was +entirely dependent on an external stimulus. So thought came to be +regarded as resulting from mere sense impression, which latter +corresponded to the external stimulus. It is obvious that the idea of +the freedom of the human soul, and of human personality as previously +understood, had to go. Man was simply the result of the interaction of +numerous causes--and like the rest of nature, involved no independent +spiritual element. Everything that was previously regarded as spiritual +was interpreted as a mere adjunct to, or a shadow of, the sense world. +Such a conception accounted for the whole of nature and of man, and so +became an explanation of the universe, a philosophy. + +In such a theory self-preservation becomes the aim of life, the struggle +for existence the driving-power, and adaptation to environment the means +to the desired end. Hence it comes about that only one standard of value +remains, that of usefulness, for that alone can be regarded as valuable +which proves to be useful towards the preservation and enjoyment of the +natural life. The ideas of the good, the beautiful, and the true, lose +the glory of their original meaning, and become comparatively barren +conceptions. Hence at a stroke the spiritual world is wiped away, the +soul of man is degraded from its high position, the great truths of +religion are cast aside as mere illusions. + +The naturalistic explanation possesses the apparent advantage of being a +very simple one, and hence attracts the human mind with great force in +the early stages of mental culture. All the difficulties of the +conception of a higher world are absent, for the naturalistic position +does not admit of its existence. It gives, too, some purpose to life, +even though that purpose is not an ideal one. + +Eucken is not reluctant to give the theory all the credit it deserves, +and he is prepared to admit that it fulfils to some extent the +conditions which he holds a satisfactory solution should fulfil. + +He goes, however, immediately to the root of the matter, and finds that +the very existence of the theory of naturalism in itself is an eloquent +disproof of the theory. The existence of a comprehensive scientific +conception involves an activity which is far superior to nature itself, +for it can make nature the object of systematic study. An intellect +which is nothing more than a mirror of sense impressions can get little +beyond such sense impressions, whereas the highly developed scientific +conception of nature that obtains to-day is far beyond a mere collection +of sense impressions. Nature, indeed, is subdued and mastered by man; +why then degrade man to the level of a universe he has mastered? To +produce from the phenomena of nature a scientific conception of nature +demands the activity of an independent, originative power of thought, +which, though it may be conditioned by, and must be related to, sense +impressions, is far above mere sense impressions. + +Naturalism, in directing attention to the things that are experienced, +fails to take proper account of the mind that experiences them; it +postulates nature without mind, when only by the mind processes can man +become aware of nature, and construct a naturalistic scheme of life. "To +a thorough-going naturalism, naturalism itself is logically impossible." +Hence the impossibility of the naturalistic theory as an explanation of +life. + +Then it fails to provide a high ideal for life, and to release man from +sordid motives. It gives no place for love, for work for its own sake, +for altruistic conduct, or for devotion to the high ideals of life. The +aim of life is limited to this world--man has but to aim at the +enjoyment and preservation of his own life. The mechanical explanation +of life, too, does away with the possibility of human freedom and +personality, and it is futile to urge man to greater efforts when +success is impossible. It is a theory which does justice merely to a +life of pleasure and pain, its psychology has no soul, and its political +economy bases the community upon selfishness. + +In this way Eucken disproves the claim of naturalism; in doing so he +points out that a satisfactory solution must take account of the life of +nature in a way which religion and idealism have failed to do. + +Of late years _Socialism_ and _Individualism_ have come into prominence +as theories of life. Eucken attributes the movements in the first +instance to the receding into the background of the idea of an overworld +which gave meaning and value to life. When doubt was thrown upon +religion and idealism, when confidence in another world was shaken, man +lost to an extent his moral support. Where could he turn now for a firm +basis to life? He might, of course, turn from the invisible world to the +world of sense, to nature. But the first result of this is to make man +realise that he is separate from nature, and again he fails to find +support. He is an alien in the world of nature, and disbelieves the +existence of a higher world. When both are denied him he turns naturally +to his fellow-men--here at least he can find community of interest--here +at least he is among beings of his own type. Hence he confines his +attention to the life of humanity, and in this, the universe of +mankind, he hopes to find an explanation of his own life, and a value +for it. + +The progress of humanity, then, must become the aim of life--all our +strength and effort must be focussed upon human nature itself. But an +immediate difficulty arises. Where are we to find Man? "Is it in the +social community where individual forces are firmly welded together to +form a common life, or among individuals as they exist for themselves in +all their exhaustless diversity?" If we put the community first, then +the social whole must be firmly rooted in itself and be independent of +the caprice of its members. The duty of the individual is to subordinate +himself to the community--this means socialism. If, on the other hand, +the great aim is to develop the individual and to give him the maximum +of opportunity to unfold his special characteristics, we arrive at an +opposing theory--that of individualism. + +In the history of society we find an age of socialistic ideas followed +by one of individualistic ideas, and vice versa, and there is much that +is valuable in each, in that it tends to modify and disprove the other's +extreme position. + +The present wave in the direction of _socialism_ arises, to an extent, +in reaction from the extremely individualistic position of previous +ages. Man is now realising that the social relations of life are of +importance as well as the character of his own life. He realises the +interdependence of members of a community, and the conception of the +State as a whole, a unit, instead of a mere sum of individuals, grows +up. The modern industrial development and the organisation of labour +have, too, emphasised the fact that the value of the individual depends +largely upon his being a part of society. His work must be in +co-operation with the work of others to produce the best effect; for in +such co-operation it produces effects which reach far beyond his own +individual capacity. Hence his life appears to receive value from the +social relations, and the social ideal is conceived. The development of +the individual no longer becomes the aim but rather the development of +the community. In setting out the development of society as his aim, the +individual makes considerable sacrifices. All that is distinctly +individual must go, in character, in work, in science, and art, and that +which is concerned with the common need of society must receive +attention. This means undoubtedly a limitation of the life of the +individual, and often entails a considerable sacrifice; but the +sacrifice is made because of the underlying belief that in the sum of +individual judgments there is reason, and that in the opinion of the +majority there is truth. This socialistic culture finds in the present +condition of society, plenty of problems to hand, and in its treatment +of these problems a vigorous socialistic type of life is developed. The +most pressing problem is concerned with the distribution of material and +spiritual goods. Material goods and the opportunity for spiritual +culture that go with them have been largely a monopoly of the +aristocracy. Now arises a demand for a more equal distribution, and this +is felt to be a right demand, not only from the point of view of +justice, but also for the sake of spiritual culture itself. So it is +that the movement for the social amelioration of the masses starts. The +welfare of humanity is its aim, and all things, religion, science, and +art, must work towards this end, and are only of value in so far as they +contribute towards it. + +Now it is a fundamental principle of a logical socialistic system that +truth must be found in the opinions of the masses, and the average +opinion of mankind must be the final arbiter of good and evil. The +tendency of the masses as such is to consider material advancement the +most cherished good. Hence, inevitably, a thorough-going socialism must +become materialistic, even though at an earlier stage it was actuated by +the desire for opportunities of spiritual culture. + +A genuinely socialistic culture, too, makes the individual of value only +as a member of society. This, Eucken affirms, is only true in the most +primitive societies. As civilisation progresses, man becomes conscious +of himself, and an inner life, which in its interests is independent of, +and often opposed to society, develops. His own thought becomes +important to man, and as his life deepens, religion, science, art, work +&c., become more and more a personal matter. + +All such deepening of culture, and of creative spiritual activity, is a +personal matter. From this deepening and enriching of the inner life of +the individual proceeds creative spiritual activity, which attempts +spiritual tasks as an end in themselves, and which gradually builds up a +kingdom of truth and spiritual interest which immeasurably transcends +mere human standards. All these are historical facts of experience; the +socialistic system finds no place and no explanation for them, and +consequently it cannot be regarded as a sufficiently comprehensive +explanation of the problem. To a man who has once realised these +individual experiences, the merely human, socialistic system becomes +intolerable. + +Again, if considerations of social utility limit creative activity, the +creations of such activity must be meagre in nature. Spiritual +creativeness is most fruitful when it is concerned with tasks that are +attempted for their intrinsic value, and is not fettered by the thought +of their usefulness to society. + +It is, too, a dangerous thing to look for truth in the opinion of the +majority, for this is such a changing phenomenon that only a part, at +most, can be permanent truth. The course of history has taught us, too, +that great ideas have come to individuals and have been rejected by the +masses for long periods of time. + +The immediate effect of the failure of socialism is the encouragement of +_individualism_, for indeed some of the arguments against the former are +arguments in favour of the latter. Individualism opens up a new life, a +life which is free, joyous, and unconventional. + +But can individualism give a meaning and value to life as a whole? Man +cannot from his own resources produce a high ideal which compels him to +fight for higher development, and it is not possible for him from an +individualistic standpoint to regard himself as a manifestation of a +larger life. His whole life must be spent in the improvement of his own +condition. Even in the case of strongly marked personalities, they can +never get beyond themselves and their own subjective states, for they +must always live upon themselves, and eternally reflect upon their own +doings. + +But such a view of life cannot satisfy man; he is a contemplative being, +and he must find some all-inclusive whole, of which he is a part. If he +fails to find it, life for him must become a blank, and he must fall a +prey to boredom and satiety. Man's life is not to be confined to his own +particular sphere, his life must extend far beyond that--he must concern +himself with the infinite in the universe; "He must view life--nay, +more, he must live it--in the light of this larger whole." A life based +upon individualism then, will seem, even in the case of strong +personalities, to be extremely narrow. How much more so will this be +true of the ordinary man, who takes little interest in his own +individuality, or pleasure in its development? + +Thus it is that both forms of humanistic culture--socialism and +individualism--fail to give a real meaning to life. "Socialistic culture +directs itself chiefly to the outward conditions of life, but in care +for these it neglects life itself." Individualistic culture, on the +other hand, endeavours to deal with life itself, but fails to see life +as a whole, or as possessing any real inwardness. + +Both types of culture are apt to deceive themselves in regard to their +own emptiness, because, unconsciously, they make more out of man than is +consistent with their assumptions. "They presuppose a spiritual +atmosphere as a setting for our human life and effort. In the one case, +this cementing of a union between individuals appears to set free the +springs of love and truth; in the other, each single unit seems to have +behind it the background of a spiritual world whose development is +fostered by means of its individual labour." In this way life acquires +in both cases a meaning, but it does so only by departing from both +positions, and taking up what is, at least partly, an idealistic +position. + +The theories, too, can only be made really plausible by idealising man +to an unwarrantable extent. The socialist assumes that a change of +material surroundings will be immediately followed by a change in the +character of man, and that men will work happily together for the sake +of the community. The individualist asks us to believe that man is +naturally noble and highminded, and cares only for the higher and better +things. But experience, says Eucken, does not justify us in placing so +much faith in humanity. "Do we not see the great masses of our +population possessed by a passion that sweeps all before it, a reckless +spirit of aggressiveness, a disposition to lower all culture to the +level of their interests and comprehension--evincing the while a defiant +self-assertion? And on the side of individualism, what do we see? Paltry +meanness in abundance, embroidered selfishness, idle self-absorption, +the craving to be conspicuous at all costs, repulsive hypocrisy, lack of +courage despite all boastful talk, a lukewarm attitude towards all +spiritual tasks, but the busiest industry when personal advantage is +concerned." + +The theories of socialism and individualism can never be adequate +explanations of the great problem of life, for life cannot have a real +meaning if man cannot strive towards some lofty aim far higher than +himself, and such a goal the two humanistic theories do not provide for +him. + +Religion, Idealism, Naturalism, Socialism, Individualism, while calling +attention to important facts in life, all fail in themselves to form +adequate theories to explain life. We have given the main outlines of +Eucken's arguments, but such a brief summary cannot do justice to his +excellent evaluations of these theories--these the reader may find in +his own works. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +ANOTHER SEARCH FOR TRUTH + +The result of the inquiry into the solutions of the problem offered in +the past is to show that they are all inadequate to explain and to give +an ideal to the whole of life. Perplexed as to the truth of the +existence of a higher world, man looked to the natural world for a firm +basis to life. Here he failed to find rest--rather, indeed, he found +less security than he had previously felt, for did not naturalism make +of him a mere unconscious mechanism, and deny the very existence of his +soul? Then he turned to humanity, and the opposing tendencies of +socialism and individualism came into evidence. Each hindered the other, +each shook his traditional beliefs, and each failed to give him a +satisfactory goal for life. Socialism concerned itself with external +social relations, but it gave life no soul. Then individualism confined +man to his own resources, and there resulted an inner hollowness which +became painfully evident. Socialism and individualism fail to provide a +sure footing. Instead of finding certainty, man has fallen into a still +deeper state of perplexity. + +What shall he do? Must he once again leave the realistic systems of +Naturalism, Socialism, and Individualism, and return to the older +systems of Religion and Idealism? Was he not wrong in giving up the +thought of a higher invisible world? Has not the restriction of life to +the visible world robbed life of its greatness and dignity? This it +certainly has done, and there is little wonder that the soul of mankind +is already revolting, and shows a tendency once again to look towards +religion and idealism for a solution of life. + +But the educated mind can never again take up exactly the same position +as it once did in regard to religion and idealism. The great realistic +theories have made too great a change in the standard of life, and in +man himself, to make it possible for him to revert simply to the old +conditions, and the older orthodox doctrines of religion can never again +be accepted as a mere matter of course. But the great question has again +come to the forefront--is there a higher world, or is the fundamental +truth of religion a mere illusion? This is the question that calls for +answer to-day, an answer which must be different, as man is different, +from the answers that were given in the past. A satisfactory answer is +impossible without understanding clearly the relation between the Old +and the New, and without taking account of the great, if partial, truths +that the realistic schemes of life have taught mankind. + +To accept unreservedly Naturalism, Socialism, and Individualism is +impossible, for these rob life of its deeper meaning. To return to the +older doctrines without reserve is equally impossible. + +Shall we ignore the question? This would be a fatal mistake. Some throw +themselves into the rush of work, and endeavour to forget the deeper +problems of life--but "the result is a life all froth and shimmer, +lacking inward sincerity, a life that can never in itself satisfy them, +but only keep up the appearance of doing so." There must be some +decision; for is not society being more and more broken up into small +sections, possessing the most variable standards of life, and +evaluating things in a diversity of ways? Such an inward schism must +weaken any effort on the part of humanity to combine for ideal ends. +Perhaps he of narrow vision, who sees nothing in life but sensuous +pleasure, is happy--but it is the happiness of the lower world. Perhaps, +too, he of the superficial mind is happy, who sees no deep +contradictions in the solutions offered, and is prepared to accept one +to-day and another tomorrow--but his happiness is that of the feeble +mind. + +What then can be done? Shall we despair? Never! The question is far too +urgent. To despair is to accept a policy that spells disaster to the +human race. The immediate environment is powerless to give life any real +meaning. We must probe deeper into the eternal--and it is from such +investigations that Eucken outlines a new theory of life. + +But before we proceed to deal with Eucken's contribution to the problem, +it will be profitable to stay awhile to consider how it is that we can +obtain truth at all, and what are the tests that we can apply to truth +when we think we have attained it. It is the problem of the possibility +of knowledge, really, that we have to discuss in brief. Eucken himself +does not pay much direct attention to this difficult question, for, as +has been already pointed out, he refuses to be drawn from his main +problem. It is impossible, however, to appreciate Eucken without +understanding clearly the position he takes up in this matter. + +What is truth? How can we know?--these are entrancing problems for the +profound thinker, and have been written upon frequently and at great +length. But we can do little more at present than give the barest +outline of the positions that have been taken up. Every search for truth +must assume a certain position in this matter; in studying Eucken's +philosophy it is of the first importance--more so perhaps than in the +case of most other philosophers--to keep in mind clearly from the outset +the position he implicitly assumes. + +The simplest theory of knowledge is that of _Empiricism_, which holds +that all knowledge must be gained through experience of the outside +world, and of our mental states. We see a blue wall, we obtain through +our eyes an impression of blueness, and are able to make a statement: +"This wall is blue." This, of course, is one of the simplest assertions +that can be made, and consists merely in assigning a term--"blue"--the +meaning of which has already been agreed upon, to a colour that we +appear to see on a wall. The test of the truth of this assertion is a +simple one--it is true if it corresponds with fact. If the same +assertion is made in regard to a red wall, then it is obviously untrue. +Our sense impressions give rise to a great variety of such expressions. +We state "the wall is blue" as a result of an impression obtained +through the organs of sight; then we speak of a pungent smell, a sweet +taste, a harsh sound, or a rough stone, on account of impressions +received respectively through the organs of smell, taste, hearing, and +touch. But, of course, all such assertions are superficial in +character--there is little more in them than the application of a +conventional term to an observed phenomenon, they avail us little in +solving the mysteries of the universe. + +Strictly speaking, this is for the empiricist the limit of possible +knowledge, but he would be a poor investigator who would be content with +this and no more. The empiricist tries to go a distinct step in advance +of this. The scientist observing the path of a planet travelling round +the sun, finds that its course is that of an ellipse. He studies the +path of a second planet, and finds that this also travels along an +elliptical orbit. Later he finds that all planets he is able to observe +travel in the same kind of path--then he hazards a general statement, +and says, "All planets travel round their suns in elliptical orbits." +But now he has left the realm of certainty for that of uncertainty. +There may be innumerable planets which he cannot observe that take a +different course. He hazards the general statement, because he assumes +(sometimes without knowing that he does so) that nature is uniform and +constant, that it will do to-day as it did yesterday, and does in +infinite space as it does in the visible universe. + +The knowledge that is possible to the empiricist, then, is merely that +which is derived from direct experience, and simple summations or +generalisations into a single assertion of a number of similar +assertions, all of which were individually derived from experience. This +is the position scientists as such, and believers in the theory of +naturalism, take up as to the possibility of the knowledge of truth to +the human mind. They are entirely consistent, therefore, when they +arrive ultimately at the agnostic position, and contend that our +knowledge must necessarily be confined to the world of experience, and +that nothing can be known of the world beyond. But they are +fundamentally wrong in overestimating the place of the sense organs, and +forgetting that while these have a part to play in life, they do not +constitute the whole of life. + +A far more satisfactory theory is that of _Rationalism_. It +is a theory that admits that the human mind has some capacity for +working upon the data presented to it by the sense organs. Man is +no longer quite so helpless a creature as empiricism would make +him. He is able to weigh and consider the facts that are presented +to the mind. The method rationalism uses to arrive at truth is that +of logical deduction, and the test of truth is that the steps in the +process are logically sound. We may start from the data "All dogs +are animals" and "Carlo is a dog," and arrive very simply at the +conclusion "Carlo is an animal." The conclusion is correct because +we have reasoned in accordance with the laws of logic, with the laws +of valid thought. All logical reasoning is, of course, not so simple +as the example given, but it may be stated generally that when there +is no logical fallacy, a correct conclusion may be arrived at, +provided, too--and herein lies the difficulty--provided that the +premises are also true. These premises may be in themselves general +statements--how is their truth established? They may be, and often +are, the generalisations of the empirical sciences, and must then +possess the same degree of uncertainty that these generalisations +possess. Some philosophers have contended that certain general ideas +are innate, but few would be found nowadays to accept such a +contention. At other times mere definitions of terms may serve as +premises. One might state as a premise the definition "A straight +line is the shortest distance between two points," and the further +statement that "AB is a straight line between A and B," and conclude +that the line AB represents the shortest distance between two points A +and B. In a manner similar to this Euclid built his whole mathematical +system upon the basis of definitions and postulates, a system the +complexity and thoroughness of which has caused all students of +mathematics at one time or another to marvel and admire. But, of +course, a definition is little more than assigning a definite term to +a definite thing. It is when we begin to consider the premises that are +necessary for arriving at the profound truths of the universe that we +find the weakness of rationalism. How are we going to be provided with +premises for this end? Shall we begin by saying "There is a God" or +"There is no God"? How is the pure reasoning faculty to decide upon the +premises in the matter of the great Beyond? We may weigh the arguments +for and against a certain position, and we may think that the probability +lies in a certain direction, but to decide finally and with certainty +by mere cold logical reasoning is impossible. We may bring out into +prominence through logical reasoning truths that were previously only +implicit, but to arrive at absolute truth with regard to the invisible +world, through intellect alone, has long been admitted to be an +impossibility. The illusion of those who would believe that truth which +was not already implied in the premises could ever be obtained by mere +intellectual reasoning has long since been dispelled. + +Perhaps it comes as a shock to the reader who has always insisted upon a +clear intellectual understanding and a rigid reasoning upon all things, +to find within what narrow limits, after all, the intellect itself has +to work--it can do little more than make more or less certain +generalisations concerning the world of experience, and then to argue +from these, or from definitions that it itself has framed. Of course +some of the ancient philosophers did try through a course of rigid +reasoning to solve the great problems, and for a long time it was +customary to expect that all philosophers should proceed in the same +way. + +Modern philosophers, of whom William James, Bergson, and Eucken are +conspicuous examples, have appreciated the futility of such a task, and +have sought other means of solving the problem. The mistake in the past +has been to forget that the intelligence is but one aspect of human +life, and that the experience of mankind is far more complicated a +matter than that of mere intellect, and not to be solved by intellect +alone. Intellect has to play a definite part in human life, but it does +not constitute the whole of life. Life itself is far greater than +intellect, and to live is a far more important thing than to know. The +great things are life and action; knowledge is ultimately useful in so +far as it contributes to the development of life and the perfection of +action. Philosophers have for too long a period made knowledge an aim in +itself, and have neglected to take proper account of the experiences of +mankind. Their intellectual abstractions have tended to leave actual +life more and more out of consideration, with the result that they have +been baffled at every turn. The more we think about it, the more we +become convinced that the mysterious universe in which we live will only +divulge just enough of its secrets to enable us to act, and this it +gives us with comparatively little trouble on our part. If we consider +an ordinary piece of wood, we find it is hard and offers a certain +resistance, and our knowledge of these elementary facts enables us to +put it to use, but we shall never really solve the mysteries of its +formation and growth. These lead of course to very interesting +speculations, but their solution seems to be as far off as ever. We can +know little but that which we require for life. The making of life and +action the basis of truth rather than trusting to the intellect alone, +is the great new departure in modern philosophy. + +One of the theories of knowledge that springs from laying emphasis upon +life and action is that of _Pragmatism_, of which the late Professor +William James was one of the greatest exponents. Pragmatists contend +that the test of truth is its value for life--if the fact obtained is +the most useful and helpful for life, then it is the true one. Suppose +we are endeavouring to solve the great question, "Is there a God?" We +weigh the arguments for and against, but find it difficult to arrive at +a definite conclusion, because the arguments on both sides seem equally +plausible. How are we to decide? We cannot postpone the decision +indefinitely--we are forced to make a choice, for upon our decision +depends our aim and ideals in life. We are faced with a "forced option," +and must choose one or the other. We ask ourselves the question, "Which +will be of the greatest help to our lives--to believe that there is, or +that there is not a God?" and we decide or will to believe the option +that will help life most. It is a striking theory, but space forbids our +discussing it in detail. + +The position Eucken adopts is that of _Activism_. In common with +pragmatism it makes truth a matter of life and action rather than of +mere intellect, and considers fruitfulness for action a characteristic +of truth. He differs from the pragmatic position in that he contends +that truth is something deeper than mere human decision, that truth is +truth, not merely because it is useful, that reality is independent of +our experience of it, and that truth is gained intuitively through a +life of action. + +The riddle of the universe is solved for Eucken through life and action. +While continual contemplation and thought is apt to paralyse us, "action +is the best defensive weapon against the dangers and trials of human +existence." "Doubt is not cured by meditation, but by action." He +believes that we can attain certainty through action of much that cannot +be justified on rational grounds. If we wish to understand the vital +truths of life we must concentrate our souls on a good purpose--the +activity that follows will bring its revelation. The problems of life +are solved by the life process itself. By acting in a certain way, man +comes into intimate relationship with the great reality of life, and +then he comes to know, not so much _about_ reality, as _within_ reality. +The ant in whom such complex instincts are developed, knows probably +nothing at all _about_ its little world, but knows everything necessary +_within_ its little world. It does not err, it does the right thing at +the right time, and that because it is in tune with its universe, hence +acts from pure instinct in the right way. If intellect were to enter +into the case, its actions might become less reliable, and it would +blunder far oftener. In the case of man, his thinking capacity often +militates against successful instinctive and habitual actions--the +moment we start to consider, we hesitate and are lost. In the same way, +if the soul of man is brought into tune with the great reality, it has +but to act, and though it may never know all _about_ reality and be able +to frame abstract theories of the universe, still it may know _with_ or +_within_ reality, and be thus enabled to act in the best way under +various circumstances. This is the theory of activism; it lays great +stress upon action, and upon intuition through action, and while it does +not ignore the intellect, it holds that when the intellect fails there +is a possibility of the practical problem of life being solved through a +life of action, when life is directed towards the highest ideals. The +danger of an activistic position, of course, is to undervalue the +reasoning powers of man. Some critics hold that Eucken does this; the +reader must judge for himself, but in doing so it will be well to +remember that before trusting to intuitive revelation, Eucken demands +the setting of one's face towards the highest and best. + +In the next chapter we can follow Eucken in his search for the great +reality in life. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE PAST, PRESENT, AND THE ETERNAL + +In investigating the problem of human life, Eucken lays great stress +upon the history of man in past ages--this is one of the special aspects +of his philosophy. The fact is, of course, not surprising; he who would +explain the life of man would be unwise to ignore the records of the +past life of the human race. The thinker who examines the present only, +is apt to be narrow in his ideas, to fail to look upon events in their +proper perspective, and to be unduly affected by the spirit of the age +in which he lives--the student of history avoids these pitfalls. + +Moreover, man does not become aware of the depth of his own soul, until +he has "lived into" the experience of the past. This is what the +profound investigator of history does; he lives again the life of the +hero, he feels with him as he felt upon special occasions, and in this +way there is revealed to him a profundity and greatness of human +experience, of which he would have been largely unaware if he had +trusted to his own experience alone, and to the superficial examination +he is able to make of the experiences of those living men with whom he +comes into contact. In this way he is able in a sense to appropriate the +experience of the greatest personalities unto himself, and enrich +considerably the contents of his own soul. + +Through a study of history, too, we become aware of the intimate +connection that exists between the present and the past. The present +moment is a very transient thing; its roots are in the past, its hopes +in the future. "If all depends on the slender thread of the fleeting +moment of the present, which illumines and endures merely for a +twinkling of an eye, but to sink into the abyss of nothingness, then all +life would mean a mere exit into death.... Without connection there is +no content of life." We are apt to look on the past as something dead, +but it exists in living evidence in our souls to-day. It oppresses us or +stimulates us to action, it tyrannises over us or inspires us to higher +things. It has been customary to look upon the past as irrevocable. +Recent writers, of whom Maeterlinck and Eucken are striking instances, +have endeavoured to show how the past can be remoulded and changed. The +past depends upon what we make of it to-day; if we despise our evil +conduct in former days, then the past itself is changed and conquered. +The mistake that is made is to regard the past as a thing complete in +itself; what appears to be finished is really only completing itself, +and we must take a view of the whole of a thing, and not merely the +parts that have already manifested themselves. Through such +considerations we become more and more aware of the ultimate connection +between the past and present, and of the part the present can play in +the remaking of the past. + +Our investigations of history leads us, too, to differentiate between +the temporary and the eternal in the realm of thought. We find at a +certain period of history a trend of thought that can largely be +accounted for by the special conditions of life at the time, and which +disappears at a later age. But in addition to this we become aware of +truths that have found a place in the thoughts of various ages and +countries, and we are led to regard these as the eternal +truths--expressions of an eternal ever-present reality. This eternal +present we find to be something independent of time, something that +breaks the barriers between the past, present, and future. "Thought," +says Eucken, "does not drift along with time; as certainly as it strives +to attain truth it must rise above time, and its treatment must be +timeless." The beliefs of any age are too much coloured by the special +circumstances of that age to express the whole of truth, yet beneath the +beliefs of the ages there is often an underlying truth, and this +underlying truth is the eternal truth, which is not affected by time, +and at the basis of which is the eternal reality. + +This eternal truth persisting through a variety of temporary and more or +less correct expressions of it is to be observed in a marked manner in +the moral ideas of mankind. What a variety of ethical doctrines have +been expounded and believed, yet how striking the similarity that +becomes apparent when they are further examined! In practice, the +standard of morality has often been based on mere utility, but it has +taken a higher and more absolute basis in the mind of man. Ideas +concerning morality have generally been nobler than can be accounted for +by environment, and by the subjective life of the individual. Why this +ultimate consistency in the moral aspirations of the ages, why a +categorical imperative, and why does conscience exist in the human +being?--these facts cannot be accounted for if there is no deeper basis +for life than the life of humanity at any definite period of time. + +The unchangeable laws of logic, too, are instances of the eternal truth. +The principles of the validity of thought are entirely independent of +individuals, of the passage of time, and of the environment of man. "Our +thought cannot advance in the definite work of building up science +without producing and employing a definite logical structure, with fixed +principles; these principles are immanent in the work of thought, they +are above all the caprice and all the differences of the individuals." +Whence again this consistency in a changeable and subjective world? + +The marvellous influence that ideas have exerted upon man again points +to the persistence and power of the eternal. Is it not strange how it is +that man often serves but as a mere instrument for the realisation of an +idea, and how he is often carried away by an idea to do things which are +against his own personal interests and desires? And when he and his +generation have passed beyond human sight, we often find a new +generation direct their endeavours in the same way, and we wonder what +is behind such a continuity in the struggles of mankind. + +The history of great personalities in the realms of literature, art, and +science show in a remarkable way how men have risen above the influences +of their time, and beyond the cramping tiredness of the mere flesh. +Could a great thinker like Aristotle be entirely conditioned by flesh +and environment? And what of the great artists and poets who have +conquered the chains of mortal finitude and breathed of higher worlds? +Every one of them is a convincing testimony of the possibility of +mankind transcending the material, and taking unto itself of the +resources of a deeper world. + +Then the dissatisfaction of the ages with their limited knowledge of +truth cannot but tell of a great eternal something that stirs at the +basis of the human soul. The people of to-day find the various systems +of the day inadequate; they search for something higher, and the mere +fact that they search beyond matter and the mere subjective human +qualities is in itself a testimony to the existence of a world higher +than the material and subjective. + +What is it that makes it possible for one human being to "live into" the +experience of others who lived long ago, and for the present to conquer +and alter the past? How can we account for the eternal trait in thought, +for the unchanging laws of logic, for the consistency of moral ideals, +and their transcendence over flesh and immediate circumstances? What is +the force behind the idea, and how can we account for the continuous +struggle of mankind in certain directions? And, finally, what is it that +makes it possible for men to rise beyond themselves, to shake away the +shackles of matter and vicinity, and to delve deep into the profounder +world? + +If we can find what it is that makes all this possible, then surely we +have found the greatest thing in the world--the reality. And Eucken's +answer is clear and definite. It must be something that persists, is +eternal and independent of time, and it must extend beyond the +individual to a universal whole. This must be "the Universal Spiritual +Life," which, though eternal, reveals itself in time, and though +universal, reveals itself in the individual man, and forms the source +from which the spiritual in man "draws its power and credentials." + +This, then, is the result of Eucken's search for reality--he has found +it to exist in a Universal Spiritual Life. Of course he has not arrived +at his conclusion by a system of rigid proof; it has already been +pointed out how impossible it is to arrive at the greater truths of life +in such a manner. + +He has done, however, that which can be reasonably expected in such +cases. To begin with, he has given us a striking analysis of the +essential characteristics of human life, and he has found there a +yearning and a void. He has given us a masterly discussion of eternal +truth as contrasted with the temporary expressions of it. He has taught +us how the present can overcome the past, and how man can ascend beyond +the subjective and material. And he has led us to feel that reality must +lie in the eternal that appears to be at the basis of the highest and +greatest in man. + +Moreover, he has given a fair and thorough treatment of the solutions +that have been offered in the past. He has shown how inadequate they are +to explain life. He has shown how the modern solutions "cannot perform +their own tasks without drawing incessantly upon another kind of +reality, one richer and more substantial." This in itself shows "beyond +possibility of refutation that they do not fill the whole of life." He +has demonstrated how the acceptance of these systems depends upon an +implicit acceptance of a higher life. "The naturalistic thinker ascribes +unperceived to nature, which to him can be only a coexistence of +soulless elements, an inner connection and a living soul. Only thus can +he revere it as a higher power, as a kind of divinity; only thus can he +pass from the fact of dependence to a devotional surrender of his +feelings. The socialist bases human society, with its motives mixed with +triviality and passion, on an invisible community, an ideal humanity.... +The individualist in his conception exalts the individual to a height +far more lofty than is justified by the individual as he is found in +experience." All these assume more or less unconsciously the existence +of that "something higher" which they attempt to deny. + +So far, then, we have seen how Eucken proves the inadequacy of the +realistic conceptions of life, and how they really depend for their +acceptance upon the assumption of a Universal Spiritual Life. We have +still to see how he attempts to prove that basing human life upon an +eternal spiritual life satisfies the conditions he himself has laid down +for a satisfactory solution of the problem. He has to show that the +theory gives a satisfactory explanation of human life, that it gives a +firm basis for life, that it releases man from being governed by low +motives, and admits of the possibility of human personality, freedom, +and creation. We shall see in the chapters that follow that he makes a +convincing case for accepting the belief in the Universal Spiritual Life +as the basis of human life and endeavour. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE "HIGH" AND THE "LOW" + +Eucken makes the recognition of the existence of a Universal Spiritual +Life the starting-point of his constructive work. He takes up a position +which he calls the nöological position. Many theories take up a +materialistic position; they assert the reality of the material world, +and endeavour to explain the world of matter as something independent of +the human mind. Other theories assert the superiority of mind over +matter, and endeavour to examine the mind as though it were independent +of the material world. These two types of theories have been in +continual conflict; the one has attempted to prove that thought is +entirely conditioned by sense impressions received from the material +world, the other regards the phenomena of nature as really nothing other +than processes of the mind. + +Eucken finds reality existing in the spiritual life, which while neither +material nor merely mental, is superior to both, admits the existence +(in a certain sense) of both, and does away with the opposition between +the rival types of theories. Eucken does not minimise or ignore the +existence of the natural world. The question for him is not the +independent existence of the worlds of nature and mind--this he admits; +he is concerned rather with the superiority of the spiritual life over +the merely material and mental. + +The natural life of man has been variously viewed in different ages. The +writer of the Pentateuch described man as made in the image of God, and +the natural man was exalted on this account. Some of the old Greek +philosophers, too, found much in nature that was divine. Christianity +took a different view of the matter--it exalted the spirit, and +emphasised the baseness of the material. The growth of the sciences made +man again a mere tool of laws and methods, but it considered matter as +superior to mind, mind being entirely dependent upon impressions +received from matter. The question continually recurs--which is the +high, which is the low? Shall nature triumph over spirit, or spirit over +nature? + +Pantheism replies to the question by denying that there is anything high +as distinguished from the low. There is but one; and that one--the whole +universe--is God. There is no evil in the world, says pantheism, +everything is good--if we could understand things as they really are we +should find no oppositions in the universe, and no contradictions in the +nature of things. The world as it is, is the best of all possible +worlds--there is perfect harmony, though we fail to appreciate it. Other +optimistic theories, too, deny the existence of evil and pain, and try +to explain our ideas of sin to be mere "points of view." If we could see +the whole, they tell us, we should see how the parts harmonise, but now +we only see some of the parts and fail to appreciate the harmony. In +this way they try to explain away as unreal the phenomena of evil and +pain. + +But Eucken has no patience with such theories. For him the oppositions +and contradictions of life are too real and persistent. The antagonisms +"stir us with disgust and indignation." Evil cannot be considered +trivial, and must not be glossed over; it is in the world, and the more +deeply we appreciate the fact the better it will be for the human soul. + +Man in his lower stages of development is just a child of nature, and +his standards of life are those of the lower world. He seeks those +things that satisfy the senses, he attempts the satiation of the lower +cravings. In the realm of morals his standard is utility--that is good +which helps him to obtain more pleasure and to avoid pain. In social +life his conduct is dictated by custom--this is the highest appeal. The +development of man along the lines of nature ends at this point--and if +nothing more is to happen, then he must remain at a low level of +development. Matter and mind cannot take him beyond--the mind as such +only helps towards the further satisfaction of the lower demands of man. + +But there is something far greater in highly developed manhood than the +petty and selfish. Man is capable of conceiving and adopting higher +standards of morality than those of utility and pleasure, and it is the +spiritual life that enables him to do this. It is the spiritual that +frees the individual from the slavery of the sense world--from his +selfishness and superficial interests--that teaches him to care less for +the things of the flesh, and far more for the beautiful, the good, and +the true, and that enables him to pursue high aims regardless of the +fact that they may entail suffering and loss in other directions. This, +then, is the "High" in the world; the natural life is the "Low." + +But what is the relation of the natural to the spiritual life? In the +first place, the spiritual cannot be derived from the natural, inasmuch +as the former is immensely superior to the latter, and that not merely +in degree, but in its very essence. The spiritual is entirely on a +higher plane of reality, and there cannot be transition from the natural +to the spiritual world. The natural has its limitations, and beyond +these cannot go. So far as the natural world is concerned man can never +rise above seeking for pleasure, and making expediency and social +approbation the standards of life, hence there is little wonder that +those ethical teachers who make nature their basis, deny the possibility +of action that is unselfish and free. "The Spiritual Life," however, as +Eucken says, "has an independent origin, and evolves new powers and +standards." + +Neither do the two aspects run together in life in parallel lines. On +the contrary, the spiritual life cannot manifest itself at all until a +certain stage of development is reached in nature. It would seem +impossible to conceive of the animal rising above its animal instincts +and tendencies; its whole life is conditioned by its animal nature and +its environment. Man stands at the junction of the stages between the +purely natural and the purely spiritual. On the one hand, he is a member +of the animal world, he has its instincts, its desires and its +limitations; on the other hand, he has within him the germ of +spirituality. He belongs to both worlds, the natural and the spiritual. +He cannot shake off the natural and remain a man--to separate the two +means death to man as we know him. But there is a great difference +between his position in the natural world and his position in the +spiritual world. He seems to be the last word in the world of nature, he +has reached heights far beyond those reached by any other flesh and +blood. He is, so far as we know, the culminating point of natural +evolution--the final possibility in the natural world. But the stage of +nature only represents the first stage in the development of the +universe. + +There is an infinitely higher stage of life, the spiritual life. And if +man is the final point of progress in the world of nature, he is, in his +primitive state, only at the threshold of the spiritual world. But he +is not an entire stranger to the spiritual--the germ is in him, and the +spiritual is consequently not an alien world for him. If the spiritual +were something entirely foreign it would be vain to expect much progress +through mere impulses from without. On the contrary, it is the spiritual +that makes man really great, and is the most fundamental part of his +nature. + +The two stages of life, then, are present in man--the natural and the +spiritual; the former highly developed, the latter, at first, in an +undeveloped state. + +Now the great aim of the universe is to pass gradually from the natural +to the spiritual plane of life. This does not mean that the latter is +the product of the former stage, for this is not the case. It means that +the deeper reality in life is the spiritual, and that the spiritual +develops through the natural in its own particular way. And this +particular way is not a mere development but a _self_-development. The +aim of the spiritual is to develop its own self through the human being. +In this way man is given the possibility of developing a self--a +personality in a very real sense. + +Thus we arrive at some idea of the relation there exists between the +spiritual and the natural, and of the place of the spiritual and the +natural in man. The spiritual is neither the product nor an attribute of +the natural. Man is the border creature of the two worlds; he represents +the ultimate possibility of the one, and possesses potentialities in +regard to the other. The great object of his life must be to develop, +through making use of and conquering the life of nature, his higher self +into a free, spiritual, and immortal personality. The progressive stages +in this direction must be dealt with in the next chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE ASCENT TO FREEDOM AND PERSONALITY + + +In the previous chapter we found that man in his primitive stage is +largely a creature of the lower world. His desires are those of the +animal kingdom, his ideal is utility, and social approbation his God. At +this stage he is a mere nothing, no better than a slave to his passions +and to the opinions of his fellow-beings. He possesses neither freedom +nor personality--for he is but a tool in the hands of other impulses and +forces. There is no controlling self--he is not a lord in his own +kingdom. Some men do not get beyond this very low level, but for ever +remain mere shuttlecocks driven hither and thither by more or less +contradictory impulses. + +The germ of the higher world that resides within him may sometimes make +itself felt, but "so long as there is a confused welter of higher and +lower impulses, ... so long is there an absence of anything essentially +new and lofty." + +Man's aspirations for things that are higher, are at the outset very +sluggish and vague, for a being that is so much dominated by the natural +world is apt to concentrate its attention upon it and to remain +contented with it. + +But there comes a time in the lives of perhaps most men when a distinct +feeling of dissatisfaction is felt with the life of natural impulse and +of convention. The man feels--perhaps in a vague way at first--that +there is something too merely animal in the sense world, or that there +is an intolerable emptiness and hypocrisy in a life of slavish devotion +to the opinions of society. Perhaps he feels that his passions govern +him, and not he his passions. The higher life stirs within him, and he +begins to question the rightness of things. He learns to appreciate for +the first time that the natural impulses may not be the noblest, and +that custom may not be an ideal guide. His soul is astir with the +problem of life--the result very largely depends upon the solutions that +are presented to him. Perhaps the naturalistic solution is made to +appeal to him, and he is taught to trust nature and it will lead him +aright. Or maybe the pantheistic theory is accepted by him, and he is +led to believe that the world as it is is entirely good, and that he has +but to live his life from day to day, and not worry himself about the +ultimate end and purpose of things. Or other optimistic theories of life +that deny the existence of evil may influence him. All these solutions +may give him temporary peace of mind, and perhaps indeed form efficient +stumbling-blocks to any further spiritual progress. + +But the spiritual beginnings within us often show remarkable vitality. +They may under certain conditions lead us to appreciate the existence of +a distinct opposition in the world--the opposition between the lower +world and the higher self. Man finds that the natural is often low, +evil, and sordid, and at this stage the higher spiritual world makes a +strong appeal to him. By degrees he comes to feel the demands of the +lower world to be a personal insult to him. What is the lower material +world that it should govern him, and he a _man_? The claims of pleasure +and utility to be standards of conduct strike him as arrogant, and he +revolts against the assumption that higher aims can have no charm for +him. His previous acceptance without consideration of the moral +standard of the community he now looks upon as a sign of weakness on his +part--for is he not himself, a person with the power of independent +judgment and evaluation? It is the first great awakening of the +spiritual life in man, when his whole soul is in revolt against the low, +sordid, and conventional. What shall he do? There is only one course +that is worthy of his asserting personality--he must break with the +world. Henceforth he sees two worlds in opposition--the world of the +flesh on the one hand, the world of the spirit on the other, and he +arrays himself on the side of the higher in opposition to the lower. +When he does this the spiritual life in him makes the first substantial +movement in its onward progress--this movement Eucken calls the +_negative movement_. It does not mean that the man must leave the world +of work and retire into the seclusion of a monastery--that means +shirking the fight, and is a policy of cowardice. Neither does it mean a +wild impatience with the present condition of the world--it means rather +that man is appreciating in a profound way the oppositions that exist, +and is casting his lot on the side of right. He renounces everything +that hinders him from fighting successfully, then goes forth into the +thick of the battle. The break must be a definite one and made in a +determined manner. "Without earnestness of renunciation the new life +sinks back to the old ... and