diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/14681.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/14681.txt | 14333 |
1 files changed, 14333 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/14681.txt b/old/14681.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..07d5f36 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/14681.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14333 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art of Travel, by Francis Galton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Art of Travel + Shifts and Contrivances Available in Wild Countries + +Author: Francis Galton + +Release Date: January 13, 2005 [EBook #14681] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF TRAVEL *** + + + + +Produced by Amy Zelmer + + + + + +Francis Galton +The Art of Travel (1872) +first published in Great Britain by John Murray, London in 1872. + + +THE ART OF TRAVEL or Shifts and Contrivances Available in Wild Countries + +Francis Galton + + + + +CONTENTS + + + +THE ART OF TRAVEL + +Preparatory Enquiries +Organising an Expedition +Outfit +Medicine +Surveying Instruments +Memoranda and Log-Books +Measurements +Climbing and Mountaineering +Cattle +Harness +Carriages +Swimming +Rafts and Boats +Fords and Bridges +Clothing +Bedding +Bivouac +Huts +Sleeping-Bags +Tents +Furniture +Fire +Food +Water for Drinking +Guns and Rifles +Gun-fittings and Ammunition +Shooting, hints on +Game, other means of capturing +Fishing +Signals +Bearings by Compass, Sun, etc. +Marks by the wayside +Way, to find +Caches and Depots +Savages, Management of +Hostilities +Mechanical Appliances +Knots +Writing Materials +Timber +Metals +Leather +Cords, String, and Thread +Membrane, Sinew, and Horn +Pottery +Candles and Lamps +Conclusion of the Journey + + +PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. + + + +This Edition does not differ materially from the fourth. I have +incorporated some new material, including Colomb and Bolton's flashing +signals, but in other respects the Work is little altered. I therefore +reprint the + + +PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. + + +In publishing a fourth Edition of the 'Art of Travel,' it is well that I +should preface it with a few words of explanation on the origin and +intention of the Book and on the difference between this and former +Editions. + +The idea of the work occurred to me when exploring South-western Africa +in 1850-51. I felt acutely at that time the impossibility of obtaining +sufficient information on the subjects of which it treats; for though the +natives of that country taught me a great deal, it was obvious that their +acquaintance with bush lore was exceedingly partial and limited. Then +remembering how the traditional maxims and methods of travelling in each +country differ from those of others, and how every traveller discovers +some useful contrivances for himself, it appeared to me, that I should do +welcome service to all who have to rough it--whether explorers, +emigrants, missionaries or soldiers,*--by collecting the scattered +experiences of many such persons in various circumstances, collating +them, examining into their principles, and deducing from them what might +fairly be called an "Art of Travel." To this end, on my return home, I +searched through a vast number of geographical works, I sought +information from numerous travellers of distinction and I made a point of +re-testing, in every needful case, what I had read or learned by hearsay. + +[Footnote] * ". . . the soldier should be taught all such practical +expedients and their philosophy, as are laid down in Mr. Galton's useful +little book . . . "--'Minute by the late Sir James Outram on Army +Management.' Parliamentary Return, of May 240, p. 159. + +It should be understood that I do not profess to give exhaustive +treatises on each of the numerous subjects comprised in this volume, but +only such information as is not generally known among travellers. A +striking instance of the limited geographical area over which the +knowledge of many useful contrivances extends, is that described as a +'Dateram,' p. 164, by which tent ropes may be secured in sand of the +loosest description. Though tents are used over an enormous extent of +sandy country, in all of which this simple contrivance would be of the +utmost value on every stormy night, and though the art of pitching tents +is studied by the troops of all civilised and partly civilised nations, +yet I believe that the use of the dateram never extended beyond the +limits of a comparatively small district in the south of the Sahara, +until I had described it in a former Edition; and further, my knowledge +of that contrivance was wholly due to a single traveller, the late Dr. +Barth. + +The first Edition of the 'Art of Travel' was published in 1854: it was +far less comprehensive than the later ones; for my materials steadily +accumulate, and each successive Edition has shown a marked improvement on +its predecessor. Hitherto I have adhered to the original arrangement of +the work, but am now obliged to deviate from it, for the contents have +outgrown the system of classification I first adopted. Before I could +interpolate the new matter prepared for this Edition, I found it +necessary to recast the last one, by cutting it into pieces, sorting it +into fresh paragraphs and thoroughly revising the writing--disentangling +here and consolidating there. The present Edition will consequently be +found more conveniently arranged than those that preceded it, and, at the +same time, I trust the copiousness of its Index will enable persons to +find with readiness any passage they had remarked in a former Edition, +and to which they may desire again to refer. + +I am still most thankful to strangers as well as to friends for +contributions of hints or corrections, having been indebted to many a +previously unknown correspondent for valuable information. I beg that +such communications may be addressed to me, care of my publisher, Mr. +Murray, 50, Albermarle Street, London. + +* * * * * + +P.S.--A reviewer of my Third Edition accused me of copying largely from +an American book, called 'The Prairie Traveller,' by, the then, Capt. +Randolph B. Marcy. I therefore think it well to remark that the first +Edition of that work was published in 1859 (Harper and Brothers, New +York;--by authority of the American War Department), and that the +passages in question are all taken from my second Edition published in +1856; part of them are copies of what I had myself written, the rest are +reprints of my quotations, as though the Author of the 'Prairie +Traveller' had himself originally selected them. + +I take this opportunity of remarking that though I have been indebted for +information to a very large number of authors and correspondents, yet I +am sorry to be unable to make my acknowledgements except in comparatively +few instances. The fact is that the passages in this book are seldom +traceable to distinctly definite sources: commonly more than one person +giving me information that partially covers the same subject, and not +unfrequently my own subsequent enquiries modifying or enlarging the hints +I had received. Consequently I have given the names of authorities only +when my information has been wholly due to them, or when their +descriptions are so graphic that I have transferred them without +alteration into my pages, or else when their statements require +confirmation. It will be easy to see by the context to which of these +categories each quotation belongs. + +Francis Galton + + + + +ART OF TRAVEL. + + + +PREPARATORY INQUIRIES. + + +To those who meditate Travel.--Qualifications for a Traveller.--If you +have health, a great craving for adventure, at least a moderate fortune, +and can set your heart on a definite object, which old travellers do not +think impracticable, then--travel by all means. If, in addition to these +qualifications, you have scientific taste and knowledge, I believe that +no career, in time of peace, can offer to you more advantages than that +of a traveller. If you have not independent means, you may still turn +travelling to excellent account; for experience shows it often leads to +promotion, nay, some men support themselves by travel. They explore +pasture land in Australia, they hunt for ivory in Africa, they collect +specimens of natural history for sale, or they wander as artists. + +Reputed Dangers of Travel.--A young man of good constitution, who is +bound on an enterprise sanctioned by experienced travellers, does not run +very great risks. Let those who doubt, refer to the history of the +various expeditions encouraged by the Royal Geographical Society, and +they will see how few deaths have occurred; and of those deaths how small +a proportion among young travellers. Savages rarely murder new-comers; +they fear their guns, and have a superstitious awe of the white man's +power: they require time to discover that he is not very different to +themselves, and easily to be made away with. Ordinary fever are seldom +fatal to the sound and elastic constitution of youth, which usually has +power to resist the adverse influences of two or three years of wild +life. + +Advantages of Travel.--It is no slight advantage to a young man, to have +the opportunity for distinction which travel affords. If he plans his +journey among scenes and places likely to interest the stay-at-home +public, he will probably achieve a reputation that might well be envied +by wiser men who have not had his opportunities. + +The scientific advantages of travel are enormous to a man prepared to +profit by them. He sees Nature working by herself, without the +interference of human intelligence; and he sees her from new points of +view; he has also undisturbed leisure for the problems which perpetually +attract his attention by their novelty. The consequence is, that though +scientific travellers are comparatively few, yet out of their ranks a +large proportion of the leaders in all branches of science has been +supplied. It is one of the most grateful results of a journey to the +young traveller to find himself admitted, on the ground of his having so +much of special interest to relate, into the society of men with whose +names he had long been familiar, and whom he had reverenced as his +heroes. + +To obtain Information.--The centres of information respecting rude and +savage countries are the Geographical, Ethnological, and Anthropological +societies at home and abroad. Any one intending to travel should put +himself into communication with the Secretary, and become a member of one +or more of these Societies; he will not only have access to books and +maps, but will be sure to meet with sympathy, encouragement, and +intelligent appreciation. If he is about to attempt a really bold +exploration under fair conditions of success, he will no doubt be +introduced to the best living authorities on the country to which he is +bound, and will be provided with letters of introduction to the officials +at the port where he is to disembark, that will smooth away many small +difficulties and give him a recognised position during his travels. + +Information on Scientific Matters.--Owing to the unhappy system of +education that has hitherto prevailed, by which boys acquire a very +imperfect knowledge of the structure of two dead languages, and none at +all of the structure of the living world, most persons preparing to +travel are overwhelmed with the consciousness of their incapacity to +observe, with intelligence, the country they are about to visit. I have +been very frequently begged by such persons to put them in the way of +obtaining a rudimentary knowledge of the various branches of science, and +have constantly made inquiries; but I regret to say that I have been +unable to discover any establishment where suitable instruction in +natural science is to be obtained by persons of the age and station of +most travellers. Nor do I know of any persons who advertise private +tuition in any of its branches whose names I might therefore be at +liberty to publish, except Professor Tennant, who gives private lessons +in mineralogy at his shop in the Strand, where the learner might easily +familiarise himself with the ordinary minerals and fossils, and where +collections might be purchased for after reference. An intending +traveller could readily find naturalists who would give lessons, in +museums and botanical gardens, adapting their instruction to his probable +wants, and he would thus obtain some familiarity with the character of +the principal plants and animals amongst which he would afterwards be +thrown. If he has no private means of learning the names of such persons, +I should recommend him to write to some public Professor, stating all +particulars, and begging the favour of his advice. The use of the sextant +may be learnt at various establishments in the City and East End of +London, where the junior officers of merchant vessels receive instruction +at small cost. A traveller could learn their addresses from the maker of +his sextant. He might also apply at the rooms of the Royal Geographical +Society, 1, Savile Row, London, where he would probably receive advice +suitable to his particular needs, and possibly some assistance of a +superior order to that which the instructors of whom I spoke profess to +afford. That well-known volume, 'The Admiralty Manual of Scientific +Inquiry,' has been written to meet the wants of uninformed travellers; +and a small pamphlet, 'Hints to Travellers,' has been published with the +same object, by the Royal Geographical Society. It is procurable at their +rooms. There is, perhaps, no branch of Natural History in which a +traveller could do so much, without more information than is to be +obtained from a few books, than that of the Science of Man. He should see +the large collection of skulls in the College of Surgeons, and the flint +and bone implements in the British Museum, the Christie Museum, and +elsewhere, and he should buy the principal modern works on anthropology, +to be carefully re-studied on his outward voyage. + +Conditions of Success and Failure in Travel.--An exploring expedition is +daily exposed to a succession of accidents, any one of which might be +fatal to its further progress. The cattle may at any time stray, die, or +be stolen; water may not be reached, and they may perish; one or more of +the men may become seriously ill, or the party may be attacked by +natives. Hence the success of the expedition depends on a chain of +eventualities, each link of which must be a success; for if one link +fails at that point, there must be an end of further advance. It is +therefore well, especially at the outset of a long journey, not to go +hurriedly to work, nor to push forward too thoughtlessly. Give the men +and cattle time to become acclimatised, make the bush your home, and +avoid unnecessary hardships. Interest yourself chiefly in the progress of +your journey, and do not look forward to its end with eagerness. It is +better to think of a return to civilisation, not as an end to hardship +and a haven from ill, but as a close to an adventurous and pleasant life. +In this way, risking little, and insensibly creeping on, you will make +connections, and learn the capabilities of the country, as you advance; +all which will be found invaluable in the case of a hurried or disastrous +return. And thus, when some months have passed by, you will look back +with surprise on the great distance travelled over; for, if you average +only three miles a day, at the end of the year you will have advanced +1200, which is a very considerable exploration. The fable of the Tortoise +and the Hare is peculiarly applicable to travellers over wide and unknown +tracts. It is a very high merit to accomplish a long exploration without +loss of health, of papers, or even of comfort. + +Physical Strength of Leader.--Powerful men do not necessarily make the +most eminent travellers; it is rather those who take the most interest in +their work that succeed the best; as a huntsman says, "it is the nose +that gives speed to the hound." Dr. Kane, who was one of the most +adventurous of travellers, was by no means a strong man, either in health +or muscle. + +Good Temper.--Tedious journeys are apt to make companions irritable one +to another; but under hard circumstances, a traveller does his duty best +who doubles his kindliness of manner to those about him, and takes harsh +words gently, and without retort. He should make it a point of duty to do +so. It is at those times very superfluous to show too much +punctiliousness about keeping up one's dignity, and so forth; since the +difficulty lies not in taking up quarrels, but in avoiding them. + +Reluctant Servants.--Great allowance should be made for the reluctant +co-operation of servants; they have infinitely less interest in the +success of the expedition than their leaders, for they derive but little +credit from it. They argue thus:--"Why should we do more than we +knowingly undertook, and strain our constitutions and peril our lives in +enterprises about which we are indifferent?" It will, perhaps, surprise a +leader who, having ascertained to what frugal habits a bush servant is +inured, learns on trial, how desperately he clings to those few luxuries +which he has always had. Thus, speaking generally, a Cape servant is +happy on meat, coffee, and biscuit; but, if the coffee or biscuit has to +be stopped for a few days, he is ready for mutiny. + + + +ORGANISING AN EXPEDITION. + + +Size of Party.--The best size for a party depends on many considerations. +It should admit of being divided into two parts, each strong enough to +take care of itself, and in each of which is one person at least able to +write a letter,--which bus servants, excellent in every other particular, +are too often unable to do. In travel through a disorganised country, +where there are small chiefs and bands of marauders, a large party is +necessary; thus the great success of Livingstone's earlier expeditions +was largely due to his being provided with an unusually strong escort of +well-armed and warlike, but not too aggressive, Caffres. In other cases +small parties succeed better than large ones; they excite less fear, do +not eat up the country, and are less delayed by illness. The last fatal +expedition of Mungo Park is full of warning to travellers who propose +exploring with a large body of Europeans. + +Solitary Travellers.--Neither sleepy nor deaf men are fit to travel quite +alone. It is remarkable how often the qualities of wakefulness and +watchfulness stand every party in good stead. + +Servants.--Nature of Engagements.--The general duties that a servant +should be bound to, independently of those for which he is specially +engaged, are--under penalty of his pay being stopped, and, it may be, of +dismissal--to maintain discipline, take share of camp-duties and +night-watch, and do all in his power to promote the success of the +expedition. His wages should not be payable to him in full, till the +return of the party to the town from which it started, or to some other +civilised place. It is best that all clothing, bedding, etc., that the +men may require, should be issued out and given to them as a present, and +that none of their own old clothes should be allowed to be taken. They +are more careful of what is their own; and, by supplying the things +yourself, you can be sure that they are good in quality, uniform in +appearance, and equal in weight, while this last is ascertainable. + +The following Form of Agreement is abridged from one that was used in Mr. +Austin's expedition in Australia. It seems short, explicit, and +reasonable:-- + +"We the undersigned, forming an expedition about to explore the interior +of ----, under Mr. A., consent to place ourselves (horses and equipments) +entirely and unreservedly under his orders for the above purpose, from +the date hereof until our return to----, or, on failure in this respect, +to abide all consequences that may result. We fully recognise Mr. B. as +the second, and Mr. C. as the third in command; and the right of +succession to the command and entire charge of the party in the order +thus stated. + +"We severally undertake to use our best endeavours to promote the harmony +of the party, and the success of the expedition. + +"In witness whereof we sign our names. (Here follow the signatures.) Read +over and signed by the respective parties, in my presence." (Here follows +the signature of some person of importance in the place where the +expedition is organised.) + +By the words, "abide all consequences," the leader would be justified in +leaving a man to shift for himself, and refusing his pay, if the case +were a serious one. + +Good Interpreters are very important: men who have been used by their +chiefs, missionaries, etc., as interpreters, are much to be preferred; +for so great is the poverty of thought and language among common people, +that you will seldom find a man, taken at hazard, able to render your +words with correctness. Recollect to take with you vocabularies of all +the tribes whom you are at all likely to visit. + +Engaging Natives.--On engaging natives, the people with whom they have +lived, and to whom they have become attached and learnt to fear, should +impress on them that, unless they bring you back in safety, they must +never show their faces again, nor expect the balance of their pay, which +will only be delivered to them on your return. + +Women.--Natives' Wives.--If some of the natives take their wives, it +gives great life to the party. They are of very great service, and cause +no delay; for the body of a caravan must always travel at a foot's pace, +and a woman will endure a long journey nearly as well as a man, and +certainly better than a horse or a bullock. They are invaluable in +picking up and retailing information and hearsay gossip, which will give +clues to much of importance, that, unassisted, you might miss. Mr. Hearne +the American traveller of the last century, in his charming book, writes +as follows, and I can fully corroborate the faithfulness with which he +gives us a savage's view of the matter. After the account of his first +attempt, which was unsuccessful, he goes on to say,--"The very plan +which, by the desire of the Governor, we pursued, of not taking any women +with us on the journey, was, as the chief said, the principal thing that +occasioned all our want: 'for,' said he, 'when all the men are heavy +laden, they can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable distance; and +if they meet with any success in hunting, who is to carry the produce of +the labour?' 'Women,' said he, 'were made for labour: one of them can +carry or haul as much as two men can do. They also pitch our tents, make +and mend our clothing, keep us warm at night; and in fact there is no +such thing as travelling any considerable distance, or for any length of +time, in this country without their assistance.' 'Women,' said he again, +'though they do everything are maintained at a trifling expense: for, as +they always stand cook, the very licking of their fingers, in scarce +times, is sufficient for their subsistence.'" + +Strength of Women.--I believe there are few greater popular errors than +the idea we have mainly derived from chivalrous times, that woman is a +weakly creature. Julius C aesar, who judged for himself, took a very +different view of the powers of certain women of the northern races, +about whom he wrote. I suppose, that in the days of baronial castles, +when crowds of people herded together like pigs within the narrow +enclosures of a fortification and the ladies did nothing but needlework +in their boudoirs, the mode of life wasvery prejudicial to their nervous +system and muscular powers. The women suffered from the effects of ill +ventilation and bad drainage, and had none of the counteracting +advantages of the military life that was led by the males. Consequently +women really became the helpless dolls that they were considered to be, +and which it is still the fashion to consider them. It always seems to me +that a hard-worked woman is better and happier for her work. It is in the +nature of women to be fond of carrying weights; you may see them in +omnibuses and carriages, always preferring to hold their baskets or their +babies on their knees, to setting them down on the seats by their sides. +A woman, whose modern dress includes I know not how many cubic feet of +space, has hardly ever pockets of a sufficient size to carry small +articles; for she prefers to load her hands with a bag or other weighty +object. A nursery-maid, who is on the move all day, seems the happiest +specimen of her sex; and, after her, a maid-of-all work who is treated +fairly by her mistress. + + + +OUTFIT. + + +It is impossible to include lists of outfit, in any reasonable space, +that shall suit the various requirements of men engaged in expeditions of +different magnitudes, who adopt different modes of locomotion, and who +visit different countries and climates. I have therefore thought it best +to describe only one outfit as a specimen, selecting for my example the +desiderata for South Africa. In that country the traveller has, or had a +few years ago, to take everything with him, for there were no civilised +settlers, and the natural products of the country are of as little value +in supplying his wants as those of any country can be. Again, South +African wants are typical of those likely to be felt in every part of a +large proportion of the region where rude travel is likely to be +experienced, as in North Africa, in Australia, in Southern Siberia, and +even in the prairies and pampas of North and South America. To make such +an expedition effective all the articles included in the following lists +may be considered as essential; I trust, on the other hand, that no +article of real importance is omitted. + +Stores for general use.--These are to a great degree independent of the +duration of the journey. + + +Small Stores, various: -- lbs. + +One or two very small soft-steel axes; a small file to + sharpen them; a few additional tools (see chapter on + Timber); spare butcher's knives..............................8 +A dozen awls for wood and for leather, two of them in + handles; two gimlets; a dozen sail-needles; three palms; + a ball of sewing-twine; bit of beeswax; sewing-needles, + assorted; a ball of black and white thread; buttons; two + tailors' thimbles (see chapter on Cord, String, and + Thread)......................................................3 +Two penknives; small metal saw; bit of Turkey gone; large + scissors; corkscrew..........................................1 1/2 +Spring balances, from 1/4 lb. to 5 lbs. and from 1 lb. to + 50 lbs. (or else a hand steelyard............................1 1/2 +Fish-hooks of many sorts; cobbler's was; black silk; gut; + two or more fishing-lines and floats; a large ball of + line; thin brass wire, for springes (see chapters on + Fishing and Trapping)........................................2 +Ball of wicks, for lamps; candle-mould (see chapter on + Candles); a few corks; lump of sulphur; amadou (see + chapter on Fire).............................................1 1/2 +Medicines (see chapter on Medicine); a scalpel; a blunt- + pointed bistoury; and good forceps for thorns................1 +A small iron, and an ironing-flannel; clothes-brush; + bottle of Benzine or other scouring drops....................3 + ______ + + Carried forward........................................21 1/2 + +Brought forward.................................................21 1/2 +Bullet-mould, not a heavy one; bit of iron place for a + ladle; gun-cleaning apparatus; turnscrews; nipple- + wrench; bottle of fine oil; spare nipples; spare screw + for cock (see chapter on Gun-Fittings).......................2 1/2 +Two macintosh water-bags, shaped for the pack saddle, of + one gallon each, with funnel-shaped necks, and having\ + wide mouth (empty) (see chapter on Water for Drinking).......2 1/2 +Composition for mending them, in two small bottles; and a + spare piece of macintosh.....................................2 1/2 +Spare leather, canvas, and webbing, for girths; rings + and buckles.................................................20 +Two small patrol-tents, poles, and pegs (see Chapter on + Tents)......................................................30 +Small inflatable pontoon to hold one, or even two men (see + chapter on Rafts and Boats).................................10 +Small bags for packing the various articles, independently + of the saddle bags.......................................... 4 +Macintosh sheeting overall, to keep the pack dry.................4 + _______ + + Total weight of various small stores...................95 + + +Heavy Stores, various: -- +Pack saddles, spare saddlery (see chapter on Harness); + bags for packing......................................... +Water-vessels (see chapter on Water for Drinking)........... +Heavy ammunition for sporting purposes. (1 lb. weight + gives 10 shots. Otherwise each armed man is supposed + to carry a long double-barrelled rifle of a very small + bore, say of 70, and ammunition for these is allowed + for below)............................................... + _________ + + Total weight of various heavy stores............... + +Stationery: -- +Two ledgers; a dozen note-books (see chapter on + Memoranda and Log-Books); paper..............................9 +Ink; pens; pencils; sealing-wax; gum.............................2 1/2 +Board to write upon...........................................2 +Books to read, say equal to six vols. the ordinary size + of novels; and maps..........................................7 1/2 +Bags and cases...................................................3 +Sketching-books, colours, and pencils............................6 + _________ + + Total weight of stationery............................30 + + +Mapping: -- +Two sextants; horizon and roof; lantern; two pints of + oil; azimuth compass; small aneroid; thermometers; + tin-pot for boiling thermometers; watches (see + chapter on Surveying Instruments)...........................18 +Protractors; ruler; compasses; measuring-tape, etc.............. 3 +Raper's Navigation; Nautical Almanac; Carr's Synopsis, + published by Weale; small tables, and small + almanacs; star maps..........................................4 +Bags and baskets, well wadded....................................6 + _________ + + Total weight of mapping materials.....................31 + +Natural History (for an occasional collector): -- +Arsenical soap, 2 lbs.; camphor, 1/2 lb.; pepper, + 1/2 lb.; bag of some powder to absorb blood, 2 lbs.; + tow and cotton, about 10 lbs.; scalpel, forceps + scissors, etc., 1/2 lb.; sheet brass, stamped for + labels, 1/2 lb..............................................16 +Pill-boxes; cork; insect-boxes; pins; tin, for + catching and keeping and killing animals; nets + for butterflies (say bags and all)..........................10 +Geological hammers, lens, clinometer, etc....................... 4 +Specimens. (I make no allowance for the weight of + these, for they accumulate as stores are used up; + and the total weight is seldom increased.).............. + _______ + Total weight of Natural History materials + (for an occasional collector.......................30 + + + Stores for Individual Use. + +For each white man (independently of duration of journey): -- +Clothes; macintosh rug; ditto sheet; blanket-bag; + spare blanket...............................................30 +Share of plates, knives, forks, spoons, pannikins, + or bowls.................................................... 2 +Share of cooking-things, from pots, coffee-mill + kettles, etc................................................ 3 +Spare knife, flints, steel, tinder-box, tinder, + four pipes.................................................. 2 +Bags, 6 lbs......................................................6 +Provisions for emergency -- + Five days of jerked meat, at 3 lbs. a day (on + average).................................................15 + Two quarts of water (on average), 4 lbs.; share of + kegs, 1 1/2 lb............................................8 + + _________ + + Total for each white man.............................66 + +For each white man, and for each six months: -- +Tea and coffee, 9 lbs.; tobacco, 6 lbs; salt, 6 lbs.; + pepper, 1 lb................................................22 +Brandy or rum, occasionally served out...........................6 +White sugar, 2 lbs.; arrowroot, 1 lb.; dried onions, + etc., 3 lbs..................................................6 +Ammunition for small-bored rifles, with reserve + powder and caps..............................................9 + + _________ + + Total for six months + (or at the rate of 7 lbs. per month)..............43 + + +For each black man (independently of duration of journey): -- +Bedding, etc.................................................... 9 +Meat and water for emergencies, as above (about)................19 +Share of cooking-things......................................... 2 + + _________ + + Total for each black man.............................30 + + +For each black man, and for each six months: -- +Tobacco, 6 lbs.; salt, pepper, etc., 5 lbs......................11 +Presents which will have to be made him from time to time... ....6 + + _________ + + Total for six months + (or at the rate of 3 lbs. per month).............17 + +Presents and Articles for Payment.--It is of the utmost importance to a +traveller to be well and judiciously supplied with these: they are his +money, and without money a person can no more travel in Savagedom than in +Christendom. It is a great mistake to suppose that savages will give +their labour or cattle in return for anything that is bright or new: they +have their real wants and their fashions as much as we have; and, unless +what a traveller brings, meets either the one or the other, he can get +nothing from them, except through fear or compulsion. + +The necessities of a savage are soon satisfied; and, unless he belongs to +a nation civilised enough to live in permanent habitations, and secure +from plunder, he cannot accumulate, but is only able to keep what he +actually is able to carry about his own person. Thus, the chief at Lake +Ngami told Mr. Andersson that his beads would be of little use, for the +women about the place already "grunted like pigs" under the burdens of +those that they wore, and which they had received from previous +travellers. These are matters of serious consideration to persons who +propose to travel with a large party, and who must have proportionably +large wants. + +Speaking of presents and articles for payment, as of money, it is +essential to have a great quantity and variety of small change, wherewith +the traveller can pay for small services, for carrying messages, for +draughts of milk, pieces of meat, etc. Beads, shells, tobacco, needles, +awls, cotton caps, handkerchiefs, clasp-knives, small axes, spear and +arrow heads, generally answer this purpose. + +There is infinite fastidiousness shown by savages in selecting beads, +which, indeed, are their jewellery; so that valuable beads, taken at +hap-hazard, are much more likely to prove failures than not. It would +always be well to take abundance (40 or 50 lbs. weight goes but a little +way) of the following cheap beads, as they are very generally +accepted,--dull white, dark blue, and vermilion red, all of a small size. + +It is the ignorance of what are the received articles of payment in a +distant country, and the using up of those that are taken, which, more +than any other cause, limits the journeyings of an explorer: the demands +of each fresh chief are an immense drain upon his store. + +Summary.--To know the minimum weight for which a proposed expedition must +find means of transport, the omitted figures must be supplied in the +following schedule, the others must be corrected where required, and the +whole must be added together. + +Stores for general use:-- + +Various small stores 95 lbs. +Various heavy stores +Stationery 30 +Mapping 31 +Natural History (occasional) 30 + +Stores for Individual use:-- + +For each white man (at rate of 7 lbs. per month) 66 + +For each black man (at rate of 3 lbs. per month 30 + +Presents and articles of payment are usually of far +greater weight than all the above things put together. + +TOTAL WEIGHT TO BE CARRIED BY EXPEDITION 282 + +Mem.--If meat and bread, and the like, have to be carried, a very large +addition of weight must be made to this list, for the weight of a daily +ration varies from 3 lbs., or even 4 lbs., to 2 lbs., according to the +concentration of nutriment in the food that is used. Slaughter animals +carry themselves; but the cattle-watchers swell the list of those who +have to be fed. + +Means of Transport.--In order to transport the articles belonging to an +expedition across a wild and unknown country, we may estimate as +follows:-- + +Beasts of burthen:-- + +An ass will not usually care more than about (net weight) 65 lbs. +A small mule 90 +A horse 100 +An ox of an average greed 120 +A camel (which rarely can be used by an explorer) 300 + +It is very inconvenient to take more than six pack-animals in a caravan +that has to pass over broken country, for so much time is lost by the +whole party in re-adjusting the packs of each member of it, whenever one +gets loose, that its progress is seriously retarded. + +Carriages.--An animal--camels always excepted--draws upon wheels in a +wild country about two and a half times the weight he can carry. + + lbs. +A light cart, exclusive of the driver, should not carry + more than..................................................800 +A light waggon, such as one or two horses would trot + away with, along a turnpike road, not more than...........1500 +A waggon of the strongest construction, not more than.........3000 + +Weight of Rations.--A fair estimate in commissariat matters is as follows:-- +A strong waggon full of food carries 1000 full-day rations +The pack of an ox " 40 " +The pack of a horse " 30 " +A slaughter ox yields, as fresh meat 80 " +A fat sheep yields " 10 " +(N.B. Meat when jerked loses about one-half of its nourishing powers.) + + + +MEDICINE. + + +General Remarks.--Travellers are apt to expect too much from their +medicines, and to think that savages will hail them as demigods wherever +they go. But their patients are generally cripples who want to be made +whole in a moment, and other suchlike impracticable cases. Powerful +emetics, purgatives, and eyewashes are the most popular physickings. + +The traveller who is sick away from help, may console himself with the +proverb, that "though there is a great difference between a good +physician and a bad one, there is very little between a good one and none +at all." + +Drugs and Instruments.--Outfit of Medicines,--A traveller, unless he be a +professed physician, has no object in taking a large assortment of drugs. +He wants a few powders, ready prepared; which a physician, who knows the +diseases of the country in which he is about to travel, will prescribe +for him. Those in general use are as follows:-- + +1. Emetic, mild; 2. ditto, very powerful, for poison (sulphate of zinc, +also used as an eye-wash in Ophthalmia). e. Aperient, mild; 4. ditto, +powerful. 5. Cordial for diarrhoea. 6. Quinine for ague. 7. Sudorific +(Dover's powder). 8. Chlorodyne. 9. Camphor. 10. Carbolic acid. + +In addition to these powders, the traveller will want Warburg's +fever-drops; glycerine or cold cream; mustard-paper for blistering; +heartburn lozenges; lint; a small roll of diachylon; lunar-caustic, in a +proper holder, to touch old sores with, and for snake-bites; a scalpel +and a blunt-pointed bistoury, with which to open abcesses (the blades of +these should be waxed, to keep them from rust); a good pair of forceps, +to pull out thorns; a couple of needles, to sew up gashes; waxed thread, +or better, silver wire. A mild effervescing aperient, like Moxon's is +very convenient. Seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong for +frequent use in a tropical climate. + +How to carry Medicines.--The medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxes +with a few letters punched both on their tops and bottoms, to indicate +what they contain, as Emet., Astr. etc. It is more important that the +bottoms of the boxes should be labelled than their tops; because when two +of them have been opened at the same time, it often happens that the tops +run a risk of being changed. + +It will save continual trouble with weights and scales, if the powders be +so diluted with flour, that one Measureful of each shall be a full +average dose for an adult; and if the measure to which they are adopted +be cylindrical, and of such a size as just to admit a common lead-pencil, +and of a determined length, it can at any time be replaced by twisting up +a paper cartridge. I would further suggest that the powders be +differently coloured, one colour being used for emetics and another for +aperients. + +Lint, to make.--Scrape a piece of linen with a knife. + +Ointment.--Simple cerate, which is spread on lint as a soothing plaister +for sores, consists of equal parts of oil and wax; but lard may be used +as a substitute for the wax. + +Seidlitz-powders are not often to be procured in the form we are +accustomed to take them in, in England; so a recipe for making 12 sets of +them, is annexed:--1 1/2 oz. of Carbonate of Soda and 3 oz. of Tartarised +Soda, for the blue papers; 7 drachms of Tartaric Acid, for the white +papers. + +Bush Remedies.--Emetics.--For want of proper physic, drink a charge of +gunpowder in a tumblerful of warm water of soap-suds, and tickle the +throat. + +Vapour-baths are used in many countries, and the following plan, used in +Russia, is often the most convenient. Heat stones in the fire, and put +them on the ground in the middle of the cabin or tent; on these pour a +little water, and clouds of vapour are given off. In other parts of the +world branches are spread on hot wood-embers, and the patient is placed +upon these, wrapped in a large cloth; water is then sprinkled on the +embers, and the patient is soon covered with a cloud of vapour. The +traveller who is chilled or over-worked, and has a day of rest before +him, would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy. + +Bleeding and Cupping'.--Physicians say, now-a-days that bleeding is +rarely, if ever, required; and that frequently it does much harm; but +they used to bleed for everything. Many savages know how to cup: they +commonly use a piece ofa horn as the cup, and they either suck at a hole +in the top of the horn, to produce the necessary vacuum, or they make a +blaze as we do, but with a wisp of grass. + +Illnesses.--Fevers of all kinds, diarrhoea, and rheumatism, are the +plagues that most afflict travellers; ophthalmia often threatens them. +Change of air, from the flat country up into the hills, as soon as the +first violence of the illness is past, works wonders in hastening and +perfecting a cure. + +Fever.--The number of travellers that have fallen victims to fever in +certain lands is terrible: it is a matter of serious consideration +whether any motives, short of imperious duty, justify a person in braving +a fever-stricken country. In the ill-fated Niger expedition, three +vessels were employed, of which the 'Albert' stayed the longest time in +the river, namely two months and two days. Her English crew consisted of +62 men; of these, 55 caught fever in the river, and 23 died. Of the +remaining seven, only two ultimately escaped scot-free; the others +suffering, more or less severely, on their return to England. In Dr. +McWilliams's Medical History of this expedition, it is laid down that the +Niger fever, which may be considered as a type of pestilential fever +generally, usually sets in sixteen days after exposure to the malaria; +and that one attack, instead of acclimatising the patient, seems to +render him all the more liable to a second. Every conceivable precaution +known in those days, had been taken to ensure the health of the crew of +the 'Albert.' A great discovery of modern days is the power of quinine to +keep off many types of fever. A person would, now, have little to fear in +taking a passage in a Niger steamer; supposing that vessels ran regularly +up that river. The quinine he would take, beginning at the coast, would +render him proof against fever, until he had passed the delta; but +nothing would remove the risk of a long sojourn in the delta itself. +However, I should add that Dr. Livingstone's experience on the zambesi +throws doubt on the power of quinine to keep off the type of fever that +prevails upon that river. + +Precautions in unhealthy Places.--There are certain precautions which +should be borne in mind in unhealthy places, besides that which I have +just mentioned of regularly taking small doses of quinine, such as never +to encamp to the leeward of a marsh; to sleep close in between large +fires, with a handkerchief gathered round your face (natural instinct +will teach this); to avoid starting too early in the morning; and to +beware of unnecessary hunger, hardship, and exposure. It is a +widely-corroborated fact that the banks of a river and adjacent plains +are often less affected by malaria than the low hills that overlook them. + +Diarrhoea.--With a bad diarrhoea, take nothing but broth, rice water, and +it may be rice, in very small quantities at a meal, until you are quite +restored. The least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse. + +Ophthalmia'.--Sulphate of zinc is invaluable as an eyewash: for +ophthalmia is a scourge in parts of North and South Africa, in Australia, +and in many other countries. The taste of the solution which should be +strongly astringent, is the best guide to its strength. + +Tooth-ache.--Tough diet tries the teeth so severely, that a man about to +undergo it, should pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves England. An +unskilled traveller is very likely to make a bad job of a first attempt +at tooth-drawing. By constantly pushing and pulling an aching tooth, it +will in time loosen, and perhaps, after some weeks, come out. + +Thirst.--Pour water over the clothes of the patient, and keep them +constantly wet; restrain his drinking, after the first few minutes, as +strictly as you can summon heart to do it. (See "Thirst" in the chapter +on "Water.") In less severe cases, drink water with a tea-spoon; it will +satisfy a parched palate as much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls, +and will disorder the digestion very considerably less. + +Hunger.--Give two or three mouthfuls, every quarter of an hour, to a man +reduced to the last extremity by hunger; strong broth is the best food +for him. + +Poisoning.--The first thing is to give a powerful emetic, that whatever +poison still remains unabsorbed in the stomach, may be thrown up. Use +soap-suds or gunpowder (see Emetics) if proper emetics are not at hand. +If there be violent pains and gripings, or retchings, give plenty of +water to make the vomitings more easy. Next, do your best to combat the +symptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed before the +emetic acted. Thus, if the man's feet are cold and numbed, put hot stones +against them, and wrap them up warmly. If he be drowsy, heavy, and +stupid, give brandy and strong coffee, and try to rouse him. There is +nothing more to be done, save to avoid doing mischief. + +Fleas.--"Italian flea-powder," sold in the East, is really efficacious. +It is the powdered "Pire oti" (or flea-bane), mentioned in Curzon's +'Armenia' as growing in that country; it has since become an important +article of export. A correspondent writes to me, "I have often found a +light cotton or linen bag a great safeguard against the attacks of fleas. +I used to creep into it, draw the loop tight round my neck, and was thus +able to set legions of them at defiance." + +Vermin on the Person.--I quote the following extract from Huc's 'Travels +in Tartary':--"We had now been travelling for nearly six weeks, and still +wore the same clothing we had assumed on our departure. The incessant +pricklings with which we were harassed, sufficiently indicated that our +attire was peopled with the filthy vermin to which the Chinese and +Tartars are familiarly accustomed; but which, with Europeans, are objects +of horror and disgust. Before quitting Tchagan-Kouren, we had bought in a +chemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth of mercury. We now made with it a +prompt and specific remedy against the lice. We had formerly got the +receipt from some Chinese; and, as it may be useful to others, we think +it right to describe it here. You take half an ounce of mercury, which +you mix with old tea-leaves previously reduced to paste by mastication. +to render this softer, you generally add saliva; water could not have the +same effect. You must afterwards bruise and stir it a while, so that the +mercury may be divided into little balls as fine as dust. (I presume the +blue pill is a pretty exact equivalent to this preparation.) You infuse +this composition into a string of cotton, loosely twisted, which you hang +round the neck; the lice are sure to bite at the bait, and they thereupon +as surely swell, become red, and die forthwith. In China and in Tartary +you have to renew this salutary necklace once a month." + +Blistered Feet.--To prevent the feet from blistering, it is a good plan +to soap the inside of the stocking before setting out, making a thick +lather all over it. A raw egg broken into a boot, before putting it on, +greatly softens the leather: of course the boots should be well greased +when hard walking is anticipated. After some hours on the road, when the +feet are beginning to be chafed, take off the shoes, and change the +stockings; Putting what was the right stocking on the left foot, and the +left stocking on the right foot. Or, if one foot only hurts, take off the +boot and turn the stocking inside out. These were the plans adopted by +Captain Barclay. when a blister is formed, "rub the feet, on going to +bed, with spirits mixed with tallow dropped from a candle into the palm +of the hand; on the following morning no blister will exist. The spirits +seem to possess the healing power, the tallow serving only to keep the +skin soft and pliant. This is Captain Cochrane's advice, and the remedy +was used by him in his pedestrian tour." (Murray's Handbook of +Switzerland.') The recipe is an excellent one; pedestrians and teachers +of gymnastics all endorse it. + +Rarefied Air, effects of.--On high plateaux or mountains new-comers must +expect to suffer. The symptoms are described by many South American +travellers; the attack of them is there, among other names, called the +puna. The disorder is sometimes fatal to stout plethoric people; oddly +enough, cats are unable to endure it: at villages 13,000 feet above the +sea, Dr. Tschudi says that they cannot live. Numerous trials have been +made with these unhappy feline barometers, and the creatures have been +found to die in frightful convulsions. The symptoms of the puna are +giddiness, dimness of sight and hearing, headache, fainting-fits, blood +from mouth, eyes, nose, lips, and a feeling like sea-sickness. Nothing +but time cures it. It begins to be felt severely at from 12,000 to 13,000 +feet above the sea. M. Hermann Schlagintweit, who has had a great deal of +mountain experience in the Alps and in the Himalayas, up to the height of +20,000 feet or more, tells me that he found the headache, etc., come on +when there was a breeze, far more than at any other time. His whole party +would awake at the same moment, and begin to complain of the symptoms, +immediately on the commencement of a breeze. The symptoms of overwork are +not wholly unlike those of the puna, and many young travellers who have +felt the first, have ascribed them to the second. + +Scurvy has attacked travellers even in Australia; and I have myself felt +symptoms of it in Africa, when living wholly on meat. Any vegetable diet +cures it: lime-juice, treacle, raw potatoes, and acid fruits are +especially efficacious. Dr. Kane insists on the value of entirely raw +meat as a certain anti-scorbutic: this is generally used by the +Esquimaux. + +Haemorrhage from a Wound.--When the blood does not pour or trickle in a +steady stream from a deep wound, but jets forth in pulses, and is of a +bright red colour, all the bandages in the world will not stop it. It is +an artery that is wounded; and, unless there be some one accessible, who +knows how to take it up and tie it, I suppose that the method of our +fore-fathers is the only one that can be used as you would for a +snake-bite (see next paragraph); or else to pour boiling grease into the +wound. This is, of course, a barbarous treatment, and its success is +uncertain, as the cauterised artery may break out afresh; still, life is +in question, and it is the only hope of saving it. After the cautery, the +wounded limb should be kept perfectly still, well raised, and cool, until +the wound is nearly healed. A tourniquet, which will stop the blood for a +time, is made by tying a strong thong, string, or handkerchief firmly +above the part, putting a stick through, and screwing it tight. If you +know whereabouts the artery lies, which is the object to compress, put a +stone over the place under the handkerchief. The main arteries follow +pretty much the direction of the inner seams of the sleeves and trousers. + +Snake-bites.--Tie a string tight above the part, suck the wound, and +caustic it as soon as you can. Or, for want of caustic, explode gunpowder +in the wound; of else do what Mr. Mansfield Parkyns well suggests, i.e., +cut away with a knife, and afterwards burn out with the end of your iron +ramrod, heated as near a white heat as you can readily get it. The +arteries lie deep, and as much flesh may, without much danger, be cut or +burnt into, as the fingers can pinch up. The next step is to use the +utmost energy, and even cruelty, to prevent the patient's giving way to +that lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake-poison, +and too often ends in death. + +Wasp and Scorpion-stings.--the Oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is a +good application; should the scorpion be large, his sting must be treated +like a snake-bite. + +Broken Bones.--It is extremely improbable that a man should die, in +consequence of a broken leg or arm, if the skin be uninjured' but, if the +broken end forces its way through the flesh, the injury is a very serious +one. Abscesses form, the parts mortify, and the severest consequences +often follow. Hence, when a man breaks a bone, do not convert a simple +injury into a severe one, by carrying him carelessly. If possible, move +the encampment to the injured man, and not vice versa. Mr. Druitt +says:--"When a man has broken his leg, lay him on the other side, put the +broken limb exactly on the sound one, with a little straw between, and +tie the two legs together with handkerchiefs. Thus the two legs will move +as one, and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much, nor yet come +through the skin." + +Drowning.--A half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry, heated clothes, +hot stones, etc., placed against his feet, and his head must be raised +moderately. Human warmth is excellent, such as that of two big men made +to lie close up against him, one on each side. All rough treatment is not +only ridiculous but full of harm; such as the fashion--which still exists +in some places--of hanging up the body by the feet, that the swallowed +water may drain out of the mouth. + +I reprint here the instructions circulated by Dr. Marshall Hall:-- + +"1. Treat the patient instantly, on the spot, in the open air, exposing +the face and chest to the breeze (except in severe weather). + +"To Clear the Throat--2. Place the patient gently on the face, with one +wrist under the forehead; all fluids and the tongue itself then fall +forwards, leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. If there be +breathing--wait and watch; if not, or if it fail,-- + +"To Excite Respiration--3. Turn the patient well and instantly on his +side, and--4. Excite the nostrils with snuff, the throat with a feather, +etc., dash cold water on the face previously rubbed warm. If there be no +success, lose not a moment but instantly-- + +"To Imitate Respiration--5. Replace the patient on his face, raising and +supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress;--6. +Turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond, and then +briskly on the face, alternately; repeating these measures deliberately, +efficiently, and perseveringly fifteen times in the minute, occasionally +varying the side; when the patient reposes on the chest, this cavity is +compressed by the weight of the body, and expiration takes place; when he +is turned on the side, this pressure is removed, and inspiration occurs. +7. when the prone position is resumed, make equable but efficient +pressure, with brisk movement, along the back of the chest; removing it +immediately before rotation on the side: the first measure augments the +expiration, the second commences inspiration. The result +is--Respiration;--and, if not too late,--Life. + +"To induce Circulation and Warmth--8. Rub the limbs upwards, with firm +grasping pressure and with energy, using handkerchiefs, etc. by this +measure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the heart. 9. Let +the limbs be thus dried and warmed, and then clothed, the bystanders +supplying coats, waistcoats, etc. 10.. Avoid the continuous warm-bath, +and the position on or inclined to the back." + +Litter for the Wounded.--If a man be wounded or sick, and has to be +carried upon the shoulders of others, make a little for him in the Indian +fashion; that is to say, cut two stout poles, each 8 feet long, to make +its two sides, and three other cross-bars of 2 1/2 feet each, to be +lashed to them. Then supporting this ladder-shaped framework over the +sick man as he lies in his blanket, knot the blanket up well to it, and +so carry him off palanquin-fashion. One cross-bar will be just behind his +head, another in front of his feet; the middle one will cross his +stomach, and keep him from falling out; and there will remain two short +handles for the carriers to lay hold of. The American Indians carry their +wounded companions by this contrivance after a fight, and during a +hurried retreat, for wonderful distances. A king of waggon-roof top can +easily be made to it, with bent boughs and one spare blanket. (See +Palanquin.) + +[Black and white sketch of two 'Indians' carrying litter]. + +SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS. + + +In previous editions I reprinted here, with a few trifling alterations, +part of a paper that I originally communicated to the Royal Geographical +Society, and which will be found at the end of their volume for 1854. In +addition to it, communications are published there from Lieutenant Raper, +Admiral FitzRoy, Admiral Smyth, Admiral Beechey, and Colonel Sykes; the +whole of which was collected under the title of 'Hints to Travellers;' +they were printed in a separate form and widely circulated. When the +edition was exhausted, a fresh Committee was appointed by the Council of +the Royal Geographical society, consisting of Admiral sir George Back, +Admiral R. Collinson, and myself, to revise the pamphlet thoroughly. This +process was again gone through in 1871, and now the pamphlet is so much +amended and enlarged that I should do no good by making extracts. It is +much better that intending travellers should apply for this third edition +of the 'Hints to Travellers' at the society's rooms, 1, Savile Row: for +it gives a great deal of information upon instruments that they would +find of real value. Its price is 1s. + +Porters for delicate Instruments.