loses its power to stimulate to new +endeavour. As human beings are, this negation must always be a sharp +one." + +The negative movement, then, is the first substantial step in the +progress of the spiritual life. The man's self breaks out into +discontent with nature, and this is the first step to the union of self +to the higher reality in life. The break with the world is in itself of +course but a negative process. This must attain a positive significance. +If the self breaks away from one aspect of life, it must identify itself +more intimately with another. This occurs when the individual sets out +definitely on a course of life in antagonism to the evil in the world. + +When this takes place, there arises within him a _new immediacy_ of +experience. Hitherto the things that were his greatest concern, and that +appealed to him most, were the pleasures of the natural world. But these +things appeal to him no longer as urgent and immediate--but as being of +a distinctly secondary character. A new immediacy has arisen; it is the +facts of the spiritual world that now appeal to him as urgent and +immediate. "All that has hitherto been considered most immediate, as the +world of sense, or even the world of society, now takes a second place, +and has to make good its claim before this spiritual tribune.... That +which current conceptions treat as a Beyond ... is now the only world +which exists in its own right, the only true and genuine world which +neither asks nor consents to be derived from any outside source." + +This new immediacy is the deepest possible immediacy, it is an immediacy +of experience where the self comes into contact with its own vital +principle--the Universal Spiritual Life--and brings about a fundamental +change in the life of the individual. The inner life is no longer +governed by sense impressions and impulses, but the outward life is +lived and viewed from the standpoint of the inward life. + +But a new immediacy is not all that follows in the train of the negative +movement--on the contrary, the highest possible rewards are gained, for +freedom, personality, and immortality are all brought within the range +of possibility. + +Once a human being decides for the highest he is on the highroad to +complete freedom. The freedom is not going to be won in a moment, but +must be fought for by the individual through the whole course of his +life. His body is always with him, and will at times attempt to master +him--he must fight continually to ensure conquest. Difficulties will +arise from various quarters, but he is not going to depend only upon his +own resources. All his activity involves in the first place the +recognition of the spiritual world, but more than this, he appropriates +unto himself of the spiritual world--this in itself is an act of +decision. And the more we appropriate unto ourselves of the Universal +Spiritual Life, the more we decide for the higher world, the freer we +become. Indeed, "it is this appropriation ... of the spiritual life that +first awakens within the soul an inward certitude, and makes possible +that perfect freedom ... so indispensable for every great creative +work." By continually choosing and fighting for the progress of the +Universal Spiritual Life, it comes to be our own in virtue of our deed +and decision. Hence man has attained freedom--the lower world no longer +makes successful appeal. He has become a part of the spiritual world, +and his actions are no longer dictated by anything external, but are the +direct outcome of his own self. He has freely chosen the highest, and +continually reaffirms his choice--this is perfect freedom. + +Man gains for himself, too, a personality in the true sense of the term. +Eucken does not mean by personality "mere self-assertion on the part of +an individual in opposition to others." He means something far deeper +than this. "A genuine self," says Eucken, "is constituted only by the +coming to life of the infinite spiritual world in an independent +concentration in the individual." Following a life of endeavour in the +highest cause, and continual appropriation of the spiritual life, he +arrives at a state of at-one-ness with the universal life. "Man does not +merely enter into some kind of relation with the spiritual life, but +finds his own being in it." The human being is elevated to a self-life +of a universal kind, and this frees him from the ties and appeals of the +world of sense and selfishness. It is a glorious conception of human +personality, infinitely higher than the undignified conceptions of +naturalism and determinism. + +And if man wins a glorious personality, he may gain immortality too. +Unfortunately, Eucken has not yet dealt fully with this question, but he +is evidently of the opinion that the spiritual personalities are +immortal. As concentration points or foci of the spiritual life, he +believes that the developed personalities are at present and in prospect +possessors of a spiritual realm. But there will be no essential or +sudden change at death. That which is immortal is involved in our +present experience. Those who have developed into spiritual +personalities, who have worked in fellowship with the great Universal +Life, and become centre-points of spirituality, have thus risen supreme +over time and pass to their inheritance. Those who have not done so, but +have lived their lives on the plane of nature, will have nothing that +can persist. + +Hence it is that the negative movement leads to freedom, personality, +and immortality; the neglect to make the movement consigns the +individual to slavery, makes a real "self" impossible, and at death he +has nought that a spiritual realm can claim. The choice is an +all-important one; for, as a recent writer puts it, "In this choice, the +personality chooses or rejects itself, takes itself for its life-task, +or dies of inanition and inertia." + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE PERSONAL AND THE UNIVERSAL + + +In the last chapter the ascent of the human being from serfdom to +freedom and personality was traced. In doing so it was necessary to make +frequent reference to the Universal Spiritual Life. + +When we turn to consider the characteristics of the Universal Spiritual +Life, many problems present themselves. How can we reconcile freedom and +personality with the existence of an Absolute? What is the nature of +this Absolute, and in what way is the human related to it? What place +should religion play in the life of the spiritual personality? These +are, of course, some of the greatest and most difficult problems that +ever perplexed the mind of man, and we can only deal briefly with +Eucken's contribution to their solution. + +Can a man choose the highest? This is the form in which Eucken would +state the problem of freedom. His answer, as already seen, is an +affirmative one. The personality chooses the spiritual life, and +continually reaffirms the decision. This being so, it is now no longer +possible to consider the human and the divine to be entirely in +opposition. And the more the spiritual personality develops, so much the +less does the opposition obtain, until a state of spirituality is +arrived at when all opposition of will ceases--then we attain perfect +freedom. "We are most free, when we are most deeply pledged--pledged +irrevocably to the spiritual presence, with which our own being is so +radically and so finally implicated." Thus freedom is obtained in a +sense through self-surrender, but it is through this same self-surrender +that we realise spiritual absoluteness. Hence it is that perfect freedom +carries with it the strongest consciousness of dependence, and human +freedom is only made possible through the absoluteness of the spiritual +life in whom it finds its being. + +English philosophers have dealt at length with the question of the +possibility of reconciling the independence of personality and the +existence of an Absolute. From Eucken's point of view the difficulty is +not so serious. When he speaks of personality he does not mean the mere +subjective individual in all his selfishness. Eucken has no sympathy +with the emphasis that is often placed on the individual in the low +subjective sense, and is averse from the glorification of the individual +of which some writers are fond. Indeed, he would prefer a naturalistic +explanation of man rather than one framed as a result of man's +individualistic egoism. The former explanation admits that man is +entirely a thing of nature; the latter, from a selfish and proud +standpoint, claims for man a place in a higher world. There is nothing +that is worthy and high in the low desires of Mr. Smith--the mere +subjective Mr. Smith. But if through the mind and body of Mr. Smith the +Absolute Spirit is realising itself in personality--then there is +something of eternal worth--there is spiritual personality. There will +be opposition between the sordidness of the mere individual will and the +divine will, but that is because the spiritual life has not been gained. +When the highest state of spiritual personality has been reached, then +man is an expression--a personal realisation of the Absolute, is in +entire accord with the absolute, indeed becomes himself divine. + +This does not rob the term personality of its meaning, for each +personality does, in some way, after all, exist for itself. Each +individual consciousness has a sanctity of its own. But the +being-for-self develops more and more by coming into direct contact with +the Universal Spiritual Life. + +Here, then, we arrive at something that appears to be a paradox. We have +the phenomenon of a being that is free and existing for itself, yet in +some way dependent upon an absolute spiritual life. We have, too, the +phenomenon of a human being becoming divine. How is it really possible +that self-activity can arise out of dependence? Eucken does not attempt +to explain, but contends that an explanation cannot be arrived at +through reasoning. We are forced to the conclusion, we realise through +our life and action that this is the real state of affairs, and in this +case the reality proves the possibility. "This primal phenomenon," he +says, "overflows all explanation. It has, as the fundamental condition +of all spiritual life, a universal axiomatic character." Again he says, +"The wonder of wonders is the human made divine, through God's superior +power." "The problem surpasses the capacity of the human reason." For +taking up this position, Eucken is sharply criticised by some writers. + +When we approach the problem of the nature of the Absolute in itself, +the main difficulty that arises is whether God is a personal being. God, +says Eucken, is "an Absolute Spiritual Life in all its grandeur, above +all the limitations of man and the world of experience--a Spiritual Life +that has attained to a complete subsistence in itself, and at the same +time to an encompassing of all reality." The divine is for Eucken the +ultimate spirituality that inspires the work of all spiritual +personalities. When in our life of fight and action we need inspiration, +we find "in the very depths of our own nature a reawakening, which is +not a mere product of our activity, but a salvation straight from God." +God, then, is the ultimate spirituality which inspires the struggling +personality, and gives to it a sense of unity and confidence. Eucken +does not admit that God is a personality in the sense that we are, and +deprecates all anthropomorphic conceptions of God as a personal being. +Indeed, to avoid the tendency to such conceptions he would prefer the +term "Godhead" to "God." Further considerations of the nature of God can +only lead to intellectual speculations. For an activistic philosophy, +such as Eucken's philosophy is, it would seem sufficient for life and +action to know that all attempts at the ideal in life, originate in, and +are inspired by, the Absolute Spiritual Life, that is by God. + +We cannot discuss fully the relation of human and divine without, too, +dealing with the ever urgent problem of religion. This is a problem in +which Eucken is deeply interested, and concerning which he has written +one of his greatest works--_The Truth of Religion_--a work that has been +described as one of the greatest apologies for religion ever written. + +What is religion? Most people perhaps would apply the term to a system +of belief concerning the Eternal, usually resting upon a historical or +traditional basis. Others would include in the term the reverence felt +for the Absolute by the contemplative mind, even though that mind did +not believe in any of the traditional systems. Some would emphasise the +fact that religion should concern itself with the establishment of a +relationship between the human and the Divine. + +But Eucken does not find religion to consist in belief, nor in a mere +attitude towards the mysteries of an overworld. In keeping with the +activistic tone of his whole philosophy he finds religion to be rooted +in life, and would define religion as an action by which the human being +appropriates the spiritual life. + +The first great concern of religion must be the conservation--not of +man, as mere man, but of the spiritual life in the human being, and it +means "a mighty concentration of the spiritual life in man." The +essential basis that makes religion possible is the presence of a Divine +life in man--"it unfolds itself through the seizure of this life as +one's own nature." Religion must be a form of activity, which brings +about the concentration of the spiritual life in the human soul, and +sets forth this spiritual life as a shield against unworthy elements +that attempt to enter and to govern man. + +The essential characteristic of religion must be the demand for a new +world. "Religion is not a communication of overworld secrets, but the +inauguration of an overworld life." Religion must depend upon the +contradiction and opposition that exists in human life, and upon the +clear recognition of the distinction between the "high" and the "low" in +life. It must point to a means of attaining freedom and redemption from +the old world of sin and sense, and to the possibility of being elevated +into a new and higher world. It must, too, fight against the extremes of +optimism and pessimism, for while it will acknowledge the presence of +wrong, it will call attention to the possibility of deliverance. It must +bring about a change of life, without denying the dark side of life; it +must show "the Divine in the things nearest at hand, without idealising +falsely the ordinary situation of life." + +The great practical effect of religion, then, must be to create a demand +for a new and higher world in opposition to the world of nature. For +this new life religion must provide an ultimate standard. "Religion must +at all times assert its right to prove and to winnow, for it is +religion--the power which draws upon the deepest source of life--which +takes to itself the whole of man, and offers a fixed standard for all +his undertakings." Religion must provide a standard for the whole of +life, for it places all human life "under the eternity." It is not the +function of religion to set up a special province over against the other +aspects of his life--it must transform life in its entirety, and affect +all the subsidiary aspects. + +But religion is not gained, any more than human freedom, once for all +time--it must be gained continually afresh, and sought ever anew. Thus +the fact of religion becomes a perpetual task, and leads to the highest +activity. + +Eucken speaks of two types of religion--Universal and Characteristic +Religion. The line of division between them is not easy to draw, but the +distinction gives an opportunity for emphasising again the essential +elements of true religion. + +_Universal Religion_ is a more or less vague appreciation of the +Spiritual, which results in a diffused, indefinite spiritual life. The +personality has appreciated to some extent the opposition between the +natural and the spiritual, and has chosen the spiritual. He adopts a new +attitude or mood, towards the world in consequence, and that is an +attitude of fight against the world of nature. But everything is vague; +the individual has not yet appreciated the spiritual world as his own, +and feels that he is a stranger in the higher world, rather than an +ordinary fully privileged citizen. He has not yet associated himself +closely enough with the Universal Spirit, everything is superficial, +there is hunger and thirst for the higher things in life, but these have +not yet been satiated. + +Some people never get beyond this vague appreciation of the spiritual +until perhaps some great trial or temptation, a long illness or sad +bereavement falls to their lot. Then they feel the need for a religion +that is more satisfying than the Universal Religion with which they have +in the past been content. They want to get nearer to God; they feel the +need of a personal God who is interested in their trials and troubles. +They are no longer satisfied with the conception of a God that is far +away, they thirst for His presence. This feeling leads the individual to +search for a more definite form of religion, in which the God is +regarded as supremely real, and reigns on the throne of love. The +personality enters into the greater depths of religion, and it becomes a +much more real and powerful influence in his life. He has no longer a +mere indefinite conception of a Deity, but he thinks of God as real and +personal. Instead of adopting a changed attitude towards the world of +nature, he comes to demand a new world. He is now a denizen of the +spiritual world, and there results "a life of pure inwardness," which +draws its power and inspiration from the infinite resources of the +Universal Spiritual Life in which he finds his being. This type of +religion Eucken calls _Characteristic Religion_. + +The historical religions would seem to represent, to some extent, the +attempts of humankind to arrive at a religion of this kind. A further +distinction arises between the historical forms of religion, of which +one at most, if any, can express the final truth, and the Absolute form +of religion, which if not yet conceived, must ultimately express the +truth in the matter of religion. + +Eucken is never more brilliant than he is in the examination he makes of +the historical forms of religion, for the purpose of formulating the +Absolute and final form; some account of this must be given in the next +chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +RELIGION: HISTORICAL AND ABSOLUTE + + +In examining the various historical forms of religion, Eucken, as we +should expect, is governed by the conclusions he has arrived at +concerning the solution of the great problem of life, and especially of +the place of religion in life. + +A religion which emphasised the need for a break with the world, and of +fight and action for spiritual progress, the possibility of a new higher +life of freedom and of personality, and the superiority of the spiritual +over the material, and which presented God as the ultimate spiritual +life, in which the human personality found its real self, would thus +meet with highest favour, while a form of religion that failed to do so +would necessarily fail to satisfy the tests that he would apply. + +He does not spend time discussing various religions in detail, but deals +with them briefly in general, in order to show that the Christian +religion is far superior to all other religions, then he makes a +critical and very able examination of the Christian position. He +considers it necessary to discuss in detail only that form of religion +that is undoubtedly the highest. + +The historical religions he finds to be of two types--religions of law +and religions of redemption. The religions of law portray God as a being +outside the world, and distinct from man, One who rules the world by +law, and who decrees that man shall obey certain laws of conduct that +He lays down. Failure to obey these laws brings its punishment in the +present or in a future life, while implicit obedience brings the highest +rewards. To such a God is often attributed all the weaknesses of the +human being, sometimes in a much exaggerated form--hence His reign +becomes one of fear to His subjects. + +A religion of law assumes that man is capable of himself of obeying the +law, and is responsible for his mode of life; it assumes that man is +capable through his own energy of conquering the world of sin, and of +leading the higher life. + +Religions of this type possess of course the merit of simplicity, +transparency, and finality. The decrees, the punishments and rewards are +given with some clearness and are easily understood; there is no appeal +and little equivocation. They served a useful purpose in the earlier +ages of civilisation, but cannot solve the problem for the complex +civilisation and advanced culture of the present age. They place God too +far from man, and attribute to man powers which he cannot of himself +possess. The conceptions of the Deity involved in them are too +anthropomorphic in character--too much coloured by human frailties. + +The religions of law have had to give place to those of a superior +type--the religions of redemption. These religions appreciate the +difficulty there exists for humankind of itself to transcend the world +of sin, and are of two types--one type expressing a merely negative +element, the other a negative and positive element. + +The typical negative redemptive religion is that of Buddhism. Buddhism +teaches us that the world is a sham and an evil; and the duty of man is +to appreciate this fact, and to deny the world, but here the matter +ends--it ends with world-renunciation and self-renunciation. There is +only a negative element in such a religion, no inspiration to live and +fight for gaining a higher world. This, of course, cannot provide a +satisfactory solution to the problem, for no new life with new values is +presented to us. It is a religion devoid of hope, for it does not point +to a higher life. "A wisdom of world-denial, a calm composure of the +nature, an entire serenity in the midst of the changing scenes of life, +constitute the summit of life." + +Christianity teaches us that the world is full of misery and suffering, +but the world in itself is really a perfect work of Divine wisdom and +goodness. "The root of evil is not in the nature of the world, but in +moral wrong--in a desertion from God." Sin and wickedness arise from the +misuse and perversion of things which are not in themselves evil. +Christianity calls for a break from the wickedness of the world. It +calls upon man to give up his sin, to deny, or break with, the evil of +which he is guilty. But it does not expect man to do this in his own +strength alone--God Himself comes to his rescue. Unlike Buddhism, it +does not stay at the denial of the world, but calls upon man to become a +citizen of a higher world. This gives a new impetus to the higher life; +man finds a great task--he has to build a kingdom of God upon the earth. +This demands the highest efforts--he must fight to gain the new world, +and must keep up the struggle to retain what he has gained. The +inferiority of Buddhism as contrasted with Christianity is well +described by Eucken in the following words: "In the former an +emancipation from semblance becomes necessary; in the latter an +overcoming of evil is the one thing needful. In the former the very +basis of the world seems evil; in the latter it is the perversion of +this basis which seems evil. In the former, the impulses of life are to +be entirely eradicated; in the latter, on the contrary, they are to be +ennobled, or rather to be transformed. In the former, no higher world of +a positive kind dawns on man, so that life finally reaches a seemingly +valid point of rest, whilst upon Christian ground life ever anew ascends +beyond itself." + +From such considerations as these, Eucken comes to the conclusion that +of the redemptive religions, which are themselves the highest type, +Christianity is the highest and noblest form, hence his main criticism +is concerned with the Christian religion. This does not mean that he +finds neither value nor truth in any other form of religion. His general +conclusion with regard to the historical religions is that they "contain +too much that is merely human to be valued as a pure work of God, and +yet too much that is spiritual and divine to be considered as a mere +product of man." He finds in them all some kernel of truth, or at least +a pathway to some part of truth, but contends that no religion contains +the whole truth and nothing but the truth. "As certainly," he says, "as +there is only one sole truth, there can be only one absolute religion, +and this religion coincides entirely in no way with any one of the +historical religions." + +Eucken's great endeavour in his discussion of the Christian religion is +to bring out the distinction between the eternal substance that resides +in it and the human additions that have been made to it in different +ages, between the elements in Christianity that are essentially divine +and those essentially human. Divested of its human colourings and +accretions, Christianity presents a basis of Divine and eternal truth, +and this regarded in itself, can well claim to be the final and absolute +religion. + +The conclusion he has come to with regard to the eternal truth as +contrasted with the temporary colourings of Christianity, with the +essential as contrasted with the inessential, can best be outlined by +taking in turn some of the main tenets and characteristics of the +Christian faith. + +Eucken's conception of the negative movement is very much akin to the +Christian idea of _conversion_. The first stage is merely a movement +away from the world, but after a time, in the continuous process of +negation, the negative movement attains a positive significance; when +this stage is arrived at Eucken would apply the term conversion. He +would not limit the negative movement to one act or to one point in +time; the movement towards a higher world must be maintained--the +sustaining of the negative movement being a test of the reality of +conversion. The process of conversion is not a process to be passively +undergone, or to originate from without, but is a movement starting in +the depths of one's own being. + +As already pointed out, Eucken believes in _redemption_. The past is +capable of reinterpretation and transformation, because we can view our +past actions in a new light and so change the whole, since the past is +not a closed thing, definite in itself, but a part of an incomplete +whole. He considers, however, that the Christian doctrine of redemption +makes it too much a matter of God's mercy, instead of placing stress +upon the part that man himself must play. The possibility of redemption +in his view follows from the presence and movement of the spiritual life +in man, not merely from an act of the founder of Christianity, and he +avers that while traditional Christianity emphasises the need for +redemption from evil, it does not emphasise sufficiently the necessary +elevation to the good life that must result. + +Closely bound up with the Christian doctrine of redemption is that of +_mediation_. Eucken believes that the Christian conception of mediation +resulted from the feeling of worthlessness and impotence of man, and the +aspirations which yet burned within him after union with the Divine. The +idea of mediation bridges the gulf, "a mid-link is forged between the +Divine and the human, and half of it belongs to each side; both sides +are brought into a definite connection which could be found in no other +way." Eucken acknowledges that such a mediation seems to make access to +the Divine easier, gives intimacy to the idea of redemption, and offers +support for human frailty. But he points out that there is an +intolerable anthropomorphism involved in the idea, that it removes the +Divine farther away from man, and that the union of Divine and human is +held to obtain in one special case only--that of Christ. He urges that +in a religion of mediation, one or other, God or Christ, must be chosen +as the centre. "Concerning the decision there cannot be the least doubt; +the fact is clear in the soul-struggles of the great religious +personalities, that in a decisive act of the soul the doctrinal idea of +mediation recedes into the background, and a direct relationship with +God becomes a fact of immediacy and intimacy." + +So Eucken will have nothing to do with the idea of mediation in its +doctrinal significance--pointing out that "the idea of mediation glides +easily into a further mediation." "Has not the figure of Christ receded +in Catholicism, and does not the figure of Mary constitute the centre of +the religious emotional life?" + +He does, however, lay great store by the help that a man may be to other +men in their upward path: "The human, personality who first and foremost +brought eternal truth to the plane of time, and through this +inaugurated a new epoch, remains permanently present in the picture of +the spiritual world, and is able permanently to exercise a mighty power +upon the soul ... but all this is far removed from any idea of +mediation." + +Eucken believes in _revelation_, but through action, and not through +contemplation. To the personality struggling upward, with its aims set +towards the highest in life, the spiritual life reveals itself. He does +not confine revelation to certain periods in time, and believes that +such revelation comes to all spiritual personalities. + +He holds, too, that the spiritual personalities are themselves +revelations of the Universal Spiritual Life, and that the Spiritual Life +does reveal itself most clearly in personalities. + +How the revelation comes he does not discuss in any detail, but he is +very certain that it comes through action and fight for the highest. + +It is perhaps largely due to his activistic standpoint that Eucken does +not deal with _prayer_. In the _Truth of Religion_, which deals very +fully with most aspects of religion, and purports to be a complete +discussion of religion, no treatment of prayer is given. He speaks of +the developing personality as drawing upon the resources of the +Universal Spiritual Life, but this appears to be in action, and not in +prayer or communion. + +He is ever suspicious of intellectual contemplation, and this leads him +to attribute less importance than perhaps he should to _mysticism_, to +prayer, adoration, and worship. He admits that mysticism contains a +truth that is vital to religion, but complains that it becomes for many +the whole of religion. Its proper function is to liberate the human mind +from the narrowly human, and to emphasise a total-life, the great Whole. +It fails, however, "because it turns this necessary portion of religion +into the sole content. To it, religion is nothing other than an +absorption into the infinite and eternal Being--an extinguishing of all +particularity, and the gaining of a complete calm through the suspension +of all the wear and tear of life." + +Eucken's discussion of _faith and doubt_ is very illuminating. He +protests against the conception of faith which concerns itself merely +with the intellectual acceptance of this or that doctrine. This narrows +and weakens its power, confining it to one department of life; whereas +faith is concerned with the whole of life. + +Faith is for Eucken "a conviction of an axiomatic character, which +refuses to be analysed into reasons, and which, indeed, precedes all +reasons ... the recognition of the inner presence of an infinite +energy." + +If faith concerns itself with, and proceeds from the whole of life, it +will then take account of the work of thought, and will not set itself +in opposition to reason. But it will lead where reason fails. It is not +limited by intellectual limitations, though it does not underrate or +neglect the achievements of the intellect. Faith enables life to +"maintain itself against a hostile or indifferent world; ... it holds +itself fast to invisible facts against the hard opposition of visible +existence." + +The vital importance of such faith to religion is clearly evident; and +bound up with this is the significance of doubt. Doubt, too, becomes +now, not an intellectual matter, but a matter for the whole of life. "If +faith carries within itself so much movement and struggle, it is not +surprising ... if faith and doubt set themselves against each other, and +if the soul is set in a painful dilemma." Eucken considers it to be an +inevitable, and indeed a necessary accompaniment of religious +experience, and his own words on the point are forcible and clear. +"Doubt ... does not appear as something monstrous and atrocious, though +it would appear so if a perfect circle of ideas presented itself to man +and demanded his assent as a bounden duty. For where it is necessary to +lay hold on a new life, and to bring to consummation an inward +transformation, then a personal experience and testing are needed. But +no proof is definite which clings from the beginning to the final +result, and places on one side all possibility of an antithesis. The +opposite possibility must be thought out and lived through if the Yea is +to possess full energy and genuineness. Thus doubt becomes a necessary, +if also an uncomfortable, companion of religion; it is indispensable for +the conservation of the full freshness and originality of religion--for +the freeing of religion from conventional forms and phrases." + +Eucken's views on _immortality_ have already been dealt with. He does +not accept the Christian conception of it, for he seems to limit the +possibility to those in whom spiritual personalities have been +developed, and he evidently does not believe that the "natural +individuality with all its egoism and limitations" is going to persist. + +In discussing the question of _miracle_, Eucken weighs the fact that a +conviction of the possibility of miracle has been held by millions in +various religions, and particularly in Christianity. He considers that +the question of miracle is of more importance in the Christian religion +than in any other, one miracle--the Resurrection--having been taken +right into the heart of Christian doctrine. He finds, however, that the +miracle is entirely inconsistent with an exact scientific conception of +nature, and means "an overthrow of the total order of nature as this +has been set forth through the fundamental work of modern +investigation." He does not consider such a position can be held without +overwhelming evidence, and does not feel the traditional fact to have +this degree of certainty, or to be inexplicable in another way. He +considers that the explanation of the miracle probably lies in the +psychic state of the witnesses. + +Eucken shows in general extreme reluctance to make a historical event a +foundation of belief, and this no doubt accounts to some extent for his +attitude with regard to miracles. He points out that "the founders of +religion have themselves protested against a craving after sensuous +signs," and that this protest "is no other than the sign of spiritual +power and of a Divine message and greatness." He considers that the +belief in, and craving for, sensuous miracle is an outcome of a +"mid-level of religion," where belief is waning and spirituality +declining. While, thus, he does not believe in sensuous miracle, he +acknowledges and lays the greatest stress on one miracle--the presence +of the Spiritual Life in man. It is, indeed, this miracle that renders +others unnecessary. + +In discussing the doctrine of the _Incarnation_, Eucken attempts to get +at the inner meaning--the truth which the doctrine endeavours to +express, and he finds this to consist in the fact of the ultimate union +of the human and Divine, and this truth is one that we dare not +renounce. He criticises the attempt that is made in Christianity to show +that such union only obtained once in the course of history. Incarnation +is not one historical event, but a spiritual process; not an article of +belief, but a living experience of each spiritual personality. + +He considers as injurious to religion in general the Christian +conception of the _Atonement_. He believes that the idea that is to be +expressed is that of the nearness of God to man in guilt and in +suffering. In endeavouring to express this close intimacy the idea of +suffering was transferred to God himself. The anthropomorphic idea of +reconciliation and substitution thus arose, and this Eucken considers to +have done harm. "The notion that God does not help us through His own +will and power, but requires first of all His own feeling of pity to be +roused, is an outrage on God and a darkening of the foundation of +religion." So Eucken objects to the attempt to formulate the mystery +into dogma. "All dogmatic formulation of such fundamental truths of +religion becomes inevitably a rationalism and a treatment of the problem +by means of human relationships, and according to human standards." "It +is sufficient for the religious conviction to experience the nearness of +God in human suffering, and His help in the raising of life out of +suffering into a new life beyond all the insufficiency of reason. +Indeed, the more intuitively this necessary truth is grasped, the less +does it combine into a dogmatic speculation and the purer and more +energetically is it able to work." + +The conception of the _Trinity_ is again an attempt to express the union +of Divine and human, "the inauguration of the Divine Nature within human +life." The dogma, however, involves ideas of a particular generation, +and so threatens to become, and has indeed become, burdensome to a later +age which no longer holds these ideas. Further, the doctrine of the +Trinity has mixed up a fundamental truth of religion with abstruse +philosophical speculations, and this has provided a stumbling-block +rather than a help. + +At the same time, Eucken lays the greatest stress on the _personality of +Jesus_. He considers the personality of Jesus to be of more importance +to Christianity than is the personality of its founder to any other +religion. "Such a personality as Jesus is not the mere bearer of +doctrines, or of a special frame of mind, but is a convincing fact, and +proof of the Divine life, a proof at which new life can be kindled over +anew." And again: "It is from this source that a great yearning has been +implanted within the human breast ... a longing for a new life of love +and peace, of purity and simplicity. Such a life, with its incomparable +nature and its mysterious depths, does not exhaust itself through +historical effects, but humanity can from hence ever return afresh to +its inmost essence, and can strengthen itself ever anew through the +certainty of a new, pure, and spiritual world over against the +meaningless aspects of nature and over against the vulgar mechanism of a +culture merely human." But while he would appreciate the depth and +richness of the personality of Jesus, he protests against the worship of +Jesus as divine, and the making of Him the centre of religion. The +greatness of Christ is confined to the realm of humanity, and there is +in all men a possibility of attaining similar heights. + +Christianity is, in Eucken's view, much more closely bound up with +historical events than any other religion, and it thus suffers more +severe treatment at the hands of historical criticism than any other +religion. Eucken considers such historical criticism to be of great +value. In Christianity as in other religions we find the eternal not in +its pure form, but mixed with the temporal and variable, and historical +criticism will help in the separation of the temporal from the eternal +elements. In so doing it does an immense service, for it frees religion +from fixation to one special point of time, and enables us to regard it +as ever developing and progressing to greater depths. + +Eucken emphasises that the _historical basis_ of Christianity is not +Christianity itself, is not essentially religious; and he quotes +Lessing, Kant, and Fichte to support him in his contention that a belief +in such a historical basis is not necessary to religion, and may even +prove harmful to it. The historical basis is, of course, useful as +bringing out into clear relief the personality of Jesus, and the other +great spiritual personalities associated in His work, and Eucken lays +stress upon the use that history can be to Christianity in giving +records of the experiences of great spiritual personalities in all ages, +but it is important that the history is here a means to an end, and not +an end in itself, and that the importance lies in the spiritual +experience and not in the historical facts. + +When one considers how little Eucken has to say concerning worship, and +how little emphasis he places upon historical and doctrinal forms in +religion, one wonders how it is he attaches so much importance to the +functions of the _Church_. He points out that a Church is necessary to +religion, that it seems to be the only way of making religion real and +effective for man. "The Church seems indispensable in order to introduce +and to hold at hand the new world and the new life to man in the midst +of his ordinary existence; it is indispensable in order to fortify the +conviction and to strengthen the energy in the midst of all the opposite +collisions; it is indispensable in order to uphold an eternal truth and +a universal problem in the midst of the fleetingness of the moment." In +the past, however, much harm has been done to religion by the Church. +This has arisen from several reasons. To begin with, it tends to narrow +religion, which is concerned with life, to the realm of ideas, and to +tie down religion by connecting it with a thought-system of a particular +age. Further, the necessary mechanical routine, and the appointment of +special persons to carry out this routine, tends to elevate the routine +and these special persons to a far higher place than they should occupy. +Again, spiritual things have been dragged into the service of personal +ambition, and bound up with human interests. The most serious danger, +however, is that religion, from being an inward matter, tends to become +externalised. + +Despite this, an organised Church cannot be dispensed with, and Eucken +points out what changes are necessary to make the Church effective. One +important point he makes clear, namely, that as the Church must speak to +all, and every day, and not only to spiritually distinguished souls, and +in moments of elevated feeling, then the teaching of the Church will +always lag behind religion itself, and must be considered as an +inadequate expression of it. + +It is necessary that there should be no coercion with regard to men's +attitude towards the Church, and men should be free to join this or that +Church, or no Church at all. + +Then there must be more freedom, movement, and individuality within the +Church. What the Church holds as a final result of the experience of +life cannot be expected as the confession of all, especially of the +young. "How can every man and every child feel what such a mightily +contrasted nature as Luther's with all its convulsive experiences felt?" + +Then the Church must not so much teach this or that doctrine as point to +the Spiritual Life, set forth the conditions of its development, and be +the representative of the higher world. Thus, and thus only, Eucken +thinks that the Church can fulfil its proper function, and avoid being a +danger to religion. + +Eucken's _appreciation of Christianity_ is sincere. Viewing it from the +standpoint of the Spiritual Life, he finds that it fulfils the +conditions that religion should fulfil. It is based on freedom, and on +the presence of the Divine in humanity, even to the extent of a complete +union between them. The ideal of the Christian life is a personal life +of pure inwardness, and of an ethical character. He speaks of the "flow +of inner life by means of which Christianity far surpasses all other +religions," and of the "unfathomable depth and immeasurable hope which +are contained in the Christian faith." + +In Christianity the life of Christ has a value transcending all time, +and is a standard by which to judge all other lives. There is, too, in +Christianity a complete transformation or break, which must take place +before any progress or development can take place. + +"There is no need of a breach with Christianity; it can be to us what a +historical religion pre-eminently is meant to be--a sure pathway to +truth, an awakener of immediate and intimate life, a vivid +representation and realisation of an Eternal Order which all the changes +of time cannot possess or destroy." + +At the same time, there are changes necessary in the form of +Christianity, if it is to answer to the demands of the age, and be the +Absolute Religion. It must be shorn of temporary accretions, and must +cast aside the ideas of any one particular age which have now been +superseded. No longer can it retain the primitive view of nature and the +world which formerly obtained, no longer must it take up a somewhat +negative and passive attitude, but, realising that religion is a matter +of the whole life, must energetically work itself out through all +departments of life. It must remedy wrong, not merely endure it. It must +proceed from a narrow and subjective point of view to a cosmic one, +without at the same time losing sight of the fact that religion is an +inward and personal matter. It must take account to the full of the +value of man as man, and of the possibilities latent in him, and take +account of his own activity in his salvation. + +The Christian ideal of life must be a more joyous one, of greater +spiritual power, and the idea of redemption must not stop short at +redemption from evil, but must progress to a restoration to free and +self-determining activity. Since an absolute religion is based on the +spiritual life, the form in which it is clothed must not be too +rigid--life cannot be bound within a rigid creed. With its form modified +in this way, Eucken considers that Christianity may well be the Absolute +Religion, and that not only we can be, but we _must_ be Christians if +life is to have for us the highest meaning and value. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +CONCLUSION: CRITICISM AND APPRECIATION + + +We have attempted to enunciate the special problem with which Eucken +deals, and to follow him in his masterly criticisms of the solutions +that have been offered, in his further search for the reality in life, +in his arguments and statement of the philosophy of the spiritual life, +and finally in his profound and able investigation into the eternal +truth that is to be found in religion. In doing so, we have only been +able in a few cases to suggest points of criticism, and sometimes to +emphasise the special merits of the work. It was necessary to choose +between making a critical examination of a few points, and setting forth +in outline his philosophy as a whole. It was felt that it would be more +profitable for the average reader if the latter course were adopted. +Thousands who have heard the name of Eucken and have read frequent +references to him are asking, "What has Eucken really to say?" and we +have attempted to give a systematic, if brief, answer to the question. +Having done this it will be well to mention some of the main points of +criticism that have been made, and to call attention again to some of +the remarkable aspects of the contributions he has made to philosophy +and religion. + +Several critics complain of the obscurity of his writings, of his loose +use of terms, and of his tendency to use freely such indefinite and +abstruse terms as "The Whole," "The All," &c., and of his tendency to +repeat himself. Of course, if he is guilty of these faults, and he +certainly is to some extent, they are merely faults of style, and do not +necessarily affect the truth or otherwise of his opinions. In the matter +of clarity he is very variable; occasional sentences are brilliantly +clear, others present considerable difficulty to the practised student. +His more popular works, however, are much clearer and easier to +understand than the two standard treatises on _The Truth of Religion_ +and _Life's Basis and Life's Ideal_. His tendency to repetition is by no +means an unmixed evil, for even when he appears to be repeating himself, +he is very often in reality expressing new shades of meaning, which help +towards the better understanding of the first statements. + +The slight looseness in the use of terms, and a certain inexactness of +expression that is sometimes apparent, must of course not be +exaggerated; it is by no means serious enough to invalidate his main +argument. It gives an opportunity for a great deal of superficial +criticism on the part of unsympathetic writers, which, however, can do +little harm to Eucken's position. One has to remember that it is +difficult to combine the fervour of a prophet with pedantic exactness, +and that an inspired and profound philosopher cannot be expected to +spend much time over verbal niceties. + +Of course one would prefer absolute clarity and exactness, but we must +guard against allowing the absence of these things to prejudice us +against the profound truths of a philosophical position, which are not +vitally affected by that absence. + +Frequent criticism is directed towards the incompleteness of Eucken's +philosophy. He does not introduce his philosophy with a systematic +discussion of the great epistemological and ontological problems. +Philosophers have often introduced their work in this way, and it has +been customary to expect an introduction of the kind. To do so, however, +would be quite out of keeping with Eucken's activistic position, as it +would necessarily involve much intellectual speculation, and he does not +believe that the problem of life can be solved by such speculation. It +is unfortunate that he has so little to say concerning the world of +matter. Beyond insisting upon the superiority of the spiritual life, +which he calls the "substantial," over matter, which he calls the merely +"existential," he tells us very little about the material world. Rightly +or wrongly, thinkers are deeply interested in the merely existential, in +the periphery of life, in the material world, but for the solution of +this problem Eucken contributes little or nothing. His sole concern is +the spiritual world, and although we should like an elaboration of his +views on the mere periphery of life, we must not let the fact that he +does not give it, lead us to undervalue his real contributions. Another +serious incompleteness lies in the fact that he pays little attention to +the psychological implications of his theories. Until he does this, his +philosophy cannot be regarded as complete. Eucken, however, would be the +last to claim that his solution is a finished or final one; he is +content if his work is a substantial contribution to the final solution. + +Objection has been taken to the fact that he starts upon his task with a +definite bias in a certain direction. He candidly admits from the outset +that his aim is to find a meaning for life, and in doing this he of +course tacitly assumes that life has a deep and profound meaning. Strict +scientists aver that the investigator must set out without prejudice, to +examine the phenomena he observes; and Eucken's initial bias may form a +fatal stumbling-block to the acceptance of his philosophy by these, or +indeed, by any who are not disposed to accept this fundamental position. +If we deny that life has a meaning, then Eucken has little for us; but +if we are merely doubtful on the matter, the reading of Eucken will +probably bring conviction. + +Many critics point to the far-reaching assumptions he makes. He assumes +as axiomatic certainties and insoluble mysteries the existence of the +spiritual life in man, the union of the human and divine, and the +freedom of the spiritual personalities, though in a sense dependent upon +the Universal Spiritual Life. This of course does not mean that he is in +the habit of making unjustifiable assumptions. This is far from being +the case; on the contrary, he takes the greatest care in the matter of +his speculative bases. There are some fundamental facts of life, +however, which according to Eucken are proved to us by life itself; we +feel they must be true, but they are not truths that can be reasoned +about, nor proved by the intellect alone. These are the three great +facts mentioned above, which, while not admitting of proof, must be +regarded as certainties. + +His contention that they cannot be reasoned about has led to the further +charge of irrationalism. The question that has to be decided is, whether +Eucken in emphasising the fact that great truths must be solved by life +and action, is underestimating the part that intellect must play in +life. The decision must be largely one of individual opinion. Many +critics are of the opinion that he does lay too little stress upon the +intellectual factor in life. In actual fact, however, the fault is more +apparent than real, for Eucken does in fact reason and argue closely +concerning the facts of life. The charge, too, is to some extent due to +the fact that he continually attacks the over-emphasis on the +intellectual that the people of his own race--the Germans--are apt to +place. With the glorification of the intellect he has no sympathy, for +he feels there is something higher and more valuable in life than +thought--and that is action. + +These are the main points of criticism that have been raised--the reader +must judge for himself how seriously they should be regarded. But before +arriving at a final opinion he must think again of the contributions +Eucken has indubitably made to philosophy and religion, of which we +shall again in brief remind him. + +He has given us a striking examination of the various theories of life, +and has ably demonstrated their inadequacy. He has displayed great +scholarship in his search for the ultimate reality. He has found this +reality in the universal life, and has urged the need for a break with +the natural world in order to enter upon a higher life. He has traced +the progress of the spiritual life, and has given us ultimately a bold +vindication of human personality and of the freedom of the spiritual +being. + +He has raised philosophy from being mere discussions concerning abstract +theories to a discussion of life itself. In this way philosophy becomes +not merely a theory concerning the universe, nor merely a theory of +life, but a real factor in life itself--indeed it becomes itself a life. +Thus has he given to philosophy a higher ideal, a new urgency--by his +continued emphasis upon the spiritual he has given to philosophy a +nobler and a higher mission. He has placed the emphasis in general upon +life, and has pointed out the inability of the intellect to solve all +life's problems. He has given to idealistic philosophies a possible +rallying-point, where theories differing in detail can meet on common +ground. As one eminent writer says: "The depth and inclusiveness of +Eucken's philosophy, the comprehensiveness of its substructure and its +stimulating personal quality, mark it out as the right rallying-point +for the idealistic endeavour of to-day." + +And what does he give to religion? Many will reply that he has given us +nothing that is not already in the Christian religion. Therein lies the +value and strength of Eucken's contributions. He has given a striking +vindication of the spiritual content of Christianity as against the +effects of time changes. He has attempted to bring out the contrast +between what is really vital, and what are merely temporary colourings +and accretions. He makes many of the main elements of Christianity +acceptable without the need of a historical basis or proof. Not only +does he present the Christian position as a reasonable view of the +problem of life, but as the only solution that can really solve the +final problem. He has cleared the decks of all superfluous baggage, and +has laid bare a firm basis for a practical, constructive endeavour. + +He has given us in himself a profound believer in the inward and higher +nature of man, and in the existence of the spiritual life. As one critic +says: "The earnestness, depth and grandeur, humility and conscious +choice of high ideals, have raised his work far above mere intellectual +acuteness and minuteness." + +In Eucken we have one of the greatest thinkers of the age--some would +say _the_ greatest--setting his life upon emphasising the spiritual at a +time when the tendency is strongly in materialistic directions. He has +gathered around him a number of able and whole-hearted disciples in +various countries, and future ages may find in Eucken the greatest +force in the revulsion of the twentieth century (that is already making +itself felt) from the extreme materialistic position, to take religion +up again, and particularly the Christian religion, as the only +satisfying solution of humanity's most urgent problem. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +The English reader should first read: + +_The Meaning and Value of Life_ (A. & C. Black), which is a good + introduction to Eucken's philosophy; and +_The Life of the Spirit_ (Williams & Norgate). + +He can then proceed to study Eucken's three comprehensive and important +works: + +_Life's Basis and Life's Ideal_, in which he gives a detailed presentation + of his philosophy (A. & C. Black). +_The Truth of Religion_, in which he gives his ideas on religion (Williams + & Norgate). +_The Problem of Human Life_, in which he makes a searching analysis of the + philosophies of the past (Fisher Unwin). + +The student will be much helped in his study by the following books: + +_Eucken and Bergson_, by E. Hermann (James Clark & Co.). +_Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy of Life_, by Professor W.R. Boyce Gibson + (A. & C. Black). + +When he has studied these he will probably be anxious to read other +works of Eucken's, of which translations have already appeared, or are +soon to appear. + + + + +INDEX + + +Absolute, the, 63 +---- Freedom and the, 61, 62 +---- Personality and the, 62, 63 +---- and historical religion, chap. viii. +---- religion, Christianity as the, 72 + +Activism, 41, 42 + +Atonement, the, 79 + + +Bergson, 39 + +Buddhism, 70, 71 + + +Characteristic Religion, 66, 67 + +Characteristics of a satisfactory solution of life, 16 + +Christ, as mediator, 74 +---- Personality of, 80 +---- Value of life of, 83 + +Christian Church, 81, 82 + +Christianity, and historical bases, 80, 81 +---- Appreciation of, 83 +---- as absolute religion, 72 +---- highest form of religion, 71, 72 + +Conversion, 57, 73 + + +Doubt, 76 + + +Empiricism, 36, 37 + +Eternal and transient in religion and Christianity, 72, 73 +---- truth contrasted with its temporary expression, 44, 45 + +Eucken, assumptions made by, 88 +---- bias, 87 +---- charge of irrationalism, 88, 89 +---- contributions to philosophy and religion, 90, 91 +---- faults of style, 86 +---- Incompleteness of philosophy of, 87 +---- Special excellences of philosophy of, 89 + +Evil, 51 + + +Faith, 76 + +Freedom, ascent to, 59 +---- and the absolute, 61, 62 +---- and naturalism, 26 + + +God, is God a person? 63, 64 +---- Nature of, 63, 64 + + +Historical and absolute religion, chap. viii. +---- bases of Christianity, 80, 81 + +History and philosophy, 43-49 +---- and religion, 17, 18 + + +Idealistic presuppositions of socialism and individualism, 31, 48 + +Ideas, power of, 46 + +Immanent idealism as a solution of the problem of life, 19-22 + +Immediacy, the new, 58 + +Immortality, 60, 77 + +Incarnation, 78 + +Independence of the spiritual life, 52, 53 + +Individualism, and personality, 59, 62 +---- as a solution of the problem of life, 26-32 +---- idealistic presuppositions of, 31, 48 + +Irrationalism, charge of, 88, 89 + + +James, William, 39, 40 + + +Law, religions of, 69, 70 + +Life, independence of the spiritual, 52 +---- spiritual, relation of, to natural life, 52-54 +---- ---- superiority over natural life, 52-54 +---- The spiritual, 14 +---- The universal spiritual, 44, 49, chaps. v., vi., vii. (vii. + especially). + + +Maeterlinck, 44 + +Man, natural and spiritual, 53, 54 +---- transcending the material, 46 + +Mediation, 74 + +Mediator, Christ as, 74 + +Methods of Eucken, 14, 15 + +Mind, limits of, 52 + +Miracle, 77 + +Mysticism, 75 + + +Naturalism and freedom, 26 +---- as a solution of the problem of life, 22-26 +---- its own disproof, 25 + +Natural life, relation to spiritual life, 52-54 +---- ---- Superiority of spiritual over, 52-54 +---- man and spiritual man, 53, 54 + +Nature, limits of, 52 +---- of God, 63, 64 + +Negative movement, the, 57, 73 + +New immediacy, the, 58 + +Nöological position, the, 50 + + +Pantheism, 20, 51, 56 + +Past, the, not irrevocable, 44, 73 + +Personality and individualism, 59, 62 +---- and the absolute, 62, 63 +---- gaining of, 54, 59 +---- of Christ, 80 +---- of God, 63, 64 + +Philosophy and history, 43-49 +---- of life, 13 +---- problems of, 10, 11 + +Pragmatism, 40, 41 + +Prayer, 75 + +Problem, Eucken's special, 12-14 + +Problems of philosophy, 10, 11 + +Purpose of Eucken's investigation, 13 +---- of religion, 65, 66 + + +Rationalism, 37-39 + +Redemption, 73 + +Religion and history, 17, 18 +---- and human activity, 18 +---- and science, 19 +---- as solution of problem of life, 16, 19 +---- Characteristic, 66, 67 +---- Christianity as highest form of, 71, 72 +---- Christianity as the absolute, 72 +---- Essential characteristics of, 65, 66 +---- Eternal and transient in, 72, 73 +---- Eucken's contributions to, 90, 91 +---- Historical and absolute, chap. viii. +---- of law, 69, 70 +---- of redemption, 69, 70 +---- Purpose of, 65, 66 +---- Universal, 66 +---- what is it? 64, 65 + +Resurrection, the, 77 + +Revelation, 75 + + +Science, and religion, 17 + +Socialism, as a solution of the problem of life, 26-32 +---- idealistic presuppositions of, 31, 48 + +Spiritual life, 14 +---- ---- Independence of the, 52 +---- ---- Relation of, to natural life, 52-54 +---- ---- Superiority of, over material and mental, 52-54 +---- ---- The universal, 47-49, and chaps. v., vi., and vii. (vii. + especially) + +Spiritual man and natural man, 53, 54 + + +Trinity, the, 79 + +Truth, 44, 45 +---- another search for, chap. iii. + + +Universal Religion, 66 +---- spiritual life, 47-49, and chaps, v., vi., and vii. (vii. especially) + + + + + +Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. +Edinburgh & London + + + + +THE PEOPLE'S BOOKS + +THE FIRST HUNDRED VOLUMES + +The volumes issued (Spring 1913) are marked with an asterisk + +SCIENCE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + *1. The Foundations of Science By W.C.D. Whetham, F.R.S. + + *2. Embryology--The Beginnings of Life By Prof. Gerald Leighton, M.D. + + 3. Biology--The Science of Life By Prof. W.D. Henderson, M.A. + + *4. Zoology: The Study of Animal Life By Prof. E.W. MacBride, F.R.S. + + *5. Botany; The Modern Study of Plants By M.C. Stopes, D. Sc., Ph. D. + + 6. Bacteriology By W.E. Carnegie Dickson, M.D. + + *7. The Structure of the Earth By the Rev. T.G. Bonney, F.R.S. + + *8. Evolution By E.S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S. + + 9. Darwin By Prof. W. Garstang, M.A., D. Sc. + + *10. Heredity By J.A.S. Watson, B. Sc. + + *11. Inorganic Chemistry By Prof. E.C.C. Baly, F.R.S. + + *12. Organic Chemistry By Prof. J.B. Cohen, B. Sc., + F.R.S. + + *13. The Principles of Electricity By Norman R. Campbell, M.A. + + *14. Radiation By P. Phillips, D. Sc. + + *15. The Science of the Stars By E.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S. + + 16. Light, according to Modern Science By P. Phillips. D. Sc. + + *17. Weather-Science By R.G.K. Lempfert, M.A. + + *18. Hypnotism By Alice Hutchison, M.D. + + *19. The Baby: A Mother's Book By a University Woman. + + 20. Youth and Sex--Dangers and By Mary Scharlieb, M.D., M.S., + Safeguards for Boys and Girls and G.E.C. Pritchard, M.A., M.D. + + *21. Motherhood--A Wife's Handbook By H.S. Davidson, F.R.C.S.E. + + *22. Lord Kelvin By A. Russell, M.A., D. Sc. + + *23. Huxley By Professor G. Leighton, M.D. + + 24. Sir W. Huggins and Spectroscopic By E.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., of + Astronomy the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. + + *62. Practical Astronomy By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S. + + *63. Aviation By Sydney F. Walker, R.N., + M.I.E.E. + + *64. Navigation By W. Hall, R.N., B.A. + + *65. Pond Life By E.C. Ash, M.R.A.C. + + *66. Dietetics By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P.H. + + *94. The Nature of Mathematics By P.G.B. Jourdain, M.A. + + 95. Applications of Electricity By Alex. Ogilvie, B. Sc. + + 96. The Small Garden By A. Cecil Bartlett. + + 97. The Care of the Teeth By J.A. Young, L.D.S. + + *98. Atlas of the World By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S + + + PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION + + 25. The Meaning of Philosophy By T. Loveday, M.A. + + *26. Henri Bergson By H. Wildon Carr. + + *27. Psychology By H.J. Watt, M.A., Ph. D. + + 28. Ethics By Canon Rashdall, D. Litt., + F.B.A. + + 29. Kant's Philosophy By A.D. Lindsay, M.A. + + 30. The Teaching of Plato By A.D. Lindsay, M.A. + + *67. Aristotle By Prof. A.E. Taylor, M.A., F.B.A. + + *68. Nietzsche By M.A. Mügge, Ph. D. + + *69. Eucken By A.J. Jones, M.A., B. Sc., + Ph. D. + + 70. The Experimental Psychology By C.W. Valentine, B.A. + of Beauty + + 71. The Problem of Truth By H. Wildon Carr. + + 99. George Berkeley: the Philosophy By G Dawes Hicks; Litt.D. + of Idealism + + 31. Buddhism By Prof. T.W. Rhys Davids, F.B.A. + + *32. Roman Catholicism By H.B. Coxon. + + 33. The Oxford Movement By Wilfrid P. Ward. + + *34. The Bible in the Light By Rev. W.F. Adeney, M.A., and + of the Higher Criticism Rev. Prof. W.H. Bennett, Litt.D. + + 35. Cardinal Newman By Wilfrid Meynell. + + *72. The Church of England By Rev. Canon Masterman. + + 73. Anglo-Catholicism By A.E. Manning Foster. + + *74. The Free Churches By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A. + + 75. Judaism By Ephraim Levine, B.A. + + *76. Theosophy By Annie Besant. + + + HISTORY + + *36. The Growth of Freedom By H.W. Nevinson. + + 37. Bismarck By Prof. F.M. Powicke, M.A. + + *38. Oliver Cromwell By Hilda Johnstone, M.A. + + *39. Mary Queen of Scots By E. O'Neill, M.A. + + *40. Cecil Rhodes By Ian Colvin. + + *41. Julius Cæsar By Hilary Hardinge. + + History of England-- + + 42. England in the Making By Prof. F.J.C. Hearnshaw, LL.D. + + *43. England in the Middle Ages By E. O'Neill, M.A. + + 44. The Monarchy and the People By W.T. Waugh, M.A. + + 45. The Industrial Revolution By A. Jones, M.A. + + 46. Empire and Democracy By G.S. Veitch, M.A. + + *61. Home Rule By L.G. Redmond Howard. + + 77. Nelson By H.W. Wilson. + + *78. Wellington and Waterloo By Major G.W. Redway. + + 100. A History of Greece By E. Fearenside, B.A. + + 101. Luther and the Reformation By L.D. Agate, M.A. + + 102. The Discovery of the New World By F.B. Kirkman, B.A. + + *103. Turkey and the Eastern Question By John Macdonald. + + 104. A History of Architecture By Mrs. Arthur Bell. + + + SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC + + *47. Women's Suffrage By M.G. Fawcett, LL.D. + + 48. The Working of the British System By Prof. Ramsay Muir, M.A. + of Government to-day + + 49. An Introduction to Economic By Prof. H.O. Meredith, M.A. + Science + + 50. Socialism By F.B. Kirkman, B.A. + + 79. Socialist Theories in the By Rev. B. Jarrett, O.P., M.A. + Middle Ages + + *80. Syndicalism By J.H. Harley, M.A. + + 81. Labour and Wages By H.M. Hallsworth, M.A., B. Sc. + + *82. Co-operation By Joseph Clayton. + + *83. Insurance as Investment By W.A. Robertson, F.F.A. + + *92. The Training of the Child By G. Spiller. + + 105. Trade Unions By Joseph Clayton. + + *106. Everyday Law By J.J. Adams. + + + LETTERS + + *51. Shakespeare By Prof. C.H. Herford, Litt.D. + + *52. Wordsworth By Rosaline Masson. + + *53. Pure Gold--A Choice of Lyrics By H.C. O'Neill. + and Sonnets + + *54. Francis Bacon By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A. + + *55. The Brontës By Flora Masson. + + *56. Carlyle By the Rev. L. MacLean Watt. + + *57. Dante By A.G. Ferrers Howell. + + 58. Ruskin By A. Blyth Webster, M.A. + + 59. Common Faults in Writing English By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A. + + *60. A Dictionary of Synonyms By Austin K. Gray, B.A. + + 84. Classical Dictionary By A.E. Stirling. + + *85. History of English Literature By A. Compton-Rickett. + + 86. Browning By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A. + + 87. Charles Lamb By Flora Masson. + + 88. Goethe By Prof. C.H. Herford, Litt.D. + + 89. Balzac By Frank Harris. + + 90. Rousseau By H. Sacher. + + 91. Ibsen By Hilary Hardinge. + + *93. Tennyson By Aaron Watson. + + 107. R.L. Stevenson By Rosaline Masson. + + 108. Shelley By Sydney Waterlow. + + 109. William Morris By A. 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Jones</title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + text-indent: 1em; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + h3 {font-variant: small-caps;} + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + td { vertical-align: top; } + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .citation {text-align: right; text-indent: 0;} + .noindent {text-indent: 0;} + .exdent { margin-left: 2em; + text-indent: -2em; /* gimmick to move 2nd line right */ + margin-top: 0; + margin-bottom: 0; /* no white-space between list items */ + } + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + img {border: none;} + + ul.IX { /* styling the IndeX */ + list-style-type: none; + font-size: 80%; + } + ul.IXSub { /* sub-terms in the index */ + list-style-type: none; + } + ul.IX li { /* list items in an index list: compressed */ + margin-top: 0; + } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} + pre {font-size: 8pt;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Rudolph Eucken, by Abel J. Jones</h1> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: Rudolph Eucken</p> +<p>Author: Abel J. Jones</p> +<p>Release Date: December 15, 2004 [eBook #14357]</p> +<p>Most recently updated: August 2, 2005</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDOLPH EUCKEN***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4>E-text prepared by David Garcia, Karina Aleksandrova,<br /> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h4> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<div class="center"> +<a name="Page_-2" id="Page_-2" ></a> + <a href="images/frontispiece.png"> + <img src="images/frontispiece-th.png" + alt="Frontispiece" /></a> +</div> + + +<h1><a name="Page_-1" id="Page_-1" ></a>RUDOLF EUCKEN</h1> + +<h2>A PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE</h2> + +<h3>By ABEL J. JONES, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.</h3> + +<h4>FORMERLY MEMBER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF JENA, SCHOLAR OF CLARE + COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND ASSISTANT LECTURER AT THE UNIVERSITY + COLLEGE, CARDIFF</h4> + + +<h6 style="margin-top: 5em;">London: T. C. & E. C. Jack<br /> +67 Long Acre, W.C., and Edinburgh<br /> +New York: Dodge Publishing Co.</h6> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE" ></a>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>The name of Eucken has become a familiar one in philosophical and +religious circles. Until recent years the reading of his books was +confined to those possessing a knowledge of German, but of late several +have been translated into the English language, and now the students of +philosophy and religion are agog with accounts of a new philosopher who +is at once a great ethical teacher and an optimistic prophet. There is +no doubt that Eucken has a great message, and those who cannot find time +to make a thorough study of his works should not fail to know something +of the man and his teachings. The aim of this volume is to give a brief +and clear account of his philosophical ideas, and to inspire the reader +to study for himself Eucken's great works.</p> + +<p>Professor Rudolf Eucken was born in 1846, at Aurich in Frisia. He +attended school in his native town, and then proceeded to study at the +Universities of Göttingen and Berlin. In 1874 he was invited to the +Professorship of Philosophy at the University of Jena, and here he has +laboured for thirty-eight years; during this period he has been listened +to and admired by many of the more advanced students of philosophy of +all countries and continents.</p> + +<p>His earliest writings were historical in character, and consisted mainly +of learned essays upon the classical and German philosophers.</p> + +<p>Following upon these appeared valuable studies in the history of<a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a> +philosophy, which brought out, too, to some extent, Eucken's own +philosophical ideas.</p> + +<p>His latest works have been more definitely constructive. In <em>Life's +Basis and Life's Ideal</em>, and <em>The Truth of Religion</em>, he gives +respectively a full account of his philosophical system, and of his +ideas concerning religion.</p> + +<p>Several smaller works contain his ideas in briefer and more popular +form.</p> + +<p>As a lecturer he is charming and inspiring. He is not always easy to +understand; his sentences are often long, florid, and complex. +Sometimes, indeed, he is quite beyond the comprehension of his +students—but when they do not understand, they admire, and feel they +are in the presence of greatness. His writings contain many of the +faults of his lectures. They are often laboured and obscure, diffuse and +verbose.</p> + +<p>But these faults are minor in character, compared with the greatness of +his work. There is no doubt that his is one of the noblest attempts ever +made to solve the great question of life. Never was a philosophy more +imbued with the spirit of battle against the evil and sordid, and with +the desire to find in life the highest and greatest that can be found in +it.</p> + +<p>I have to thank Professor Eucken for the inspiration of his lectures and +books, various writers, translators, and friends for suggestions, and +especially my wife, whose help in various ways has been invaluable.</p> + +<p>Passages are quoted from several of the works mentioned in the +Bibliography, especially from Eucken's "The Truth of Religion," with the +kind permission of Messrs. Williams & Norgate—the publishers.</p> + +<p class="citation">ABEL J. JONES.</p> + +<p class="smcap">Cardiff.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS" ></a>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tr><td align="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='right'>CHAP.</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td> THE PROBLEM OF LIFE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td> HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN SOLVED?</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td> ANOTHER SEARCH FOR TRUTH</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td> THE PAST, PRESENT, AND THE ETERNAL</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td> THE "HIGH" AND THE "LOW"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td> THE ASCENT TO FREEDOM AND PERSONALITY</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td> THE PERSONAL AND THE UNIVERSAL</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td> RELIGION: HISTORICAL AND ABSOLUTE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td> CONCLUSION: CRITICISM AND APPRECIATION</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td><a href="#BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'></td><td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></td></tr> +</table> +</td></tr></table> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h1><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>RUDOLF EUCKEN:<br /> + +A PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE</h1> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I" ></a>CHAPTER I<br/> + +THE PROBLEM OF LIFE</h2> + + +<p>Before we proceed to outline Eucken's philosophical position, it will be +well if we can first be clear as to the special problem with which he +concerns himself. Philosophers have at some time or other considered all +the problems of heaven and earth to be within their province, especially +the difficult problems for which a simple solution is impossible. Hence +it is, perhaps, that philosophy has been in disrepute, especially in +English-speaking countries, the study of the subject has been very +largely limited to a small class of students, and the philosopher has +been regarded as a dreamy, theorising, and unpractical individual.</p> + +<p>Many people, when they hear of Eucken, will put him out of mind as an +ordinary member of a body of cranks. From Eucken's point of view this is +the most unfortunate thing that can happen, for his message is not +directed to a limited number of advanced students of philosophy, but is +meant for all thinking members of the human race.</p> + +<p>The problem he endeavours to solve is far from being one of mere +theoretical interest; on the contrary it has to do with matters of +immediate practical concern to the life of the individual and of the +community. To <a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>ignore him will be to fail to take account of one of the +most rousing philosophies of modern times.</p> + +<p>The apathy that exists in regard to the subject of philosophy is not +easy to explain. It is not that philosophising is only possible to the +greatest intellects; it is indeed natural for the normal mind to do so. +In a quiet hour, when the world with its rush and din leaves us to +ourselves and the universe, we begin to ask ourselves "Why" and "How," +and then almost unconsciously we philosophise. Nothing is more natural +to the human mind than to wonder, and to wonder is to begin to +philosophise.</p> + +<p>Perhaps philosophers have been largely to blame for the indifference +shown; their terms have often been needlessly difficult, their language +obscure, and their ideas abstruse. Too often, too, their abstract +speculations have caused them to ignore or forget the actual experience +of mankind.</p> + +<p>Those who have quarrelled with philosophy for these or other reasons +will do well to lay their prejudices aside when they start a study of +Eucken, for though he has some of the faults of his class, he has many +striking and exceptional excellences.</p> + +<p>Philosophers in general set out to solve the riddle of the universe. +They differ in their statement of the problem, in the purpose of the +attempt, and in their methods of attempting the solution. Some will +wonder how this marvellous universe ever came into existence, and will +consider the question of the existence of things to be the problem of +philosophy. Others in observing the diversity of things in the universe +wonder what is behind it all; they seek to go beyond mere appearances, +and to investigate the nature of that behind the appearances, which they +call the reality. In their attempts <a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>to solve one or both of these +problems, thinkers are led to marvel how it is that we get to know +things at all; they are tempted to investigate the possibility of +knowledge, and are in this way side-tracked from the main problem. +Others in their investigations are struck with amazement at the +intricate organisation of the human mind; they leave the riddle of the +universe to study the processes of human thought, and examine as far as +they are able the phenomena of consciousness. Then thought itself claims +the attention of other philosophers; they seek to find what are the laws +of valid thought, what rules must be followed in order that through +reasoning we may arrive at correct conclusions. Others become attracted +to an investigation of the good in the universe, and their question +changes from "What is?" to "What ought to be?" Others interest +themselves in the problem of the beautiful, and endeavour to determine +the essence of the beautiful and of its appreciation. In this way the +subject of philosophy separates out into a number of branches. The study +of the beautiful is called Æsthetics; of the good, Ethics; of the laws +of thought, Logic; of the mind processes, Psychology; of the possibility +of knowledge, the Theory of knowledge; while the deeper problems of the +existence of things, of reality and unity in the universe, are generally +included under Metaphysics.</p> + +<p>It need hardly be pointed out that all these branches are very closely +related, and that a discussion of any one of them involves to some +extent a reference to the others. One cannot, for example, attempt to +solve the great question of reality without touching upon the +possibility of knowledge, without some reference to the processes of the +human mind, and the standards of the validity of thought, of the good, +and of the beautiful.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>It is however essential, if one is to appreciate a philosopher, to +understand clearly what his main problem is. Therein lies frequently the +differences among philosophers—that is, in the special emphasis laid on +one problem, and the attention to, or neglect of other aspects. To fail +to be clear on this matter frequently means to misunderstand a +philosopher.</p> + +<p>And it would seem that many critics have failed to appreciate the work +of Eucken to the extent they should, because they have expected him to +deal in detail with problems which it is not his intention to discuss, +and have failed to appreciate what special problem it is that he +attempts to solve.</p> + +<p>Eucken's special problem is that of the reality in the universe, of the +unity there exists in the diversity of things. In so far as he makes +this his problem, he is at one with other philosophers in investigating +what may perhaps be considered to be the most profound problem that the +human mind has ever conceived. The fact that distinguishes Eucken from a +large number of other thinkers is that he starts where they leave off. +At a rule, philosophers begin their investigation with a consideration +of matter, and proceed by slow degrees to attempt to explain the reality +at the basis of it. Some never get further, and dispense with the +question of human life and thought as mere aspects or manifestations of +the material world. But the problem of life is for Eucken the one +problem—he seeks to find the reality beneath the superficialities of +human existence, and he has little to say concerning the world of +matter. And, after all, it is the problem of life that urgently calls +for solution, for upon the solution that is accepted, the life of the +individual is to a large extent based. It is, of course, very +interesting to meditate and speculate upon the material <a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>world, its +origin and evolution, but the question is very largely one of mere +theoretical interest—a kind of game or puzzle for studious minds. It is +the question of life itself that is ultimately of practical interest to +every human soul. And this is the problem that Eucken would solve. Hence +those who expect to find a closely reasoned philosophy on matter and its +manifestations must look elsewhere, for Eucken has little for them. +Eucken's philosophy is a philosophy of life, and he only touches +incidentally those aspects of philosophy that are not immediately +concerned with his special problem. He refuses to be allured from the +main problem by subsidiary investigations, and perhaps rightly so, for +one problem of such magnitude would seem to be enough for one human mind +to attempt. Eucken is a philosopher who lays foundations and deals with +broad outlines and principles; it must be left to his many disciples to +fill in any gaps that exist on this account, by attempting to solve the +subsidiary problems with which Eucken cannot for the present concern +himself.</p> + +<p>If Eucken's problem differs fundamentally from that of most other +philosophers, perhaps the purpose of his investigations is still a more +striking characteristic. He is anxious to solve the riddle of the +universe in order that there may be drawn from the solution an +inspiration which shall help the human race to concentrate its energies +upon the highest ideals of life. The desire to find a meaning which will +explain, and at the same time infuse zest and gladness into every +department of life has become a passion with him, and in finding that +meaning, his great endeavour is to prove the truth of human freedom and +personality. He wishes to solve the riddle in order that man may become +a better man, the world a better world. His aim is definitely an +<a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>ethical aim, and his purpose a practical one of the noblest order, and +not one of mere intellectual interest.</p> + +<p>There is much, too, that is original in his methods—this will become +evident in the chapters that follow. He begins with an inquiry into the +solutions that have been offered. After careful investigation he finds +they all fail to satisfy the conditions which a solution should satisfy. +His discussions of these theories are most illuminating, and those who +do not agree with his conclusions cannot fail to admire his masterly +treatment.</p> + +<p>Having arrived at this conclusion, he searches the story of the past, +studies the conditions of the present, and gazes into the maze of the +future, and finds revealed in them all an eternal something, unaffected +by time, which was, is, and ever shall be—the eternal, universal, +spiritual his, which then must be the great reality.</p> + +<p>Upon this basis he builds a system of philosophy, which he considers to +be more satisfactory than the solutions already offered; with which +contention, there is little doubt, the majority of his readers will be +inclined to agree.</p> + +<p>After the brief statement of Eucken's special problem, of the purpose +and methods of his investigation, we can proceed to outline his theories +in greater detail, beginning in the next chapter with his discussion of +the solutions that have in the past been offered and accepted.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II" ></a><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>CHAPTER II<br /> + +HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN SOLVED?</h2> + + +<p>What is the meaning, the value, and purpose of life, and what is the +highest and the eternal in life—the great reality? This is the question +that Eucken would solve. Before attempting a solution of his own, he +examines those that have already been offered. His discussion of these +theories is remarkable for the fairness, breadth of view, sympathy, +insight, and accurate knowledge that is shown. There is no superficial +criticism, neither does he concern himself with the inessential details +of the theories.</p> + +<p>Jest-books tell us of a defendant against whom a claim for compensation +was made by a complainant who alleged that the former's dog had bitten +him. The defence was, first, that the dog was lame, blind, and +toothless; second, that it had died a week before; and third, that the +defendant never possessed a dog. A sensible judge would wish to be +satisfied in regard to the third statement before wasting time +discussing the others; if it proved to be true, then the case would be +at an end. The defences of philosophical systems are often similar, and +the critic is tempted to waste time discussing details when he should go +to the root of the matter. Eucken does not fall into this error. His +special method is to seek the idea or ideas which lie at the root of the +proposed solution; if these are unsatisfactory, then he does not +consider it necessary to discuss them <a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>further. Hence his work is free +from the flippant and superficial argument so common to-day; he makes a +fair and serious endeavour to find out the truth (if any) that is at the +basis of the proposed solutions, and does not hesitate to give them +their due meed of praise even though he considers them to be ultimately +unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>Before a solution can be regarded as a satisfactory one, Eucken holds +that it should satisfy certain conditions. It should offer an +explanation for life which can be a firm basis for life, it must admit +of the possibility of human freedom, and must release the human being +from sordid motives—unless it satisfy these conditions, then it cannot +be accepted as final.</p> + +<p>The solutions of the problem of life that have been offered he considers +to be five—Religion and Immanental Idealism, Naturalism, Socialism and +Individualism, the first two regarding the invisible world as the +reality in life, the others laying emphasis on man's life in the present +world. The reader will perhaps wonder how his choice has fallen upon +these systems of thought and these alone. The explanation is a simple +one: he considers it necessary to deal only with those theories which +can form, and have formed, bases for a whole system of life. Mere +theoretical ideas of life, especially negative ideas such as those of +agnosticism and scepticism, do not form such a basis, but the five +chosen for discussion can, and have to some extent, posed as complete +theories of life, upon which a system of life can be built.</p> + +<p>Has <em>Religion</em> solved the question? If it has, then it must have done so +in that which must be considered its highest form—in Christianity. +Christianity has attempted the solution by placing stress upon a higher +invisible world, a world in sharp contrast with the mere world of sense, +and far superior to it. It unites life to a super<a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>natural world, and +raises mankind above the level of the natural world. It has brought out +with great clearness the contrast between the higher world and the world +of sin, and has shown the need for a break with the evil in the world. +It has given to man a belief in freedom, and in the necessity for a +complete change of heart. It has proved a source of deliverance from the +feeling, of guilt, and a comfort in suffering. Indeed, considering all +the facts, there seems to be no doubt that, of all the solutions +offered, religion has been the most powerful factor in the history of +mankind.</p> + +<p>Its influence would continue for the present and future, were it not +that doubt has been cast upon its very foundations, and had not +circumstances arisen to take men's minds away from thoughts of a higher +and invisible world, and to concentrate them to a greater extent than +formerly upon the world of sense. The progress of the natural sciences +has done much to bring about the change. Christianity made man the +centre of the universe, for whom all things existed, but the sciences +have insisted upon a broader view of the universe, and have deposed man +from his throne, and given him a much humbler position. Then as the +conception of law became more prominent, and scientists became more and +more inclined to explain all things as the result of natural laws, the +idea of a personal God in constant communion with, and supervision over +mankind, fell into disfavour.</p> + +<p>And the study of history has caused questions to be raised. Some +historians have endeavoured to show that the idea of an overworld is +merely the characteristic of a certain stage in the evolution of +mankind, and that the ideas of religion are, after all, little more than +the mental construction of a God upon the image of man's own self.<a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a> +History has attacked the doctrinal form of religion, and has endeavoured +to show that religions have been very largely coloured and influenced by +the prevailing ideas of the time; and the question naturally arises as +to whether there is anything more in religion than these temporary +elements.</p> + +<p>And this is not all. In the present age the current of human activity is +strong. Man is beginning to accomplish things in the material world, and +is becoming anxious to accomplish more. His railways cover the lands, +his ships sail the seas, and his aeroplanes fly through the air. He has +acquired a taste for this world, a zest for the conquest and the +utilising for his own pleasure and benefit of the world of nature. And +when this occurs, the overworld sinks into the background—he is +satisfied with the present, and feels no need, except under special +circumstances, of a higher world. The sense world at present makes a +strong appeal—and the stronger it becomes, the less he listens to the +call of an overworld.</p> + +<p>The sciences, history, and the special phases of human activity have +drawn attention from a higher, invisible world, and have cast doubts +upon its very existence.</p> + +<p>As a result of this, "Religion (in the traditional form), despite all it +has effected, is for the man of to-day a question rather than an answer. +It is itself too much of a problem to interpret to us the meaning of our +life, and make us feel that it is worth the living."</p> + +<p>In these words Eucken states his conviction that Christianity in its +orthodox forms cannot solve the problem of the present. This, however, +is not all he has to say concerning religion. He is, in truth, a great +believer in religion, and as will be seen, he believes that later it +will again step forth in a changed form as "the <a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>fact of facts" to wield +a power perhaps greater than ever before.</p> + +<p>As in the case of religion, <em>Immanent Idealism</em> is a theory that gives +life an invisible basis, but the invisible has been regarded as that +which lies at the root of the present world, and not as a separate +higher world outside our own. The Divine it considers not as a personal +being apart from the world, but as a power existing in and permeating +it, that indeed which gives to the world its truth and depth. Man +belongs to the visible world, but inwardly he is alive to the presence +of a deeper reality, and his ambition must be to become himself a part +of this deeper whole. If by turning from his superficial life he can set +himself in the depths of reality, then a magnificent life, with the +widest prospects, opens out before him. "He may win the whole of +infinity for his own, and set himself free from the triviality of the +merely human without losing himself in an alien world." And if he does +so, he is led to place greater emphasis upon the high ideals of life +than upon material progress. He learns to value the beautiful far above +the merely useful; the inner life above mere existence, a genuine +spiritual culture above the mere perfecting of natural and social +conditions. There is brought into view a new and deeper life in which +the emphasis is placed upon the good, the beautiful, and the true. In +this way idealism has inspired many men to put forth their energies for +the highest aims, has lifted the individual above the narrowness of a +life devoted to himself alone, and has produced characters of +exceptional beauty and strength. It claims, indeed, to be able to shape +the world of man more satisfactorily than religion can, for it has no +need for doctrines of the Divine, the Divine being immediately present +in the world. But despite its great influence in <a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>the past, its power +has of late been considerably weakened.</p> + +<p>The question of the existence of a deeper invisible reality in the world +has become as problematic as the doctrines of religion.</p> + +<p>To be a whole-hearted believer in the older forms of idealism it is +necessary that the universe be regarded as ultimately reasonable and +harmonious, and there must be a belief in the possibilities of great +development on the part of the human being. But a serious study of +things reveals to us the fact that the universe is not entirely +reasonable and harmonious. If it were, then man's effort towards the +ideal would be helped by the whole universe, but that is far from being +the case; progress means fight, and difficult fight; there is definite +opposition to the efforts of man to raise himself. Moreover, there is +evil in the world, let pantheists and others say what they will. Eucken +refuses to close his eyes to, or to explain away, opposition, pain, and +evil—the world is far from being wholly reasonable and harmonious, and +idealists must acknowledge this fact. The natural sciences, too, by +emphasising the reign of law, tend to limit more and more the +possibilities of the human being, ultimately robbing him of all +freedom—hence of all possibility of creation. And how can one be an +enthusiastic devotee of idealism if he is led to doubt man's power to +aim at, fight towards, or even choose the highest?</p> + +<p>Idealism was at its height in those red-letter days when a high state of +culture had been attained, and great personalities produced masterpieces +in art, music, and literature. The progress of the sciences and of man's +natural activity has directed the spirit of the age towards material +progress; the ideals of mankind tend to become <a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>external and +superficial, and the interest in the invisible world falls to a minimum.</p> + +<p>To some extent, too, idealism breathes of aristocracy—a most unpopular +characteristic in a democratic age. Experience shows that man is raised +above himself only in rare cases, and that the great things in the +realms of art, music, and literature are very largely the monopoly of +the few, and these mainly of the leisured classes. Hence the appeal of +idealism to certain types of men and women must necessarily be a feeble +one.</p> + +<p>Then, again, there is the general indifference of mankind to lofty aims; +this militates against the power of idealism even more than in the case +of religion, for while in the latter there is the idea of a personal God +who is pleased or displeased urging men to renewed effort, the teachings +of idealism may appear to be mere abstractions, and can, as such, +possess little driving-power for the ordinary mind.</p> + +<p>Idealism, too, seems to be a mere compromise between religion and a life +devoted to sense experience, and like most compromises it lacks the +enthusing power of the original ideas.</p> + +<p>Finally, the whole theory leaves us in uncertainty—"that which was +intended to give a firm support, and to point out a clear course to our +life, has itself become a difficult problem."</p> + +<p>But Eucken has more to say concerning idealism, even though in a +different form from the theories of the past. Indeed, his philosophy is +generally classed amongst the idealisms. Eucken makes a great endeavour, +however, to avoid the difficulties and objections to the idealistic +position; later we shall see that a great measure of success has crowned +his efforts.</p> + +<p>Having discussed the two solutions that place special <a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>stress on the +invisible world, he proceeds to deal with the theories which emphasise +the relation of the life of man to the material world.</p> + +<p>He first treats of <em>Naturalism</em>, that solution of the problem that makes +the sense experience of surrounding nature the basis of life, +subordinating even the life of the soul to the level of the natural, +material world.</p> + +<p>Nature in the early ages had been superficially explained, often in the +light of religious doctrine. Man gave to nature a variety of +explanations and of colouring, depending largely upon his ideas of the +place of nature in relation to himself and to the invisible world. But +such anthropomorphic explanations could not long survive the progress of +the sciences, for a scientific comprehension of nature could only be +attained by getting rid of all human colouring, and by investigating +nature entirely by itself, out of all relation to the human soul. Man +then investigated nature more and more as an object apart from himself.</p> + +<p>The first result of these investigations was to impress upon him the +reality of nature as something independent, and to increase on a very +large scale his knowledge of, and control over nature. When man began to +formulate and understand nature, he began, too, to invent machines to +profit from the knowledge he gained. Hence followed a marvellously +fruitful period of human activity, an activity which at first +strengthened man in his own soul, and gave him increased consciousness +of independence and power. While he was compelled to admit the greatness +of the natural world, he became more and more convinced that he himself +was far greater, for could he not put the laws of nature to his own use +and profit? Hence the gain to man at this stage of the development <a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>of +the sciences was very great, for he had come to appreciate more than +before the superiority of the human soul over the material world. Hence +resulted a more robust type of life, "a life energetic, masculine, +pressing forward unceasingly." Matters, however, were not destined to +remain long at this stage. As man's knowledge of the processes of nature +increased further, a twofold result followed. On the one hand, the sense +world of nature became increasingly absorbing in interest; on the other +hand, laws were formulated and nature was conceived of as being a chain +of cause and effect, a combination of mechanical elements whose +interactions were according to law, and could be foretold with the +utmost precision.</p> + +<p>These two factors worked in the same direction, namely, that of +rendering less necessary the conception of a spiritual world. The +interest of mankind became so concentrated upon material things that the +interest in the invisible decreased, while the mechanical, soulless +elements with their ceaseless actions and reactions in definite order, +and according to inviolable law, were held sufficient to account for the +phenomena of nature. The keynote was "relation to environment"; a +constantly changing environment, changing according to law, called for +ceaseless readjustment, and the adaptation to environment was held to be +the stimulus to all activity in the natural world.</p> + +<p>The later development of biology, and the doctrine of the evolution of +species, gradually extended this conception of nature to include man +himself.</p> + +<p>What he had regarded as his distinctive characteristics were held to be +but the product of natural factors, and his life was regarded, too, as +under the domain of rigid, inviolable law. There was no room for, and no +need of, <a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>the conception of free, originative thought. Thought was +simply an answer to the demand that the sense world was making, entirely +dependent upon the external stimulus, just as any other activity was +entirely dependent on an external stimulus. So thought came to be +regarded as resulting from mere sense impression, which latter +corresponded to the external stimulus. It is obvious that the idea of +the freedom of the human soul, and of human personality as previously +understood, had to go. Man was simply the result of the interaction of +numerous causes—and like the rest of nature, involved no independent +spiritual element. Everything that was previously regarded as spiritual +was interpreted as a mere adjunct to, or a shadow of, the sense world. +Such a conception accounted for the whole of nature and of man, and so +became an explanation of the universe, a philosophy.</p> + +<p>In such a theory self-preservation becomes the aim of life, the struggle +for existence the driving-power, and adaptation to environment the means +to the desired end. Hence it comes about that only one standard of value +remains, that of usefulness, for that alone can be regarded as valuable +which proves to be useful towards the preservation and enjoyment of the +natural life. The ideas of the good, the beautiful, and the true, lose +the glory of their original meaning, and become comparatively barren +conceptions. Hence at a stroke the spiritual world is wiped away, the +soul of man is degraded from its high position, the great truths of +religion are cast aside as mere illusions.</p> + +<p>The naturalistic explanation possesses the apparent advantage of being a +very simple one, and hence attracts the human mind with great force in +the early stages of mental culture. All the difficulties of the +conception of <a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>a higher world are absent, for the naturalistic position +does not admit of its existence. It gives, too, some purpose to life, +even though that purpose is not an ideal one.</p> + +<p>Eucken is not reluctant to give the theory all the credit it deserves, +and he is prepared to admit that it fulfils to some extent the +conditions which he holds a satisfactory solution should fulfil.</p> + +<p>He goes, however, immediately to the root of the matter, and finds that +the very existence of the theory of naturalism in itself is an eloquent +disproof of the theory. The existence of a comprehensive scientific +conception involves an activity which is far superior to nature itself, +for it can make nature the object of systematic study. An intellect +which is nothing more than a mirror of sense impressions can get little +beyond such sense impressions, whereas the highly developed scientific +conception of nature that obtains to-day is far beyond a mere collection +of sense impressions. Nature, indeed, is subdued and mastered by man; +why then degrade man to the level of a universe he has mastered? To +produce from the phenomena of nature a scientific conception of nature +demands the activity of an independent, originative power of thought, +which, though it may be conditioned by, and must be related to, sense +impressions, is far above mere sense impressions.</p> + +<p>Naturalism, in directing attention to the things that are experienced, +fails to take proper account of the mind that experiences them; it +postulates nature without mind, when only by the mind processes can man +become aware of nature, and construct a naturalistic scheme of life. "To +a thorough-going naturalism, naturalism itself is logically impossible." +Hence the impossibility of the naturalistic theory as an explanation of +life.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>Then it fails to provide a high ideal for life, and to release man from +sordid motives. It gives no place for love, for work for its own sake, +for altruistic conduct, or for devotion to the high ideals of life. The +aim of life is limited to this world—man has but to aim at the +enjoyment and preservation of his own life. The mechanical explanation +of life, too, does away with the possibility of human freedom and +personality, and it is futile to urge man to greater efforts when +success is impossible. It is a theory which does justice merely to a +life of pleasure and pain, its psychology has no soul, and its political +economy bases the community upon selfishness.</p> + +<p>In this way Eucken disproves the claim of naturalism; in doing so he +points out that a satisfactory solution must take account of the life of +nature in a way which religion and idealism have failed to do.</p> + +<p>Of late years <em>Socialism</em> and <em>Individualism</em> have come into prominence +as theories of life. Eucken attributes the movements in the first +instance to the receding into the background of the idea of an overworld +which gave meaning and value to life. When doubt was thrown upon +religion and idealism, when confidence in another world was shaken, man +lost to an extent his moral support. Where could he turn now for a firm +basis to life? He might, of course, turn from the invisible world to the +world of sense, to nature. But the first result of this is to make man +realise that he is separate from nature, and again he fails to find +support. He is an alien in the world of nature, and disbelieves the +existence of a higher world. When both are denied him he turns naturally +to his fellow-men—here at least he can find community of interest—here +at least he is among beings of his own type. Hence he confines his +attention to the life of humanity, and in this, the universe <a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>of +mankind, he hopes to find an explanation of his own life, and a value +for it.</p> + +<p>The progress of humanity, then, must become the aim of life—all our +strength and effort must be focussed upon human nature itself. But an +immediate difficulty arises. Where are we to find Man? "Is it in the +social community where individual forces are firmly welded together to +form a common life, or among individuals as they exist for themselves in +all their exhaustless diversity?" If we put the community first, then +the social whole must be firmly rooted in itself and be independent of +the caprice of its members. The duty of the individual is to subordinate +himself to the community—this means socialism. If, on the other hand, +the great aim is to develop the individual and to give him the maximum +of opportunity to unfold his special characteristics, we arrive at an +opposing theory—that of individualism.</p> + +<p>In the history of society we find an age of socialistic ideas followed +by one of individualistic ideas, and vice versa, and there is much that +is valuable in each, in that it tends to modify and disprove the other's +extreme position.</p> + +<p>The present wave in the direction of <em>socialism</em> arises, to an extent, +in reaction from the extremely individualistic position of previous +ages. Man is now realising that the social relations of life are of +importance as well as the character of his own life. He realises the +interdependence of members of a community, and the conception of the +State as a whole, a unit, instead of a mere sum of individuals, grows +up. The modern industrial development and the organisation of labour +have, too, emphasised the fact that the value of the individual depends +largely upon his being a part of society. His <a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>work must be in +co-operation with the work of others to produce the best effect; for in +such co-operation it produces effects which reach far beyond his own +individual capacity. Hence his life appears to receive value from the +social relations, and the social ideal is conceived. The development of +the individual no longer becomes the aim but rather the development of +the community. In setting out the development of society as his aim, the +individual makes considerable sacrifices. All that is distinctly +individual must go, in character, in work, in science, and art, and that +which is concerned with the common need of society must receive +attention. This means undoubtedly a limitation of the life of the +individual, and often entails a considerable sacrifice; but the +sacrifice is made because of the underlying belief that in the sum of +individual judgments there is reason, and that in the opinion of the +majority there is truth. This socialistic culture finds in the present +condition of society, plenty of problems to hand, and in its treatment +of these problems a vigorous socialistic type of life is developed. The +most pressing problem is concerned with the distribution of material and +spiritual goods. Material goods and the opportunity for spiritual +culture that go with them have been largely a monopoly of the +aristocracy. Now arises a demand for a more equal distribution, and this +is felt to be a right demand, not only from the point of view of +justice, but also for the sake of spiritual culture itself. So it is +that the movement for the social amelioration of the masses starts. The +welfare of humanity is its aim, and all things, religion, science, and +art, must work towards this end, and are only of value in so far as they +contribute towards it.</p> + +<p>Now it is a fundamental principle of a logical social<a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>istic system that +truth must be found in the opinions of the masses, and the average +opinion of mankind must be the final arbiter of good and evil. The +tendency of the masses as such is to consider material advancement the +most cherished good. Hence, inevitably, a thorough-going socialism must +become materialistic, even though at an earlier stage it was actuated by +the desire for opportunities of spiritual culture.</p> + +<p>A genuinely socialistic culture, too, makes the individual of value only +as a member of society. This, Eucken affirms, is only true in the most +primitive societies. As civilisation progresses, man becomes conscious +of himself, and an inner life, which in its interests is independent of, +and often opposed to society, develops. His own thought becomes +important to man, and as his life deepens, religion, science, art, work +&c., become more and more a personal matter.</p> + +<p>All such deepening of culture, and of creative spiritual activity, is a +personal matter. From this deepening and enriching of the inner life of +the individual proceeds creative spiritual activity, which attempts +spiritual tasks as an end in themselves, and which gradually builds up a +kingdom of truth and spiritual interest which immeasurably transcends +mere human standards. All these are historical facts of experience; the +socialistic system finds no place and no explanation for them, and +consequently it cannot be regarded as a sufficiently comprehensive +explanation of the problem. To a man who has once realised these +individual experiences, the merely human, socialistic system becomes +intolerable.</p> + +<p>Again, if considerations of social utility limit creative activity, the +creations of such activity must be meagre in nature. Spiritual +creativeness is most fruitful when it is concerned with tasks that are +attempted for their <a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>intrinsic value, and is not fettered by the thought +of their usefulness to society.</p> + +<p>It is, too, a dangerous thing to look for truth in the opinion of the +majority, for this is such a changing phenomenon that only a part, at +most, can be permanent truth. The course of history has taught us, too, +that great ideas have come to individuals and have been rejected by the +masses for long periods of time.</p> + +<p>The immediate effect of the failure of socialism is the encouragement of +<em>individualism</em>, for indeed some of the arguments against the former are +arguments in favour of the latter. Individualism opens up a new life, a +life which is free, joyous, and unconventional.</p> + +<p>But can individualism give a meaning and value to life as a whole? Man +cannot from his own resources produce a high ideal which compels him to +fight for higher development, and it is not possible for him from an +individualistic standpoint to regard himself as a manifestation of a +larger life. His whole life must be spent in the improvement of his own +condition. Even in the case of strongly marked personalities, they can +never get beyond themselves and their own subjective states, for they +must always live upon themselves, and eternally reflect upon their own +doings.</p> + +<p>But such a view of life cannot satisfy man; he is a contemplative being, +and he must find some all-inclusive whole, of which he is a part. If he +fails to find it, life for him must become a blank, and he must fall a +prey to boredom and satiety. Man's life is not to be confined to his own +particular sphere, his life must extend far beyond that—he must concern +himself with the infinite in the universe; "He must view life—nay, +more, he must live it—in the light of this larger whole." A life based +upon individualism then, will seem, even in the <a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>case of strong +personalities, to be extremely narrow. How much more so will this be +true of the ordinary man, who takes little interest in his own +individuality, or pleasure in its development?</p> + +<p>Thus it is that both forms of humanistic culture—socialism and +individualism—fail to give a real meaning to life. "Socialistic culture +directs itself chiefly to the outward conditions of life, but in care +for these it neglects life itself." Individualistic culture, on the +other hand, endeavours to deal with life itself, but fails to see life +as a whole, or as possessing any real inwardness.