--Entrust surveying instruments and +fragile articles to come respectable old savage, whose infirmities compel +him to walk steadily. He will be delighted at the prospect of picking up +a living by such easy service. + +Measuring low angles by reflexion.--an ordinary artificial horizon is +useless for very low angles. They can be measured to within two or three +minutes, by means of a vertical point of reference obtained in the +following manner:--Tie two pieces of thread, crossing each other at two +feet above the ground, put the vessel of mercury underneath it, and look +down upon the mercury. When the eye is so placed, that the crossed +threads exactly cover their reflexion, the line of sight is truly +vertical; and, if the distant object be brought down to them by the +sextant, the angle read off will be 90 degrees + altitude. Captain +George's arrangement of glass floating on mercury (made by Cary, Fleet +Street, London), allows of very low angles being observed, but the use of +this instrument requires considerable caution as to the purity of the +mercury and the cleanliness of the glass. + +Substitute for glass roof to Horizon.--For want of a glass roof to place +over the mercury a piece of gauze stretched over the vessel will answer +very tolerably for the purpose of keeping off the wind. The diameter of +the pupil of the eye is so large, compared to the thickness of the +threads of the gauze, that the latter offer little impediment to a clear +view of the image. + +Silvering Glasses for Sextants.--"Before taking leave of this subject it +may not be unimportant to describe the operation of silvering the glasses +of sextants, as those employed on surveying duties very frequently have +to perform the operation. + +"The requisites are clean tinfoil and mercury (a hare's foot is +handy)--lay the tinfoil, which should exceed the surface of the glass by +a quarter of an inch on each side, on a smooth surface (the back of a +book), rub it out smooth with the finger, add a bubble of mercury, about +the size of a small shot, which rub gently over the tinfoil until it +spreads itself and shows a silvered surface, gently add sufficient +mercury to cover the leaf so that its surface is fluid. Prepare a slip of +paper the size of the tinfoil. Take the glass in the left hand, +previously well cleaned, and the paper in the right. Brush the surface of +the mercury gently to free it from dross. Lay the paper on the mercury, +and the glass on it. Pressing gently on the glass, withdraw the paper. +turn the glass on its face, and leave it on an inclined plane to allow +the mercury to flow off, which is accelerated by laying a strip of +tinfoil as a conductor to its lower edge. The edges may, after twelve +hours' rest, be removed. In twenty-four hours give it a coat of varnish, +made from spirits of wine and red sealing-wax. It may be as well to +practise on small bits of common glass, which will soon prove the degree +of perfection which the operator has attained." (Admiral Sir E. Belcher.) + + + +MEMORANDA AND LOG-BOOKS. + + +Best form for Memoranda.--I have remarked that almost every traveller who +is distinguished for the copiousness and accuracy of his journals, has +written them in a remarkably small but distinct handwriting. Hard +pencil-marks (HHH pencils) on common paper, or on metallic paper are very +durable. Dr. Barth wrote his numerous observations entirely in +Indian-ink. He kept a tiny saucer in his pocket, rubbed with the ink; +when he wanted to use it, he rubbed it up with his wetted finger-tip, or +resupplied it with fresh ink, and filled his pen and wrote. Captain +Burton wrote very much in the dark, when lying awake at night; he used a +board with prominent lines of wood, such as is adopted by the blind. It +is very important that what is written should be intelligible to a +stranger after a long lapse of time. A traveller may die, and his +uncompleted work perish with him; or he may return, and years will pass +by, and suddenly some observations he had made will be called in +question. + +Professor J. Forbes says:--"The practice which I have long adopted is +this:--to carry a memorandum-book with Harwood's prepared paper" (in this +point of detail I do not concur; see next paragraph) "and metallic +pencil, in which notes and observations and slight sketches of every +description, are made on the spot, and in the exact order in which they +occur. These notes are almost ineffaceable, and are preserved for +reference. They are then extended, as far as possible, every evening with +pen and ink, in a suitable book, in the form of a journal; from which, +finally, they may be extracted and modified for any ultimate purpose. The +speedy extension of memoranda has several great advantages: it secures a +deliberate revision of observations, whether of instruments or of nature, +whilst further explanation may be sought, and very often whilst +ambiguities or contradictions admit of removal by a fresh appeal to +facts. By this precaution, too, the risk of losing all the fruits of some +weeks of labour, by the loss of a pocket-book, may be avoided." + +It has occurred to me, frequently, to be consulted about the best was of +keeping MSS. Captain Blakiston, who surveyed the northern part of the +Rocky Mountains, and subsequently received the medal of the Royal +Geographical Society, for his exploration and admirable map of the +Yang-tse-Kiang, in China, paid great attention to the subject: he was +fully in possession of all I had to say on the matter; and I gladly quote +the method he adopted in North America, with slight modifications, +according to the results of his experience, and with a few trivial +additions of my own. For the purposes of memoranda and mapping data, he +uses three sets of books, which can be ordered at any lithographer's:-- + +No. 1. pocket Memorandum Book, measuring three inches and a half by five, +made of strong paper. (Captain Blakston did not use, and I should not +advise travellers to use, "prepared" paper, for it soon becomes rotten, +and the leaves fall out; besides that, wet makes the paper soppy.) The +books are paged with bold numbers printed in the corners; two faint red +lines are ruled down the middle of each page, half an inch apart, to +enable the book to be used as a field-surveyor's book when required. In +this pocket=book, every single thing that is recorded at all, is +originally recorded with a hard HHH pencil. Everything is written +consecutively, without confusion or attempt to save space. There may +easily be 150 pages in each of these books; and a sufficient number +should be procured to admit of having at least one per month. Do not +stint yourself in these. + +No. 2. Log-Book.--This is an orderly way of collecting such parts of the +surveying material as has been scattered over each day in your note-book. +It is to be neatly written out, and will become the standard of future +reference. By using a printed form, the labour of drawing up the log on +the one hand, and that of consulting it on the other, will be vastly +diminished. I give Captain Blakiston's form, in pages 28, 29, and I would +urge intending travellers not to depart from it without very valid +reasons, for it is the result of considerable care and experience. The +size in which the form is printed here is not quite accurate, because the +pages of this book are not large enough to admit of it, but the +proportion is kept. The actual size is intended to be five and a half +inches high and nine inches wide, so that it should open freely along one +of the narrow sides of the page, in the way that all memoranda books +ought to open. Four pages go to a day; of these the pages 1 and 2 are +alone represented in this book, pages 3 and 4 being intended to be left +blank. + + +[P 28 and p 29 show samples of the log book pages being described]. + +The bold figures 17 and 18 in the right-hand corners of the form I give, +show how the pages should be numbered. The lines in p. 18 should be faint +blue. + +No. 3. Calculation Book.--This should be of the same size and shape as +the Log Book, and should contain outline forms for calculations. The +labour and confusion saved by using these, and the accuracy of work that +they ensure, are truly remarkable. The instruments used, the observations +made, and especially the tables employed, are so exceedingly diverse, +that I fear it would be to little purpose if I were to give special +examples: each traveller must suit himself. I will, therefore, simply +make a few general remarks on this subject, in the following paragraph. + +Number of Observations requiring record.--A traveller does excellently, +who takes latitudes by meridian altitudes, once in the twenty-four hours; +a careful series of lunars once a fortnight, on an average; compass +variations as often; and an occulation now and then. He will want, +occasionally, a time observation by which to set his watch (I am +supposing he uses no chronometer). He ought therefore to provide himself +with outline forms for calculating these observations, even if he finds +himself obliged to have them printed or lithographed on purpose; and in +preparing them, he should bear the following well-known maxims in mind:-- + +Let all careful observations be in doubles. If they be for latitudes, +observe a star N. and a star S.; the errors of your instruments will then +affect the results in opposite directions, and the mean of the results +will destroy the error. So, if for time, observe in doubles, viz., a star +E. and a star W. Also, if for lunars, let your sets be in doubles--one +set of distances to a star E. of moon, and one to a star W. of moon. +Whenever you begin on lunars, give three hours at least to them, and +bring away a reliable series; you will be thus possessed of a certainty +to work upon, instead of the miserably unsatisfactory results obtained +from a single set of lunars taken here and another set there, scattered +all over the country, and impossible to correlate. A series should +consist of six sets, each set including three simple distances. Three of +these sets should be to a star or stars E. of moon, and three to a star +or stars W. of moon. Lunars not taken on the E. and W. plan are almost +worthless, no matter how numerous they may be, for the sextant, etc., +might be inaccurate to any amount, and yet no error be manifest in their +results. But the E. and W. plan exposes errors mercilessly, and also +eliminates them. One of the best authorities on the requirements of +sextant observations in rude land travel, the Astronomer Royal of Cape +Town, says to this effect:--"Do not observe the altitude of the star in +taking lunars, but compute it. The labour requisite for that observation +is better bestowed in taking a large number of distances." So much +delicacy of hand and of eyesight is requisite in taking lunars that shall +give results reliable to seven or eight miles, and so small an exertion +or flurry spoils that delicacy, that economy of labour and fidget is a +matter to be carefully studied. + +These things being premised, it will be readily understood that outline +forms sufficient for an entire series of lunars will extend over many +pages--they will, in fact, require eighteen pages. There are four sets of +observations for time:--one E. and one W., both at beginning and close of +the whole; one for latitudes N. and S.; six for six sets of lunars, as +described above; six for the corresponding altitudes of the stars, which +have to be computed; and, finally, one page for taking means, and +recording the observations for adjustment, etc. Each double observation +for latitude would take one page; each single time observation one page; +and each single compass variation one page. An occulation would require +three pages in all; one of which would be for time. At this rate, and +taking the observations mentioned above, a book of 500 pages would last +half a year. Of course where the means of transport is limited, +travellers must content themselves with less. Thus Captain Speke, who +started on his great journey amply equipped with log-books and +calculation-books, such as I have described, found them too great an +incumbrance, and was compelled to abandon them. The result was, that +though he brought back a very large number of laborious observations, +there was a want of method in them, which made a considerable part of his +work of little or no use, while the rest required very careful treatment, +in order to give results commensurate with their high intrinsic value. + + + +MEASUREMENTS. + + +Distance.--To measure the Length of a Journey by Time.--The pace of a +caravan across average country is 2 1/2 statute, or 2 geographical, miles +per hour, as measured with compasses from point to point, and not +following the sinuosities of each day's course; but in making this +estimate, every minute lost in stoppages by the way is supposed to be +subtracted from the whole time spent on the road. A careful traveller +will be surprised at the accuracy of the geographical results, obtainable +by noting the time he has employed in actual travel. Experience shows +that 10 English miles per day, measured along the road--or, what is much +the same thing, 7 geographical miles, measured with a pair of compasses +from point to point--is, taking one day with another, and including all +stoppages of every kind, whatever be their cause,--very fast travelling +for a caravan. In estimating the probable duration of a journey in an +unknown country, or in arranging an outfit for an exploring expedition, +not more than half that speed should be reckoned upon. Indeed, it would +be creditable to an explorer to have conducted the same caravan for a +distance of 1000 geographical miles, across a rude country, in six +months. These data have, of course, no reference to a journey which may +be accomplished by a single great effort, nor to one where the +watering-places and pasturages are well known; but apply to an +exploration of considerable length, in which a traveller must feel his +way, and where he must use great caution not to exhaust his cattle, lest +some unexpected call for exertion should arise, which they might prove +unequal to meet. Persons who have never travelled--and very many of those +who have, from neglecting to analyse their own performances--entertain +very erroneous views on these matters. + +Rate of Movement to measure.--a. When the length of pace etc., is known +before beginning, to observe.--A man or a horse walking at the rate of +one mile per hour, takes 10 paces in some ascertainable number of +seconds, dependent upon the length of his step. If the length of his step +be 30 inches, he will occupy 17 seconds in making 10 paces. Conversely, +if the same person counts his paces for 17 seconds, and finds that he has +taken 10 in that time, he will know that he is walking at the rate of +exactly 1 mile per hour. If he had taken 40 paces in the same period, he +would know that his rate had been 4 miles per hour; if 35 paces, that it +had been 3.5, or 3 1/2 miles per hour. Thus it will be easily +intelligible, that if a man knows the number of seconds appropriate to +the length of his pace, he can learn the rate at which he is walking, by +counting his paces during that number of seconds and by dividing the +number of his paces so obtained, by 10. In short the number of his paces +during the period in question, gives his rate per hour, in miles and +decimals of a mile, to one place of decimals. I am indebted to Mr. +Archibald Smith for this very ingenious notion, which I have worked into +the following Tables. In Table I., I give the appropriate number of +seconds corresponding to paces of various lengths. I find, however, that +the pace of neither man nor horse is constant in length during all rates +of walking; consequently, where precision is sought, it is better to use +this Table on a method of approximation. That is to say, the traveller +should find his approximate rate by using the number of seconds +appropriate to his estimated speed. Then, knowing the length of pace due +to that approximate rate, he will proceed afresh by adopting a revised +number of seconds, and will obtain a result much nearer to the truth than +the first. Table I. could of course be employed for finding the rate of a +carriage, when the circumference of one of its wheels was known; but it +is troublesome to make such a measurement. I therefore have calculated +Table II., in terms of the radius of the wheel. The formulae by which +the two Tables have been calculated are, m=l x 0.5682 for Table I., and +m=r x 3.570 for Table II., where m is the appropriate number of seconds; +l is the length of the pace, or circumference of the wheel; and r is the +radius of the wheel. + +The Tables will be found on the next page. + +[Tables I and II appear on p 34]. + +b. When the length of Pace is unknown till after observation.--In this +case, the following plan gives the rate of travel per hour, with the +smallest amount of arithmetic. + +For statute miles per hour--Observe the number of paces (n) taken in 5.7 +seconds: let i be the number of inches (to be subsequently determined at +leisure) in a single pace; then ni/100 is the rate per hour. + +For geographical miles per hour--The number of seconds to be employed is +5. This formula is therefore very simple, and it is a useful one. (A +statute mile is 1760 yards, and a geographical mile is 2025 yards.) + +For finding the rate in statute miles per hour in a carriage--Observe +the number of revolutions (n) made by the wheel in 18 seconds: let d be +the number of inches in the diameter of the wheel; then n d/200 is the +rate per hour. + +The above method is convenient for measuring the rate at which an animal +gallops. After counting its paces it may be through a telescope, during +the prescribed number of seconds, you walk to the track, and measure the +length of its pace. If you have no measuring tape, stride in yards +alongside its track, to find the number of yards that are covered by 36 +of its paces. This is, of course, identical with the number of inches in +one of its paces. + +Convenient Equivalents.--The rate of 1 mile per hour, is the equivalent +to each of the rates in the following list:-- + + Yards. Feet. Inches. + 29.333, or 88.000, or 1056.000, in one minute + or 0.488, or 1.466, or 17.600, in one second + +Measurement of Length.--Actual measurement with the rudest makeshift, is +far preferable to an unassisted guess, especially to an unpractised eye. + +Natural Units of Length.--A man should ascertain his height; height of +his eye above ground; ditto, when kneeling: his fathom; his cubit; his +average pace; the span, from ball of thumb to tip of one of his fingers; +the length of the foot; the width of two, three, or four fingers; and the +distance between his eyes. In all probability, some one of these is an +even and a useful number of feet or inches, which he will always be able +to recollect, and refer to as a unit of measurement. The distance between +the eyes is instantly determined, and, I believe, never varies, while +measurements of stature, and certainly those of girth of limb, become +very different when a man is exhausted by long travel and bad diet. It is +therefore particularly useful for measuring small objects. To find it, +hold a stick at arm's-length, at right angles to the line of sight; then, +looking past its end to a distant object, shut first one eye and then the +other, until you have satisfied yourself of the exact point on the stick +that covers the distant object as seen by the one eye, when the end of +the stick exactly covers the same object, as seen by the other eye. A +stone's throw is a good standard of reference for greater distances. +Cricketers estimate distance by the length between wickets. Pacing yards +should be practised. It is well to dot or burn with the lens of your +opera-glass a scale of inches on the gun-stock and pocket-knife. + +Velocity of Sound.--Sound flies at 380 yards or about 1000 feet in a +second, speaking in round numbers: it is easy to measure rough distances +by the flash of a gun and its report; for even a storm of wind only makes +4 per cent. difference, one way or the other, in the velocity of sound. + +Measurement of Angles.--Rude Measurements.--I find that a capital +substitute for a very rude sextant is afforded by the outstretched hand +and arm. The span between the middle finger and the thumb subtends an +angle of about 15 degrees, and that between the forefinger and the thumb +an angle of 11 1/4 degrees, or one point of the compass. Just as a person +may learn to walk yards accurately, so may he learn to span out these +angular distances accurately; and the horizon, however broken it may be, +is always before his eyes to check him. Thus, if he begins from a tree, +or even from a book on his shelves and spans all round until he comes to +the tree or book again, he should make twenty-four of the larger spans +and thirty-two of the lesser ones. These two angles of 15 degrees and 11 +1/4 degrees are particularly important. The sun travels through 15 +degrees in each hour; and therefore, by "spanning" along its course, as +estimated, from the place where it would stand at noon (aided in this by +the compass), the hour before or after noon, and, similarly after sunrise +or before sunset, can be instantly reckoned. Again, the angles 30 +degrees, 45 degrees, 60 degrees, and 90 degrees, all of them simple +multiples of 15 degrees, are by far the most useful ones in taking rough +measurements of heights and distances, because of the simple relations +between the sides of right-angled triangles, one of whose other angles +are 30 degrees, 45 degrees, or 60 degrees; and also because 60 degrees is +the value of an angle of an equilateral triangle. As regards 11 1/4 +degrees, or one point of the compass, it is perfectly out of the question +to trust to bearings taken by the unaided eye, or to steer a steady +course by simply watching a star or landmark, when this happens to be +much to the right or the left of it. Now, nothing is easier than to span +out the bearing from time to time. + +Right-angles to lay out.--A triangle whose sides are as 3, 4, and 5, must +be a right-angled one, since 5 x 5 = 3 x 3 + 4 x 4; therefore we can find +a right-angle very simply by means of a measuring-tape. We take a length +of twelve feet, yards, fathoms, or whatever it may be, and peg its two +ends, side by side, to the ground. Peg No. 2 is driven in at the third +division, and peg No. 3 is held at the seventh division of the cord, +which is stretched out till it becomes taut; then the peg is driven in. +These three pegs will form the corners of a right-angled triangle; peg +No. 2 being situated at the right-angle. + +Proximate Arcs.-- +1 degree subtends, at a distance of 1 statute mile, 90 feet. +1' subtends, at a distance of 1 statute mile, 18 inches. +1' subtends at a distance of 100 yards, 1 inch. +1" of latitude on the earth's surface is 100 feet. +30' is subtended by the diameter of either the sun or the moon. + +Angles measured by their Chords.--The number of degrees contained by any +given angle, may be ascertained without a protractor or other angular +instrument, by means of a Table of Chords. So, also, may any required +angle be protracted on paper, through the same simple means. In the first +instance, draw a circle on paper with its centre at the apex of the angle +and with a radius of 1000, next measure the distance between the points +where the circle is cut by the two lines that enclose the angle. Lastly +look for that distance (which is the chord of the angle) in the annexed +table, where the corresponding number of degrees will be found, where the +corresponding number of degrees will be found. If it be desired to +protract a given angle, the same operation is to be performed in a +converse sense. I need hardly mention that the chord of an angle is the +same thing as twice the sine of half that angle; but as tables of natural +sines are not now-a-days commonly to be met with, I have thought it well +worth while to give a Table of Chords. When a traveller, who is +unprovided with regular instruments, wishes to triangulate, or when +having taken some bearings but having no protractor, he wishes to lay +them down upon his map, this little table will prove of very great +service to him. (See "Measurement of distances to inaccessible places.") + +[Table of Chords to Radius of 1000]. + +Triangulation.--Measurement of distance to an inaccessible place.--By +similar triangles.--To show how the breadth of a river may be measured +without instruments, without any table, and without crossing it, I have +taken the following useful problem from the French 'Manuel du Genie.' +Those usually given by English writers for the same purpose are, +strangely enough, unsatisfactory, for they require the measurement of an +angle. This plan requires pacing only. To measure A G, produce it for any +distance, as to D; from D, in any convenient direction, take any equal +distances, D C, c d; produce B C to b, making c B--C B; join d b, and +produce it to a, that is to say, to the point where A C produced +intersects it; then the triangles to the left of C, are similar to those +on the right of C, and therefore a b is equal to A B. The points D C, +etc., may be marked by bushes planted in the ground, or by men standing. + + +The disadvantages of this plan are its complexity, and the usual +difficulty of finding a sufficient space of level ground, for its +execution. The method given in the following paragraph is incomparably +more facile and generally applicable. + +Triangulation by measurement of Chords.--Colonel Everest, the late +Surveyor-General of India, pointed out (Journ. Roy. Geograph. Soc. 1860, +p. 122) the advantage to travellers, unprovided with angular instruments, +of measure the chords of the angles they wish to determine. He showed +that a person who desired to make a rude measurement of the angle C A B, +in the figure (p. 40), has simply to pace for any convenient length from +A towards C, reaching, we will say, the point a' and then to pace an +equal distance from A towards B, reaching the point a ae. Then it remains +for him to pace the distance a' a" which is the chord of the angle A to +the radius A a'. Knowing this, he can ascertain the value of the angle C +A B by reference to a proper table. In the same way the angle C B A can +be ascertained. Lastly, by pacing the distance A B, to serve as a base, +all the necessary data will have been obtained for determining the lines +A C and B C. The problem can be worked out, either by calculation or by +protraction. I have made numerous measurements in this way, and find the +practical error to be within five per cent. + + +Table for rude triangulation by Chords.--It occurred to me that the plan +described in the foregoing paragraph might be exceedingly simplified by a +table, such as that which I annex in which different values of a' a" are +given for a radius of 10, and in which the calculations are made for a +base = 100. The units in which A a', A a", and B b', Bb", are to be +measured are intended to be paces, though, of course, any other units +would do. The units in which the base is measured may be feet, yards, +minutes, or hours' journey, or whatever else is convenient. Any multiple +or divisor of 100 may be used for the base, if the tabular number be +similarly multiplied. Therefore a traveller may ascertain the breadth of +a river, or that of a valley, or the distance of any object on either +side of his line of march, by taking not more than some sixty additional +paces, and by making a single reference to my table. Particular care must +be taken to walk in a straight line from A to B, by sighting some more +distant object in a line with B. It will otherwise surprise most people, +on looking back at their track, to see how curved it has been and how far +their b' B is from being in the right direction. + +[Contains Table for Rough Triangulation without the usual instruments, +and without Calculation"]. + +Measurement of Time.--Sun Dial.--Plant a stake firmly in the ground in a +level open space, and get ready a piece of string, a tent-peg, and a bit +of stick a foot long. When the stars begin to appear, and before it is +dark, go to the stake, lie down on the ground, and plant the stick, so +adjusting it that its top and the point where the string is tied to the +stake shall be in a line with the Polar Star, or rather with the Pole +(see below); then get up, stretch the string so as just to touch the top +of the stick, and stake it down with the tent-peg. Kneel down again, to +see that all is right, and in the morning draw out the dial-lines; the +string being the gnomon. The true North Pole is distant about 1 1/2 +degree, or three suns' (or moons') diameters from the Polar Star, and it +lies between the Polar Star and the pointers of the Great Bear, or, more +truly, between it and [Greek letter] Urs ae Majoris. + +[Small drawing illustrating these directions in above text]. + +The one essential point of dial-making is to set the gnomon truly, +because it ensures that the shadows shall fall in the same direction at +the same hours all the year round. To ascertain where to mark the +hour-lines on the ground, or wall, on which the shadow of the gnomon +falls, the simplest plan is to use a watch, or whatever makeshift means +of reckoning time be at hand. Calculations are troublesome, unless the +plate is quite level, or vertical, and exactly facing south or north, or +else in the plane of the Equinox. + +The figure represents the well-known equinoctial sun-dial. It can easily +be cast in lead. The spike points towards the elevated pole, and the rim +of the disc is divided into 24 equal parts for the hours. + +Pendulum.--A Traveller, when the last of his watches breaks down, has no +need to be disheartened from going on with his longitudinal observations, +especially if he observes occulations and eclipses. The object of a watch +is to tell the number of seconds that elapse between the instant of +occulation, eclipse, etc., and the instant, a minute or two later, when +the sextant observation for time is made. All that a watch actually does +is to beat seconds, and to record the number of beats. Now, a string and +stone, swung as a pendulum, will beat time; and a native who is taught to +throw a pebble into a bag at each beat, will record it; and, for +operations that do not occupy much time, he will be as good as a watch. +The rate of the pendulum may be determined by taking two sets of +observations, with three or four minutes' interval between them; and, if +the distance from the point of suspension to the centre of the stone be +thirty-nine inches, and if the string be thin and the stone very heavy, +it will beat seconds very nearly indeed. The observations upon which the +longitude of the East African lakes depended, after Captain Speke's first +journey to them, were lunars, timed with a string and a stone, in default +of a watch. + +Hour-glass.--Either dry sand or water may be used in an hour-glass; if +water be used, the aperture through which it runs must, of course, be +smaller. + + + +CLIMBING AND MOUNTAINEERING. + + +Climbing.--Climbing trees.--Colonel Jackson, in his book, 'How to +Observe,' gives the following directions for climbing palms and other +trees that have very rough barks:--"Take a strip of linen, or two towels +or strong handkerchiefs tied together, and form a loop at each end, for +the feet to pass tightly into without going through; or, for want of such +material, make a rope of grass or straw in the same way. The length +should embrace a little more than half of the diameter of the trunk to be +climbed. Now, being at the foot of the tree, fix the feet well into the +loops, and opening the legs a little, embrace the tree as high up as you +can. Raise your legs, and pressing the cord against the tree with your +feet, stand, as it were, in your stirrups, and raise your body and arms +higher; hold fast again by the arms, open the legs, and raise them a +stage higher, and so on to the top. The descent is effected in the same +way, reversing, of course, the order of the movements. The ruggedness of +the bark, and the weight of the body pressing diagonally across the trunk +of the tree, prevent the rope from slipping. Anything, provided it be +strong enough, is better than a round rope, which does not hold so fast." +A loop or hoop embracing the body of the climber and the tree, is a +helpful addition. Large nails carried in a bag slung round the waist, to +be driven into the bare trunk of the tree, will facilitate its ascent. +Gimlets may be used for the same purpose. High walls can be climbed by +help of this description; a weight attached to one end of a rope, being +first thrown over the wall, and the climber assisting himself by holding +on to the other end. Trees of soft wood are climbed by cutting notches +two feet apart on alternate sides. Also by driving in bamboo pegs, +sloping alternately to left or to right; these pegs correspond to the +"rungs" of a ladder. + +Ladders.--A notched pole or a knotted rope makes a ladder. We hear of +people who have tied sheets together to let themselves down high walls, +when making an escape. The best way of making a long rope from sheets, is +to cut them into strips of about six inches broad, and with these to +twist a two-stranded rope, or else to plait a three-stranded one. + +Descending cliffs with ropes is an art which naturalists and others have +occasion to practise. It has been reduced to a system by the inhabitants +of some rocky coasts in the Northern seas, where innumerable sea-birds go +for the breeding season, and whose ledges and crevices are crammed with +nests full of large eggs, about the end of May and the beginning of June. +They are no despicable prize to a hungry native. I am indebted to a most +devoted rock-climber, the late Mr. Woolley, for the following facts. It +appears that the whole population are rock-climbers, in the following +places:--St. Kilda, in the Hebrides; Foula Island, in Shetland; the Faroe +Islands generally; and in the Westmarver Islands off Iceland. Flamborough +Head used to be a famous place for this accomplishment, but the birds +have become far less numerous; they have been destroyed very wantonly +with shot. + +In descending a cliff, two ropes are used; one a supply well-made, +many-stranded, inch rope (see "Ropes"), to which the climber is attached, +and by which he is let down; the other is a much thinner cord, left to +dangle over the cliff, and made fast to some stone or stake above. The +use of the second rope is for the climber to haul upon, when he wishes to +be pulled up. By resting a large part of his weight upon it, he makes the +task of pulling him up much more easy. He can also convey signals by +jerking it. A usual rock-climbing arrangement is shown in the sketch. One +man with a post behind him, as in fig. 1, or two men, as in fig. 2 are +entrusted with the letting down of a comrade to the depth of 100 or even +150 feet. They pass the rope either under their thighs or along their +sides, as shown in the figures. The climber is attached to the rope, as +shown in fig. 2. The band on which he sits is of worsted. A beginner +ought to be attached far more securely to the rope. + +[Fig 1 and Fig 2 appear on p 45]. + +(I have tried several plans, and find that which is shown in Fig. 1 to be +thoroughly comfortable and secure. A stick forms the seat' at either end +of it is a short stirrup; garters secure the stirrup leathers to the +knees; there is a belt under the arms.) + +It is convenient, but not necessary, to have a well-greased leather +sheath, a tube of eighteen inches in length, through which the rope runs, +as shown in both figures. It lies over the edges of the cliff, and the +friction of the rock keeps it steadily in its place. + +It is nervous work going over the edge of a cliff for the first time; +however, the sensation does not include giddiness. Once in the air, and +when confidence is acquired, the occupation is very exhilarating. The +power of locomotion is marvellous: a slight push with the foot, or a +thrust with a stick, will swing the climber twenty feet to a side. Few +rocks are so precipitous but that a climber can generally make some use +of his hands and feet; enough to cling to the rock when he wishes, and to +clamber about its face. The wind is seldom a gale above, but the air will +be comparatively quiet upon the face; and therefore there is no danger of +a chance gush dashing the climber against the rocks. A short stick is +useful, but not necessary. There are three cautions to be borne in mind. +1. As you go down, test every stone carefully. If the movement of the +rope displaces any one of them, after you have been let down below it, it +is nearly sure to fall upon your head, because you will be vertically +beneath it. Some climbers use a kind of helmet as a shield against these +very dangerous accidents. 2. Take care that the rope does not become +jammed in a cleft, or you will be helplessly suspended in mid-air. Keep +the rope pretty tight when you are clambering about the ledges: else, if +you slip, the jerk may break the rope, or cause an overpowering strain +upon the men who are holding it above. + +Turf and solid rock are much the best substances for the rope to run +over. In the Faroes, they tar the ropes excessively; they are absolutely +polished with tar. Good ropes are highly valued. In St. Kilda, leather +ropes are used: they last a lifetime, and are a dowry for a daughter. A +new rope spins terribly. + +Leaping Poles.--In France they practise a way of crossing a deep brook by +the help of a rope passed round an overhanging branch of a tree growing +by its side. They take a run and swing themselves across, pendulum +fashion. It is the principle of the leaping-pole, reversed. + +The art of climbing difficult places.--Always face difficult places; if +you slip, let your first effort be to turn upon your stomach, for in +every other position you are helpless. A mountaineer, when he meets with +a formidable obstacle, does not hold on the rock by means of his feet and +his hands only, but he clings to it like a caterpillar, with every part +of his body that can come simultaneously into contact with its roughened +surface. + +Snow Mountains.--Precautions.--The real dangers of the high Alps may be +reduced to three:--1. Yielding of snow-bridges over crevices. 2. Slipping +on slopes of ice. 3. The fall of ice, or rocks, from above. Absolute +security from the first is obtainable by tying the party together at +intervals to a rope. If there be only two in company, they should be tied +together at eight or ten paces apart. Against the second danger, the rope +is usually effective, though frightful accidents have occurred by the +fall of one man, dragging along with him the whole chain of his +companions. Against the third danger there is no resource but +circumspection. Ice falls chiefly in the heat of the day; it is from +limestone cliffs that the falling rocks are nearly always detached. When +climbing ice of the most moderate slope, nailed boots are an absolute +necessity; and for steep slopes of ice, the ice-axe (described below) is +equally essential. + +Alpine Outfit consists of ropes, ice-axe or alpenstock (there must be at +least one ice-axe in the party), nailed boots, coloured spectacles, veil +or else a linen mask, muffettees, and gaiters. + +I give the following extracts from the Report of a Committee appointed by +the Alpine Club in 1864, on Ropes, Axes, and Alpenstocks:-- + +Ropes.--We have endeavoured to ascertain what ropes will best stand the +sharp jerk which would be caused by a man falling suddenly into a +crevasse, or down an ice-slope: and on this subject we lay before the +Club the result of nearly a hundred experiments, made with various kinds +of rope purchased of the best London makers. We considered that the least +weight with which it was practically useful to test ropes, was twelve +stone, as representing the average weight of a light man with his whole +Alpine equipment. In the preliminary experiments, therefore, all ropes +were rejected which did not support the strain produced by twelve stone +falling five feet. Under this trial, all those plaited ropes which are +generally supposed to be so strong, and many most carefully-made twisted +ropes, gave way in such a manner as was very startling to some of our +number, who had been in the habit of using these treacherous cords with +perfect and most unfounded confidence. Only four ropes passed +successfully through this trial; these were all made by Messrs. +Buckingham and Sons, of 33, Broad-street, Bloomsbury, and can be procured +only of them. We confined our further experiments to these ropes, one of +which failed under severer tests, while the remaining three, made +respectively of Manilla hemp, Italian hemp, and flax, proved so nearly +equal in strength that it may fairly be doubted which is on the whole to +be preferred. Each of these three ropes will bear twelve stone falling +ten feet, and fourteen stone falling eight feet; and it may be useful to +say that the strain upon a rope loaded with a weight of fourteen stone, +and suddenly checked after a fall of eight feet, is nearly equal to that +which is caused by a dead weight of two tons. None of these ropes, +however, will bear a weight of fourteen stone falling ten feet; and the +result of our experiments is, that no rope can be made, whether of hemp, +flax, or silk, which is strong enough to bear that strain, and yet light +enough to be portable. We believe that these ropes, which weigh about +three-quarters of an ounce to the foot, are the heaviest which can be +conveniently carried about in the Alps. We append a statement of the +respective merits of the three kinds, all of which are now made by +Messrs. Buckingham, expressly for the Club, and marked by a red worsted +thread twisted in the strands:-- + +No. 1. MANILLA HEMP. Weight of 20 yards, 48 oz. Advantages--Is softer and +more pliable than 2. Is more elastic than 2 and 3. When wet, is far more +pleasant to handle than 2 and 3. Disadvantages--Has a tendency to wear +and fray at a knot. + +No. 2. ITALIAN HEMP. Weight of 20 yards, 43 oz. Advantages--Is less bulky +than 1 and 3. Is harder, and will probably wear best, being least likely +to cut against rocks. Disadvantages--Is much more still and difficult to +untie than 1 and 3. When wet, is very disagreeable to handle, and is apt +to kink. + +No. 3. FLAX. Weight of 20 yards, 44 oz. Advantages--When dry, is softer, +more pliable, and easier to handle than 1 and 2, and will probably wear +better than 1. Disadvantages--When wet, becomes decidedly somewhat +weaker, and is nearly as disagreeable to handle as 2. + +Knots.--There can be no doubt that every knot in a rope weakens its power +of resisting a sudden jerking strain. How great a loss of strength +results from a knot we cannot undertake to estimate, but that the loss is +a very serious one the following statement will show: these ropes which +we report will resist the strain of fourteen stone falling eight feet, +will not resist it if there is a knot in any one of them; or even if the +knots used in attaching them to the point of support, or to the weights, +be roughly or carelessly made. The rope in these cases breaks at the +knot, for two reasons; partly because of the folds, as they cross in the +knot, are strained suddenly across each other, and one of them is cut +through; and partly because the rope is so sharply bent that the outer +side of each fold in the knot is much more stretched than the inner side, +so that the strain comes almost entirely upon one side only of each fold. +For the first reason, we found it necessary to put a pad of some kind +inside the knot--leather, linen, or a little tow or waste rope will do. +For the second reason we preferred knots in which the folds are least +sharply bent round each other; that is, in which the curves are large. We +therefore conclude that--1st. No knot, which is not absolutely necessary, +ought to be allowed to remain on the rope: 2nd. The tighter and harder a +knot becomes, the worse it is: 3rd. The more loose and open a knot is +made, the better it is:--and we append diagrams of those knots which we +found by experiment weaken the rope least. For Alpine ropes, only three +sorts of knots are ever required, and we suggest one of each kind:--No. 1 +is for the purpose of joining two ends. No. 2 is for the purpose of +making a loop at one end. No. 3 is for the purpose of making a loop in +the middle when the ends are fastened. No. 4 is a knot, of which we give +a diagram in order that no one may imitate it. It is one of those which +most weaken the rope. The only one which seemed to be equally injurious +is the common single knot, of which no diagram is necessary. As the topes +which we have recommended are very liable to become untwisted, unless the +loose ends are secured, we advise travellers, in order to avoid knots, to +have the ends of every piece of rope bound with waxed twine. It should +also be known that it is very unsafe to join two pieces of rope by +looping one end through the other, so that when the jerk comes, they will +be strained across each other as two links of a chain are strained across +each other. Unless a pad of some kind divides the loops, one will cut the +other through. + +[Four diagrams of knots on this page]. + +Axes.--The axes made in England for the purpose of being taken out to +Switzerland, may be divided into two classes, namely: travellers' axes, +intended to be used for chipping a few occasional steps, for enlarging +and clearing out those imperfectly made, and for holding on to a +snow-slope,--and guides' axes, which are the heavier implements required +for making long staircases in hard blue ice. We have had three models +prepared, of which diagrams are appended; the first two represent the +lighter axe, or what we have termed the travellers' axe; and the third, +the heavier instrument required for guides' work. Diagram No. 1 +represents a light axe or pick, of a kind somewhat similar to that +recommended by Mr. Stephen, in a paper published a short time ago in the +'Journal.' It has, in the first place, the great advantage of lightness +and handiness, while its single blade, to some extent, combines the +step-cutting qualities possessed by the two cutters of the ordinary +double-headed axe, though the latter instrument is on the whole decidedly +superior. The small hammer-headed axe, though the latter instrument is on +the whole decidedly superior. The small hammer-head at the back is added +in order to balance the pick, and in some degree to improve the hold when +the axe-head comes to be used as a crutch handle. This form, it should be +understood, we recommend on account of its lightness and of its +convenient shape. Diagram No. 2 represents a travellers' axe, slightly +heavier than the first; and as this is the shape which appears to us the +best adapted for mountain work of all kinds, we desire shortly to state +our reasons for recommending it to members of the Club. + +[Fig 1 and Fig 2, shapes of axes, are on this page.]. + +In the first place it is absolutely necessary that one of the cutters +should be made in the form of a pick, as this is by far the best +instrument for hacking into hard ice, and is also extremely convenient +for holding on to a snow-slope, or hooking into crannies, or on to ledges +of rock. + +For the other cutter we recommend an adze-shaped blade, and we are +convinced that this is the form which will be found most generally +useful, as being best suited for all the varieties of step-cutting. The +hatchet-shaped blade used by the Chamouni guides is no doubt a better +implement for making a staircase diagonally up a slope, but on the other +hand it is exceedingly difficult to cut steps downwards with a blade set +on in this manner; and as mountaineers rarely come down the way by which +they went up, if they can help it, it is obvious that this objection to +the Chamouni form of axe is conclusive. + +We recommend that the edge of the blade should be angular instead of +circular, although the latter shape is more common, because it is clear +that the angular edge cuts into frozen snow more quickly and easily. + +The curve, which is the same in all the axes, approaches to coincidence +with the curve described by the axe in making the stroke. A curve is, in +our opinion, desirable, in order to bring the point more nearly opposite +the centre of percussion, and to make the head more useful for holding on +to rocks or a slope. + +The axe shown in diagram No. 2, though slightly heavier than No. 1, is +not of sufficient weight or strength for cutting a series of steps in +hard ice. To those gentlemen, therefore, who do not object to carrying +weight, but who desire to have an axe fit for any kind of work, we +recommend No. 3. As this is exactly similar in shape to No. 2, differing +from it only in size, we have not thought it necessary to give a separate +diagram of No. 3. + +As to the mode of fastening, which is the same in all three axes, we +should have felt some diffidence in giving an opinion had we not been +fortunate enough to obtain the advice of an experienced metal-worker, by +whom we were strongly recommended to adopt the fastening shown in the +diagrams, as being the method generally considered best in the trade for +attaching the heads of hatchets, or large hammers likely to be subjected +to very violent strains. It will be seen that the axe-head and fastening +are forged in one solid piece, the fastening consisting of two strong +braces or straps of steel, which are pressed into the wood about +one-eighth of an inch, and are secured by two rivets, passed through the +wood and clenched on each side. The braces are put at the side, instead +of in front of and behind the axe, because by this means, the strain +which falls on the axe acts against the whole breadth of the steel +fastenings, and not against their thickness merely. + +We believe that this is the firmest method of fastening which can be +adopted, and that so long as the wood is sound, it is scarcely possible +for the head of the axe to get loose or to come off; and it has the +further advantage of strengthening the wood instead of weakening it, and +of distributing the strain produced by step-cutting over a large bearing. +It should be added that these axe-heads and fastenings ought to be made +entirely of steel. + +The dimensions of the axe-heads are as follow: -- +No. 1. -- Length of blade measured from the wood.. 4 1/2 inches. + Breadth of blade at widest part..........1 1/2 " + Weight, including the braces............13 1/2 oz. +No. 2. -- Length of blade measured from the wood.. 3 1/2 inches. + Length of pick.......................... 4 1/2 " + Breadth of blade at widest part......... 1 3/4 " + Breadth of pick......................... 0 1/2 " + Weight, including the braces............15 1/2 oz. +No. 3. -- Length of blade measured from the wood.. 4 inches. + Length of pick.......................... 5 " + Breadth of blade at widest part......... 2 1/4 " + Breadth of pick......................... 0 5/8 " + Weight, including the brades............21 1/4 oz. + +We much desired to recommend to the Club some means by which the axe-head +might be made moveable, so as to be capable of being put on and taken off +the handle quickly and easily. We regret to say, however, that we were +unable to discover any plan by which this can be effectually done. We +examined very carefully the numerous and formidable weapons which have +been sent in by members for exhibition, most of which had elaborate +contrivances for fastening on the axe-head. These were all, however, +liable to very serious objections. Some were evidently insecure; with +others it was necessary that the axe-head should be surmounted by a huge +knob, which would prove a most serious impediment in step-cutting; while +in the best and firmest which we found, the axe-head was attached to the +pole by means of nuts and screws projecting at the side or over the top +of the axe. This latter method of fastening seems to us awkward and +possibly dangerous, as the nuts, from their position, are very likely to +become loose or to get broken off, and cannot, except when dangerously +loose, be fastened or unfastened without a key or wrench--a troublesome +article, certain to be lost on the first expedition. + +The Handle of the Axe should, we think, be made of ash. We recommend this +wood in preference to deal, which is lighter and nearly as strong, +because in choosing a piece of ash it is easier to select with certainty +thoroughly sound and well-seasoned wood; and in preference to hickory and +lance-wood, which are stronger, because these woods are extremely heavy. + +The handle should, we believe, be of a very slightly oval form, as it is +then more convenient to the grasp than if round. As to the thickness of +the wood, we are satisfied it ought nowhere to be less than 1 3/8 inch, +since a pole of that diameter, made of ordinarily good ash, is the +smallest which cannot be permanently bent by a heavy man's most violent +effort; although we have seen some pieces of unusually strong ash of a +less thickness, which proved inflexible. + +We recommend, then, that the oval section of the handle should have a +shorter diameter of 1 3/8 inch, and a longer diameter of 1 1/2 inch, and +that the thickness should be the same from one end to the other. The +length of the handles for Nos. 1 and 2 should be such that they will +reach to just under the arm at the shoulder. The handle for No. 3, which +is intended to be used exclusively as an axe, should be between 3 1/2 and +4 feet long. The lower end of the handle should be strengthened in the +usual way by a ferrule, and armed with a spike. + +The spike should be from 3 1/2 to 4 inches long, clear of the end of the +handle, and should be prevented from moving by a slight rivet passed +through it near the upper end after it is fastened in. The exact form of +the spike and ferrule are represented in the diagram. + +We have further to recommend for axe-handles an addition which is liable +to suspicion as an entire innovation, but which, we are confident, will +be found valuable at those critical moments when the axe is required to +hold up two or three men. It has happened that when the axe has been +struck into the snow a man has been unable to keep his hold of the +handle, which slips out of his hand, and leaves him perfectly helpless. +To guard against this mischance, we propose to fasten a band of leather +round the handle, at a distance of a foot from the ferrule at the lower +end. This leather should be about an eighth of an inch thick, and will be +quite sufficient to check the hand when it is sliding down the handle. It +should be lashed round the wood and strained tight when wet. + +Alpenstocks.--What we have said about the handle of the axe applies in +all respects to the Alpenstock, except that the length of the latter +should be different, and that the leathern ring would of course not be +required. It is generally thought most convenient that the Alpenstock +should be high enough to touch the chin of its owner, as he stands +upright; but this is a matter on which it is scarcely possible, and, were +it possible, scarcely necessary to lay down an absolute rule. + +Boots.--Several nails are sure to be knocked out after each hard day's +work, therefore a reserve supply is necessary in lands where none other +are to be found. No makeshift contrivance, so far as I am aware, will +replace the iron last used by shoemakers when they hammer nails into the +boot. There is a well-known contrivance of screws with jagged heads, for +screwing into boots when a little ice has to be crossed. They do +excellently for occasional purposes, but not for regular ice-work, as +they are easily torn out. Crampons are soles of leather with spikes; they +are tied over the shoes, but neither English mountaineers nor modern +guides ever employ them: nailed boots are better. + +Snow Spectacles.--The Esquimaux, who have no coloured glass, or any +equivalent for it, cut a piece of soft wood to the curvature of the face; +it is about two inches thick, and extends horizontally quite across both +eyes, resting on the nose, a notch being cut in the wood to answer the +purpose of the bridge of a pair of spectacles. It is tied behind the +ears; and, so far as I have now described it would exclude every ray of +light from the eyes. Next, a long narrow slit, of the thickness of a thin +saw-cut, is made along the middle almost from end to end. Through this +slit the wearer can see very fairly. As it is narrower than the diameter +of the pupil of his eye, the light that reaches his retina is much +diminished in quantity. Crape or gauze is a substitute for coloured +glass. + +Mask.--Is merely a pocket-handkerchief, with strings to tie it over the +face; eye-holes are cut in it, also a hole for the nose, over which a +protecting triangular piece of linen is thrown, and another hole opposite +the mouth, to breathe through it is drawn below the chin so as to tie +firmly in place. The mask prevents the face from being cut to pieces by +the cold dry winds, and blistered by the powerful rays of the sun +reverberated from the snow. + + + +CATTLE. + + +Happy is the traveller who has the opportunity of hiring his cattle with +their attendants: for his delay and cares are then reduced to those of +making a bargain, and of riding what he has hired; and when one set of +animals is tired or worn out, he can leave them behind and ride on with +others. But, for the most part, explorers must drive their own beasts +with them: they must see to their being watered, tended, and run after +when astray; help to pack and harness them; fatigue themselves for their +benefit; and drudge at the work of a cowherd for some hours a day. + +In fitting out a caravan, as few different kinds of animals should be +taken as possible, or they will split into separate herds, and require +many men to look after them. + +The dispositions of the animals that compose a caravan affect, in no +small degree, the pleasure of travelling with it. Now, it is to be +noticed that men attach themselves to horses and asses, and in a lesser +degree to mules and oxen, but they rarely make friends of camels. + +Weights carried by Cattle.--The net weights that these different animals +carry in trying, long-continued journeys--through stages uncertain in +length, sometimes leading to good pasture, sometimes to bad--must not be +reckoned higher than the following; and an animal draws about 2 1/2 times +as much net weight as he carries:--An ass, 65 lbs.; a small mule, 90 +lbs.; a horse lbs.; an ox lbs.; a camel lbs. to 200 lbs.; +elephant lbs. In level countries--where there is grain, and where +the road is known and a regularity in the day's work can be ensured--the +weights that may be carried are fully double those of the above list. +Captain Burton's donkeys, in East Africa, carried immense weights. Dogs +will draw a "travail" (which see) of 60 lbs. for a distance of 15 miles a +day, upon hard level country. + +Theory of Loads and Distances.--How should we load men or animals of +transport, and how should we urge them, in order to obtain the largest +amount of effective labour? If they carry a mere feather-weight, they may +make long days' journeys; but their value, as animals of transport, is +almost nothing. Again, on the other hand, if we load them with an +excessive weight, they will soon come to a standstill; and in this case, +as in the first, their value as beasts of transport is almost nil. What +then, is that moderate load by which we shall obtain the largest amount +of "useful effect"? this is a problem which many of the ablest engineers +and philosophers have endeavoured to solve; and the formulae--partly +based on theory and partly on experiment--which were used by Euler, are +generally accepted as a fair approximation. They are very simple, and +peculiarly interesting on account of their wide applicability. They are +equally true for men, animals, or machines; and are wholly independent of +the way in which the power is applied: whether, for instance, a man +carries his burden, or draws it, or rows or punts it in a boat, or winds +it up with a crank or tread-mill. + +Travellers might well turn the theory to account on their own behalf; +they are well situated for testing its truthfulness, by observing the +practices of the countries in which they are travelling. Reliable facts +upon the extreme distances that can be travelled over, day after day, by +people carrying different loads, but equally circumstanced in every other +respect, would be very acceptable to me. + +The formulae are as follow:--Let b be the burden which would just +suffice to prevent an animal from moving a step; d the distance he could +travel daily if unloaded. Also, let b1 be some burden less than b; and +let d1 be the distance to which he could travel daily when carrying b1. + + Then b1 d2 = b(d-d1)2. (1) + +Again, the "useful effect" is a maximum, if b1d1 is a maximum. When +this is the case, then + + b1 = 4/9 b. (2) +And + 3 d1 = d. (3) + +In other words, an animal gets through most work in the day if he carries +4/9 of the greatest load he could just stagger under; in which case he +will be able to travel 1/3 of the distance he could walk if he carried no +load at all. (Machinery requires no repose; and therefore d, the distance +per day, is convertible into v, the velocity of movement.) + +As an example:--Suppose a man is able to walk 10 miles a day, with a load +of 130 lbs., and 33 miles a day when he carries nothing. Then, from +equation (1), the value of b (the burden under which he would be brought +to a standstill) would be about 267 1/2; and the best load for him, from +equation (2), would be 119 lbs., which he would be able to carry, +according to equation (3), 11 miles a day. + +Horses.--The mode of taking wild horses is by throwing the lasso, whilst +pursuing them at full speed, and dropping a noose over their necks, by +which their speed is soon checked, and they are choked down. + +Mr. Rarey's sixpenny book tells all that can be told on the subject of +horse-breaking; but far more lies in the skill and horse-knowledge of the +operator, than in the mere theory. His way of mastering a vicious horse +is by taking up one fore-foot, bending the knee, slipping a loop over the +knee until it comes to the pastern-joint, and then fixing it tight. The +loop must be caused to embrace the part between the hoof and the +pastern-joint firmly, by the help of a strap of some kind, lest it should +slip. The horse is now on three legs, and he feels conquered. If he gets +very mad, wait leisurely till he becomes quiet, then caress him, and let +the leg down and allow him to rest; then repeat the process. If the horse +kicks in harness, drive him slowly on three legs. + +In breaking-in a stubborn beast, it is convenient to physic him until he +is sick and out of spirits, or to starve him into submission. + +Salt keeps horses from straying, if they are accustomed to come up to the +camp and get it. But it is a bad plan as they are apt to hang about, +instead of going off to feed. They are so fond of salt, that they have +been known to stray back to a distant house where they had been allowed +to lick it. + +Shooting Horse.--Spur him as much as you will, but never use a whip; +else, whenever you raise your gun to fire, he will feel a dread that it +may be the whip, and will be unsteady. + +Horse neighing.--Mungo Park tells how he clutched his horse's muzzle with +both hands to prevent his neighing, when he was in concealment and +horsemen were passing near. + +Addenda.--In climbing a steep hill hang on to the tail of your horse as +you walk behind him. Horses are easily driven in file by securing the +halter of each horse to the tail of the one before him. To swim horses +across a river, to sleep by their side when there is danger, to tether +them, and to water them from wells, are all described elsewhere. (See +"Horses" in index.) + +Mules.--Mules require men who know their habits; they are powerful beats, +and can only be mastered with skill and address. A savage will not assist +in packing them, for he fears their heels: the Swiss say mules have +always an arriere-pensee. They have odd secret ways, strange fancies, and +lurking vice. When they stray, they go immense distances; and it is +almost beyond the power of a man on foot to tend them in a wild country: +he can neither overtake them easily, nor, when overtaken, catch them. The +female is, in most breeds, much the more docile. They suffer from African +distemper, but in a less degree than horses. The following descriptions +of mule caravans are exceedingly graphic and instructive:--"The madrina +(or godmother) is a most important personage. She is an old steady mare, +with a little bell round her neck, and wheresoever she goes the mules, +like good children, follow her. If several large troops are turned into +one field to graze in the morning, the muleteer has only to lead the +madrinas a little apart and tinkle their bells, and, although there may +be 200 or 300 mules together, each immediately knows its own bell, and +separates itself from the rest. The affection of these animals for their +madrina saves infinite trouble. It is nearly impossible to lose an old +mule: for, if detained several hours by force, she will, by the power of +smell, like a dog, track out her companions, or rather the madrina; for, +according to the muleteer, she is the chief object of affection. The +feeling, however, is not of an individual nature; for I believe I am +right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as a madrina." +(Charles Darwin.) + +"After travelling about 14 miles, we were joined by three miners; and our +mules, taking a sudden liking for their horses, jogged on at a more brisk +rate. The instincts of the mulish heart form an interesting study to the +traveller in the mountains. I would (were the comparison not too +ungallant) liken it to a woman's; for it is quite as uncertain in its +sympathies, bestowing its affections when least expected, and, when +bestowed, quite as constant, so long as the object is not taken away. +Sometimes a horse, sometimes an ass, captivates the fancy of a whole +drove of mules, but often an animal nowise akin. Lieutenant Beale told me +that his whole train of mules once galloped off suddenly, on the plains +of the Cimarone, and ran half a mile, when they halted in apparent +satisfaction. The cause of their freak was found to be a buffalo-calf, +which had strayed from the herd. They were frisking around it in the +greatest delight, rubbing their noses against it, throwing up their +heels, and making themselves ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh and +bray; while the poor calf, unconscious of its attractive qualities, stood +trembling in their midst. It is customary to have a horse in the +mule-trains of the traders of North Mexico, as a sort of magnet to keep +together the separate atoms of the train, for, whatever the temptation, +they will never stray from him." (Taylor's 'Eldorado.') + +Asses.--Notwithstanding his inveterate obstinacy, the ass is an excellent +and sober little beast, far too much despised by us. He is not only the +most enduring, but also one of the quickest walkers among cattle, being +usually promoted to the leadership of a caravan. He is nearly equal to +the camel in enduring thirst, and thrives on the poorest pasture, suffers +from few diseases, and is unscathed by African distemper. The long +desert-roads and pilgrim-tracts of North Africa are largely travelled +over by means of asses. + +Asses taught not to kick.--Mungo Park says that the negroes, where he +travelled, taught their asses as follows:--They cut a forked stick, and +put the forked part into the ass's mouth, like the bit of a bridle; they +then tied the two smaller parts together above his head, leaving the +lower part of sufficient length to strike against the ground if the ass +should attempt to put his head down. It always proved effectual. + +Not to bray.--Messrs. Huc and Gabet, who were distracted by the continual +braying of one of their asses throughout the night, appealed to their +muleteer: he put a speedy close to the nuisance by what appears to be a +customary contrivance in China, viz., by lashing a heavy stone to the +beast's tail. It appears that when an ass wants to bray he elevates his +tail, and, if his tail be weighted down, he has not the heart to bray. In +hostile neighbourhoods, where silence and concealment are sought, it +might be well to adopt this rather absurd treatment. An ass who was being +schooled according to the method of this and the preceding paragraph, +both at the same time, would be worthy of an artist's sketch. + +Oxen.--Though oxen are coarse, gross, and phlegmatic beasts, they have +these merits: they are eminently gregarious, and they ruminate their +food. The consequence is, first, that one, two, or more, are very seldom +missing out of a drove; and, secondly, that they pick up what they +require, in a much shorter time than horses, mules, etc., who have to +chew as they eat. Oxen require less tending than any other beasts of +burden. + +To train a Pack-ox.--An ox of any age, however wild he may be, can be +broken in, in three or four days, so as to carry a pack of about 70 lbs.; +though it is true that he will frequently kick it off during the journey, +and give excessive trouble. It would be scarcely possible to drive more +than three of these newly-taught oxen at a time, on account of the +frequent delays caused by the unruliness of one or other of them. Muich +depends on the natural aptitude of the animal in estimating the time +required for making a steady pack-ox, some will carry a good weight and +go steadily after only a fortnight's travel; some will never learn. But +in all cases they prove unruly at the beginning of a journey. + +To break-in an ox, take a long thong or cord, make a noose at one end of +it, and let two or three men lay hold of the other; then, driving all the +herd together in a clump, go in among them and, aided by a long stick, +push or slip the noose round the hind leg of the ox that you want, and +draw tight. He will pull and struggle with all his might, and the other +oxen will disperse, leaving him alone dragging the men about after him. +Next, let another man throw a noose round his horns, and the beast is, +comparatively speaking, secured. It is now convenient to throw the animal +down on his side, which is easily done by the judicious tugging at his +tail and at the thongs. To keep him on the ground, let one man take the +tail, and, passing it round one thigh, hold him down by that, while one +or two men force the horns down against the ground. His nose has next to +be pierced. A stick, shaped like a Y, eight inches long, is cut of some +tough wood; and the foot of it, being first sharpened, is forcibly poked +through the wall that divides the nostrils, and a thin thong is tied +firmly to either end of this nose-stick. The thong is gathered together, +and wound in a figure of 8 round the two horns, where it henceforward +remains while the animal feeds, and by clutching at which, he is at any +time caught. + +Next for the packing: as the ox lies on the ground, scrape a hole in the +sand under his belly, and then, having laid a few skins on his back, pass +a thong round him and them, several times; tie the ends fast, and, taking +a stick, pass it through and twist it round, until the lashings are +extremely tight, then let it be secured. Now let the ox go, and get +quickly out of his way, in case he should be savage. When the ox gets up, +he is sulky and ferocious by turns; and kicks, jumps, and bellows, but at +last joins his companions. + +If he has been well packed, the skins will keep in place and not fall +off; but whether they do or not, he must be re-caught and re-packed every +day. A young ox is generally more difficult to break-in than an old one: +I do not know why. An ox requires no pack-saddle; his back is too round +to carry one with advantage. It is therefore usual to lay spare skins, +etc., upon him, and over these the bags that have to be packed. A great +length of thong is required to lash them. It is convenient to make a pair +of very large saddle-bags out of skin or canvas, which require simply to +be placed on the ox's back and there girthed. + +To train an Ox to carry a Rider.--It takes a very long time to train an +ox to carry a riding-saddle well and steadily: indeed, very few oxen can +be taught to go wherever they may be guided by the rider; they are of so +gregarious a nature, that, for the most part, they will not move a step +without companions. Hence, those oxen only are thought worth breaking-in +which are observed to take the part of leaders of the drove when +pasturing, and which are therefore supposed to have some independence of +disposition. The first time of mounting an ox to break him in, is a work +of almost certain mischance: for the long horns of the ox will often +reach the rider, however far back he may sit, and the animal kicks and +bucks in a way that severely tries the best of seats. All riding-oxen's +horns should have the tips sawn off. After being mounted a very few +times, the ox goes pretty steadily; but it is long before he learns to +carry a rider with ease to himself. I should like to hear if Rarey's plan +of tying up the foreleg would influence them. Their character is so +wholly unlike that of a horse, that I doubt if it would. + +In riding, it must be recollected that the temper of an ox is far less +quick, though his sensations may be as acute as those of a horse: thus, +he does not start forwards on receiving a cut with the whip, even though +he shrink with the pain; but he thinks about it, shakes his head, waits a +while, and then breaks gradually into a faster pace. An ox will trot well +enough with a light weight; and, though riding myself upwards of 13 +stone, I once took an ox 60 miles in a day and a half: this is, perhaps +as much as an ox could, in fairness, be made to do. A ride-ox can be tied +up by his nose-bridle; but, if wild or frightened, he will assuredly +struggle till the nose-stick be torn out of his nose, and he becomes +free. It is, therefore, better to tie the bridle to a tuft of grass, or a +slender twig, rather than to a tree or to the saddle-bags. Mounting an ox +is usually a troublesome business, on account of his horns. To make +ride-oxen quiet and tame, scratch their backs and tails--they dearly love +it--and hold salt in your hands for them to lick. They soon learn their +names, and come to be caressed when called. + +Cows.--Most breeds of cows, out of Europe, cease to give milk after their +calf dies; and the only way of making them continue their yield, is to +spread out the calf's hide for them to lick, some time before milking +them; it retains its effect for a week or more. Messrs. Huc and Gabet +give the following graphic account of this contrivance, as applied to +restive cows:--"These long-tailed cows are so restive and difficult to +milk, that, to keep them at all quiet, the herdsman has to give them a +calf to lick meanwhile. But for this device, not a single drop of milk +could be obtained from them. One day a Lama herdsman, who lived in the +same house with ourselves, came, with a long dismal face, to announce +that his cow had calved during the night, and that unfortunately the calf +was dying. It died in the course of the day. The Lama forthwith skinned +the poor beast, and stuffed it with hay. This proceeding surprised us at +first, for the Lama had by no means the air of a man likely to give +himself the luxury of a cabinet of natural history. When the operation +was completed, we observed that the hay-calf had neither feet nor head; +whereupon it occurred to us that, after all, it was perhaps a pillow that +the Lama contemplated. We were in error; but the error was not dissipated +till the next morning, when our herdsman went to milk his cow. Seeing him +issue forth--the pail in one hand, the hay-calf under the other arm--the +fancy occurred to us to follow him. His first proceeding was to put the +hay-calf down before the cow. He then turned to milk the cow herself. The +mamma at first opened enormous eyes at her beloved infant; by degrees she +stooped her head towards it, then smelt at it, sneezed three or four +times, and at last proceeded to lick it with the most delightful +tenderness. This spectacle grated against our sensibilities: it seemed to +us that he who first invented this parody upon one of the most touching +incidents in nature must have been a man without a heart. A somewhat +burlesque circumstance occurred one day, to modify the indignation with +which this treachery inspired us. By dint of caressing and licking her +little calf, the tender parent one fine morning unripped it: the hay +issued from within; and the cow, manifesting not the slightest surprise +nor agitation, proceeded tranquilly to devour the unexpected provender." + +The Highlanders used this contrivance, and called it a "Tulchan": hence +King James's bishops were nicknamed "Tulchan bishops," to imply that they +were officials of straw, merely set up as a means of milking the Scotch +people of their money, in the form of church-dues. + +Camels.--Camels are only fit for a few countries, and require practised +attendants; thorns and rocks lame them, hills sadly impede them, and a +wet slippery soil entirely stops them. + +Elephants.--They are expensive and delicate, but excellent beasts of +burden, in rainy tropical countries. The traveller should make friends +with the one he regularly rides, by giving it a piece of sugar-cane or +banana before mounting. A sore back is a certain obstacle to a +continuance of travel; there is no remedy for it but rest. The average +burden, furniture included, but excluding the driver, is 500 lbs., and +the full average day's journey 15 miles. + +Dogs.--Dogs will draw a "travail" (which see) of 60 lbs. for 15 miles a +day, over hard, level country, for days together; frequently they will +accomplish much more than that. For Arctic travel, they are used in +journeys after they are three years old; each dog requires eight or ten +herrings per day, or an equivalent to them. A sledge of 12 dogs carries +900 lbs.; it travels on smooth ice seven or eight miles an hour; and in +36 days, 22 sledges and 240 dogs travelled 800 miles--1210 versts. +(Admiral Wrangel.) Dogs are used by the Patagonian fishermen to drive +fish into their nets, and to prevent them from breaking through the nets +when they are inside them. (See next paragraph for "Sheep-dogs.") + +Goats and Sheep.--Goats are much more troublesome to drive than sheep, +neither are they such enduring walkers, nor do they give as much meat; +but their skins are of such great use to furnish strong leather, that it +is seldom convenient to make up a caravan without them. She-goats give +some milk, even when travelling fast, and in dry countries; but a +ewe-sheep is not worth milking under those circumstances, as her yield is +a mere nothing. Goats are very mischievous--they make their way out of +all enclosures, and trespass everywhere. They butt at whatever is bright +or new, or strange to them; and would drive an observer, who employed +astronomical instruments on stands, to distraction. In an open country, +where there are no bushes for a kraal, nets must be taken, and stakes +cut, to make enclosures for the sheep. If they stray at all, the least +thing scares them, and they will wander very far, and scatter. Goats are +far more social and intelligent. If one, two, or three sheep only be +driven, long thongs must be tied to their legs, and allowed to trail +along the ground, by which they may be re-caught if they gallop off. When +the Messrs. Schlagintweit were encamped at vast heights, among the snows +of the Himalaya, they always found it practicable to drive sheep to their +stations. When sheep, etc., are long hurdled at night, near the same +encampment, the nuisance of flies and ticks becomes intolerable. +Sheep-dogs seem to prove of less use to travellers than might have been +expected; perhaps the other dogs corrupt them. + +Management of Cattle generally.--To make an animal rise when he throws +himself on the ground with his pack, and will not get up, it is not of +much use to flog him; twisting or biting his tail is the usual way, or +making a blaze with grass and a few sticks under his nostrils. The +stubborness of a half-broken ox is sometimes beyond conception. + +Cattle Bells, in countries where they can be used without danger, should +always be taken; it adds greatly to the cheerfulness and gregariousness +of the animals--mules positively require them. Hard wood is sonorous +enough for bells. + +Brands and Cattle-marks.--In buying oxen out of the herds of pastoral +people, it is very difficult to remember each animal so as to recognise +it again if it strays back to its former home; it requires quite a +peculiar talent to do so. Therefore it is advisable that the traveller's +cattle should be marked or branded. A trader in Namaqua Land, took red +paint, and tied a brush on to a long stick; with this he made a daub on +the hind quarters of the freshly-bought and half-wild cattle, as they +pushed through the door of his kraal. It naturally excites great ridicule +among natives, to paint an ox that he may be known again; but, for all +that, I think the trader's plan well worth adopting. The same might be +done to sheep, as a slit ear is not half conspicuous enough. A good way +of marking a sheep's ear is to cut a wad out of the middle of it, with a +gun-punch; but it will sometimes tear this hole into a slit, by +scratching with its foot. + +Chaff, to cut.--Tie a sickle against a tree, with its blade projecting; +then, standing in front of the blade, hold a handful of reeds across it +with both hands, one hand on either side of the blade; pull it towards +you, and the reeds will be cut through; drop the cut end, seize the +bundle afresh, and repeat the process. In this way, after a little +practice, chaff is cut with great ease and quickness. A broken sickle +does as well as a whole one, and a knife may be used, but the curve of +its edge is ill adapted for the work. + +Cattle will eat many sorts of herbage, as reeds and gorse, if cut small; +but will not touch them, if uncut. + +Occasional Food for Cattle.--They will also eat seaweed and leaves +especially birch and poplar leaves, and even thrive upon them. + +[Illustration of man cutting chaff as described on p 64]. + +Pulling Cattle out of Holes.--The bight of a cord, or of some substitute +for one, may be thrown over a horse's head, and he can be dragged out by +a team of cattle with but very little danger to his neck. A crupper under +his tail, or a thong as a breeching may be used. In Canada and the United +States, a noose of rope is often run round the horse's neck, and hauled +tight--thus temporarily choking the animal and making him still; he is +then pulled as quickly as possible out of the hole, and no time is lost +in slackening the rope. + + + +HARNESS. + + +Saddles for riding.--Good saddles for riding, and, I may add, especially +for packing, are of nearly as great importance as the goodness of the +animal who carries them. English saddlers never, I believe, can be +induced to stuff a saddle sufficiently; because they have no opportunity +of seeing the miserable, scraggy condition of a travelled horse's back, +to which it is destined to fit. But an English saddle, restuffed at a +bush frontier town, is excellent. + +Three rings, and nine of what saddlers call "D's," should be fixed to the +saddle, not simply into the leather-work, but firmly riveted or secured +into the tree itself. This must be especially insisted on, or frequent +disasters will occur. The three rings are to be fixed to the pommel--one +on the top, and one on each side of it; the nine "D's" are placed as +follows:--three along the back of the saddle, two more on each side of +the seat, and two in front, for the breastplate. + +Fittings.--To these may be tied a light valise in front; a gun-holster on +the right of the pommel; and a small bag--containing odds and ends, +gunpowder, spare bullets, a few presents, etc.--on its left. On the right +of the seat, a sabre-tasch, or thin leather portfolio-shaped pocket, for +paper and writing materials; on the left, the water-canteen and hobbles; +behind, the crupper and small saddle-bags. A breastplate is not worth +having, except in a very hilly country. This description of a saddle, of +course, applies to that of the travelling-horse. For the saddle of the +shooting-horse the arrangement is different; only the gun-holster, and +perhaps the water-canteen can then be taken. An ox carries a saddle +precisely like a horse. I rode mine nearly 1600 miles, in South Africa, +with a common hunting-saddle and its ordinary girths. + +In default of riding-saddles, a pack-saddle must be cushioned to form a +comfortable seat (see "Pack-saddles"). + +Saddle-bags are so troublesome to open, and require so many straps, that +I believe it is best to use a bag of macintosh or canvas, rolled up and +tied behind the saddle, where it should rest on a pad. The pad is made of +two cushions, each 9 inches long and 4 broad, sewn on a piece of leather, +lying parallel to one another, and 4 inches apart. The space between the +cushions corresponds to the backbone of the horse. To keep the whole in +shape, it is usual to stitch four or five laths of wood lengthways to the +upper surface of the pad; upon these laths the bag will rest. If there be +occasion to carry a bag on horseback for a short distance, pass one of +the stirrup-leathers through its string; then throw the bag over to the +other side of the saddle: it will lie behind the rider's leg, and be out +of his way and he will sit upon part of its string. + +Australians, as is well known, insist on the merits of a "swag," or a +long package formed by rolling all their possessions into their blanket. +They carry it over the saddle-bows. + +Sore backs.--Sore backs are the plague of beasts of burden; for, if the +skin be once broken, it will never heal thoroughly again during the whole +journey. Every precaution should, therefore, be taken at first starting: +the saddles should be well-stuffed; the saddle-cloths ample, and without +hem or edging (blankets are as good as any); the journeys should be +short; the packs light and carefully balanced; rests of a day or two +should frequently be given, and salt-water should be rubbed on the back. +Travelling in the very early morning is found to be bad for animals' +backs; but travelling late at night is not so. An Australian +correspondent remarks, that a party of travellers or explorers in +Australia, on leaving their camp, invariably saddle their horses with +ample saddle-cloths below the saddle, and assist each other by turns, to +fold the cloths in various ways. For instance, if the ridge of the back, +or wither, should be found galled, the cloth would be folded up, so that +the saddle should rest entirely on the two folded pads, as in the +figure.--Other modes of folding will suggest themselves, according to the +way in which the back may be rubbed. + +[Drawing of folded saddle-cloth]. + +The first appearance of a sore back is a small hardish swelling or +warble" this must at once be attended to, either by folding the +saddle-cloth in some appropriate way, or by picking out the +saddle-stuffing, so as to ease all pressure from off it; otherwise, it +will get larger and larger, and a single day will convert what might have +been easily cured, into a serious and irremediable gall. Girth-galls, on +their first appearance, may be relieved if not cured, by sewing two rolls +of soft woollen material on to the girth. The hair from the animal's mane +or tail has been used on an emergency to stuff a saddle. + +[Fig. 1, 2, 3 show different pack saddles]. + +Pack-Saddles.--To make when Travelling.--Cut four bent pieces of touch +wood, and two small planks; season them as well as you can (see "Wood, to +season"), and join them together, as in figs. 1 and 2, using raw hide in +addition to nails or pegs. Stuffed cushions must be secured inside the +planks by tying or otherwise. With a saw and a mortise-chisel, a saddle +of the pattern shown in fig. 3 would be easy to make. It is stronger than +the one just described, and the notched cross-bar is very convenient for +the pack-ropes. + +Pack-Saddles made by Saddlers.--There has been, perhaps, no journey in +which pack-horses worked so effectively as during the exploration of +North Australia under Mr. Gregory. I am much indebted to Mr. Baines, the +artist of the expedition, who has subsequently travelled extensively, for +the following very interesting account:-- + +"The pack-saddles were made after a model by Mr. Gregory, and are the +best I have yet seen. Two boards of light wood are connected by bows of +iron, 1 1/2 inch wide and 1/4 inch thick, with hooks inserted in either +side, for the pack-bags to hook on to. The straps for the breastings, +breechings, and girths, were screwed to the boards; the crupper passed +through a ring on the after bow; and a light pad, which could easily be +taken out to be re-stuffed, was secured by small thongs, passed through +holes in the ends of the boards. We had two girths, which crossed each +other under the horse. (In unloading, the neck-strap is unbuckled on the +near side, also the breasting and girths; and the whole is drawn off +behind.) + +[Fig 1 and 2 and an un-labelled figure on this page further illustrate +packing]. + +"The pack-bags were made of one width of canvas, turned up so as to have +no seam in the bottom. Pear-shaped pieces were sewn in to form the ends, +and rope was stitched along the seams, having eyes above, by which the +bag was hung upon the hooks (fig. 2). The flour-bags were made of canvas, +of the usual width, with a round bottom stitched into them. The mouth was +sewn up when full, and an oiled bag of the same size drawn over it. + +"When all our horses were saddled up, the word 'on packs' was given. Dr. +Mueller and I used to work together, and had our packs laid out in pairs; +so that when each horse was led between his bags, we hooked them on at +the same moment. When we halted, we laid our bags on a couple of poles, +to keep them from the ground, as in the drawing. + +"The bags sometimes came off when we were travelling; but it was +generally easy to catch the horse and reload him. When a horse rolled +over, or fell in a river, it was rather an advantage than otherwise to +get clear of them. Our waterproof bags were of leather, lined with +waterproof cloth, just large enough to fill one of the canvas pack-bags. +They had a brass neck with a worm inside, in which we screwed a plug of +soft wood. (There was rarely, if ever, occasion to use them.) Each pair +of bags was carefully balanced, one against the other, that the horses +might not be unequally loaded. The average weight of stores carried in +each bag was 75 lbs., making a load (at starting) or 150 lbs., exclusive +of bags, packages, or saddlery. Bells were attached to the necks of the +horses most apt to stray; but the clappers were tied up with a piece of +thong, to keep them quiet on the march; and were loosened at night, so +that the sound might guide us in searching for them next morning. + +[Sketch of saddle bags on tree]. + +"We watched two hours each during night; the morning watch boiled the +water, and woke the rest at four. We made our breakfast of tea or coffee, +damper, and pork, which we ate raw, and went out for the horses; which +were generally saddled up, and on the move, before sunrise. We travelled +till one or two, when we led the horses to water, looked to any sores +that might be caused by the pressure of their saddles, dressed them and +altered the stuffing of the saddle to give them relief, and, after +dinner, which was rather a brief ceremony, had the rest of the day for +scientific or artistic pursuits,--that is, if something else did not +require immediate attention. We could never trust to our guns for +provision, as game was very scarce, and we had no opportunity of seeking +it." + +Sir Samuel Baker gave considerable attention to the subject of +pack-saddles. The following is his account of the method he adopted in +Africa:--"I had arranged their (the donkeys') packs so well, that they +carried their loads with the greatest comfort. Each animal had an immense +pad, well stuffed with goats' hair; this rested from the shoulder to the +hip bones; upon this rested a simple form of saddle made of two forks of +boughs inverted, and fastened together with rails; there were no nails in +these saddles, all the fastenings being secured with thongs of raw hide. +the great pad projecting before and behind, and also below the side of +the saddle, prevented the loads from chafing the animal. Every donkey +carried two large bags made from the hides of antelopes that I had +formerly shot on the frontier of Abyssinia, and these were arranged with +toggles on the one to fit into loops on the other, so that the loading +and unloading was exceedingly simple. The success of an expedition +depends mainly upon the perfection of the details, and, where animals are +employed for transport, the first consideration should be bestowed upon +saddle-packs. The facility of loading is all-important, and I now had an +exemplification of its effect upon both animals and men; the latter began +to abuse the camels and to curse the father of this, and the mother of +that, because they had the trouble of unloading them for the descent into +the river's bed, while the donkeys were blessed with the endearing name +of 'my brother,' and alternately whacked with the stick." + +The art of packing.--The art of good packing is to balance the packs +accurately, and to lash tightly to the saddle, so that they will never +slip. The entire load is then secured to the animal's back, by moderate +girthing. It is going on a false principle, to wind one long cord round +the horse, saddle, and packs; making, as it were, a great faggot of them. + +To tighten the lashings of a pack, thrust a stick through them, twist it +forcibly round and round, till the lashings are screwed tight enough, and +then secure the stick. + +Half-filled sacks require to have laths of wood, or a handful of twigs, +put between them and the packing-cord, to equalise its pressure; +otherwise, they are strangled out of shape and never lie firmly against +the saddle. + +Other Harness.--Cruppers.--A crupper rope should be passed through a +leather tube, fitting it loosely. Cruppers for pack-saddles, adapted to +very mountainous countries, like those used in Norway, can readily be +made by travellers. Instead of employing a ring to enclose the tail of +the beast (which is sure to fret its sides), he should pass a curved bar +of wood, a foot long, underneath the tail, and tie a cord to the +pack-saddle, from either end of the bar. + +Girths.--A roll of spare webbing should be taken to patch up torn girths; +but a good substitute for a girth is made by cutting a band of tanned, or +even of dressed, leather, to within four inches of its end, into seven or +nine bands, and plaiting these together. But it takes a beginner just ten +times as long to plait a girth as to weave it, and, therefore, for making +more than one girth, it is well worth while to set up a rude loom. Do +this as though you were making a mat. (See "Mat.") Girths need not be +buckled; they may be laced. + +Stirrups must be very roomy, enough to admit clumsily-shaped shoes, such +as are made in the bush; they must be broad under the sole of the foot, +and also at the place which rubs against the little toe. Unless they are +heavy, it is not easy to find them with the foot; travellers in South +Africa cut them out from any thick raw hide--that of giraffe, +rhinoceros, or sea-cow does admirably. A wooden stirrup may be cut or +burnt out of a block. It should have lead melted into it to give it +sufficient weight. A stick and a thong, as shown in the figure, is a poor +makeshift. Willow, or any other lithe wood, is easily bent into the +required shape, especially if its outer edge be nicked with a knife; +otherwise it would be a mere loop of wood, such as it represented in the +next figure but two, in the paragraph on Rings. + +[Sketch of foot and stirrup]. + +Bridles and Bits.--Leave behind all English notions of snaffles and +double reins, and ride with nothing but an easy curb. The horse must also +carry a headstall and a halter; I like one with plenty of tassels, to +keep off the flies. A temporary substitute for a curb is made by noosing +a string, and putting the noose round the horse's lower jaw. If the +string be long enough, it can be doubled back again, and tied to the +other side of the noose, so as to make a complete bridle. The groom's +fashion of giving the halter a hitch, and putting it round the jaw, is +well known. + +Buckles.--A contrivance like this will often be found useful to replace a +buckle and strap; by twisting the lower thong more tightly, its length +can be shortened as much as may be required. If the tongue of a buckle +breaks, a nail or a peg, pushed through the buckle-hole, as in the figure +below will replace it. + +[Three sketches to illustrate items described on this page]. + +To Padlock a Bag.--A padlock, passed through the next buckle-hole, as is +also shown in the same figure, prevents pilferers from unbuckling and +opening the package. It is well to learn some artful sailor's-knot for +tying up bags, with which other people cannot meddle without your finding +it out. + +Rings.--In packing-gear and other harness, use is frequently made of +rings. Iron ones may be replaced by a loop of tough wood, such as the +peasants of the Campagna commonly employ: a piece of the thickness of a +small walking-stick, and eight inches long, is bent (see "Wood, to bend"); +its arms are notched when they cross, and are firmly nailed or lashed. + +Tethers, Hobbles, and Knee-halters.--Cattle may be secured at night by +being tethered, hobbled, knee-haltered, or driven into an enclosure made +of bushes. The nature of the country, and what dangers are apprehended, +determine which plan is most advisable. A knee-haltered horse has a good +change of escape if he scents a wild beast that is creeping up to him; +for he can gallop, though with labour, to a short distance. A hobbled +horse has no chance at all; though, indeed, they have been known to fight +desperately with their teeth and feet, and learn to be cunning and +watchful. If the hobbles are of iron, and made like handcuffs, it is +hardly possible for robbers--at all events for savages--to unlock or cut +them. A horse that is hobbled or knee-haltered, can graze during the +night; but if tied up or pounded, his grass must be cut for him. A horse +may be successfully hobbled with a stirrup-leather, by putting its middle +round one fetlock, then twisting it half-a-dozen times, and, lastly, +buckling it round the other fetlock. The hobble used by Mr. Gregory takes +into five separate pieces, viz., two fetlock straps, a1, a2; a chain, b, +having a swivel point, c, in the middle; and two double pot-hooks, d1, +d2, which pass through eyes in the fetlock straps, and also through the +end links in the chain. The two ends of both, d1 and d2, are thickened +and pierced, so as to admit of tying a thong across their mouths, as +shown on one side of d2. The fetlock strap is made of a strip of thick +leather, folded lengthways down its middle, and having its edges sewn +together. The sewn edge should always be the uppermost, when on the +horse's legs. + +[Two sketches on this page illustrating equipment]. + +Oxen are often picketed to their yokes; I have already mentioned that it +is hazardous to secure ride and pack oxen by their nose reams, as they +will tear themselves loose without heeding the pain, if really +frightened. Horses are often tied to the wheels, etc., of the wagon. When +you wish to picket horses in the middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole two +or three feet deep, and tying your rope to a faggot of sticks or +brush-wood, or even to a bag filled with sand, bury this in it. (See +"Dateram.") + +Swivel.--The woodcut shows how a makeshift swivel can be fitted to a +tether rope. Without one, the rope will be twisted almost up to a knot by +the horse walking round and round his picket peg; with one, the rope will +turn freely in the hole, through which its large knotted head prevents it +from being drawn. + +[This page has two sketches showing material described below]. + +The figure below is a better sort of swivel. It must be made of hard +tough wood, like oak: it is six inches in length. It has, I presume, some +advantages over those of iron, because in countries where iron abounds, +as in Piedmont, it holds its ground against them. The ropes have been +drawn thinner than their just proportion, for the sake of distinctness. + +I give a drawing of yet another description of swivel; it is a trifle +more complicated than the first, but I am assured that it acts so much +better as to be greatly preferable. + +Horse-collar.--This, in its simplest form, consists of two stout bars +that are a little bent or shaped with a knife; they go one on either side +of the animal's neck, and are tied together both above and below it. To +these bars, which are very thickly padded, the traces are fastened. + +Traces and Trektows can be made of raw hide, cut into a long thong, then +bent into three parts, and twisted and laid together, as is done in +rope-making; the whole is then stretched tight between two trees to dry. +An ox-hide will make a trektow for four pairs of oxen. Poles of wood are +very generally used as traces; a thong, or a few links of chain, being +fastened at either end, by which to attach them. + +Greasing Harness.--In dry climates take frequent opportunities of +greasing every part of the harness. (See "Hides; Leather, to grease.") + + + +CARRIAGES. + + +Wagons.--A traveller's wagon should be of the simplest possible +construction, and not too heavy. The Cape wagons, or, at all events, +those of a few years back, undoubtedly shared the ponderousness of all +Dutch workmanship. Weight is required only when crashing through a bushy +country, where a wagon must break down all before it: in every other case +it is objectionable. It is a saving of labour to have one large wagon, +rather than two small ones, because a driver and a leader are thereby +spared. But if a very light wagon has to be taken, I should greatly +prefer its being made on the Swiss and German fashion, with a shifting +perch as in the figure + +[Drawing of fastening]. + +These are the simplest of affairs, and will split up into two carts--the +pole and the fore-wheels forming one, and the perch and the hind-wheels +another: now, should a great loss occur among the traveller's cattle, or +should he break a wheel, or even strain an axle-tree, in a timberless +country, it may be very convenient to him to abandon part of his stores, +and to build up a cart for carrying on the remainder. Lady Vavasour +describes one of these wagons in the following graphic manner:--"The +perch is moveable, and they can make it any length they please; it is of +so simple a construction that every farmer can repair his own, and make +anything of it. If he has a perch, a pole, and four wheels, that is +enough; with a little ingenuity, he makes it carry stones, hay, earth, or +anything he wants, by putting a plank at each side. When he wants a +carriage for pleasure, he fits it up for that purpose; his moveable perch +allows him to make it anything. I counted seventeen grown persons sitting +side by side, looking most happy, in one of them, drawn only by a pair of +small horses, and in this hilly country." + +Drays.--Two-wheeled drays, and not wagons, are used very generally in +Australia. A long bar is crossed by a short one near one of its +ends,--this latter forms the axletree; the body of the dray is built +where the two cross; and the cattle are yoked or harnessed to the long +end of the bar, which acts as a pole. + +Tarring Wheels.--Tar is absolutely essential in a hot country, to mix +with the grease that is used for the wagon-wheels. Grease, alone, melts +and runs away like water: the object of the tar is to give consistency to +the grease; a very small proportion of tar suffices, but without any at +all, a wagon is soon brought to a standstill. It is, therefore, most +essential to explorers to have a sufficient quantity in reserve. Tar is +also of very great use in hot dry countries for daubing over the wheels, +and the woodwork generally, of wagons. During extreme heat, when the wood +is ready to crack, all the paint should be scraped off it, and the tar +applied plentifully. It will soak in deeply, and preserve the wood in +excellent condition, both during the drought and the ensuing wet season. +(See "Tar, to make.") It is not necessary to take off the wheels in order +to grease the axles. It is sufficient to bore an auger-hole right through +the substance of the nave, between the feet of two of the spokes, and to +keep a plug in the hole. Then, when you want to tar a wheel, turn it till +the hole is uppermost, take the plug out, and pour in the tar. + +Breaks and Drags.--Breaks.--Every cart and wagon in Switzerland, and, +indeed, in most parts of the Continent, has a break attached to it: the +simplest kind of break is shown in fig. 2, which represents a cart tilted +upwards. Fig 1 shows the break itself; fig. 2 explains how it is fitted +on to the cart. [Fig 1.] It will easily be understood how, by tightening +the free end of the cord, the break is pressed against the wheels. The +bent piece of iron shown in fig. 2, by which the bar of the break is kept +in its place, may be replaced by a piece of wood, or even by a thong of +leather. Every explorer's wagon should be furnished with a break. + +[Fig 2]. + +A simple break, used in Italy, in some parts of England and probably +elsewhere, is shown in fig. 3. A rail is lashed to the body of the cart, +both before and behind the wheel, and is made to press against the wheel. +Either both lashings can be tightened at the same time, as at A, A; or +only one of them, as at B. When the lashings are loose, the rail rests +partly on the nave of the wheel and does not sensibly interfere with its +movement. + +[Fig. 3]. + +Other Means of Checking a Wagon on a Hill-side.--In going down a steep +hill a middling-sized tree may be felled, and its root tied to the hind +axletree, while its branchy top sweeps along the ground, as is seen in +the lowermost wagon in the sketch. [Sketch of horses and wagons on hill] +In the south-west of France the leaders of the team are unharnessed and +taken to the back of the wagon, to which the collar of the front horse is +made fast; in this way they can aid the horses in the shafts. The same +plan may be seen practised hourly in the Strand in London, whence heavy +wagons are taken down a very steep and narrow lane to the Adelphi. + + +In descending short steep pitches, unharness the cattle, and "fasten a +rope round the axle of the wagon; then passing the other end round a tree +or rock as a check, you may let her slide, which she will do without any +further trouble on your part." (F. Marryat.) + +In some places the hind wheels are taken off, and sledge runners are +fitted to the hind axletree. This is an excellent plan; it has the +further advantage that the wagon settles down into a more horizontal +position than before. I have seen timber carried on a wagon down a steep +hill by separating the front wheels from the hind ones, lashing a trail +(see "Travail" below) or two short poles to the fore axletree, and +resting one end of the timber on the hind axletree, and the other end on +the trail. + +Shoe the wheel on the side furthest from the precipice. + +If you have to leave a cart or wagon untended for a while, lock the +wheel. + +[Sketch of loaded sledge]. + +Sledges.--When carrying wood or stones, and doing other heavy work, a +traveller should spare his wagon and use a sledge. This is made by +cutting down a forked tree, lopping off its branches, and shaping it a +little with an axe. If necessary, a few bars may be fixed across the fork +so as to make a stage. Great distances may be traversed by one of these +rude affairs, if the country is not very stony. Should it capsize, no +great harm is done; and if it breaks down, or is found to have been badly +made, an hour's labour will suffice to construct another. Sledges are +very useful where there is an abundance of horse or ox power, but no +wagon or packing-gear. + +North American Travail.--In a North American Indian horse "travail," the +crossing of the poles (they are the poles of the wigwams) usually rests +on a rough pack-saddle or pad, which a breast-strap keeps from slipping +backwards. In a dog travail the cross of the poles rests on the back of +the neck, and is kept in place by a breast or rather a neck strap; the +poles are wrapped with pieces of buffalo robe where they press against +the dog. Captain Blakiston--a very accurate authority--considers that a +horse will travel 30 miles in the day, dragging on the travail a weight +of about 200 lbs., including a child, whose mother sits on the horse's +back; and that a dog, the size of an average retriever, will draw about +80 lbs. for the same distance. (N.B. The North American plains are +perfectly level.) + +[Sketch of horse with "travail"]. + +Palanquins, carried like sedan-chairs, between two animals--one going +before the other in shafts--are in use in various countries; but I am not +aware that explorers have ever properly tried them. Their advantage would +lie in combining the convenience of a cart with much of the independence +of pack-horses. For whatever is lashed on a pack-saddle must be securely +tied up; it is therefore severely compressed, and cannot be taken out en +route. But with a cart or a palanquin there is no such inconvenience: +things may be quickly thrown into them or taken out; pockets and drawers +may be fitted up; and the palanquin would afford some shelter in rain. I +should think it would be well worth while to try one of these +contrivances. It might be made en route; first accustoming the animals, +when carrying their packs, to walk between long shafts, then, after some +days, taking the load off their saddles, and lashing them on to the +shafts. If all went well, a regular palanquin might be constructed with +legs, to be let down when the animals are off-packed, and on which it +might stand until ready to be again carried onwards. Half-a-dozen +palanquins in file would make a pretty, and, I should think, a manageable +and effective caravan. Asses ought to be able to carry them well; a +couple of asses would probably carry a greater weight than a single +pack-horse, and would give no greater trouble; if so, their hardiness +would be invaluable. + + + +SWIMMING. + + +General Remarks.--Rate of Swimming. People swim much more slowly than is +commonly supposed. In races between first-rate swimmers, for distances of +300 yards and upwards, the average pace of two miles an hour is barely, +if at all, exceeded. + +Learning to Swim.--A good way of teaching a person to swim, is a +modification of that adopted at Eton. The teacher may sit in a punt or on +a rock, with a stout stick of 6 or 10 feet in length, at the end of which +is a cord of 4 feet or so, with loops. The learner puts himself into the +loops; and the teacher plays him, as a fisherman would play a fish, in +water that is well out of his depth: he gives him just enough support to +keep him from drowning. After six or a dozen lessons, many boys require +no support at all, but swim about with the rope dangling slack about +them. When a boy does this, he can be left to shift for himself. The art +of swimming far is acquired, like the art of running far, by a +determination to go on, without resting a moment, until utterly unable to +make a stroke further, and then to stop altogether. Each succeeding day, +the distance travelled is marvellously increased, until the natural limit +of the man's powers is attained. The chilliness consequent on staying +long in water is retarded by rubbing all over the body, before entering +it, about twice as much oil or bear's-grease as a person uses for his +hair. + +To support those who cannot Swim.--If a person cannot swim a stroke, he +should be buoyed up with floats under his arms, and lashed quite +securely, to his own satisfaction; then he can be towed across the river +with a string. If he lose courage halfway, it cannot be helped: it will +do him no harm, and his swimming friend is in no danger of being grappled +with and drowned. For very short distances, a usual way is for the man +who cannot swim to hold his friend by the hips. A very little floating +power is enough to buoy a man's head, above still water. (See "African +Swimming Ferry," below.) + +Landing through Breakers.--In landing through a heavy surf, wait for a +large wave, and come in on the crest of it; then make every possible +exertion to scramble up to some firm holding-place, whence its indraught, +when it returns, can be resisted. If drawn back, you will be heavily +battered, perhaps maimed, certainly far more exhausted than before, and +not a whit nearer to safety. Avoid receiving a breaker in the attitude of +scrambling away from it on hands and knees: from such a position, the +wave projects a man headforemost with fearful force, and rolls him over +and over in its surge. He ought to turn on his back the instant before +the breaker is upon him; and then all will go well, and he will be helped +on, and not half-killed by it. Men on shore can rescue a man who is being +washed to and fro in the surf, by holding together, very firmly, +hand-in-hand, and forming a line down to the sea: the foremost man +clutches the swimmer as soon as he is washed up to him, and holds him +firmly while the wave is retiring. The force of the indraught is +enormous, and none but strong men can withstand it. + +Floats.--If a traveller can swim pretty well, it is a good plan to make a +float when he wishes to cross a river, and to lay his breast upon it, +while his clothes and valuables are enclosed in a huge turban on his +head. In this way, he may cross the broadest streams and float great +distances down a river. He may tie paddles to his hands. His float may +consist of a faggot of rushes, a log of wood, or any one of his empty +water-vessels, whether barrels or bags; for whatever will keep water in, +will also keep it out. The small quantity of air, which might escape +through the sides of a bag, should be restored by blowing afresh into it, +during the voyage. A few yards of intestine blown out and tied here and +there, so as to form so many watertight compartments, makes a capital +swimming belt: it may be wound in a figure of 8 round the neck and under +the armpits. When employing empty bottles, they should be well corked and +made fast under the armpits, or be stuffed within the shirt or jersey, +and a belt tied round the waist below them, to keep them in place. + +African Swimming Ferry.--The people of Yariba have a singular mode of +transporting passengers across rivers and streams, when the violence and +rapidity of their currents prevent them from using canoes with safety. +The passenger grasps the float (see fig.), on the top of which his +luggage is lashed; and a perfect equilibrium is preserved, by the +ferry-man placing himself opposite the passenger, and laying hold of both +his arms. They being thus face to face, the owner of the float propels it +by striking with his legs. The natives use as their float two of their +largest calabashes, cutting off their small ends, and joining the +openings face to face, so as to form a large, hollow, watertight vessel. + +[Sketch of African swimming ferry]. + +Makeshift Life-belt.--A moderately effective life-belt may be made of +holland, ticking, canvas, or similar materials, in the following manner, +and might be used with advantage by the crew of a vessel aground some way +from the mainland, who are about to swim for their lives:--Cut out two +complete rings, of 16 inches outer diameter and 8 inches inner diameter; +sew these together along both edges, with as fine a needle as possible +and with double thread: add strong shoulder-straps, so that it shall not, +by any possibility, slip down over the hips; and, lastly, sew into it a +long narrow tube, made out of a strip, a foot long and two inches wide, +of the same material as the belt. At the mouth of this, a bit of wood, an +inch long, with a hole bored down its middle, should be inserted as a +mouthpiece. Through this tube the belt can be re-inflated by the swimmer +while in the water, as often as may be necessary; and, by simply twisting +the tube and tucking its end in the belt, its vent can always be closed. +After a canvas belt is thoroughly drenched, it will hold the air very +fairly: the seams are its weakest parts. For supporting a swimmer in calm +water, a collar is as good as a belt. + +Transport on Water.--Parcels.--The swimmer's valuables may as well be put +inside the empty vessel that acts as his float, as in the turban on his +head (see "Floats"). A goat-skin is often filled half full of the things +he wants to carry, and is then blown out and its mouth secured. A very +good life-belt may be bought, which admits of this arrangement: it has a +large opening at one end, which is closed by a brass door that shuts like +the top of an inkstand, and is then quite air-tight. + +A small parcel, if tightly wrapped up in many folds, will keep dry for a +long time, though partly immersed in water: the outside of it may be +greased, oiled, or waxed, for additional security. If deeply immersed, +the water is sure to get in. + +Swimming with Horses.