</p> + +<p>Both types of culture are apt to deceive themselves in regard to their +own emptiness, because, unconsciously, they make more out of man than is +consistent with their assumptions. "They presuppose a spiritual +atmosphere as a setting for our human life and effort. In the one case, +this cementing of a union between individuals appears to set free the +springs of love and truth; in the other, each single unit seems to have +behind it the background of a spiritual world whose development is +fostered by means of its individual labour." In this way life acquires +in both cases a meaning, but it does so only by departing from both +positions, and taking up what is, at least partly, an idealistic +position.</p> + +<p>The theories, too, can only be made really plausible by idealising man +to an unwarrantable extent. The socialist assumes that a change of +material surroundings will be immediately followed by a change in the +character of man, and that men will work happily together for the sake +of the community. The individualist asks us to believe that man is +naturally noble and highminded, and cares only for the higher and better +things. But experience, says Eucken, does not justify us in placing so +much faith in humanity. "Do we not see the <a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>great masses of our +population possessed by a passion that sweeps all before it, a reckless +spirit of aggressiveness, a disposition to lower all culture to the +level of their interests and comprehension—evincing the while a defiant +self-assertion? And on the side of individualism, what do we see? Paltry +meanness in abundance, embroidered selfishness, idle self-absorption, +the craving to be conspicuous at all costs, repulsive hypocrisy, lack of +courage despite all boastful talk, a lukewarm attitude towards all +spiritual tasks, but the busiest industry when personal advantage is +concerned."</p> + +<p>The theories of socialism and individualism can never be adequate +explanations of the great problem of life, for life cannot have a real +meaning if man cannot strive towards some lofty aim far higher than +himself, and such a goal the two humanistic theories do not provide for +him.</p> + +<p>Religion, Idealism, Naturalism, Socialism, Individualism, while calling +attention to important facts in life, all fail in themselves to form +adequate theories to explain life. We have given the main outlines of +Eucken's arguments, but such a brief summary cannot do justice to his +excellent evaluations of these theories—these the reader may find in +his own works.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III" ></a><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>CHAPTER III<br /> + +ANOTHER SEARCH FOR TRUTH</h2> + +<p>The result of the inquiry into the solutions of the problem offered in +the past is to show that they are all inadequate to explain and to give +an ideal to the whole of life. Perplexed as to the truth of the +existence of a higher world, man looked to the natural world for a firm +basis to life. Here he failed to find rest—rather, indeed, he found +less security than he had previously felt, for did not naturalism make +of him a mere unconscious mechanism, and deny the very existence of his +soul? Then he turned to humanity, and the opposing tendencies of +socialism and individualism came into evidence. Each hindered the other, +each shook his traditional beliefs, and each failed to give him a +satisfactory goal for life. Socialism concerned itself with external +social relations, but it gave life no soul. Then individualism confined +man to his own resources, and there resulted an inner hollowness which +became painfully evident. Socialism and individualism fail to provide a +sure footing. Instead of finding certainty, man has fallen into a still +deeper state of perplexity.</p> + +<p>What shall he do? Must he once again leave the realistic systems of +Naturalism, Socialism, and Individualism, and return to the older +systems of Religion and Idealism? Was he not wrong in giving up the +thought of a higher invisible world? Has not the restriction of life to +the visible world robbed life of its <a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>greatness and dignity? This it +certainly has done, and there is little wonder that the soul of mankind +is already revolting, and shows a tendency once again to look towards +religion and idealism for a solution of life.</p> + +<p>But the educated mind can never again take up exactly the same position +as it once did in regard to religion and idealism. The great realistic +theories have made too great a change in the standard of life, and in +man himself, to make it possible for him to revert simply to the old +conditions, and the older orthodox doctrines of religion can never again +be accepted as a mere matter of course. But the great question has again +come to the forefront—is there a higher world, or is the fundamental +truth of religion a mere illusion? This is the question that calls for +answer to-day, an answer which must be different, as man is different, +from the answers that were given in the past. A satisfactory answer is +impossible without understanding clearly the relation between the Old +and the New, and without taking account of the great, if partial, truths +that the realistic schemes of life have taught mankind.</p> + +<p>To accept unreservedly Naturalism, Socialism, and Individualism is +impossible, for these rob life of its deeper meaning. To return to the +older doctrines without reserve is equally impossible.</p> + +<p>Shall we ignore the question? This would be a fatal mistake. Some throw +themselves into the rush of work, and endeavour to forget the deeper +problems of life—but "the result is a life all froth and shimmer, +lacking inward sincerity, a life that can never in itself satisfy them, +but only keep up the appearance of doing so." There must be some +decision; for is not society being more and more broken up into small +sections, possessing the most variable standards of life, and +<a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>evaluating things in a diversity of ways? Such an inward schism must +weaken any effort on the part of humanity to combine for ideal ends. +Perhaps he of narrow vision, who sees nothing in life but sensuous +pleasure, is happy—but it is the happiness of the lower world. Perhaps, +too, he of the superficial mind is happy, who sees no deep +contradictions in the solutions offered, and is prepared to accept one +to-day and another tomorrow—but his happiness is that of the feeble +mind.</p> + +<p>What then can be done? Shall we despair? Never! The question is far too +urgent. To despair is to accept a policy that spells disaster to the +human race. The immediate environment is powerless to give life any real +meaning. We must probe deeper into the eternal—and it is from such +investigations that Eucken outlines a new theory of life.</p> + +<p>But before we proceed to deal with Eucken's contribution to the problem, +it will be profitable to stay awhile to consider how it is that we can +obtain truth at all, and what are the tests that we can apply to truth +when we think we have attained it. It is the problem of the possibility +of knowledge, really, that we have to discuss in brief. Eucken himself +does not pay much direct attention to this difficult question, for, as +has been already pointed out, he refuses to be drawn from his main +problem. It is impossible, however, to appreciate Eucken without +understanding clearly the position he takes up in this matter.</p> + +<p>What is truth? How can we know?—these are entrancing problems for the +profound thinker, and have been written upon frequently and at great +length. But we can do little more at present than give the barest +outline of the positions that have been taken up. Every search for truth +must assume a certain position in this <a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>matter; in studying Eucken's +philosophy it is of the first importance—more so perhaps than in the +case of most other philosophers—to keep in mind clearly from the outset +the position he implicitly assumes.</p> + +<p>The simplest theory of knowledge is that of <em>Empiricism</em>, which holds +that all knowledge must be gained through experience of the outside +world, and of our mental states. We see a blue wall, we obtain through +our eyes an impression of blueness, and are able to make a statement: +"This wall is blue." This, of course, is one of the simplest assertions +that can be made, and consists merely in assigning a term—"blue"—the +meaning of which has already been agreed upon, to a colour that we +appear to see on a wall. The test of the truth of this assertion is a +simple one—it is true if it corresponds with fact. If the same +assertion is made in regard to a red wall, then it is obviously untrue. +Our sense impressions give rise to a great variety of such expressions. +We state "the wall is blue" as a result of an impression obtained +through the organs of sight; then we speak of a pungent smell, a sweet +taste, a harsh sound, or a rough stone, on account of impressions +received respectively through the organs of smell, taste, hearing, and +touch. But, of course, all such assertions are superficial in +character—there is little more in them than the application of a +conventional term to an observed phenomenon, they avail us little in +solving the mysteries of the universe.</p> + +<p>Strictly speaking, this is for the empiricist the limit of possible +knowledge, but he would be a poor investigator who would be content with +this and no more. The empiricist tries to go a distinct step in advance +of this. The scientist observing the path of a planet travelling round +the sun, finds that its course is that of an ellipse. He studies the +path of a second planet, and finds that <a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>this also travels along an +elliptical orbit. Later he finds that all planets he is able to observe +travel in the same kind of path—then he hazards a general statement, +and says, "All planets travel round their suns in elliptical orbits." +But now he has left the realm of certainty for that of uncertainty. +There may be innumerable planets which he cannot observe that take a +different course. He hazards the general statement, because he assumes +(sometimes without knowing that he does so) that nature is uniform and +constant, that it will do to-day as it did yesterday, and does in +infinite space as it does in the visible universe.</p> + +<p>The knowledge that is possible to the empiricist, then, is merely that +which is derived from direct experience, and simple summations or +generalisations into a single assertion of a number of similar +assertions, all of which were individually derived from experience. This +is the position scientists as such, and believers in the theory of +naturalism, take up as to the possibility of the knowledge of truth to +the human mind. They are entirely consistent, therefore, when they +arrive ultimately at the agnostic position, and contend that our +knowledge must necessarily be confined to the world of experience, and +that nothing can be known of the world beyond. But they are +fundamentally wrong in overestimating the place of the sense organs, and +forgetting that while these have a part to play in life, they do not +constitute the whole of life.</p> + +<p>A far more satisfactory theory is that of <em>Rationalism</em>. It is a theory +that admits that the human mind has some capacity for working upon the +data presented to it by the sense organs. Man is no longer quite so +helpless a creature as empiricism would make him. He is able to weigh +and consider the facts that are presented to the <a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>mind. The method +rationalism uses to arrive at truth is that of logical deduction, and +the test of truth is that the steps in the process are logically sound. +We may start from the data "All dogs are animals" and "Carlo is a dog," +and arrive very simply at the conclusion "Carlo is an animal." The +conclusion is correct because we have reasoned in accordance with the +laws of logic, with the laws of valid thought. All logical reasoning is, +of course, not so simple as the example given, but it may be stated +generally that when there is no logical fallacy, a correct conclusion +may be arrived at, provided, too—and herein lies the +difficulty—provided that the premises are also true. These premises may +be in themselves general statements—how is their truth established? +They may be, and often are, the generalisations of the empirical +sciences, and must then possess the same degree of uncertainty that +these generalisations possess. Some philosophers have contended that +certain general ideas are innate, but few would be found nowadays to +accept such a contention. At other times mere definitions of terms may +serve as premises. One might state as a premise the definition "A +straight line is the shortest distance between two points," and the +further statement that "AB is a straight line between A and B," and +conclude that the line AB represents the shortest distance between two +points A and B. In a manner similar to this Euclid built his whole +mathematical system upon the basis of definitions and postulates, a +system the complexity and thoroughness of which has caused all students +of mathematics at one time or another to marvel and admire. But, of +course, a definition is little more than assigning a definite term to a +definite thing. It is when we begin to consider the premises that are +necessary for arriving at the profound truths of the <a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>universe that we +find the weakness of rationalism. How are we going to be provided with +premises for this end? Shall we begin by saying "There is a God" or +"There is no God"? How is the pure reasoning faculty to decide upon the +premises in the matter of the great Beyond? We may weigh the arguments +for and against a certain position, and we may think that the +probability lies in a certain direction, but to decide finally and with +certainty by mere cold logical reasoning is impossible. We may bring out +into prominence through logical reasoning truths that were previously +only implicit, but to arrive at absolute truth with regard to the +invisible world, through intellect alone, has long been admitted to be +an impossibility. The illusion of those who would believe that truth +which was not already implied in the premises could ever be obtained by +mere intellectual reasoning has long since been dispelled.</p> + +<p>Perhaps it comes as a shock to the reader who has always insisted upon a +clear intellectual understanding and a rigid reasoning upon all things, +to find within what narrow limits, after all, the intellect itself has +to work—it can do little more than make more or less certain +generalisations concerning the world of experience, and then to argue +from these, or from definitions that it itself has framed. Of course +some of the ancient philosophers did try through a course of rigid +reasoning to solve the great problems, and for a long time it was +customary to expect that all philosophers should proceed in the same +way.</p> + +<p>Modern philosophers, of whom William James, Bergson, and Eucken are +conspicuous examples, have appreciated the futility of such a task, and +have sought other means of solving the problem. The mistake in the past +has been to forget that the intelligence is but one aspect of human +life, and that the experience of mankind <a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>is far more complicated a +matter than that of mere intellect, and not to be solved by intellect +alone. Intellect has to play a definite part in human life, but it does +not constitute the whole of life. Life itself is far greater than +intellect, and to live is a far more important thing than to know. The +great things are life and action; knowledge is ultimately useful in so +far as it contributes to the development of life and the perfection of +action. Philosophers have for too long a period made knowledge an aim in +itself, and have neglected to take proper account of the experiences of +mankind. Their intellectual abstractions have tended to leave actual +life more and more out of consideration, with the result that they have +been baffled at every turn. The more we think about it, the more we +become convinced that the mysterious universe in which we live will only +divulge just enough of its secrets to enable us to act, and this it +gives us with comparatively little trouble on our part. If we consider +an ordinary piece of wood, we find it is hard and offers a certain +resistance, and our knowledge of these elementary facts enables us to +put it to use, but we shall never really solve the mysteries of its +formation and growth. These lead of course to very interesting +speculations, but their solution seems to be as far off as ever. We can +know little but that which we require for life. The making of life and +action the basis of truth rather than trusting to the intellect alone, +is the great new departure in modern philosophy.</p> + +<p>One of the theories of knowledge that springs from laying emphasis upon +life and action is that of <em>Pragmatism</em>, of which the late Professor +William James was one of the greatest exponents. Pragmatists contend +that the test of truth is its value for life—if the fact obtained is +the most useful and helpful for life, then it is the true one.<a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a> Suppose +we are endeavouring to solve the great question, "Is there a God?" We +weigh the arguments for and against, but find it difficult to arrive at +a definite conclusion, because the arguments on both sides seem equally +plausible. How are we to decide? We cannot postpone the decision +indefinitely—we are forced to make a choice, for upon our decision +depends our aim and ideals in life. We are faced with a "forced option," +and must choose one or the other. We ask ourselves the question, "Which +will be of the greatest help to our lives—to believe that there is, or +that there is not a God?" and we decide or will to believe the option +that will help life most. It is a striking theory, but space forbids our +discussing it in detail.</p> + +<p>The position Eucken adopts is that of <em>Activism</em>. In common with +pragmatism it makes truth a matter of life and action rather than of +mere intellect, and considers fruitfulness for action a characteristic +of truth. He differs from the pragmatic position in that he contends +that truth is something deeper than mere human decision, that truth is +truth, not merely because it is useful, that reality is independent of +our experience of it, and that truth is gained intuitively through a +life of action.</p> + +<p>The riddle of the universe is solved for Eucken through life and action. +While continual contemplation and thought is apt to paralyse us, "action +is the best defensive weapon against the dangers and trials of human +existence." "Doubt is not cured by meditation, but by action." He +believes that we can attain certainty through action of much that cannot +be justified on rational grounds. If we wish to understand the vital +truths of life we must concentrate our souls on a good purpose—the +activity that follows will bring its revelation. The problems of life +are solved by the life process <a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>itself. By acting in a certain way, man +comes into intimate relationship with the great reality of life, and +then he comes to know, not so much <em>about</em> reality, as <em>within</em> reality. +The ant in whom such complex instincts are developed, knows probably +nothing at all <em>about</em> its little world, but knows everything necessary +<em>within</em> its little world. It does not err, it does the right thing at +the right time, and that because it is in tune with its universe, hence +acts from pure instinct in the right way. If intellect were to enter +into the case, its actions might become less reliable, and it would +blunder far oftener. In the case of man, his thinking capacity often +militates against successful instinctive and habitual actions—the +moment we start to consider, we hesitate and are lost. In the same way, +if the soul of man is brought into tune with the great reality, it has +but to act, and though it may never know all <em>about</em> reality and be able +to frame abstract theories of the universe, still it may know <em>with</em> or +<em>within</em> reality, and be thus enabled to act in the best way under +various circumstances. This is the theory of activism; it lays great +stress upon action, and upon intuition through action, and while it does +not ignore the intellect, it holds that when the intellect fails there +is a possibility of the practical problem of life being solved through a +life of action, when life is directed towards the highest ideals. The +danger of an activistic position, of course, is to undervalue the +reasoning powers of man. Some critics hold that Eucken does this; the +reader must judge for himself, but in doing so it will be well to +remember that before trusting to intuitive revelation, Eucken demands +the setting of one's face towards the highest and best.</p> + +<p>In the next chapter we can follow Eucken in his search for the great +reality in life.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV" ></a><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>CHAPTER IV<br /> + +THE PAST, PRESENT, AND THE ETERNAL</h2> + +<p>In investigating the problem of human life, Eucken lays great stress +upon the history of man in past ages—this is one of the special aspects +of his philosophy. The fact is, of course, not surprising; he who would +explain the life of man would be unwise to ignore the records of the +past life of the human race. The thinker who examines the present only, +is apt to be narrow in his ideas, to fail to look upon events in their +proper perspective, and to be unduly affected by the spirit of the age +in which he lives—the student of history avoids these pitfalls.</p> + +<p>Moreover, man does not become aware of the depth of his own soul, until +he has "lived into" the experience of the past. This is what the +profound investigator of history does; he lives again the life of the +hero, he feels with him as he felt upon special occasions, and in this +way there is revealed to him a profundity and greatness of human +experience, of which he would have been largely unaware if he had +trusted to his own experience alone, and to the superficial examination +he is able to make of the experiences of those living men with whom he +comes into contact. In this way he is able in a sense to appropriate the +experience of the greatest personalities unto himself, and enrich +considerably the contents of his own soul.</p> + +<p>Through a study of history, too, we become aware of the intimate +connection that exists between the present <a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>and the past. The present +moment is a very transient thing; its roots are in the past, its hopes +in the future. "If all depends on the slender thread of the fleeting +moment of the present, which illumines and endures merely for a +twinkling of an eye, but to sink into the abyss of nothingness, then all +life would mean a mere exit into death.... Without connection there is +no content of life." We are apt to look on the past as something dead, +but it exists in living evidence in our souls to-day. It oppresses us or +stimulates us to action, it tyrannises over us or inspires us to higher +things. It has been customary to look upon the past as irrevocable. +Recent writers, of whom Maeterlinck and Eucken are striking instances, +have endeavoured to show how the past can be remoulded and changed. The +past depends upon what we make of it to-day; if we despise our evil +conduct in former days, then the past itself is changed and conquered. +The mistake that is made is to regard the past as a thing complete in +itself; what appears to be finished is really only completing itself, +and we must take a view of the whole of a thing, and not merely the +parts that have already manifested themselves. Through such +considerations we become more and more aware of the ultimate connection +between the past and present, and of the part the present can play in +the remaking of the past.</p> + +<p>Our investigations of history leads us, too, to differentiate between +the temporary and the eternal in the realm of thought. We find at a +certain period of history a trend of thought that can largely be +accounted for by the special conditions of life at the time, and which +disappears at a later age. But in addition to this we become aware of +truths that have found a place in the thoughts of various ages and +countries, and we are led <a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>to regard these as the eternal +truths—expressions of an eternal ever-present reality. This eternal +present we find to be something independent of time, something that +breaks the barriers between the past, present, and future. "Thought," +says Eucken, "does not drift along with time; as certainly as it strives +to attain truth it must rise above time, and its treatment must be +timeless." The beliefs of any age are too much coloured by the special +circumstances of that age to express the whole of truth, yet beneath the +beliefs of the ages there is often an underlying truth, and this +underlying truth is the eternal truth, which is not affected by time, +and at the basis of which is the eternal reality.</p> + +<p>This eternal truth persisting through a variety of temporary and more or +less correct expressions of it is to be observed in a marked manner in +the moral ideas of mankind. What a variety of ethical doctrines have +been expounded and believed, yet how striking the similarity that +becomes apparent when they are further examined! In practice, the +standard of morality has often been based on mere utility, but it has +taken a higher and more absolute basis in the mind of man. Ideas +concerning morality have generally been nobler than can be accounted for +by environment, and by the subjective life of the individual. Why this +ultimate consistency in the moral aspirations of the ages, why a +categorical imperative, and why does conscience exist in the human +being?—these facts cannot be accounted for if there is no deeper basis +for life than the life of humanity at any definite period of time.</p> + +<p>The unchangeable laws of logic, too, are instances of the eternal truth. +The principles of the validity of thought are entirely independent of +individuals, of the passage of time, and of the environment of man. "Our +<a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>thought cannot advance in the definite work of building up science +without producing and employing a definite logical structure, with fixed +principles; these principles are immanent in the work of thought, they +are above all the caprice and all the differences of the individuals." +Whence again this consistency in a changeable and subjective world?</p> + +<p>The marvellous influence that ideas have exerted upon man again points +to the persistence and power of the eternal. Is it not strange how it is +that man often serves but as a mere instrument for the realisation of an +idea, and how he is often carried away by an idea to do things which are +against his own personal interests and desires? And when he and his +generation have passed beyond human sight, we often find a new +generation direct their endeavours in the same way, and we wonder what +is behind such a continuity in the struggles of mankind.</p> + +<p>The history of great personalities in the realms of literature, art, and +science show in a remarkable way how men have risen above the influences +of their time, and beyond the cramping tiredness of the mere flesh. +Could a great thinker like Aristotle be entirely conditioned by flesh +and environment? And what of the great artists and poets who have +conquered the chains of mortal finitude and breathed of higher worlds? +Every one of them is a convincing testimony of the possibility of +mankind transcending the material, and taking unto itself of the +resources of a deeper world.</p> + +<p>Then the dissatisfaction of the ages with their limited knowledge of +truth cannot but tell of a great eternal something that stirs at the +basis of the human soul. The people of to-day find the various systems +of the day inadequate; they search for something higher, and the <a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>mere +fact that they search beyond matter and the mere subjective human +qualities is in itself a testimony to the existence of a world higher +than the material and subjective.</p> + +<p>What is it that makes it possible for one human being to "live into" the +experience of others who lived long ago, and for the present to conquer +and alter the past? How can we account for the eternal trait in thought, +for the unchanging laws of logic, for the consistency of moral ideals, +and their transcendence over flesh and immediate circumstances? What is +the force behind the idea, and how can we account for the continuous +struggle of mankind in certain directions? And, finally, what is it that +makes it possible for men to rise beyond themselves, to shake away the +shackles of matter and vicinity, and to delve deep into the profounder +world?</p> + +<p>If we can find what it is that makes all this possible, then surely we +have found the greatest thing in the world—the reality. And Eucken's +answer is clear and definite. It must be something that persists, is +eternal and independent of time, and it must extend beyond the +individual to a universal whole. This must be "the Universal Spiritual +Life," which, though eternal, reveals itself in time, and though +universal, reveals itself in the individual man, and forms the source +from which the spiritual in man "draws its power and credentials."</p> + +<p>This, then, is the result of Eucken's search for reality—he has found +it to exist in a Universal Spiritual Life. Of course he has not arrived +at his conclusion by a system of rigid proof; it has already been +pointed out how impossible it is to arrive at the greater truths of life +in such a manner.</p> + +<p>He has done, however, that which can be reasonably expected in such +cases. To begin with, he has given us a <a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>striking analysis of the +essential characteristics of human life, and he has found there a +yearning and a void. He has given us a masterly discussion of eternal +truth as contrasted with the temporary expressions of it. He has taught +us how the present can overcome the past, and how man can ascend beyond +the subjective and material. And he has led us to feel that reality must +lie in the eternal that appears to be at the basis of the highest and +greatest in man.</p> + +<p>Moreover, he has given a fair and thorough treatment of the solutions +that have been offered in the past. He has shown how inadequate they are +to explain life. He has shown how the modern solutions "cannot perform +their own tasks without drawing incessantly upon another kind of +reality, one richer and more substantial." This in itself shows "beyond +possibility of refutation that they do not fill the whole of life." He +has demonstrated how the acceptance of these systems depends upon an +implicit acceptance of a higher life. "The naturalistic thinker ascribes +unperceived to nature, which to him can be only a coexistence of +soulless elements, an inner connection and a living soul. Only thus can +he revere it as a higher power, as a kind of divinity; only thus can he +pass from the fact of dependence to a devotional surrender of his +feelings. The socialist bases human society, with its motives mixed with +triviality and passion, on an invisible community, an ideal humanity.... +The individualist in his conception exalts the individual to a height +far more lofty than is justified by the individual as he is found in +experience." All these assume more or less unconsciously the existence +of that "something higher" which they attempt to deny.</p> + +<p>So far, then, we have seen how Eucken proves the <a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>inadequacy of the +realistic conceptions of life, and how they really depend for their +acceptance upon the assumption of a Universal Spiritual Life. We have +still to see how he attempts to prove that basing human life upon an +eternal spiritual life satisfies the conditions he himself has laid down +for a satisfactory solution of the problem. He has to show that the +theory gives a satisfactory explanation of human life, that it gives a +firm basis for life, that it releases man from being governed by low +motives, and admits of the possibility of human personality, freedom, +and creation. We shall see in the chapters that follow that he makes a +convincing case for accepting the belief in the Universal Spiritual Life +as the basis of human life and endeavour.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V" ></a><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>CHAPTER V<br /> + +THE "HIGH" AND THE "LOW"</h2> + +<p>Eucken makes the recognition of the existence of a Universal Spiritual +Life the starting-point of his constructive work. He takes up a position +which he calls the nöological position. Many theories take up a +materialistic position; they assert the reality of the material world, +and endeavour to explain the world of matter as something independent of +the human mind. Other theories assert the superiority of mind over +matter, and endeavour to examine the mind as though it were independent +of the material world. These two types of theories have been in +continual conflict; the one has attempted to prove that thought is +entirely conditioned by sense impressions received from the material +world, the other regards the phenomena of nature as really nothing other +than processes of the mind.</p> + +<p>Eucken finds reality existing in the spiritual life, which while neither +material nor merely mental, is superior to both, admits the existence +(in a certain sense) of both, and does away with the opposition between +the rival types of theories. Eucken does not minimise or ignore the +existence of the natural world. The question for him is not the +independent existence of the worlds of nature and mind—this he admits; +he is concerned rather with the superiority of the spiritual life over +the merely material and mental.</p> + +<p>The natural life of man has been variously viewed in different ages. The +writer of the Pentateuch described <a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>man as made in the image of God, and +the natural man was exalted on this account. Some of the old Greek +philosophers, too, found much in nature that was divine. Christianity +took a different view of the matter—it exalted the spirit, and +emphasised the baseness of the material. The growth of the sciences made +man again a mere tool of laws and methods, but it considered matter as +superior to mind, mind being entirely dependent upon impressions +received from matter. The question continually recurs—which is the +high, which is the low? Shall nature triumph over spirit, or spirit over +nature?</p> + +<p>Pantheism replies to the question by denying that there is anything high +as distinguished from the low. There is but one; and that one—the whole +universe—is God. There is no evil in the world, says pantheism, +everything is good—if we could understand things as they really are we +should find no oppositions in the universe, and no contradictions in the +nature of things. The world as it is, is the best of all possible +worlds—there is perfect harmony, though we fail to appreciate it. Other +optimistic theories, too, deny the existence of evil and pain, and try +to explain our ideas of sin to be mere "points of view." If we could see +the whole, they tell us, we should see how the parts harmonise, but now +we only see some of the parts and fail to appreciate the harmony. In +this way they try to explain away as unreal the phenomena of evil and +pain.</p> + +<p>But Eucken has no patience with such theories. For him the oppositions +and contradictions of life are too real and persistent. The antagonisms +"stir us with disgust and indignation." Evil cannot be considered +trivial, and must not be glossed over; it is in the world, and the more +deeply we appreciate the fact the better it will be for the human soul.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>Man in his lower stages of development is just a child of nature, and +his standards of life are those of the lower world. He seeks those +things that satisfy the senses, he attempts the satiation of the lower +cravings. In the realm of morals his standard is utility—that is good +which helps him to obtain more pleasure and to avoid pain. In social +life his conduct is dictated by custom—this is the highest appeal. The +development of man along the lines of nature ends at this point—and if +nothing more is to happen, then he must remain at a low level of +development. Matter and mind cannot take him beyond—the mind as such +only helps towards the further satisfaction of the lower demands of man.</p> + +<p>But there is something far greater in highly developed manhood than the +petty and selfish. Man is capable of conceiving and adopting higher +standards of morality than those of utility and pleasure, and it is the +spiritual life that enables him to do this. It is the spiritual that +frees the individual from the slavery of the sense world—from his +selfishness and superficial interests—that teaches him to care less for +the things of the flesh, and far more for the beautiful, the good, and +the true, and that enables him to pursue high aims regardless of the +fact that they may entail suffering and loss in other directions. This, +then, is the "High" in the world; the natural life is the "Low."</p> + +<p>But what is the relation of the natural to the spiritual life? In the +first place, the spiritual cannot be derived from the natural, inasmuch +as the former is immensely superior to the latter, and that not merely +in degree, but in its very essence. The spiritual is entirely on a +higher plane of reality, and there cannot be transition from the natural +to the spiritual world. The natural has its limitations, and beyond +these cannot go. So far as the <a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>natural world is concerned man can never +rise above seeking for pleasure, and making expediency and social +approbation the standards of life, hence there is little wonder that +those ethical teachers who make nature their basis, deny the possibility +of action that is unselfish and free. "The Spiritual Life," however, as +Eucken says, "has an independent origin, and evolves new powers and +standards."</p> + +<p>Neither do the two aspects run together in life in parallel lines. On +the contrary, the spiritual life cannot manifest itself at all until a +certain stage of development is reached in nature. It would seem +impossible to conceive of the animal rising above its animal instincts +and tendencies; its whole life is conditioned by its animal nature and +its environment. Man stands at the junction of the stages between the +purely natural and the purely spiritual. On the one hand, he is a member +of the animal world, he has its instincts, its desires and its +limitations; on the other hand, he has within him the germ of +spirituality. He belongs to both worlds, the natural and the spiritual. +He cannot shake off the natural and remain a man—to separate the two +means death to man as we know him. But there is a great difference +between his position in the natural world and his position in the +spiritual world. He seems to be the last word in the world of nature, he +has reached heights far beyond those reached by any other flesh and +blood. He is, so far as we know, the culminating point of natural +evolution—the final possibility in the natural world. But the stage of +nature only represents the first stage in the development of the +universe.</p> + +<p>There is an infinitely higher stage of life, the spiritual life. And if +man is the final point of progress in the world of nature, he is, in his +primitive state, only at the <a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>threshold of the spiritual world. But he +is not an entire stranger to the spiritual—the germ is in him, and the +spiritual is consequently not an alien world for him. If the spiritual +were something entirely foreign it would be vain to expect much progress +through mere impulses from without. On the contrary, it is the spiritual +that makes man really great, and is the most fundamental part of his +nature.</p> + +<p>The two stages of life, then, are present in man—the natural and the +spiritual; the former highly developed, the latter, at first, in an +undeveloped state.</p> + +<p>Now the great aim of the universe is to pass gradually from the natural +to the spiritual plane of life. This does not mean that the latter is +the product of the former stage, for this is not the case. It means that +the deeper reality in life is the spiritual, and that the spiritual +develops through the natural in its own particular way. And this +particular way is not a mere development but a <em>self</em>-development. The +aim of the spiritual is to develop its own self through the human being. +In this way man is given the possibility of developing a self—a +personality in a very real sense.</p> + +<p>Thus we arrive at some idea of the relation there exists between the +spiritual and the natural, and of the place of the spiritual and the +natural in man. The spiritual is neither the product nor an attribute of +the natural. Man is the border creature of the two worlds; he represents +the ultimate possibility of the one, and possesses potentialities in +regard to the other. The great object of his life must be to develop, +through making use of and conquering the life of nature, his higher self +into a free, spiritual, and immortal personality. The progressive stages +in this direction must be dealt with in the next chapter.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI" ></a><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>CHAPTER VI<br /> + +THE ASCENT TO FREEDOM AND PERSONALITY</h2> + + +<p>In the previous chapter we found that man in his primitive stage is +largely a creature of the lower world. His desires are those of the +animal kingdom, his ideal is utility, and social approbation his God. At +this stage he is a mere nothing, no better than a slave to his passions +and to the opinions of his fellow-beings. He possesses neither freedom +nor personality—for he is but a tool in the hands of other impulses and +forces. There is no controlling self—he is not a lord in his own +kingdom. Some men do not get beyond this very low level, but for ever +remain mere shuttlecocks driven hither and thither by more or less +contradictory impulses.</p> + +<p>The germ of the higher world that resides within him may sometimes make +itself felt, but "so long as there is a confused welter of higher and +lower impulses, ... so long is there an absence of anything essentially +new and lofty."</p> + +<p>Man's aspirations for things that are higher, are at the outset very +sluggish and vague, for a being that is so much dominated by the natural +world is apt to concentrate its attention upon it and to remain +contented with it.</p> + +<p>But there comes a time in the lives of perhaps most men when a distinct +feeling of dissatisfaction is felt with the life of natural impulse and +of convention. The man feels—perhaps in a vague way at first—that +there is <a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>something too merely animal in the sense world, or that there +is an intolerable emptiness and hypocrisy in a life of slavish devotion +to the opinions of society. Perhaps he feels that his passions govern +him, and not he his passions. The higher life stirs within him, and he +begins to question the rightness of things. He learns to appreciate for +the first time that the natural impulses may not be the noblest, and +that custom may not be an ideal guide. His soul is astir with the +problem of life—the result very largely depends upon the solutions that +are presented to him. Perhaps the naturalistic solution is made to +appeal to him, and he is taught to trust nature and it will lead him +aright. Or maybe the pantheistic theory is accepted by him, and he is +led to believe that the world as it is is entirely good, and that he has +but to live his life from day to day, and not worry himself about the +ultimate end and purpose of things. Or other optimistic theories of life +that deny the existence of evil may influence him. All these solutions +may give him temporary peace of mind, and perhaps indeed form efficient +stumbling-blocks to any further spiritual progress.</p> + +<p>But the spiritual beginnings within us often show remarkable vitality. +They may under certain conditions lead us to appreciate the existence of +a distinct opposition in the world—the opposition between the lower +world and the higher self. Man finds that the natural is often low, +evil, and sordid, and at this stage the higher spiritual world makes a +strong appeal to him. By degrees he comes to feel the demands of the +lower world to be a personal insult to him. What is the lower material +world that it should govern him, and he a <em>man</em>? The claims of pleasure +and utility to be standards of conduct strike him as arrogant, and he +revolts against the assumption that higher aims can have no charm for +<a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>him. His previous acceptance without consideration of the moral +standard of the community he now looks upon as a sign of weakness on his +part—for is he not himself, a person with the power of independent +judgment and evaluation? It is the first great awakening of the +spiritual life in man, when his whole soul is in revolt against the low, +sordid, and conventional. What shall he do? There is only one course +that is worthy of his asserting personality—he must break with the +world. Henceforth he sees two worlds in opposition—the world of the +flesh on the one hand, the world of the spirit on the other, and he +arrays himself on the side of the higher in opposition to the lower. +When he does this the spiritual life in him makes the first substantial +movement in its onward progress—this movement Eucken calls the +<em>negative movement</em>. It does not mean that the man must leave the world +of work and retire into the seclusion of a monastery—that means +shirking the fight, and is a policy of cowardice. Neither does it mean a +wild impatience with the present condition of the world—it means rather +that man is appreciating in a profound way the oppositions that exist, +and is casting his lot on the side of right. He renounces everything +that hinders him from fighting successfully, then goes forth into the +thick of the battle. The break must be a definite one and made in a +determined manner. "Without earnestness of renunciation the new life +sinks back to the old ... and loses its power to stimulate to new +endeavour. As human beings are, this negation must always be a sharp +one."</p> + +<p>The negative movement, then, is the first substantial step in the +progress of the spiritual life. The man's self breaks out into +discontent with nature, and this is the first step to the union of self +to the higher reality in <a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>life. The break with the world is in itself of +course but a negative process. This must attain a positive significance. +If the self breaks away from one aspect of life, it must identify itself +more intimately with another. This occurs when the individual sets out +definitely on a course of life in antagonism to the evil in the world.</p> + +<p>When this takes place, there arises within him a <em>new immediacy</em> of +experience. Hitherto the things that were his greatest concern, and that +appealed to him most, were the pleasures of the natural world. But these +things appeal to him no longer as urgent and immediate—but as being of +a distinctly secondary character. A new immediacy has arisen; it is the +facts of the spiritual world that now appeal to him as urgent and +immediate. "All that has hitherto been considered most immediate, as the +world of sense, or even the world of society, now takes a second place, +and has to make good its claim before this spiritual tribune.... That +which current conceptions treat as a Beyond ... is now the only world +which exists in its own right, the only true and genuine world which +neither asks nor consents to be derived from any outside source."</p> + +<p>This new immediacy is the deepest possible immediacy, it is an immediacy +of experience where the self comes into contact with its own vital +principle—the Universal Spiritual Life—and brings about a fundamental +change in the life of the individual. The inner life is no longer +governed by sense impressions and impulses, but the outward life is +lived and viewed from the standpoint of the inward life.</p> + +<p>But a new immediacy is not all that follows in the train of the negative +movement—on the contrary, the highest possible rewards are gained, for +freedom, personality, and immortality are all brought within the range +of possibility.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>Once a human being decides for the highest he is on the highroad to +complete freedom. The freedom is not going to be won in a moment, but +must be fought for by the individual through the whole course of his +life. His body is always with him, and will at times attempt to master +him—he must fight continually to ensure conquest. Difficulties will +arise from various quarters, but he is not going to depend only upon his +own resources. All his activity involves in the first place the +recognition of the spiritual world, but more than this, he appropriates +unto himself of the spiritual world—this in itself is an act of +decision. And the more we appropriate unto ourselves of the Universal +Spiritual Life, the more we decide for the higher world, the freer we +become. Indeed, "it is this appropriation ... of the spiritual life that +first awakens within the soul an inward certitude, and makes possible +that perfect freedom ... so indispensable for every great creative +work." By continually choosing and fighting for the progress of the +Universal Spiritual Life, it comes to be our own in virtue of our deed +and decision. Hence man has attained freedom—the lower world no longer +makes successful appeal. He has become a part of the spiritual world, +and his actions are no longer dictated by anything external, but are the +direct outcome of his own self. He has freely chosen the highest, and +continually reaffirms his choice—this is perfect freedom.</p> + +<p>Man gains for himself, too, a personality in the true sense of the term. +Eucken does not mean by personality "mere self-assertion on the part of +an individual in opposition to others." He means something far deeper +than this. "A genuine self," says Eucken, "is constituted only by the +coming to life of the infinite spiritual world in an independent +concentration in the individual."<a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a> Following a life of endeavour in the +highest cause, and continual appropriation of the spiritual life, he +arrives at a state of at-one-ness with the universal life. "Man does not +merely enter into some kind of relation with the spiritual life, but +finds his own being in it." The human being is elevated to a self-life +of a universal kind, and this frees him from the ties and appeals of the +world of sense and selfishness. It is a glorious conception of human +personality, infinitely higher than the undignified conceptions of +naturalism and determinism.</p> + +<p>And if man wins a glorious personality, he may gain immortality too. +Unfortunately, Eucken has not yet dealt fully with this question, but he +is evidently of the opinion that the spiritual personalities are +immortal. As concentration points or foci of the spiritual life, he +believes that the developed personalities are at present and in prospect +possessors of a spiritual realm. But there will be no essential or +sudden change at death. That which is immortal is involved in our +present experience. Those who have developed into spiritual +personalities, who have worked in fellowship with the great Universal +Life, and become centre-points of spirituality, have thus risen supreme +over time and pass to their inheritance. Those who have not done so, but +have lived their lives on the plane of nature, will have nothing that +can persist.</p> + +<p>Hence it is that the negative movement leads to freedom, personality, +and immortality; the neglect to make the movement consigns the +individual to slavery, makes a real "self" impossible, and at death he +has nought that a spiritual realm can claim. The choice is an +all-important one; for, as a recent writer puts it, "In this choice, the +personality chooses or rejects itself, takes itself for its life-task, +or dies of inanition and inertia."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII" ></a><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>CHAPTER VII<br /> + +THE PERSONAL AND THE UNIVERSAL</h2> + + +<p>In the last chapter the ascent of the human being from serfdom to +freedom and personality was traced. In doing so it was necessary to make +frequent reference to the Universal Spiritual Life.</p> + +<p>When we turn to consider the characteristics of the Universal Spiritual +Life, many problems present themselves. How can we reconcile freedom and +personality with the existence of an Absolute? What is the nature of +this Absolute, and in what way is the human related to it? What place +should religion play in the life of the spiritual personality? These +are, of course, some of the greatest and most difficult problems that +ever perplexed the mind of man, and we can only deal briefly with +Eucken's contribution to their solution.</p> + +<p>Can a man choose the highest? This is the form in which Eucken would +state the problem of freedom. His answer, as already seen, is an +affirmative one. The personality chooses the spiritual life, and +continually reaffirms the decision. This being so, it is now no longer +possible to consider the human and the divine to be entirely in +opposition. And the more the spiritual personality develops, so much the +less does the opposition obtain, until a state of spirituality is +arrived at when all opposition of will ceases—then we attain perfect +freedom. "We are most free, when we are most <a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>deeply pledged—pledged +irrevocably to the spiritual presence, with which our own being is so +radically and so finally implicated." Thus freedom is obtained in a +sense through self-surrender, but it is through this same self-surrender +that we realise spiritual absoluteness. Hence it is that perfect freedom +carries with it the strongest consciousness of dependence, and human +freedom is only made possible through the absoluteness of the spiritual +life in whom it finds its being.</p> + +<p>English philosophers have dealt at length with the question of the +possibility of reconciling the independence of personality and the +existence of an Absolute. From Eucken's point of view the difficulty is +not so serious. When he speaks of personality he does not mean the mere +subjective individual in all his selfishness. Eucken has no sympathy +with the emphasis that is often placed on the individual in the low +subjective sense, and is averse from the glorification of the individual +of which some writers are fond. Indeed, he would prefer a naturalistic +explanation of man rather than one framed as a result of man's +individualistic egoism. The former explanation admits that man is +entirely a thing of nature; the latter, from a selfish and proud +standpoint, claims for man a place in a higher world. There is nothing +that is worthy and high in the low desires of Mr. Smith—the mere +subjective Mr. Smith. But if through the mind and body of Mr. Smith the +Absolute Spirit is realising itself in personality—then there is +something of eternal worth—there is spiritual personality. There will +be opposition between the sordidness of the mere individual will and the +divine will, but that is because the spiritual life has not been gained. +When the highest state of spiritual personality has been reached, then +man is an expression—a personal <a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>realisation of the Absolute, is in +entire accord with the absolute, indeed becomes himself divine.</p> + +<p>This does not rob the term personality of its meaning, for each +personality does, in some way, after all, exist for itself. Each +individual consciousness has a sanctity of its own. But the +being-for-self develops more and more by coming into direct contact with +the Universal Spiritual Life.</p> + +<p>Here, then, we arrive at something that appears to be a paradox. We have +the phenomenon of a being that is free and existing for itself, yet in +some way dependent upon an absolute spiritual life. We have, too, the +phenomenon of a human being becoming divine. How is it really possible +that self-activity can arise out of dependence? Eucken does not attempt +to explain, but contends that an explanation cannot be arrived at +through reasoning. We are forced to the conclusion, we realise through +our life and action that this is the real state of affairs, and in this +case the reality proves the possibility. "This primal phenomenon," he +says, "overflows all explanation. It has, as the fundamental condition +of all spiritual life, a universal axiomatic character." Again he says, +"The wonder of wonders is the human made divine, through God's superior +power." "The problem surpasses the capacity of the human reason." For +taking up this position, Eucken is sharply criticised by some writers.