--In crossing a deep river, with a horse or other +large animal, drive him in: or even lead him along a steep bank, and push +him sideways, suddenly into the water: having fairly started him, jump in +yourself, seize his tail, and let him tow you across. If he turns his +head with the intention of changing his course, splash water in his face +with your right or left hand, as the case may be, holding the tail with +one hand and splashing with the other; and you will, in this way, direct +him just as you like. This is by far the best way of swimming a horse: +all others are objectionable and even dangerous with animals new to the +work,--such as to swim alongside the horse, with one hand on his +shoulder; or, worst of all, to retain your seat on his back. If this last +method be persisted in, at least let the rider take his feet out of the +stirrups, before entering the water. + +[Sketch of horse and man crossing river]. + +To float a Wagon across a River.--It must be well ballasted, or it will +assuredly capsize: the heavy contents should be stowed at the bottom; the +planking lashed to the axletrees, or it will float away from them; great +bundles of reeds and the empty water-vessels should be made fast high +above all, and then the wagon will cross without danger. When it is +fairly under weigh, the oxen will swim it across, pulling in their yokes. + +Water Spectacles.--When a man opens his eyes under water, he can see +nothing distinctly; but everything is as much out of focus, as if he +looked, in air, through a pair of powerful spectacles that were utterly +unsuited to him. He cannot distinguish the letters of the largest print +in a newspaper advertisement; he cannot see the spaces between the +outstretched fingers, at arm's length, in clear water; nor at a few +inches' distance in water that is somewhat opaque. I read a short paper +on this subject, at the British Association in 1865, in which I showed +the precise cause of this imperfection of vision and how it might be +remedied. If the front of our eyeballs had been flat, we should have had +the power of seeing under water as clearly as in air; but instead of +being flat, they are very convex, consequently our eye stamps a concave +lens of high power into the water, and it is the seeing through this +concave eyeglass which our eyeball makes for itself, that causes the +indistinctness of our vision. Knowing the curvature of the eyeball, it is +easy to calculate (as I did in the memoir mentioned above) the curvature +of a convex lens of flint-glass that should, when plunged into water, +produce effects of an exactly equal and contrary value, exactly +neutralizing the effects of the concave eyeglass of water, if it were +held immediately in front of the pupil of the eye. I have made several +experiments with a view to obtaining serviceable spectacles, for seeing +under water. The result is as follows:--experience has shown the distance +from the eyeball at which spectacle-glasses can be most conveniently +placed; now at that distance, the joint effect of the concave water-lens +and the convex glass spectacle-lens, is to produce an opera-glass of +exceedingly low magnifying power, that requires a small adjustment for +accurate definition at different distances. + +If the spectacle-lens be of flint-glass and doubly convex, each of its +faces should have a curvature of not greater than 6 1/2 tenths of an +inch, nor more than 8 1/2 tenths of an inch in radius: within these +limits, it is practicable to obtain perfectly distinct vision under water +by pressing the spectacles forwards or backwards to a moderate degree. +Lenses of these high magnifying powers are sometimes sold by +spectacle-makers, for persons who have undergone an operation for +cataract. I have tried, but hitherto without much success, to arrange the +fittings by which the lenses are secured so that by a movement of the jaw +or by an elevation of the eyebrows, I could give the necessary adjustment +of the glasses, leaving my hands free for the purpose of swimming. (See +also, under "Fishing;' 'To see Things deep under Water.') + + + +RAFTS AND BOATS. + + +Rafts.--Rafts of Wood.--Rafts are made of logs of wood, held together by +pairs of cross-bars, one of each pair lying above the raft and the other +below; then, the whole may be made quite firm by a little judicious +notching wherethe logs cross, and a few pegs and lashings. Briers, +woodbines, etc., will do for these. If the logs are large, they should be +separately launched into the river, and towed into their proper places. +Outriggers vastly increase the stability of a raft. The raft-fastening in +common use is shown in f. 1: it is a stout, little wand, bent over the +cross piece, and wedged into holes in the framework. + +[Sketch of raft]. + +[Fig 1 and Fig 2 show fastening arrangements]. + +The rafts of European rivers are usually built on shore, and launched +into the water: three slides are laid for the purpose, on the sloping +bank of the river; upon these are laid the four poles, secured together +by their ends, which are to form the framework of the raft (fig. 2). +Other poles are put in between, until the whole is complete. + +Bamboo rafts.--Where bamboo is plentiful, it is preferable to any other +material for rafts. A few bamboos lashed into the shape of an ordinary +field gate, but with two diagonals, and with handfuls of grass thrown on +to make a platform, is very buoyant and serviceable. + +Floating power of various Woods.--The floating power of a raft depends on +the buoyancy of the wood of which it is made. I give, in a Table (p. 90), +a list of the specific gravities of a few well-known woods; and have +annexed to them a column of what may be called their "specific floating +powers."* + +[Footnote] *Specific floating power = (1/Spec. Gr.)--1. (Mem., the Table +of these, in previous editions is incorrect.) Burden = weight of raft x +specific floating power. Weight of wood required to support a given burden = +Burden x (Spec. Gr./1-Spec. Gr.); the last column gives the latter +factor. + +Hence, to find the actual floating power of a raft, it is simply +necessary to multiply its weight into the specific floating power of the +wood of which it is made. + +Thus, a raft of 12 logs of larch, averaging 30 lbs. each, weighs 360 +lbs.; this multiplied by .47, is equal to 169 lbs. very nearly, which is +the weight the raft will support without sinking. Poplar is the lightest +on the list. + + + Specific Specific Factors to be multiplied + Gravities. Floating Powers. into burden to find + weight of raft just + able to support it. +Alder........ .80 .25 4.0 +Ash........... .85 .18 5.7 +Beech......... .85 .18 5.7 +Elm....... .59 to .80 .70 to .25 1.4 to 4.0 +Fir...... .47 to .60 1.13 to .66 0.9 to 1.5 +Larch..... ... .53 .89 1.1 +Oak........... .75 .33 3.0 + " heart of.. 1.17 sinks cannot be used +Pine..... .40 to .63 1.50 to .60 0.7 to 1.7 +Poplar........ .38 1.63 0.6 +Willow........ .59 .70 1.4 + +Examples: -- a raft of alder, weighing 200 lbs., would just support +200 x .25 or 50 lbs. +A burden of 100 lbs. would require a raft of alder, weighing not les +than 100 x 4.0, or 400 lbs. to support it. +Burning down Trees.--Where there are no means at hand to fell trees, they +should be burnt down; two men may attend to the burning of twenty trees +at one and the same time. When felled, their tops and branches, also, are +to be trimmed by fire. (See "Hutting Palisades.") + +Reed Rafts.--Mr. Andersson, in exploring the Tioughe River, in South +Africa, met with two very simple forms of rafts: the one was a vast +quantity of reeds cut down, heaped into a stack of from 30 to 50 feet in +diameter, pushed out into the water, and allowed to float down stream: +each day, as the reeds became water-logged, more were cut and thrown on +the stack: its great bulk made it sure of passing over shallow places; +and when it struck against "snags," the force of the water soon slewed it +round and started it afresh. On an affair of this description, Mr. +Andersson, with seven attendants, and two canoes hauled up upon it, +descended the river for five days. The second reed raft was a small and +neat one, and used for ferries; it was a mattress of reeds, 5 feet long, +3 broad, and some 8 inches thick, tied together with strips of the reeds +themselves; to each of its four corners was fixed a post, made of an +upright faggot of reeds, 18 inches high; other faggots connected the tops +of the posts horizontally, in the place of rails: this was all; it held +one or two men, and nothing but reeds or rushes were used in its +construction. + +Rafts of distended Hides.--"A single ox-hide may be made into a float +capable of sustaining about 300 lbs.; the skin is to be cut to the +largest possible circle, then gathered together round a short tube, to +the inner end of which a valve, like that of a common pair of bellows, +has been applied; it is inflated with bellows, and, as the air escapes by +degrees, it may be refilled every ten or twelve hours." ('Handbook for +Field Service.') + +We read of the skins of animals, stuffed with hay to keep them distended, +having been used by Alexander the Great, and by others. + +Goatskin rafts are extensively used on the Tigris and elsewhere. These +are inflated through one of the legs: they are generally lashed to a +framework of wood, branches, and reeds, in such a way that the leg is +accessible to a person sitting on the raft: when the air has in part +escaped, he creeps round to the skins, one after the other, untying and +re-inflating them in succession. + +[Sketch fig. 1 and fig. 2 showing gourd rafts]. + +African Gourd Raft.--Over a large part of Bornu, especially on its +Komadugu--the so-called River Yeou of Central Africa--no boat is used, +except the following ingenious contrivance. It is called a "makara," or +boat pareminence. + +Two large open gourds are nicely balanced, and fixed, bottom downwards, +on a bar or yoke of light wood, 4 feet long, 4 1/2 inches wide, and 3/4 +or 1 inch thick. The fisherman, or traveller, packs his gear into the +gourds; launches the makara into the river, and seats himself astride the +bar. He then paddles off, with help of his hands (fig. 1). When he leaves +the river, he carries the makara on his back (fig. 2). The late Dr. Barth +wrote to me, "A person accustomed to such sort of voyage, sits very +comfortably; a stranger holds on to one of the calabashes. There is no +fear of capsizing, as the calabashes go under water, according to the +weight put upon them, from ten to sixteen inches. The yoke is firmly +fastened to the two calabashes, for it is never taken off. I am scarcely +able, at present, to say how it is fastened. As far as I remember, it is +fixed by a very firm lashing, which forms a sort of network over the +calabash, and at the same time serves to strengthen the latter and guard +it against an accident." It is obvious that the gourds might be replaced +by inflated bags or baskets, covered with leather, or by copper or tin +vessels, or by any other equivalent. I quite agree with Dr. Barth, that a +makara would be particularly suitable for a traveller. In Bornu, they +make large rafts, by putting a frame over several of these makara, placed +side by side. + +[Sketch of sailing boat]. + +Rude Boats.--Brazilian Sailing-boat.--A simpler sailing-boat or raft +could hardly be imagined than that shown in the figure; it is used by +fishermen in Brazil. + +Log Canoes are made by hollowing out a long tree by axe and by fire, and +fastening an outrigger to one side of it, to give steadiness in the +water. Recollect Robinson Crusoe's difficulty in launching his canoe +after he had made it. (See "Rafts of Wood.") It is not a difficult, +though a tedious operation, to burn out hollows in wood; the fire is +confined by wet earth, that it may not extend too far to either side, and +the charred matter is from time to time scraped away, and fresh fire +raked back on the newly-exposed surface. A lazy savage sill be months in +making a single canoe in this way. + +[Fig 1 and fig 2 sketch of boat and pattern]. + +Canoe of Three Planks.--A swift, safe, and graceful little boat, with a +sharp stem and stern, and with a bottom that curves upwards at both ends, +can be made out of three planks. The sketch, fig. 1, is a foreshortened +view of the boat, and the diagram, fig. 2, shows the shape of the planks +from which it is made. The thwart or seat shown in fig. 1 is important in +giving the proper inclination to the sides of the boat, for, without it, +they would tend to collapse; and the bottom would be less curved at +either end. If the reader will take the trouble to trace fig. 2 on a +stout card, to cut it out in a single piece (cutting only half through +the cardboard where the planks touch), and to fasten it into shape with +pieces of gummed paper, he will understand the architecture of the boat +more easily than from any description. If he wishes to build a boat he +had best proceed to make as large a model in pasteboard as his materials +admit, and to cut the planks to scale, according to the pattern of his +model. The grace of the boat depends on the cut of its planks, just as +much as the elegance of a dress does on that of its cloth. These +three-plank canoes are in frequent use in Norway. Bark may be used +instead of planks. If the canoe be built of five planks instead of three, +a second narrow side-plank being added above each gunwale, the section of +the canoe is decidedly improved. + +Inflatable India-rubber Boats are an invention that has proved invaluable +to travellers: they have been used in all quarters of the globe, and are +found to stand every climate. A full-sized one weighs only 40 lbs. They +have done especial service in Arctic exploration; the waters of the Great +Salt Lake, in the Mormon country, were first explored and navigated with +one by Fremont; they were also employed by Dr. Livingstone on the rivers +of South Africa. They stand a wonderful amount of wear and tear; but, as +boats, they are inferior to native canoes, as they are very slow in the +water: it is, indeed, impossible to paddle them against a moderate +head-wind. For the general purposes of travellers, I should be inclined +to recommend as small a macintosh-boat as can be constructed; just +sufficient for one, or at the most for two, persons; such as the cloaks +that are made inflatable, and convertible into boats. A traveller wants a +portable boat, chiefly as means to cross over to a village for help, or +to carry his valuables across a river, while the heavy things are risked +at a ford; or for shooting, fishing, or surveying. Now a very small boat, +weighing about ten pounds, would do as well for all these purposes as a +large one, and would be far more portable. + +It is perfectly easy to get into a macintosh-boat, after having been +capsized out of it into deep water. + +Basket-boat with Canvas Sides.--FitzRoy gives an account of a party of +his sailors, whose boat had been stolen while they were encamped, putting +out to sea in a large basket, woven with such boughs as were at hand, and +covered with their canvas tent--the inside of which they had puddled with +clay, to keep the water from oozing through too fast. They were eighteen +hours afloat in this crazy craft. I mention this instance, to show how +almost anything will make a boat. Canvas saturated with grease or oil is +waterproof, and painted canvas is at first an excellent covering for a +boat, but it soon becomes rotten. + +Canoe of Reeds or Vegetable Fibre.--A canoe may be made of reeds, rushes, +or the light inner bark of trees. Either of these materials is bound into +three long faggots, pointed at one end: these are placed side by side and +lashed together, and the result is a serviceable vessel, of the +appearance fig. 1, and section as fig. 2. The Lake Titicaca, which lies +far above the limit of trees, is navigated by boats made of rushes, and +carrying sails woven of rushes also. Little boats are sometimes made of +twigs, and are then plastered both inside and outside with clay, but they +are very leaky. + +[Fig 1 and fig 2--sketches of reed canoe]. + +Hide Tray.--This is a good contrivance; and if the hide be smoked (see +"Hides") after it is set, it is vastly improved. In its simplest form, +Peruvian travellers describe it as a dish or tray, consisting of a dry +hide pinched up at the four corners, and each corner secured with a +thorn. The preferable plan is to make eyelet-holes round its rim, and +pass a thong through, drawing it pretty close: the tray is kept in shape, +by sticks put inside and athwart its bottom. + +Coracle and Skin Punt.--If a traveller has one hide only at his disposal +he should make a coracle, if he has two, a punt. This last is a really +useful boat; one in which very great distances of river may be descended +with safety, and much luggage taken. Hide boats are very light, since the +weight of a bullock's skin only averages 45 lbs.; but, unless well +greased, they soon rot. When taken out of the water, they should be laid +bottom upwards to dry. To make a proper and substantial coracle, a dozen +or more oxier or other wands must be cut; these are to be bent, and have +both ends stuck in the ground, in such a way as to form the framework of +the required boat, bottom upwards, much like half a walnut-shell in +shape, but flatter. Where these wands cross, they should be lashed; and +sticks should be wattled in, to fill up gaps. A raw hide is then thrown +over the framework, sewn in place, and left to dry. Finally, the +projecting ends of the osiers have to be cut off. Should this boat, by +any chance, prove a failure, the hide is not wasted, but can be removed, +soaked till soft, and used again. + +A skin punt requires two bullocks' or other hides, and also about ten +small willow-trees, or other tough flexible wood, 14 feet long. Captain +Palliser says that a couple of days is sufficient for two people to +complete an entire punt of this description. He has been so good as to +furnish me with the following minute description of the way of making +this very useful boat. + +1. The keel, stem and stern might be in one; but because the stem and +stern ought to be strong, this whole line is made of two small trees +lashed together with the thick ends outwards, as in fig. 1, where AB is a +lithe clean little willow-tree, and ab another similar one. They are +lashed together at their taper ends. + +2. Cut notches half-way through KK, at about 20 to 25 inches from each +end; then turn up the notched portions, and you have stem, keel and +stern, all in one piece, as in fig. 2. + +[Fig 1 and Fig 2 sketches]. + +3. Stake out the ground, according to the size your boat will cover, by +driving eight strong pointed stakes of wood into the ground; to these +lash four cross (willow-tree) sticks, notched in two places, so that each +of these four willows shall form two knees, as well as run across the +bottom of the boat. + +4. Bent two more main willows for gunwales for the boat, and two more for +bottom rails. Each separate stick, as will be perceived by fig. 3, is +lashed in five different places, and the keep in eight places. + +[Fig 3 and Fig 4--sketches as described]. + +The main framework being now completed, loosen it from the stakes driven +into the ground. + +5. Fasten a large number of little slender willow-twigs between each of +the main cross-knees, as shown by the thin lines in fig. 3. It is then +fit for covering. Lift it up like a basket, and turn it topsy-turvy. + +6. Kill two bulls, skin them, and in skinning be careful to make your +cuts in the skin down the rump to the hock of the animal, and down the +brisket in front of the fore-leg to the knee, so as to have your skins as +square as possible (fig. 4). Cut off the heads, and sew the skins +together at the nape of the necks; and, while reeking, cover the +wicker-work, turning them over it, the hairy side inwards, and fasten it +all round by means of skin-cords. Cut holes with a knife round the edges, +to pass the cords through, as you lash up to the top-rails of the boat. + +7. Leave it 24 hours in the sun; cover the seam where the skins are sewn +together, with melted fat, and the boat is fit for use. + +Bark Boats.--"From a pine, or other tree, take off with care the longest +possible entire portion of the bark; while fresh and flexible, spread it +flat as a long rectangular sheet; then turn it carefully up at the sides, +the smooth side outwards; sew the ends together, and caulk them well. A +few cross-sticks for thwarts complete this contrivance, which is made by +an American Indian in a few hours, and in which the rapid waters of the +Mackenzie are navigated for hundreds of miles. Ways of strengthening the +structure will readily suggest themselves. The native material for sewing +is the fibrous root of the pine." ("Handbook for Field Service," +Lieut.-Col. Lefroy.) + +[Figs I, II, III, and IV--sketches as described]. + +Birch-bark canoes.--Birch bark, as is well known, is used for building +canoes in North America, and the bark of many other trees would do for +covering the framework of a boat, in default of leather. But it is +useless to give a detailed account of birch canoes, as great skill and +neat execution are required both in making and in using them. + +Boats of Sheet-tin, covered with Pitched Canvas.--These might be made at +any of the outposts of civilization. I am indebted to a correspondent, +whose name I regret exceedingly to be unable to insert, having +unfortunately mislaid it, for the following full description of his +shooting-punt. It will be obvious that his methods are applicable not +only to their professed object, but also to tin boats of any shape +whatever. + +"Form the bottom, fig. I., as follows:--Select the thickest sheets of tin +and solder them together by their narrowest sides, until as many lengths +are made as, when laid side by side, will be sufficient for the whole +length and breadth of the figure. The soldering should be by a joint of +this kind." + +[Sketch of join]. + +"These lengths must then be soldered side by side by a similar joint, and +the whole sheet thus made, trimmed to the shape of fig. I., care being +taken that no two joints in the lengths should be exactly opposite each +other. Form two other sheets in a similar manner for the two sides, and +of the shape of fig. II. The dotted lines a b c d e f, fig. I., show the +portions of the tin round the edges, 1 inch wide, which must be turned up +at right angles with the bottom, and to which the sides are to be +soldered on the inside; they should have triangular pieces clipped out of +them, as shown in the fig., where the bends of the boat begin, to make +them take the curve required. The two extra pieces at the ends a d, e f, +2 inches wide, are for turning down over an iron rod, which is to pass +round the gunwale, to give stiffness to the boat; g h, fig. II., is a +breadth of 2 inches of extra tin, for the same purpose of turning down +over the iron rod. + +"Each side is now to be soldered to the bottom piece, beginning with the +centre, and working in to each end. + +"The soldering of the turned-up edges to the bottom, on the outside, may +then be done. Separate slips of tin 2 inches wide should then be bent up +longitudinally in halves, like angle-iron, and fitted along the joining +of the bottom and sides, on the inside, and soldered; these slips may +also be clipped on either side, when necessary, to make them take the +curves. + +"The measure round the gunwale may now be taken within the edge of the +tin, and an iron rod 3/8 of an inch thick, to go round this gunwale, bent +to the form of the outline of fig. III., i b k c, which will now be that +of the boat, and the ends welded at their meeting. Sufficient iron rod +must be taken to form eyes at i and k to receive rings of 3 or 4 inches +diameter, through which a pole is to be passed, for carrying the boat, +and for their welding at the meeting of the ends. + +"The iron-rod gunwale may now be put in, and the 2 inches width of tin, +allowed in excess on the sides and ends of the bottom, turned down +closely over the rod, all round and soldered on the inside. The side +elevation of the boat will now be as w x y, fig. IV. "The boat should be +proved as to being water-tight by filling it with water, any leak being +stopped by more solder. + +"The outside must now be covered with pitched canvas, thus:-- + +"Turn it upside down, in a sheltered spot exposed to the sun, or warm it +by other means, and have a caldron of boiling pitch on a fire at hand, +also have sufficient canvas sewn together in breadths as will quite cover +the boat, bottom and sides; then, beginning across the middle of the +bottom, brush on a layer 3 or 4 inches wide of the boiling pitch, and +quickly press down the corresponding central portion of the canvas upon +it; work on thus, from the centre of the bottom to the ends, laying on a +breadth of pitch, and then pressing down and stretching a portion of +canvas over it; then turn down the canvas over each side, and pitch in +the same way, butting out the parts of the canvas that would overlap too +much at the bends, but leaving no tin uncovered; the boat may then be +righted, the excess of canvas cut off, and the edge laid down with pitch, +a little short of the gunwale. + +"The bottom may then be pitched over the canvas for 6 inches up, and the +rest of the outside, with the inside, be painted with two or three coats. + +"A flooring of thin planking for 3 1/2 feet of the central portion of the +boat must now be made as follows:--Make five planks, between 8 and 9 +inches wide, to fit across the beam of the boat, and in each of the outer +planks, o o, p p, fig. III., fix uprights m n, 6 inches high, to support +a seat, mortised on the pair of uprights in each board; the ends of each +seat should be short of the breadth of the boat by an inch or so, so as +not to bear against the sides; then lay down two ribs of tough wood, +fitted to bear equally across the planking, on each side, as rs, r1 s1, +and screw each end of them down to the outer planks only. + +"Wooden cleats can be fixed on each board at t t, each to receive the +butts of two guns, while their barrels lie in hollows formed in the +cushions of the seat opposite them, so that the rower can put down his +paddles and take up his gun instantly; steps for a mast can be also +contrived at the same points. The woodwork is to be also well painted; it +can be taken out with ease, as it is nowhere connected with the tin of +the boat. Care should be taken that no projections in this woodwork, such +as screw-heads, etc., should chafe the tin, and that it should be always +kept well painted. + +"The boat, of which this is a description, drew 2 1/2 inches water with +one person in, with two guns and ammunition, etc.; it was furnished with +two short paddles, which were tied by a short length of string to the +sides, so as to be dropped without loss of time on taking up the gun to +fire; the boat turned with the greatest ease, by one backing and pulling +stroke of the two paddles, and was very stiff in the water. + +"Iron rowlocks were fitted to it, on the outside at b, e, fig. I. (I do +not give the diagram by which the author illustrated his description; the +rowlocks were applied to the sides of the boat, and each rowlock was +secured to the side by three bolts.) The two upper bolts had claw-heads +to seize the iron-rod gunwale on the inside, and a piece of wood was +fitted on the inside, through which the three bolts passed, to give +substance for their hold, their nuts were on the outside. With these +rowlocks two oars of 7 feet long were used. The breadth between the horns +should be only just enough to admit the oars. + +"This boat could be carried on the shoulders of two persons, when +suspended on a pole passed through the end rings, for a distance of +twelve or fifteen miles daily, with guns and ammunition stowed in it. It +could be fired from, standing, without risk, and be poled over marshy +ground barely covered with water, or dragged with ease by the person +seated in it, through high reeds, by grasping a handful on each side and +hauling on them. A rudder was unnecessary. It was in use for more than +three years, and with due care in getting in and out, on a rough shore, +and by keeping it well painted and pitched, it never leaked or became +impaired in any way." + +Boats.--Of Wood.--English-made boats have been carried by explorers for +great distances on wheels, but seldom seem to have done much useful +service. They would travel easiest if slung and made fast in a strong +wooden crate or framework, to be fixed on the body of the carriage. A +white covering is necessary for a wooden boat, on account of the sun: +both boat and covering should be frequently examined. Mr. Richardson and +his party took a boat, divided in four quarters, on camel-back across the +Sahara, all the way from the Mediterranean to Lake Tchad. A portable +framework of metal tubes, to be covered with india-rubber sheeting on +arrival, was suggested to me by a very competent authority, the late Mr. +M'Gregor Laird. + +Copper boats have been much recommended, because an accidental dent, +however severe it may be, can be beaten back again without doing injury +to the metal. One of the boats in Mr. Lynch's expedition down the Jordan +was made of copper. + +Corrugated Iron makes excellent boats for travellers; they are stamped by +machinery: Burton took one of them to Zanzibar. They were widely +advertised some ten years ago, but they never came into general use, and +I do not know where they can now be procured. + +Canoes.--The earlier exploits of the 'Rob Roy' canoe justly attracted +much attention, and numerous canoe voyages have subsequently been made. +The Canoe Club is now a considerable institution, many of whose members +make yearly improvements in the designs of their crafts. Although canoes +are delicately built and apparently fragile, experience has amply proved +that they can stand an extraordinary amount of hard usage in the hands of +careful travellers. As a general rule, it is by no means the heaviest and +most solid things that endure the best. If a lightly-made apparatus can +be secured from the risk of heavy things falling upon it, it will outlast +a heavy apparatus that shakes to pieces under the jar of its own weight. + +A hole cut in the square sail enables the voyager to see ahead. + +To carry on Horseback.--Mr. Macgregor, when in Syria, took two strong +poles, each 16 feet long, and about 3 inches thick at the larger end. +These were placed on the ground 2 feet apart, and across them, at 3 feet +from each end, he lashed two stout staves, about 4 feet long. Then a +"leading" horse was selected, that is, one used to lead caravans, and on +his back a large bag of straw was well girthed and flattened down. The +frame was firmly tied on this, and the canoe, wrapped in carpets, was +placed on the frame. This simple method was used for three months over +sand and snow, rock and jungle, mud and marsh--anywhere indeed that a +horse could go. The frame was elevated in front, so as to allow the +horse's head some room under the boat's keel. Two girth-straps kept the +canoe firmly in position above, and carpets were used as cushions under +its bilge. A boy led the horse, and a strong man was told off to hold +fast to the canoe in every difficulty. It will be seen, that in the event +of a fall, the corners of the framework would receive the shock, not the +canoe. + +Boating Gear.--Anchors may be made of wood weighted with stones. Fig. 1 +shows the anchor used by Brazilian fishermen with their rude boat or +sailing-raft already described. Fig. 2 shows another sort of anchor that +is in common use in Norway. + +Mast.--Where there is difficulty in "stepping" a mast, use a bar across +the thwarts and two poles, one lashed at either end of it, and coming +together to a point above. This triangle takes the place of shrouds fore +and aft. It is a very convenient rig for a boat with an outrigger: the +Sooloo pirates use it. + +[Fig. 2--sketch of anchor]. + +Outrigger Irons.--Mr. Gilby informs me that he has travelled with a pair +of light sculls and outrigger irons, which he was able to adapt to many +kinds of rude boats. He found them of much service in Egypt. + +Keels are troublesome to make: lee-boards are effective substitutes, and +are easily added to a rude boat or punt when it is desired to rig her as +a sailing-craft. + + +Rudder.--A rude oar makes the most powerful, though not the most +convenient rudder. In the lakes of North Italy, where the winds are +steady, the heavy boats have a bar upon which the tiller of the rudder +rests: this bar is full of small notches; and the bottom of the tiller, +at the place where it rests on the bar, is furnished with a blunt +knife-edge; the tiller is not stiffly joined to the rudder, but admits of +a little play up and down. When the boatman finds that the boat steers +steadily, he simply drops the tiller, which forthwith falls into the +notch below it, where it is held tight until the steersman cares to take +the tiller into his hand again. + +Buoys.--An excellent buoy to mark out a passage is simply a small pole +anchored by a rope at the end. It is very readily seen, and exposes so +little surface to the wind and water, that it is not easily washed away. +A pole of the thickness of a walking-stick is much used in Sweden. Such a +buoy costs only a rope, a stick, and a stone. A tuft of the +small-branches may be left on the top of the pole. + +Log.--For a log use a conical canvas bag thus-- + +[Sketch of bag in two positions]. + +When the peg is drawn out by the usual jerk, the bag no longer presents +its mouth to the water, but is easily drawn in by the line attached to +its point. + +Boat Building.--Caulking.--Almost anything that is fibrous does for +caulking the seams of a boat. The inner bark of trees is one of the +readiest materials. + +Securing Planks.--In default of nails, it is possible to drill or to +burn holes in the planks and to sew them together with strips of hide, +woodbine, or string made from the inner bark of fibrous trees. Holes may +be drilled on precisely the same principle as that which I have described +in making fire by friction. + +Lengthening Boats.--If you have an ordinary boat, and wish to make it of +greater burden, saw it in half and lengthen it. Comparatively coarse +carpentering is good enough for this purpose. + +Boat Management.--Hauling boats on Shore.--To haul up a boat on a +barren shore, with but a few hands, lay out the anchor ahead of her to +make fast your purchase to; or back the body of a wagon underneath the +boat as she floats, and so draw her out upon wheels. A make-shift +framework, on small solid wheels, has been used and recommended. + +Towing.--A good way of fastening a tow-rope to a boat that has no mast +is shown in the diagram, which, however, is very coarsely drawn. A curved +pole is lashed alongside one of the knees of the boat, and the tow-rope, +passing with a turn or two round its end, is carried on to the stern of +the boat. By taking a few turns, more or less, with the rope round the +stick, the line of action of the tow-rope on the boat's axis may be +properly adjusted. When all is right the boat ought to steer herself. + +[Sketch of boat being towed]. + +When Caught by a Gale recollect that a boat will lie-to and live through +almost any weather, if you can make a bundle of a few spare spars, oars, +etc., and secure them to the boat's head, so as to float in front of and +across the bow. They will act very sensibly as a breakwater, and will +always keep the boat's head towards the wind. Kroomen rig out three oars +in a triangle, lash the boat's sail to it, throw overboard, after making +fast, and pay out as much line as they can muster. By making a canvas +half-deck to an open boat, you much increase its safety in broken water; +and if it be made to lace down the centre, it can be rolled up on the +gunwale, and be out of the way in fine weather. + +In Floating down a Stream when the wind blows right against you (and on +rivers the wind nearly always blows right up or right down), a plan +generally employed is to cut large branches, to make them fast to the +front of the boat, weight them that they may sink low in the water, and +throw them overboard. The force of the stream acting on these branches +will more than counterbalance that of the wind upon the boat. For want of +branches, a kind of water-sail is sometimes made of canvas. + +Steering in the Dark.--In dark nights, when on a river running through +pine forests, the mid stream canbe kept by occasionally striking the +water sharply with the blade of the oar, and listening to the echoes. +They should reach the ear simultaneously, or nearly so, from either bank. +On the same principle, vessels have been steered out of danger when +caught by a dense fog close to a rocky coast. + +Awning.--The best is a wagon-roof awning, made simply of a couple of +parallel poles, into which the ends of the bent ribs of the roof are set, +without any other cross-pieces. This roof should be of two feet larger +span than the width of the boat, and should rest upon prolongations of +the thwarts, or else upon crooked knees of wood. One arm of each of the +knees is upright, and is made fast to the inside of the boat, while the +other is horizontal and projects outside it: it is on these horizontal +and projecting arms that the roof rests, and to which it is lashed. Such +an awning is airy, roomy, and does not interfere with rowing if the +rowlocks are fixed to the poles. It also makes an excellent cabin for +sleeping in at night. + +Sail Tent.--A boat's sail is turned into a tent by erecting a +gable-shaped framework: the mast or other spar being the ridge-pole, and +a pair of crossed oars lashed together supporting it at either end; and +the whole is made stable by a couple of ropes and pegs. Then the sail is +thrown across the ridge-pole (not over the crossed loops of the oars, for +they would fret it), and is pegged out below. The natural fall of the +canvas bends to close the two ends, as with curtains. + +[Sketch of tent]. + +Tree-snakes.--Where these abound, travellers on rivers with overhanging +branches should beware of keeping too near inshore, lest the rigging of +the boat should brush down the snakes. + + + +FORDS AND BRIDGES. + + +Fords.--In fording a swift stream, carry heavy stones in your hand, for +you require weight to resist the force of the current: indeed, the deeper +you wade, the more weight you require; though you have so much the less +at command, on account of the water buoying you up. + +Rivers cannot be forded if their depth exceeds 3 feet for men or 4 feet +for horses. Fords are easily discovered by typing a sounding-pole to the +stern of a boat rowing down the middle of the stream, and searching those +places where the pole touches the bottom. When no boat is to be had, +fords should be tried for where the river is broad rather than where it +is narrow, and especially at those places where there are bends in its +course. In these the line of shallow water does not run straight across, +but follows the direction of a line connecting a promontory on one side +to the nearest promontory on the other, as in the drawing; that is to +say, from A to B, or from B to C, and not right across from B to b, from +A to a, or from C to c. Along hollow curves, asa, b, c, the stream runs +deep, and usually beneath overhanging banks; whilst in front of +promontories, as at A, B, and C, the water is invariably shoal, unless it +be a jutting rock that makes the promontory. Therefore, by entering the +stream at one promontory, with the intention of leaving it at another, +you ensure that at all events the beginning and end of your course shall +be in shallow water, which you cannot do by attempting any other line of +passage. + +[Sketch of river as described]. + +To Cross Boggy and Uncertain Ground.--Swamps.--When you wish to take a +wagon across a deep, miry, and reedy swamp, outspan and leg the cattle +feed. Then cut faggots of reeds and strew them thickly over the line of +intended passage. When plenty are laid down, drive the cattle backwards +and forwards, and they will trample them in. Repeat the process two or +three times, till the causeway is firm enough to bear the weight of the +wagon. Or, in default of reeds, cut long poles and several short +cross-bars, say of two fee long; join these as best you can, so as to +make a couple of ladder-shaped frames. Place these across the mud, one +under the intended track of each wheel. Faggots strewn between each round +of the ladder will make the causeway more sound. A succession of logs, +laid crosswise with faggots between them, will also do, but not so well. + +Passing from Hand to Hand.--When many things have to be conveyed across +a piece of abominably bad road--as over sand-dunes, heavy shingle, mud +of two feet deep, a morass, a jagged mountain tract, or over +stepping-stones in the bed of a rushing torrent--it is a great waste of +labour to make laden men travel to and fro with loads on their backs. It +is a severe exertion to walk at all under these circumstances, letting +along the labour of also carrying a burden. The men should be stationed +in a line, each at a distance of six or seven feet from his neighbour, +and should pass the things from hand to hand, as they stand. + +Plank Roads.--"Miry, boggy lines of road, along which people had been +seen for months crawling like flies across a plate of treacle, are +suddenly, and I may almost say magically, converted into a road as hard +and good as Regent Street by the following simple process, which is +usually adopted as soon as the feeble funds of the young colony can +purchase the blessing. A small gang of men, with spades and rammers, +quickly level one end of the earth road. As fast as they proceed, four or +five rows of strong beams or sleepers, which have been brought in the +light wagons of the country, are laid down longitudinally, four or five +feet asunder; and no sooner are they in position than from other wagons +stout planks, touching each other, are transversely laid upon them. From +a third series of wagons, a thin layer of sand or grit is thrown upon the +planks, which instantly assume the appearance of a more level McAdam road +than in practice can ever be obtained. Upon this new-born road the wagons +carrying the sleepers, planks, and sand, convey, with perfect ease, these +three descriptions of materials for its continuance. The work advances +literally about as fast as an old gouty gentleman can walk; and as soon +as it is completed, there can scarcely exist a more striking contrast +than between the two tenses of what it was and what it is. This 'plank +road,' as it is termed in America, usually lasts from eight to twelve +years; and as it is found quite unnecessary to spike the planks to the +sleepers, the arrangement admits of easy repair, which, however, is but +seldom required." (Sir Francis Head, in Times, Jan. 25.) + +Snow.--Sir R. Dalyell tells me that it is the practice of muleteers in +the neighbourhood of Erzeroum, when their animals lose their way and +flounder in the deep snow, to spread a horse-cloth or other thick rug +from off their packs upon the snow in front of them. The animals step +upon it and extricate themselves easily. I have practised walking across +deep snow-drifts on this principle, with perfect success. + +Weak Ice.--Water that is slightly frozen is made to bear a heavy wagon, +by cutting reeds, strewing them thickly on the ice, and pouring water +upon them; when the whole is frozen into a firm mass the process must be +repeated. + +Bridges.--Flying Bridges are well known: a long cord or chain of poles +is made fast to a rock or an anchor in the middle of a river. The other +end is attached to the ferry-boat which being so slewed as to receive the +force of the current obliquely, traverses the river from side to side. + +Bridges of Felled Trees.--If you are at the side of a narrow but deep +and rapid river, on the banks of which trees grow long enough to reach +across, one or more may be felled, confining the trunk to its own bank, +and letting the current force the head round to the opposite side; but if +"the river be too wide to be spanned by one tree--and if two or three +men can in any manner be got across--let a large tree be felled into the +water on each side, and placed close to the banks opposite to each other, +with their heads lying up-streamwards. Fasten a rope to the head of each +tree, confine the trunks, shove the head off to receive the force of the +current, and ease off the ropes, so that the branches may meet in the +middle of the river at an angle pointing upwards. The branches of the +trees will be jammed together by the force of the current, and so be +sufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication, especially when +a few of the upper branches have been cleared away. If insufficient, +towards the middle of the river, to bear the weight of men crossing, a +few stakes with the forks left near their heads, may be thrust down +through the branches of the trees to support them." (Sir H. Douglas.) + + + +CLOTHING. + + +General Remarks.--There are such infinite varieties of dress, that I +shall only attempt a few general remarks and give a single costume, that +a traveller of great experience had used to his complete satisfaction. +The military authorities of different nations have long made it their +study to combine in the best manner the requirements of handsome effect, +of cheapness, and of serviceability in all climates, but I fear their +results will not greatly help the traveller, who looks more to +serviceability than to anything else. Of late years, even Garibaldi with +his red-shirted volunteers, and Alpine men with their simple outfit, have +approached more nearly to a traveller's ideal. + +Materials for Clothes.--Flannel.--The importance of flannel next the +skin can hardly be overrated: it is now a matter of statistics; for, +during the progress of expeditions, notes have been made of the number of +names of those in them who had provided themselves with flannel, and of +those who had not. The list of sick and dead always included names from +the latter list in a very great proportion. + +Cotton is preferable to flannel for a sedentary life, in hot damp +countries, or where flannel irritates the skin. Persons who are resident +in the tropics, and dress in civilised costume, mostly wear cotton +shirts. + +Linen by universal consent is a dangerous dress wherever there is a +chance of much perspiration, for it strikes cold upon the skin when it is +wet. The terror of Swiss guides of the old school at a coup d'air on the +mountain top, and of Italians at the chill of sundown, is largely due to +their wearing linen shirts. Those who are dressed in flannel are far less +sensitive to these influences. + +Leather is the only safeguard against the stronger kinds of thorns. In +pastoral and in hunting countries it is always easy to procure skins of a +tough quality that have been neatly dressed by hand. Also it will be easy +to find persons capable of sewing them together very neatly, after you +have cut them out to the pattern of your old clothes. + +Bark Cloth is used in several parts of the work. It is simply a piece of +some kind of peculiarly fibrous bark; in Unyoro, Sir S. Baker says, the +natives use the bark of a species of fig-tree. They soak it in water and +then beat it with a mallet, to get rid of all the harder parts;--much as +hemp is prepared. "In appearance it much resembles corduroy, and is the +colour of tanned leather: the finer qualities are peculiarly soft to the +touch, as though of woven cotton." + +Effect of colour on warmth of clothing.--Dark colours become hotter than +light colours in the sunshine, but they are not hotter under any other +circumstances. Consequently a person who aims at equable temperature, +should wear light colours. Light colours are far the best for sporting +purposes, as they are usually much less conspicuous than black or +rifle-green. Almost all wild beasts are tawny or fawn-coloured, or tabby, +or of some nondescript hue and pattern: if an animal were born with a +more decided colour, he would soon perish for want of ability to conceal +himself. + +Warmth of different Materials.--"The indefatigable Rumford made an +elaborate series of experiments on the conductivity of the substances +used in clothing. His method was this:--A mercurial thermometer was +suspended in the axis of a cylindrical glass tube ending with a globe, in +such a manner that the centre of the bulb of the thermometer occupied the +centre of the globe; the space between the internal surface of the globe +and the bulb was filled with the substance whose conductive power was to +be determined; the instrument was then heated in boiling water, and +afterwards, being plunged into a freezing mixture of pounded ice and +salt, the times of cooling down 136 degrees Fahr. were noted. They are +recorded in the following table:-- + +Surrounded with -- Seconds. +Twisted silk.................................. 917 +Fine lint..................................... 1032 +Cotton wool.................................. 1046 +Sheep's wool.................................. 1118 +Taffety....................................... 1169 +Raw silk...................................... 1264 +Beaver's fur.................................. 1296 +Eider down.................................... 1305 +Hare's fur.................................... 1312 +Wood ashes.................................... 927 +Charcoal...................................... 937 +Lamp-black.................................... 1117 + +Among the substances here examined, hare's fur offered the greatest +impediment to the transmission of the heat. The transmission of heat is +powerfully influenced by the mechanical state of the body through which +it passes. The raw and twisted silk of Rumford's table illustrate this" +(Prof. Tyndall on Heat.) + +Waterproof Cloth.--Cloth is made partly waterproof by rubbing soap-suds +into it (on the wrong side), and working them well in: and when dry, +doing the same with a solution of alum; the soap is by this means +decomposed, and the oily part of it distributed among the fibres of the +cloth. (See "Tarpaulins.") + +Incombustible Stuffs.--I extract the following paragraph from a +newspaper. Persons who make much use of musquito curtains, will be glad +to read it. "'The Repertoire de Chimie Pure et Appliquee' publishes the +following remarks by the celebrated chemists, MM. D|bereiner and Oesner, +on the various methods for rendering stuffs incombustible, or at least +less inflammable than they naturally are. The substances employed for +this purpose are borax, alum, soluble glass, and phosphate of ammonia. +For wood and common stuffs, any one of these salts will do; but fine and +light tissues, which are just those most liable to catching fire, cannot +be treated in the same way. Borax renders fine textile fabrics stiff; it +causes dust, and will swell out under the smoothing-iron; so does alum, +beside weakening the fibres of the stuff, so as to make it tear easily. +Soluble glass both stiffens and weakens the stuff, depriving it both of +elasticity and tenacity. Phosphate of ammonia alone has none of these +inconveniences. It may be mixed with a certain quantity of sal-ammoniac, +and then introduced into the starch prepared for stiffening the linen; or +else it may be dissolved in 20 parts of water, in weight, to one of +phosphate, and the stuff steeped into the solution, then allowed to dry, +and ironed as usual. + +Phosphate of ammonia is cheap enough to allow of its introduction into +common use, so that it may be employed at each wash. Phosphate of ammonia +is obtained by saturating the biphosphate of lime with liquid ammonia. + +Sewing Materials.--An outfit of sewing materials consists of needles and +thread; scissors; tailor's thimble; wax; canvas needles, including the +smaller sizes which are identical with glove needles and are used for +sewing leather; twine; a palm; awls for cobbling, both straight and +curved; cobbler's wax; and, possibly, bristles. The needles and awls in +use are conveniently carried in some kind of metal tube, with wads of +cork at either end, to preserve their points. (See also the chapter on +"Thread, for stitches," etc.) + +Articles of Dress.--Hats and Caps.--There is no perfect head-dress; but +I notice that old travellers in both hot and temperate countries have +generally adopted a scanty "wide-awake." Mr. Oswell, the South African +sportsman and traveller, used for years, and strongly recommended to me, +a brimless hat of fine Panama grass, which he had sewn as a lining to an +ordinary wide-awake. I regret I have had no opportunity of trying this +combination, but can easily believe that the touch of the cool, smooth +grass, to the wet brow, would be more agreeable than that of any other +material. I need hardly mention Pith hats (to be bought under the Opera +Colonnade, Pall Mall), Indian topees, and English hunting-caps, as having +severally many merits. A muslin turban twisted into a rope and rolled +round the hat is a common plan to keep the sun from the head and spine: +it can also be used as a rope on an emergency. + +Coat.--In nine cases out of ten, a strong but not too thick tweed coat +is the best for rough work. In a very thorny country, a leather coat is +almost essential. A blouse, cut short so as to clear the saddle, is neat, +cool, and easy, whether as a riding or walking costume. Generally +speaking, the traveller will chiefly spend his life in his shirt-sleeves, +and will only use his coat when he wants extra warmth. + +To carry a Coat.--There are two ways. The first is to fold it small and +strap it to the belt. If the coat be a light one it can be carried very +neatly and comfortably in this way, lying in the small of the back. The +second is the contrivance of a friend of mine, an eminent scholar and +divine, who always employs it in his vacation rambles. It is to pass an +ordinary strap, once round the middle of the coat and a second time round +both the coat and the left arm just above the elbow, and then to buckle +it. The coat hangs very comfortably in its place and does not hamper the +movements of the left arm. It requires no further care, except that after +a few minutes it will generally be found advisable to buckle the strap +one hole tighter. A coat carried in this way will be found to attract no +attention from passers by. + +Waistcoats are more convenient for their pockets than for their warmth. +When travelling in countries where papers have to be carried, an inside +pocket between the lining and the waistcoat, with a button to close it, +is extremely useful. Letters of credit and paper money can be carried in +it more safely than in any other pocket. + +Trousers.--If you are likely to have much riding, take extra leather or +moleskin trousers, or tweed covered down the inside of the legs with +leather, such as cavalry soldiers generally wear. Leather is a better +protection than moleskin against thorns; but not so serviceable against +wet: it will far outlast moleskin. There should be no hem to the legs of +trousers, as it retains the wet. + +Watch-pocket.--Have it made of macintosh, to save the watch from +perspiration. The astronomer-royal of Cape Town, Sir T. Maclear, who had +considerable experience of the bush when measuring an arc of the +meridian, justly remarked to me on the advantage of frequently turning +the watch-pocket inside out, to get rid of the fluff and dust that +collects in it and is otherwise sure to enter the watch-case. + +Socks.--The hotter the ground on which you have to walk, the thicker +should be your socks. These should be of woollen, wherever you expect to +have much walking; and plenty of them will be required. + +Substitute for Socks.--For want of socks, pieces of linen may be used, +and, when these are properly put on they are said to be even better than +socks. They should be a foot square, be made of soft worn linen, be +washed once a-day, and be smeared with tallow. They can be put on so +dexterously as to stand several hours' marching without making a single +wrinkle, and are much used by soldiers in Germany. To put them on, the +naked foot is placed crosswise; the corners on the right and on the left +are then folded over, then the corner which lies in front of the toes. +Now the art consists in so drawing up these ends, that the foot can be +placed in the shoe or boot without any wrinkles appearing in the bandage. +One wrinkle is sure to make a blister, and therefore persons who have to +use them should practise frequently how to put them on. Socks similar to +these, but made of thick blanket, and called "Blanket Wrappers," are in +use at Hudson's Bay instead of shoes. + +Shirt-sleeves.--When you have occasion to tuck up your shirt-sleeves, +recollect that the way of doing so is, not to begin by turning the cuffs +inside out, but outside in--the sleeves must be rolled up inwards, +towards the arm, and not the reverse way. In the one case, the sleeves +will remain tucked up for hours without being touched; in the other, they +become loose every five minutes. + +Gloves, Mits, and Muffs.--In cold dry weather a pair of old soft kid +gloves, with large woollen gloves drawn over them, is the warmest +combination. Mits and muffetees merely require mention. To keep the hands +warm in very severe weather, a small fur muff may be slung from the neck, +in which the hands may rest till wanted. + +Braces.--Do not forget to take them, unless you have had abundant +experience of belts; for belts do not suit every shape, neither are +English trousers cut with the intention of being worn with them. But +trousers made abroad, are shaped at the waist, especially for the purpose +of being worn without braces; if desired. If you use braces, take two +pairs, for when they are drenched with perspiration, they dry slowly. +Some people do not care to use a belt, even with trousers of an ordinary +cut, but find that a tape run through a hem along the upper edge of the +trousers acts sufficiently well. Capt. Speke told me he always used this +plan. + +Boots.--Boots of tanned leather such as civilised people wear, are +incomparably better for hard usage, especially in wet countries, than +those of hand-dressed skins. If travelling in a hot, dry country, grease +plentifully both your shoes and all other leather. "La graisse est la +conservation du cuir," as I recollect a Chamouni guide enunciating with +profound emphasis. The soles of plaited cord used in parts of the +Pyrenees, are durable and excellent for clambering over smooth rock. They +have a far better hold upon it than any other sole of which I have +knowledge. Sandals are better than nothing at all. So are cloths wound +round the feet and ankles and tied there: the peasants of the remarkable +hilly place where I am writing these lines, namely Amalfi, use them much. +They are an untidy chaussure, but never seem to require to be tied +afresh. In the old days of Rome this sort of foot-gear was common. +Haybands wound round the feet are a common makeshift by soldiers who are +cut off from their supplies. It takes some months to harden the feet +sufficiently to be able to walk without shoes at all. Slippers are great +luxuries to foot-sore men. They should of course be of soft material, but +the soles should not be too thin or they will be too cold for comfort in +camp life. + +Leggings.