</p> + +<p>When we approach the problem of the nature of the Absolute in itself, +the main difficulty that arises is whether God is a personal being. God, +says Eucken, is "an Absolute Spiritual Life in all its grandeur, above +all the limitations of man and the world of experience—a Spiritual Life +that has attained to a complete subsistence in itself, and at the same +time to an encompassing <a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>of all reality." The divine is for Eucken the +ultimate spirituality that inspires the work of all spiritual +personalities. When in our life of fight and action we need inspiration, +we find "in the very depths of our own nature a reawakening, which is +not a mere product of our activity, but a salvation straight from God." +God, then, is the ultimate spirituality which inspires the struggling +personality, and gives to it a sense of unity and confidence. Eucken +does not admit that God is a personality in the sense that we are, and +deprecates all anthropomorphic conceptions of God as a personal being. +Indeed, to avoid the tendency to such conceptions he would prefer the +term "Godhead" to "God." Further considerations of the nature of God can +only lead to intellectual speculations. For an activistic philosophy, +such as Eucken's philosophy is, it would seem sufficient for life and +action to know that all attempts at the ideal in life, originate in, and +are inspired by, the Absolute Spiritual Life, that is by God.</p> + +<p>We cannot discuss fully the relation of human and divine without, too, +dealing with the ever urgent problem of religion. This is a problem in +which Eucken is deeply interested, and concerning which he has written +one of his greatest works—<em>The Truth of Religion</em>—a work that has been +described as one of the greatest apologies for religion ever written.</p> + +<p>What is religion? Most people perhaps would apply the term to a system +of belief concerning the Eternal, usually resting upon a historical or +traditional basis. Others would include in the term the reverence felt +for the Absolute by the contemplative mind, even though that mind did +not believe in any of the traditional systems. Some would emphasise the +fact that religion should concern itself with the establish<a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>ment of a +relationship between the human and the Divine.</p> + +<p>But Eucken does not find religion to consist in belief, nor in a mere +attitude towards the mysteries of an overworld. In keeping with the +activistic tone of his whole philosophy he finds religion to be rooted +in life, and would define religion as an action by which the human being +appropriates the spiritual life.</p> + +<p>The first great concern of religion must be the conservation—not of +man, as mere man, but of the spiritual life in the human being, and it +means "a mighty concentration of the spiritual life in man." The +essential basis that makes religion possible is the presence of a Divine +life in man—"it unfolds itself through the seizure of this life as +one's own nature." Religion must be a form of activity, which brings +about the concentration of the spiritual life in the human soul, and +sets forth this spiritual life as a shield against unworthy elements +that attempt to enter and to govern man.</p> + +<p>The essential characteristic of religion must be the demand for a new +world. "Religion is not a communication of overworld secrets, but the +inauguration of an overworld life." Religion must depend upon the +contradiction and opposition that exists in human life, and upon the +clear recognition of the distinction between the "high" and the "low" in +life. It must point to a means of attaining freedom and redemption from +the old world of sin and sense, and to the possibility of being elevated +into a new and higher world. It must, too, fight against the extremes of +optimism and pessimism, for while it will acknowledge the presence of +wrong, it will call attention to the possibility of deliverance. It must +bring about a change of life, without denying the dark side of life; it +must show "the Divine in the things <a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>nearest at hand, without idealising +falsely the ordinary situation of life."</p> + +<p>The great practical effect of religion, then, must be to create a demand +for a new and higher world in opposition to the world of nature. For +this new life religion must provide an ultimate standard. "Religion must +at all times assert its right to prove and to winnow, for it is +religion—the power which draws upon the deepest source of life—which +takes to itself the whole of man, and offers a fixed standard for all +his undertakings." Religion must provide a standard for the whole of +life, for it places all human life "under the eternity." It is not the +function of religion to set up a special province over against the other +aspects of his life—it must transform life in its entirety, and affect +all the subsidiary aspects.</p> + +<p>But religion is not gained, any more than human freedom, once for all +time—it must be gained continually afresh, and sought ever anew. Thus +the fact of religion becomes a perpetual task, and leads to the highest +activity.</p> + +<p>Eucken speaks of two types of religion—Universal and Characteristic +Religion. The line of division between them is not easy to draw, but the +distinction gives an opportunity for emphasising again the essential +elements of true religion.</p> + +<p><em>Universal Religion</em> is a more or less vague appreciation of the +Spiritual, which results in a diffused, indefinite spiritual life. The +personality has appreciated to some extent the opposition between the +natural and the spiritual, and has chosen the spiritual. He adopts a new +attitude or mood, towards the world in consequence, and that is an +attitude of fight against the world of nature. But everything is vague; +the individual has not yet <a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>appreciated the spiritual world as his own, +and feels that he is a stranger in the higher world, rather than an +ordinary fully privileged citizen. He has not yet associated himself +closely enough with the Universal Spirit, everything is superficial, +there is hunger and thirst for the higher things in life, but these have +not yet been satiated.</p> + +<p>Some people never get beyond this vague appreciation of the spiritual +until perhaps some great trial or temptation, a long illness or sad +bereavement falls to their lot. Then they feel the need for a religion +that is more satisfying than the Universal Religion with which they have +in the past been content. They want to get nearer to God; they feel the +need of a personal God who is interested in their trials and troubles. +They are no longer satisfied with the conception of a God that is far +away, they thirst for His presence. This feeling leads the individual to +search for a more definite form of religion, in which the God is +regarded as supremely real, and reigns on the throne of love. The +personality enters into the greater depths of religion, and it becomes a +much more real and powerful influence in his life. He has no longer a +mere indefinite conception of a Deity, but he thinks of God as real and +personal. Instead of adopting a changed attitude towards the world of +nature, he comes to demand a new world. He is now a denizen of the +spiritual world, and there results "a life of pure inwardness," which +draws its power and inspiration from the infinite resources of the +Universal Spiritual Life in which he finds his being. This type of +religion Eucken calls <em>Characteristic Religion</em>.</p> + +<p>The historical religions would seem to represent, to some extent, the +attempts of humankind to arrive at a religion of this kind. A further +distinction arises <a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>between the historical forms of religion, of which +one at most, if any, can express the final truth, and the Absolute form +of religion, which if not yet conceived, must ultimately express the +truth in the matter of religion.</p> + +<p>Eucken is never more brilliant than he is in the examination he makes of +the historical forms of religion, for the purpose of formulating the +Absolute and final form; some account of this must be given in the next +chapter.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII" ></a><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>CHAPTER VIII<br /> + +RELIGION: HISTORICAL AND ABSOLUTE</h2> + + +<p>In examining the various historical forms of religion, Eucken, as we +should expect, is governed by the conclusions he has arrived at +concerning the solution of the great problem of life, and especially of +the place of religion in life.</p> + +<p>A religion which emphasised the need for a break with the world, and of +fight and action for spiritual progress, the possibility of a new higher +life of freedom and of personality, and the superiority of the spiritual +over the material, and which presented God as the ultimate spiritual +life, in which the human personality found its real self, would thus +meet with highest favour, while a form of religion that failed to do so +would necessarily fail to satisfy the tests that he would apply.</p> + +<p>He does not spend time discussing various religions in detail, but deals +with them briefly in general, in order to show that the Christian +religion is far superior to all other religions, then he makes a +critical and very able examination of the Christian position. He +considers it necessary to discuss in detail only that form of religion +that is undoubtedly the highest.</p> + +<p>The historical religions he finds to be of two types—religions of law +and religions of redemption. The religions of law portray God as a being +outside the world, and distinct from man, One who rules the world by +law, and who decrees that man shall obey certain laws of <a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>conduct that +He lays down. Failure to obey these laws brings its punishment in the +present or in a future life, while implicit obedience brings the highest +rewards. To such a God is often attributed all the weaknesses of the +human being, sometimes in a much exaggerated form—hence His reign +becomes one of fear to His subjects.</p> + +<p>A religion of law assumes that man is capable of himself of obeying the +law, and is responsible for his mode of life; it assumes that man is +capable through his own energy of conquering the world of sin, and of +leading the higher life.</p> + +<p>Religions of this type possess of course the merit of simplicity, +transparency, and finality. The decrees, the punishments and rewards are +given with some clearness and are easily understood; there is no appeal +and little equivocation. They served a useful purpose in the earlier +ages of civilisation, but cannot solve the problem for the complex +civilisation and advanced culture of the present age. They place God too +far from man, and attribute to man powers which he cannot of himself +possess. The conceptions of the Deity involved in them are too +anthropomorphic in character—too much coloured by human frailties.</p> + +<p>The religions of law have had to give place to those of a superior +type—the religions of redemption. These religions appreciate the +difficulty there exists for humankind of itself to transcend the world +of sin, and are of two types—one type expressing a merely negative +element, the other a negative and positive element.</p> + +<p>The typical negative redemptive religion is that of Buddhism. Buddhism +teaches us that the world is a sham and an evil; and the duty of man is +to appreciate this fact, and to deny the world, but here the matter +ends—it ends with world-renunciation and self-<a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>renunciation. There is +only a negative element in such a religion, no inspiration to live and +fight for gaining a higher world. This, of course, cannot provide a +satisfactory solution to the problem, for no new life with new values is +presented to us. It is a religion devoid of hope, for it does not point +to a higher life. "A wisdom of world-denial, a calm composure of the +nature, an entire serenity in the midst of the changing scenes of life, +constitute the summit of life."</p> + +<p>Christianity teaches us that the world is full of misery and suffering, +but the world in itself is really a perfect work of Divine wisdom and +goodness. "The root of evil is not in the nature of the world, but in +moral wrong—in a desertion from God." Sin and wickedness arise from the +misuse and perversion of things which are not in themselves evil. +Christianity calls for a break from the wickedness of the world. It +calls upon man to give up his sin, to deny, or break with, the evil of +which he is guilty. But it does not expect man to do this in his own +strength alone—God Himself comes to his rescue. Unlike Buddhism, it +does not stay at the denial of the world, but calls upon man to become a +citizen of a higher world. This gives a new impetus to the higher life; +man finds a great task—he has to build a kingdom of God upon the earth. +This demands the highest efforts—he must fight to gain the new world, +and must keep up the struggle to retain what he has gained. The +inferiority of Buddhism as contrasted with Christianity is well +described by Eucken in the following words: "In the former an +emancipation from semblance becomes necessary; in the latter an +overcoming of evil is the one thing needful. In the former the very +basis of the world seems evil; in the latter it is the perversion of +this basis which seems evil. In the former, the impulses of <a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>life are to +be entirely eradicated; in the latter, on the contrary, they are to be +ennobled, or rather to be transformed. In the former, no higher world of +a positive kind dawns on man, so that life finally reaches a seemingly +valid point of rest, whilst upon Christian ground life ever anew ascends +beyond itself."</p> + +<p>From such considerations as these, Eucken comes to the conclusion that +of the redemptive religions, which are themselves the highest type, +Christianity is the highest and noblest form, hence his main criticism +is concerned with the Christian religion. This does not mean that he +finds neither value nor truth in any other form of religion. His general +conclusion with regard to the historical religions is that they "contain +too much that is merely human to be valued as a pure work of God, and +yet too much that is spiritual and divine to be considered as a mere +product of man." He finds in them all some kernel of truth, or at least +a pathway to some part of truth, but contends that no religion contains +the whole truth and nothing but the truth. "As certainly," he says, "as +there is only one sole truth, there can be only one absolute religion, +and this religion coincides entirely in no way with any one of the +historical religions."</p> + +<p>Eucken's great endeavour in his discussion of the Christian religion is +to bring out the distinction between the eternal substance that resides +in it and the human additions that have been made to it in different +ages, between the elements in Christianity that are essentially divine +and those essentially human. Divested of its human colourings and +accretions, Christianity presents a basis of Divine and eternal truth, +and this regarded in itself, can well claim to be the final and absolute +religion.</p> + +<p>The conclusion he has come to with regard to the <a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>eternal truth as +contrasted with the temporary colourings of Christianity, with the +essential as contrasted with the inessential, can best be outlined by +taking in turn some of the main tenets and characteristics of the +Christian faith.</p> + +<p>Eucken's conception of the negative movement is very much akin to the +Christian idea of <em>conversion</em>. The first stage is merely a movement +away from the world, but after a time, in the continuous process of +negation, the negative movement attains a positive significance; when +this stage is arrived at Eucken would apply the term conversion. He +would not limit the negative movement to one act or to one point in +time; the movement towards a higher world must be maintained—the +sustaining of the negative movement being a test of the reality of +conversion. The process of conversion is not a process to be passively +undergone, or to originate from without, but is a movement starting in +the depths of one's own being.</p> + +<p>As already pointed out, Eucken believes in <em>redemption</em>. The past is +capable of reinterpretation and transformation, because we can view our +past actions in a new light and so change the whole, since the past is +not a closed thing, definite in itself, but a part of an incomplete +whole. He considers, however, that the Christian doctrine of redemption +makes it too much a matter of God's mercy, instead of placing stress +upon the part that man himself must play. The possibility of redemption +in his view follows from the presence and movement of the spiritual life +in man, not merely from an act of the founder of Christianity, and he +avers that while traditional Christianity emphasises the need for +redemption from evil, it does not emphasise sufficiently the necessary +elevation to the good life that must result.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>Closely bound up with the Christian doctrine of redemption is that of +<em>mediation</em>. Eucken believes that the Christian conception of mediation +resulted from the feeling of worthlessness and impotence of man, and the +aspirations which yet burned within him after union with the Divine. The +idea of mediation bridges the gulf, "a mid-link is forged between the +Divine and the human, and half of it belongs to each side; both sides +are brought into a definite connection which could be found in no other +way." Eucken acknowledges that such a mediation seems to make access to +the Divine easier, gives intimacy to the idea of redemption, and offers +support for human frailty. But he points out that there is an +intolerable anthropomorphism involved in the idea, that it removes the +Divine farther away from man, and that the union of Divine and human is +held to obtain in one special case only—that of Christ. He urges that +in a religion of mediation, one or other, God or Christ, must be chosen +as the centre. "Concerning the decision there cannot be the least doubt; +the fact is clear in the soul-struggles of the great religious +personalities, that in a decisive act of the soul the doctrinal idea of +mediation recedes into the background, and a direct relationship with +God becomes a fact of immediacy and intimacy."</p> + +<p>So Eucken will have nothing to do with the idea of mediation in its +doctrinal significance—pointing out that "the idea of mediation glides +easily into a further mediation." "Has not the figure of Christ receded +in Catholicism, and does not the figure of Mary constitute the centre of +the religious emotional life?"</p> + +<p>He does, however, lay great store by the help that a man may be to other +men in their upward path: "The human, personality who first and foremost +brought <a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>eternal truth to the plane of time, and through this +inaugurated a new epoch, remains permanently present in the picture of +the spiritual world, and is able permanently to exercise a mighty power +upon the soul ... but all this is far removed from any idea of +mediation."</p> + +<p>Eucken believes in <em>revelation</em>, but through action, and not through +contemplation. To the personality struggling upward, with its aims set +towards the highest in life, the spiritual life reveals itself. He does +not confine revelation to certain periods in time, and believes that +such revelation comes to all spiritual personalities.</p> + +<p>He holds, too, that the spiritual personalities are themselves +revelations of the Universal Spiritual Life, and that the Spiritual Life +does reveal itself most clearly in personalities.</p> + +<p>How the revelation comes he does not discuss in any detail, but he is +very certain that it comes through action and fight for the highest.</p> + +<p>It is perhaps largely due to his activistic standpoint that Eucken does +not deal with <em>prayer</em>. In the <em>Truth of Religion</em>, which deals very +fully with most aspects of religion, and purports to be a complete +discussion of religion, no treatment of prayer is given. He speaks of +the developing personality as drawing upon the resources of the +Universal Spiritual Life, but this appears to be in action, and not in +prayer or communion.</p> + +<p>He is ever suspicious of intellectual contemplation, and this leads him +to attribute less importance than perhaps he should to <em>mysticism</em>, to +prayer, adoration, and worship. He admits that mysticism contains a +truth that is vital to religion, but complains that it becomes for many +the whole of religion. Its proper function is to liberate the human mind +from the narrowly human, and to emphasise a total-life, the great Whole. +It fails, <a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>however, "because it turns this necessary portion of religion +into the sole content. To it, religion is nothing other than an +absorption into the infinite and eternal Being—an extinguishing of all +particularity, and the gaining of a complete calm through the suspension +of all the wear and tear of life."</p> + +<p>Eucken's discussion of <em>faith and doubt</em> is very illuminating. He +protests against the conception of faith which concerns itself merely +with the intellectual acceptance of this or that doctrine. This narrows +and weakens its power, confining it to one department of life; whereas +faith is concerned with the whole of life.</p> + +<p>Faith is for Eucken "a conviction of an axiomatic character, which +refuses to be analysed into reasons, and which, indeed, precedes all +reasons ... the recognition of the inner presence of an infinite +energy."</p> + +<p>If faith concerns itself with, and proceeds from the whole of life, it +will then take account of the work of thought, and will not set itself +in opposition to reason. But it will lead where reason fails. It is not +limited by intellectual limitations, though it does not underrate or +neglect the achievements of the intellect. Faith enables life to +"maintain itself against a hostile or indifferent world; ... it holds +itself fast to invisible facts against the hard opposition of visible +existence."</p> + +<p>The vital importance of such faith to religion is clearly evident; and +bound up with this is the significance of doubt. Doubt, too, becomes +now, not an intellectual matter, but a matter for the whole of life. "If +faith carries within itself so much movement and struggle, it is not +surprising ... if faith and doubt set themselves against each other, and +if the soul is set in a painful dilemma." Eucken considers it to be an +<a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>inevitable, and indeed a necessary accompaniment of religious +experience, and his own words on the point are forcible and clear. +"Doubt ... does not appear as something monstrous and atrocious, though +it would appear so if a perfect circle of ideas presented itself to man +and demanded his assent as a bounden duty. For where it is necessary to +lay hold on a new life, and to bring to consummation an inward +transformation, then a personal experience and testing are needed. But +no proof is definite which clings from the beginning to the final +result, and places on one side all possibility of an antithesis. The +opposite possibility must be thought out and lived through if the Yea is +to possess full energy and genuineness. Thus doubt becomes a necessary, +if also an uncomfortable, companion of religion; it is indispensable for +the conservation of the full freshness and originality of religion—for +the freeing of religion from conventional forms and phrases."</p> + +<p>Eucken's views on <em>immortality</em> have already been dealt with. He does +not accept the Christian conception of it, for he seems to limit the +possibility to those in whom spiritual personalities have been +developed, and he evidently does not believe that the "natural +individuality with all its egoism and limitations" is going to persist.</p> + +<p>In discussing the question of <em>miracle</em>, Eucken weighs the fact that a +conviction of the possibility of miracle has been held by millions in +various religions, and particularly in Christianity. He considers that +the question of miracle is of more importance in the Christian religion +than in any other, one miracle—the Resurrection—having been taken +right into the heart of Christian doctrine. He finds, however, that the +miracle is entirely inconsistent with an exact scientific conception of +<a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>nature, and means "an overthrow of the total order of nature as this +has been set forth through the fundamental work of modern +investigation." He does not consider such a position can be held without +overwhelming evidence, and does not feel the traditional fact to have +this degree of certainty, or to be inexplicable in another way. He +considers that the explanation of the miracle probably lies in the +psychic state of the witnesses.</p> + +<p>Eucken shows in general extreme reluctance to make a historical event a +foundation of belief, and this no doubt accounts to some extent for his +attitude with regard to miracles. He points out that "the founders of +religion have themselves protested against a craving after sensuous +signs," and that this protest "is no other than the sign of spiritual +power and of a Divine message and greatness." He considers that the +belief in, and craving for, sensuous miracle is an outcome of a +"mid-level of religion," where belief is waning and spirituality +declining. While, thus, he does not believe in sensuous miracle, he +acknowledges and lays the greatest stress on one miracle—the presence +of the Spiritual Life in man. It is, indeed, this miracle that renders +others unnecessary.</p> + +<p>In discussing the doctrine of the <em>Incarnation</em>, Eucken attempts to get +at the inner meaning—the truth which the doctrine endeavours to +express, and he finds this to consist in the fact of the ultimate union +of the human and Divine, and this truth is one that we dare not +renounce. He criticises the attempt that is made in Christianity to show +that such union only obtained once in the course of history. Incarnation +is not one historical event, but a spiritual process; not an article of +belief, but a living experience of each spiritual personality.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>He considers as injurious to religion in general the Christian +conception of the <em>Atonement</em>. He believes that the idea that is to be +expressed is that of the nearness of God to man in guilt and in +suffering. In endeavouring to express this close intimacy the idea of +suffering was transferred to God himself. The anthropomorphic idea of +reconciliation and substitution thus arose, and this Eucken considers to +have done harm. "The notion that God does not help us through His own +will and power, but requires first of all His own feeling of pity to be +roused, is an outrage on God and a darkening of the foundation of +religion." So Eucken objects to the attempt to formulate the mystery +into dogma. "All dogmatic formulation of such fundamental truths of +religion becomes inevitably a rationalism and a treatment of the problem +by means of human relationships, and according to human standards." "It +is sufficient for the religious conviction to experience the nearness of +God in human suffering, and His help in the raising of life out of +suffering into a new life beyond all the insufficiency of reason. +Indeed, the more intuitively this necessary truth is grasped, the less +does it combine into a dogmatic speculation and the purer and more +energetically is it able to work."</p> + +<p>The conception of the <em>Trinity</em> is again an attempt to express the union +of Divine and human, "the inauguration of the Divine Nature within human +life." The dogma, however, involves ideas of a particular generation, +and so threatens to become, and has indeed become, burdensome to a later +age which no longer holds these ideas. Further, the doctrine of the +Trinity has mixed up a fundamental truth of religion with abstruse +philosophical speculations, and this has provided a stumbling-block +rather than a help.</p> + +<p><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>At the same time, Eucken lays the greatest stress on the <em>personality of +Jesus</em>. He considers the personality of Jesus to be of more importance +to Christianity than is the personality of its founder to any other +religion. "Such a personality as Jesus is not the mere bearer of +doctrines, or of a special frame of mind, but is a convincing fact, and +proof of the Divine life, a proof at which new life can be kindled over +anew." And again: "It is from this source that a great yearning has been +implanted within the human breast ... a longing for a new life of love +and peace, of purity and simplicity. Such a life, with its incomparable +nature and its mysterious depths, does not exhaust itself through +historical effects, but humanity can from hence ever return afresh to +its inmost essence, and can strengthen itself ever anew through the +certainty of a new, pure, and spiritual world over against the +meaningless aspects of nature and over against the vulgar mechanism of a +culture merely human." But while he would appreciate the depth and +richness of the personality of Jesus, he protests against the worship of +Jesus as divine, and the making of Him the centre of religion. The +greatness of Christ is confined to the realm of humanity, and there is +in all men a possibility of attaining similar heights.</p> + +<p>Christianity is, in Eucken's view, much more closely bound up with +historical events than any other religion, and it thus suffers more +severe treatment at the hands of historical criticism than any other +religion. Eucken considers such historical criticism to be of great +value. In Christianity as in other religions we find the eternal not in +its pure form, but mixed with the temporal and variable, and historical +criticism will help in the separation of the temporal from the eternal +elements. In so doing it does an immense service, for it frees religion +from <a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>fixation to one special point of time, and enables us to regard it +as ever developing and progressing to greater depths.</p> + +<p>Eucken emphasises that the <em>historical basis</em> of Christianity is not +Christianity itself, is not essentially religious; and he quotes +Lessing, Kant, and Fichte to support him in his contention that a belief +in such a historical basis is not necessary to religion, and may even +prove harmful to it. The historical basis is, of course, useful as +bringing out into clear relief the personality of Jesus, and the other +great spiritual personalities associated in His work, and Eucken lays +stress upon the use that history can be to Christianity in giving +records of the experiences of great spiritual personalities in all ages, +but it is important that the history is here a means to an end, and not +an end in itself, and that the importance lies in the spiritual +experience and not in the historical facts.</p> + +<p>When one considers how little Eucken has to say concerning worship, and +how little emphasis he places upon historical and doctrinal forms in +religion, one wonders how it is he attaches so much importance to the +functions of the <em>Church</em>. He points out that a Church is necessary to +religion, that it seems to be the only way of making religion real and +effective for man. "The Church seems indispensable in order to introduce +and to hold at hand the new world and the new life to man in the midst +of his ordinary existence; it is indispensable in order to fortify the +conviction and to strengthen the energy in the midst of all the opposite +collisions; it is indispensable in order to uphold an eternal truth and +a universal problem in the midst of the fleetingness of the moment." In +the past, however, much harm has been done to religion by the Church. +This has arisen from <a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>several reasons. To begin with, it tends to narrow +religion, which is concerned with life, to the realm of ideas, and to +tie down religion by connecting it with a thought-system of a particular +age. Further, the necessary mechanical routine, and the appointment of +special persons to carry out this routine, tends to elevate the routine +and these special persons to a far higher place than they should occupy. +Again, spiritual things have been dragged into the service of personal +ambition, and bound up with human interests. The most serious danger, +however, is that religion, from being an inward matter, tends to become +externalised.</p> + +<p>Despite this, an organised Church cannot be dispensed with, and Eucken +points out what changes are necessary to make the Church effective. One +important point he makes clear, namely, that as the Church must speak to +all, and every day, and not only to spiritually distinguished souls, and +in moments of elevated feeling, then the teaching of the Church will +always lag behind religion itself, and must be considered as an +inadequate expression of it.</p> + +<p>It is necessary that there should be no coercion with regard to men's +attitude towards the Church, and men should be free to join this or that +Church, or no Church at all.</p> + +<p>Then there must be more freedom, movement, and individuality within the +Church. What the Church holds as a final result of the experience of +life cannot be expected as the confession of all, especially of the +young. "How can every man and every child feel what such a mightily +contrasted nature as Luther's with all its convulsive experiences felt?"</p> + +<p>Then the Church must not so much teach this or that doctrine as point to +the Spiritual Life, set forth the con<a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>ditions of its development, and be +the representative of the higher world. Thus, and thus only, Eucken +thinks that the Church can fulfil its proper function, and avoid being a +danger to religion.</p> + +<p>Eucken's <em>appreciation of Christianity</em> is sincere. Viewing it from the +standpoint of the Spiritual Life, he finds that it fulfils the +conditions that religion should fulfil. It is based on freedom, and on +the presence of the Divine in humanity, even to the extent of a complete +union between them. The ideal of the Christian life is a personal life +of pure inwardness, and of an ethical character. He speaks of the "flow +of inner life by means of which Christianity far surpasses all other +religions," and of the "unfathomable depth and immeasurable hope which +are contained in the Christian faith."</p> + +<p>In Christianity the life of Christ has a value transcending all time, +and is a standard by which to judge all other lives. There is, too, in +Christianity a complete transformation or break, which must take place +before any progress or development can take place.</p> + +<p>"There is no need of a breach with Christianity; it can be to us what a +historical religion pre-eminently is meant to be—a sure pathway to +truth, an awakener of immediate and intimate life, a vivid +representation and realisation of an Eternal Order which all the changes +of time cannot possess or destroy."</p> + +<p>At the same time, there are changes necessary in the form of +Christianity, if it is to answer to the demands of the age, and be the +Absolute Religion. It must be shorn of temporary accretions, and must +cast aside the ideas of any one particular age which have now been +superseded. No longer can it retain the primitive view of nature and the +world which formerly obtained, no <a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>longer must it take up a somewhat +negative and passive attitude, but, realising that religion is a matter +of the whole life, must energetically work itself out through all +departments of life. It must remedy wrong, not merely endure it. It must +proceed from a narrow and subjective point of view to a cosmic one, +without at the same time losing sight of the fact that religion is an +inward and personal matter. It must take account to the full of the +value of man as man, and of the possibilities latent in him, and take +account of his own activity in his salvation.</p> + +<p>The Christian ideal of life must be a more joyous one, of greater +spiritual power, and the idea of redemption must not stop short at +redemption from evil, but must progress to a restoration to free and +self-determining activity. Since an absolute religion is based on the +spiritual life, the form in which it is clothed must not be too +rigid—life cannot be bound within a rigid creed. With its form modified +in this way, Eucken considers that Christianity may well be the Absolute +Religion, and that not only we can be, but we <em>must</em> be Christians if +life is to have for us the highest meaning and value.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX" ></a><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>CHAPTER IX<br /> + +CONCLUSION: CRITICISM AND APPRECIATION</h2> + + +<p>We have attempted to enunciate the special problem with which Eucken +deals, and to follow him in his masterly criticisms of the solutions +that have been offered, in his further search for the reality in life, +in his arguments and statement of the philosophy of the spiritual life, +and finally in his profound and able investigation into the eternal +truth that is to be found in religion. In doing so, we have only been +able in a few cases to suggest points of criticism, and sometimes to +emphasise the special merits of the work. It was necessary to choose +between making a critical examination of a few points, and setting forth +in outline his philosophy as a whole. It was felt that it would be more +profitable for the average reader if the latter course were adopted. +Thousands who have heard the name of Eucken and have read frequent +references to him are asking, "What has Eucken really to say?" and we +have attempted to give a systematic, if brief, answer to the question. +Having done this it will be well to mention some of the main points of +criticism that have been made, and to call attention again to some of +the remarkable aspects of the contributions he has made to philosophy +and religion.</p> + +<p>Several critics complain of the obscurity of his writings, of his loose +use of terms, and of his tendency to use freely such indefinite and +abstruse terms as "The Whole," "The All," &c., and of his tendency to +repeat himself.<a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a> Of course, if he is guilty of these faults, and he +certainly is to some extent, they are merely faults of style, and do not +necessarily affect the truth or otherwise of his opinions. In the matter +of clarity he is very variable; occasional sentences are brilliantly +clear, others present considerable difficulty to the practised student. +His more popular works, however, are much clearer and easier to +understand than the two standard treatises on <em>The Truth of Religion</em> +and <em>Life's Basis and Life's Ideal</em>. His tendency to repetition is by no +means an unmixed evil, for even when he appears to be repeating himself, +he is very often in reality expressing new shades of meaning, which help +towards the better understanding of the first statements.</p> + +<p>The slight looseness in the use of terms, and a certain inexactness of +expression that is sometimes apparent, must of course not be +exaggerated; it is by no means serious enough to invalidate his main +argument. It gives an opportunity for a great deal of superficial +criticism on the part of unsympathetic writers, which, however, can do +little harm to Eucken's position. One has to remember that it is +difficult to combine the fervour of a prophet with pedantic exactness, +and that an inspired and profound philosopher cannot be expected to +spend much time over verbal niceties.</p> + +<p>Of course one would prefer absolute clarity and exactness, but we must +guard against allowing the absence of these things to prejudice us +against the profound truths of a philosophical position, which are not +vitally affected by that absence.</p> + +<p>Frequent criticism is directed towards the incompleteness of Eucken's +philosophy. He does not introduce his philosophy with a systematic +discussion of the great epistemological and ontological problems. +Philo<a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>sophers have often introduced their work in this way, and it has +been customary to expect an introduction of the kind. To do so, however, +would be quite out of keeping with Eucken's activistic position, as it +would necessarily involve much intellectual speculation, and he does not +believe that the problem of life can be solved by such speculation. It +is unfortunate that he has so little to say concerning the world of +matter. Beyond insisting upon the superiority of the spiritual life, +which he calls the "substantial," over matter, which he calls the merely +"existential," he tells us very little about the material world. Rightly +or wrongly, thinkers are deeply interested in the merely existential, in +the periphery of life, in the material world, but for the solution of +this problem Eucken contributes little or nothing. His sole concern is +the spiritual world, and although we should like an elaboration of his +views on the mere periphery of life, we must not let the fact that he +does not give it, lead us to undervalue his real contributions. Another +serious incompleteness lies in the fact that he pays little attention to +the psychological implications of his theories. Until he does this, his +philosophy cannot be regarded as complete. Eucken, however, would be the +last to claim that his solution is a finished or final one; he is +content if his work is a substantial contribution to the final solution.</p> + +<p>Objection has been taken to the fact that he starts upon his task with a +definite bias in a certain direction. He candidly admits from the outset +that his aim is to find a meaning for life, and in doing this he of +course tacitly assumes that life has a deep and profound meaning. Strict +scientists aver that the investigator must set out without prejudice, to +examine the phenomena he observes; and Eucken's initial bias may form a +fatal <a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>stumbling-block to the acceptance of his philosophy by these, or +indeed, by any who are not disposed to accept this fundamental position. +If we deny that life has a meaning, then Eucken has little for us; but +if we are merely doubtful on the matter, the reading of Eucken will +probably bring conviction.</p> + +<p>Many critics point to the far-reaching assumptions he makes. He assumes +as axiomatic certainties and insoluble mysteries the existence of the +spiritual life in man, the union of the human and divine, and the +freedom of the spiritual personalities, though in a sense dependent upon +the Universal Spiritual Life. This of course does not mean that he is in +the habit of making unjustifiable assumptions. This is far from being +the case; on the contrary, he takes the greatest care in the matter of +his speculative bases. There are some fundamental facts of life, +however, which according to Eucken are proved to us by life itself; we +feel they must be true, but they are not truths that can be reasoned +about, nor proved by the intellect alone. These are the three great +facts mentioned above, which, while not admitting of proof, must be +regarded as certainties.</p> + +<p>His contention that they cannot be reasoned about has led to the further +charge of irrationalism. The question that has to be decided is, whether +Eucken in emphasising the fact that great truths must be solved by life +and action, is underestimating the part that intellect must play in +life. The decision must be largely one of individual opinion. Many +critics are of the opinion that he does lay too little stress upon the +intellectual factor in life. In actual fact, however, the fault is more +apparent than real, for Eucken does in fact reason and argue closely +concerning the facts of life. The charge, too, is to some extent due to +the fact that he <a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>continually attacks the over-emphasis on the +intellectual that the people of his own race—the Germans—are apt to +place. With the glorification of the intellect he has no sympathy, for +he feels there is something higher and more valuable in life than +thought—and that is action.</p> + +<p>These are the main points of criticism that have been raised—the reader +must judge for himself how seriously they should be regarded. But before +arriving at a final opinion he must think again of the contributions +Eucken has indubitably made to philosophy and religion, of which we +shall again in brief remind him.</p> + +<p>He has given us a striking examination of the various theories of life, +and has ably demonstrated their inadequacy. He has displayed great +scholarship in his search for the ultimate reality. He has found this +reality in the universal life, and has urged the need for a break with +the natural world in order to enter upon a higher life. He has traced +the progress of the spiritual life, and has given us ultimately a bold +vindication of human personality and of the freedom of the spiritual +being.</p> + +<p>He has raised philosophy from being mere discussions concerning abstract +theories to a discussion of life itself. In this way philosophy becomes +not merely a theory concerning the universe, nor merely a theory of +life, but a real factor in life itself—indeed it becomes itself a life. +Thus has he given to philosophy a higher ideal, a new urgency—by his +continued emphasis upon the spiritual he has given to philosophy a +nobler and a higher mission. He has placed the emphasis in general upon +life, and has pointed out the inability of the intellect to solve all +life's problems. He has given to idealistic philosophies a possible +rallying-point, where theories differing in <a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>detail can meet on common +ground. As one eminent writer says: "The depth and inclusiveness of +Eucken's philosophy, the comprehensiveness of its substructure and its +stimulating personal quality, mark it out as the right rallying-point +for the idealistic endeavour of to-day."</p> + +<p>And what does he give to religion? Many will reply that he has given us +nothing that is not already in the Christian religion. Therein lies the +value and strength of Eucken's contributions. He has given a striking +vindication of the spiritual content of Christianity as against the +effects of time changes. He has attempted to bring out the contrast +between what is really vital, and what are merely temporary colourings +and accretions. He makes many of the main elements of Christianity +acceptable without the need of a historical basis or proof. Not only +does he present the Christian position as a reasonable view of the +problem of life, but as the only solution that can really solve the +final problem. He has cleared the decks of all superfluous baggage, and +has laid bare a firm basis for a practical, constructive endeavour.</p> + +<p>He has given us in himself a profound believer in the inward and higher +nature of man, and in the existence of the spiritual life. As one critic +says: "The earnestness, depth and grandeur, humility and conscious +choice of high ideals, have raised his work far above mere intellectual +acuteness and minuteness."</p> + +<p>In Eucken we have one of the greatest thinkers of the age—some would +say <em>the</em> greatest—setting his life upon emphasising the spiritual at a +time when the tendency is strongly in materialistic directions. He has +gathered around him a number of able and whole-hearted disciples in +various countries, and future ages may find in Eucken <a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>the greatest +force in the revulsion of the twentieth century (that is already making +itself felt) from the extreme materialistic position, to take religion +up again, and particularly the Christian religion, as the only +satisfying solution of humanity's most urgent problem.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="BIBLIOGRAPHY" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY" ></a><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2> + + +<p>The English reader should first read:</p> + +<p class="exdent"><em>The Meaning and Value of Life</em> (A. & C. Black), which is a good introduction to Eucken's philosophy; and</p> +<p class="exdent"><em>The Life of the Spirit</em> (Williams & Norgate).</p> + +<p>He can then proceed to study Eucken's three comprehensive and important +works:</p> + +<p class="exdent"><em>Life's Basis and Life's Ideal</em>, in which he gives a detailed +presentation of his philosophy (A. & C. Black).</p> +<p class="exdent"><em>The Truth of Religion</em>, in which he gives his ideas +on religion (Williams & Norgate).</p> +<p class="exdent"><em>The Problem of Human Life</em>, in which he makes a +searching analysis of the philosophies of the past +(Fisher Unwin).</p> + +<p>The student will be much helped in his study by the following books:</p> + +<p class="exdent"><em>Eucken and Bergson</em>, by E. Hermann (James Clark & Co.).</p> +<p class="exdent"><em>Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy of Life</em>, by Professor W.R. +Boyce Gibson (A. & C. Black).</p> + +<p>When he has studied these he will probably be anxious to read other +works of Eucken's, of which translations have already appeared, or are +soon to appear.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX" ></a><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>INDEX</h2> + + +<ul class="IX"> +<li>Absolute, the, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— Freedom and the, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> +<li>— Personality and the, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li> +<li>— and historical religion, chap. <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">viii.</a></li> +<li>— religion, Christianity as the, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Activism, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a>, <a href='#Page_42'>42</a></li> +<li>Atonement, the, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_B"></a>Bergson, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> +<li>Buddhism, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_C"></a>Characteristic Religion, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> +<li>Characteristics of a satisfactory solution of life, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a></li> +<li>Christ, as mediator, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— Personality of, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> +<li>— Value of life of, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Christian Church, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a>, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a></li> +<li>Christianity, and historical bases, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— Appreciation of, <a href='#Page_83'>83</a></li> +<li>— as absolute religion, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> +<li>— highest form of religion, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Conversion, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_D"></a>Doubt, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_E"></a>Empiricism, <a href='#Page_36'>36</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a></li> +<li>Eternal and transient in religion and Christianity, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— truth contrasted with its temporary expression, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Eucken, assumptions made by, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— bias, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> +<li>— charge of irrationalism, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> +<li>— contributions to philosophy and religion, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> +<li>— faults of style, <a href='#Page_86'>86</a></li> +<li>— Incompleteness of philosophy of, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a></li> +<li>— Special excellences of philosophy of, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Evil, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_F"></a>Faith, <a href='#Page_76'>76</a></li> +<li>Freedom, ascent to, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— and the absolute, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a></li> +<li>— and naturalism, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_G"></a>God, is God a person? <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— Nature of, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_H"></a>Historical and absolute religion, chap. <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">viii.</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— bases of Christianity, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_81'>81</a></li></ul></li> +<li>History and philosophy, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— and religion, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_I"></a>Idealistic presuppositions of socialism and individualism, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li> +<li>Ideas, power of, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li> +<li>Immanent idealism as a solution of the problem of life, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>-<a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> +<li>Immediacy, the new, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> +<li>Immortality, <a href='#Page_60'>60</a>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> +<li>Incarnation, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li> +<li>Independence of the spiritual life, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a></li> +<li>Individualism, and personality, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— as a solution of the problem of life, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>-<a href='#Page_32'>32</a></li> +<li>— idealistic presuppositions of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Irrationalism, charge of, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_J"></a>James, William, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_L"></a>Law, religions of, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> +<li>Life, independence of the spiritual, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— spiritual, relation of, to natural life, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> +<li>— — superiority over natural life, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> +<li>— The spiritual, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> +<li>— The universal spiritual, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, chaps. <a href="#CHAPTER_V">v.</a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">vi.</a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">vii.</a> (<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">vii.</a> especially).</li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_M"></a>Maeterlinck, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> +<li>Man, natural and spiritual, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— transcending the material, <a href='#Page_46'>46</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Mediation, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> +<li>Mediator, Christ as, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a></li> +<li>Methods of Eucken, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> +<li>Mind, limits of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> +<li>Miracle, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> +<li>Mysticism, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_N"></a>Naturalism and freedom, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— as a solution of the problem of life, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a>-<a href='#Page_26'>26</a></li> +<li>— its own disproof, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Natural life, relation to spiritual life, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— — Superiority of spiritual over, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> +<li>— man and spiritual man, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Nature, limits of, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— of God, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Negative movement, the, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> +<li>New immediacy, the, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a></li> +<li>Nöological position, the, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_P"></a>Pantheism, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a></li> +<li>Past, the, not irrevocable, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> +<li>Personality and individualism, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— and the absolute, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a></li> +<li>— gaining of, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a></li> +<li>— of Christ, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> +<li>— of God, <a href='#Page_63'>63</a>, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Philosophy and history, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— of life, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a></li> +<li>— problems of, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Pragmatism, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_41'>41</a></li> +<li>Prayer, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> +<li>Problem, Eucken's special, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>-<a href='#Page_14'>14</a></li> +<li>Problems of philosophy, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> +<li>Purpose of Eucken's investigation, <a href='#Page_13'>13</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— of religion, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_R"></a>Rationalism, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>-<a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> +<li>Redemption, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> +<li>Religion and history, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a>, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— and human activity, <a href='#Page_18'>18</a></li> +<li>— and science, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> +<li>— as solution of problem of life, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a></li> +<li>— Characteristic, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a></li> +<li>— Christianity as highest form of, <a href='#Page_71'>71</a>, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> +<li>— Christianity as the absolute, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a></li> +<li>— Essential characteristics of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> +<li>— Eternal and transient in, <a href='#Page_72'>72</a>, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a></li> +<li>— Eucken's contributions to, <a href='#Page_90'>90</a>, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a></li> +<li>— Historical and absolute, chap. <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">viii.</a></li> +<li>— of law, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> +<li>— of redemption, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a></li> +<li>— Purpose of, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> +<li>— Universal, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a></li> +<li>— what is it? <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Resurrection, the, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> +<li>Revelation, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_S"></a>Science, and religion, <a href='#Page_17'>17</a></li> +<li>Socialism, as a solution of the problem of life, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>-<a href='#Page_32'>32</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— idealistic presuppositions of, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a></li></ul></li> +<li>Spiritual life, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— — Independence of the, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> +<li>— — Relation of, to natural life, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> +<li>— — Superiority of, over material and mental, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a>-<a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> +<li>— — The universal, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, and chaps. <a href="#CHAPTER_V">v.</a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">vi.</a>, and <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">vii.</a> (<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">vii.</a> especially)</li></ul></li> +<li>Spiritual man and natural man, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_T"></a>Trinity, the, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> +<li>Truth, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a> +<ul class="IXSub"> +<li>— another search for, chap. <a href="#CHAPTER_III">iii.</a></li></ul></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> +<li><a id="IX_U"></a>Universal Religion, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a> +<ul class="IXSub"><li>— spiritual life, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>-<a href='#Page_49'>49</a>, and chaps, <a href="#CHAPTER_V">v.</a>, <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">vi.</a>, and <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">vii.</a> (<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">vii.</a> especially)</li></ul></li> +</ul> + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 4em;">Printed by <span class="smcap">Ballantyne, Hanson & Co</span>.<br /> +Edinburgh & London</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="THE_PEOPLES_BOOKS" id="THE_PEOPLES_BOOKS" ></a><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>THE PEOPLE'S BOOKS<br /> + +THE FIRST HUNDRED VOLUMES</h2> + +<p class="center">The volumes issued (Spring 1913) are marked with an asterisk</p> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><strong>SCIENCE</strong></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*1.</td><td> The Foundations of Science</td><td>By W.C.D. Whetham, F.R.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*2.</td><td> Embryology—The Beginnings of Life</td><td>By Prof. Gerald Leighton, M.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>3.</td><td> Biology—The Science of Life</td><td>By Prof. W.D. Henderson, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*4.</td><td> Zoology: The Study of Animal Life</td><td>By Prof. E.W. MacBride, F.R.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*5.</td><td> Botany; The Modern Study of Plants</td><td>By M.C. Stopes, D.Sc., Ph.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>6.</td><td> Bacteriology</td><td>By W.E. Carnegie Dickson, M.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*7.</td><td> The Structure of the Earth</td><td>By the Rev. T.G. Bonney, F.R.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*8.</td><td> Evolution</td><td>By E.S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>9.</td><td> Darwin</td><td>By Prof. W. Garstang, M.A., D.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*10.</td><td> Heredity</td><td>By J.A.S. Watson, B.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*11.</td><td> Inorganic Chemistry</td><td>By Prof. E.C.C. Baly, F.R.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*12.</td><td> Organic Chemistry</td><td>By Prof. J.B. Cohen, B.Sc., F.R.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*13.</td><td> The Principles of Electricity</td><td>By Norman R. Campbell, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*14.</td><td> Radiation</td><td>By P. Phillips, D.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*15.</td><td> The Science of the Stars</td><td>By E.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>16.</td><td> Light, according to Modern Science</td><td>By P. Phillips. D.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*17.</td><td> Weather-Science</td><td>By R.G.K. Lempfert, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*18.</td><td> Hypnotism</td><td>By Alice Hutchison, M.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*19.</td><td> The Baby: A Mother's Book</td><td>By a University Woman.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>20.</td><td> Youth and Sex—Dangers and Safeguards for Boys and Girls</td><td>By Mary Scharlieb, M.D., M.S., and G.E.C. Pritchard, M.A., M.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*21.</td><td> Motherhood—A Wife's Handbook</td><td>By H.S. Davidson, F.R.C.S.E.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*22.</td><td> Lord Kelvin</td><td>By A. Russell, M.A., D.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*23.</td><td> Huxley</td><td>By Professor G. Leighton, M.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>24.</td><td> Sir W. Huggins and Spectroscopic Astronomy</td><td>By E.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*62.</td><td> Practical Astronomy</td><td>By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*63.</td><td> Aviation</td><td>By Sydney F. Walker, R.N., M.I.E.E.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*64.</td><td> Navigation</td><td>By W. Hall, R.N., B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*65.</td><td> Pond Life</td><td>By E.C. Ash, M.R.A.C.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*66.</td><td> Dietetics</td><td>By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P.H.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*94.</td><td> The Nature of Mathematics</td><td>By P.G.B. Jourdain, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>95.</td><td> Applications of Electricity</td><td>By Alex. Ogilvie, B.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>96.</td><td> The Small Garden</td><td>By A. Cecil Bartlett.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>97.</td><td> The Care of the Teeth</td><td>By J.A. Young, L.D.S.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*98.</td><td> Atlas of the World</td><td>By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><strong>PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION</strong></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>25.</td><td> The Meaning of Philosophy</td><td>By T. Loveday, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*26.</td><td> Henri Bergson</td><td>By H. Wildon Carr.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*27.</td><td> Psychology</td><td>By H.J. Watt, M.A., Ph.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>28.</td><td> Ethics</td><td>By Canon Rashdall, D. Litt., F.B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>29.</td><td> Kant's Philosophy</td><td>By A.D. Lindsay, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>30.</td><td> The Teaching of Plato</td><td>By A.D. Lindsay, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*67.</td><td> Aristotle</td><td>By Prof. A.E. Taylor, M.A., F.B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*68.</td><td> Nietzsche</td><td>By M.A. Mügge, Ph.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*69.</td><td> Eucken</td><td>By A.J. Jones, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>70.</td><td> The Experimental Psychology of Beauty</td><td>By C.W. Valentine, B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>71.</td><td> The Problem of Truth</td><td>By H. Wildon Carr.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>99.</td><td> George Berkeley: the Philosophy of Idealism</td><td>By G Dawes Hicks; Litt.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>31.</td><td> Buddhism</td><td>By Prof. T.W. Rhys Davids, F.B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*32.</td><td> Roman Catholicism</td><td>By H.B. Coxon.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>33.</td><td> The Oxford Movement</td><td>By Wilfrid P. Ward.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*34.</td><td> The Bible in the Light of the Higher Criticism</td><td>By Rev. W.F. Adeney, M.A., and Rev. Prof. W.H. Bennett, Litt.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>35.</td><td> Cardinal Newman</td><td>By Wilfrid Meynell.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*72.</td><td> The Church of England</td><td>By Rev. Canon Masterman.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>73.</td><td> Anglo-Catholicism</td><td>By A.E. Manning Foster.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>*74.</td><td> The Free Churches</td><td>By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>75.</td><td> Judaism</td><td>By Ephraim Levine, B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*76.</td><td> Theosophy</td><td>By Annie Besant.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><strong>HISTORY</strong></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*36.</td><td> The Growth of Freedom</td><td>By H.W. Nevinson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>37.</td><td> Bismarck</td><td>By Prof. F.M. Powicke, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*38.</td><td> Oliver Cromwell</td><td>By Hilda Johnstone, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*39.</td><td> Mary Queen of Scots</td><td>By E. O'Neill, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*40.</td><td> Cecil Rhodes</td><td>By Ian Colvin.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*41.</td><td> Julius Cæsar</td><td>By Hilary Hardinge.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'>History of England—</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>42.</td><td> England in the Making</td><td>By Prof. F.J.C. Hearnshaw, LL.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*43.</td><td> England in the Middle Ages</td><td>By E. O'Neill, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>44.</td><td> The Monarchy and the People</td><td>By W.T. Waugh, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>45.</td><td> The Industrial Revolution</td><td>By A. Jones, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>46.</td><td> Empire and Democracy</td><td>By G.S. Veitch, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*61.</td><td> Home Rule</td><td>By L.G. Redmond Howard.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>77.</td><td> Nelson</td><td>By H.W. Wilson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*78.</td><td> Wellington and Waterloo</td><td>By Major G.W. Redway.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>100.</td><td> A History of Greece</td><td>By E. Fearenside, B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>101.</td><td> Luther and the Reformation</td><td>By L.D. Agate, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>102.</td><td> The Discovery of the New World</td><td>By F.B. Kirkman, B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*103.</td><td> Turkey and the Eastern Question</td><td>By John Macdonald.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>104.</td><td> A History of Architecture</td><td>By Mrs. Arthur Bell.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><strong>SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC</strong></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*47.</td><td> Women's Suffrage</td><td>By M.G. Fawcett, LL.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>48.</td><td> The Working of the British System of Government to-day</td><td>By Prof. Ramsay Muir, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>49.</td><td> An Introduction to Economic Science</td><td>By Prof. H.O. Meredith, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>50.</td><td> Socialism</td><td>By F.B. Kirkman, B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>79.</td><td> Socialist Theories in the Middle Ages</td><td>By Rev. B. Jarrett, O.P., M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*80.</td><td> Syndicalism</td><td>By J.H. Harley, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>81.</td><td> Labour and Wages</td><td>By H.M. Hallsworth, M.A., B.Sc.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*82.</td><td> Co-operation</td><td>By Joseph Clayton.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*83.</td><td> Insurance as Investment</td><td>By W.A. Robertson, F.F.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*92.</td><td> The Training of the Child</td><td>By G. Spiller.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>105.</td><td> Trade Unions</td><td>By Joseph Clayton.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*106.</td><td> Everyday Law</td><td>By J.J. Adams.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='center' colspan='3'><strong>LETTERS</strong></td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*51.</td><td> Shakespeare</td><td>By Prof. C.H. Herford, Litt.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*52.</td><td> Wordsworth</td><td>By Rosaline Masson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*53.</td><td> Pure Gold—A Choice of Lyrics and Sonnets</td><td>By H.C. O'Neill.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*54.</td><td> Francis Bacon</td><td>By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*55.</td><td> The Brontës</td><td>By Flora Masson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*56.</td><td> Carlyle</td><td>By the Rev. L. MacLean Watt.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*57.</td><td> Dante</td><td>By A.G. Ferrers Howell.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>58.</td><td> Ruskin</td><td>By A. Blyth Webster, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>59.</td><td> Common Faults in Writing English</td><td>By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*60.</td><td> A Dictionary of Synonyms</td><td>By Austin K. Gray, B.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>84.</td><td> Classical Dictionary</td><td>By A.E. Stirling.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*85.</td><td> History of English Literature</td><td>By A. Compton-Rickett.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>86.</td><td> Browning</td><td>By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>87.</td><td> Charles Lamb</td><td>By Flora Masson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>88.</td><td> Goethe</td><td>By Prof. C.H. Herford, Litt.D.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>89.</td><td> Balzac</td><td>By Frank Harris.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>90.</td><td> Rousseau</td><td>By H. Sacher.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>91.</td><td> Ibsen</td><td>By Hilary Hardinge.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>*93.</td><td> Tennyson</td><td>By Aaron Watson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>107.</td><td> R.L. Stevenson</td><td>By Rosaline Masson.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>108.</td><td> Shelley</td><td>By Sydney Waterlow.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='right'>109.</td><td> William Morris</td><td>By A. Blyth Webster, M.A.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDOLPH EUCKEN***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 14357-h.txt or 14357-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/3/5/14357">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/3/5/14357</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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Jones + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: Rudolph Eucken + +Author: Abel J. Jones + +Release Date: December 15, 2004 [eBook #14357] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RUDOLPH EUCKEN*** + + +E-text prepared by David Garcia, Karina Aleksandrova, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +RUDOLF EUCKEN + +A Philosophy of Life + +by + +ABEL J. JONES, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D. + + Formerly Member of the University of Jena, Scholar of Clare + College, Cambridge, and Assistant Lecturer at the University + College, Cardiff + +London: T. C. & E. C. Jack +67 Long Acre, W.C., and Edinburgh +New York: Dodge Publishing Co. + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +PREFACE + + +The name of Eucken has become a familiar one in philosophical and +religious circles. Until recent years the reading of his books was +confined to those possessing a knowledge of German, but of late several +have been translated into the English language, and now the students of +philosophy and religion are agog with accounts of a new philosopher who +is at once a great ethical teacher and an optimistic prophet. There is +no doubt that Eucken has a great message, and those who cannot find time +to make a thorough study of his works should not fail to know something +of the man and his teachings. The aim of this volume is to give a brief +and clear account of his philosophical ideas, and to inspire the reader +to study for himself Eucken's great works. + +Professor Rudolf Eucken was born in 1846, at Aurich in Frisia. He +attended school in his native town, and then proceeded to study at the +Universities of Goettingen and Berlin. In 1874 he was invited to the +Professorship of Philosophy at the University of Jena, and here he has +laboured for thirty-eight years; during this period he has been listened +to and admired by many of the more advanced students of philosophy of +all countries and continents. + +His earliest writings were historical in character, and consisted mainly +of learned essays upon the classical and German philosophers. + +Following upon these appeared valuable studies in the history of +philosophy, which brought out, too, to some extent, Eucken's own +philosophical ideas. + +His latest works have been more definitely constructive. In _Life's +Basis and Life's Ideal_, and _The Truth of Religion_, he gives +respectively a full account of his philosophical system, and of his +ideas concerning religion. + +Several smaller works contain his ideas in briefer and more popular +form. + +As a lecturer he is charming and inspiring. He is not always easy to +understand; his sentences are often long, florid, and complex. +Sometimes, indeed, he is quite beyond the comprehension of his +students--but when they do not understand, they admire, and feel they +are in the presence of greatness. His writings contain many of the +faults of his lectures. They are often laboured and obscure, diffuse and +verbose. + +But these faults are minor in character, compared with the greatness of +his work. There is no doubt that his is one of the noblest attempts ever +made to solve the great question of life. Never was a philosophy more +imbued with the spirit of battle against the evil and sordid, and with +the desire to find in life the highest and greatest that can be found in +it. + +I have to thank Professor Eucken for the inspiration of his lectures and +books, various writers, translators, and friends for suggestions, and +especially my wife, whose help in various ways has been invaluable. + +Passages are quoted from several of the works mentioned in the +Bibliography, especially from Eucken's "The Truth of Religion," with the +kind permission of Messrs. Williams & Norgate--the publishers. + +ABEL J. JONES. + +CARDIFF. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + + I. THE PROBLEM OF LIFE + + II. HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN SOLVED? + + III. ANOTHER SEARCH FOR TRUTH + + IV. THE PAST, PRESENT, AND THE ETERNAL + + V. THE "HIGH" AND THE "LOW" + + VI. THE ASCENT TO FREEDOM AND PERSONALITY + + VII. THE PERSONAL AND THE UNIVERSAL + +VIII. RELIGION: HISTORICAL AND ABSOLUTE + + IX. CONCLUSION: CRITICISM AND APPRECIATION + + BIBLIOGRAPHY + + INDEX + + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE PROBLEM OF LIFE + + +Before we proceed to outline Eucken's philosophical position, it will be +well if we can first be clear as to the special problem with which he +concerns himself. Philosophers have at some time or other considered all +the problems of heaven and earth to be within their province, especially +the difficult problems for which a simple solution is impossible. Hence +it is, perhaps, that philosophy has been in disrepute, especially in +English-speaking countries, the study of the subject has been very +largely limited to a small class of students, and the philosopher has +been regarded as a dreamy, theorising, and unpractical individual. + +Many people, when they hear of Eucken, will put him out of mind as an +ordinary member of a body of cranks. From Eucken's point of view this is +the most unfortunate thing that can happen, for his message is not +directed to a limited number of advanced students of philosophy, but is +meant for all thinking members of the human race. + +The problem he endeavours to solve is far from being one of mere +theoretical interest; on the contrary it has to do with matters of +immediate practical concern to the life of the individual and of the +community. To ignore him will be to fail to take account of one of the +most rousing philosophies of modern times. + +The apathy that exists in regard to the subject of philosophy is not +easy to explain. It is not that philosophising is only possible to the +greatest intellects; it is indeed natural for the normal mind to do so. +In a quiet hour, when the world with its rush and din leaves us to +ourselves and the universe, we begin to ask ourselves "Why" and "How," +and then almost unconsciously we philosophise. Nothing is more natural +to the human mind than to wonder, and to wonder is to begin to +philosophise. + +Perhaps philosophers have been largely to blame for the indifference +shown; their terms have often been needlessly difficult, their language +obscure, and their ideas abstruse. Too often, too, their abstract +speculations have caused them to ignore or forget the actual experience +of mankind. + +Those who have quarrelled with philosophy for these or other reasons +will do well to lay their prejudices aside when they start a study of +Eucken, for though he has some of the faults of his class, he has many +striking and exceptional excellences. + +Philosophers in general set out to solve the riddle of the universe. +They differ in their statement of the problem, in the purpose of the +attempt, and in their methods of attempting the solution. Some will +wonder how this marvellous universe ever came into existence, and will +consider the question of the existence of things to be the problem of +philosophy. Others in observing the diversity of things in the universe +wonder what is behind it all; they seek to go beyond mere appearances, +and to investigate the nature of that behind the appearances, which they +call the reality. In their attempts to solve one or both of these +problems, thinkers are led to marvel how it is that we get to know +things at all; they are tempted to investigate the possibility of +knowledge, and are in this way side-tracked from the main problem. +Others in their investigations are struck with amazement at the +intricate organisation of the human mind; they leave the riddle of the +universe to study the processes of human thought, and examine as far as +they are able the phenomena of consciousness. Then thought itself claims +the attention of other philosophers; they seek to find what are the laws +of valid thought, what rules must be followed in order that through +reasoning we may arrive at correct conclusions. Others become attracted +to an investigation of the good in the universe, and their question +changes from "What is?" to "What ought to be?" Others interest +themselves in the problem of the beautiful, and endeavour to determine +the essence of the beautiful and of its appreciation. In this way the +subject of philosophy separates out into a number of branches. The study +of the beautiful is called AEsthetics; of the good, Ethics; of the laws +of thought, Logic; of the mind processes, Psychology; of the possibility +of knowledge, the Theory of knowledge; while the deeper problems of the +existence of things, of reality and unity in the universe, are generally +included under Metaphysics. + +It need hardly be pointed out that all these branches are very closely +related, and that a discussion of any one of them involves to some +extent a reference to the others. One cannot, for example, attempt to +solve the great question of reality without touching upon the +possibility of knowledge, without some reference to the processes of the +human mind, and the standards of the validity of thought, of the good, +and of the beautiful. + +It is however essential, if one is to appreciate a philosopher, to +understand clearly what his main problem is. Therein lies frequently the +differences among philosophers--that is, in the special emphasis laid on +one problem, and the attention to, or neglect of other aspects. To fail +to be clear on this matter frequently means to misunderstand a +philosopher. + +And it would seem that many critics have failed to appreciate the work +of Eucken to the extent they should, because they have expected him to +deal in detail with problems which it is not his intention to discuss, +and have failed to appreciate what special problem it is that he +attempts to solve. + +Eucken's special problem is that of the reality in the universe, of the +unity there exists in the diversity of things. In so far as he makes +this his problem, he is at one with other philosophers in investigating +what may perhaps be considered to be the most profound problem that the +human mind has ever conceived. The fact that distinguishes Eucken from a +large number of other thinkers is that he starts where they leave off. +At a rule, philosophers begin their investigation with a consideration +of matter, and proceed by slow degrees to attempt to explain the reality +at the basis of it. Some never get further, and dispense with the +question of human life and thought as mere aspects or manifestations of +the material world. But the problem of life is for Eucken the one +problem--he seeks to find the reality beneath the superficialities of +human existence, and he has little to say concerning the world of +matter. And, after all, it is the problem of life that urgently calls +for solution, for upon the solution that is accepted, the life of the +individual is to a large extent based. It is, of course, very +interesting to meditate and speculate upon the material world, its +origin and evolution, but the question is very largely one of mere +theoretical interest--a kind of game or puzzle for studious minds. It is +the question of life itself that is ultimately of practical interest to +every human soul. And this is the problem that Eucken would solve. Hence +those who expect to find a closely reasoned philosophy on matter and its +manifestations must look elsewhere, for Eucken has little for them. +Eucken's philosophy is a philosophy of life, and he only touches +incidentally those aspects of philosophy that are not immediately +concerned with his special problem. He refuses to be allured from the +main problem by subsidiary investigations, and perhaps rightly so, for +one problem of such magnitude would seem to be enough for one human mind +to attempt. Eucken is a philosopher who lays foundations and deals with +broad outlines and principles; it must be left to his many disciples to +fill in any gaps that exist on this account, by attempting to solve the +subsidiary problems with which Eucken cannot for the present concern +himself. + +If Eucken's problem differs fundamentally from that of most other +philosophers, perhaps the purpose of his investigations is still a more +striking characteristic. He is anxious to solve the riddle of the +universe in order that there may be drawn from the solution an +inspiration which shall help the human race to concentrate its energies +upon the highest ideals of life. The desire to find a meaning which will +explain, and at the same time infuse zest and gladness into every +department of life has become a passion with him, and in finding that +meaning, his great endeavour is to prove the truth of human freedom and +personality. He wishes to solve the riddle in order that man may become +a better man, the world a better world. His aim is definitely an +ethical aim, and his purpose a practical one of the noblest order, and +not one of mere intellectual interest. + +There is much, too, that is original in his methods--this will become +evident in the chapters that follow. He begins with an inquiry into the +solutions that have been offered. After careful investigation he finds +they all fail to satisfy the conditions which a solution should satisfy. +His discussions of these theories are most illuminating, and those who +do not agree with his conclusions cannot fail to admire his masterly +treatment. + +Having arrived at this conclusion, he searches the story of the past, +studies the conditions of the present, and gazes into the maze of the +future, and finds revealed in them all an eternal something, unaffected +by time, which was, is, and ever shall be--the eternal, universal, +spiritual his, which then must be the great reality. + +Upon this basis he builds a system of philosophy, which he considers to +be more satisfactory than the solutions already offered; with which +contention, there is little doubt, the majority of his readers will be +inclined to agree. + +After the brief statement of Eucken's special problem, of the purpose +and methods of his investigation, we can proceed to outline his theories +in greater detail, beginning in the next chapter with his discussion of +the solutions that have in the past been offered and accepted. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +HAS THE PROBLEM BEEN SOLVED? + + +What is the meaning, the value, and purpose of life, and what is the +highest and the eternal in life--the great reality? This is the question +that Eucken would solve. Before attempting a solution of his own, he +examines those that have already been offered. His discussion of these +theories is remarkable for the fairness, breadth of view, sympathy, +insight, and accurate knowledge that is shown. There is no superficial +criticism, neither does he concern himself with the inessential details +of the theories. + +Jest-books tell us of a defendant against whom a claim for compensation +was made by a complainant who alleged that the former's dog had bitten +him. The defence was, first, that the dog was lame, blind, and +toothless; second, that it had died a week before; and third, that the +defendant never possessed a dog. A sensible judge would wish to be +satisfied in regard to the third statement before wasting time +discussing the others; if it proved to be true, then the case would be +at an end. The defences of philosophical systems are often similar, and +the critic is tempted to waste time discussing details when he should go +to the root of the matter. Eucken does not fall into this error. His +special method is to seek the idea or ideas which lie at the root of the +proposed solution; if these are unsatisfactory, then he does not +consider it necessary to discuss them further. Hence his work is free +from the flippant and superficial argument so common to-day; he makes a +fair and serious endeavour to find out the truth (if any) that is at the +basis of the proposed solutions, and does not hesitate to give them +their due meed of praise even though he considers them to be ultimately +unsatisfactory. + +Before a solution can be regarded as a satisfactory one, Eucken holds +that it should satisfy certain conditions. It should offer an +explanation for life which can be a firm basis for life, it must admit +of the possibility of human freedom, and must release the human being +from sordid motives--unless it satisfy these conditions, then it cannot +be accepted as final. + +The solutions of the problem of life that have been offered he considers +to be five--Religion and Immanental Idealism, Naturalism, Socialism and +Individualism, the first two regarding the invisible world as the +reality in life, the others laying emphasis on man's life in the present +world. The reader will perhaps wonder how his choice has fallen upon +these systems of thought and these alone. The explanation is a simple +one: he considers it necessary to deal only with those theories which +can form, and have formed, bases for a whole system of life. Mere +theoretical ideas of life, especially negative ideas such as those of +agnosticism and scepticism, do not form such a basis, but the five +chosen for discussion can, and have to some extent, posed as complete +theories of life, upon which a system of life can be built. + +Has _Religion_ solved the question? If it has, then it must have done so +in that which must be considered its highest form--in Christianity. +Christianity has attempted the solution by placing stress upon a higher +invisible world, a world in sharp contrast with the mere world of sense, +and far superior to it. It unites life to a supernatural world, and +raises mankind above the level of the natural world. It has brought out +with great clearness the contrast between the higher world and the world +of sin, and has shown the need for a break with the evil in the world. +It has given to man a belief in freedom, and in the necessity for a +complete change of heart. It has proved a source of deliverance from the +feeling, of guilt, and a comfort in suffering. Indeed, considering all +the facts, there seems to be no doubt that, of all the solutions +offered, religion has been the most powerful factor in the history of +mankind. + +Its influence would continue for the present and future, were it not +that doubt has been cast upon its very foundations, and had not +circumstances arisen to take men's minds away from thoughts of a higher +and invisible world, and to concentrate them to a greater extent than +formerly upon the world of sense. The progress of the natural sciences +has done much to bring about the change. Christianity made man the +centre of the universe, for whom all things existed, but the sciences +have insisted upon a broader view of the universe, and have deposed man +from his throne, and given him a much humbler position. Then as the +conception of law became more prominent, and scientists became more and +more inclined to explain all things as the result of natural laws, the +idea of a personal God in constant communion with, and supervision over +mankind, fell into disfavour. + +And the study of history has caused questions to be raised. Some +historians have endeavoured to show that the idea of an overworld is +merely the characteristic of a certain stage in the evolution of +mankind, and that the ideas of religion are, after all, little more than +the mental construction of a God upon the image of man's own self. +History has attacked the doctrinal form of religion, and has endeavoured +to show that religions have been very largely coloured and influenced by +the prevailing ideas of the time; and the question naturally arises as +to whether there is anything more in religion than these temporary +elements. + +And this is not all. In the present age the current of human activity is +strong. Man is beginning to accomplish things in the material world, and +is becoming anxious to accomplish more. His railways cover the lands, +his ships sail the seas, and his aeroplanes fly through the air. He has +acquired a taste for this world, a zest for the conquest and the +utilising for his own pleasure and benefit of the world of nature. And +when this occurs, the overworld sinks into the background--he is +satisfied with the present, and feels no need, except under special +circumstances, of a higher world. The sense world at present makes a +strong appeal--and the stronger it becomes, the less he listens to the +call of an overworld. + +The sciences, history, and the special phases of human activity have +drawn attention from a higher, invisible world, and have cast doubts +upon its very existence. + +As a result of this, "Religion (in the traditional form), despite all it +has effected, is for the man of to-day a question rather than an answer. +It is itself too much of a problem to interpret to us the meaning of our +life, and make us feel that it is worth the living." + +In these words Eucken states his conviction that Christianity in its +orthodox forms cannot solve the problem of the present. This, however, +is not all he has to say concerning religion. He is, in truth, a great +believer in religion, and as will be seen, he believes that later it +will again step forth in a changed form as "the fact of facts" to wield +a power perhaps greater than ever before. + +As in the case of religion, _Immanent Idealism_ is a theory that gives +life an invisible basis, but the invisible has been regarded as that +which lies at the root of the present world, and not as a separate +higher world outside our own. The Divine it considers not as a personal +being apart from the world, but as a power existing in and permeating +it, that indeed which gives to the world its truth and depth. Man +belongs to the visible world, but inwardly he is alive to the presence +of a deeper reality, and his ambition must be to become himself a part +of this deeper whole. If by turning from his superficial life he can set +himself in the depths of reality, then a magnificent life, with the +widest prospects, opens out before him. "He may win the whole of +infinity for his own, and set himself free from the triviality of the +merely human without losing himself in an alien world." And if he does +so, he is led to place greater emphasis upon the high ideals of life +than upon material progress. He learns to value the beautiful far above +the merely useful; the inner life above mere existence, a genuine +spiritual culture above the mere perfecting of natural and social +conditions. There is brought into view a new and deeper life in which +the emphasis is placed upon the good, the beautiful, and the true. In +this way idealism has inspired many men to put forth their energies for +the highest aims, has lifted the individual above the narrowness of a +life devoted to himself alone, and has produced characters of +exceptional beauty and strength. It claims, indeed, to be able to shape +the world of man more satisfactorily than religion can, for it has no +need for doctrines of the Divine, the Divine being immediately present +in the world. But despite its great influence in the past, its power +has of late been considerably weakened. + +The question of the existence of a deeper invisible reality in the world +has become as problematic as the doctrines of religion. + +To be a whole-hearted believer in the older forms of idealism it is +necessary that the universe be regarded as ultimately reasonable and +harmonious, and there must be a belief in the possibilities of great +development on the part of the human being. But a serious study of +things reveals to us the fact that the universe is not entirely +reasonable and harmonious. If it were, then man's effort towards the +ideal would be helped by the whole universe, but that is far from being +the case; progress means fight, and difficult fight; there is definite +opposition to the efforts of man to raise himself. Moreover, there is +evil in the world, let pantheists and others say what they will. Eucken +refuses to close his eyes to, or to explain away, opposition, pain, and +evil--the world is far from being wholly reasonable and harmonious, and +idealists must acknowledge this fact. The natural sciences, too, by +emphasising the reign of law, tend to limit more and more the +possibilities of the human being, ultimately robbing him of all +freedom--hence of all possibility of creation. And how can one be an +enthusiastic devotee of idealism if he is led to doubt man's power to +aim at, fight towards, or even choose the highest? + +Idealism was at its height in those red-letter days when a high state of +culture had been attained, and great personalities produced masterpieces +in art, music, and literature. The progress of the sciences and of man's +natural activity has directed the spirit of the age towards material +progress; the ideals of mankind tend to become external and +superficial, and the interest in the invisible world falls to a minimum. + +To some extent, too, idealism breathes of aristocracy--a most unpopular +characteristic in a democratic age. Experience shows that man is raised +above himself only in rare cases, and that the great things in the +realms of art, music, and literature are very largely the monopoly of +the few, and these mainly of the leisured classes. Hence the appeal of +idealism to certain types of men and women must necessarily be a feeble +one. + +Then, again, there is the general indifference of mankind to lofty aims; +this militates against the power of idealism even more than in the case +of religion, for while in the latter there is the idea of a personal God +who is pleased or displeased urging men to renewed effort, the teachings +of idealism may appear to be mere abstractions, and can, as such, +possess little driving-power for the ordinary mind. + +Idealism, too, seems to be a mere compromise between religion and a life +devoted to sense experience, and like most compromises it lacks the +enthusing power of the original ideas. + +Finally, the whole theory leaves us in uncertainty--"that which was +intended to give a firm support, and to point out a clear course to our +life, has itself become a difficult problem." + +But Eucken has more to say concerning idealism, even though in a +different form from the theories of the past. Indeed, his philosophy is +generally classed amongst the idealisms. Eucken makes a great endeavour, +however, to avoid the difficulties and objections to the idealistic +position; later we shall see that a great measure of success has crowned +his efforts. + +Having discussed the two solutions that place special stress on the +invisible world, he proceeds to deal with the theories which emphasise +the relation of the life of man to the material world. + +He first treats of _Naturalism_, that solution of the problem that makes +the sense experience of surrounding nature the basis of life, +subordinating even the life of the soul to the level of the natural, +material world. + +Nature in the early ages had been superficially explained, often in the +light of religious doctrine. Man gave to nature a variety of +explanations and of colouring, depending largely upon his ideas of the +place of nature in relation to himself and to the invisible world. But +such anthropomorphic explanations could not long survive the progress of +the sciences, for a scientific comprehension of nature could only be +attained by getting rid of all human colouring, and by investigating +nature entirely by itself, out of all relation to the human soul. Man +then investigated nature more and more as an object apart from himself. + +The first result of these investigations was to impress upon him the +reality of nature as something independent, and to increase on a very +large scale his knowledge of, and control over nature. When man began to +formulate and understand nature, he began, too, to invent machines to +profit from the knowledge he gained. Hence followed a marvellously +fruitful period of human activity, an activity which at first +strengthened man in his own soul, and gave him increased consciousness +of independence and power. While he was compelled to admit the greatness +of the natural world, he became more and more convinced that he himself +was far greater, for could he not put the laws of nature to his own use +and profit? Hence the gain to man at this stage of the development of +the sciences was very great, for he had come to appreciate more than +before the superiority of the human soul over the material world. Hence +resulted a more robust type of life, "a life energetic, masculine, +pressing forward unceasingly." Matters, however, were not destined to +remain long at this stage. As man's knowledge of the processes of nature +increased further, a twofold result followed. On the one hand, the sense +world of nature became increasingly absorbing in interest; on the other +hand, laws were formulated and nature was conceived of as being a chain +of cause and effect, a combination of mechanical elements whose +interactions were according to law, and could be foretold with the +utmost precision. + +These two factors worked in the same direction, namely, that of +rendering less necessary the conception of a spiritual world. The +interest of mankind became so concentrated upon material things that the +interest in the invisible decreased, while the mechanical, soulless +elements with their ceaseless actions and reactions in definite order, +and according to inviolable law, were held sufficient to account for the +phenomena of nature. The keynote was "relation to environment"; a +constantly changing environment, changing according to law, called for +ceaseless readjustment, and the adaptation to environment was held to be +the stimulus to all activity in the natural world. + +The later development of biology, and the doctrine of the evolution of +species, gradually extended this conception of nature to include man +himself. + +What he had regarded as his distinctive characteristics were held to be +but the product of natural factors, and his life was regarded, too, as +under the domain of rigid, inviolable law. There was no room for, and no +need of, the conception of free, originative thought. Thought was +simply an answer to the demand that the sense world was making, entirely +dependent upon the external stimulus, just as any other activity was +entirely dependent on an external stimulus. So thought came to be +regarded as resulting from mere sense impression, which latter +corresponded to the external stimulus. It is obvious that the idea of +the freedom of the human soul, and of human personality as previously +understood, had to go. Man was simply the result of the interaction of +numerous causes--and like the rest of nature, involved no independent +spiritual element. Everything that was previously regarded as spiritual +was interpreted as a mere adjunct to, or a shadow of, the sense world. +Such a conception accounted for the whole of nature and of man, and so +became an explanation of the universe, a philosophy. + +In such a theory self-preservation becomes the aim of life, the struggle +for existence the driving-power, and adaptation to environment the means +to the desired end. Hence it comes about that only one standard of value +remains, that of usefulness, for that alone can be regarded as valuable +which proves to be useful towards the preservation and enjoyment of the +natural life. The ideas of the good, the beautiful, and the true, lose +the glory of their original meaning, and become comparatively barren +conceptions. Hence at a stroke the spiritual world is wiped away, the +soul of man is degraded from its high position, the great truths of +religion are cast aside as mere illusions. + +The naturalistic explanation possesses the apparent advantage of being a +very simple one, and hence attracts the human mind with great force in +the early stages of mental culture. All the difficulties of the +conception of a higher world are absent, for the naturalistic position +does not admit of its existence. It gives, too, some purpose to life, +even though that purpose is not an ideal one. + +Eucken is not reluctant to give the theory all the credit it deserves, +and he is prepared to admit that it fulfils to some extent the +conditions which he holds a satisfactory solution should fulfil. + +He goes, however, immediately to the root of the matter, and finds that +the very existence of the theory of naturalism in itself is an eloquent +disproof of the theory. The existence of a comprehensive scientific +conception involves an activity which is far superior to nature itself, +for it can make nature the object of systematic study. An intellect +which is nothing more than a mirror of sense impressions can get little +beyond such sense impressions, whereas the highly developed scientific +conception of nature that obtains to-day is far beyond a mere collection +of sense impressions. Nature, indeed, is subdued and mastered by man; +why then degrade man to the level of a universe he has mastered? To +produce from the phenomena of nature a scientific conception of nature +demands the activity of an independent, originative power of thought, +which, though it may be conditioned by, and must be related to, sense +impressions, is far above mere sense impressions. + +Naturalism, in directing attention to the things that are experienced, +fails to take proper account of the mind that experiences them; it +postulates nature without mind, when only by the mind processes can man +become aware of nature, and construct a naturalistic scheme of life. "To +a thorough-going naturalism, naturalism itself is logically impossible." +Hence the impossibility of the naturalistic theory as an explanation of +life. + +Then it fails to provide a high ideal for life, and to release man from +sordid motives. It gives no place for love, for work for its own sake, +for altruistic conduct, or for devotion to the high ideals of life. The +aim of life is limited to this world--man has but to aim at the +enjoyment and preservation of his own life. The mechanical explanation +of life, too, does away with the possibility of human freedom and +personality, and it is futile to urge man to greater efforts when +success is impossible. It is a theory which does justice merely to a +life of pleasure and pain, its psychology has no soul, and its political +economy bases the community upon selfishness. + +In this way Eucken disproves the claim of naturalism; in doing so he +points out that a satisfactory solution must take account of the life of +nature in a way which religion and idealism have failed to do. + +Of late years _Socialism_ and _Individualism_ have come into prominence +as theories of life. Eucken attributes the movements in the first +instance to the receding into the background of the idea of an overworld +which gave meaning and value to life. When doubt was thrown upon +religion and idealism, when confidence in another world was shaken, man +lost to an extent his moral support. Where could he turn now for a firm +basis to life? He might, of course, turn from the invisible world to the +world of sense, to nature. But the first result of this is to make man +realise that he is separate from nature, and again he fails to find +support. He is an alien in the world of nature, and disbelieves the +existence of a higher world. When both are denied him he turns naturally +to his fellow-men--here at least he can find community of interest--here +at least he is among beings of his own type. Hence he confines his +attention to the life of humanity, and in this, the universe of +mankind, he hopes to find an explanation of his own life, and a value +for it. + +The progress of humanity, then, must become the aim of life--all our +strength and effort must be focussed upon human nature itself. But an +immediate difficulty arises. Where are we to find Man? "Is it in the +social community where individual forces are firmly welded together to +form a common life, or among individuals as they exist for themselves in +all their exhaustless diversity?" If we put the community first, then +the social whole must be firmly rooted in itself and be independent of +the caprice of its members. The duty of the individual is to subordinate +himself to the community--this means socialism. If, on the other hand, +the great aim is to develop the individual and to give him the maximum +of opportunity to unfold his special characteristics, we arrive at an +opposing theory--that of individualism. + +In the history of society we find an age of socialistic ideas followed +by one of individualistic ideas, and vice versa, and there is much that +is valuable in each, in that it tends to modify and disprove the other's +extreme position. + +The present wave in the direction of _socialism_ arises, to an extent, +in reaction from the extremely individualistic position of previous +ages. Man is now realising that the social relations of life are of +importance as well as the character of his own life. He realises the +interdependence of members of a community, and the conception of the +State as a whole, a unit, instead of a mere sum of individuals, grows +up. The modern industrial development and the organisation of labour +have, too, emphasised the fact that the value of the individual depends +largely upon his being a part of society. His work must be in +co-operation with the work of others to produce the best effect; for in +such co-operation it produces effects which reach far beyond his own +individual capacity. Hence his life appears to receive value from the +social relations, and the social ideal is conceived. The development of +the individual no longer becomes the aim but rather the development of +the community. In setting out the development of society as his aim, the +individual makes considerable sacrifices. All that is distinctly +individual must go, in character, in work, in science, and art, and that +which is concerned with the common need of society must receive +attention. This means undoubtedly a limitation of the life of the +individual, and often entails a considerable sacrifice; but the +sacrifice is made because of the underlying belief that in the sum of +individual judgments there is reason, and that in the opinion of the +majority there is truth. This socialistic culture finds in the present +condition of society, plenty of problems to hand, and in its treatment +of these problems a vigorous socialistic type of life is developed. The +most pressing problem is concerned with the distribution of material and +spiritual goods. Material goods and the opportunity for spiritual +culture that go with them have been largely a monopoly of the +aristocracy. Now arises a demand for a more equal distribution, and this +is felt to be a right demand, not only from the point of view of +justice, but also for the sake of spiritual culture itself. So it is +that the movement for the social amelioration of the masses starts. The +welfare of humanity is its aim, and all things, religion, science, and +art, must work towards this end, and are only of value in so far as they +contribute towards it. + +Now it is a fundamental principle of a logical socialistic system that +truth must be found in the opinions of the masses, and the average +opinion of mankind must be the final arbiter of good and evil. The +tendency of the masses as such is to consider material advancement the +most cherished good. Hence, inevitably, a thorough-going socialism must +become materialistic, even though at an earlier stage it was actuated by +the desire for opportunities of spiritual culture. + +A genuinely socialistic culture, too, makes the individual of value only +as a member of society. This, Eucken affirms, is only true in the most +primitive societies. As civilisation progresses, man becomes conscious +of himself, and an inner life, which in its interests is independent of, +and often opposed to society, develops. His own thought becomes +important to man, and as his life deepens, religion, science, art, work +&c., become more and more a personal matter. + +All such deepening of culture, and of creative spiritual activity, is a +personal matter. From this deepening and enriching of the inner life of +the individual proceeds creative spiritual activity, which attempts +spiritual tasks as an end in themselves, and which gradually builds up a +kingdom of truth and spiritual interest which immeasurably transcends +mere human standards. All these are historical facts of experience; the +socialistic system finds no place and no explanation for them, and +consequently it cannot be regarded as a sufficiently comprehensive +explanation of the problem. To a man who has once realised these +individual experiences, the merely human, socialistic system becomes +intolerable. + +Again, if considerations of social utility limit creative activity, the +creations of such activity must be meagre in nature. Spiritual +creativeness is most fruitful when it is concerned with tasks that are +attempted for their intrinsic value, and is not fettered by the thought +of their usefulness to society. + +It is, too, a dangerous thing to look for truth in the opinion of the +majority, for this is such a changing phenomenon that only a part, at +most, can be permanent truth. The course of history has taught us, too, +that great ideas have come to individuals and have been rejected by the +masses for long periods of time. + +The immediate effect of the failure of socialism is the encouragement of +_individualism_, for indeed some of the arguments against the former are +arguments in favour of the latter. Individualism opens up a new life, a +life which is free, joyous, and unconventional. + +But can individualism give a meaning and value to life as a whole? Man +cannot from his own resources produce a high ideal which compels him to +fight for higher development, and it is not possible for him from an +individualistic standpoint to regard himself as a manifestation of a +larger life. His whole life must be spent in the improvement of his own +condition. Even in the case of strongly marked personalities, they can +never get beyond themselves and their own subjective states, for they +must always live upon themselves, and eternally reflect upon their own +doings. + +But such a view of life cannot satisfy man; he is a contemplative being, +and he must find some all-inclusive whole, of which he is a part. If he +fails to find it, life for him must become a blank, and he must fall a +prey to boredom and satiety. Man's life is not to be confined to his own +particular sphere, his life must extend far beyond that--he must concern +himself with the infinite in the universe; "He must view life--nay, +more, he must live it--in the light of this larger whole." A life based +upon individualism then, will seem, even in the case of strong +personalities, to be extremely narrow. How much more so will this be +true of the ordinary man, who takes little interest in his own +individuality, or pleasure in its development? + +Thus it is that both forms of humanistic culture--socialism and +individualism--fail to give a real meaning to life. "Socialistic culture +directs itself chiefly to the outward conditions of life, but in care +for these it neglects life itself." Individualistic culture, on the +other hand, endeavours to deal with life itself, but fails to see life +as a whole, or as possessing any real inwardness. + +Both types of culture are apt to deceive themselves in regard to their +own emptiness, because, unconsciously, they make more out of man than is +consistent with their assumptions. "They presuppose a spiritual +atmosphere as a setting for our human life and effort. In the one case, +this cementing of a union between individuals appears to set free the +springs of love and truth; in the other, each single unit seems to have +behind it the background of a spiritual world whose development is +fostered by means of its individual labour." In this way life acquires +in both cases a meaning, but it does so only by departing from both +positions, and taking up what is, at least partly, an idealistic +position. + +The theories, too, can only be made really plausible by idealising man +to an unwarrantable extent. The socialist assumes that a change of +material surroundings will be immediately followed by a change in the +character of man, and that men will work happily together for the sake +of the community. The individualist asks us to believe that man is +naturally noble and highminded, and cares only for the higher and better +things. But experience, says Eucken, does not justify us in placing so +much faith in humanity. "Do we not see the great masses of our +population possessed by a passion that sweeps all before it, a reckless +spirit of aggressiveness, a disposition to lower all culture to the +level of their interests and comprehension--evincing the while a defiant +self-assertion? And on the side of individualism, what do we see? Paltry +meanness in abundance, embroidered selfishness, idle self-absorption, +the craving to be conspicuous at all costs, repulsive hypocrisy, lack of +courage despite all boastful talk, a lukewarm attitude towards all +spiritual tasks, but the busiest industry when personal advantage is +concerned." + +The theories of socialism and individualism can never be adequate +explanations of the great problem of life, for life cannot have a real +meaning if man cannot strive towards some lofty aim far higher than +himself, and such a goal the two humanistic theories do not provide for +him. + +Religion, Idealism, Naturalism, Socialism, Individualism, while calling +attention to important facts in life, all fail in themselves to form +adequate theories to explain life. We have given the main outlines of +Eucken's arguments, but such a brief summary cannot do justice to his +excellent evaluations of these theories--these the reader may find in +his own works. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +ANOTHER SEARCH FOR TRUTH + +The result of the inquiry into the solutions of the problem offered in +the past is to show that they are all inadequate to explain and to give +an ideal to the whole of life. Perplexed as to the truth of the +existence of a higher world, man looked to the natural world for a firm +basis to life. Here he failed to find rest--rather, indeed, he found +less security than he had previously felt, for did not naturalism make +of him a mere unconscious mechanism, and deny the very existence of his +soul? Then he turned to humanity, and the opposing tendencies of +socialism and individualism came into evidence. Each hindered the other, +each shook his traditional beliefs, and each failed to give him a +satisfactory goal for life. Socialism concerned itself with external +social relations, but it gave life no soul. Then individualism confined +man to his own resources, and there resulted an inner hollowness which +became painfully evident. Socialism and individualism fail to provide a +sure footing. Instead of finding certainty, man has fallen into a still +deeper state of perplexity. + +What shall he do? Must he once again leave the realistic systems of +Naturalism, Socialism, and Individualism, and return to the older +systems of Religion and Idealism? Was he not wrong in giving up the +thought of a higher invisible world? Has not the restriction of life to +the visible world robbed life of its greatness and dignity? This it +certainly has done, and there is little wonder that the soul of mankind +is already revolting, and shows a tendency once again to look towards +religion and idealism for a solution of life. + +But the educated mind can never again take up exactly the same position +as it once did in regard to religion and idealism. The great realistic +theories have made too great a change in the standard of life, and in +man himself, to make it possible for him to revert simply to the old +conditions, and the older orthodox doctrines of religion can never again +be accepted as a mere matter of course. But the great question has again +come to the forefront--is there a higher world, or is the fundamental +truth of religion a mere illusion? This is the question that calls for +answer to-day, an answer which must be different, as man is different, +from the answers that were given in the past. A satisfactory answer is +impossible without understanding clearly the relation between the Old +and the New, and without taking account of the great, if partial, truths +that the realistic schemes of life have taught mankind. + +To accept unreservedly Naturalism, Socialism, and Individualism is +impossible, for these rob life of its deeper meaning. To return to the +older doctrines without reserve is equally impossible. + +Shall we ignore the question? This would be a fatal mistake. Some throw +themselves into the rush of work, and endeavour to forget the deeper +problems of life--but "the result is a life all froth and shimmer, +lacking inward sincerity, a life that can never in itself satisfy them, +but only keep up the appearance of doing so." There must be some +decision; for is not society being more and more broken up into small +sections, possessing the most variable standards of life, and +evaluating things in a diversity of ways? Such an inward schism must +weaken any effort on the part of humanity to combine for ideal ends. +Perhaps he of narrow vision, who sees nothing in life but sensuous +pleasure, is happy--but it is the happiness of the lower world. Perhaps, +too, he of the superficial mind is happy, who sees no deep +contradictions in the solutions offered, and is prepared to accept one +to-day and another tomorrow--but his happiness is that of the feeble +mind. + +What then can be done? Shall we despair? Never! The question is far too +urgent. To despair is to accept a policy that spells disaster to the +human race. The immediate environment is powerless to give life any real +meaning. We must probe deeper into the eternal--and it is from such +investigations that Eucken outlines a new theory of life. + +But before we proceed to deal with Eucken's contribution to the problem, +it will be profitable to stay awhile to consider how it is that we can +obtain truth at all, and what are the tests that we can apply to truth +when we think we have attained it. It is the problem of the possibility +of knowledge, really, that we have to discuss in brief. Eucken himself +does not pay much direct attention to this difficult question, for, as +has been already pointed out, he refuses to be drawn from his main +problem. It is impossible, however, to appreciate Eucken without +understanding clearly the position he takes up in this matter. + +What is truth? How can we know?--these are entrancing problems for the +profound thinker, and have been written upon frequently and at great +length. But we can do little more at present than give the barest +outline of the positions that have been taken up. Every search for truth +must assume a certain position in this matter; in studying Eucken's +philosophy it is of the first importance--more so perhaps than in the +case of most other philosophers--to keep in mind clearly from the outset +the position he implicitly assumes. + +The simplest theory of knowledge is that of _Empiricism_, which holds +that all knowledge must be gained through experience of the outside +world, and of our mental states. We see a blue wall, we obtain through +our eyes an impression of blueness, and are able to make a statement: +"This wall is blue." This, of course, is one of the simplest assertions +that can be made, and consists merely in assigning a term--"blue"--the +meaning of which has already been agreed upon, to a colour that we +appear to see on a wall. The test of the truth of this assertion is a +simple one--it is true if it corresponds with fact. If the same +assertion is made in regard to a red wall, then it is obviously untrue. +Our sense impressions give rise to a great variety of such expressions. +We state "the wall is blue" as a result of an impression obtained +through the organs of sight; then we speak of a pungent smell, a sweet +taste, a harsh sound, or a rough stone, on account of impressions +received respectively through the organs of smell, taste, hearing, and +touch. But, of course, all such assertions are superficial in +character--there is little more in them than the application of a +conventional term to an observed phenomenon, they avail us little in +solving the mysteries of the universe. + +Strictly speaking, this is for the empiricist the limit of possible +knowledge, but he would be a poor investigator who would be content with +this and no more. The empiricist tries to go a distinct step in advance +of this. The scientist observing the path of a planet travelling round +the sun, finds that its course is that of an ellipse. He studies the +path of a second planet, and finds that this also travels along an +elliptical orbit. Later he finds that all planets he is able to observe +travel in the same kind of path--then he hazards a general statement, +and says, "All planets travel round their suns in elliptical orbits." +But now he has left the realm of certainty for that of uncertainty. +There may be innumerable planets which he cannot observe that take a +different course. He hazards the general statement, because he assumes +(sometimes without knowing that he does so) that nature is uniform and +constant, that it will do to-day as it did yesterday, and does in +infinite space as it does in the visible universe. + +The knowledge that is possible to the empiricist, then, is merely that +which is derived from direct experience, and simple summations or +generalisations into a single assertion of a number of similar +assertions, all of which were individually derived from experience. This +is the position scientists as such, and believers in the theory of +naturalism, take up as to the possibility of the knowledge of truth to +the human mind. They are entirely consistent, therefore, when they +arrive ultimately at the agnostic position, and contend that our +knowledge must necessarily be confined to the world of experience, and +that nothing can be known of the world beyond. But they are +fundamentally wrong in overestimating the place of the sense organs, and +forgetting that while these have a part to play in life, they do not +constitute the whole of life. + +A far more satisfactory theory is that of _Rationalism_. It +is a theory that admits that the human mind has some capacity for +working upon the data presented to it by the sense organs. Man is +no longer quite so helpless a creature as empiricism would make +him. He is able to weigh and consider the facts that are presented +to the mind. The method rationalism uses to arrive at truth is that +of logical deduction, and the test of truth is that the steps in the +process are logically sound. We may start from the data "All dogs +are animals" and "Carlo is a dog," and arrive very simply at the +conclusion "Carlo is an animal." The conclusion is correct because +we have reasoned in accordance with the laws of logic, with the laws +of valid thought. All logical reasoning is, of course, not so simple +as the example given, but it may be stated generally that when there +is no logical fallacy, a correct conclusion may be arrived at, +provided, too--and herein lies the difficulty--provided that the +premises are also true. These premises may be in themselves general +statements--how is their truth established? They may be, and often +are, the generalisations of the empirical sciences, and must then +possess the same degree of uncertainty that these generalisations +possess. Some philosophers have contended that certain general ideas +are innate, but few would be found nowadays to accept such a +contention. At other times mere definitions of terms may serve as +premises. One might state as a premise the definition "A straight +line is the shortest distance between two points," and the further +statement that "AB is a straight line between A and B," and conclude +that the line AB represents the shortest distance between two points A +and B. In a manner similar to this Euclid built his whole mathematical +system upon the basis of definitions and postulates, a system the +complexity and thoroughness of which has caused all students of +mathematics at one time or another to marvel and admire. But, of +course, a definition is little more than assigning a definite term to +a definite thing. It is when we begin to consider the premises that are +necessary for arriving at the profound truths of the universe that we +find the weakness of rationalism. How are we going to be provided with +premises for this end? Shall we begin by saying "There is a God" or +"There is no God"? How is the pure reasoning faculty to decide upon the +premises in the matter of the great Beyond? We may weigh the arguments +for and against a certain position, and we may think that the probability +lies in a certain direction, but to decide finally and with certainty +by mere cold logical reasoning is impossible. We may bring out into +prominence through logical reasoning truths that were previously only +implicit, but to arrive at absolute truth with regard to the invisible +world, through intellect alone, has long been admitted to be an +impossibility. The illusion of those who would believe that truth which +was not already implied in the premises could ever be obtained by mere +intellectual reasoning has long since been dispelled. + +Perhaps it comes as a shock to the reader who has always insisted upon a +clear intellectual understanding and a rigid reasoning upon all things, +to find within what narrow limits, after all, the intellect itself has +to work--it can do little more than make more or less certain +generalisations concerning the world of experience, and then to argue +from these, or from definitions that it itself has framed. Of course +some of the ancient philosophers did try through a course of rigid +reasoning to solve the great problems, and for a long time it was +customary to expect that all philosophers should proceed in the same +way. + +Modern philosophers, of whom William James, Bergson, and Eucken are +conspicuous examples, have appreciated the futility of such a task, and +have sought other means of solving the problem. The mistake in the past +has been to forget that the intelligence is but one aspect of human +life, and that the experience of mankind is far more complicated a +matter than that of mere intellect, and not to be solved by intellect +alone. Intellect has to play a definite part in human life, but it does +not constitute the whole of life. Life itself is far greater than +intellect, and to live is a far more important thing than to know. The +great things are life and action; knowledge is ultimately useful in so +far as it contributes to the development of life and the perfection of +action. Philosophers have for too long a period made knowledge an aim in +itself, and have neglected to take proper account of the experiences of +mankind. Their intellectual abstractions have tended to leave actual +life more and more out of consideration, with the result that they have +been baffled at every turn. The more we think about it, the more we +become convinced that the mysterious universe in which we live will only +divulge just enough of its secrets to enable us to act, and this it +gives us with comparatively little trouble on our part. If we consider +an ordinary piece of wood, we find it is hard and offers a certain +resistance, and our knowledge of these elementary facts enables us to +put it to use, but we shall never really solve the mysteries of its +formation and growth. These lead of course to very interesting +speculations, but their solution seems to be as far off as ever. We can +know little but that which we require for life. The making of life and +action the basis of truth rather than trusting to the intellect alone, +is the great new departure in modern philosophy. + +One of the theories of knowledge that springs from laying emphasis upon +life and action is that of _Pragmatism_, of which the late Professor +William James was one of the greatest exponents. Pragmatists contend +that the test of truth is its value for life--if the fact obtained is +the most useful and helpful for life, then it is the true one. Suppose +we are endeavouring to solve the great question, "Is there a God?" We +weigh the arguments for and against, but find it difficult to arrive at +a definite conclusion, because the arguments on both sides seem equally +plausible. How are we to decide? We cannot postpone the decision +indefinitely--we are forced to make a choice, for upon our decision +depends our aim and ideals in life. We are faced with a "forced option," +and must choose one or the other. We ask ourselves the question, "Which +will be of the greatest help to our lives--to believe that there is, or +that there is not a God?" and we decide or will to believe the option +that will help life most. It is a striking theory, but space forbids our +discussing it in detail. + +The position Eucken adopts is that of _Activism_. In common with +pragmatism it makes truth a matter of life and action rather than of +mere intellect, and considers fruitfulness for action a characteristic +of truth. He differs from the pragmatic position in that he contends +that truth is something deeper than mere human decision, that truth is +truth, not merely because it is useful, that reality is independent of +our experience of it, and that truth is gained intuitively through a +life of action. + +The riddle of the universe is solved for Eucken through life and action. +While continual contemplation and thought is apt to paralyse us, "action +is the best defensive weapon against the dangers and trials of human +existence." "Doubt is not cured by meditation, but by action." He +believes that we can attain certainty through action of much that cannot +be justified on rational grounds. If we wish to understand the vital +truths of life we must concentrate our souls on a good purpose--the +activity that follows will bring its revelation. The problems of life +are solved by the life process itself. By acting in a certain way, man +comes into intimate relationship with the great reality of life, and +then he comes to know, not so much _about_ reality, as _within_ reality. +The ant in whom such complex instincts are developed, knows probably +nothing at all _about_ its little world, but knows everything necessary +_within_ its little world. It does not err, it does the right thing at +the right time, and that because it is in tune with its universe, hence +acts from pure instinct in the right way. If intellect were to enter +into the case, its actions might become less reliable, and it would +blunder far oftener. In the case of man, his thinking capacity often +militates against successful instinctive and habitual actions--the +moment we start to consider, we hesitate and are lost. In the same way, +if the soul of man is brought into tune with the great reality, it has +but to act, and though it may never know all _about_ reality and be able +to frame abstract theories of the universe, still it may know _with_ or +_within_ reality, and be thus enabled to act in the best way under +various circumstances. This is the theory of activism; it lays great +stress upon action, and upon intuition through action, and while it does +not ignore the intellect, it holds that when the intellect fails there +is a possibility of the practical problem of life being solved through a +life of action, when life is directed towards the highest ideals. The +danger of an activistic position, of course, is to undervalue the +reasoning powers of man. Some critics hold that Eucken does this; the +reader must judge for himself, but in doing so it will be well to +remember that before trusting to intuitive revelation, Eucken demands +the setting of one's face towards the highest and best. + +In the next chapter we can follow Eucken in his search for the great +reality in life. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE PAST, PRESENT, AND THE ETERNAL + +In investigating the problem of human life, Eucken lays great stress +upon the history of man in past ages--this is one of the special aspects +of his philosophy. The fact is, of course, not surprising; he who would +explain the life of man would be unwise to ignore the records of the +past life of the human race. The thinker who examines the present only, +is apt to be narrow in his ideas, to fail to look upon events in their +proper perspective, and to be unduly affected by the spirit of the age +in which he lives--the student of history avoids these pitfalls. + +Moreover, man does not become aware of the depth of his own soul, until +he has "lived into" the experience of the past. This is what the +profound investigator of history does; he lives again the life of the +hero, he feels with him as he felt upon special occasions, and in this +way there is revealed to him a profundity and greatness of human +experience, of which he would have been largely unaware if he had +trusted to his own experience alone, and to the superficial examination +he is able to make of the experiences of those living men with whom he +comes into contact. In this way he is able in a sense to appropriate the +experience of the greatest personalities unto himself, and enrich +considerably the contents of his own soul. + +Through a study of history, too, we become aware of the intimate +connection that exists between the present and the past. The present +moment is a very transient thing; its roots are in the past, its hopes +in the future. "If all depends on the slender thread of the fleeting +moment of the present, which illumines and endures merely for a +twinkling of an eye, but to sink into the abyss of nothingness, then all +life would mean a mere exit into death.... Without connection there is +no content of life." We are apt to look on the past as something dead, +but it exists in living evidence in our souls to-day. It oppresses us or +stimulates us to action, it tyrannises over us or inspires us to higher +things. It has been customary to look upon the past as irrevocable. +Recent writers, of whom Maeterlinck and Eucken are striking instances, +have endeavoured to show how the past can be remoulded and changed. The +past depends upon what we make of it to-day; if we despise our evil +conduct in former days, then the past itself is changed and conquered. +The mistake that is made is to regard the past as a thing complete in +itself; what appears to be finished is really only completing itself, +and we must take a view of the whole of a thing, and not merely the +parts that have already manifested themselves. Through such +considerations we become more and more aware of the ultimate connection +between the past and present, and of the part the present can play in +the remaking of the past. + +Our investigations of history leads us, too, to differentiate between +the temporary and the eternal in the realm of thought. We find at a +certain period of history a trend of thought that can largely be +accounted for by the special conditions of life at the time, and which +disappears at a later age. But in addition to this we become aware of +truths that have found a place in the thoughts of various ages and +countries, and we are led to regard these as the eternal +truths--expressions of an eternal ever-present reality. This eternal +present we find to be something independent of time, something that +breaks the barriers between the past, present, and future. "Thought," +says Eucken, "does not drift along with time; as certainly as it strives +to attain truth it must rise above time, and its treatment must be +timeless." The beliefs of any age are too much coloured by the special +circumstances of that age to express the whole of truth, yet beneath the +beliefs of the ages there is often an underlying truth, and this +underlying truth is the eternal truth, which is not affected by time, +and at the basis of which is the eternal reality. + +This eternal truth persisting through a variety of temporary and more or +less correct expressions of it is to be observed in a marked manner in +the moral ideas of mankind. What a variety of ethical doctrines have +been expounded and believed, yet how striking the similarity that +becomes apparent when they are further examined! In practice, the +standard of morality has often been based on mere utility, but it has +taken a higher and more absolute basis in the mind of man. Ideas +concerning morality have generally been nobler than can be accounted for +by environment, and by the subjective life of the individual. Why this +ultimate consistency in the moral aspirations of the ages, why a +categorical imperative, and why does conscience exist in the human +being?--these facts cannot be accounted for if there is no deeper basis +for life than the life of humanity at any definite period of time. + +The unchangeable laws of logic, too, are instances of the eternal truth. +The principles of the validity of thought are entirely independent of +individuals, of the passage of time, and of the environment of man. "Our +thought cannot advance in the definite work of building up science +without producing and employing a definite logical structure, with fixed +principles; these principles are immanent in the work of thought, they +are above all the caprice and all the differences of the individuals." +Whence again this consistency in a changeable and subjective world? + +The marvellous influence that ideas have exerted upon man again points +to the persistence and power of the eternal. Is it not strange how it is +that man often serves but as a mere instrument for the realisation of an +idea, and how he is often carried away by an idea to do things which are +against his own personal interests and desires? And when he and his +generation have passed beyond human sight, we often find a new +generation direct their endeavours in the same way, and we wonder what +is behind such a continuity in the struggles of mankind. + +The history of great personalities in the realms of literature, art, and +science show in a remarkable way how men have risen above the influences +of their time, and beyond the cramping tiredness of the mere flesh. +Could a great thinker like Aristotle be entirely conditioned by flesh +and environment? And what of the great artists and poets who have +conquered the chains of mortal finitude and breathed of higher worlds? +Every one of them is a convincing testimony of the possibility of +mankind transcending the material, and taking unto itself of the +resources of a deeper world. + +Then the dissatisfaction of the ages with their limited knowledge of +truth cannot but tell of a great eternal something that stirs at the +basis of the human soul. The people of to-day find the various systems +of the day inadequate; they search for something higher, and the mere +fact that they search beyond matter and the mere subjective human +qualities is in itself a testimony to the existence of a world higher +than the material and subjective. + +What is it that makes it possible for one human being to "live into" the +experience of others who lived long ago, and for the present to conquer +and alter the past? How can we account for the eternal trait in thought, +for the unchanging laws of logic, for the consistency of moral ideals, +and their transcendence over flesh and immediate circumstances? What is +the force behind the idea, and how can we account for the continuous +struggle of mankind in certain directions? And, finally, what is it that +makes it possible for men to rise beyond themselves, to shake away the +shackles of matter and vicinity, and to delve deep into the profounder +world? + +If we can find what it is that makes all this possible, then surely we +have found the greatest thing in the world--the reality. And Eucken's +answer is clear and definite. It must be something that persists, is +eternal and independent of time, and it must extend beyond the +individual to a universal whole. This must be "the Universal Spiritual +Life," which, though eternal, reveals itself in time, and though +universal, reveals itself in the individual man, and forms the source +from which the spiritual in man "draws its power and credentials." + +This, then, is the result of Eucken's search for reality--he has found +it to exist in a Universal Spiritual Life. Of course he has not arrived +at his conclusion by a system of rigid proof; it has already been +pointed out how impossible it is to arrive at the greater truths of life +in such a manner. + +He has done, however, that which can be reasonably expected in such +cases. To begin with, he has given us a striking analysis of the +essential characteristics of human life, and he has found there a +yearning and a void. He has given us a masterly discussion of eternal +truth as contrasted with the temporary expressions of it. He has taught +us how the present can overcome the past, and how man can ascend beyond +the subjective and material. And he has led us to feel that reality must +lie in the eternal that appears to be at the basis of the highest and +greatest in man. + +Moreover, he has given a fair and thorough treatment of the solutions +that have been offered in the past. He has shown how inadequate they are +to explain life. He has shown how the modern solutions "cannot perform +their own tasks without drawing incessantly upon another kind of +reality, one richer and more substantial." This in itself shows "beyond +possibility of refutation that they do not fill the whole of life." He +has demonstrated how the acceptance of these systems depends upon an +implicit acceptance of a higher life. "The naturalistic thinker ascribes +unperceived to nature, which to him can be only a coexistence of +soulless elements, an inner connection and a living soul. Only thus can +he revere it as a higher power, as a kind of divinity; only thus can he +pass from the fact of dependence to a devotional surrender of his +feelings. The socialist bases human society, with its motives mixed with +triviality and passion, on an invisible community, an ideal humanity.... +The individualist in his conception exalts the individual to a height +far more lofty than is justified by the individual as he is found in +experience." All these assume more or less unconsciously the existence +of that "something higher" which they attempt to deny. + +So far, then, we have seen how Eucken proves the inadequacy of the +realistic conceptions of life, and how they really depend for their +acceptance upon the assumption of a Universal Spiritual Life. We have +still to see how he attempts to prove that basing human life upon an +eternal spiritual life satisfies the conditions he himself has laid down +for a satisfactory solution of the problem. He has to show that the +theory gives a satisfactory explanation of human life, that it gives a +firm basis for life, that it releases man from being governed by low +motives, and admits of the possibility of human personality, freedom, +and creation. We shall see in the chapters that follow that he makes a +convincing case for accepting the belief in the Universal Spiritual Life +as the basis of human life and endeavour. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE "HIGH" AND THE "LOW" + +Eucken makes the recognition of the existence of a Universal Spiritual +Life the starting-point of his constructive work. He takes up a position +which he calls the noeological position. Many theories take up a +materialistic position; they assert the reality of the material world, +and endeavour to explain the world of matter as something independent of +the human mind. Other theories assert the superiority of mind over +matter, and endeavour to examine the mind as though it were independent +of the material world. These two types of theories have been in +continual conflict; the one has attempted to prove that thought is +entirely conditioned by sense impressions received from the material +world, the other regards the phenomena of nature as really nothing other +than processes of the mind. + +Eucken finds reality existing in the spiritual life, which while neither +material nor merely mental, is superior to both, admits the existence +(in a certain sense) of both, and does away with the opposition between +the rival types of theories. Eucken does not minimise or ignore the +existence of the natural world. The question for him is not the +independent existence of the worlds of nature and mind--this he admits; +he is concerned rather with the superiority of the spiritual life over +the merely material and mental. + +The natural life of man has been variously viewed in different ages. The +writer of the Pentateuch described man as made in the image of God, and +the natural man was exalted on this account. Some of the old Greek +philosophers, too, found much in nature that was divine. Christianity +took a different view of the matter--it exalted the spirit, and +emphasised the baseness of the material. The growth of the sciences made +man again a mere tool of laws and methods, but it considered matter as +superior to mind, mind being entirely dependent upon impressions +received from matter. The question continually recurs--which is the +high, which is the low? Shall nature triumph over spirit, or spirit over +nature? + +Pantheism replies to the question by denying that there is anything high +as distinguished from the low. There is but one; and that one--the whole +universe--is God. There is no evil in the world, says pantheism, +everything is good--if we could understand things as they really are we +should find no oppositions in the universe, and no contradictions in the +nature of things. The world as it is, is the best of all possible +worlds--there is perfect harmony, though we fail to appreciate it. Other +optimistic theories, too, deny the existence of evil and pain, and try +to explain our ideas of sin to be mere "points of view." If we could see +the whole, they tell us, we should see how the parts harmonise, but now +we only see some of the parts and fail to appreciate the harmony. In +this way they try to explain away as unreal the phenomena of evil and +pain. + +But Eucken has no patience with such theories. For him the oppositions +and contradictions of life are too real and persistent. The antagonisms +"stir us with disgust and indignation." Evil cannot be considered +trivial, and must not be glossed over; it is in the world, and the more +deeply we appreciate the fact the better it will be for the human soul. + +Man in his lower stages of development is just a child of nature, and +his standards of life are those of the lower world. He seeks those +things that satisfy the senses, he attempts the satiation of the lower +cravings. In the realm of morals his standard is utility--that is good +which helps him to obtain more pleasure and to avoid pain. In social +life his conduct is dictated by custom--this is the highest appeal. The +development of man along the lines of nature ends at this point--and if +nothing more is to happen, then he must remain at a low level of +development. Matter and mind cannot take him beyond--the mind as such +only helps towards the further satisfaction of the lower demands of man. + +But there is something far greater in highly developed manhood than the +petty and selfish. Man is capable of conceiving and adopting higher +standards of morality than those of utility and pleasure, and it is the +spiritual life that enables him to do this. It is the spiritual that +frees the individual from the slavery of the sense world--from his +selfishness and superficial interests--that teaches him to care less for +the things of the flesh, and far more for the beautiful, the good, and +the true, and that enables him to pursue high aims regardless of the +fact that they may entail suffering and loss in other directions. This, +then, is the "High" in the world; the natural life is the "Low." + +But what is the relation of the natural to the spiritual life? In the +first place, the spiritual cannot be derived from the natural, inasmuch +as the former is immensely superior to the latter, and that not merely +in degree, but in its very essence. The spiritual is entirely on a +higher plane of reality, and there cannot be transition from the natural +to the spiritual world. The natural has its limitations, and beyond +these cannot go. So far as the natural world is concerned man can never +rise above seeking for pleasure, and making expediency and social +approbation the standards of life, hence there is little wonder that +those ethical teachers who make nature their basis, deny the possibility +of action that is unselfish and free. "The Spiritual Life," however, as +Eucken says, "has an independent origin, and evolves new powers and +standards." + +Neither do the two aspects run together in life in parallel lines. On +the contrary, the spiritual life cannot manifest itself at all until a +certain stage of development is reached in nature. It would seem +impossible to conceive of the animal rising above its animal instincts +and tendencies; its whole life is conditioned by its animal nature and +its environment. Man stands at the junction of the stages between the +purely natural and the purely spiritual. On the one hand, he is a member +of the animal world, he has its instincts, its desires and its +limitations; on the other hand, he has within him the germ of +spirituality. He belongs to both worlds, the natural and the spiritual. +He cannot shake off the natural and remain a man--to separate the two +means death to man as we know him. But there is a great difference +between his position in the natural world and his position in the +spiritual world. He seems to be the last word in the world of nature, he +has reached heights far beyond those reached by any other flesh and +blood. He is, so far as we know, the culminating point of natural +evolution--the final possibility in the natural world. But the stage of +nature only represents the first stage in the development of the +universe. + +There is an infinitely higher stage of life, the spiritual life. And if +man is the final point of progress in the world of nature, he is, in his +primitive state, only at the threshold of the spiritual world. But he +is not an entire stranger to the spiritual--the germ is in him, and the +spiritual is consequently not an alien world for him. If the spiritual +were something entirely foreign it would be vain to expect much progress +through mere impulses from without. On the contrary, it is the spiritual +that makes man really great, and is the most fundamental part of his +nature. + +The two stages of life, then, are present in man--the natural and the +spiritual; the former highly developed, the latter, at first, in an +undeveloped state. + +Now the great aim of the universe is to pass gradually from the natural +to the spiritual plane of life. This does not mean that the latter is +the product of the former stage, for this is not the case. It means that +the deeper reality in life is the spiritual, and that the spiritual +develops through the natural in its own particular way. And this +particular way is not a mere development but a _self_-development. The +aim of the spiritual is to develop its own self through the human being. +In this way man is given the possibility of developing a self--a +personality in a very real sense. + +Thus we arrive at some idea of the relation there exists between the +spiritual and the natural, and of the place of the spiritual and the +natural in man. The spiritual is neither the product nor an attribute of +the natural. Man is the border creature of the two worlds; he represents +the ultimate possibility of the one, and possesses potentialities in +regard to the other. The great object of his life must be to develop, +through making use of and conquering the life of nature, his higher self +into a free, spiritual, and immortal personality. The progressive stages +in this direction must be dealt with in the next chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE ASCENT TO FREEDOM AND PERSONALITY + + +In the previous chapter we found that man in his primitive stage is +largely a creature of the lower world. His desires are those of the +animal kingdom, his ideal is utility, and social approbation his God. At +this stage he is a mere nothing, no better than a slave to his passions +and to the opinions of his fellow-beings. He possesses neither freedom +nor personality--for he is but a tool in the hands of other impulses and +forces. There is no controlling self--he is not a lord in his own +kingdom. Some men do not get beyond this very low level, but for ever +remain mere shuttlecocks driven hither and thither by more or less +contradictory impulses. + +The germ of the higher world that resides within him may sometimes make +itself felt, but "so long as there is a confused welter of higher and +lower impulses, ... so long is there an absence of anything essentially +new and lofty." + +Man's aspirations for things that are higher, are at the outset very +sluggish and vague, for a being that is so much dominated by the natural +world is apt to concentrate its attention upon it and to remain +contented with it. + +But there comes a time in the lives of perhaps most men when a distinct +feeling of dissatisfaction is felt with the life of natural impulse and +of convention. The man feels--perhaps in a vague way at first--that +there is something too merely animal in the sense world, or that there +is an intolerable emptiness and hypocrisy in a life of slavish devotion +to the opinions of society. Perhaps he feels that his passions govern +him, and not he his passions. The higher life stirs within him, and he +begins to question the rightness of things. He learns to appreciate for +the first time that the natural impulses may not be the noblest, and +that custom may not be an ideal guide. His soul is astir with the +problem of life--the result very largely depends upon the solutions that +are presented to him. Perhaps the naturalistic solution is made to +appeal to him, and he is taught to trust nature and it will lead him +aright. Or maybe the pantheistic theory is accepted by him, and he is +led to believe that the world as it is is entirely good, and that he has +but to live his life from day to day, and not worry himself about the +ultimate end and purpose of things. Or other optimistic theories of life +that deny the existence of evil may influence him. All these solutions +may give him temporary peace of mind, and perhaps indeed form efficient +stumbling-blocks to any further spiritual progress. + +But the spiritual beginnings within us often show remarkable vitality. +They may under certain conditions lead us to appreciate the existence of +a distinct opposition in the world--the opposition between the lower +world and the higher self. Man finds that the natural is often low, +evil, and sordid, and at this stage the higher spiritual world makes a +strong appeal to him. By degrees he comes to feel the demands of the +lower world to be a personal insult to him. What is the lower material +world that it should govern him, and he a _man_? The claims of pleasure +and utility to be standards of conduct strike him as arrogant, and he +revolts against the assumption that higher aims can have no charm for +him. His previous acceptance without consideration of the moral +standard of the community he now looks upon as a sign of weakness on his +part--for is he not himself, a person with the power of independent +judgment and evaluation? It is the first great awakening of the +spiritual life in man, when his whole soul is in revolt against the low, +sordid, and conventional. What shall he do? There is only one course +that is worthy of his asserting personality--he must break with the +world. Henceforth he sees two worlds in opposition--the world of the +flesh on the one hand, the world of the spirit on the other, and he +arrays himself on the side of the higher in opposition to the lower. +When he does this the spiritual life in him makes the first substantial +movement in its onward progress--this movement Eucken calls the +_negative movement_. It does not mean that the man must leave the world +of work and retire into the seclusion of a monastery--that means +shirking the fight, and is a policy of cowardice. Neither does it mean a +wild impatience with the present condition of the world--it means rather +that man is appreciating in a profound way the oppositions that exist, +and is casting his lot on the side of right. He renounces everything +that hinders him from fighting successfully, then goes forth into the +thick of the battle. The break must be a definite one and made in a +determined manner. "Without earnestness of renunciation the new life +sinks back to the old ... and loses its power to stimulate to new +endeavour. As human beings are, this negation must always be a sharp +one." + +The negative movement, then, is the first substantial step in the +progress of the spiritual life. The man's self breaks out into +discontent with nature, and this is the first step to the union of self +to the higher reality in life. The break with the world is in itself of +course but a negative process. This must attain a positive significance. +If the self breaks away from one aspect of life, it must identify itself +more intimately with another. This occurs when the individual sets out +definitely on a course of life in antagonism to the evil in the world. + +When this takes place, there arises within him a _new immediacy_ of +experience. Hitherto the things that were his greatest concern, and that +appealed to him most, were the pleasures of the natural world. But these +things appeal to him no longer as urgent and immediate--but as being of +a distinctly secondary character. A new immediacy has arisen; it is the +facts of the spiritual world that now appeal to him as urgent and +immediate. "All that has hitherto been considered most immediate, as the +world of sense, or even the world of society, now takes a second place, +and has to make good its claim before this spiritual tribune.... That +which current conceptions treat as a Beyond ... is now the only world +which exists in its own right, the only true and genuine world which +neither asks nor consents to be derived from any outside source." + +This new immediacy is the deepest possible immediacy, it is an immediacy +of experience where the self comes into contact with its own vital +principle--the Universal Spiritual Life--and brings about a fundamental +change in the life of the individual. The inner life is no longer +governed by sense impressions and impulses, but the outward life is +lived and viewed from the standpoint of the inward life. + +But a new immediacy is not all that follows in the train of the negative +movement--on the contrary, the highest possible rewards are gained, for +freedom, personality, and immortality are all brought within the range +of possibility. + +Once a human being decides for the highest he is on the highroad to +complete freedom. The freedom is not going to be won in a moment, but +must be fought for by the individual through the whole course of his +life. His body is always with him, and will at times attempt to master +him--he must fight continually to ensure conquest. Difficulties will +arise from various quarters, but he is not going to depend only upon his +own resources. All his activity involves in the first place the +recognition of the spiritual world, but more than this, he appropriates +unto himself of the spiritual world--this in itself is an act of +decision. And the more we appropriate unto ourselves of the Universal +Spiritual Life, the more we decide for the higher world, the freer we +become. Indeed, "it is this appropriation ... of the spiritual life that +first awakens within the soul an inward certitude, and makes possible +that perfect freedom ... so indispensable for every great creative +work." By continually choosing and fighting for the progress of the +Universal Spiritual Life, it comes to be our own in virtue of our deed +and decision. Hence man has attained freedom--the lower world no longer +makes successful appeal. He has become a part of the spiritual world, +and his actions are no longer dictated by anything external, but are the +direct outcome of his own self. He has freely chosen the highest, and +continually reaffirms his choice--this is perfect freedom. + +Man gains for himself, too, a personality in the true sense of the term. +Eucken does not mean by personality "mere self-assertion on the part of +an individual in opposition to others." He means something far deeper +than this. "A genuine self," says Eucken, "is constituted only by the +coming to life of the infinite spiritual world in an independent +concentration in the individual." Following a life of endeavour in the +highest cause, and continual appropriation of the spiritual life, he +arrives at a state of at-one-ness with the universal life. "Man does not +merely enter into some kind of relation with the spiritual life, but +finds his own being in it." The human being is elevated to a self-life +of a universal kind, and this frees him from the ties and appeals of the +world of sense and selfishness. It is a glorious conception of human +personality, infinitely higher than the undignified conceptions of +naturalism and determinism. + +And if man wins a glorious personality, he may gain immortality too. +Unfortunately, Eucken has not yet dealt fully with this question, but he +is evidently of the opinion that the spiritual personalities are +immortal. As concentration points or foci of the spiritual life, he +believes that the developed personalities are at present and in prospect +possessors of a spiritual realm. But there will be no essential or +sudden change at death. That which is immortal is involved in our +present experience. Those who have developed into spiritual +personalities, who have worked in fellowship with the great Universal +Life, and become centre-points of spirituality, have thus risen supreme +over time and pass to their inheritance. Those who have not done so, but +have lived their lives on the plane of nature, will have nothing that +can persist. + +Hence it is that the negative movement leads to freedom, personality, +and immortality; the neglect to make the movement consigns the +individual to slavery, makes a real "self" impossible, and at death he +has nought that a spiritual realm can claim. The choice is an +all-important one; for, as a recent writer puts it, "In this choice, the +personality chooses or rejects itself, takes itself for its life-task, +or dies of inanition and inertia." + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE PERSONAL AND THE UNIVERSAL + + +In the last chapter the ascent of the human being from serfdom to +freedom and personality was traced. In doing so it was necessary to make +frequent reference to the Universal Spiritual Life. + +When we turn to consider the characteristics of the Universal Spiritual +Life, many problems present themselves. How can we reconcile freedom and +personality with the existence of an Absolute? What is the nature of +this Absolute, and in what way is the human related to it? What place +should religion play in the life of the spiritual personality? These +are, of course, some of the greatest and most difficult problems that +ever perplexed the mind of man, and we can only deal briefly with +Eucken's contribution to their solution. + +Can a man choose the highest? This is the form in which Eucken would +state the problem of freedom. His answer, as already seen, is an +affirmative one. The personality chooses the spiritual life, and +continually reaffirms the decision. This being so, it is now no longer +possible to consider the human and the divine to be entirely in +opposition. And the more the spiritual personality develops, so much the +less does the opposition obtain, until a state of spirituality is +arrived at when all opposition of will ceases--then we attain perfect +freedom. "We are most free, when we are most deeply pledged--pledged +irrevocably to the spiritual presence, with which our own being is so +radically and so finally implicated." Thus freedom is obtained in a +sense through self-surrender, but it is through this same self-surrender +that we realise spiritual absoluteness. Hence it is that perfect freedom +carries with it the strongest consciousness of dependence, and human +freedom is only made possible through the absoluteness of the spiritual +life in whom it finds its being. + +English philosophers have dealt at length with the question of the +possibility of reconciling the independence of personality and the +existence of an Absolute. From Eucken's point of view the difficulty is +not so serious. When he speaks of personality he does not mean the mere +subjective individual in all his selfishness. Eucken has no sympathy +with the emphasis that is often placed on the individual in the low +subjective sense, and is averse from the glorification of the individual +of which some writers are fond. Indeed, he would prefer a naturalistic +explanation of man rather than one framed as a result of man's +individualistic egoism. The former explanation admits that man is +entirely a thing of nature; the latter, from a selfish and proud +standpoint, claims for man a place in a higher world. There is nothing +that is worthy and high in the low desires of Mr. Smith--the mere +subjective Mr. Smith. But if through the mind and body of Mr. Smith the +Absolute Spirit is realising itself in personality--then there is +something of eternal worth--there is spiritual personality. There will +be opposition between the sordidness of the mere individual will and the +divine will, but that is because the spiritual life has not been gained. +When the highest state of spiritual personality has been reached, then +man is an expression--a personal realisation of the Absolute, is in +entire accord with the absolute, indeed becomes himself divine. + +This does not rob the term personality of its meaning, for each +personality does, in some way, after all, exist for itself. Each +individual consciousness has a sanctity of its own. But the +being-for-self develops more and more by coming into direct contact with +the Universal Spiritual Life. + +Here, then, we arrive at something that appears to be a paradox. We have +the phenomenon of a being that is free and existing for itself, yet in +some way dependent upon an absolute spiritual life. We have, too, the +phenomenon of a human being becoming divine. How is it really possible +that self-activity can arise out of dependence? Eucken does not attempt +to explain, but contends that an explanation cannot be arrived at +through reasoning. We are forced to the conclusion, we realise through +our life and action that this is the real state of affairs, and in this +case the reality proves the possibility. "This primal phenomenon," he +says, "overflows all explanation. It has, as the fundamental condition +of all spiritual life, a universal axiomatic character." Again he says, +"The wonder of wonders is the human made divine, through God's superior +power." "The problem surpasses the capacity of the human reason." For +taking up this position, Eucken is sharply criticised by some writers. + +When we approach the problem of the nature of the Absolute in itself, +the main difficulty that arises is whether God is a