--Macintosh leggings to go over the trousers are a great +comfort in heavy showers, especially when riding. + +Gaiters.--If the country be full of briars and thorns, the insteps +suffer cruelly when riding through bushes. It is easy to make gaiters +either with buttons or buckles. A strip of wood is wanted, either behind +or else on each side of them, to keep them from slipping down to the +ankle. + +Dressing Gown.--Persons who travel, even with the smallest quantity of +luggage, would do wisely to take a thick dressing-gown. It is a relief to +put it on in the evening, and is a warm extra dress for sleeping in. It +is eminently useful, comfortable and durable. + +Poncho.--A poncho is useful, for it is a sheet as well as a cloak; being +simply a blanket with a slit in the middle to admit the wearer's head. A +sheet of strong calico, saturated with oil, makes a waterproof poncho. + +Complete Bush-costume.--Mr. Gordon Cumming describes his bush-costume as +follows:--"My own personal appointments consisted of a wide-awake hat, +secured under my chin by 'rheimpys' or strips of dressed skin, a coarse +linen shirt, sometimes a kilt, and sometimes a pair of buckskin +knee-breeches, and a pair of 'veltschoens,' or home-made shoes. I +entirely discarded coat, waistcoat, and neckcloth; and I always hunted +with my arms bare; my heels were armed with a pair of powerful +persuaders, and from my left wrist depended, by a double rheimpy (thong), +an equally persuasive sea-cow jambok (whip of solid leather). Around my +waist I wore two leathern belts or girdles. The smaller did the duty of +suspender, and from it on my left side depended a plaited rheimpy, eight +inches in length, forming a loop, in which dangled my powerful +loading-rod, formed of a solid piece of horn of the rhinoceros. The +larger girdle was my shooting-belt; this was a broad leather belt, on +which were fastened four separate compartments, made of otterskin, with +flaps to button over, of the same material. The first of these held my +percussion-caps; the second, a large powder-flask; the third and fourth, +which had divisions in them, contained balls and patches, two sharp +clasp-knives, a compass, flint and steel. In this belt I also carried a +loading-mallet, formed from the horn of the rhinoceros; this and the +powder-flask were each secured to the belt by long rheimpys, to prevent +my losing them. Last, but not least, in my right hand I usually carried +my double-barrelled two-grooved rifle, which was my favourite weapon. +This, however, I subsequently made up my mind was not the tool for a +mounted man, especially when quick loading is required." + +Wet Clothes, to dry.--Fire for drying Clothes.--To dry clothes it is a +very convenient plan to make a dome-shaped framework of twigs over a +smouldering fire; by bending each twig or wand into a half-circle, and +planting both ends of it in the ground, one on each side of the fire. The +wet clothes are laid on this framework, and receive the full benefit of +the heat. Their steam passes readily upwards. + +[Two sketches of drying frame]. + +To keep Clothes from the wet.--Mr. Parkyns says, "I may as well tell, +also, how we managed to keep our clothes dry when travelling in the rain: +this was rather an important consideration, seeing that each man's +wardrobe consisted of what he carried on his back. Our method was at once +effective and simple: if halting, we took off our clothes and sat on +them; if riding, they were placed under the leathern shabraque of the +mule's saddle, or under any article of similar material, bed or bag, that +lay on the camel's pack. A good shower-bath did none of us any harm; and +as soon as the rain was over, and the moisture on our skins had +evaporated, we had our garments as warm, dry, and comfortable as if they +had been before a fire. In populous districts, we kept on our drawers, or +supplied their place with a piece of rag, or a skin; and then, when the +rain was over, we wrapped ourselves up in our 'quarry,' and taking off +the wetted articles, hung them over the animal's cruppers to dry." +Another traveller writes:-- + +"The only means we had of preserving our sole suit of clothes dry from +the drenching showers of rain, was by taking them off and stuffing them +into the hollow of a tree, which in the darkness of the night we could do +with propriety." + +Mr. Palliser's boatmen at Chagre took each a small piece of cloth, under +which they laid their clothes every time that they stripped in +expectation of a coming storm. + +Dipping clothes wetted with rain, in Sea-water.--Captain Bligh, who was +turned adrift in an open boat after the mutiny of the 'Bounty,' writes +thus about his experience:--"With respect to the preservation of our +health, during a course of 16 days of heavy and almost continual rain, I +would recommend to every one in a similar situation the method we +practised, which is to dip their clothes in the salt water and wring them +out as often as they become filled with rain: it was the only resource we +had, and I believe was of the greatest service to us, for it felt more +like a change of dry clothes than could well be imagined. We had occasion +to do this so often, that at length our clothes were wrung to pieces; for +except the few days we passed on the coast of New Holland, we were +continually wet, either with rain or sea." + +Washing Clothes.--Substitute for Soap.--The lye of ashes and the gall +of animals are the readiest substitutes for soap. The sailor's recipe for +washing clothes is well known, but it is too dirty to describe. Bran, and +the meal of many seeds, is good for scouring: also some earths, like +fuller's-earth. Many countries possess plants that will make a lather +with water. Dr. Rae says that in a very cold climate, when fire, water, +and the means of drying are scarce, it will be found that rubbing +andbeating in snow cleanses all clothing remarkably well, particularly +woollens. When preparing for a regular day's washing, it is a good plan +to boil an abundance of ashes in water, strain off the lye, adding the +gall of any animal you may have killed, and let the clothes soak in it. +Next morning, take them to the water-side, and wash and beat them with a +flat piece of wood, or lay them on a broad stone and knead and wring them +with the hands. + +Lye of Ashes.--In choosing plants to burn for ashes (whence the lye is +to be made by pouring hot water on them), it must be recollected that all +plants are not equally efficacious: those that contain the most alkali +(either potash or soda) are the best. On this account, the stalks of +succulent plants, as reeds, maize, broom, heath, and furze, are very much +better than the wood of any trees; and twigs are better than timber. Pine +and fir-trees are the worst of woods. The ashes of most kinds of seaweed +yield abundance of alkali. Potash is the alkali that is obtained from the +ashes of land plants, and soda from those of marine plants. + +10,000 parts of pine or fur.......contain.... 4 parts of alkali. + " poplar " 7 " + " beech-wood " 14 " + " oak " 15 " + " willow " 28 " + " elm, maple, + and wheat straw. " 39 " + " thistles, flax-stems, + and small rushes " 50 " + " large rushes " 72 " + " stalk of maize " 175 " + " bean-stalks " 200 " + +Soap is made by keeping fat constantly simmering in lye of ashes (see +preceding paragraphs) for some days; adding fresh lye as fast as the +water boils away, or is sucked up by the fat. After one or two trials, +the knack of soap-making is easily caught. The presence of salt makes the +soap hard; its absence, soft; now many ashes contain a good deal of salt, +and these may make the soap too hard, and will have to be mixed with +other sorts of ashes before being used: experience must guide the +traveller in this. A native woman will be probably be found without +difficulty, who will attend night and day to the pot-boiling for a small +payment. Inferior soap may be made by simply putting some grease into a +tub of very strong lye, and letting it remain for two or three weeks, +without any boiling, but stirring it every day. + +Marine Soap is made of soda lye (the lye of seaweeds) and cocoa-nut oil; +it makes a lather with salt water, but it has the defect of being very +bulky. + +To wash Flannels.--Make a lather of soap on a small piece of flannel, and +rub with it those parts that require the most cleansing, such as the neck +and wristbands of a shirt; then plunge the shirt in water as hot as you +can bear it, rinsing it and wringing it out very thoroughly, and hang it +up to dry as quickly as possible. Soda should not be used with coloured +flannels. + +Washing Oneself.--Warmth of Dirt.--There is no denying the fact, though +it be not agreeable to confess it, that dirt and grease are great +protectors of the skin against inclement weather, and that therefore the +leader of a party should not be too exacting about the appearance of his +less warmly-clad followers. Daily washing, if not followed by oiling, +must be compensated by wearing clothes. Take the instance of a dog. He +will sleep out under any bush, and thrive there, so long as he is not +washed, groomed, and kept clean; but if he be, he must have a kennel to +lie in, the same is the case with a horse; he catches cold if he is +groomed in the day, and turned out at nights; but he never catches cold +when left wholly to himself. A savage will never wash unless he can +grease himself afterwards--grease takes the place of clothing to him. +There must be a balance between the activity of the skin and the calls +upon it; and where the exposure is greater, there must the pores be more +defended. In Europe, we pass our lives in a strangely artificial state; +our whole body swathed in many folds of dress, excepting the hands and +face--the first of which are frequently gloved. We can afford to wash, +but naked men cannot. + +Best Times for Washing.--The most convenient time for a traveller to make +his toilet, in rough travel, is after the early morning's ride, a bath +being now and then taken in the afternoon. It is trying work to wash in +ice-cold water, in the dark and blowing morning; besides which, when the +sun rises up, its scorching heat tells severely on a face that has been +washed. + +Toilet made overnight.--During the harassing duties of active warfare, +officers who aim at appearing in a decorous dress, in whatever emergency +their presence may be required, make their toilet overnight before going +to sleep. + +Economising Water in Washing.--Where water has to be economised, by far +the best way of using it is after the Mahomedan fashion. An attendant +pours a slender stream from a jug, which the man who washes himself +receives in his hands and distributes over his person. + +Bath-glove.--Fold a piece of very coarse towel in two parts: lay your +hand upon it, and mark its outline rudely; then guided by the outline, +cut it out: sew the two pieces together, along their edges, and the glove +is made. It is inexpensive, and portable, and as good a detergent as +horsehair gloves or flesh-brushes. + +Brushes.--It is well to know how to make a brush, whether for clothes, +boots, or hair, and the accompanying section of one will explain itself. +Bristles are usually employed, but fibres of various kinds may be used. + +[Sketch of brush]. + + + +BEDDING. + + +General Remarks.--The most bulky, and often the heaviest, parts of a +traveller's equipment are his clothes, sleeping-mat, and blankets: nor is +it at all desirable that these should be stinted in quantity; for the +hardship that most tries a man's constitution and lays the seeds of +rheumatism, dysentery, and fever, is that of enduring the bitter cold of +a stormy night, which may happen to follow an exhausting day of extreme +heat or drenching wet. After many months' travel and camping, the +constitution becomes far less susceptible of injury from cold and damp, +but in no case is it ever proof against their influence. Indeed, the +oldest travellers are ever those who go the most systematically to work, +in making their sleeping-places dry and warm. Unless a traveller makes +himself at home and comfortable in the bush, he will never be quite +contented with his lot; but will fall into the bad habit of looking +forwards to the end of his journey, and to his return to civilisation, +instead of complacently interesting himself in its continuance. This is a +frame of mind in which few great journeys have been successfully +accomplished; and an explorer who cannot divest himself of it, may +suspect that he has mistaken his vocation. + +It is a common idea among men who are preparing to travel for the first +time, that all the bed-clothing about which they need concern themselves, +is a sufficiency to cover them, forgetting that a man has an under as +well as an upper side to keep warm, and must therefore have clothing +between him and the earth, as well as between him and the air. Indeed, on +trying the experiment, and rolling oneself up in a single blanket, the +undermost side in a cold night is found to be by far the colder of the +two. The substance of the blanket is compressed by the weight of the +sleeper; the interstices between its fibres cease to exist; and the air +which they contained and which is a powerful non-conductor of heat, is +squeezed out. Consequently wherever the blanket is compressed, its power +of retaining the heat of the sleeper is diminished. Soft fleecy +substances, like eider-down quilts, which are extremely warm as +coverlets, are well-nigh useless as mattresses. There is another cause +why a sleeper requires more protection from below, than from above: it is +that if the ground be at all wet, its damp will penetrate through very +thick substances laid upon it. It will therefore be clearly understood +that the object of a mattress is not alone to give softness to the bed, +but also to give warmth; and that if a man lies in a hammock, with only +the hammock below, and blankets above, he will be fully as much chilled +as if the arrangement had been reversed, and he had lain upon blankets, +with only the hammock as a sheet to cover him. + +Vital Heat.--The vital heat of a man, either in an active or a latent +form, is equal to that which is given out by two ordinary candles: I +judge so from the following reasons. All our vital heat is produced by +the combustion--for it is simple combustion--of the carbon in our food. +Now the quantity of carbon consumed by a man in full diet, in 24 hours, +is about 22 oz. in weight. On the other hand, I find that ordinary +candles, which mainly consist of carbon, burn at the rate of 11 oz. in 24 +hours. Therefore the heat given out by two candles is just about the same +as that given out by one man, either in a sensible form, or else under a +latent form by the vapour of the breath. Secondly, I have frequently +heard it estimated, as the result of the ordinary experience of social +life, that a saloon is warmed by each couple of candles somewhat more +than it is by the presence of a single guest. Where I write these lines, +I have not an opportunity of verifying my rough estimate, by reference to +physiological works, but accuracy is of little consequence to my present +purpose, which is to give a general idea of the magnitude of the problem +to be solved by clothes and tenting. Their joint office is to retain the +heat of a mass of flesh and blood, the size and shape of a man, warmed by +two candles burning within it, at a temperature of not less than 96 +degrees in its inward parts. + +Mattresses and their Substitutes.--A Strip of Macintosh.--If a traveller +can do so, he should make a point of having a strip of macintosh sheeting +7 feet by 4, certainly not less than 6 feet by 3, to lay on the ground +below his bedding. Every white servant in the expedition ought to be +furnished with a strip of macintosh sheeting, or, failing that, with a +strip of painted canvas. However, painted cloth is much inferior to +macintosh, as it will not fold up without cracking: it also tears easily, +and is heavy. Macintosh, of the sort that suits all climates, and made of +linen, not of silk, is invaluable to an explorer, whether in the form of +sheeting, coats, water-bags. swimming belts, or inflatable boats. A +little box full of the composition for mending it, and a spare bit of +macintosh, should always be taken. + +Mattress.--Making a mattress is indeed a very simple affair. A bag of +canvas, or other cloth, is made of the size wanted. It is then stuffed +full of hair, wool, dry leaves, or cotton, and a strong stitch is put +through it every few inches. The use of the stitching is to prevent the +stuffing from being displaced, and forming lumps in different parts of +the bag. + +Palliasse.--Straw, well knitted or plaited together, forms a good +mattress, commonly called a palliasse. + +Shavings of Wood.--Eight pounds' weight of shavings make an excellent +bed, and I find I can cut them with a common spokeshave, in 3 1/2 hours, +out of a log of deal. It is practicable to make an efficient spokeshave, +by tying a large clasp-knife on a common stick which has been cut into a +proper shape to receive it. + +Oakum.--Old cord, picked into oakum, will also make a bed. + +Various Makeshifts.--If a traveller, as is very commonly the case, should +have no mattress, he should strew his sleeping-place with dry grass, +plucked up from the ground, or with other things warm to the touch, +imitating the structure of a bird's-nest as far as he has skill and +materials to do so. Leaves, fern, feathers, heather, rushes, flags of +reeds and of maize, wood-shavings, bundles of faggots, and such like +materials as chance may afford, should be looked for and appropriated; a +pile of stones, or even two trunks of trees rolled close together, may +make a dry bedstead in a marshy land. Over these, let him lay whatever +empty bags, skins, saddle-cloths, or spare clothes he may have, which +from their shape or smallness cannot be turned to account as coverings, +and the lower part of his bed is complete. + +If a night of unusual cold be expected, the best use to make of spare +wearing-apparel, is to put it on over that which is already on the +person. With two or three shirts, stockings, and trousers, though +severally of thin materials, a man may get through a night of very trying +weather. + +Preparing the Ground for a Bed.--Travellers should always root up the +stones and sticks that might interfere with the smoothness of the place +where they intend to sleep. This is a matter worth taking a great deal of +pains about; the oldest campaigners are the most particular in making +themselves comfortable at night. They should also scrape a hollow in the +ground, of the shape shown in fig. 2 (next page), before spreading their +sleeping-rugs. It is disagreeable enough to lie on a perfectly level +surface, like that of a floor, but the acme of discomfort is to lie upon +a convexity. Persons who have omitted to make a shapely lair for +themselves, should at least scrape a hollow in the ground, just where the +hip-bone would otherwise press. + +[Sketch of person sleeping and bed; Fig. 1 and 2]. + +The annexed sketch (fig. 1) represents a man sleeping in a natural +attitude. It will be observed that he fits into a concavity of about 6 +inches in greatest depth. (The scale on which he is drawn is 6 feet long +and 1 foot high.) + +Hammocks.--See section on "furniture." + +Coverlets.--General Remarks.--For an upper cover, it is of importance to +an otherwise unsheltered person, that its texture should be such as to +prevent the wind blowing through. If it does so, no thickness is of any +avail in keeping out the cold; hence the advantage of skin carosses, +buffalo robes, leather sheets, and macintosh rugs. All clothes lose much +of their closeness of texture in a hot, dry climate; the fibres shrink +extremely, and the wind blows through the tissue as through network. It +is in order to make their coverings wind-proof, that shepherd-lads on the +hills in Scotland, when the nights are cold, dip their plaids in water, +before sitting or lying down in them. The wet swells up the fibres of the +plaid, and makes the texture of it perfectly dense and close. It is also +of importance that the outer covering should have a certain weight, so as +not to be too easily displaced, either by the person fidgeting in his +sleep or by the blowing of the wind. In dry weather there is nothing like +furs; but in a rainy country I prefer a thick blanket bag (see "Sleeping +Bags"), a large spare blanket, and a macintosh sheet and counterpane. It +may be objected that the bag and macintosh would be close and stuffy, but +be assured that the difficulty when sleeping on mother earth, on a bitter +night, is to keep the fresh air out, not to let it in. On fine nights I +should sleep on the bag and under the spare blanket. + +Stuffy Bedding.--It must be understood that while recommending coverlets +that resist the wind, I am very far from advocating extreme stuffiness, +and for the following reason. Though a free passage of the wind abstracts +an excessive amount of animal heat from the sleeper, yet the freshness of +pure air stimulates his body to give it out in an increased proportion. +On the other hand, sleeping-clothes that are absolutely impervious to the +passage of the wind, necessarily retain the cutaneous excretions: these +poison the sleeper, acting upon his blood through his skin, and +materially weaken his power of emitting vital heat: the fire of his life +burns more languidly. I therefore suspect it would be more dangerous to +pass a very cold night enclosed tightly in thin macintosh buttoned up to +the chin, than without it. Much less heat would be robbed from the +sleeper in the first case, but he would have very much less heat to +spare. There is, therefore, an intermediate arrangement of sleeping-gear, +neither too stuffy on the one hand nor too open on the other, by which +the maximum power of resisting the chill of the night is obtainable. + +Sleeping Clothes.--Some travellers prefer to have their blanket at once +made up into a loose coat, trousers, and cap, pockets ad libitum, and a +tape in the trouser band. An extra suit is thus always at hand, the +sleeper loses little of the advantages of comfortable bedding, and is +always, in some sense, dressed for any emergency. + +Feathers.--When you collect bed feathers for coverlets, recollect that if +they are cleanly plucked, they will require no dressing of any kind, save +drying and beating. + +Brown Paper.--Brown paper is an excellent non-conductor of heat and +excluder of draughts: English cottagers often enclose sheets of it within +their quilted counterpanes. If thoroughly soaked and then dried, it will +not crackle. + +Extra Clothes.--If a man be destitute of proper wraps, he cannot do +better than put on all the spare clothes he possesses. The additional +warmth of a single extra shirt is remarkable. + +Dry Clothes.--However wet the weather may be during the day, the +traveller should never relax his endeavours to keep a dry and warm change +of clothes for his bivouac at night. Hardships in rude weather matter +little to a healthy man, when he is awake and moving, and while the sun +is above the horizon; but let him never forget the deplorable results +that may follow a single night's exposure to cold, malaria, and damp. + +Pillows.--A mound of sand or earth, scraped together for a pillow, is +ground down into flatness, after a few minutes. A bag filled with earth, +or it may be with grass, keeps its shape. Many people use their saddles +as pillows; they roll up the flaps and stirrups, and place the saddle on +the ground with a stone underneath, at its hindmost end, to keep it level +and steady, and then lay their heads on the seat. I prefer using anything +else; as, for instance, the stone without the saddle: but I generally +secure some bag or other for the purpose, as, without a pillow, it is +difficult to sleep in comfort. A bag shaped like a pillow-case, and +stuffed with spare clothes, is very convenient. Some people advocate +air-cushions. + +Mr. Mansfield Parkyns' excellent plan, of sleeping on the side, with the +stock of the gun between the head and the arm, and the barrel between the +legs, will be described when I speak of "Guns." + + + +BIVOUAC. + + +There are four ways in which travellers who are thrown upon their own +resources may house themselves. They may bivouac, that is to say, they +may erect a temporary shelter of a makeshift character, partly from +materials found on the spot, and partly from the cloths they may happen +to possess; they may build a substantial hut, which of course takes a +good deal of labour to complete; they may use sleeping-bags; or they may +pitch a regular tent. I will speak of these four methods of encamping, +--the bivouac, the hut, the sleeping-bag, and the tent, in that order. + +General Remarks.--Bivouacking is miserable work in a wet or unhealthy +climate; but in a dry and healthy one, there is no question of its +superiority over tenting. Men who sleep habitually in the open, breathe +fresher air and are far more imbued with the spirit of wild life, than +those who pass the night within the stuffy enclosure of a tent. It is an +endless pleasure to lie half awake watching the stars above, and the +picturesque groupings of the encampment round about, and to hear on all +sides the stirrings of animal life. And later in the night, when the fire +is low, and servants and cattle are asleep, and there is no sound but of +the wind and an occasional plaintive cry of wild animals, the traveller +finds himself in that close communion with nature which is the true charm +of wild travel. Now all this pleasure is lost by sleeping in a tent. Tent +life is semi-civilization, and perpetuates its habits. This may be +illustrated by a simple trait; a man who has lived much in bivouacs, if +there be a night alarm, runs naturally into the dark for safety, just as +a wild animal would; but a man who travels with tents becomes frightened +when away from its lights, or from the fancied security of its walls. + +In a dangerous country there can be no comparison between the hazard of a +tent and that of a bivouac. In the former a man's sleep is heavy; he +cannot hear nearly so well; he can see nothing; his cattle may all +decamp; while marauders know exactly where he is lying, and may make +their plans accordingly. They may creep up unobserved and spear him +through the canvas. The first Napoleon had a great opinion of the +advantages of bivouacking over those of tenting. He said it was the +healthier of the two for soldiers. (See p. 153.) + +Shelter from the Wind.--Study the form of a hare! In the flattest and +most unpromising of fields, the creature will have availed herself of +some little hollow to the lee of an insignificant tuft of grass, and +there she will have nestled and fidgeted about till she has made a +smooth, round, grassy bed, compact and fitted to her shape, where she may +curl herself snugly up, and cower down below the level of the cutting +night wind. Follow her example. A man, as he lies upon his mother earth, +is an object so small and low that a screen of eighteen inches high will +guard him securely from the strength of a storm. A common mistake of a +novice lies in selecting a tree for his camping-place, which spreads out +nobly above, but affords no other shelter from the wind than that of its +bare stem below. + +[Sketch of sleeping man behind wall]. + +It may be, that as he walks about in search of shelter, a mass of foliage +at the level of his eye, with its broad shadow, attracts him, and as he +stands to the leeward of it it seems snug, and, therefore, without +further reflection, he orders his bed to be spread at the foot of some +tree. But as soon as he lies down on the ground the tree proves worthless +as a screen against the wind; it is a roof, but it is not a wall. The +real want in blowy weather is a dense low screen, perfectly wind-tight, +as high as the knee above the ground. Thus, if a traveller has to encamp +on a bare turf plain, he need only turn up a sod seven feet long by two +feet wide, and if he succeeds in propping it on its edge, it will form a +sufficient shield against the wind. + +In heavy gales, the neighbourhood of a solitary tree is a positive +nuisance. It creates a violent eddy of wind, that leaves palpable +evidence of its existence. Thus, in corn-fields, it is a common result of +a storm to batter the corn quite flat in circles round each tree that +stands in the field, while elsewhere no injury takes place. This very +morning that I am writing these remarks, November 158, I was +forcibly struck by the appearance of Kensington Gardens, after last +night's gale, which had covered the ground with an extraordinary amount +of dead leaves. They lay in a remarkably uniform layer, of from three to +five inches in depth, except that round each and every tree the ground +was absolutely bare of leaves for a radius of about a yard. The effect +was as though circular discs had been cut out, leaving the edges of the +layer of leaves perfectly sharp and vertical. It would have been a +dangerous mistake to have slept that night at the foot of any one of +those trees. + +Again, in selecting a place for bivouac, we must bear in mind that a gale +never blows in level currents, but in all kinds of curls and eddies, as +the driving of a dust-storm, or the vagaries of bits of straw caught up +by the wind, unmistakably show us. Little hillocks or undulations, +combined with the general lay of the ground, are a chief cause of these +eddies; they entirely divert the current of the wind from particular +spots. Such spots should be looked for; they are discovered by watching +the grass or the sand that lies on the ground. If the surface be quiet in +one place, while all around it is agitated by the wind, we shall not be +far wrong in selecting that place for our bed, however unprotected it may +seem in other respects. It is constantly remarked, that a very slight +mound or ridge will shelter the ground for many feet behind it; and an +old campaigner will accept such shelter gladly, notwithstanding the +apparent insignificances of its cause. + +Shelter from the Sky.--The shelter of a wall is only sufficient against +wind or driving rain; we require a roof to shield us against vertical +rain, and against dew, or what is much the same thing, against the cold +of a clear blue sky on a still night. The temperature of the heavens is +known pretty accurately, by more than one method of calculation: it is +-239 degrees Fahr.; the greatest cold felt in the Arctic regions being +about -40 degrees Fahr. If the night be cloudy, each cloud is a roof to +keep off the cold; if it be clear, we are exposed to the full chill of +the blue sky, with only such alleviation as the warming and the +non-conducting powers of the atmosphere may afford. The effect is greater +than most people would credit. The uppermost layer of the earth, or +whatever may be lying exposed upon it, is called upon to part with a +great quantity of heat. If it so happen that the uppermost layer is of a +non-conducting nature, the heat abstracted from it will be poorly +resupplied by communication from the lower ones. Again, if the night be a +very calm one, there will be no supply of warmth from fresh currents of +air falling down upon it. Hence, in the treble event of a clear blue sky, +a non-conducting soil, and a perfectly still night, we are liable to have +great cold on the surface of the ground. This is shared by a thin layer +of air that immediately rests upon it; while at each successive inch in +height, the air becomes more nearly of its proper temperature. A vast +number of experiments have been made by Mr. Glaisher on this subject +('Phil. Trans.' 1847), the upshot of which is that a thermometer laid on +grass, under a blue sky on a calm night, marks on an average 8 degrees +Fahr. colder than one 4 feet above it; 1 inch above grass, 5 1/2 degrees; +1 foot, 1 degrees; 4 feet, 1/2 degrees; on gravel and sand the +differences are only about one-third as much. Sheep have a practical +knowledge of these differences. Often, in an early walk on dewy mornings, +I see all the sheep in Hyde Park bivouacked on the gravel walks of Rotten +Row. The above figures are the results of experiments made in England, +where the air is always moist, and the formation of dew, while it +testifies to the cold of the night, assists largely to moderate it. In +arid climates the chill would be far greater; such would also be the case +at high elevations. One of Mr. Glaisher's experiments showed a difference +of no less than 28 degrees between the cold on the ground and that at 8 +feet high. This might often be rivalled in an elevated desert, as in that +of Mongolia. Hence the value of the protection of a roof and of a raised +sleeping-place, to a man sleeping under a blue sky in still weather, +admits of easy interpretation. + +Various Methods of Bivouacking.--Unprotected.--Mr. Shaw, the traveller +in Thibet, says:--"My companion and I walked on to keep ourselves warm, +but halting at sunset, had to sit and freeze several hours before the +things came up. The best way of keeping warm on such an occasion, is to +squat down, kneeling against a bank, resting your head on the bank, and +nearly between your knees. Then tuck your overcoat in, all round you, +over head and all; and if you are lucky, and there is not too much wind, +you will make a little atmosphere of your own inside the covering, which +will be snug in comparison with the outside air. Your feet suffer +chiefly, but you learn to tie yourself into a kind of knot, bringing as +many surfaces of your body together as possible. I have passed whole +nights in this kneeling position, and slept well; whereas I should not +have got a wink had I been stretched at full length with such a scanty +covering as a great-coat." + +Bushes.--I have shown that the main object before sleeping out at night +is to secure a long wind-tight wall, and that the next is to obtain a +roof. Both these objects may be attained by pleachingtwo or three small +neighbouring bushes into one; or branches may be torn off elsewhere and +interwoven between the bushes. A few leafy boughs, cut and stuck into the +ground, with their tops leaning over the bed, and secured in that +position by other boughs, wattled-in horizontally, give great protection. +Long grass, etc., should be plucked and strewn against them to make them +as wind-tight as possible. + +Walls.--A pile of saddle-bags and other travelling gear may be made into +a good screen against the wind; and travellers usually arrange them with +that intention. Walls of stone may be built as a support to cloths, whose +office it is to render the walls wind-tight, and also by lapping over +their top, to form a partial roof. We have already spoken of a broad sod +of turf propped up on edge. + +"The Thibetan traveller cares for no roof overhead if he can shelter +himself from the wind behind a three-foot wall. Hence the numerous little +enclosures clustered together like cells of a honeycomb at every +halting-place, with one side always raised against the prevailing wind. +(Shaw.) These walls are built round shallow pits, each with its rough +fireplace in the middle. + +Cloths.--Any cloth may be made to give shelter by an arrangement like +that in the sketch. + +[Sketch of cloth shelter]. + +The corners of the cloth should be secured by simple hitches in the rope, +and never by knots. The former are sufficient for all purposes of +security, but the latter will jam, and you may have to injure both cloth +and string to get them loose again. It is convenient to pin the sides of +the cloth with a skewer round the ropes. Any strip of wood makes a +skewer. Earth should be banked against the lowest edge of the cloth, to +keep out the wind, and to prevent its flapping. The sticks may, on an +emergency, be replaced by faggots of brushwood, by guns, or by ropes +carried down from the overhanging branches of a large tree. (For a sail +supported by oars, see "Sail Tent" p. 108.) + +Fremont, the American traveller bivouacked as follows:--His rifles were +tied together near the muzzles, the butts resting on the ground widely +apart; a knife was laid on the rope that tied them together, to cut it in +case of an alarm; over this extempore framework was thrown a large +india-rubber cloth, with which he covered his packs when on the road; it +made a cover sufficiently large to receive about half of his bed, and was +a place of shelter for his instruments. + +Gordon Cumming.--The following extract is from Mr. Gordon Cumming's book +on Africa: it describes the preparations of a practised traveller for a +short excursion from his wagons away into the bush. "I had at length got +into the way of making myself tolerably comfortable in the field, and +from this date I seldom went in quest of elephants without the following +impedimenta, i.e. a large blanket, which I folded and secured before my +saddle as a dragoon does his cloak, and two leather sacks, containing a +flannel shirt, warm trousers, and a woollen night-cap, spare ammunition, +washing-rod, coffee, bread, sugar, pepper and salt, dried meat, a wooden +bowl, and a tea-spoon. These sacks were carried on the shoulders of the +natives, for which service I remunerated them with beads. They also +carried my coffee-kettle, two calabashes of water, two American axes, and +two sickles, which I used every evening to cut grass for my bed, and +likewise for my horses to eat throughout the night; and my after-rider +carried extra ammunition and a spare rifle." + +Importance of Comfort.--To conclude these general hints, let the +traveller, when out in trying weather, work hard at making his +sleeping-place perfectly dry and comfortable; he should not cease until +he is convinced that it will withstand the chill of the early morning, +when the heat of the yesterday's sun is exhausted, and that of the coming +sun has not begun to be felt. It is wretched beyond expression for a man +to lie shivering beneath a scanty covering and to feel the night air +become hourly more raw, while his life-blood has less power to withstand +it; and to think, self-reproachfully, how different would have been his +situation if he had simply had forethought and energy enough to cut and +draw twice the quantity of firewood, and to spend an extra half-hour in +labouring to make himself a snugger berth. The omission once made becomes +irreparable; for in the cold of a pitiless night he has hardly sufficient +stamina to rise and face the weather, and the darkness makes him unable +to cope with his difficulties. + +Bivouac in Special Localities.--Encampment in Forests.--A clump of trees +yields wonderful shelter. The Swedes have a proverb that "the forest is +the poor man's jacket." In fir-woods there is great facility in making +warm encampments; for a young tree, when it is felled, yields both poles +to support branches for shields against weather, and finer cuttings for +flooring above the snow or damp. A common plan is to support a cross-bar +by two uprights, as shown in the figure; against this cross-bar a number +of poles are made to lean; on the back of the poles abundance of fir +branches are laid horizontally; and lastly, on the back of these are +another set of leaning poles, in order to secure them by their weight. + +[Sketch of pole shelter]. +On Bare Plains.--Avoid sleeping in slight hollows during clear still +weather. The cold stratum of air, of which I spoke in the section of +"Shelter from the Sky," pours down into them, like water from the +surrounding plain, and stagnates. Spring frosts are always more severely +felt in hollows. Therefore, in a broad level plain, especially if the +night be clear and calm, look out for some slightly rising ground for an +encampment. The chilled stratum of air drains from off it, and is +replaced by warmer air. Horses and cattle, as the night sets in, always +draw up to these higher grounds, which rise like islands through the sea +of mist that covers the plain. + +Walls have been built for shelter against the wind, on a bare sandy +plain, by taking empty bags, filling them with sand, and then building +them up as if they had been stones. + +Buried, or in Holes.--A European can live through a bitter night, on a +perfectly dry sandy plain, without any clothes besides what he has on, if +he buries his body pretty deeply in the sand, keeping only his head above +ground. It is a usual habit of the naked natives in Australia to do so, +and not an unfrequent one of the Hottentots of South Africa. Mr. Moffat +records with grateful surprise how he passed a night, of which he had +gloomy forebodings, in real comfort, even luxury, by adopting this +method. A man may be as comfortable in a burrow as in a den. I shall +speak of underground houses under "Hutting;" and for the present will +only mention that, in arid countries, dry wells, dug by natives and +partially choked by drifted sand, are often to be met with. They are +generally found near existing watering-places, where they have been +superseded by others, better placed and deeper. Now, there are few warmer +sleeping-places than one of these dry wells; a small fire is easily kept +burning at the bottom, and the top may be partially roofed over. + +In Ashes of Camp Fire.--A few chill hours may be got over, in a plain +that affords no other shelter, by nestling among the ashes of a recently +burnt-out camp fire. + +Warm Carcases.--In Napoleon's retreat, after his campaign in Russia, many +a soldier saved or prolonged his life by creeping within the warm and +reeking carcase of a horse that had died by the way. + +By the water-side.--A stony beach makes a fine dry encamping-place, and +has this advantage, that it makes it impossible for marauders to creep up +unheard. But the immediate neighbourhood of fresh water is objectionable, +for, besides being exposed to malaria and mosquitoes, the night air is +more cold and penetrating by its side, than at one or two hundred yards' +distance from it. (I will speak of walls of rushes and reeds, under +"Huts.") + +By Rocks.--In the cruel climate of Thibet, Dr. Hooker tells us that it is +the habit to encamp close to some large rock, because a rock absorbs heat +all day, and parts with it but slowly during the night-time. It is, +therefore, a reservoir of warmth when the sun is down, and its +neighbourhood is coveted in the night-time. Owing to the same cause, +acting in the opposite direction, the shadow of a broad rock is +peculiarly cool and grateful, during the heat of the day, in a thirsty +land. + +On Heather.--Mr. St. John tells us of an excellent way in which Highland +poachers, when in a party usually pass frosty nights on the moor-side. +They cut quantities of heather, and strew part of it as a bed on the +ground; then all the party lie down, side by side, excepting one man +whose place among the rest is kept vacant for him. His business is to +spread plaids upon them as they lie, and to heap up the remainder of the +heather upon the plaids. This being accomplished, the man wriggles and +works himself into the gap that has been left for him in the midst of his +comrades. + +[Sketch of sleeping arrangement]. + +On Snow.--I shall have to describe snow-houses and snow-walls covered +with sail-cloth, under "Huts." Here I will speak of more simple +arrangements. Dr. Kane says:--"We afterwards learnt to modify and reduce +our travelling-gear, and found that in direct proportion to its +simplicity and to our apparent privation of articles of supposed +necessity, were our actual comfort and practical efficiency. Step by +step, as long as our Arctic service continued, we went on reducing our +sledging outfit, until we at last came to the Esquimaux ultimatum of +simplicity--raw meat and a fur bag." Lieut. Cresswell, R.N., who, having +been detached from Captain McClure's ship in 1853, was the first officer +who ever accomplished the famous North-West passage, gave the following +graphic account of the routine of his journeying, in a speech at +Lynn:--"You must be aware that in Arctic travelling you must depend +entirely on your own resources. You have not a single thing else to +depend on except snow-water: no produce of the country, nor firewood, or +coals, or anything off the sort; and whatever you have to take, to +sustain you for the journey, you must carry or drag. It is found by +experience more easy to drag it on sledges than to carry it. The plan we +adopt is this:--we have a sledge generally manned by about six or ten +men, which we load with provisions, with tents, and all requisites for +travelling, simple cooking utensils, spirits-of-wine for cooking, etc., +and start off. The quantity of people can generally drag over the ice is +forty days' provisions; that gives about 200 lbs. weight to each. After +starting from the ship, and having travelled a certain number of +hours--generally ten or eleven--we encamp for the night, or rather for +the day, because it is considered better to travel at night and sleep at +day, on account of the glare of the sun on the snow. We used to travel +journeys of about ten hours, and then encamp, light our spirits-of-wine, +put our kettle on it to thaw our snow-water, and after we had had our +supper--just a piece of pemmican and a glass of water--we were glad to +smoke our pipes and turn into bed. The first thing we did, after pitching +the tent, was to lay a sort of macintosh covering over the snow; on this +a piece of buffalo robe was stretched. Each man and officer had a blanket +sewn up in the form of a bag; and into these we used to jump, much in the +same way as you may see a boy do in a sack. We lay down head and feet, +the next person to me having his head to my feet, and his feet to my +head, so that we lay like herrings in a barrel. After this, we covered +ourselves with skin, spreading them over the whole of us; and the closer +we got, the better, as there was more warmth. We lay till the morning, +and then the process was the same again." It appears that people may bury +themselves in snow, and want neither air nor warmth. I have never made +the experiment; but have read of numerous instances of people falling +into snow-drifts, and not being extricated for many days, and when at +length they were taken out, they never seem to have complained of cold, +or any other sufferings than those of hunger and of anxiety. + + + +HUTS. + + +Huts and Snow-Houses.--In making a depot, it is usual to build a house; +often the men must pass weeks in inactivity, and they had better spend +their time in making their quarters comfortable than in idleness. +Whatever huts are used by the natives are sure, if made with extra care, +to be good enough for European travellers. + +Log-huts.--In building log-huts, four poles are planted in the ground, to +correspond to the four corners; against these, logs are piled one above +another as in the drawing below; they are so deeply notched where their +ends are crossed, that the adjacent sides are firmly dovetailed. When the +walls are entirely completed, the door and windows are chopped out. + +[Sketch of cabin]. + +The spaces between the logs must be caulked with moss, etc., or the +log-cabin will be little better than a log-cage. It requires a great many +logs to make a hut; for, supposing the walls to be 8 feet high, and the +trees to average 8 inches in diameter, twelve trees would be required to +build up one side, or forty-eight for all four walls. Other timber would +also be wanted for the roof. + +Underground Huts are used in all quarters of the globe. The experience of +our troops when encamped before Sebastopol during an inclement season +told strongly in their favour. Their timely adoption was the salvation of +the British army. They are essentially, nothing else than holes in the +ground, roofed over, fig. 1. + +[Sketch of roof and geometrical measure]. + +The shape and size of the hole corresponds to that of the roof it may be +possible to procure for it; its depth is no greater than requisite for +sitting or standing. If the roof has a pitch of 2 feet in the middle, the +depth of the hole need not exceed 4 1/2 feet. In the Crimea, the holes +were rectangular, and were roofed like huts. + +Where there is a steep hillside, a a', fig. 2, an underground hut, b, is +easily contrived; because branches laid over its top, along the surface +of the ground, have sufficient pitch to throw off the rain. Of course the +earth must be removed from a', at the place intended for the doorway. + +Reed Huts.--The reed huts of the Affej Arabs, and other inhabitants of +the Chaldean marshes, are shaped like wagon-roofs, and are constructed of +semicircular ribs of reeds, planted in the ground, one behind the other, +at equal distances apart; each rib being a faggot of reeds of 2 feet in +diameter. For strength, they are bound round every yard with twisted +bands of reeds. When this framework has been erected, it is covered with +two or three sheets of fine reed matting (see "Matting"), which forms a +dwelling impervious to rain. Some of the chiefs' huts are as much as 40 +feet long, and 12 high; the other huts are considerably smaller. Many of +these reed dwellings are contained in compounds enclosed by lofty reed +fences; the reeds being planted upright, and simply strung together by a +thread run through them, as they stand side by side. (See "Straw and Reed +Walls.") + +Snow-houses.--Few travellers have habitually made snow-houses, except Sir +J. Franklin's party and that of Dr. Rae. Great praises are bestowed on +their comfort by all travellers, but skill and practice are required in +building them. The mode of erection of these dome-shaped buildings is as +follows:--It is to be understood that compact, underlying snow is +necessary for the floor of the hut; and that the looser textured, upper +layer of snow, is used to build the house. First, select and mark out the +circular plot on which the hut is to be raised. Then, cut out of that +plot, with knives, deep slices of snow, 6 inches wide, 3 feet long, and +of a depth equal to that of the layer of loose snow, say one or two feet. +These slices are to be of a curved shape, so as to form a circular ring +when placed on their edges, and of a suitable radius for the first row of +snow-bricks. Other slices are cut on the same principle for the +succeeding rows; but when the domed roof has to be made, the snow-bricks +must be cut with the necessary double curvature. A conical plug fills up +the centre of the dome. Loose snow is next heaped over the house, to fill +up crevices. Lastly a doorway is cut out with knives; also a window, +which is glazed with a sheet of the purest ice at hand. For inside +accommodation there should be a pillar or two of snow to support the +lamps. + +Snow Walls with Tenting for their Roofs.--Sir L. McClintock says:--"We +travelled each day until dusk, and then were occupied for a couple of +hours in building our snow-hut. The four walls were run up until 5 1/2 +feet high, inclining inwards as much as possible, over these our tent was +laid to form a roof. We could not afford the time necessary to construct +a dome of snow. Our equipment consisted of a very small brown-holland +tent, macintosh floor-cloth and felt robes; besides this, each man had a +bag of double blanketing, and a pair of fur boots, to sleep in. We wore +mocassins over the pieces of blanketing in which our feet were wrapped +up, and, with the exception of a change of this foot-gear, carried no +spare clothes. + +"When we halted for the night, Thompson and I usually sawed out the +blocks of compact snow, and carried them to Petersen, who acted as the +master-mason in building the hut. The hour-and-a-half or two hours +usually employed in erecting the edifice was the most disagreeable part +of the day's labour; for, in addition to being already well tired and +desiring repose, we became thoroughly chilled while standing about. The +dogs were then fed, then the sledge unpacked, and everything carried into +it. The door was now blocked up with snow, the cooking-lamp lighted, +foot-gear changed, diary writing up, watches wound, sleeping-bags +wriggled into, pipes lighted, and the merits of the various dogs +discussed, until supper was ready; the supper swallowed, the upper robe +or coverlet pulled over, and then to sleep. Next morning came breakfast, +a struggle to get into frozen mocassins, after which the sledges were +packed, and another day's march commenced. In these little huts we +usually slept warm enough, although latterly, when our blankets and +clothes became loaded with ice, we felt the cold severely. When our low +doorway was carefully blocked up with snow, and the cooking-lamp alight, +the temperature quickly rose, so that the walls became glazed and our +bedding thawed; but the cooking over, or the doorway partially opened, it +as quickly fell again, so that it was impossible to sleep, or even to +hold one's pannikin of tea without putting mits on, so intense was the +cold."--Sir L. McClintock is here speaking of a temperature of -39 +degrees Fahr. + +Materials for building Huts.--The materials whence the walls and roofs of +huts may be constructed are very numerous: there is hardly any place +which does not furnish one or other of them. Those principally in use are +as follows:-- + +Wattle-and-daub, to be executed neatly, required well-shaped and flexible +sticks; but a hut may be constructed much like the sketch (see p. 120) of +the way of "Drying Clothes." It is made by planting in the ground a +number of bare sticks, 4 feet long, and 1 foot apart, bending their tops +together, lashing them fast with string or strips of bark, and wattling +them judiciously here and there, by means of other boughs, laid +horizontally. Then, by heaping leaves--and especially broad pieces of +bark, if you can get them--over all, and banking up the earth on either +side, pretty high, an excellent kennel is made. If daubed over with mud, +clay, or cattle-dung, the hut becomes more secure against the weather. To +proceed a step further:--as many poles may be planted in the ground as +sticks have been employed in making the roof; and then the roof may be +lifted bodily in the air, and lashed to the top of the poles, each stick +to its corresponding pole. This sort of structure is very common among +savages. + +For methods of digging holes in which to plant the hut-poles, see the +chapter on "Wells." The holes made in the way I have there explained are +far better than those dug with spades; for they disturb no more of the +hardened ground than is necessary for the insertion of the palisades. To +jam a pole tightly in its place, wedges of wood should be driven in at +its side, and earth rammed down between the wedges. + +Palisades are excellent as walls or as enclosures. They are erected of +vast lengths, by savages wholly destitute of tools, both for the purposes +of fortification and also for completing lines of pitfalls across wide +valleys. the pitfalls occupy gaps left in the palisading. The savages +burn down the trees in the following manner:--a party of men go to the +forest, and light small fires round the roots of the trees they propose +to fell. the fires are prevented from flaming upwards by the judicious +application of leaves, etc. When the fire has eaten a little way into the +tree, the man who watches it scrapes the fire aside and knocks away the +charred wood, exposing a fresh surface for fire to act upon, and then +replaces the burning embers. A single man may easily attend to a dozen +trees, and, indeed, to many more, if the night be calm. Some hours elapse +before the trees actually fall. Their tops and branches are burnt off as +they lie on the ground. The poles being thus procured for the palisading, +they are carried to the required place, where holes are dug for their +reception, on the principle described in "Wells," to which I have just +alluded. + +Straw or Reed Walls of the following kind are very effective, and they +have the advantage of requiring a minimum of string (or substitute for +string) in their manufacture. The straw, reeds, or herbage, of almost any +description, is simply nipped between two pairs of long sticks, which are +respectively tied together at their ends, and at a sufficient number of +intermediate places. The whole is neatly squared and trimmed. + +[Sketch of straw walls]. + +A few of these would give good help in finishing the roof or walls of a +house. They can be made moveable, so as to suit the wind, shade, and +aspect. Even the hut door can be made on this principle. In reedy +countries where there are no sticks, thin faggots of reeds are used in +their place. + +Bark.--Bark is universally used in Australia for roofs of huts and +temporary buildings; the colonists learnt the use of it from the natives, +and some trees, at least, in every forest-country might very probably be +found as well fitted for that purpose as those in Australia. The bark may +be easily removed, only when the sap is well up in the tree, but a +skilful person will manage to procure bark at all seasons of the year, +except in the coldest winter months; and even then he will light on some +tree, from the sunny side of which he can strip broad pieces. The process +of bark-stripping is simply to cut two rings right round the tree +(usually from 6 to 9 feet apart), and one vertical slit to join them; +starting from the slit, and chipping away step by step on either side, +the whole cylinder of bark is removed. The larger the tree, the better; +for if the tree is less than 18 inches, or so, in diameter, the bark is +apt to break when flattened out. When stripped for huts, it is laid on +the ground for some days to dry, being flattened out on its face, and a +few stones or logs put on it. the ordinary bark of gum-trees is about +half an inch to three-eighths thick, so that a large sheet is very heavy. +Most exploring expeditions are accompanied by a black, whose dexterity in +stripping bark for a wet night is invaluable, as if the bark will "come +off" well, he can procure enough of it in an hour's time to make a +shelter for a large party. + +Mats can be woven with ease when there is abundance of string, or some +equivalent for it (see "String"), in the following manner:-- + +[Sketch of loom]. + +A, B, are two pegs driven into the ground and standing about a foot out +of it. A stake, A B, is lashed across them; a row of pegs, E, are driven +into the ground, parallel to A, B, and about 6 inches apart. Two sets of +strings are then tied to A B; one set are fastened by their loose ends +into clefts, in the pegs E, and the other set are fastened to the stick, +C D. If there be ten strings in all, then 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, are tied to C D, +and 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, to A B. By alternately raising and depressing C D, +and by pushing in a handful of rushes between the two sets of strings +after each of its movements, and, finally, by patting them home with a +flat stick, this rough sort of weaving is carried on very successfully. +Mats are also plaited in breadths, and the breadths are stitched +together, side by side. Or a thicker kind of mat may be made by taking a +wisp of straw and working it in the same way in which straw beehives are +constructed. Straw is worked more easily after being damped and beaten +with a mallet. + +Malay hitch.--I know no better name for the wonderfully simple way (shown +in the figure) of attaching together wisps of straw, rods, laths, reeds, +planks, poles, or anything of the kind, into a secure and flexible mat; +the sails used in the far East are made in this way, and the moveable +decks of vessels are made of bamboos, joined together with a similar but +rather more complicated stitch. + +[Sketch of fastening]. + +I may remark that soldiers might be trained to a great deal of hutting +practice in a very inexpensive way, if they were drilled at putting +together huts, whose roofs and walls were made of planks lashed together +by this simple hitch, and whose supports were short scaffolding poles +planted in deep holes, dug, as explained in the chapter on "Wells," with +the hand and a small stick. The poles, planks, and cords might be used +over and over again for an indefinite time. Further, bedsteads could be +made in a similar way, by short cross-planks lashed together, and resting +on a framework of horizontal poles, lashed to uprights planted in the +ground. The soldier's bedding would not be injured by being used on these +bedsteads, as much as if it were laid on the bare ground. Kinds of +designs and experiments in hutting could be practised without expense in +this simple way. + +Tarpaulings are very suitable for roofs. Those made after the method used +by sailors are much superior to others in softness and durability. The +plan is as follows:--As soon as the canvas has been sewn together, it is +thoroughly wetted with sea-water; and, while still wet, it is smeared +over on one of its sides with tar and grease, boiled together--about two +parts tar and one of grease. After being hung up till it is dry, it is +turned; and the other side, being a second time well wetted, is at once +painted over with the tar and grease, just as the first side had been +before. The sailors say that "the tar dries in, as the water dries out;" +a saying which I confess I cannot understand. + +Other Materials.--I will merely mention these by name, for they require +no explanation. They are fascines or faggots; bricks, sun-dried or baked +in the oven; turf; stones; and bags or mats, filled with sand or shingle. + +Whitewash is lime and water. Lime is made by burning limestone, chalk, +shells, or coral in a simple furnace. + +Roofs.--Thatching.--After the framework of the roof has been made, the +thatcher begins at the bottom, and ties a row of bundles of straw, side +by side, on to the framework. Then he begins a second row, allowing the +ends of the bundles composing it to overlap the heads of those in the +first row. + +Wood-shingles are tile-shaped slices of wood, easily cut from fir-trees. +They are used for roofing, on the same principle as tiles or slates. + +Floors.--Concrete for floors, is made of eight parts large pebbles, four +parts river-sand, and one part lime (to make lime, see "Whitewash"). +Cow-dung and ashes make a hard, dry, and clean floor; such as is used for +a threshing-floor. Ox blood and fine clay kneaded together are excellent. +Both these latter compositions are in use in all hot dry countries. + +Windows.--A window, or rather a hole in the wall, may be rudely shuttered +by a stick run through loops made out of wisps of grass. In hot weather, +the windows of the hutmay be loosely stuffed with grass, which, when +watered, makes the hut cooler. + +Glass, to cut.--Glass cannot be cut with any certainty, without a +diamond; but it may be shaped and reduced to any size by gradually +chipping, or rather biting, away at its edges with a key, if the slit +between the wards of the key be just large enough to admit the pane of +glass easily. + +[Sketch]. + +Substitutes for glass.--These are waxed or oiled paper or cloth, bladder, +fish-membranes, talc, and horn. (See "Horn.") + + + +SLEEPING-BAGS. + + +Sleeping-bags.--Knapsack Bags.--These have been used for the last +twenty-five years by the French 'douaniers', who watch the +mountain-passes of the Pyrenean frontier. The bags are made of sheepskin, +with the wool inside. When not in use they are folded up and buckled with +five buckles into the shape of a somewhat bulky knapsack (p. 152), which +the recent occupant may shoulder and walk away with. + +The accompanying sketches are drawn to scale. They were made from the +sleeping-bag belonging to a man 5 feet 6 inches in height; the scale +should therefore be lengthened for a taller person, but the breadth seems +ample. Its weight was exactly seven pounds. The douaniers post themselves +on watch more or less immersed in these bags. They lie out in wet and +snow, and find them impervious to both. When they sleep, they get quite +inside them, stuff their cloaks between their throats and the bag, and +let its flap cover their faces. It is easy enough for them to extricate +themselves; they can do so almost with a bound. The Spanish Custom-house +officers who watch the same frontier, use their cloaks and other wraps, +which are far more weighty, and far inferior in warmth and protection to +the bags. I described these knapsack bags in 'Vacation Tourists for +1860,' p. 449, and I subsequently had a macintosh bag lined with drugget, +made on the same principle. I had a hood to it, and also the means of +buttoning it loosely under my chin, to make myself watertight during +heavy rain. In that bag I passed many nights of very trying weather. On +one instance, I selected a hilltop in Switzerland, on the way from +Chambery to the Dent du Midi, during a violent and long-continued +thunderstorm. The storm began above my head, then slowly sank to my +level, and finally subsided below me. Many Alpine travellers, notably Mr. +Packe and Mr. Tuckett, have adopted these bags, and used them +continually. Macintosh is certainly oppressive to sleep in, though less +so than might have been expected, as the half-unconscious fidgeting of +the sleeper changes the air. A man in travelling "condition" would +probably find a drugget-bag more healthy than macintosh, even though he +became somewhat wet inside it. Beds used to be almost unknown in some +parts of the Pyrenees. Sheepskin sleeping-bags were employed instead. +Thus, I am assured that at the beginning of this century, there was +hardly a bed in the whole of the little republic of Andorre. The way of +arranging them as knapsacks is, as I have said, a recent invention. + +In fig. 1 the wide opening to the mouth of the bag is shown; also the +ends of the buckles and straps that are sewn (on patches of leather, for +additional strength) to the lower side of the bag, as seen in fig. 2. + +[Fig 1 and 2]. + +It must be understood that the woolly sides of the skins are inwards. The +straps that hold the knapsack to the shoulders are secured by a simple +fastening, shown in figs. 2 and 3. But the ordinary knapsack hooks and +rings, if procurable, would answer the purpose better. The straight lines +in fig. 1 show the way in which the bag is to be folded into the shape of +fig. 3. Fig. 4 shows the sleeper inside his bag, in which he fits very +like a grub in its cocoon. There is no waste of space. For the sake of +warmth, the bag is made double from the knees downwards, and also +opposite to the small of the back. + +[Figs 3 and 4]. + +During the daytime, when the weather is wet or cold, the bags are of much +use, for the douaniers sit with them pulled up to their waist. When +carried in the manner of a knapsack the bag sits perfectly well against +the shoulders; but, owing to the yielding nature of its substance, it +lies too close to the back, and is decidedly oppressive. A wicker frame +might well be interposed. + +Arctic Sleeping-bags.--Arctic travellers use coarse drugget bags, covered +with brown holland to make them less pervious to the wind, and having a +long flap at the upper end to fold down over the face. I have already +extracted passages from travellers' accounts relating to them, in +speaking of "Encamping on Snow," p. 140, and another, when speaking of +"Snow-walls with Tenting for their Roofs," p. 143. + +Macintosh Sack.--Mr. Falconer writes to me as follows:--"I travelled in +1841 from Austin in Texas to Mexico through New Mexico. I left Austin in +June, and reached Zacateras on Christmas Day. During nearly the whole +period we travelled from Austin to New Mexico, I camped without any +covering at night for myself, except a large macintosh, made up as a +sack, with a piece so laid as a continuation of one side, as to be used +as a coverlet, sufficient in length to be brought from the back, over the +head, and down on the breast. Inside I placed my blankets. I slept under +this covering during many a heavy storm at night, and got out of my +soft-coated shell dry in the morning. My opinion is, that every traveller +who works his way with a horse should fix on his own saddle the said +macintosh sack, two blankets, a tin cup, and a frying-pan. It is amazing, +when you get into real working order, how few things are sufficient." + +Peasants' Sack.--The peasants in the northern parts of Germany use a +strong linen sack, made to draw at one end. This they stuff with straw, +hay, dry leaves, etc.; and, putting their feet into it, pull its mouth up +to their armpits. They use them when driving their wagons in winter, and +when lodging at their wretched roadside inns. (See a letter in the Times, +February 125.) + +Bag, combined with Tent.--I should think that a combination of a sleeping +bag with a very small tent, just large enough to enclose the man's head +and shoulders, so as to permit him to eat or write when lying in his bag +without fear of the wet would be the smallest and lightest arrangement, +compatible with efficiency, in a stormy climate. + + + +TENTS. + + +General Remarks.--Although tents are not worth the trouble of pitching, +on dry nights, in a healthy climate, they are invaluable protectors to a +well-equipped traveller against rain, dew, and malaria. But a man who is +not so equipped, who has no change of clothes, and no bedstead to sleep +on, will do better to sleep in the open air, in front of a good camp +fire. Napoleon I., speaking of soldiers, says ('Maximes de +Guerre'):--"Tents are not healthy; it is better for the soldier to +bivouac, because he sleeps with his feet to the fire, whose neighbourhood +quickly dries the ground on which he lies; some planks or a little straw +shelter him from the wind. Nevertheless a tent is necessary for superior +officers, who have need to write and to consult a map." To a party +encamped for a few days, tents are of great use as storehouses for +property, which otherwise becomes scattered about, at the risk of being +lost or pilfered. + +Materials for Tenting.--Light canvas is usually employed, and is, to all +intents and purposes, waterproof. Silk, of equal strength with the +canvas, is very far lighter: its only disadvantage is its expense. +Calico, or cotton canvas, is very generally used for small tents. Leather +and felt are warm, but exceedingly heavy; and would only be used in very +inclement climates, or where canvas could not be met with. Light matting +is not to be despised: it is warm and pretty durable, and makes excellent +awning or covering to a frame-work. + +Diagonal Bracing.--A worn-out tent may be strengthened by sewing bands of +canvas, which cross each other, and make a kind of net-work: old sails +are strengthened in this way. + +Tent Pegs should be of galvanized iron; they are well worth the weight of +carriage, for not only do wooden ones often fail on an emergency, but +cooks habitually purloin them when firewood is scarce. + +Tents.--Large Tents.--The art of tent-making has greatly advanced since +the days of the old-fashioned bell-tent, which is so peculiarly +objectionable, as to make it a matter of surprise that it was ever +invented and used. It is difficult to pitch; it requires many tent-pegs; +it has ropes radiating all round it, over which men and horses stumble; +and it is incommodious and ugly. + +In choosing a tent, select one that will stand in some sort of shape with +only four pegs, or with six at the very utmost; it should admit of being +pegged close to the ground without any intervening 'fly;' it is no +objection that it should require more than one pole; and, when +considering how much weight it will be possible to carry, it must be +borne in mind that the tent will become far heavier than it is found to +be in the peculiarly dry atmosphere of a tent-maker's show-room. It is +very convenient that a tent should admit of being pitched in more than +one form: for instance, that one side should open and form an awning in +hot weather; also, that it should be easy to attach flys or awning to the +tent to increase its available size during the daytime. All tents should +be provided with strong covers, for pack-ropes are sure to fray whatever +they press against; and it is better that the cover should suffer than +the tent itself. + +Comparative Size of Tents.--The annexed diagram will show the points on +which the roominess of a tent mainly depends. + +[Sketch of tent and occupants]. + +A man wants space to sit at a table, and also to get at his luggage in +order either to pack it or to unpack it; lastly, he wants a reasonable +amount of standing room. A fair-sized tent ought to include the figures +drawn in the diagram; and I have indicated, by lines and shaded spaces, +the section of various descriptions of tents that would be just +sufficient to embrace them. + +One side of the ordinary conical tents (fig. 1), of a front view of fig. +5, and of pyramidal tents (fig. 6), are represented by the line ABC. +Those that have a "fall" (fig. 2), by the lines CDLF. Gipsy-tents, as +described p. 161, umbrella-tents (fig. 4), and Jourts, p. 157, by the +lines GHBK. Marquees (fig. 3), and a side view of fig. 5, by GLBM. + +[Fig 1-4--sketches of tents]. + +Notwithstanding the great height and width of conical tents, compared to +the others, we see by the diagram that they afford scanty space at the +level of the head of a seated person. There is a recent contrivance by +Major Rhodes, to be seen at Silver and Co.'s, that is a modification of +the gipsy-tent. Among ordinary, well-known tents, I believe none will +satisfy the varied wants of a traveller so well as Edington's three-poled +tents (fig. 5). After these I should choose a small marquee (fig. 3); but +it is less secure in wind, and the pitch of its roof is bad for rain, and +the numerous straggling tent-ropes are objectionable. + +[Fig 5-7--sketches of tents]. + +A pyramidal tent (fig. 6), of seven or nine feet in the side, is +remarkable for its sturdiness: it will stand any weather, will hold two +people and a fair quantity of luggage besides; it weighs from 25 to 40 +lbs. It is not a good tent for hot weather, for it is far too stuffy, +though by taking an additional joint to the tent-pole, and using +tent-ropes (as may also be done with any other kind of tent), it may be +made more airy by being raised up, and by having walls added to it (fig. +7). In default of canvas, the walls may be constructed of other +materials. (See "Materials for Huts.") + +Tent Pitched over an Excavation.--A hole may be dug deeply beneath the +tent floor, partly for the purpose of a store-room, and partly for that +of a living-room when the weather is very inclement. This was practised +before Sebastopol in the manner shown in the fig. p. 158. The notched +pole acts as a ladder for ascending from below. + +Jourts.--The Kirghis-jourt is a capacious, solid, warm, and fireproof +structure, that admits of being pitched or taken to pieces in an hour, +and withstands the cold and violent winds of the steppes of Central Asia, +in a way that no tent or combination of tents could pretend to effect. A +jourt of from 20 to 25, or even 30 feet in diameter, forms two +camel-loads, or about half a ton in weight. + +[Fig. 8]. + +One camel carries the felt, the other the wood-work. Fig. 9 shows the +jourt half-covered; and fig. 10 gives an enlarged view of a portion of +the side. There are four separate parts in its structure:--1. The +door-way, a solid piece of ornamental carpentering, that takes to pieces +instantly. 2. The sides, which consist of lengths of wood-work, that shut +up on the principle of the contrivance known sometimes as "lazy-tongs," +and sometimes as "easy-back scissors:" they tie together and make a +circle, beginning and ending with the doorway; a tape is wound round +them, as shown in fig. 9, about one-third from their tops. 3. The +roof-ribs. The bottom of each of these is tied to the sides of the jourt +(A, fig. 10), and its top fits into a socket in--4, the roof-ring, which +is a hoop of wood strengthened by transverse bars. Over this framework +broad sheets of felt are thrown: their own weight makes them lie +steadily, for they are quite an inch in thickness; however, in very +stormy weather, if I recollect aright, they are weighted with stones, or +they are stitched together. There is no metal in the structure: the laths +of willow-wood that form the sides are united, where they cross, by +pieces of sinew knotted at either end; these act as pivots when the sides +are shut up. I am indebted to the late Mr. Atkinson for my information on +these interesting structures. Further particulars about them, the native +way of making the felt, by continually rolling sheepskins with the wool +between them, and numerous pictures, in which jourts form a striking +feature, will be found in his beautifully illustrated work on Siberia. + +[Fig 9 and 10 as referred to above and Fig. 1 for following section]. + +Small Tents.--For tents of the smallest size and least pretensions, +nothing can be better than the one represented in fig. 1: the ends are +slit down their middles, and are laced or buttoned together, so that, by +unfastening these, the tent spreads out to a flat sheet of the form of +fig. 2, well adapted for an awning, or else it can be simply unrolled and +used with the bedding. It is necessary that a tent should be roomy enough +to admit of a man undressing himself, when wet through, without treading +upon his bed and drenching it with mud and water; and therefore a tent of +the above description is found to be unserviceable, if less than about 7 +feet long, or ending in a triangle of less than 5 1/2 feet in the side. +Peat, the saddler in Bond Street, once made them; they cost 2 l. 10s., +and weighed 9 lbs. when dry. They are liable to bag in the side when the +wind is high: a cross-pole or two sticks, following the seams of the +canvas in the above sketch, would make them tauter. + +[Fig. 2]. + +Alpine Tent.--Mr. Whymper contrived a tent for his alpine explorations, +which he found eminently successful. It has a waterproof floor, +continuous with the sides: it is supported by poles, that slip into hems +of the cloth--two poles at either end. These tents have been used on +various occasions by Mr. Whymper's brother in Alaska, and by Mr. +Freshfield in the Caucasus, and were highly approved of, but I do not +know whether these tents would be altogether suitable for more +comfortable travel. I myself had a tent made on this principle some years +ago, but disliked it, for I found the continuity of the floor with the +sides to act unsatisfactorily; the tent retained the damp, and the weight +of the body, acting on the floor of the tent, was apt to disturb its +walls. Mr. Whymper's tent is procurable at Carter's, Alpine Outfitter, +295, Oxford Street, London. + +Boating Tent.--Further on, in the chapter on "Boats," the way is shown by +which sailors make a tent out of their lug-sail, throwing it over a +framework of oars. + +Gipsy Tent.--A traveller who has only a blanket, a plaid, or broad piece +of material of any kind, with which he wishes to improvise a tent, may +make a framework of long wands, planting their ends in the ground, +bending their tops together, and lashing or wattling them securely; over +this the blanket is thrown (fig. 3). If the sticks are sufficiently long +and pliant, their ends should be bent over the roof half-way down the +opposite side, as in fig. 1. This adds considerably to the strength of +the arrangement. + +[Fig 1-3 as described in text]. + +The gipsies in England use the following excellent contrivance to save +the trouble of tying the sticks together. They carry a light bar of wood, +2 1/2 feet long, bound with string here and there to keep it from +splitting; through this, six holes, each big enough to admit the tip of +the little finger, are bored or burnt; they also carry eight hazel rods +with them, each six feet long, and arrange their framework as in fig. 2. +It will be observed that the two rods which are planted behind give +additional roominess and stability to the affair. The rug and pillow show +the position in which the occupants sleep. Blankets, not sheeting, pinned +together with wooden pegs, are thrown over the whole, as in fig. 3. + +[Fig 1 and 2 as described in the text]. + +Tente d'abri.--The French, "tente d'abri" has not, so far as I know, been +adopted by travellers: it seems hardly suitable, except for soldiers. +Each man carried a square of canvas (fig. 1), with buttons and +button-holes all round it, by which it can be doubly attached to other +similar squares of canvas, and thus, from several separate pieces, one +large cloth can be made. The square carried by the French soldier +measures 5 feet 4 1/2 inches in the side, reckoning along the buttons; of +these there are nine along each edge, including the corner ones. Each +soldier has also to carry a tent-staff, or else a proportion of the pegs +and cord. When six men club together they proceed as follows:--Three +tent-sticks are fixed into the ground, whose tops are notched; a light +cord is then passed round their tops, and fastened into the ground with a +peg at each eng (fig. 2). Two sheets, A and B, are buttoned together and +thrown over the cord, and then two other sheets, C and D; and C is +buttoned to A, and D to B (fig. 3). Lastly another sheet is thrown over +each of the slanting cords, the one buttoned to A and B, and the other to +C and D; and thus a sort of dog-kennel is formed, in which six men--the +bearers of the six pieces of canvas--sleep. The sides of the tent are of +course pegged to the ground. There are many modifications in the way of +pitching these tents. Should the sticks be wanting, faggots or muskets +can be used in their place. + + +Tent of Mosquito-netting.--I have been informed of a sportsman in Ceylon, +who took with him into the woods a cot with mosquito-curtains, as a +protection not only against insects, but against malaria. He also had a +blanket rolled at his feet: at 3 in the morning, when the chill arose in +the woods, he pulled his blanket over him. + +Pitching a Tent.--It is quite an art, so to pitch a tent as to let in or +exclude the air, to take advantage of sun and shade, etc. etc. Every +available cloth or sheet may be pressed into service, to make awnings and +screens, as we see among the gipsies. There is a great deal of character +shown in each different person's encampment. A tent should never be +pitched in a slovenly way: it is so far more roomy, secure and pretty, +when tightly stretched out, that no pains should be spared in drilling +the men to do it well. I like to use a piece of string, marked with +knots, by which I can measure the exact places in which the tent-pegs +should be struck, for the eye is a deceitful guide in estimating +squareness. (See "Squaring.") It is wonderful how men will bungle with a +tent, when they are not properly drilled to pitch it. + +To secure Tent-ropes.--When the soil is loose, scrape away the surface +sand, before driving the tent-pegs. Loose mould is made more tenacious by +pouring water upon it. When one peg is insufficient, it may be backed by +another. (See fig.) The outermost peg must be altogether buried in the +earth. Heavy saddle-bags are often of use to secure the tent-ropes; and, +in rocky ground, heavy piles of stones may be made to answer the same +purpose. The tent-ropes may also be knotted to a cloth, on which stones +are afterwards piled. + + +"Dateram" is, as the late Dr. Barth, informed me, the Bornu name for a +most excellent African contrivance, used in some parts of the Sahara +desert, by means of which tent-ropes may be secured, or horses picketed +in sand of the driest description, as in that of a sand dune, whence a +tent-peg would be drawn out by a strain so slight as to be almost +imperceptible. I have made many experiments upon it, and find its +efficiency to be truly wonderful. The plan is to tie to the end of the +tent-rope, a small object of any description, by its middle, as a short +stick, a stone, a bundle of twigs, or a bag of sand; and to bury it from +1 to 2 feet in the loose sand. It will be found, if it has been buried 1 +foot deep, that a strain equal to about 50 lbs. weight, is necessary to +draw it up; if 1 1/2 feet deep, that a much more considerable strain is +necessary; and that, if 2 feet deep, it is quite impossible for a single +man to pull it up. In the following theoretical case, the resistance +would be as the cube of the depth; but in sand or shingle, the increase +is less rapid. It varies under different circumstances; but it is no +exaggeration to estimate its increase as seldom less than as the square +of the depth. The theoretical case of which I spoke, is this:--Let x be +part of a layer of shingle of wide extent: the shingle is supposed to +consist of smooth hard spherical balls, all of the same size. Let s be a +dateram buried in x; and T the string to which it is tied. Now, on +considering fig. 2, where a series of balls are drawn on a larger scale +and on a plane surface, it is clear that the ball A cannot move in any +degree to the right or the left without disturbing the entire layer of +balls on the same plane as itself: its only possible movement is +vertically upwards. In this case, it disturbs B1 and B2. These, for the +same reason as A, can only move vertically upwards, and, in doing so, +they must disturb the three balls above them, and so on. Consequently, +the uplifting of a single ball in fig. 2, necessitates the uplifting of +the triangle of balls of which it forms the apex; and it obviously +follows from the same principle, that the uplifting of S, in the depth of +X, in fig. 1, necessitates the uplifting of a cone of balls whose apex is +at S. But the weight of a cone is as the cube of its height and, +therefore, the resistance to the uplifting of the dateram, is as the cube +of the depth at which it has been buried. In practice, the grains of sand +are capable of a small but variable amount of lateral displacement, which +gives relief to the movement of sand caused by the dateram, for we may +observe the surface of the ground to work very irregularly, although +extensively, when the dateram begins to stir. On the other hand, the +friction of the grains of sand tends to increase the difficulty of +movement. The arrangement shown in the diagram, of a spring +weighing-machine tied to the end of a lever, is that which I have used in +testing the strain the dateram will resist, under different +circumstances. The size of the dateram is not of much importance, it +would be of still less importance in the theoretical case. Anything that +is more than 4 inches long seems to answer. The plan succeeds in a dry +soil of any description, whether it be shingly beach or sand. + +Bushing a Tent means the burying of bushes in the soil so far as to leave +only their cut ends above the ground, to which a corresponding number of +tent-ropes are tied. + +Tent-poles.--When a tent is pitched for an encampment of some duration, +it is well to lay aside the jointed tent-pole, and to cut a stout young +tree to replace it: this will be found far more trustworthy in stormy +weather. If the shape of the tent admits of the change, it is still +better to do away with the centre pole altogether; and, in the place of +it, to erect a substantial framework of poles, which are to be planted +just within the rim of the tent, and to converge to a point, under its +peak. A tent-pole can be lengthened temporarily, by lashing it to a log, +with the help of a Toggle and strop (which see). A broken tent-pole can +be mended permanently by placing a splint of wood on either side of the +fracture, and by whipping the whole together, with soft cord or with the +untwisted strand of a piece of rope. + +To prevent Tent-poles from slipping.--When the tent is pitched in the +ordinary way on a smooth rocky surface, there is considerable danger that +the foot of the pole may slip whenever a gust of wind or other sudden +impulse sways the tent. This danger is to be obviated on precisely the +same principle as that by which builders secure their scaffolding-poles +upon the smooth footways of a street: they put the foot of each pole into +a bucket, filled with sand. As the base of the bucket is broad, the +scaffolding is much less liable to slip, than if the narrow bases of the +poles had rested directly upon the pavement. + +To tie Things to Tent-poles.--To hang clothes, or anything else, upon a +smooth tent-pole, see "Clove-hitch." A strap with hooks attached to it, +buckled round the pole, is very convenient. The method shown in the +sketch suffices, if the pole be notched, or jointed, or in any way +slightly uneven. Bags, etc., are supposed to be hung upon the bit of wood +that is secured to the free end. Convenient pegs, made of bits of wood +roughly sharpened, may be driven into the tree, if any, when the +encampment is made. + + +Preparations for a Storm.--Before a storm, dig a ditch as deep as you can +round the outside of the tent, to divert the coming sheet of +surface-water, and see that the ditch has a good out-fall. The ditch will +also drain the floor of the tent, if the rain should soak in. Even a +furrow scratched with a tent-peg, is better than no ditch at all. Fasten +guy-ropes to the spike of the tent-pole; and be careful that the tent is +not too much on the strain, else the further shrinking of the materials, +under the influence of the wet, will certainly tear up the pegs. Earth, +banked up round the bottom of the tent, will prevent gusts of wind from +finding their way beneath. It is also a good plan to prepare a small hole +near the foot of the tent-pole, with a stone firmly rammed into the +bottom, into which the tent-pole may be shifted, as soon as the strain of +the tent, under the influence of the wet, becomes dangerous to its +safety. + +To warm Tents.--"When living in a tent in Otago (New Zealand) during a +severe winter, we were perfectly numb with cold at nights, until we +adopted the Maori plan, which is to dig a hole about a foot square in the +clear, to cover the bottom with a stone or stones, and to fill it at +night with red-hot cinders from the camp fire, and lastly, to close the +tent excepting a small opening near the top. The cinders are not nearly +burnt out by morning. They diffused a pleasant warmth through the tent, +and rendered us comfortable all night. There is no danger of suffocation, +unless the tent be closed up very tight indeed."--(W. M. Cooper.) + +Permanent Camp.--The accompanying sketch shows a tent pitched for a +lengthened habitation. It has a deep drain, a seat and table dug out, and +a fireplace. (See the following paragraphs.) + + +Lost Articles.--Small articles are constantly mislaid and trampled in the +sand of the floor of the tent. In searching for them, the ground should +be disturbed as little as possible: it is a usual plan to score its +surface in parallel lines, with a thin wand. It would be well worth while +to make a small light rake to use for this purpose. + +Precautions against Thieves.--Natives are apt to creep up to tents, and, +putting their hands under the bottom of them, to steal whatever they can: +a hedge of thorn-bushes is a protection against this kind of thieving. In +some countries a net, with three or four bells attached to it, is thrown +over the packages inside a tent. Strings tied horizontally, a foot above +the ground, from package to package, are found effective in tripping +intruders, See also "Guns set as Spring-guns." + + + +FURNITURE. + + +Furniture.--The luxuries and elegances practicable in tent-life, are only +limited by the means of transport. Julius Caesar, who was a great +campaigner, carried parquets of wooden mosaic for his floors! The +articles that make the most show for their weight, are handsome rugs, and +skins, and pillows; canteens of dinner and coffee services; and candles, +with screens of glass, or other arrangements to prevent them from +flickering. The art of luxurious tenting is better understood in Persia +than in any other country, even than in India. + +Bedsteads.--A portable bedstead, with mosquito-curtains, is a very great +luxury, raising the sleeper above the damp soil, and the attacks of most +creatures that creep on it; in tours where a few luxuries can be carried, +it is a very proper article of baggage. It is essential where white ants +are numerous. A very luxurious bed is made on the principle of a +tennis-player's raquet; being a framework of wood, with strips of raw +hide lashed across it from side to side and from end to end. It is the +"angareb" of Upper Egypt. + + +Hammocks and Cots.--I stated in previous editions of this book, that +hammocks and cots had few advocates, owing to the difficulty of +suspending them; but Captain M'Gwire's recent ingenious invention quite +alters the case. His method will be easily understood by the annexed +sketch. The apparatus is adapted for use on the wooden floors of houses, +or ships, by the employment of eyelet-bolts or screw rings instead of +pegs, and by putting wooden shoes below the staves to prevent their +slipping inwards: the shoes are tied to the eyelet-bolts by a cord. + + +The complete apparatus, in a very portable form, can be bought at Messrs. +Brown's, Piccadilly. + +Mosquito Nets and their Substitutes.--A mosquito-curtain may be taken for +suspension over the bed, or place where you sit; but it is dangerous to +read in them by candle-light, for they catch fire very easily. (See +"Incombustible Stuffs.") It is very pleasant, in hot, mosquito-plagued +countries, to take the glass sash entirely out of the window-frame, and +replace it with one of gauze. Broad network, if of fluffy thread, keeps +wasps out. The darker a house is kept, the less willing are flies, etc., +to flock in. If sheep and other cattle be hurdled-in near the house, the +nuisance of flies, etc., becomes almost intolerable. + +Chairs.--It is advisable to take very low strong and roomy camp-stools, +with tables to correspond in height, as a chamber is much less choked up +when the seats are low, or when people sit, as in the East, on the +ground. The seats should not be more than 1 foot high, though as wide and +deep as an ordinary footstool. Habit very soon reconciles travellers to +this; but without a seat at all, a man can never write, draw, nor +calculate as well as if he had one. The stool represented in the figure +(above), is a good pattern: it has a full-sized seat made of canvas or +leather, or of strips of dressed hide. A milk-man's stool, supported by +only one peg, is quickly made in the bush, and is not very inconvenient. +The common rush-bottomed chair can be easily made, if proper materials +are accessible. The annexed diagram explains clearly the method of their +construction. + + +Table.--The table may consist of a couple of boards, not less than 2 feet +long, by 9 inches broad, hinged lengthwise, for the convenience of +carriage, and resting on a stand, which should be made on the same +principle as the framework of the chair described above. It is well to +have the table made of mahogany, for deal warps and cracks excessively. +There is no difficulty in carrying furniture like the above, on a +pack-horse. + +Makeshift Chair and Table.--For want of a chair, it is convenient to dig +a hole or a trench in the ground, and to sit on one side of it, with the +feet resting on its bottom: the opposite side of the trench serves as a +table, on which things may be put, within easy reach. + +"In a box 2 feet long and 1 foot square at the ends, the lid and its +bottom, of course, both measure 2 feet by 1 foot. Now, if the bottom +opens on hinges, just like the lid, and if the hinges of both lid and +bottom are fixed to the hindmost side of the box, then when the box is +laid face downwards, and both the lid and the bottom are opened out and +secured in the same horizontal plane with the side to which they are +hinged, a table of 3 feet by 2 feet is made. The lid and bottom form the +two leaves of the table, and what was the hindmost side, when the box +stood on its bottom, is now uppermost, and forms the middle of the table. +Such a box would hold, during travel, the things wanted when encamping." +--(Peal.) + +Hooks.--I have spoken of the way of hanging articles in tents, under +"Tent Poles." In a permanent bivouac or in a hut, it is convenient to fix +hooked sticks or the horns of animals, against the walls, as pegs. + + + +FIRE. + + +General Remarks.--Although, in the teeth of every precaution, fires +constantly break out, yet when a traveller wants a light and does not +happen to have any of his ingenious fire-making contrivances at hand, it +is very difficult for him to obtain it. And further, though sparks, of +their own accord and in the most unlikely places, too often give rise to +conflagrations, yet it requires much skill and practice to succeed +without fail, in coaxing a small spark into a serviceable camp fire. +Therefore every traveller should carry on his person the means of +procuring a light, under ordinary circumstances of wind and weather; that +is to say, he should have in his pocket a light handy steel, a flint or +an agate, and amadou or other tinder. I also strongly recommend that he +should carry a bundle of half-a-dozen fine splinters of wood, like +miniature tooth-picks, thinner and shorter than lucifer-matches, whose +points he has had dipped in melted sulphur; also a small spare lump of +sulphur of the size of a pea or bean, in reserve. The cook should have a +regular tinder-box, such as he happens to have been used to, and an +abundance of wax lucifers. Paper fusees are not worth taking in travel, +as wet entirely spoils them. + +There are usually three separate agents in making a fire, each of which +may be varied in many ways and requires separate description. 1. The +Spark or other light to start with. 2. The Tinder; that is, some easily +ignited and smouldering substance. 3. Fuel, judiciously applied to the +burning tinder, or other feeble light, so as to develop it into a +serviceable fire. + +To obtain Fire from the Sun.--Burning-glasses.--The object-glass, and +every other convex glass of a telescope is a burning-glass, and has only +to be unscrewed to be fit for use. The object lenses of an opera-glass +are very efficient. The larger the glass and the shorter its focus, the +greater is its heating power. Convex spectacle glasses and eye glasses +are too small and of too long a focus to be used with effect, except when +the sun is very hot. An old-fashioned watch-glass, filled with water, and +having the rays of a powerful sun glittered down upon it vertically by +help of a mirror, will give a light. Dr. Kane and other arctic travellers +have made burning-glasses of ice. + +Reflectors.--The inside of the polished metal cover of a hunting-watch +will sometimes converge a sufficiency of rays, to burn. The vestal fire +of Rome and the sacred fire of the Mexicans were obtained by means of +reflectors. If I understand aright, they consisted of a stone with a +conical hollow, carefully polished, the apex of the hollow cone was a +right angle: the tinder was held in the axis of the cone. See Tylor's +'Early History of Mankind.' + +Black Tinder.--Tinder that is black by previous charring, or from any +other cause, ignites in the sun far sooner than light-coloured tinder. + +Fire by conversion of motion into heat.--General Remarks.--When a moving +body is arrested, heat is given out; the quantity of heat being in exact +proportion to the mass, multiplied into the square of its velocity. Thus +if a cannon ball be fired at an iron target, both it and the ball become +exceedingly hot. There is even a flash of light when the velocity of the +ball is very high. When bullets are fired with heavy charges at a target, +the lead is just melted by the heat of impact, and it "splashes," to use +a common phrase. It is obvious from these two examples, that no velocity +which the hand of man is able to give to a steel, when striking a flint, +or to one stick rubbing against another stick, will be competent to +afford a red-hot temperature unless the surface against which impact or +friction is made be very small, or unless great care be taken to avoid +the wasteful dissipation of heat. The spark made by a flint and steel, +consists of a thin shaving of steel, scraped off by the flint and heated +by the arrested motion. When well struck, the spark is white-hot and at +that temperature it burns with bright scintillations in the air, just as +iron that is merely red-hot burns in pure oxygen. This is the theory: now +for the practice. + +Flints.--If we may rely on a well-known passage in Virgil, concerning +AEneas and his comrades, fire was sometimes made in ancient days by +striking together two flints, but I confess myself wholly unable to light +tinder with flints alone, and I am equally at a loss to understand what +were the "dry leaves" that they are said in the same passage to have used +for tinder. Neither can I obtain fire except with a flint and steel, or, +at least, hardened iron; a flint and ordinary iron will not give an +available spark. Flints may be replaced by any siliceous stone, as agate, +rock-crystal, or quartz. Agate is preferred to flint, for it gives a +hotter spark: it is sold by tobacconists. A partly siliceous stone, such +as granite, will answer in default of one that is wholly siliceous. I +have been surprised at finding that crockery and porcelain of all kinds +will make a spark, and sometimes a very good one. There are cases where a +broken teacup might be the salvation of many lives in a shipwrecked +party. On coral-reefs, and other coasts destitute of flinty stones, +search should be made for drift-wood and drifted sea-weed. In the roots +of these, the pebbles of other shores are not unfrequently entangled, and +flint may be found among them. The joints of bamboos occasionally contain +enough silex to give a spark. + +Steels.--The possession of a really good steel is a matter of great +comfort in rough travel, for, as I have just said, common iron is +incompetent to afford a useful spark, and hardened iron or soft steel is +barely sufficient to do so. Any blacksmith will make a good steel out of +an old file, if he has nothing more appropriate at hand. A substitute for +a steel can be made, even by an ordinary traveller, out of common iron, +by means of "casehardening" (which see). The link of a chain, or the heel +of a boot, or a broken horse-shoe, is of a convenient shape for the +purpose. + +Pyrites are, and have been, widely used for striking sparks. Two pieces +struck together, or one piece struck with a steel, gives a good spark; +but it is a very friable mineral, and therefore not nearly so convenient +as flint. + +Guns.--If you wish to get a light by means of a flint-and-steel gun, the +touch-hole may be stuffed up, and a piece of tinder put among the priming +powder: a light can be obtained in that way without firing the gun. With +a percussion-cap gun, a light may be obtained by putting powder and +tinder outside the nipple and round the cap; it will, though not with +certainty catch fire on exploding the cap. But the common way with a gun +is to pour in a quarter of a charge of powder, and above it, quite +loosely, a quantity of rag or tinder. On firing the gun straight up in +the air, the rag will be shot out lighted; you must then run after it as +it falls, and pick it quickly up. With percussion-caps, gunpowder, and +tinder, and without a gun, a light may sometimes be had on an emergency, +by scratching and boring with a knife, awl, or nail, at the fulminating +composition in the cap, till it explodes; but a cap is a somewhat +dangerous thing to meddle with, as it often flies with violence, and +wounds. Crushing gunpowder with hard stones may possibly make it explode. + +Lucifers.--An inexperienced hand will waste an entire boxful of them, and +yet will fail in lighting a fire in the open air, on a windy day. The +convenience of lucifers in obtaining a light is very great, but they have +two disadvantages: they require that the air should be perfectly still, +while the burning sulphur is struggling to ignite the stick; and, again, +when the match is thrust among the wood, the sticks upon which is has to +act, have not been previously warmed and consequently, though one or two +of them may become lighted, the further progress of the fire is liable to +cease. On the other hand, in methods where the traveller begins with +tinder, and blows its spark into a flame, the adjacent wood becomes +thoroughly heated by the process, and the flame, once started, is almost +certain to maintain itself. Consequently, in lighting a fire with +lucifers, be careful to shield the match from the wind, by throwing a +cloak or saddle-cloth, or something else over the head, whilst you +operate; and secondly, to have abundance of twigs of the smaller sizes, +that there may be no uncertainty of the lucifer-match being able to light +them, and set the fire a-going. In a steady downfall of rain, you may +light a match for a pipe under your horse's belly. If you have paper to +spare, it is a good plan to twist it into a hollow cone; to turn the cone +with its apex to the wind; and immediately after rubbing the match, to +hold it inside the cone. The paper will become quickly heated by the +struggling flame and will burst into a miniature conflagration, too +strong to be puffed out by a single blast of air. Wax lucifers are +undoubtedly better than wooden ones, for in damp weather, wooden ones +will hardly burn; but wax is waterproof, and independent of wet or dry. +When there is nothing dry, at hand, to rub the lucifer-match against, +scratch the composition on its head with the edge of a knife or with the +finger-nail. It is a sure way of lighting it; and with care, there is no +need of burning the fingers. + +Fire-sticks.--In every country without exception, where inquiry has been +made, the method of obtaining fire by rubbing one stick against another, +has been employed. In savage countries the method still remains in +present use; in nearly all the more civilised ones, it has been +superseded within historic periods by flints and steels and the like, and +within this present generation by lucifer-matches. The only instance I +know in which flints are said to have preceded fire-sticks, is in the +quotation below from Pliny. A light has also been obtained in +pre-historic times, as I have already mentioned, by reflecting the sun +from a hollow surface; but this method required costly apparatus, and +could never have been in common use. Hence, although so far as I am +aware, the Bible, and Homer, and other records of great antiquity, are +absolutely silent on the contemporary methods of procuring fire; and +although Pliny says the reverse--I think we are justified in believing +that the plan of rubbing sticks together was absolutely universal in the +barbaric infancy of the human race. In later Greek History, Prometheus is +accredited with the invention of fire-sticks. Among the Romans both +Seneca and Pliny write about them. Pliny says (Nat. Hist. xvi. 76, 77), +"There is heat in the mulberry, in the bay-laurel, in ivy, and in all +plants whence fire-sticks are made. The experience of soldiers +reconnoitring for encamping-grounds, and that of shepherds, made this +discovery; for a stone is not always at hand whence a spark might be +struck. One piece of wood therefore, is rubbed by another, and it catches +fire through the friction, while a dry tindery substance--fungus and +leaves are the most easilyattainable--is used to perpetuate the fire. +Nothing is better than ivy used as the stick to be rubbed, and bay-laurel +as the stick to rub with. Wild vine--not the 'labrusca'--is also found +good." + +I have made a great many experiments with different kinds of wood, having +procured an assortment of those used by the fancy toy-makers of Tunbridge +Wells, and the chippings from botanical gardens. I find what I have heard +from savages to be quite true; viz., that it is much more difficult to +procure good wood for the "fire-block" than for the drill-stick; any +though hard, and dry stick will do for the latter, but the fire-block +must be of wood with little grain; of a middle degree of softness; +readily inflammable; and, I presume, a good on-conductor of heat; but I +do not know if there be much difference, in this latter respect, between +woods of the same quality. If it be too hard, the action of the +drill-stick will merely dent and polish it; if very soft, it will be worn +away before the friction has time to heat it sufficiently: ivy is +excellent. I find it not at all difficult to produce smoke (it is much +more difficult to produce fire) with a broken fishing-rod, or ramrod, as +a drill-stick, and a common wooden pill-box, or tooth-powder box, as a +fire-block. Walnut, also, does as a fire-block, and the stock of a gun is +of walnut. Deal and mahogany are both worthless for fire-sticks. + +It is well so to notch the fire-block, that the wood-dust, as it is +formed by the rubbing, should all run into one place: it will then glow +with a smouldering heat, ready to burst out into an available flame with +a very little fanning, as soon as a degree of heat sufficient to ignite +tinder has been attained. Tinder is a great convenience, in ensuring that +the fire, once obtained, shall not be lost again; but it is not essential +to have it. + +There are many ways of rubbing the sticks together, in use among +different nations. Those curious in the matter should consult Tylor's +'Early History of Mankind.' But the traveller will not obtain much +assistance from these descriptions, as it will be out of his power to +obtain fire by any but the simplest of them, on a first trial. He is only +likely to succeed at first by working at leisure, with perfectly dry +wood. Even savages, who practise the art all their lives, fail to procure +fire in very wet weather, when the shelter is bad. Of the plans employed +by savages, the simplest is that in use both in South Africa and in +Australia. + +[Fig 1 as described]. + +The Australian blacks use the flower-stem of the grass-tree, which is of +a tough pithy nature, and about one inch in diameter. The operation of +making the fire is assisted by the use of a little charcoal-powder, +which, in Australia, is found on the bark of almost every tree, from the +constant passage of grass-fires over the ground. The process is as +follows:--One piece of the stick is notched in the middle, fig. 1, and +the notch slightly hollowed out; another is roundly pointed at one end. +The black fellow, being seated on the ground, holds down one end of the +notched stick with each foot, fig. 2, and placing the point of the other +stick into the notch, twirls it rapidly and forcibly between the palms of +his hands. In doing this his hands gradually slip down the stick, and he +has to shift them rapidly up again, which loses time: but two people, +seated opposite, can alternately take up the rubbing, and more easily +produce fire. A little of the above-mentioned powdered charcoal is +dropped into the notch during the operation. In a very few minutes +red-hot powdery ashes commence to work up out of the notch, which falling +on a small heap of tow, or of dry tow-like bark, or lint, or cotton +stuff, is quickly blown into a flame. The Africans carry the drill-stick, +which in shape and size is like an arrow, in a quiver with their arrows, +and the fire-block--a stick three inches long and one in diameter, of a +different wood--as a pendant to their necklace. + + +A plan more practicable to an unpractised hand is that in use among some +of the North American Indians. I copy the illustration of it from +Schoolcraft's work upon those people. + +One person works the "drill-stick" with a rude bow, and with his other +hand holds a piece of stone or of wood above it, both to steady it and to +give the requisite pressure--gentle at first, and increasing judiciously +up to the critical moment when the fire is on the point of bursting out. +Another man puts his hands on the lower piece of wood, the "fire-block," +to steady it, and holds a piece of tinder ready to light it as soon as +fire is produced. If a serious emergency should occur, it is by no means +hopeless to obtain fire after this method. A large party have +considerable advantages over only one or two men, because as the work is +fatiguing, the men can undertake it in turns; and, again, as considerable +knack is required for success, it is much more probable that one man out +of many should succeed, than that only one man, taken at hazard, should +do so. But the best plan of all for a party of three or more men is for +one of them to hold the upper block, another to hold the lower block and +the tinder, should there be any, and the third man to cause the +drill-stick to rotate. He will effect this best by dispensing with the +"bow," and by simply using a string or thong of a yard or four feet long. +He makes one or two turns with the string round the drill-stick, and then +holding one end of the string in either hand, he saws away with all his +force. I believe that a party of three men, furnished with dry wood of an +appropriate quality and plenty of string, would surely produce smoke on +the first few trials, but that they would fail in producing fire. If, +however, they had a couple of hours' leisure to master the knack of +working these sticks, I think they would succeed in producing fire before +the end of that time. The period of time necessary for a successful +operation is from one to three minutes. It is of little use fatiguing +yourself with sustaining the exertion for a longer period at a time, +unless the wood becomes continuously hotter. As soon as the temperature +remains uniform it shows that you have let the opportunity slip; it is +then the best economy of effort to desist at once, to rest, to take +breath, and recommence with fresh vigour. + +[Sketch unlabelled]. + +Fire by Chemical Means.--It is not in the province of this book to +describe the various matches that take fire by dipping them into +compositions; and I have already spoken of lucifer-matches in the last +section. Only one source of fire remains to be noticed, it is-- + +Spontaneous Combustion.--It is conceivable that the property which masses +of greasy rags, and such-like matter, possess of igniting when left to +themselves, might under some circumstances, be the only means available +to procure fire. It is at all events well that this property should be +borne in mind when warehousing stores, in order to avoid the risk of +their taking fire. Any oil mixed with a hatful of shavings, tow, cotton, +wool, or rags, heaped together, will become very hot in one, two, or more +days, and will ultimately burst into flame. The rapidity of the process +is increased by warmth. + +Tinder.--General Remarks.--There are two divisions of tinder: those that +are of a sufficiently strong texture to admit of being grasped in the +hand, and those that are so friable as to require a box to hold them. In +the first division (a) are the following:--amadon, a roll of rag, a +cotton lamp-wick, a roll of touch-paper, a mass of hair of certain +plants, and a long string of pith sewed up in a sheath. To ignite these, +we must hold them as in fig. 1, and use the steel to strike downwards +upon the flint. In the second division (b) are:--tinder of burnt rags, +tinder of any kind with grains of gunpowder strewed over it, and +touch-wood. All these require tinder-boxes, as explained below. There are +also many other substances belonging to both divisions of tinder, in use. +A traveller should inform himself about those peculiar to the country +that he visits. + + +a Amacou, punk, or German tinder, is made from a kind of fungus or +mushroom that grows on the trunks of old oaks, ashes, beeches, etc.; many +other kinds of fungus, and, I believe, all kinds of puff-balls, will also +make tinder. "It should be gathered in August or September, and is +prepared by removing the outer bark with a knife, and separating +carefully the spongy yellowish mass that lies within it. This is cut into +thin slices, and beaten with a mallet to soften it, till it can easily be +pulled asunder between the fingers. It is then boiled in a strong +solution of saltpetre." + +A Roll of Rag.--Cotton rag will easily take fire from the spark from a +flint, in a very dry climate, if well struck. It must be rolled up +moderately tight, so as to have the end of the roll fluffy; the rag +having been torn, not cut. A rag rolled in this way is not bad tinder, if +the sparks are strong, and one commences to blow it the instant one of +the fibres is seen to be alight. If its fluffy end be rubbed into a +little dry gunpowder, its property as tinder is greatly improved. + + +Cotton Lamp-wick.--A piece of it drawn through a tin tube, to shield the +previously charred part from being rubbed off, is excellent in dry +climates. (See fig. 1, p. 180.) + +Touch-paper is merely paper dipped in a solution of saltpetre, or what +comes to nearly the same thing and is somewhat better, paper smeared with +damp gunpowder until it is blackened. Some grains of uncrushed gunpowder +should be left adhering to the paper, and a few more should be allowed to +lie loosely upon it. Unsized paper, like that out of a blotting-book, is +the best suited for making into touch-paper; paper is rendered unsized by +being well soaked and washed in water. (See next paragraph.) + +Saltpetre for Tinder.--In all cases the presence of saltpetre makes +tinder burn more hotly and more fiercely; and saltpetre exists in such +great quantities in the ashes of many plants (as tobacco, dill, maize, +sunflower), that these can be used, just as they are, in the place of it. +Thus, if the ashes of a cigar be well rubbed into a bit of paper, they +convert it into touch-paper. So will gunpowder, for out of four parts of +it, three are saltpetre; damaged gunpowder may be used for making +touch-paper. If it be an object to prepare a store of tinder, a strong +solution of saltpetre in water should be obtained, and the paper, or +rags, or fungus, dipped into it and hung to dry. This solution may be +made by pouring a little water on a charge of gunpowder, or on the ashes +above-mentioned, which will dissolve the saltpetre out of them. Boiling +water makes a solution forty-fold stronger than ice-cold water, and about +eight times stronger than water at 60 degrees Fahr. + +Hair of Plants.--The silky down of a particular willow (S. lanata) was +used by the Esquimaux, with whom Dr. Kane had intercourse; and the +botanist Dr. Lindley once informed me that he had happened to receive a +piece of peculiarly excellent tinder that was simply the hair of a +tree-fern. The Gomuti tinder of the Eastern Archipelago is the hair of a +palm. + +Pith.