personal being. God, +says Eucken, is "an Absolute Spiritual Life in all its grandeur, above +all the limitations of man and the world of experience--a Spiritual Life +that has attained to a complete subsistence in itself, and at the same +time to an encompassing of all reality." The divine is for Eucken the +ultimate spirituality that inspires the work of all spiritual +personalities. When in our life of fight and action we need inspiration, +we find "in the very depths of our own nature a reawakening, which is +not a mere product of our activity, but a salvation straight from God." +God, then, is the ultimate spirituality which inspires the struggling +personality, and gives to it a sense of unity and confidence. Eucken +does not admit that God is a personality in the sense that we are, and +deprecates all anthropomorphic conceptions of God as a personal being. +Indeed, to avoid the tendency to such conceptions he would prefer the +term "Godhead" to "God." Further considerations of the nature of God can +only lead to intellectual speculations. For an activistic philosophy, +such as Eucken's philosophy is, it would seem sufficient for life and +action to know that all attempts at the ideal in life, originate in, and +are inspired by, the Absolute Spiritual Life, that is by God. + +We cannot discuss fully the relation of human and divine without, too, +dealing with the ever urgent problem of religion. This is a problem in +which Eucken is deeply interested, and concerning which he has written +one of his greatest works--_The Truth of Religion_--a work that has been +described as one of the greatest apologies for religion ever written. + +What is religion? Most people perhaps would apply the term to a system +of belief concerning the Eternal, usually resting upon a historical or +traditional basis. Others would include in the term the reverence felt +for the Absolute by the contemplative mind, even though that mind did +not believe in any of the traditional systems. Some would emphasise the +fact that religion should concern itself with the establishment of a +relationship between the human and the Divine. + +But Eucken does not find religion to consist in belief, nor in a mere +attitude towards the mysteries of an overworld. In keeping with the +activistic tone of his whole philosophy he finds religion to be rooted +in life, and would define religion as an action by which the human being +appropriates the spiritual life. + +The first great concern of religion must be the conservation--not of +man, as mere man, but of the spiritual life in the human being, and it +means "a mighty concentration of the spiritual life in man." The +essential basis that makes religion possible is the presence of a Divine +life in man--"it unfolds itself through the seizure of this life as +one's own nature." Religion must be a form of activity, which brings +about the concentration of the spiritual life in the human soul, and +sets forth this spiritual life as a shield against unworthy elements +that attempt to enter and to govern man. + +The essential characteristic of religion must be the demand for a new +world. "Religion is not a communication of overworld secrets, but the +inauguration of an overworld life." Religion must depend upon the +contradiction and opposition that exists in human life, and upon the +clear recognition of the distinction between the "high" and the "low" in +life. It must point to a means of attaining freedom and redemption from +the old world of sin and sense, and to the possibility of being elevated +into a new and higher world. It must, too, fight against the extremes of +optimism and pessimism, for while it will acknowledge the presence of +wrong, it will call attention to the possibility of deliverance. It must +bring about a change of life, without denying the dark side of life; it +must show "the Divine in the things nearest at hand, without idealising +falsely the ordinary situation of life." + +The great practical effect of religion, then, must be to create a demand +for a new and higher world in opposition to the world of nature. For +this new life religion must provide an ultimate standard. "Religion must +at all times assert its right to prove and to winnow, for it is +religion--the power which draws upon the deepest source of life--which +takes to itself the whole of man, and offers a fixed standard for all +his undertakings." Religion must provide a standard for the whole of +life, for it places all human life "under the eternity." It is not the +function of religion to set up a special province over against the other +aspects of his life--it must transform life in its entirety, and affect +all the subsidiary aspects. + +But religion is not gained, any more than human freedom, once for all +time--it must be gained continually afresh, and sought ever anew. Thus +the fact of religion becomes a perpetual task, and leads to the highest +activity. + +Eucken speaks of two types of religion--Universal and Characteristic +Religion. The line of division between them is not easy to draw, but the +distinction gives an opportunity for emphasising again the essential +elements of true religion. + +_Universal Religion_ is a more or less vague appreciation of the +Spiritual, which results in a diffused, indefinite spiritual life. The +personality has appreciated to some extent the opposition between the +natural and the spiritual, and has chosen the spiritual. He adopts a new +attitude or mood, towards the world in consequence, and that is an +attitude of fight against the world of nature. But everything is vague; +the individual has not yet appreciated the spiritual world as his own, +and feels that he is a stranger in the higher world, rather than an +ordinary fully privileged citizen. He has not yet associated himself +closely enough with the Universal Spirit, everything is superficial, +there is hunger and thirst for the higher things in life, but these have +not yet been satiated. + +Some people never get beyond this vague appreciation of the spiritual +until perhaps some great trial or temptation, a long illness or sad +bereavement falls to their lot. Then they feel the need for a religion +that is more satisfying than the Universal Religion with which they have +in the past been content. They want to get nearer to God; they feel the +need of a personal God who is interested in their trials and troubles. +They are no longer satisfied with the conception of a God that is far +away, they thirst for His presence. This feeling leads the individual to +search for a more definite form of religion, in which the God is +regarded as supremely real, and reigns on the throne of love. The +personality enters into the greater depths of religion, and it becomes a +much more real and powerful influence in his life. He has no longer a +mere indefinite conception of a Deity, but he thinks of God as real and +personal. Instead of adopting a changed attitude towards the world of +nature, he comes to demand a new world. He is now a denizen of the +spiritual world, and there results "a life of pure inwardness," which +draws its power and inspiration from the infinite resources of the +Universal Spiritual Life in which he finds his being. This type of +religion Eucken calls _Characteristic Religion_. + +The historical religions would seem to represent, to some extent, the +attempts of humankind to arrive at a religion of this kind. A further +distinction arises between the historical forms of religion, of which +one at most, if any, can express the final truth, and the Absolute form +of religion, which if not yet conceived, must ultimately express the +truth in the matter of religion. + +Eucken is never more brilliant than he is in the examination he makes of +the historical forms of religion, for the purpose of formulating the +Absolute and final form; some account of this must be given in the next +chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +RELIGION: HISTORICAL AND ABSOLUTE + + +In examining the various historical forms of religion, Eucken, as we +should expect, is governed by the conclusions he has arrived at +concerning the solution of the great problem of life, and especially of +the place of religion in life. + +A religion which emphasised the need for a break with the world, and of +fight and action for spiritual progress, the possibility of a new higher +life of freedom and of personality, and the superiority of the spiritual +over the material, and which presented God as the ultimate spiritual +life, in which the human personality found its real self, would thus +meet with highest favour, while a form of religion that failed to do so +would necessarily fail to satisfy the tests that he would apply. + +He does not spend time discussing various religions in detail, but deals +with them briefly in general, in order to show that the Christian +religion is far superior to all other religions, then he makes a +critical and very able examination of the Christian position. He +considers it necessary to discuss in detail only that form of religion +that is undoubtedly the highest. + +The historical religions he finds to be of two types--religions of law +and religions of redemption. The religions of law portray God as a being +outside the world, and distinct from man, One who rules the world by +law, and who decrees that man shall obey certain laws of conduct that +He lays down. Failure to obey these laws brings its punishment in the +present or in a future life, while implicit obedience brings the highest +rewards. To such a God is often attributed all the weaknesses of the +human being, sometimes in a much exaggerated form--hence His reign +becomes one of fear to His subjects. + +A religion of law assumes that man is capable of himself of obeying the +law, and is responsible for his mode of life; it assumes that man is +capable through his own energy of conquering the world of sin, and of +leading the higher life. + +Religions of this type possess of course the merit of simplicity, +transparency, and finality. The decrees, the punishments and rewards are +given with some clearness and are easily understood; there is no appeal +and little equivocation. They served a useful purpose in the earlier +ages of civilisation, but cannot solve the problem for the complex +civilisation and advanced culture of the present age. They place God too +far from man, and attribute to man powers which he cannot of himself +possess. The conceptions of the Deity involved in them are too +anthropomorphic in character--too much coloured by human frailties. + +The religions of law have had to give place to those of a superior +type--the religions of redemption. These religions appreciate the +difficulty there exists for humankind of itself to transcend the world +of sin, and are of two types--one type expressing a merely negative +element, the other a negative and positive element. + +The typical negative redemptive religion is that of Buddhism. Buddhism +teaches us that the world is a sham and an evil; and the duty of man is +to appreciate this fact, and to deny the world, but here the matter +ends--it ends with world-renunciation and self-renunciation. There is +only a negative element in such a religion, no inspiration to live and +fight for gaining a higher world. This, of course, cannot provide a +satisfactory solution to the problem, for no new life with new values is +presented to us. It is a religion devoid of hope, for it does not point +to a higher life. "A wisdom of world-denial, a calm composure of the +nature, an entire serenity in the midst of the changing scenes of life, +constitute the summit of life." + +Christianity teaches us that the world is full of misery and suffering, +but the world in itself is really a perfect work of Divine wisdom and +goodness. "The root of evil is not in the nature of the world, but in +moral wrong--in a desertion from God." Sin and wickedness arise from the +misuse and perversion of things which are not in themselves evil. +Christianity calls for a break from the wickedness of the world. It +calls upon man to give up his sin, to deny, or break with, the evil of +which he is guilty. But it does not expect man to do this in his own +strength alone--God Himself comes to his rescue. Unlike Buddhism, it +does not stay at the denial of the world, but calls upon man to become a +citizen of a higher world. This gives a new impetus to the higher life; +man finds a great task--he has to build a kingdom of God upon the earth. +This demands the highest efforts--he must fight to gain the new world, +and must keep up the struggle to retain what he has gained. The +inferiority of Buddhism as contrasted with Christianity is well +described by Eucken in the following words: "In the former an +emancipation from semblance becomes necessary; in the latter an +overcoming of evil is the one thing needful. In the former the very +basis of the world seems evil; in the latter it is the perversion of +this basis which seems evil. In the former, the impulses of life are to +be entirely eradicated; in the latter, on the contrary, they are to be +ennobled, or rather to be transformed. In the former, no higher world of +a positive kind dawns on man, so that life finally reaches a seemingly +valid point of rest, whilst upon Christian ground life ever anew ascends +beyond itself." + +From such considerations as these, Eucken comes to the conclusion that +of the redemptive religions, which are themselves the highest type, +Christianity is the highest and noblest form, hence his main criticism +is concerned with the Christian religion. This does not mean that he +finds neither value nor truth in any other form of religion. His general +conclusion with regard to the historical religions is that they "contain +too much that is merely human to be valued as a pure work of God, and +yet too much that is spiritual and divine to be considered as a mere +product of man." He finds in them all some kernel of truth, or at least +a pathway to some part of truth, but contends that no religion contains +the whole truth and nothing but the truth. "As certainly," he says, "as +there is only one sole truth, there can be only one absolute religion, +and this religion coincides entirely in no way with any one of the +historical religions." + +Eucken's great endeavour in his discussion of the Christian religion is +to bring out the distinction between the eternal substance that resides +in it and the human additions that have been made to it in different +ages, between the elements in Christianity that are essentially divine +and those essentially human. Divested of its human colourings and +accretions, Christianity presents a basis of Divine and eternal truth, +and this regarded in itself, can well claim to be the final and absolute +religion. + +The conclusion he has come to with regard to the eternal truth as +contrasted with the temporary colourings of Christianity, with the +essential as contrasted with the inessential, can best be outlined by +taking in turn some of the main tenets and characteristics of the +Christian faith. + +Eucken's conception of the negative movement is very much akin to the +Christian idea of _conversion_. The first stage is merely a movement +away from the world, but after a time, in the continuous process of +negation, the negative movement attains a positive significance; when +this stage is arrived at Eucken would apply the term conversion. He +would not limit the negative movement to one act or to one point in +time; the movement towards a higher world must be maintained--the +sustaining of the negative movement being a test of the reality of +conversion. The process of conversion is not a process to be passively +undergone, or to originate from without, but is a movement starting in +the depths of one's own being. + +As already pointed out, Eucken believes in _redemption_. The past is +capable of reinterpretation and transformation, because we can view our +past actions in a new light and so change the whole, since the past is +not a closed thing, definite in itself, but a part of an incomplete +whole. He considers, however, that the Christian doctrine of redemption +makes it too much a matter of God's mercy, instead of placing stress +upon the part that man himself must play. The possibility of redemption +in his view follows from the presence and movement of the spiritual life +in man, not merely from an act of the founder of Christianity, and he +avers that while traditional Christianity emphasises the need for +redemption from evil, it does not emphasise sufficiently the necessary +elevation to the good life that must result. + +Closely bound up with the Christian doctrine of redemption is that of +_mediation_. Eucken believes that the Christian conception of mediation +resulted from the feeling of worthlessness and impotence of man, and the +aspirations which yet burned within him after union with the Divine. The +idea of mediation bridges the gulf, "a mid-link is forged between the +Divine and the human, and half of it belongs to each side; both sides +are brought into a definite connection which could be found in no other +way." Eucken acknowledges that such a mediation seems to make access to +the Divine easier, gives intimacy to the idea of redemption, and offers +support for human frailty. But he points out that there is an +intolerable anthropomorphism involved in the idea, that it removes the +Divine farther away from man, and that the union of Divine and human is +held to obtain in one special case only--that of Christ. He urges that +in a religion of mediation, one or other, God or Christ, must be chosen +as the centre. "Concerning the decision there cannot be the least doubt; +the fact is clear in the soul-struggles of the great religious +personalities, that in a decisive act of the soul the doctrinal idea of +mediation recedes into the background, and a direct relationship with +God becomes a fact of immediacy and intimacy." + +So Eucken will have nothing to do with the idea of mediation in its +doctrinal significance--pointing out that "the idea of mediation glides +easily into a further mediation." "Has not the figure of Christ receded +in Catholicism, and does not the figure of Mary constitute the centre of +the religious emotional life?" + +He does, however, lay great store by the help that a man may be to other +men in their upward path: "The human, personality who first and foremost +brought eternal truth to the plane of time, and through this +inaugurated a new epoch, remains permanently present in the picture of +the spiritual world, and is able permanently to exercise a mighty power +upon the soul ... but all this is far removed from any idea of +mediation." + +Eucken believes in _revelation_, but through action, and not through +contemplation. To the personality struggling upward, with its aims set +towards the highest in life, the spiritual life reveals itself. He does +not confine revelation to certain periods in time, and believes that +such revelation comes to all spiritual personalities. + +He holds, too, that the spiritual personalities are themselves +revelations of the Universal Spiritual Life, and that the Spiritual Life +does reveal itself most clearly in personalities. + +How the revelation comes he does not discuss in any detail, but he is +very certain that it comes through action and fight for the highest. + +It is perhaps largely due to his activistic standpoint that Eucken does +not deal with _prayer_. In the _Truth of Religion_, which deals very +fully with most aspects of religion, and purports to be a complete +discussion of religion, no treatment of prayer is given. He speaks of +the developing personality as drawing upon the resources of the +Universal Spiritual Life, but this appears to be in action, and not in +prayer or communion. + +He is ever suspicious of intellectual contemplation, and this leads him +to attribute less importance than perhaps he should to _mysticism_, to +prayer, adoration, and worship. He admits that mysticism contains a +truth that is vital to religion, but complains that it becomes for many +the whole of religion. Its proper function is to liberate the human mind +from the narrowly human, and to emphasise a total-life, the great Whole. +It fails, however, "because it turns this necessary portion of religion +into the sole content. To it, religion is nothing other than an +absorption into the infinite and eternal Being--an extinguishing of all +particularity, and the gaining of a complete calm through the suspension +of all the wear and tear of life." + +Eucken's discussion of _faith and doubt_ is very illuminating. He +protests against the conception of faith which concerns itself merely +with the intellectual acceptance of this or that doctrine. This narrows +and weakens its power, confining it to one department of life; whereas +faith is concerned with the whole of life. + +Faith is for Eucken "a conviction of an axiomatic character, which +refuses to be analysed into reasons, and which, indeed, precedes all +reasons ... the recognition of the inner presence of an infinite +energy." + +If faith concerns itself with, and proceeds from the whole of life, it +will then take account of the work of thought, and will not set itself +in opposition to reason. But it will lead where reason fails. It is not +limited by intellectual limitations, though it does not underrate or +neglect the achievements of the intellect. Faith enables life to +"maintain itself against a hostile or indifferent world; ... it holds +itself fast to invisible facts against the hard opposition of visible +existence." + +The vital importance of such faith to religion is clearly evident; and +bound up with this is the significance of doubt. Doubt, too, becomes +now, not an intellectual matter, but a matter for the whole of life. "If +faith carries within itself so much movement and struggle, it is not +surprising ... if faith and doubt set themselves against each other, and +if the soul is set in a painful dilemma." Eucken considers it to be an +inevitable, and indeed a necessary accompaniment of religious +experience, and his own words on the point are forcible and clear. +"Doubt ... does not appear as something monstrous and atrocious, though +it would appear so if a perfect circle of ideas presented itself to man +and demanded his assent as a bounden duty. For where it is necessary to +lay hold on a new life, and to bring to consummation an inward +transformation, then a personal experience and testing are needed. But +no proof is definite which clings from the beginning to the final +result, and places on one side all possibility of an antithesis. The +opposite possibility must be thought out and lived through if the Yea is +to possess full energy and genuineness. Thus doubt becomes a necessary, +if also an uncomfortable, companion of religion; it is indispensable for +the conservation of the full freshness and originality of religion--for +the freeing of religion from conventional forms and phrases." + +Eucken's views on _immortality_ have already been dealt with. He does +not accept the Christian conception of it, for he seems to limit the +possibility to those in whom spiritual personalities have been +developed, and he evidently does not believe that the "natural +individuality with all its egoism and limitations" is going to persist. + +In discussing the question of _miracle_, Eucken weighs the fact that a +conviction of the possibility of miracle has been held by millions in +various religions, and particularly in Christianity. He considers that +the question of miracle is of more importance in the Christian religion +than in any other, one miracle--the Resurrection--having been taken +right into the heart of Christian doctrine. He finds, however, that the +miracle is entirely inconsistent with an exact scientific conception of +nature, and means "an overthrow of the total order of nature as this +has been set forth through the fundamental work of modern +investigation." He does not consider such a position can be held without +overwhelming evidence, and does not feel the traditional fact to have +this degree of certainty, or to be inexplicable in another way. He +considers that the explanation of the miracle probably lies in the +psychic state of the witnesses. + +Eucken shows in general extreme reluctance to make a historical event a +foundation of belief, and this no doubt accounts to some extent for his +attitude with regard to miracles. He points out that "the founders of +religion have themselves protested against a craving after sensuous +signs," and that this protest "is no other than the sign of spiritual +power and of a Divine message and greatness." He considers that the +belief in, and craving for, sensuous miracle is an outcome of a +"mid-level of religion," where belief is waning and spirituality +declining. While, thus, he does not believe in sensuous miracle, he +acknowledges and lays the greatest stress on one miracle--the presence +of the Spiritual Life in man. It is, indeed, this miracle that renders +others unnecessary. + +In discussing the doctrine of the _Incarnation_, Eucken attempts to get +at the inner meaning--the truth which the doctrine endeavours to +express, and he finds this to consist in the fact of the ultimate union +of the human and Divine, and this truth is one that we dare not +renounce. He criticises the attempt that is made in Christianity to show +that such union only obtained once in the course of history. Incarnation +is not one historical event, but a spiritual process; not an article of +belief, but a living experience of each spiritual personality. + +He considers as injurious to religion in general the Christian +conception of the _Atonement_. He believes that the idea that is to be +expressed is that of the nearness of God to man in guilt and in +suffering. In endeavouring to express this close intimacy the idea of +suffering was transferred to God himself. The anthropomorphic idea of +reconciliation and substitution thus arose, and this Eucken considers to +have done harm. "The notion that God does not help us through His own +will and power, but requires first of all His own feeling of pity to be +roused, is an outrage on God and a darkening of the foundation of +religion." So Eucken objects to the attempt to formulate the mystery +into dogma. "All dogmatic formulation of such fundamental truths of +religion becomes inevitably a rationalism and a treatment of the problem +by means of human relationships, and according to human standards." "It +is sufficient for the religious conviction to experience the nearness of +God in human suffering, and His help in the raising of life out of +suffering into a new life beyond all the insufficiency of reason. +Indeed, the more intuitively this necessary truth is grasped, the less +does it combine into a dogmatic speculation and the purer and more +energetically is it able to work." + +The conception of the _Trinity_ is again an attempt to express the union +of Divine and human, "the inauguration of the Divine Nature within human +life." The dogma, however, involves ideas of a particular generation, +and so threatens to become, and has indeed become, burdensome to a later +age which no longer holds these ideas. Further, the doctrine of the +Trinity has mixed up a fundamental truth of religion with abstruse +philosophical speculations, and this has provided a stumbling-block +rather than a help. + +At the same time, Eucken lays the greatest stress on the _personality of +Jesus_. He considers the personality of Jesus to be of more importance +to Christianity than is the personality of its founder to any other +religion. "Such a personality as Jesus is not the mere bearer of +doctrines, or of a special frame of mind, but is a convincing fact, and +proof of the Divine life, a proof at which new life can be kindled over +anew." And again: "It is from this source that a great yearning has been +implanted within the human breast ... a longing for a new life of love +and peace, of purity and simplicity. Such a life, with its incomparable +nature and its mysterious depths, does not exhaust itself through +historical effects, but humanity can from hence ever return afresh to +its inmost essence, and can strengthen itself ever anew through the +certainty of a new, pure, and spiritual world over against the +meaningless aspects of nature and over against the vulgar mechanism of a +culture merely human." But while he would appreciate the depth and +richness of the personality of Jesus, he protests against the worship of +Jesus as divine, and the making of Him the centre of religion. The +greatness of Christ is confined to the realm of humanity, and there is +in all men a possibility of attaining similar heights. + +Christianity is, in Eucken's view, much more closely bound up with +historical events than any other religion, and it thus suffers more +severe treatment at the hands of historical criticism than any other +religion. Eucken considers such historical criticism to be of great +value. In Christianity as in other religions we find the eternal not in +its pure form, but mixed with the temporal and variable, and historical +criticism will help in the separation of the temporal from the eternal +elements. In so doing it does an immense service, for it frees religion +from fixation to one special point of time, and enables us to regard it +as ever developing and progressing to greater depths. + +Eucken emphasises that the _historical basis_ of Christianity is not +Christianity itself, is not essentially religious; and he quotes +Lessing, Kant, and Fichte to support him in his contention that a belief +in such a historical basis is not necessary to religion, and may even +prove harmful to it. The historical basis is, of course, useful as +bringing out into clear relief the personality of Jesus, and the other +great spiritual personalities associated in His work, and Eucken lays +stress upon the use that history can be to Christianity in giving +records of the experiences of great spiritual personalities in all ages, +but it is important that the history is here a means to an end, and not +an end in itself, and that the importance lies in the spiritual +experience and not in the historical facts. + +When one considers how little Eucken has to say concerning worship, and +how little emphasis he places upon historical and doctrinal forms in +religion, one wonders how it is he attaches so much importance to the +functions of the _Church_. He points out that a Church is necessary to +religion, that it seems to be the only way of making religion real and +effective for man. "The Church seems indispensable in order to introduce +and to hold at hand the new world and the new life to man in the midst +of his ordinary existence; it is indispensable in order to fortify the +conviction and to strengthen the energy in the midst of all the opposite +collisions; it is indispensable in order to uphold an eternal truth and +a universal problem in the midst of the fleetingness of the moment." In +the past, however, much harm has been done to religion by the Church. +This has arisen from several reasons. To begin with, it tends to narrow +religion, which is concerned with life, to the realm of ideas, and to +tie down religion by connecting it with a thought-system of a particular +age. Further, the necessary mechanical routine, and the appointment of +special persons to carry out this routine, tends to elevate the routine +and these special persons to a far higher place than they should occupy. +Again, spiritual things have been dragged into the service of personal +ambition, and bound up with human interests. The most serious danger, +however, is that religion, from being an inward matter, tends to become +externalised. + +Despite this, an organised Church cannot be dispensed with, and Eucken +points out what changes are necessary to make the Church effective. One +important point he makes clear, namely, that as the Church must speak to +all, and every day, and not only to spiritually distinguished souls, and +in moments of elevated feeling, then the teaching of the Church will +always lag behind religion itself, and must be considered as an +inadequate expression of it. + +It is necessary that there should be no coercion with regard to men's +attitude towards the Church, and men should be free to join this or that +Church, or no Church at all. + +Then there must be more freedom, movement, and individuality within the +Church. What the Church holds as a final result of the experience of +life cannot be expected as the confession of all, especially of the +young. "How can every man and every child feel what such a mightily +contrasted nature as Luther's with all its convulsive experiences felt?" + +Then the Church must not so much teach this or that doctrine as point to +the Spiritual Life, set forth the conditions of its development, and be +the representative of the higher world. Thus, and thus only, Eucken +thinks that the Church can fulfil its proper function, and avoid being a +danger to religion. + +Eucken's _appreciation of Christianity_ is sincere. Viewing it from the +standpoint of the Spiritual Life, he finds that it fulfils the +conditions that religion should fulfil. It is based on freedom, and on +the presence of the Divine in humanity, even to the extent of a complete +union between them. The ideal of the Christian life is a personal life +of pure inwardness, and of an ethical character. He speaks of the "flow +of inner life by means of which Christianity far surpasses all other +religions," and of the "unfathomable depth and immeasurable hope which +are contained in the Christian faith." + +In Christianity the life of Christ has a value transcending all time, +and is a standard by which to judge all other lives. There is, too, in +Christianity a complete transformation or break, which must take place +before any progress or development can take place. + +"There is no need of a breach with Christianity; it can be to us what a +historical religion pre-eminently is meant to be--a sure pathway to +truth, an awakener of immediate and intimate life, a vivid +representation and realisation of an Eternal Order which all the changes +of time cannot possess or destroy." + +At the same time, there are changes necessary in the form of +Christianity, if it is to answer to the demands of the age, and be the +Absolute Religion. It must be shorn of temporary accretions, and must +cast aside the ideas of any one particular age which have now been +superseded. No longer can it retain the primitive view of nature and the +world which formerly obtained, no longer must it take up a somewhat +negative and passive attitude, but, realising that religion is a matter +of the whole life, must energetically work itself out through all +departments of life. It must remedy wrong, not merely endure it. It must +proceed from a narrow and subjective point of view to a cosmic one, +without at the same time losing sight of the fact that religion is an +inward and personal matter. It must take account to the full of the +value of man as man, and of the possibilities latent in him, and take +account of his own activity in his salvation. + +The Christian ideal of life must be a more joyous one, of greater +spiritual power, and the idea of redemption must not stop short at +redemption from evil, but must progress to a restoration to free and +self-determining activity. Since an absolute religion is based on the +spiritual life, the form in which it is clothed must not be too +rigid--life cannot be bound within a rigid creed. With its form modified +in this way, Eucken considers that Christianity may well be the Absolute +Religion, and that not only we can be, but we _must_ be Christians if +life is to have for us the highest meaning and value. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +CONCLUSION: CRITICISM AND APPRECIATION + + +We have attempted to enunciate the special problem with which Eucken +deals, and to follow him in his masterly criticisms of the solutions +that have been offered, in his further search for the reality in life, +in his arguments and statement of the philosophy of the spiritual life, +and finally in his profound and able investigation into the eternal +truth that is to be found in religion. In doing so, we have only been +able in a few cases to suggest points of criticism, and sometimes to +emphasise the special merits of the work. It was necessary to choose +between making a critical examination of a few points, and setting forth +in outline his philosophy as a whole. It was felt that it would be more +profitable for the average reader if the latter course were adopted. +Thousands who have heard the name of Eucken and have read frequent +references to him are asking, "What has Eucken really to say?" and we +have attempted to give a systematic, if brief, answer to the question. +Having done this it will be well to mention some of the main points of +criticism that have been made, and to call attention again to some of +the remarkable aspects of the contributions he has made to philosophy +and religion. + +Several critics complain of the obscurity of his writings, of his loose +use of terms, and of his tendency to use freely such indefinite and +abstruse terms as "The Whole," "The All," &c., and of his tendency to +repeat himself. Of course, if he is guilty of these faults, and he +certainly is to some extent, they are merely faults of style, and do not +necessarily affect the truth or otherwise of his opinions. In the matter +of clarity he is very variable; occasional sentences are brilliantly +clear, others present considerable difficulty to the practised student. +His more popular works, however, are much clearer and easier to +understand than the two standard treatises on _The Truth of Religion_ +and _Life's Basis and Life's Ideal_. His tendency to repetition is by no +means an unmixed evil, for even when he appears to be repeating himself, +he is very often in reality expressing new shades of meaning, which help +towards the better understanding of the first statements. + +The slight looseness in the use of terms, and a certain inexactness of +expression that is sometimes apparent, must of course not be +exaggerated; it is by no means serious enough to invalidate his main +argument. It gives an opportunity for a great deal of superficial +criticism on the part of unsympathetic writers, which, however, can do +little harm to Eucken's position. One has to remember that it is +difficult to combine the fervour of a prophet with pedantic exactness, +and that an inspired and profound philosopher cannot be expected to +spend much time over verbal niceties. + +Of course one would prefer absolute clarity and exactness, but we must +guard against allowing the absence of these things to prejudice us +against the profound truths of a philosophical position, which are not +vitally affected by that absence. + +Frequent criticism is directed towards the incompleteness of Eucken's +philosophy. He does not introduce his philosophy with a systematic +discussion of the great epistemological and ontological problems. +Philosophers have often introduced their work in this way, and it has +been customary to expect an introduction of the kind. To do so, however, +would be quite out of keeping with Eucken's activistic position, as it +would necessarily involve much intellectual speculation, and he does not +believe that the problem of life can be solved by such speculation. It +is unfortunate that he has so little to say concerning the world of +matter. Beyond insisting upon the superiority of the spiritual life, +which he calls the "substantial," over matter, which he calls the merely +"existential," he tells us very little about the material world. Rightly +or wrongly, thinkers are deeply interested in the merely existential, in +the periphery of life, in the material world, but for the solution of +this problem Eucken contributes little or nothing. His sole concern is +the spiritual world, and although we should like an elaboration of his +views on the mere periphery of life, we must not let the fact that he +does not give it, lead us to undervalue his real contributions. Another +serious incompleteness lies in the fact that he pays little attention to +the psychological implications of his theories. Until he does this, his +philosophy cannot be regarded as complete. Eucken, however, would be the +last to claim that his solution is a finished or final one; he is +content if his work is a substantial contribution to the final solution. + +Objection has been taken to the fact that he starts upon his task with a +definite bias in a certain direction. He candidly admits from the outset +that his aim is to find a meaning for life, and in doing this he of +course tacitly assumes that life has a deep and profound meaning. Strict +scientists aver that the investigator must set out without prejudice, to +examine the phenomena he observes; and Eucken's initial bias may form a +fatal stumbling-block to the acceptance of his philosophy by these, or +indeed, by any who are not disposed to accept this fundamental position. +If we deny that life has a meaning, then Eucken has little for us; but +if we are merely doubtful on the matter, the reading of Eucken will +probably bring conviction. + +Many critics point to the far-reaching assumptions he makes. He assumes +as axiomatic certainties and insoluble mysteries the existence of the +spiritual life in man, the union of the human and divine, and the +freedom of the spiritual personalities, though in a sense dependent upon +the Universal Spiritual Life. This of course does not mean that he is in +the habit of making unjustifiable assumptions. This is far from being +the case; on the contrary, he takes the greatest care in the matter of +his speculative bases. There are some fundamental facts of life, +however, which according to Eucken are proved to us by life itself; we +feel they must be true, but they are not truths that can be reasoned +about, nor proved by the intellect alone. These are the three great +facts mentioned above, which, while not admitting of proof, must be +regarded as certainties. + +His contention that they cannot be reasoned about has led to the further +charge of irrationalism. The question that has to be decided is, whether +Eucken in emphasising the fact that great truths must be solved by life +and action, is underestimating the part that intellect must play in +life. The decision must be largely one of individual opinion. Many +critics are of the opinion that he does lay too little stress upon the +intellectual factor in life. In actual fact, however, the fault is more +apparent than real, for Eucken does in fact reason and argue closely +concerning the facts of life. The charge, too, is to some extent due to +the fact that he continually attacks the over-emphasis on the +intellectual that the people of his own race--the Germans--are apt to +place. With the glorification of the intellect he has no sympathy, for +he feels there is something higher and more valuable in life than +thought--and that is action. + +These are the main points of criticism that have been raised--the reader +must judge for himself how seriously they should be regarded. But before +arriving at a final opinion he must think again of the contributions +Eucken has indubitably made to philosophy and religion, of which we +shall again in brief remind him. + +He has given us a striking examination of the various theories of life, +and has ably demonstrated their inadequacy. He has displayed great +scholarship in his search for the ultimate reality. He has found this +reality in the universal life, and has urged the need for a break with +the natural world in order to enter upon a higher life. He has traced +the progress of the spiritual life, and has given us ultimately a bold +vindication of human personality and of the freedom of the spiritual +being. + +He has raised philosophy from being mere discussions concerning abstract +theories to a discussion of life itself. In this way philosophy becomes +not merely a theory concerning the universe, nor merely a theory of +life, but a real factor in life itself--indeed it becomes itself a life. +Thus has he given to philosophy a higher ideal, a new urgency--by his +continued emphasis upon the spiritual he has given to philosophy a +nobler and a higher mission. He has placed the emphasis in general upon +life, and has pointed out the inability of the intellect to solve all +life's problems. He has given to idealistic philosophies a possible +rallying-point, where theories differing in detail can meet on common +ground. As one eminent writer says: "The depth and inclusiveness of +Eucken's philosophy, the comprehensiveness of its substructure and its +stimulating personal quality, mark it out as the right rallying-point +for the idealistic endeavour of to-day." + +And what does he give to religion? Many will reply that he has given us +nothing that is not already in the Christian religion. Therein lies the +value and strength of Eucken's contributions. He has given a striking +vindication of the spiritual content of Christianity as against the +effects of time changes. He has attempted to bring out the contrast +between what is really vital, and what are merely temporary colourings +and accretions. He makes many of the main elements of Christianity +acceptable without the need of a historical basis or proof. Not only +does he present the Christian position as a reasonable view of the +problem of life, but as the only solution that can really solve the +final problem. He has cleared the decks of all superfluous baggage, and +has laid bare a firm basis for a practical, constructive endeavour. + +He has given us in himself a profound believer in the inward and higher +nature of man, and in the existence of the spiritual life. As one critic +says: "The earnestness, depth and grandeur, humility and conscious +choice of high ideals, have raised his work far above mere intellectual +acuteness and minuteness." + +In Eucken we have one of the greatest thinkers of the age--some would +say _the_ greatest--setting his life upon emphasising the spiritual at a +time when the tendency is strongly in materialistic directions. He has +gathered around him a number of able and whole-hearted disciples in +various countries, and future ages may find in Eucken the greatest +force in the revulsion of the twentieth century (that is already making +itself felt) from the extreme materialistic position, to take religion +up again, and particularly the Christian religion, as the only +satisfying solution of humanity's most urgent problem. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +The English reader should first read: + +_The Meaning and Value of Life_ (A. & C. Black), which is a good + introduction to Eucken's philosophy; and +_The Life of the Spirit_ (Williams & Norgate). + +He can then proceed to study Eucken's three comprehensive and important +works: + +_Life's Basis and Life's Ideal_, in which he gives a detailed presentation + of his philosophy (A. & C. Black). +_The Truth of Religion_, in which he gives his ideas on religion (Williams + & Norgate). +_The Problem of Human Life_, in which he makes a searching analysis of the + philosophies of the past (Fisher Unwin). + +The student will be much helped in his study by the following books: + +_Eucken and Bergson_, by E. Hermann (James Clark & Co.). +_Rudolf Eucken's Philosophy of Life_, by Professor W.R. Boyce Gibson + (A. & C. Black). + +When he has studied these he will probably be anxious to read other +works of Eucken's, of which translations have already appeared, or are +soon to appear. + + + + +INDEX + + +Absolute, the, 63 +---- Freedom and the, 61, 62 +---- Personality and the, 62, 63 +---- and historical religion, chap. viii. +---- religion, Christianity as the, 72 + +Activism, 41, 42 + +Atonement, the, 79 + + +Bergson, 39 + +Buddhism, 70, 71 + + +Characteristic Religion, 66, 67 + +Characteristics of a satisfactory solution of life, 16 + +Christ, as mediator, 74 +---- Personality of, 80 +---- Value of life of, 83 + +Christian Church, 81, 82 + +Christianity, and historical bases, 80, 81 +---- Appreciation of, 83 +---- as absolute religion, 72 +---- highest form of religion, 71, 72 + +Conversion, 57, 73 + + +Doubt, 76 + + +Empiricism, 36, 37 + +Eternal and transient in religion and Christianity, 72, 73 +---- truth contrasted with its temporary expression, 44, 45 + +Eucken, assumptions made by, 88 +---- bias, 87 +---- charge of irrationalism, 88, 89 +---- contributions to philosophy and religion, 90, 91 +---- faults of style, 86 +---- Incompleteness of philosophy of, 87 +---- Special excellences of philosophy of, 89 + +Evil, 51 + + +Faith, 76 + +Freedom, ascent to, 59 +---- and the absolute, 61, 62 +---- and naturalism, 26 + + +God, is God a person? 63, 64 +---- Nature of, 63, 64 + + +Historical and absolute religion, chap. viii. +---- bases of Christianity, 80, 81 + +History and philosophy, 43-49 +---- and religion, 17, 18 + + +Idealistic presuppositions of socialism and individualism, 31, 48 + +Ideas, power of, 46 + +Immanent idealism as a solution of the problem of life, 19-22 + +Immediacy, the new, 58 + +Immortality, 60, 77 + +Incarnation, 78 + +Independence of the spiritual life, 52, 53 + +Individualism, and personality, 59, 62 +---- as a solution of the problem of life, 26-32 +---- idealistic presuppositions of, 31, 48 + +Irrationalism, charge of, 88, 89 + + +James, William, 39, 40 + + +Law, religions of, 69, 70 + +Life, independence of the spiritual, 52 +---- spiritual, relation of, to natural life, 52-54 +---- ---- superiority over natural life, 52-54 +---- The spiritual, 14 +---- The universal spiritual, 44, 49, chaps. v., vi., vii. (vii. + especially). + + +Maeterlinck, 44 + +Man, natural and spiritual, 53, 54 +---- transcending the material, 46 + +Mediation, 74 + +Mediator, Christ as, 74 + +Methods of Eucken, 14, 15 + +Mind, limits of, 52 + +Miracle, 77 + +Mysticism, 75 + + +Naturalism and freedom, 26 +---- as a solution of the problem of life, 22-26 +---- its own disproof, 25 + +Natural life, relation to spiritual life, 52-54 +---- ---- Superiority of spiritual over, 52-54 +---- man and spiritual man, 53, 54 + +Nature, limits of, 52 +---- of God, 63, 64 + +Negative movement, the, 57, 73 + +New immediacy, the, 58 + +Noeological position, the, 50 + + +Pantheism, 20, 51, 56 + +Past, the, not irrevocable, 44, 73 + +Personality and individualism, 59, 62 +---- and the absolute, 62, 63 +---- gaining of, 54, 59 +---- of Christ, 80 +---- of God, 63, 64 + +Philosophy and history, 43-49 +---- of life, 13 +---- problems of, 10, 11 + +Pragmatism, 40, 41 + +Prayer, 75 + +Problem, Eucken's special, 12-14 + +Problems of philosophy, 10, 11 + +Purpose of Eucken's investigation, 13 +---- of religion, 65, 66 + + +Rationalism, 37-39 + +Redemption, 73 + +Religion and history, 17, 18 +---- and human activity, 18 +---- and science, 19 +---- as solution of problem of life, 16, 19 +---- Characteristic, 66, 67 +---- Christianity as highest form of, 71, 72 +---- Christianity as the absolute, 72 +---- Essential characteristics of, 65, 66 +---- Eternal and transient in, 72, 73 +---- Eucken's contributions to, 90, 91 +---- Historical and absolute, chap. viii. +---- of law, 69, 70 +---- of redemption, 69, 70 +---- Purpose of, 65, 66 +---- Universal, 66 +---- what is it? 64, 65 + +Resurrection, the, 77 + +Revelation, 75 + + +Science, and religion, 17 + +Socialism, as a solution of the problem of life, 26-32 +---- idealistic presuppositions of, 31, 48 + +Spiritual life, 14 +---- ---- Independence of the, 52 +---- ---- Relation of, to natural life, 52-54 +---- ---- Superiority of, over material and mental, 52-54 +---- ---- The universal, 47-49, and chaps. v., vi., and vii. (vii. + especially) + +Spiritual man and natural man, 53, 54 + + +Trinity, the, 79 + +Truth, 44, 45 +---- another search for, chap. iii. + + +Universal Religion, 66 +---- spiritual life, 47-49, and chaps, v., vi., and vii. (vii. especially) + + + + + +Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. +Edinburgh & London + + + + +THE PEOPLE'S BOOKS + +THE FIRST HUNDRED VOLUMES + +The volumes issued (Spring 1913) are marked with an asterisk + +SCIENCE + +------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + *1. The Foundations of Science By W.C.D. Whetham, F.R.S. + + *2. Embryology--The Beginnings of Life By Prof. Gerald Leighton, M.D. + + 3. Biology--The Science of Life By Prof. W.D. Henderson, M.A. + + *4. Zoology: The Study of Animal Life By Prof. E.W. MacBride, F.R.S. + + *5. Botany; The Modern Study of Plants By M.C. Stopes, D. Sc., Ph. D. + + 6. Bacteriology By W.E. Carnegie Dickson, M.D. + + *7. The Structure of the Earth By the Rev. T.G. Bonney, F.R.S. + + *8. Evolution By E.S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S. + + 9. Darwin By Prof. W. Garstang, M.A., D. Sc. + + *10. Heredity By J.A.S. Watson, B. Sc. + + *11. Inorganic Chemistry By Prof. E.C.C. Baly, F.R.S. + + *12. Organic Chemistry By Prof. J.B. Cohen, B. Sc., + F.R.S. + + *13. The Principles of Electricity By Norman R. Campbell, M.A. + + *14. Radiation By P. Phillips, D. Sc. + + *15. The Science of the Stars By E.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S. + + 16. Light, according to Modern Science By P. Phillips. D. Sc. + + *17. Weather-Science By R.G.K. Lempfert, M.A. + + *18. Hypnotism By Alice Hutchison, M.D. + + *19. The Baby: A Mother's Book By a University Woman. + + 20. Youth and Sex--Dangers and By Mary Scharlieb, M.D., M.S., + Safeguards for Boys and Girls and G.E.C. Pritchard, M.A., M.D. + + *21. Motherhood--A Wife's Handbook By H.S. Davidson, F.R.C.S.E. + + *22. Lord Kelvin By A. Russell, M.A., D. Sc. + + *23. Huxley By Professor G. Leighton, M.D. + + 24. Sir W. Huggins and Spectroscopic By E.W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., of + Astronomy the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. + + *62. Practical Astronomy By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S. + + *63. Aviation By Sydney F. Walker, R.N., + M.I.E.E. + + *64. Navigation By W. Hall, R.N., B.A. + + *65. Pond Life By E.C. Ash, M.R.A.C. + + *66. Dietetics By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P.H. + + *94. The Nature of Mathematics By P.G.B. Jourdain, M.A. + + 95. Applications of Electricity By Alex. Ogilvie, B. Sc. + + 96. The Small Garden By A. Cecil Bartlett. + + 97. The Care of the Teeth By J.A. Young, L.D.S. + + *98. Atlas of the World By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S + + + PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION + + 25. The Meaning of Philosophy By T. Loveday, M.A. + + *26. Henri Bergson By H. Wildon Carr. + + *27. Psychology By H.J. Watt, M.A., Ph. D. + + 28. Ethics By Canon Rashdall, D. Litt., + F.B.A. + + 29. Kant's Philosophy By A.D. Lindsay, M.A. + + 30. The Teaching of Plato By A.D. Lindsay, M.A. + + *67. Aristotle By Prof. A.E. Taylor, M.A., F.B.A. + + *68. Nietzsche By M.A. Muegge, Ph. D. + + *69. Eucken By A.J. Jones, M.A., B. Sc., + Ph. D. + + 70. The Experimental Psychology By C.W. Valentine, B.A. + of Beauty + + 71. The Problem of Truth By H. Wildon Carr. + + 99. George Berkeley: the Philosophy By G Dawes Hicks; Litt.D. + of Idealism + + 31. Buddhism By Prof. T.W. Rhys Davids, F.B.A. + + *32. Roman Catholicism By H.B. Coxon. + + 33. The Oxford Movement By Wilfrid P. Ward. + + *34. The Bible in the Light By Rev. W.F. Adeney, M.A., and + of the Higher Criticism Rev. Prof. W.H. Bennett, Litt.D. + + 35. Cardinal Newman By Wilfrid Meynell. + + *72. The Church of England By Rev. Canon Masterman. + + 73. Anglo-Catholicism By A.E. Manning Foster. + + *74. The Free Churches By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A. + + 75. Judaism By Ephraim Levine, B.A. + + *76. Theosophy By Annie Besant. + + + HISTORY + + *36. The Growth of Freedom By H.W. Nevinson. + + 37. Bismarck By Prof. F.M. Powicke, M.A. + + *38. Oliver Cromwell By Hilda Johnstone, M.A. + + *39. Mary Queen of Scots By E. O'Neill, M.A. + + *40. Cecil Rhodes By Ian Colvin. + + *41. Julius Caesar By Hilary Hardinge. + + History of England-- + + 42. England in the Making By Prof. F.J.C. Hearnshaw, LL.D. + + *43. England in the Middle Ages By E. O'Neill, M.A. + + 44. The Monarchy and the People By W.T. Waugh, M.A. + + 45. The Industrial Revolution By A. Jones, M.A. + + 46. Empire and Democracy By G.S. Veitch, M.A. + + *61. Home Rule By L.G. Redmond Howard. + + 77. Nelson By H.W. Wilson. + + *78. Wellington and Waterloo By Major G.W. Redway. + + 100. A History of Greece By E. Fearenside, B.A. + + 101. Luther and the Reformation By L.D. Agate, M.A. + + 102. The Discovery of the New World By F.B. Kirkman, B.A. + + *103. Turkey and the Eastern Question By John Macdonald. + + 104. A History of Architecture By Mrs. Arthur Bell. + + + SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC + + *47. Women's Suffrage By M.G. Fawcett, LL.D. + + 48. The Working of the British System By Prof. Ramsay Muir, M.A. + of Government to-day + + 49. An Introduction to Economic By Prof. H.O. Meredith, M.A. + Science + + 50. Socialism By F.B. Kirkman, B.A. + + 79. Socialist Theories in the By Rev. B. Jarrett, O.P., M.A. + Middle Ages + + *80. Syndicalism By J.H. Harley, M.A. + + 81. Labour and Wages By H.M. Hallsworth, M.A., B. Sc. + + *82. Co-operation By Joseph Clayton. + + *83. Insurance as Investment By W.A. Robertson, F.F.A. + + *92. The Training of the Child By G. Spiller. + + 105. Trade Unions By Joseph Clayton. + + *106. Everyday Law By J.J. Adams. + + + LETTERS + + *51. Shakespeare By Prof. C.H. Herford, Litt.D. + + *52. Wordsworth By Rosaline Masson. + + *53. Pure Gold--A Choice of Lyrics By H.C. O'Neill. + and Sonnets + + *54. Francis Bacon By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A. + + *55. The Brontes By Flora Masson. + + *56. Carlyle By the Rev. L. MacLean Watt. + + *57. Dante By A.G. Ferrers Howell. + + 58. Ruskin By A. Blyth Webster, M.A. + + 59. Common Faults in Writing English By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A. + + *60. A Dictionary of Synonyms By Austin K. Gray, B.A. + + 84. Classical Dictionary By A.E. Stirling. + + *85. History of English Literature By A. Compton-Rickett. + + 86. Browning By Prof. A.R. Skemp, M.A. + + 87. Charles Lamb By Flora Masson. + + 88. Goethe By Prof. C.H. Herford, Litt.D. + + 89. Balzac By Frank Harris. + + 90. Rousseau By H. Sacher. + + 91. Ibsen By Hilary Hardinge. + + *93. Tennyson By Aaron Watson. + + 107. R.L. Stevenson By Rosaline Masson. + + 108. Shelley By Sydney Waterlow. + + 109. William Morris By A. 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