--Many kinds of pith are remarkable as tinders; that whence the +well-known pith hats are made, is used as tinder in India. Pieces of pith +are often sewn round with thin cotton or silk, so as to form a long cord, +like the cotton lamp-wick I have described above, and they are carried in +tubes for the same reason. + +b. We now come to the different kinds of tinder that fall into our second +division, namely, those that are too friable to bear handling. + +Rags.--Charred linen rags make the tinder that catches fire most easily, +that burns most hotly when blown upon, and smoulders most slowly when +left to itself, of any kind of tinder that is generally to be obtained. +In making it the rags are lighted, and when in a blaze and before they +are burnt to white ashes, the flame is stifled out. It is usual to make +this kind of tinder in the box intended to hold it; but it can easily be +made on the ground in the open air, by setting light to the rag, and +dropping pinches of sand upon the flaming parts as soon as it is desired +to quench them. The sand is afterwards brushed away, and the tinder +gently extricated. + +Touch-wood is an inferior sort of tinder, but is always to be met with in +woody countries. + +Dry Dung.--Dry and powdered cattle dung--especially horse-dung--will +take a spark, but with trouble. After it is lighted it can be kept +burning with little difficulty. + +Tinder-boxes.--There are three ways of striking a flint, which are best +explained by sketches. Fig. 1, p. 180, shows how tinder that is tough +enough to bear handling, is grasped together with the flint. When no +tinder-box is at hand the more friable kinds of tinder, as touch-wood, +may be enveloped in a roll of rag and be used either as in fig. 1 or in +fig 3. Fig. 2 shows how tinder may be laid on the ground, and how sparks +may be struck upon it. The household tinder-boxes of thirty years ago, +before lucifers were invented, were for use in this way. Fig. 3 shows how +sparks may be struck into a small tinder-box. It is the method most +commonly adopted by travellers: for instance, it is universally used in +South Africa and in North America. A hollow cylinder of wood or metal, +about three inches long, and corked up at one end, is all that is +essential. If it be barrel-shaped the flint lies against its sides, at +the most convenient angle for striking sparks into the box, as is shown +by the bottom drawing of fig. 3. + +[Fig 2 and 3 as described]. + +Wet Weather.--In long-continued soaking weather, the best way of keeping +a tinder-box dry is to put it into a small pocket hung close under the +armpit. + +Fuel.--Firewood.--There is a knack in finding firewood. It should be +looked for under bushes; the stump of a tree that is rotted nearly to the +ground has often a magnificent root, fit to blaze throughout the night. + +Dry Cattle-dung.--The dry dung of cattle and other animals, as found on +the ground, is very generally used throughout the world, in default of +better fuel, and there is nothing whatever objectionable in employing it. +The Canadians call it by the apt name of "Bois de Vache." In North and +South Africa it is frequently used; throughout a large part of Armenia +and of Thibet the natives rely entirely upon it. There is a great +convenience in this sort of fuel; because, as it is only in camps that +fuel is wanted, so it is precisely at old encamping-places that +cattle-dung is abundantly found. + +Bones.--Another remarkable substitute for firewood is bones; a fact which +Mr. Darwin was, I believe, the first to mention. The bones of an animal, +when freshly killed, make good fuel; and even those of cooked meat, and +such as have been exposed to the air for some days, will greatly increase +the heat of a scanty fire. Their smell is not disagreeable: it is simply +that of roast or burnt meat. In the Falkland Islands, where firewood is +scarce, it is not unusual to cook part of the meat of a slaughtered bull +with its own bones. When the fire is once started with a few sticks, it +burns well and hotly. The flame of course depends on the fat within the +bones, and therefore the fatter the animal the better the fire. During +the Russian campaign in 1829, the troops suffered so severely from cold +at Adrianople, that the cemeteries were ransacked for bones for fuel. +(Moltke, in the Appendix.) + +Sea-weed makes a hot though not a cheerful fire. It is largely used. The +vraic or sea-weed gatherers of the Channel Islands are represented in +many picturesque sketches. The weed is carted home, spread out, and +dried. + +Peat.--Travellers must bear in mind that peat will burn, especially as +the countries in which it is found are commonly destitute of firewood; +and, besides that, are marshy, cold, and aguish. + +Charcoal is frequently carried by travellers in sacks; they use a +prepared charcoal in the East, which is made in the form of very large +buttons, that are carried strung together on a string. An Indian +correspondent informs me that they are made by mixing powdered charcoal +with molasses, in the proportion of ten to one, or thereabouts, rolling +the mass into balls, and drying them in the sun. A single ball is called +a "gul." They are used for igniting hookhas: they are also burnt inside +the smoothing-iron used by washermen in order to heat it. The juice or +sap of many plants would probably answer the purpose of molasses in their +preparation. + +Small Fuel for lighting the Fire.--Shreds and Fibres.--The live spark has +to be received and partly enclosed, in a loose heap or nest of +finely-shredded fuel. The substances for making such a nest, are one or +other of the following list:-- + +Dry grass of the finest kinds: leaves: moss: lichen, and wild cotton; +stalks or bark, broken up and rubbed small between the fingers; peat or +cattle-dung pulverised; paper that has been doubled up in many folds and +then cut with a sharp knife into the finest possible shavings; tow, or +what is the same thing, oakum, made by unravelling rope or string; and +scrapings and fine shavings from a log of wood. The shreds that are +intended to touch the live spark should be reduced to the finest fibre; +the outside of the nest may be of coarser, but still of somewhat delicate +material. + +Cook should collect them.--It is the duty of a cook, when the time of +encamping draws near, to get down from his horse, and to pick up, as he +walks along, a sufficiency of dry grass, little bits of wood, and the +like, to start a fire; which he should begin to make as soon as ever the +caravan stops. The fire ought to be burning, and the kettle standing by +its side, by the time that the animals are caught and are ready to be +off-packed. + +Small Sticks.--There should be abundance of small sticks, and if neither +these nor any equivalent for them are to be picked up, the traveller +should split up his larger firewood with his knife, in order to make +them. It is a wise economy of time and patience to prepare plenty of +these; otherwise it will occasionally happen that the whole stock will be +consumed and no fire made. Then the traveller must recommence the work +from the very beginning, under the disadvantage of increasing darkness. I +have made many experiments myself, and have seen many novices as well as +old campaigners try to make fires; and have concluded that, to ensure +success, the traveller should be provided with small bundles of sticks of +each of the following sizes:--1st, size of lucifer-match; 2nd, of lead +pencil; 3rd, smaller than little finger; 4th, size of fore-finger; 5th, +stout stakes. + +In wet Weather, the most likely places to find wherewithal to light a +fire, are under large stones and other shelter; but in soaking wet +weather, little chips of dry wood can hardly be procured except by +cutting them with an axe out of the middle of a log. The fire may then be +begun, as the late Admiral the Hon. C. Murray well recommended in his +travels in North America, in the frying-pan itself, for want of a dry +piece of ground. + +To kindle a Spark into a Flame.--By whirling.--1st. Arrange the fuel +into logs; into small fuel, assorted as described above, and into shreds +and fibres. 2nd. Make a loose nest of the fibre, just like a sparrow's +nest in shape and size, and let the finer part of the fibres be inwards. +3rd. Drop the lighted tinder in the next. 4th. Holding the "nest" quite +loosely in the half-closed hand, whirl the outstretched arm in vertical +circles round the shoulder-joint, as indicated by the dotted line in the +diagram. In 30 seconds, or about 40 revolutions, it will begin to glow, +and will shortly after burst out in a grand flame. 5th Drop it, and pile +small twigs round it, and nurse the young fire carefully, bearing in mind +the proverb that "small sticks kindle a flame, but large ones put it +out." + + +By blowing.--Savages usually kindle the flame by blowing at the live +spark and feeding it with little bits of stick, just so much as is +necessary. But it is difficult to acquire the art of doing this well, and +I decidedly recommend the plan I have described in the foregoing +paragraph, in preference to it. When the wind blowssteadily and freshly, +it suffices to hold up the "nest" against the wind. + +Sulphur matches are so very useful to convert a spark into a flame, and +they are so easily made, in any quantity, out of split wood, straw, etc., +if the traveller will only take the trouble of carrying a small lump of +sulphur in his baggage, that they always ought to be at hand. The sulphur +is melted on a heated stone, or in an old spoon, bit of crockery, bit of +tin with a dent made in it, or even a piece of paper, and the points of +the pieces of wood dipped in the molten mass. A small chip of sulphur +pushed into the cleft end of a splinter of wood makes a fair substitute +for a match. (See "Lucifer-matches.") + +Camp Fires.--Large Logs.--The principle of making large logs to burn +brightly, is to allow air to reach them on all sides, and yet to place +them so closely together, that each supports the combustion of the rest. +A common plan is to make the fire with three logs, whose ends cross each +other, as in the diagram. The dots represent the extent of the fire. As +the ends burn away, the logs are pushed closer together. Another plan is +to lay the logs parallel with the burning ends to the windward, then they +continue burning together. + + +In the pine-forests of the North, at winter time, it is usual to fell a +large tree, and, cutting a piece six or eight feet long off the large +end, to lay the thick short piece upon the long one, which is left lying +on the ground; having previously cut flat with the axe the sides that +come in contact, and notched them so as to make the upper log lie steady. +The chips are then heaped in between the logs, and are set fire to; the +flame runs in between them, and the heat of each log helps the other to +burn. It is the work of nearly an hour to prepare such a fire; but when +made, it lasts throughout the night. In all cases, one or two great logs +are far better than many small ones, as these burn fast away and require +constant looking after. Many serious accidents occur from a large log +burning away and toppling over with a crash, sending a volley of blazing +cinders among the sleeping party. Savages are always getting burnt, and +we should take warning from their carelessness: sometimes they find a +single scathed tree without branches, which they have no means of +felling; this they set fire to as it stands, and when all have fallen off +to sleep, the tree tumbles down upon them. Indeed, savages are seldom +free from scars or severe burns; they are so cold during the night that +they cannot endure to be an inch further from the fire than necessary, +and consequently, as they turn about in their sleep, often roll into it. + +[Diagram as described following]. + +Logs to cut up, with a small axe or knife. + + +Let A O be the log. Cut two notches (1), (2), on opposite sides. Hold the +log by the end A, and strike the end violently against the ground; the +piece O, 1, 2, will fly off. Then make the cut (3) on the side opposite +to (2), and again strike, and the piece 1, 2, 3, will fly off. So again +with cut (4), etc. (Peal.) + +Brushwood.--If in a country where any a number of small sticks and no +large logs can be collected as firewood, the best plan is to encamp after +the manner of the Ovampos. These, as they travel, collect sticks, each +man his own faggot, and when they stop, each takes eight or nine stones +as large as bricks, or larger, and sets them in a circle; and within +these he lights up his little fire. Now the party make their fireplaces +close together, in two or more parallel lines, and sleep in between them; +the stones prevent the embers from flying about and doing mischief, and +also, after the fires have quite burnt out, they continue to radiate +heat. + +Charcoal.--If charcoal be carried, a small chafing-dish, or other +substitute for a fireplace, ought also be taken, together with a set of +tin cooking-utensils. + +Fireplaces in Boats.--In boating excursions, daub a lump of clay on the +bottom of the boat, beneath the fireplace--it will secure the timbers +from fire. "Our primitive kitchen was a square wooden box, lined with +clay and filled with sand, upon which three or four large stones were +placed to form a hearth." (Burton's 'Medinah.') + +Fireplaces on Snow.--On very deep snow, a hearth has to be made of a +number of green logs, upon which the fire may be made. (See "Esquimaux +Cooking Lamp.") + +Cooking-fires.--See chapter on "Cooking." + +Fires in the early Morning.--Should your stock of fuel consist of large +logs and but little brushwood, keep all you can spare of the latter to +make a blaze, when you get up to catch and pack the cattle in the dark +and early morning. As you travel on, if it be bitter cold, carry a +firebrand in your hand, near your mouth, as a respirator--it is very +comforting; then, when the fire of it burns dull, thrust the brand for a +few moments in any tuft of dry grass you may happen to pass by, which +will blaze up and give a new life to the brand. + + + +FOOD. + + +The nutritive Elements of Food.--Many chemists have applied themselves in +recent years, to discover the exact percentage of nutriment contained in +different substances, and to determine the minimum nutriment on which +human life can be supported. The results are not very accordant, but +nevertheless a considerable approximation to truth has been arrived at. +It is now possible to tell whether a proposed diet has any great faults +of excess or deficiency, and how to remedy those faults. But it also must +be recollected that the stomach is an assimilating machine of limited +performance, and must be fed with food that it can digest; it is not +enough that the food should contain nutritious matter, if that matter +should be in an indigestible form. Burke and Wills perished from sheer +inability to digest the seeds upon which the Australian savages lived; +and Gardiner's party died of starvation in Tierra del Fuego, because they +could not digest the shell-fish which form a common article of diet of +the natives of that country. The question of diet must then be limited to +food that is perfectly digestible by the traveller. It remains to learn +how much nourishment is contained in different kinds of digestible food. +Dr. Smith has recently written an elaborate essay on this subject, +applying his inquiries chiefly to the food of the poor in England; but +for my more general purpose, as it is impossible to do justice to a large +and imperfectly understood subject, in the small space I can give to it, +it will be better that I should reprint the results given in my previous +edition. These are principally extracted from a remarkable paper by Dr. +Christison, inserted in the Bluebook Report of the Commission of Inquiry +on Crimean matters, in which the then faulty dietary of our soldiers was +discussed. It appears 1st, that a man of sedentary life can exist in +health on seventeen ounces per day of real nutriment; that a man engaged +in active life requires fully twenty-eight ounces per day; and, during +severe labour, he requires thirty ounces, or even more. 2ndly, that this +nutriment must consist of three-quarters, by weight, of one class of +nutritive principles, (C), and one quarter of another class of nutritive +principles, (N); 3rdly, that all the articles of common food admit of +being placed, as below, in a Table, by which we see at a glance how much +nutriment of class C, and how much of class N, is found in 100 parts, +gross weight of any of them. Thus, by a simple computation, the effective +value of a dietary may be ascertained. Class C, are the carboniferous +principles, that maintain respiration; Class N, are the nitrogenous +principles, that repair waste of tissue. N will partly replace C, but at +a great waste: C will not replace N. + +A large number of diets such as those of various armies and navies, of +prisons and infirmaries, and of the ordinary diets of different classes +of people, have been examined by aid of this Table, with surprisingly +uniform results. But these diets chiefly refer to temperate climates; it +would therefore be a matter of great interest if travellers in distant +lands would accurately observe and note down the weight of their own +rations and those of the natives. It is a great desideratum to know the +lightest portable food suitable to different countries. Any such reports, +if carefully made and extending over a period of not less than two +months, would be very acceptable to me. To make them of any use, it is +necessary that every article consumed should be noted down; and that the +weight and state of health, at the beginning and at the end of the +period, should be compared. + +__________________________________________________ +Table showing the quantity of Nutriment contained +in different articles of Diet. +__________________________________________________________________ +Articles of Diet .. C. N. +Total real +....................................................Nutri- + (Carboniferous.) (Nitrogenous) ment per cent. + of gross weight. +__________________________________________________________________ +Wheat Flour............. 71.25 .......... 16.25 ....... 87.5 +Bread................... 51.5 .......... 10.5 ....... 62.0 +Oatmeal................. 65.75 .......... 16.25 ........82.0 +Pearl Barley............ 67.0 ........... 15.0 ........ 82.0 +Peas.................... 55.5 ........... 24.5 ........ 80.0 +Potatoes (preserved + potatoes are thor- + oughly dry)........ .. 24.5 ........... 2.5 ..........27.0 +Carrots................ 8.5 ........... 1.5 ......... 10.0 +Turnips.................. 5.7 ........... 0.3 ......... 6.0 +Cabbage.................. 6.7 ........... 0.3 .......... 7.0 +Lean of Beef and Mutton . - .......... 27.0 ......... 27.0 +Fat of meat.............100.0 .......... - ....... 100.0 +Average Beef and Mutton 15.0 ...........20.25 ........ 35.25 +Bacon....................62.5 .......... 8.36 ........ 70.86 +Skimmed-milk Cheese ..... 0.4 .......... 64.6 ......... 65.0 +White Fish ............. - ........... 21.0 ......... 21.0 +New Milk ............... 8.0 .......... 4.5 ......... 12.5 +Skimmed Milk ........... 8.0 .......... 4.5 ......... 10.0 +Butter-milk............. 1.0 .......... 6.0 ......... 7.0 +Beef Tea, strong ........ - .......... 1.44 ......... 1.44 +Beef Tea and Meat de- + coction of Broth ...... - .......... 0.72 ......... 0.72 +Sugar...................100.0 ........... - ....... 100.0 +Butter................. 100.0 ............ - ........ 100.0 +Total (in Seden- + (tary life... 12.57 .......... 4.25 ........ 17 ounces. +Nutriment (in Active + (life......... 21.00 ......... 7.00 ........ 28 " +Required. (In Severe + (labour........22.50 ......... 7.50 ....... 30 " + +As examples of the way in which the above Tables should be applied, I +will now give three dietaries, in which the quantity of real nutriment +has been calculated. + + + I. -- British Navy Allowances. (Admiralty Order, 1824.) + + + Gross weight Real Nutriment. + in ounces. C. N. Total. +Bread ............20.0 - 10.3 ...2.1 ....... 12.4 + or Biscuit - 16.0 .. 11.4 .. 2.6 ....... 14.0 +Oatmeal ........ 1.5 .. 1.5 .. 1.96 . 0.48 ...... 2.44 +Cocoa ............ 1.0 - ... 0.5 ... - ....... 0.55 + or Cheese ........- ... 2.0 ... - ...1.33 ...... 1.33 +Sugar ............ 1.5 .. - ....1.5 ... - ......... 1.5 + or Butter ...... - .. 1.5 ...1.5 .... - ......... 1.5 +Meat ........... 16.0 .. - ... 2.4 ... 3.24 ...... 5.64 + or Salt Meat .. - ...12.0 .. 2.4 ... 3.24 ...... 5.64 +Vegetables ...... 8.0 .. - ... 0.9 ... 0.15 ....... 1.05 + or Flour ...... - .. 12.0 .. 8.95 .. 1.95 ...... 10.9 +Tea .............. 0.25 .. - ... - ... - ....... - + or Coffee ...... - ...1.0 ... - .... - ......... - + __________________________________________________ + Total ........ - .... - .. 41.81 . 15.09 ..... 57.0 + + +N.B.--Besides this, is beer (in harbour only) sixteen ounces, or spirits +four ounces. + +Table II. shows the daily food actually consumed by probably the most +energetic travelling and exploring party on record. It was during Dr. +Rae's spring journey to the Arctic shores of America. He issued, in +addition, four ounces of grease or alcohol a day, as fuel for cooking. He +found that it required nearly as much fuel to melt the snow, as it did to +boil it afterwards. This allowance was found quite sufficient, but there +was nothing to spare. + + +II. -- Dr. Rae's Allowances in Arctic America. + + + Gross weight Real Nutriment. + in ounces. C. N. Total. +Pemmican (1/3 dry + meat, 2/3 fat) . 20.0 ......13.3 ... 6.6 ...... 19.9 +Biscuit ............ 4.0 ..... 2.9 ... 0.6 ...... 3.5 +Edwards's preserved + potatoes .......... 1.6 ..... 1.4 ... 0.1 ...... 1.5 +Flour ............... 5.3 ...... 3.8 ... 0.8 ....... 4.6 +Tea ................. 0.6 ...... ? ... ? ........ ? +Sugar ................ 2.3 ...... 2.3 .. - ......... 2.3 +____________________________________________________________ + ........ .... 33.8 ..... 23.7 ... 8.1 ....... 31.8 + + +III. -- DMr. Austin's Allowances in Western Australia. + + + Gross weight Real Nutriment. + in ounces. C. N. Total. +Flour ............... 18.0 ...... 12.8 ... 2.9 ....... 15.7 +Boned salt pork (say + a little more lean + than fat) ......... 8.0 ...... 1.9 ... 2.1 ...... 15.7 +Tea ................. 0.75 ...... - ... - ........ - +Sugar ................ 3.0 .... .. 3.0 .. - ........ 3.0 +____________________________________________________________ + ........ .... 29.75 ..... 17.7 ... 5.0 ....... 22.7 + + +IV. -- A Sepoy's Full Rations are: --. + + + Gross weight Real Nutriment. + in ounces. C. N. Total. +Wheaten Flour ....... 32 ...... 22.8 ... 5.2 ...... 29.0 +Pulse ................ 4 ...... 2.2 ..1.0 ....... 3.2 +Butter ................1 ...... 1.0 .. 0.0 ........1.0 +____________________________________________________________ + ........ .... 37 ..... 26.0... 6.2 .......33.3 + +Game was occasionally shot, by which the serious deficiency in Class N +must have been supplied. At the same time, I must say that Australian +explorers seem to travel exceedingly well on unusually scanty diets. + +Food Suitable for the Stores of Travellers.--The most portable kind of +food is, unquestionably, the flesh of cattle; for the beasts carry +themselves. The draught oxen used in African and Australian explorations +serve as a last resource, when all other food is wanting. + +It has been truly remarked with reference to Australian exploring +expeditions, that if an exploring party would make up their minds to eat +horseflesh, stores of provisions might be largely dispensed with. A few +extra horses could be taken; and one shot occasionally, and its flesh +dried and slightly salted, sufficiently to preserve it from becoming +tainted before the men could consume it. + +Portable Food.--The kinds of food that are the most portable in the +ordinary sense of the term are:--Pemmican; meat-biscuit; fried meat; +dried fish; wheat flour; biscuit; oatmeal; barley; peas; cheese; sugar; +preserved potatoes; and Chollet's compressed vegetables. Extract of meat, +as I am assured by the highest physiological authors, is not a portable +food but a portable savour. It is quite impossible that life should be +maintained on any minute amount of material, because so many grains of +carbon and so many of nitrogen are daily consumed, and an equivalent +weight of those elements must, of course, be replaced. Salt meat is not +to be depended upon, for it is liable to become hard and worthless, by +long keeping. + +Pemmican; general remarks.--Of all food usually carried on expeditions, +none is so complete in itself, nor contains so large a proportion of +nutriment as pemmican. It is especially useful to those who undergo +severe work, in cold and rainy climates. It is the mainstay of Arctic +expeditions, whether on water, by sledge, or on foot. But, though +excellent to men who are working laboriously, it is distasteful to +others. + +Pemmican is a mixture of about five-ninths of pounded dry meat to +four-ninths of melted or boiled grease; it is put into a skin bag or tin +can whilst warm and soft. The grease ought not to be very warm, when +poured on the dry meat. Wild berries are sometimes added. The skin bags +for the pemmican should be shaped like pillow (not bolster) cases, for +the convenience of packing on horseback. The pemmican is chopped out with +an axe, when required. + +I do not know if it can be bought anywhere in England. It was usually +prepared in the government yards at Deptford, when made for the Arctic +Expeditions. It is largely used in the Hudson's Bay territory. A +traveller who desired to furnish himself with pemmican might procure his +supplies from thence. + +Pemmican, as made in England.--Sir John Richardson describes, in his +Narrative, the preparation of the pemmican that he took with him in his +last journey. The following is a resume of what he says:--The meat used +was round of beef; the fat and membranous parts were pared away; it was +then cut into thin slices, which were dried in a malt-kiln, over an +oak-wood fire, till they were quite dry and friable. Then they were +ground in a malt mill; after this process the powder resembled +finely-grated meal. It was next mixed with nearly an equal weight of +melted beef, suet, or lard; and the plain pemmican was made. Part of the +pemmican was mixed with Zante currants, and another part with sugar. Both +of these mixtures were much liked, especially the latter. The pemmican, +when complete, cost at the rate of 1x. u 1/2 d. per pound, but then the +meat was only 6 3/4 d. per pound; it is dearer now. The meat lost more +than three-quarters of its weight in drying. He had 17,424 lbs. of +pemmican in all; it was made from--fresh beef, 35,641 lbs; lard9 +lbs.; currants3 lbs.; and sugar lbs. + +Pemmican, as made in the Prairie.--Mr. Ballantyne, who was in the service +of the Hudson's Bay Company, gives the following account:--"Having shot a +buffalo, the hunters cut lumps of his flesh, and slitting it up into +flakes or layers, hang it up in the sun, or before a slow fire, to dry; +and the fat can be dried as well as the lean. In this state, it is often +made into packs, and sent about the country, to be consumed as dried meat +(it is often best relished raw, for, when grilled without fat, it burns +and becomes ashy); but when pemmican is wanted, it has to go through +another process. When dry, the meat is pounded between two stones till it +is broken into small pieces: these are put into a bag made of the +animal's hide, with the hair on the outside, and well mixed with melted +grease; the top of the bag is then sewn up, and the pemmican allowed to +cool. In this state it may be eaten uncooked; but the men who subsist on +it when travelling, mix it with a little flour and water, and then boil +it--in which state it is know throughout the country by the elegant name +of robbiboo. Pemmican is good wholesome food; will keep fresh for a great +length of time; and, were it not for its unprepossessing appearance, and +a good many buffalo hairs mixed with it, through the carelessness of the +hunters, would be very palatable. After a time, however, one becomes +accustomed to these little peculiarities." + +Meat-biscuit.--Meat-biscuit, which is used in American ships, is stated +to be a thick soup, evaporated down to a syrup, kneaded with flour, and +made into biscuits: these are pricked with holes, dried and baked. They +can be eaten just as they are, or made into a porridge, with from twenty +to thirty times their weight of water. They were to be bought at +Gamble's, Leadenhall Street. + +Dried Meat.--When more game is shot than can be eaten before the party +travel onwards, it is usual to jerk a part of it. It is cut in long +strips, and festooned about the bushes, under the full sun, in order to +dry it. After it has been sun-dried it will keep for long, before it +becomes wholly putrid. Dried meat is a poor substitute for fresh meat; it +requires long steeping in water, to make it tender, and then it is +tasteless, and comparatively innutritious. "Four expert men slice up a +full-grown buffalo in four hours and a-half." (Leichhardt.) The American +buccaneers acquired their name from boucan--which means jerked meat, in +an Indian dialect; for they provisioned their ships with the dried flesh +of the wild cattle that they hunted down and killed. + +Dried Fish.--Fish may be pounded entire, just as they come from the +river, dried in the sun in large lumps, and kept: the negroes about the +Niger do this. + +Flour travels conveniently in strong canvas bags, each holding 50 lbs., +and long enough to be lashed on to a pack-saddle. (See "Pack-gabs," p. +71.) + +Chollet's preserved Vegetables relieve agreeably the monotony of a bush +diet. A single ration weighs less than an ounce, and a cubic yard +contains 16,000 of these rations. They are now to be bought at all +provision merchants'--as at Fortnum and Mason's, etc. + +Salted Meat.--I have already said (see "Portable Food") that salt meat +cannot be depended upon to retain its nutritious qualities for a length +of time. When freshly made, it is sure to be good. It is well to +recollect that, for want of a salting-tub, animals can be salted in their +own hide. A hollow is scraped in the ground, the hide is laid over it and +pegged down, and the meat, salt, and water put into it. I know of an +instance where this was one on a very large scale. + +Condiments.--The most portable and useful condiments for a traveller +are--salt, red pepper, Harvey's sauce, lime-juice, dried onions, and +curry-powder. They should be bought at a first-rate shop; for red pepper, +lime-juice, and curry-powder are often atrociously adulterated. + +Salt..--The craving for salt (chloride of sodium) is somewhat satisfied +by the potash salts, and, perhaps, by other minerals: thus we often hear +of people reduced to the mixing of gun-powder with their food, on account +of the saltpetre that it contains. An impure salt is made widely in North +Africa, from wood-ashes. They are put into a pot, hot water is poured +over them and allowed to stand and dissolve out the salts they contain; +the ley is then decanted into another pot, where it is evaporated. The +plants in use, are those of which the wetted ashes have a saline and not +an alkaline taste, nor a soapy feel. As a general rule, trees that make +good soap (p. 122), yield little saltpetre or other good equivalent for +salt. Salt caravans are the chief sustainers of the lines of commerce in +North Africa. In countries where salt is never used, as I myself have +witnessed in South Africa, and among the Mandan North-American Indian +tribes (Catlin, vol. i, p. 124), the soil and springs are "brack." Four +Russian sailors who were wrecked on Spitzbergen, and whose well-known +adventures are to be found in Pinkerton's 'Voyages and Travels,' had +nothing whatever for six years to subsist on--save only the animals they +killed, a little moss, and melted snow-water. One of them died; the +others enjoyed robust health. People who eat nothing but meat, feel the +craving for salt far less strongly than those who live wholly on +vegetables. + +Butcher.--One man in every party should have learnt from a professed +butcher, how to cut up a carcase to the best advantage. + +Store-keeping.--All stores should be packed and securely lashed, that it +may be impossible to pilfer from them. The packages of those that are in +use, should be carried in one pair of saddle-gabs, to be devoted to that +purpose. These should stand at the storekeeper's bivouac, and nobody else +should be allowed to touch them, when there. He should have every +facility for weighing and measuring. Lastly, it should be his duty to +furnish a weekly account, specifying what stores remain in hand. + +Wholesome Food, procurable in the Bush.--Game and Fish.--See sections +upon "Hints on Shooting;" "Other means of capturing Game;" and upon +"Fishing;" and note the paragraph on "Nocturnal Animals." + +Milk, to keep.--Put it in a bottle, and place it in a pot of water, over +a slow fire, till the water boils; let the bottle remain half an hour in +the boiling water, and then cork it tightly. Milk with one's tea is a +great luxury; it is worth taking some pains to keep it fresh. A traveller +is generally glutted with milk when near native encampments, and at other +times has none at all. Milk dried into cakes, intended to be grated into +boiling water for use, was formerly procurable: it was very good; but I +cannot hear of it now in the shops. Milk preserved in tins is excellent, +but it is too bulky for the convenience of most travellers. Dried +bread-crumb, mixed with fresh cream, issaid to make a cake that will keep +for some days. I have not succeeded, to my satisfaction with this recipe. + +Butter, to preserve.--Boil it in a large vessel till the scum rises. Skim +this off as fast as it appears on the surface, until the butter remains +quite clear, like oil. It should then be carefully poured off, that the +impurities which settle at the bottom of the vessel may be separated. The +clarified butter is to be put aside to be kept, the settlings must be +used for common and immediate purposes. Butter is churned, in many +countries, by twirling a forked stick, held between the two hands, in a +vessel full of cream; or even by shaking the cream in a bottle. It is +said that the temperature of the milk, while it is being churned, should +be between 50 degrees and 60 degrees Fahr., and that this is +all-important to success. + +Cheese.--"The separation of the whey from the cheese may be effected by +rennet, or by bitartrate of potash, or tamarinds, or alum, or various +acids and acid wines and fruit juices." (Dr. Weber.) + +Eggs may be dried at a gentle heat; then pounded and preserved. This is a +convenient plan of making a store of portable food out of the eggs of +sea-birds, or those of ostriches. + +Fish-roe is another kind of portable food. The chemists declare its +composition to be nearly identical with that of ordinary eggs. (Pereira.) +Caviare is made out of any kind of fish-roe; but the recherche sort, only +from that of the sturgeon. Long narrow bags of strong linen, and a strong +brine, are prepared. The bags are half-filled with the roe, and are then +quite filled with the brine, which is allowed to ooze through slowly. +This being done, the men wring the bags strongly with their hands, and +the roe is allowed to dry. Roe-broth is a good dish. + +Honey, to find, when Bees are seen.--Dredge as many bees as you can, with +flour from a pepper-box; or else catch one of them, tie a feather or a +straw to his leg, which can easily be done (natives thrust it up into his +body), throw him into the air, and follow him as he flies slowly to his +hive; or catch two bees, and turning them loose at some distance apart, +search the place towards which their flights converge. But if bees are +too scarce for either of these methods, choose an open place, and lay in +it a plate of syrup as a bait for the bees; after one has fed and flown +away again, remove the plate 200 yards in the direction in which he flew; +and proceed in the same sort of way, until the nest is found. + +Honey-bird.--The instinct of the honey-bird is well-known, which induces +him to lead men to hives, that he may share in the plunder. The stories +that are told of the apparent malice of the bird, in sometimes tricking a +man, and leading him to the lair of wild animals, instead of to the bees' +nest, are well authenticated. + +Revolting Food, that may save the Lives of Starving Men.--Suspicion of +Poison.--If any meat that you may find, or if the water of any pool at +which you encamp, is under suspicion of being poisoned, let one of your +dogs eat or drink before you do, and wait an hour to watch the effect of +it upon him. + +Carrion is not noxious to Starving Men.--In reading the accounts of +travellers who have suffered severely from want of food, a striking fact +is common to all, namely, that, under those circumstances, carrion and +garbage of every kind can be eaten without the stomach rejecting it. Life +can certainly be maintained on a revolting diet, that would cause a +dangerous illness to a man who was not compelled to adopt it by the pangs +of hunger. There is, moreover, a great difference in the power that +different people possess of eating rank food without being made ill by +it. It appears that no flesh, and very few fish, are poisonous to man; +but vegetables are frequently poisonous. + +Dead Animals, to find.--The converging flight of crows, and gorged +vultures sitting on trees, show where dead game is lying; but it is often +very difficult to find the carcase; for animals usually crawl under some +bush or other hiding-place, to die. Jackal-tracks, etc., are often the +only guide. It may be advisable, after an unsuccessful search, to remove +to some distance, and watch patiently throughout the day, until the birds +return to their food, and mark them down. + +Rank Birds.--When rank birds are shot, they should be skinned, not +plucked; for much of the rankness lies in their skin; or, if unskinned, +they should be buried for some hours, because earth absorbs the oil that +makes them rank. Their breast and wings are the least objectionable +parts, and, if there be abundance of food, should alone be cooked. Rank +sea-birds, when caught, put in a coop, and fed with corn, were found by +Captain Bligh to become fat and well-tasted. + +Skins.--All old hides or skins of any kind that are not tanned are fit +and good for food; they improve soup by being mixed with it; or they may +be toasted and hammered. Long boiling would make glue or gelatine of +them. Many a hungry person has cooked and eaten his sandals or skin +clothing. + +Bones contain a great deal of nourishment, which is got at by boiling +them, pounding their ends between two stones, and sucking them. There is +a revolting account in French history, of a beseiged garrison of +Sancerre, in the time of Charles IX., and again subsequently at Paris, +and it may be elsewhere, digging up the graveyards for bones as +sustenance. + +Blood from Live Animals.--The Aliab tribe, who have great herds of cattle +on the White Nile, "not only milk their cows, but they bleed their cattle +periodically, and boil the blood for food. Driving a lance into a vein in +the neck, they bleed the animal copiously, which operation is repeated +about once a month." (Sir S. Baker.) + +Flesh from Live Animals.--The truth of Bruce's well-known tale of the +Abyssinians and others occasionally slicing out a piece of a live ox for +food is sufficiently confirmed. Thus Dr. Beke observes, "There could be +no doubt of the fact. He had questioned hundreds of natives on the +subject, and though at first they positively declared the statement to be +a lie, many, on being more closely questioned, admitted the possibility +of its truth, for they could not deny that cattle are frequently attacked +by hyaenas, whose practice is to leap on the animals from behind and at +once begin devouring the hind quarters; and yet, if driven off in time, +the cattle have still lived."--Times, Jan. 167. + +It is reasonable enough that a small worn-out party should adopt this +plan, when they are travelling in a desert where the absence of water +makes it impossible to delay, and when they are sinking for want of food. +If the ox were killed outright there would be material for one meal only, +because a worn-out party would be incapable of carrying a load of flesh. +By the Abyssinian plan the wounded beast continues to travel with the +party, carrying his carcase that is destined to be turned into butcher's +meat for their use at a further stage. Of course the idea is very +revolting, for the animal must suffer as much as the average of the tens +or hundreds of wounded hares and pheasants that are always left among the +bushes after an ordinary English battue. To be sure, the Abyssinian plan +should only be adopted to save human life. + +When I travelled in South-West Africa, at one part of my journey a plague +of bush-ticks attacked the roots of my oxen's tails. Their bites made +festering sores, which ended in some of the tails dropping bodily off. I +heard such accidents were not at all uncommon. The animals did not travel +the worse for it. Now ox-tail soup is proverbially nutritious. + +Insects.--Most kinds of creeping things are eatable, and are used by the +Chinese. Locusts and grasshoppers are not at all bad. To prepare them, +pull off the legs and wings and roast them with a little grease in an +iron dish, like coffee. Even the gnats that swarm on the Shire River are +collected by the natives and pressed into cakes. + +Wholesome and poisonous Plants.--No certain rule can be given to +distinguish wholesome plants from poisonous ones; but it has been +observed that much the same thing suits the digestion of a bird that +suits that of a man; and, therefore, that a traveller, who otherwise +would make trials at haphazard, ought to examine the contents of those +birds' crops that he may catch or shoot, to give a clue to his +experiments. The rule has notable exceptions, but in the absence of any +other guide it is a very useful one. + +The only general rules that botany can give are vague and full of +exceptions: they are, that a great many wholesome plants are found among +the Cruciferae, or those whose petals are arranged like a Maltese cross, +and that many poisonous ones are found amongst the Umbelliferae. + +Nettle and Fern.--There are two moderately nutritious plants--nettle and +fern--that are found wild in very many countries: and, therefore, the +following extract from Messrs. Hue and Gabet's 'Travels in Thibet' may be +of service:--"When the young stems of ferns are gathered, quite tender, +before they are covered with down, and while the first leaves are bent +and rolled up in themselves, you have only to boil them in pure water to +realise a dish of delicious asparagus. We would also recommend the +nettle, which, in our opinion, might be made an advantageous substitute +for spinach; indeed more than once we proved this by our own experience. +The nettle should be gathered quite young, when the leaves are perfectly +tender. The plant should be pulled up whole, with a portion of the root. +In order to preserve your hands from the sharp biting liquid which issues +from the points, you should wrap them in linen of close texture. When +once the nettle is boiled, it is perfectly innocuous; and this vegetable, +so rough in its exterior, becomes a very delicate dish. We were able to +enjoy this delightful variety of esculents for more than a month. Then +the little tubercles of the fern became hollow and horny, and the stems +themselves grew as hard as wood while the nettle, armed with a long white +beard, p 203 presented only a menacing and awful aspect." The roots of +many kinds of ferns, perhaps of all of them, are edible. Our poor in +England will eat neither fern nor nettle: they say the first is +innutritious, and the second acrid. I like them both. + +Seaweed.--Several kinds of seaweed, such as Laver and Irish moss, are +eatable. + +Cooking Utensils.--Cookery books.--A book on cooking is of no use at all +in the rougher kinds of travel, for all its recipes consist of phrases +such as "Take a pound of so-and-so, half a pound of something else, a +pinch of this, and a handful of that." Now in the bush a man has probably +none of these things--he certainly has not all of them--and, therefore, +the recipe is worthless. + +Pots and Kettles.--Cooking apparatus of any degree of complexity, and of +very portable shapes, can be bought at all military outfitters'; but for +the bush, and travelling roughly, nothing is better than a light roomy +iron pot and a large strong tin kettle. It is disagreeable to make tea in +the same pot that meat is boiled in; besides, if you have only one +vessel, it takes a longer time to prepare meals. If possible, take a +second small tin kettle, both as a reserve against accidents and for the +convenience of the thing. An iron pot, whose lid is the size of the crown +of a hat, cooks amply enough for three persons at a time, and can, +without much inconvenience, be made to do double duty; and, therefore, +the above articles would do for six men. An iron pot should have very +short legs, or some blow will break one of them off and leave a hole. +Iron kettles far outwear tin ones, but the comparative difficulty of +making them boil, and their great weight, are very objectionable. A good +tin kettle, carefully cherished (and it is the interest of the whole +party to watch over its safety), lasts many months in the bush. Copper is +dangerous; but the recipe is given, further on, for tinning copper +vessels when they require it. Have the handle of the kettle notched or +bored near the place where it joins the body of the kettle, so as to give +a holding by which the lid may be tied tightly down; then, if you stuff a +wisp of grass into the spout, the kettle will carry water for a journey. + +Damaged Pots.--A pot or kettle with a large hole in its bottom, filled up +with a piece of wood, has been made to boil water by burying it a little +way in the earth and making the fire round it. A hole in the side of a +pot can be botched up with clay or wood, so as not to leave it altogether +useless. + +Substitutes for Pots and Kettles.--It is possible to boil water over a +slow fire in many kinds of vessels that would be destroyed by a greater +degree of heat. In bark, wooden, skin, and even paper vessels, it is +quite possible to boil water. The ruder tribes of the Indian Archipelago +use a bamboo to boil their rice: "The green cane resisting the fire +sufficiently long for the cooking of one mass of rice." (Crawfurd.) If, +however, you have no vessel that you choose to expose to the risk of +burning, you must heat stones and drop them into the water it contains; +but sandstones, especially are apt to shiver and make grit. The Dacota +Indians, and very probably other tribes also, used to boil animals in +their own hide. The description runs thus: "They stuck four stakes in the +ground, and tied the four corners of the hide up to them, leaving a +hollow in the middle; three or four gallons of water, and the meat cut up +very fine, were then put in; three or four hot stones, each the size of a +6-lb. cannon-shot, cooked the whole into a good soup." To a fastidious +palate, the soot, dirt, and ashes that are usually mixed up with the +soup, are objectionable; but these may be avoided by a careful cook, who +dusts and wipes the stones before dropping them in. The specific heat of +stone is much less than that of water, so that the heating power of a +measure of stone is only about one-half of that of an equal measure of +equally hot water. + +Graters are wanted to grate jerked meat. A piece of tin, punched through +with holes, then bent a little, and nailed to a piece of wood, makes a +good one. + +Sieves.--Stretch parchment (which see) on a wooden hoop, exactly as on a +drum-head; let it dry, and prick it with a red-hot iron, else punch it +full of small holes. + +Plates, to carry.--I have travelled much with plates, knives, forks, +etc., for three persons, carried in a flat leather case like a portfolio, +which hung from the side of the cook's saddle, and I found it very +convenient. It was simply a square piece of leather, with a large pocket +for the metal plates, and other smaller ones for the rest of the things; +it had a flap to tie over it, which was kept down with a button. + +Cups.--Each of the men, on a riding expedition, should carry his own tin +mug, either tied to his waist or to his saddle. A wooden bowl is the best +vessel for tea, and even for soup, if you have means of frequently +washing it: tin mugs burn the lips too much. Wooden bowls are always used +in Thibet; they are cut out of the knots that are found in timber. + +Spoons.--It is easy to replace a lost spoon by cutting a new one out of +hard wood, or by making one of horn. (See "Horn.") + +Fireplaces for Cooking.--The most elementary fireplace consists of three +stones in a triangle, to support the pot. If stones are not procurable, +three piles of mud, or three stakes or green-wood driven into the earth, +are an equivalent. Small recesses neatly cut in a bank, one for each +fireplace, are much used, when the fuel is dry and well prepared. A more +elaborate plan is to excavate a shallow saucer-like hole in the ground, a +foot or eighteen inches in diameter, and kneading the soil so excavated +into a circular wall, with a doorway in the windward side: the upper +surface is curved, so as to leave three pointed turrets, upon which the +cooking-vessel rests, as in the sketch. Thus the wind enters at the +doorway, and the flames issue through the curved depressions at the top, +and lick round the cooking-vessel placed above. The wall is sometimes +built of stones. + + +Trenches and Holes.--In cooking for a large party with a small supply of +fuel, either dig a narrow trench, above which all the pots and kettles +may stand in a row, and in which the fire is made--the mouth being open +to the wind, and a small chimney built at the other end;--or else dig a +round hole, one foot deep, and place the pots in a ring on its edge, half +resting on the earth, and half overlapping the hole. A space will remain +in the middle of them, and through this the fire must be fed. + +Esquimaux Lamp.--The cooking of the Esquimaux is wholly effected by stone +lamps, with wicks made of moss, which are so carefully arranged that the +flame gives little or no smoke. Their lamps vary in size from one foot +and a half long to six inches. Each of the bits of moss gives a small but +very bright flame. The lamp is all in all to the Esquimaux; it dries +their clothes, and melts the snow for their drinking-water; its +construction is very ingenious; without it they could not have inhabited +the arctic regions. + +Ovens.--Bedouin Oven.--Dig a hole in the ground; wall and roof it with +stones, leaving small apertures in the top. They make a roaring fire in +and about the oven (the roof having been temporarily removed for the +purpose), and when the stones (including those of the roof) have become +very hot, sweep away the ashes and strew the inside of the oven with +grass, or leaves, taking care that whatever is used, has no disagreeable +taste, else it would be communicated to the flesh. Then put in the meat: +it is a common plan to sew it up in its own skin, which shields it from +dust and at the same time retains its juices from evaporating. Now +replace the roof, a matter of some difficulty, on account of the stones +being hot, and therefore requiring previous rehearsal. Lastly, make the +fire again over the oven and let the baking continue for some hours. An +entire sheep can be baked easily in this way. The same process is used +for baking vegetables, except with the addition of pouring occasionally +boiling water upon them, through the roof. + +Gold-digger's Oven.--The figure represents a section of the oven. A hole +or deep notch is dug into the side of a bank, and two flat stones are +slid horizontally, like shelves, into grooves made in the sides of the +hole, as shown in the figure; where it will be observed that the +uppermost stone does not quite reach to the face of the bank, and that +the lower-most stone does not quite reach to the back of the hole. A fire +of red-hot embers is placed on the floor of the hole; and the bread about +to be baked is laid upon the lowermost stone. Lastly, another flat stone +is used to close the mouth of the oven: it is set with its edge on the +floor of the hole: it leans forward with the middle of its face resting +against the front edge of the lowermost stone, a narrow interval being +left between its top and the edge of the uppermost stone. This interval +serves as a vent to the hot air from the embers, which takes the course +shown in the figure. The oven should be thoroughly heated before the +bread is put in. + + +Baking between two stones.--For baking slices of meat or thin cakes, it +is sufficient to lay one large stone above another with a few pebbles +between, to prevent them from touching. Next make a large fire about the +stones until they are thoroughly hot; then sweep away the embers, and +insert the slices. + +Ant hills as Ovens.--Where there are no stones of which ovens may be +built, and where there are old white-ant hills, the natives commonly dig +holes in the sides of the ant hills and use them for that purpose. + +Clay Ovens.--I have heard of a very neat construction, built with clay, +in which grass had been kneaded. A fire was lit inside, to dry the work +as it progressed; while the builder placed rings of clay, in tiers, one +above the other, until a complete dome was made without mould or +framework. Time was allowed for each ring to dry sufficiently, before the +next one was added. + +Baking beneath a camp fire.--A small piece of meat, enough for four or +five people, can be baked by simply scraping a tolerably deep hole under +the bivouac fire; putting in the meat rolled in the skin to which it is +attached, and covering it with earth and fire. It is a slow process of +cooking, for it requires many hours; but the meat, when done, is soft and +juicy, and the skin gelatinous and excellent. + +"Meat, previously wrapped up in paper or cloth, may be baked in a clay +case, in any sort of pit or oven, well covered over, and with good +economy." ('Handbook of Field Service.') + +Baking in Pots.--A capital oven is improvised by means of two earthen or +metal cooking-pots, of which one is placed on the fire, and in it the +article to be baked; the other pot is put upon its top, as a cover, and +in it a shovelful of red-hot embers. + +Bush Cookery.--Tough Meat.--Hammer it well between two stones before +putting it on the fire, and again when it is half cooked, to separate the +fibres. I have often seen people save themselves much painful +mastication, by hammering at each separate piece of meat, before putting +it in their mouths. + +Rank Meat.--I have spoken of this, in another section, p. 200. + +Kabobs.--Broil the rib-bones, or skewer your iron ramrod through a dozen +small lumps of meat and roast them. This is the promptest way of cooking +meat; but men on hard work are not satisfied with a diet of nothing else +but tough roasted flesh, they crave for succulent food, such as boiled or +baked meat. + +Salt Meat, to prepare hurriedly.--Warm it slightly on both sides--this +makes the salt draw to the outside--then rinse it well in a pannikin of +water. This process extracts a large part of the salt, and leaves the +meat more fit for cooking. + +Haggis.--Hearne, the North American traveller, recommends a "haggis made +with blood, a good quantity of fat shred small, some of the tenderest of +the flesh, together with the heart and lungs, cut or town into small +skivers; all of which is put into the stomach, and roasted by being +suspended before the fire with a string. Care must be taken that it does +not get too much heat at first, or it will burst. It is a most delicious +morsel, even without pepper, salt, or any seasoning." + +Theory of Tea-making.--I have made a number of experiments on the art of +making good tea. We constantly hear that some people are good and others +bad tea-makers; that it takes a long time to understand the behaviour of +a new tea=pot, and so forth; and lastly, that good tea cannot be made +except with boiling water. Now, this latter assertion is assuredly +untrue, because, if tea be actually boiled in water, an emetic and partly +poisonous drink is the certain result. I had a tin lid made to my teapot, +a short tube passed through the lid, and in the tube was a cork, through +a hole in which a thermometer was fitted, that enabled me to learn the +temperature of the water in the teapot, at each moment. Thus provided, I +continued to make my tea as usual, and to note down what I observed. In +the first place after warming the teapot in the ordinary way, the fresh +boiling water that was poured into it, sank invariably to under 200 +degrees Fahr. It was usually 180 degrees, so great was the amount of heat +abstracted by the teapot. I also found that my teapot--it was a crockery +one--allowed the water within it to cool down at the rate of about 2 +degrees per minute. When the pot was filled afresh, of course the +temperature of its contents rose afresh, and by the addition of water two +or three times repeated, I obtained a perfect mastery over the +temperature of the pot, within reasonable limits. Now, after numerous +days in which I made tea according to my usual method, but measuring +strictly the quantity of leaves, and recording the times and the +temperature, and noting the character of tea produced; then, taking as my +type of excellence, tea that was full bodied, full tasted, and in no way +bitter or flat, I found that this was only produced when the water in the +teapot had remained between 180º and 190 degrees Fahr., and had stood +eight minutes on the leaves. It was only necessary for me to add water +once to the tea, to ensure this temperature. Bitterness was the certain +result of greater heat or of longer standing, and flatness was the result +of colder water. If the tea did not stand for so long a time as eight +minutes, it was not ripe; it was not full bodied enough. The palate +becomes far less fastidious about the quality of the second cup. Other +people may like tea of a different character from that which I do myself; +but, be that as it may, all people can, I maintain, ensure uniformity of +good tea, such as they best like, by attending to the principle of making +it--that is to say, to time, and quantities, and temperature. There is +no other mystery in the teapot. + +Tea made in the kettle.--Where there are no cups or teapot put the leaves +in the pot or kettle, and drink through a reed with a wisp of grass in +it, as they do in Paraguay. If there are cups and no teapot, the leaves +may be put into the pot, previously enclosed in a loose gauze or muslin +bag to prevent their floating about. A contrivance is sold in the shops +for this purpose; it is made of metal gauze, and shaped like an egg. A +purse made of metal rings would be better, for it would pack flat; but +the advantage of muslin over metal apparatus is that you may throw away +bag and all, and avoid the trouble of cleaning. + + +Tea made in tin mugs.--A correspondent assures me that he considers the +Australian plan of making tea to be preferable to any other, for +travellers and explorers; as it secures that the tea shall be made both +well and quickly, and without the necessity of carrying kettles on +horseback. Each person has a common tin quart pot and a pint pot, slung +to his saddle; the tea and sugar are carried in small bags. The quart pot +requires very little fire to make it boil. When it begins to boil, it is +taken from the fire, the tea is dropped in, and the pint pot is placed on +its top as a cover. When the tea is ready, the sugar is dropped into the +pint, and the tea is poured from one pot to the other till it is mixed. +The pint is always kept clean for drinking out of, but not the quart, for +the blacker it is, the sooner will the water boil. + +Tea made over night.--To prepare tea for a very early breakfast, make it +over night, and pour it away from the tea-leaves, into another vessel. It +will keep perfectly well, for it is by long standing with the tea-leaves +that it becomes bitter. In the morning simply warm it up. Tea is drunk at +a temperature of 140 degrees Fahr., or 90 degrees above an average night +temperature of 50 degrees. It is more than twice as easy to raise the +temperature up to 140 than to 212 degrees, letting alone the trouble of +tea-making. + +Extract of Tea and Coffee.--Dr. Rae speaks very highly of the convenience +of extract of tea. Any scientific chemist could make it, but he should be +begged to use first-rate tea. The extract from first-rate tea makes a +very drinkable infusion, but that from second-rate tea is not good, the +drink made from the extract always a grade inferior to that made directly +from the leaves. By pouring a small quantity of the extract into warm +water, the tea is made; and, though inferior in taste to properly made +tea, it has an equally good effect on the digestion. + +Extract of coffee is well known. I believe it can be made of very good +quality, but what is usually sold seems to me to be very much the +contrary and not to be wholesome. + +Tea and Coffee, without hot water.--In Unyoro, Sir S. Baker says, they +have no idea of using coffee as a drink, but simply chew it raw as a +stimulant. In Chinese Tartary, travellers who have no means of making a +cup of tea, will chew the leaves as a substitute. Mr. Atkinson told me +how very grateful he had found this makeshift. + + + +WATER FOR DRINKING. + + +General Remarks.--In most of those countries where travelling is arduous, +it is the daily care of an explorer to obtain water, for his own use and +for that of his caravan. Should he be travelling in regions that are for +the most part arid and rarely visited by showers, he must look for his +supplies in ponds made by the drainage of a large extent of country, or +in those left here and there along the beds of partly dried-up +water-courses, or in fountains. If he be unsuccessful in his search, or +when the dry season of the year has advanced, and all water has +disappeared from the surface of the land, there remains no alternative +for him but to dig wells where there are marks to show that pools +formerly lay, or where there are other signs that well-water may be +obtained. + +Short Stages.--I may here remark that it is a good general rule for an +explorer of an arid country, when he happens to come to water, after not +less than three hours' travelling, to stop and encamp by it; it is better +for him to avail himself of his good fortune and be content with his +day's work, than to risk the uncertainty of another supply. + +Purity of Watering-places.--Make no litter by the side of +watering-places; and encourage among your party the Mahomedan feeling of +respect for preserving the purity of drinking-water. Old travellers +commonly encamp at a distance from the watering-place, and fetch the +water to their camp. + +Signs of the Neighbourhood of Water.--The quick intelligence with which +experienced travellers discover watering-places, is so great that it +might almost be mistaken for an instinct. + +Intelligence of Dogs and Cattle.--Dogs are particularly clever in +finding water, and the fact of a dog looking refreshed, and it may be +wet, has often and often drawn attention to a pond that would otherwise +have been overlooked and passed by. Cattle are very uncertain in their +intelligence. Sometimes oxen go for miles and miles across a country +unknown to them, straight to a pond of water; at other times they are +most obtuse: Dr. Leichhardt, the Australian traveller, was quite +astonished at their stupidity in this respect. + +Trees and ordinary vegetation are not of much help in directing a +traveller to water, for they thrive on dew or on occasional rain; but it +is otherwise when the vegetation is unusually green or luxuriant, or when +the vegetation is unusually green or luxuriant, or when those trees are +remarked, that are seldom seen to grow except near water in the +particular country visited, as the blackthorn-tree in South Africa. + +Birds.--Some species of birds (as water-fowl, parrots, and the diamond +bird) or animals (as baboons) afford surer promise; but the converging +flight of birds, or the converging fresh tracks of animals, is the most +satisfactory sign of all. It is about nightfall that desert birds usually +drink, and hence it often happens that the exhausted traveller, +abandoning all hope as the shades of evening close in, has his attention +arrested by flights of birds, that give him new life and tell him where +to go. + +Tracks.--In tropical countries that have rainy and dry Seasons, it must +be recollected that old paths of men or wild animals only mislead; they +go to dry ponds that were full at the time they were trodden, but have +since been abandoned on becoming exhausted. + +Other Signs.--Well-water may be sought where the earth is still moist, +though arid all around, or, failing that, where birds and wild animals +have lately been scratching, or where gnats hover in swarms. + +To find the Spring--From the number of birds, tracks, and other signs, +travellers are often pretty sure that they are near water, but cannot +find the spring itself. In this case the party should at once be spread +out as skirmishers, and the dogs cheered on. + +To probe for Well-water.--It is unusual, when no damp earth can be seen, +but where the place appears likely to yield well-water, to force an iron +ramrod deep into the soil; and, if it bring up any grains that are moist, +to dig. + +Pools of Water.--For many days after there has been rain, water is sure +to be found among mountains, however desert may be their appearance; for +not only does more wet fall upon them, but the drainage is more perfect; +long after the ravines and stream-beds are quite dry, puddles and cupfuls +of water will be found here and there, along their courses, in holes and +chinks and under great stones, which together form a sufficiency. A +sponge tied to the end of a stick will do good service in lapping these +up. + +The sandy Beds of Watercourses in arid countries frequently contain pools +of stagnant water; but the places where these pools are to be found are +not necessarily those where they have been found in preceding years. The +conditions necessary for the existence of a pool are not alone those of +the rocky substratum of the river-bed, but more especially, the +stratifications of mud and clay left after each flooding. For instance, +an extensive bed of sand, enclosed between two layers of clay, would +remain moist, and supply well-water during the dry season; but a trivial +variation in the force and Amount of the current, in different years, +might materially affect the place and the character of the deposition of +these clay strata. + +In searching the beds of partly dried-up watercourses, the fact must +never be forgotten, that it is especially in little tributaries at the +point where they fall into the main one, that most water is to be found; +and the most insignificant of these should never be overlooked. I presume +that the bar, which always accumulates in front of tributaries, and is +formed of numerous layers of alluvial deposit, parallel to the bed of the +great stream, is very likely to have one, at least, of its layers of an +impervious character. If so, the bar would shut in the wet sand of the +tributary, like a wall, and prevent it from draining itself dry. + +When a river-bed has been long followed by a traveller, and a frequent +supply of water found along it, in pools or even in wells, say at every 5 +or 10 miles--then, should this river-bed appear to lose itself in a +plain that is arid, there is no reason why the traveller should be +disheartened; for, on travelling further, the water will be sure to be +found again, those plains being always green and grassy where the water +in such river-beds entirely disappears. + +By Sea-shore.--Fresh water is frequently to be found under the very +sands of the sea-shore, whither it has oozed underground from the upper +country, and where it overlies the denser salt water; or else abuts +against it, if the compactness of the sand resists free percolation. In +very many places along the skirt of the great African desert, fresh water +is to be found by digging two or three feet. + +Fountains.--Fountains in arid lands are as godsends. They are far more +numerous and abundant in limestone districts than in any others, owing to +the frequent fissures of those rocks: therefore, whenever limestone crops +out in the midst of sand deserts, a careful search should be made for +water. In granite, and other primary rocks, many, but small springs, are +usually seen. + +The theory of ordinary fountains is simple enough, and affords help in +discovering them. In a few words, it is as follows:--All the water that +runs from them has originally Been supplied by rain, dew, or fog-damp, +falling on the face of the land and sinking into it. But the subsoil and +rocks below, are far from being of a uniform character: they are full of +layers of every imaginable degree of sponginess. Strata of clay wholly +impenetrable by water, often divide beds of gravel that imbibe it freely. +There are also cracks that make continuous channels and dislocations that +cause them to end abruptly; and there are rents, filled with various +materials, that may either give a free passage or entirely bar the +underground course of water. Hence, when water has sunk into the earth, +it does not by any means soak through it in an equable degree. It is an +easier matter for it to ooze many miles, along a layer of gravel, than to +penetrate six inches into a layer of clay that may bound the gravel. +Therefore, whenever a porous earth or a fissured rock crops out to the +light of day, there is, in ignorance of all other facts, some chance of a +spring being discovered in the lowest part of the outcrop. A favourable +condition for the existence of a large and permanent fountain, is where a +porous stratum spreads over a broad area at a high level, and is +prolonged, by a gradually narrowing course, to an outlet at a lower one. +The broad upper part of the stratum catches plenty of water during the +wet season, which sinks into the depths as into a reservoir, and oozes +out in a regular stream at its lower outlet. A fissured rock makes a +still easier channel for the water. + +[Fig 1 and Fig. 2]. + +As examples of ordinary cases of fountains, we will take those +represented in the following figures. Fig. I is a mountain. Fig. 2 is a +model, made to explain more clearly the conditions represented in fig. I. +It will be observed that there is a ravine, R, in front; a line of fault, +L, M. N, on its left side, Supposed to be filled with water-tight rock; +and a valley, V (fig. 1), on the extreme right. The upper part of the +mountain is supposed to be much more porous than its base, and the plane +which divides the porous from the non-porous rock, to cut the surface of +the mountain along the line, A, N, M, B, C, D, E, F. The highest point of +the plane is F, and the lowest point A. The effect of rain upon the model +fig. 2 would be, to wet its upper half: water would ooze out along the +whole of the lines A, N, and M, B, C, D, E, F; and there would be a small +fountain at A, and a large one at M. But in the actual mountain, fig. 1, +we should not expect to find the same regularity as in the model. The +rind of the earth, with its vegetation and weather-impacted surface, +forms a comparatively impermeable envelope to the mountain, not likely to +be broken through, except at a few places. But ravines, such as r, would +be probably denuded of their rind, and there we should find a line of +minute fountains at the base of the porous rock. If there be no actual +fountains, there would at least be some vegetation that indicated +dripping water: thus the appearance is well known and often described, of +a ravine utterly bare of verdure above, but clothed with vegetation below +a sharply defined line, whence the moisture proceeds that irrigates all +beneath. We should also be almost certain of finding a spring breaking +forth near m or even near a. But in the valley V we should only see a few +signs of former moisture, along e, f; such as bunches of vegetation upon +the arid cliff, or an efflorescence of salts. Whenever a traveller +remarks these signs, he should observe the inclination of the strata, by +which he would learn the position of m, where the probability of finding +water is the greatest. In a very arid country, the anatomy of the land is +so manifest, from the absence of mould, that geological indications are +peculiarly easy to follow. + +Wells.--Digging Wells.--In default of spades, water is to be dug for +with a sharp-pointed stick. Take it in both hands, and, holding it +upright like a dagger, stab and dig it in the ground, as in fig. 1; then +clear out the loose earth with the hand, as in fig. 2. Continue thus +working with the stick and hand alternately, and a hole as deep as the +arm is easily made. In digging a large hole or well, the earth Must be +loosened in precisely the same manner, handed up to the surface and +carried off by means of a bucket or bag, in default of a shovel and +wheelbarrow. + +[Fig. 1. And Fig. 2.--sketches of digging as described above]. + +After digging deeply, the sand will often be found just moist, no water +actually lying in the well; but do not, therefore, be disheartened; wait +a while, and the water will collect. After it has once begun to ooze +through the sides of the well, it will continue to do so much more +freely. Therefore, on arriving at night, with thirsty cattle, at a well +of doubtful character, deepen it at once, by torch-light, that the water +may have time to collect; then the cattle may be watered in the early +morning, and sent to feed before the sun is hot. + +It often happens when digging wells in sandy watercourses, that a little +water is found, and that below it is a stratum of clay. Now if the +digging be continued deeper, in hopes of more water, the result is often +most unfortunate; for the clay stratum may prove extremely thin, in which +case the digging will pierce it: then the water that had been seen will +drain rapidly and wholly away, to the utter discomfiture of the +traveller. + +Kerkari.--I am indebted to correspondents for an account of a method +employed in the plains of the Sikhim Himalaya, and in Assam, where it is +called a "Kerkari," also in lower Bengal, for digging deep holes. The +natives take a freshly cut bamboo, say three inches in diameter: they cut +it just above one of the knots, and then split the wood as far as to the +next joint, in about a dozen places, and point the pieces somewhat. The +other end of the instrument should be cut slantingly, to thrust into the +earth, and its other end is afterwards worked vertically with both hands. + +[Unlabelled figure of kerkari]. + +The soft soil is thus forced into the hollow of the bamboo, and spreads +out its blades, as is intended to be shown in the figure. The bamboo is +next withdrawn and the plug of earth is shaken out: it is then +reintroduced and worked up and down as before. It is usual to drive a +stake in the ground to act as a toothed comb, to comb out the plug of +earth. Mr. Peal writes from Assam:--"I have just had 4 holes dug in the +course of ordinary work, in hard earth. Two men dug the holes in 1 1/2 +hour; they were 3 feet 6 inches deep and 6 inches in diameter. I weighed +the clay raised at each stroke. In 4 consecutive strokes the weights were +1 1/4 lbs., 1 3/4 lbs., 1 3/4 lbs., 2 lbs. Another trial gave 7 lbs. +lifted, after 5 or 6 strokes." According to the above data, an Assamese +workman makes a hole, 1 foot deep and 6 inches in diameter in 6 minutes. +Holes 10 feet deep and 6 inches wide can be made, as I am informed, by +this contrivance. + +Protecting Wells.--The following extract from Bishop Heber, though +hardly within the scope of the 'Art of Travel,' is very suggestive. "The +wells of this country (Bhurtpoor, India), some of which are very deep, +are made in a singular manner. They build a tower of masonry of the +diameter required, and 20 or 30 feet high from the surface of the ground. +This they allow to stand a year or more, till its masonry is rendered +firm and compact by time; then they gradually undermine it, and promote +its sinking into the sandy soil, which it does without difficulty, and +altogether. When level with the surface, they raise its walls higher; and +so go on, throwing out the sand and raising the wall, till they have +reached the water. If they adopted our method, the soil is so light that +it would fall on them before they could possibly raise the wall from the +bottom; nor, without the wall, could they sink to any considerable +depth." A stout square frame of wood scantling, boarded like a +sentry-box, and of about the same size and shape, but without top or +bottom, is used in making wells in America. The sides of a well in sandy +soil are so liable to fall in, that travellers often sink a cask or some +equivalent into the water, when they are encamped for any length of time +in its vicinity. + +Scanty wells in hot climates should be brushed over, when not in actual +use, to check their evaporation. + +Snow-water.--It is impossible for men to sustain life by eating snow or +ice, instead of drinking water. They only aggravate the raging torments +of thirst, instead of assuaging them, and hasten death. Among dogs, the +Esquimaux is the only breed that can subsist on snow, as an equivalent +for water. The Arctic animals, generally, have the same power. But, as +regards mankind, some means of melting snow into water, for the purposes +of drinking, is an essential condition of life in the Arctic regions. +Without the ingenious Esquimaux lamp (p. 205), which consists of a circle +of moss wicks, fed by train-oil, and chiefly used for melting snow, the +Esquimaux could not exist throughout the year, in the countries which +they now inhabit. + +That eating large quantities of snow should seriously disturb the animal +system is credible enough, when we consider the very large amount of heat +that must be abstracted from the stomach, in order to melt it. A mouthful +of snow at 32 degrees Fahr., that is to say, no colder than is necessary +for it to be snow at all, robs as much heat from the stomach, as if the +mouthful had been of water 143 degrees colder than ice-cold water, if +such a fluid may, for the moment, be imagined to exist. For the "latent +heat" of water is 143 degrees Fahr. In other words, it takes the same +quantity of heat to convert a mass of snow of 32 degrees into water of +32º, as it does to raise the same mass of water from 32 degrees to 141º + +32 degrees = 175 degrees Fahr. It takes in practice about as long to melt +snow of a low temperature into water, as it does to cause that same water +to boil. Thus to raise snow of 5 degrees below zero Fahr. To 32 degrees, +takes 37 degrees of heat, and it requires 143 degrees more, or 180 +degrees altogether, to melt it into water. Also it requires 180 degrees +to convert water of 32 degrees into water of 212 degrees, in other words, +into boiling water. + +Distilled Water.--It will take six or seven times as long to convert a +kettle full of boiling-water into steam, as it did to make that kettle +boil. For the "latent heat" of steam is 967 degrees Fahr.; therefore, if +the water that was put into the kettle was 60 degrees, it would require +to be raised through (212 degrees--60º degrees =) 152º degrees of +temperature in order to make it begin to boil; and it would require a +further quantity of heat, to the extent of 967 degrees (= about 6 1/2 +times 152 degrees), to boil it all away. Hence, it is of no use to +attempt to distil, until you have provided abundance of good firewood of +a fit size to burn quickly, and have built an efficient fireplace on +which to set the kettle. Unfortunately, fuel is commonly deficient in +those places where there is a lack of fresh water. + +Rate of Distillation.--A drop per second is fully equivalent To an +imperial pint of water in three hours, or be an imperial gallon in an +entire day and night. + +The simplest way to distil, but a very imperfect one, is to light a fire +among stones, near a hollow in a rock, that is filled, or can be filled +with salt-water. When the stones are red-hot, drop them one by one into +it: the water will hiss and give out clouds of vapour, some of which may +be collected in a cloth, and wrung or sucked out of it. In the same way a +pot on the fire may have a cloth stretched over it to catch the steam. + +[Sketch of still as described below]. + +Still made with a Kettle and Gun-barrel.--There is an account of the +crew of the 'Levant' packet, which was wrecked near the cosmoledo +Islands, who supplied themselves with fresh water by means of +distillation alone, and whose Still was contrived with an iron pot and a +gun-barrel, found on the spot where they were wrecked. They procured, On +the average, sixty bottles, or ten gallons, of distilled water in each +twenty-four hours. "The iron pot was converted into a boiler to contain +salt water; a lid was fitted to it out of the root of a tree, leaving a +hole of sufficient size to receive the muzzle of the gun-barrel, which +was to set as a steampipe; the barrel was run through the stump of a +tree, hollowed out in the middle, and kept full of cold water for the +purpose of condensation; and the water so distilled escaped at the nipple +of the gun-barrel, and was conducted into a bottle placed to receive it." +The accompanying sketch is taken from a model which I made, with a +soldier's mess-tin for a boiler, and a tin tube in the place of a gun +barrel. The knob represents the breech; and the projection, through which +the water is dropping, the nipple. I may remark that there is nothing in +the arrangement which would hurt the most highly-finished gun barrel; and +that the trough which holds the condensing water may be made with canvas, +or even dispensed with altogether. + +Condensing Pipe.--In default of other tubes, a reed may be used: one of +the long bones of an animal, or of a wading bird, will be an indifferent +substitute for a condensing pipe. + +Still, made with Earthen Pots and a Metal Basin.--A very simple +distilling apparatus is used in Bhootan; the sketch will show the +principle on which it is constructed. + +[Sketch of apparatus]. + +Salt water is placed in a pot, set over the fire. Another vessel, but +without top or bottom, which, for the convenience of illustration, I have +indicated in the sketch by nothing more than a dotted line, is made to +stand upon the pot. It serves as a support for a metal basin, S, which is +filled with salt water, and acts as a condenser. When the pot boils, the +steam ascends and condenses itself on the under surface of the basin S, +whence it drops down and is Collected in a cup, C, that is supported by a +rude tripod of sticks, T, standing in the inside of the iron pot. + +Occasional Means of Quenching Thirst.--A Shower of Rain will yield a +good supply. The clothes may be stripped off and spread out, and the +rain-water sucked from them. Or, when a storm is approaching a cloth or +blanket may be made fast by its four corners, and a quantity of bullets +thrown in the middle of it; they will cause the water that it receives, +to drain to one point and trickle through the cloth, into a cup or bucket +set below. A reversed umbrella will catch water; but the first drippings +from it, or from clothes that have been long unwashed, as from a +macintosh cloak, are intolerably nauseous and very unwholesome. It must +be remembered, that thirst is greatly relieved by the skin being wetted, +and therefore it is well for a man suffering from thirst, to strip to the +rain. Rain-water is lodged for some days in the huge pitcher-like +corollas of many tropical flowers. + +Sea-water.--Lives of sailors have more than once been saved when turned +adrift in a boat, by bathing frequently and keeping their clothes damp +with salt-water. However, after some days, the nauseous taste of the +salt-water is very perceptible in the saliva, and at last becomes +unbearable; such, at least was the experience of the surgeon of the +wrecked 'Pandora.' + +Dew-water is abundant near the sea-shore, and may be collected in the +same way as rain-water. The storehouse at Angra Pequena, in S. W. Africa, +in 1850, was entirely supplied by the dew-water deposited on its roof. +The Australians who live near the sea, go among the wet bushes with a +great piece of bark, and brush into it the dew-drops from the leaves with +a wisp of grass; collecting in this way large quantities of water. Eyre +used a sponge for the same purpose, and appears to have saved his life by +its use. + +Animal Fluids are resorted to in emergencies; such as the contents of the +paunch of an animal that has been shot; its taste is like sweet-wort. Mr. +Darwin writes of people who, catching turtles, drank the water that was +found in their Pericardia; it was pure and sweet. Blood will stand in the +stead of solid food, but it is of no avail in the stead of water, on +account of its saline qualities. + +Vegetable Fluids.--Many roots exist, from which both natives and animals +obtain a sufficiency of sap and pulp, to take the place of water. The +traveller should inquire of the natives, and otherwise acquaint himself +with those peculiar to the country that he visits; such as the roots +which the eland eats, the bitter water-melon, etc. + +To purify water that is muddy or putrid.--With muddy water, the remedy +is to filter, and to use alum, if you have it. With putrid, to boil, to +mix with charcoal, or expose to the sun and air; or what is best, to use +all three methods at the same time. When the water is salt or brackish, +nothing avails but distillation. (See Distilled Water," p. 218.) + +To filter Muddy Water.--When, at the watering-place, there is little +else but a mess of mud and filth, take a good handful of grass or rushes, +and tie it roughly together in the form of a cone, 6 or 8 inches long; +then dipping the broad end into the puddle, and turning it up, a +streamlet of fluid will trickle down through the small end. This +excellent plan is used by the Northern Bushmen--at their wells +quantities of these bundles are found lying about. (Anderson.) Otherwise +suck water through your handkerchief by putting it over the mouth of your +mug, or by throwing it on the gritty mess as it lies in the puddle. For +obtaining a copious supply, the most perfect plan, if you have means, is +to bore a cask full of auger holes, and put another small one, that has +had the bottom knocked out, inside it; and then to fill the space between +the two, with grass, moss, etc. Sink the whole in the midst of the pond; +the water will run through the auger-holes, filter through the moss, and +rise in the inner cask clear of weeds and sand. If you have only a single +cask, holes may be bored in the lower part of its sides, and alternate +layers of sand and grass thrown in, till they cover the holes; through +these layers, the water will strain. Or any coarse bag, kept open with +hoops made on the spot, may be moored in the mud, by placing a heavy +stone inside; it will act on The same principle, but less efficiently +than the casks. Sand, charcoal, sponge, and wood, are the substances most +commonly used in properly constructed filters: peat charcoal is +excellent. Charcoal acts not only as a mechanical filter for solid +impurities, but it has the further advantage of absorbing putrid gases. +(See below, "Putrid Water.") Snow is also used as a filter in the Arctic +regions. Dr. Rae used to lay it on the water, until it was considerably +higher than its level, and then to suck the water through the snow. + +Alum.--Turbid water is also, in some way as yet insufficiently +explained, made clear by the Indian plan of putting a piece of alum into +it. The alum appears to unite with the mud, and to form a clayey deposit. +Independently of the action, it has an astringent effect upon organic +matters: it hardens them, and they subside to the bottom of the vessel +instead of being diffused in a glairy, viscous state, throughout the +water. No taste of alum remains in the water, unless it has been used in +great excess. Three thimblefuls of alum will clarify a bucketful of +turbid water. + +Putrid Water should always be purified by boiling it together with +charcoal or charred sticks, as low fevers and dysenteries too often are +the consequences of drinking it. The mere addition of charcoal largely +disinfects it. Bitter herbs, if steeped in putrid water, or even rubbed +well about the cup, are said to render it less unwholesome. The Indians +plunge hot iron into putrid water. + +Thirst, to relieve.--Thirst is a fever of the palate, which may be +somewhat relieved by other means than drinking fluids. + +By exciting Saliva.--The mouth is kept moist, and thirst is mitigated, +by exciting the saliva to flow. This can be done by chewing something, as +a leaf; or by keeping in the mouth a bullet, or a smooth, non-absorbent +stone, such as a quartz pebble. + +By Fat or Butter.--In Australia, Africa, and N. America, it is a +frequent custom to carry a small quantity of fat or butter, and to eat a +spoonful at a time, when the thirst is severe. These act on the irritated +membranes of the mouth and throat, just as cold cream upon chapped hands. + +By Salt Water.--People may live long without drinking, if they have +means of keeping their skin constantly wet with water, even though it be +salt or otherwise undrinkable. A traveller may tie a handkerchief wetted +with salt water round his neck. See p. 223. + +By checking Evaporation.--The Arabs keep their mouths covered with a +cloth, in order to prevent the sense of thirst caused by the lips being +parched. + +By Diet.--Drink well before starting, and make a habit of drinking only +at long intervals, and then, plenty at a time. + +On giving Water to Persons nearly dead from Thirst.--Give a little at a +time, let them take it in spoonfuls; for the large draughts that their +disordered instincts suggest, disarrange the weakened stomach: they do +serious harm, and no corresponding good. Keep the whole body wet. + +Small Water Vessels.--General Remarks on Carrying Water.--People drink +excessively in hot dry climates, as the evaporation from the skin is +enormous, and must be counterbalanced. Under these circumstances the +daily ration of a European is at least two quarts. To make an exploring +expedition in such countries efficient, there should be means of carrying +at least one gallon of water for each white man; and in unknown lands +this quantity should be carried on from every watering-place, so long as +means can possibly be obtained for carrying it, and should be served out +thus:--two quarts on the first day, in addition to whatever private store +the men may have chosen to carry for themselves; a quart and a half +during the second day; and half a quart on the morning of the third, +which will carry them through that day without distress. Besides +water-vessels sufficient for carrying what I have mentioned, there ought +to be others for the purpose of leaving water buried in the ground, as a +store for the return of a reconnoitring expedition; also each man should +be furnished with a small water-vessel of some kind or other for his own +use, and should be made to take care of it. + +Fill the Water-vessels.--"Never mind what the natives may tell you +concerning the existence of water on the road, believe nothing, but +resolutely determine to fill the girbas (water-vessels)." (Baker.) + +Small Water-vessels.--No expedition should start without being fully +supplied with these; for no bushman however ingenious, can make anything +so efficient as casks, tin vessels or macintosh bags. + +[Sketch of water-vessel]. + +A tin vessel of the shape shown in the sketch, and large enough to hold a +quart, is, I believe, the easiest to carry, the cleanest, and the most +durable of small water-vessels. The curve in its shape is to allow of its +accommodating itself to the back of the man who carries it. The tin loops +at its sides are to admit the strap by which it is to be slung, and which +passes through the loops underneath the bottom of the vessel, so that the +weight may rest directly upon the strap. Lastly, the vessel has a pipette +for drinking through, and a larger hole by which it is to be filled, and +which at other times is stopped with a cork or wooden plug. When drinking +out of the pipette, the cork must be loosened in order to admit air, like +a vent hole. Macintosh bags, for wine or water, are very convenient to +carry and they will remain water-tight for a long period when fairly +used. (Mem.--Oil and grease are as fatal to macintosh as they are to +iron rust.) But the taste that these vessels impart to their contents is +abominable, not only at first but for a very long time; in two-thirds of +them it is never to be got rid of. Never believe shopkeepers in an +india-rubber shop, in their assurances to the contrary; they are +incompetent to judge aright, for their senses seem vitiated by the air +they live in. The best shape for a small macintosh water-vessel has yet +to be determined. Several alpine men use them; and their most recent +patterns may probably best be seen at Carter's, Alpine Outfitter, +Oxford Street. A flask of dressed hide (pig, goat, or dog) with a wooden +nozzle, and a wooden plug to fit into it, is very good. Canvas bags, +smeared with grease on the outside, will become nearly waterproof after a +short soaking. A strong glass flask may be made out of a soda-water +bottle; it should have raw hide shrunk upon it to preserve it from sharp +taps Likely to make a crack. Calabashes and other gourds, cocoa-nuts and +ostrich eggs, are all of them excellent for flasks. The Bushmen of South +Africa make great use of ostrich shells as water-vessels. They have +stations at many places in the desert, where they bury these shells +filled with water, corked with grass, and occasionally waxed over. They +thus go without hesitation over wide tracts, for their sense of locality +is so strong that they never fear to forget the spot in which they have +dug their hiding-place. + +When a Dutchman or a Namaqua wants to carry a load of ostrich eggs to or +from the watering-place, or when he robs a nest, he takes off his +trousers, ties up the ankles, puts the eggs in the legs, and carries off +his load slung round his neck. Nay, I have seen a half-civilised +Hottentot carry water in his leather breeches, ties up and slung in the +way I have just described, but without the intervention of ostrich eggs; +the water squired through the seams, but plenty remained after he had +carried it to its destination, which was a couple of miles from the +watering-place. In an emergency, water-flasks can be improvised from the +raw or dry skins of animals, which should be greased down the back; or +from the paunch, the heart-bag (pericardium), the intestines, or the +bladder. These should have a wooden skewer runing and out along one side +of their mouths, by which they can be carried, and a lashing under the +skewer to make all tight (fig. below). + +[Sketch of bag with skewer and bag being carried]. + +The Bushmen do this. The water oozes through the membrane, and by its +evaporation the contents are kept very cool. Another plan is, after +having tied a length of intestine at both ends, to roll it up in a +handkerchief and wear it as a belt round the waist. The fault of these +membranous bags, besides their disgusting character and want of strength +is, that they become putrid after a few days' use. + +Vessels for Cooling Water may be made that shall also act efficiently as +flasks. Porous earthen jars are too brittle for long use, and their pores +choke up if slimy water be put inside them. But the Arabs use a porous +leather flask, called a Zemsemiya, which is hung on the shady side of the +camel, and by evaporation keeps the water deliciously cool: it is a +rather wasteful way of carrying water. Canvas bags are equally effective. + +Open Buckets, for carrying water for short distances, or for storing it +in camp, may be made of the bark of a tree, either taken off in an entire +cylinder, and having a bottom fitted on, or else of a knot or excrescence +that has been cut off the outside of a tree, and its woody interior +scooped out; or of birth bark sewed or pegged at the corners, and having +its seams coated with the gum or resin of the pine-tree. Baskets with +oiled cloth inside, make efficient water-vessels; they are in use in +France as firemen's buckets. Water-tight pots are made on the Snake river +by winding long touch roots in a spiral manner, and lashing the coils to +one another, just as is done in making a beehive. Earthenware jars are +excellent, when they can be obtained. + +To prevent Splashing.--When carrying water in buckets, put a wreath of +grass, or something else that will float, on the water, to prevent it +from splashing; and also make a hoop, inside which the porter may walk, +while his laden hands rest on its rim: the hoop keeps his hands wide from +his body, and prevents the buckets from knocking against his legs. + +Mending Leather Water-vessels.--If a water-vessel becomes leaky, the +hole should be caulked by stuffing a rag, a wedge of wood, a tuft of +grass, or anything else into it, as shown in the upper figure and also in +the left side of the lower one (p. 230), and then greasing or waxing it +over. A larger rent must be Seized upon, the lips of the wound pinched +up, a thorn or other spike run through the lips, and lastly a piece of +twine lashed firmly round, underneath the thorn; the thorn keeps the +string from slipping off (See the right-hand corner of the lower figure.) +When there is an opportunity, the bag must be patched, as is also shown +in the lower figure. + +[Sketch of parts of two bags as referred to in text]. + +Repairing a battered Metal Flask.--Fill it with dry seed, such as peas +or mustard-seed; then pour in water and put the stopper into it. After a +period varying from 1 to 3 or 4 hours, according to the nature of the +seeds, they will begin to swell and to force the sides of the flask +outwards into their original shape. The swelling proceeds rather rapidly +after it has once commenced, so the operation requires watching, lest it +should be overdone and the flask should burst. + +Corks and Stoppers.--Thrust a cork tightly into the mouth of the flask, +cut a hole through the cork and plug the hole, which will henceforth form +the outlet of the flask--with a stopper of wood, bone, or other hard +substance. Thread, wound round a slightly conical plug that has been +sufficiently notched to retain it in its place, makes it nearly +water-tight as a stopper. It is of less importance that the stopper +should fit closely, if the flask be so slung that its mouth shall be +always uppermost: a very imperfect cork will then be sufficient to check +evaporation and splashing, and to prevent the loss of more than a few +drops from occasional upsets. + +Drinking, when riding or walking.--It is an awkward matter to drink when +jolting on wheels, on horseback, or on foot. I adopted the plan of +carrying a piece of small india-rubber tubing 6 or 8 inches long, and +when I wished to drink, I removed the stopper and inserted the tube, just +as an insect might let down its proboscis, and sucked the contents. Sir +S. Baker says of the people of Unyoro, "During a journey, a pretty, +bottle-shaped, long-necked gourd is carried with a store of +plantain-cider; the mouth of the bottle is stopped with a bundle of the +white rush shreds, through which a reed is inserted that reaches to the +bottom: thus the drink can be sucked up during the march, without the +necessity of halting; nor is it possible to spill it by the movement of +walking." + +Kegs and Tanks.--Keys for Pack-saddles.--Small barrels, flattened +equally on both sides, so that their tops and bottoms shall be of an oval +and not a circular shape, are the most convenient vessels, +notwithstanding their weight, for carrying water on pack-saddles across a +broken country. They are exceedingly strong, and require no particular +attention, while bags of leather or macintosh suffer from thorns, and +natives secretly prick them during the march, that they may suck a +draught of water. These kegs should not exceed 22 inches in length, 10 in +extreme breadth, and 7 in extreme width; a cask of these measurements +would hold about 40 lbs. weight of water, and its own weight might be 15 +lbs. As the water is expended, it is easy to replace the diminished +weight by putting on a bag from one of the other packs. Before starting +away into the bush, these kegs should be satisfactorily fitted and +adjusted to the pack-saddle that is intended to carry them, in such a way +that they may be packed on to it with the least possible trouble. A +couple of leather or iron loops Fixed to each keg, and made to catch on +to the hooks which are let flush into the sides of the pack-saddle, will +effect this. + +[Sketch as described below]. + +The sketch represents a section of the pack-saddle, at the place where +one of the hooks is situated on either side, but the front of the kegs +themselves, and not their section, is given. Above and between the kegs +lies a bag, and a strap passing from the near side of the saddle goes +over the whole burden, and is buckled to a similar short strap on the +other side. It is of importance that the bung-hole should be placed even +nearer to the rim than where it is drawn, for it is necessary that it +should be convenient to pour out of and to pour into, and that it should +be placed on the highest part of the keg, both when on the beast's back +and also when it stands on the ground, lest water should leak and be +lost. According to the above plan, when water is ladled into it, the rim +keeps it from spilling; and in pouring out water, the run acts as a +spout. In making the bung-hole, a metal plate, with a screw-hole in it, +is firmly fixed in the face of the cask; into this a wooden stopper, +bound with iron, is made to screw (natives would probably steal a metal +one). The stopper has a small head and a deeply-cut neck, by which it is +tied to the cask, and its body has a large hole bored in it, which admits +of a stick being put through, to prize it round, if it should become +jammed. A spigot, to screw into the bung-hole on arriving at camp, might +be really useful; but if used, a gimlet-hole must be bored in the cask to +act as an air-vent. A large tundish is very convenient, and a spare plug +might be taken; but a traveller, with a little painstaking, could soon +cut a plug with his own knife, sufficiently well made to allow of its +being Firmly screwed in, and of retaining the water, if it had a bit of +rag wrapped round it. A piece of rag rolled tightly, will suffice to plug +a hole. + +Siphons.--A flexible tube of some kind, whether of india-rubber, +gutta-percha, or, still better, of macintosh, strained over rings, would +be very valuable as a siphon: both for filling large kegs out of buckets +and for emptying them again. Vulcanised india-rubber becomes rotten after +short use, and gutta-percha will stand no extremes of temperature. + +Tanks for Wagons.--There still remain many large districts in Asia, +Africa, and Australia which may be explored in wagons, but, so far as I +am aware, no particular pattern of a water-tank, suitable for carriage on +wheels, has yet been adopted by travellers. I believe kegs are generally +used, but they are far too heavy for the requirements of a wagon. +Probably the tins used for sending milk by cart and railway to towns, +would be very serviceable for carrying water on expeditions. They are +invariably made of the same shape, and only of few different sizes. +Therefore experience must have shown that their pattern is better than +any other yet devised. Their mouths can be padlocked, which is an +important matter. + +Macintosh Bags.--I would also recommend a trial of square bags of strong +macintosh--say 18 inches deep and 10 inches square, in which case they +would hold 60 lbs. of water--fitting into square compartments, in large +panniers, like those in a bottle-basket. I have made some experiments +upon this arrangement. The basket-work gives protection against blows and +the jolting together of packages, and it yields without harm to a strain, +and the bags yield also. Moreover, water is less churned in half-empty +bags than in half-empty barrels. No unusual strength of materials would +be required in making these bags: their mouths should be funnel-shaped, +and corked at the neck of the funnel. The funnels should be wide at their +mouths, for convenience in filling them; and a string to secure the cork +should be tied round the neck of the funnel. The bags should have loops +on their sides, through which a strap, passing underneath, might run, in +order to Give a good hold for lifting them up. They could easily be +filled as they lay in their compartments, and would only require to be +lifted out in order to empty them; there is, therefore, no objection to +their holding as much as 60 lbs. weight of water. An india-rubber tube as +a siphon, and with a common spigot at the end of it, would be +particularly useful. A pannier not much exceeding 30 inches long, by 20 +broad, and 18 deep, would hold six of these bags, or 360 lbs. weight of +water in all; and two such panniers would be ample for exploring +purposes. I had a pannier and two bags made for a trial, which were quite +satisfactory, and I found that the weight of the panniers and bags +together was at the rate of 6 lbs. for each compartment; therefore the +weight of these water-vessels is not more than 10 per cent. Of that of +the water which they carry. It might be well to vary the contents of some +of the compartments; putting, for instance, two or even three small bags +into one, and tin cases into a few of the others, instead of the large +bags. These panniers, with the bags inflated, and connected together by a +stage, would form an excellent and powerful raft. If secured within a +wagon about to cross a deep river, they would have enough power, in all +ordinary cases, to cause it to float and not to sink to the bottom. I +trust some explorer will try this plan. I may add that the macintosh +water-bags cost me about 1 pound each. + +Raw Hide Bags/--Captain Sturt, when he explored in Australia, took a tank +in his cart, which burst, and besides that, he carried casks of water. By +these he was enabled to face a desert country with a degree of success to +which no traveller before had ever attained. For instance, when returning +homewards, the water was found to be drying up on all sides of him. He +was encamped by a pool where he was safe, whence the next stage was 118 +miles, or 4 days' journey, but it was a matter of considerable doubt +whether there remained any water at the end of the stage. It was +absolutely necessary to reconnoitre, and in order to do so, he had first +to provide the messenger with the means of returning, should the +watering-place be found dry. He killed a bullock, skinned it, and filling +the skin with water (which held 150 gallons), Sent it by an ex-dray 30 +miles, with orders to bury it and to return. Shortly after he despatched +a light one-horse cart, carrying 36 gallons of water; the horse and man +were to drink at the hide, and then to go on. Thus they had 36 gallons to +supply them for a journey of 176 miles, or 6 days, at 30 miles a day at +the close of which they would return to the ox-hide--sleeping, in fact, +5 nights on 36 gallons of water. This a hardy, well-driven horse could +do, even in the hottest climate. + +To raise Water from Wells for Cattle.--By hand.--Let one man stand in +the water, or just above it; another 5 feet higher; and again another +higher still, if the depth of the well requires it. Then let the +lowermost man dip a bucket in the water, and pass it from hand to hand +upwards; the top man pours the water into a trough, out of which the +cattle drink. This trough may be simply a ditch scratched in the ground; +a piece of canvas should be thrown over it, if the soil be sandy, to keep +the water from being lost before the cattle have time to drink it. Thus +Eyre speaks of watering his horse, out of his black servant's duck frock. +Light gutta-percha buckets are very useful in temperate climates; and so +are baskets, with oilcloth inside them. + +The drove of cattle should be brought up to 60 yards from the +watering-place; then three or four should be driven out--they will run +at once to the water. After they have drunk, drive them to one side, and +let another three or four take their place, and so on; keeping the two +droves quite distinct--those that have drunk, and those that are waiting +to drink. They will drink at the rate of one per minute; sheep and goats +drink very much faster. Never let the cattle go in a rush to the well, +else they will stamp it in, most of them get no water, and they will all +do a great deal of damage. + +By horse power.--It does not fall within the scope of this book to +describe water-wheels worked by cattle, or elaborate mechanism of any +kind; I therefore only mention under this head, that the Tartars +sometimes draw water from their wells, of 150 feet deep and upwards, by a +rider harnessing the bucket-rope to his horse, and galloping him off to a +mark that tells the proper distance. Their ropes are of twisted hair, and +are made to run over a smoothed stone, or a log of wood. + +[Sketches of pole and bucket and pump as described below]. + +A pole and bucket is a very convenient way of raising water from 4 to 12 +feet. The bucket may be made of canvas, basket-work, leather, wood, or +almost any other material; leakage, though considerable, is of little +consequence, because the action of the apparatus is so quick, that there +is not time for much water to be lost. This contrivance is used over +almost the whole globe--less in England than elsewhere; it is very +common where long poles can easily be obtained, as in fir forests. + +Pump.--An excellent and very simple pump is used by the Arabs in +Algeria. A piece of leather or waxed canvas, is stretched round one or +more hoops; it forms a hollow cylinder, that admits of being shut flat +like an accordion. The top and bottom of the cylinder are secured round +the edges of two discs of wood. Holes are bored in these discs and +leather valves are fitted to them. The lower disc is nailed to the bottom +of a tub; the hole in it corresponds with the feed-pipe, and the valve +that covers the hole opens upwards. The upper disc Is attached to the +pump handle; the valves that cover the holes in this disc, open upwards +also. When the leather-pump barrel is pressed flat, water flows through +the upper valves into the barrel around it; when it is pulled out, water +is sucked up through the feed-pipe, and an equal quantity is displaced +from the barrel. This flows out into the trough. A bag would do as well +as a tub, to hold the water which surrounds the pump-barrel; but, without +the water which it is the object of either the one or the other to +contain, the pump-barrel must be air-proof as well as water-proof. The +action of this pump is marvellously perfect. It attracted much attention +in the French Exhibition of 1855. + + + +GUNS AND RIFLES. + + +General Remarks.--Breech-loaders.--At the present time when the merits +of different kinds of breech-loader are so hotly discussed, when all that +have yet been invented have some faults, and every month brings to light +some new invention, it would be foolish in me to write anything about +them; it would be obsolete before the great majority of my readers should +have seen this book. Therefore omitting breech-loaders altogether from +the present edition, I will confine myself to repeating what I have said +before upon muzzle-loaders, with additions and alterations. + +Size of Gun.--American bushrangers advocate a long heavy pea-rifle, on +the plea of its accurate shooting, and the enormous saving in weight of +ammunition when bullets of a small size are used. The objections to +small-bored rifles are, insufficiency against large game (even with +conical bullets), and a tendency to become foul after a few shots. A +short light rifle, whether with a large or a small bore, is, I believe, +utterly worthless. In the hands of a man trembling with running and with +exhaustion, it shakes like a wand: the shorter the rifle, the more +quickly does it oscillate, and of course, in the same proportion, is it +difficult to catch the exact moment when the sights cover the object. + +For the larger kinds of game, such as elephants and buffaloes, +experienced sportsmen mostly prefer guns of immense Bore, carrying round +bullets that weigh a quarter of a pound. The recoil is tremendous, and +would injure the shoulder if the sportsman did not use a pad against +which he rests the gun. The guns must be strong, because very large +charges of powder are invariably used where great power of penetration is +required. African sportsmen found this out experimentally long before the +idea occurred to artillerists. + +Sights.--The hind sight should be far from the eye, even though it be +placed half-way down the barrel: else it becomes out of focus and +indistinct, when the eye is firmly set on the object aimed at; this +drawback is never compensated by the advantage of having the front and +hind sights far asunder. + +Ramrod.--The guns of servants and indeed those of their masters, should +have thin soft-iron ramrods; the elasticity of these when slightly bent, +will retain them in the ramrod-tubes; both ends of the ramrod must be +forged broad. + +Screw to secure the Cock.--In common guns, this screw is very liable to +get loose, fall out and be lost; it is therefore desirable to have one or +more spare screws. + +Water-proof Cover should not be forgotten. + +Rust, to prevent.--Paraffine and mercurial ointment are perhaps the two +best things to keep rust off iron, in sea voyages or in boat-shooting. +Before embarking for a voyage, it is convenient to enclose the guns in a +leaden case, which, on arrival, can be melted up into bullets. It is +remarkable how much better dirty guns withstand rust than clean ones. + +Olive oil, to purify.--Put a piece of lead in the glass bottle that +contains the oil, and expose to the sun; a quantity of cloudy matter will +separate after a few days, then the refined oil may be decanted. + +The small of the stock is the weakest part of a gun: it is constantly +broken by falls in travel. Sir Samuel Baker justly recommends that "all +guns made for sport in wild countries and rough riding, should have steel +instead of iron from the Breech-socket, extending far back to within six +inches of the shoulder plate; the trigger-guard should likewise be steel, +and should be carried back to an equal distance with the above rib; the +steel should be of extra thickness, and screwed through to the upper +piece; thus the two being connected by screws above and below, no fall +could break the stock." + +Injuries to Guns, to repair.--Ramrod tubes often break off, and it is a +very troublesome accident when they do so. I know of no contrivance to +fasten them on again, except by using soft solder, the application of +which will not in the least hurt the gun: ashes, at a dull red heat, must +be heaped over the barrel to warm it sufficiently, before applying the +solder. If the ramrod tubes have been lost, others made of tin may +replace them. + +The Sight of a Gun, if it falls out and is lost, can easily be replaced +by a substitute. A groove must be cut with a file across the substance of +the barrel, if the gun be a single one, or across the midrib, if +double-barrelled; into this a piece of iron, ivory, bone, horn, or hard +wood, with a projection carved in the middle for the sight, must be +pushed, then the metal on either side must be battered down over it, with +a hammer or stone, to keep it firm. + +A broken Stock, however much it may be smashed, can be well mended by raw +hide (see "Hides"). Blacksmith's work and carpentering are seldom +sufficient for the purpose. It is within the power of a rough workman to +make a gun-stock, but it is a work of great labour. + +A Ramrod may be replaced by cutting a stick from a tree, straightening it +in the fire, and then seasoning it. (See "Green Wood.") + +Guns to hang up, to carry, and to clean.--Hanging Guns to a Wall.--Fix +a loop of leather for the muzzle, and a strap and buckle for the stock, +with a piece of sheepskin or canvas nailed so as to hang over it, as in +fig. 1. A more complete way is to sew a long pocket with a flap to it, +which is tied up on to a stick or bar, as in fig. 2: the gun has simply +to be Lifted out and in. The pocket must be made baggy at the part which +corresponds to the cocks of the gun. + +[Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 As described in text]. + +Carrying Guns on a Journey.--"Look at the gun, but never let the gun +look at you, or at your companions," is a golden rule; for among the +chances of death to which a traveller is exposed, that of being shot by +an attendant's gun going off accidentally, ranks high. Servants should +carry their guns with the cock down on a piece of rag, that covers the +cap: take it all in all, it is the best plan for them. A sportsman will +find great convenience in having a third nick cut in the tumbler of his +lock, so as to give an additional low half-cock, at which the cock just +clears the nipple; it will prevent the cap from falling off or receiving +a blow. I have long used this plan, and find no objections to it: many +pistols are furnished with this contrivance. Careless gun-makers +sometimes make this catch so low, that when the cock is lifted a little +back from it, and let go, it strikes the cap by reason of the elasticity +of its metal, and lets off the gun: the traveller should beware of this +fault of workmanship. + +[Sketch of gun as described]. + +As this book may fall into the hands of persons ignorant of the danger of +carrying a gun with the cock down on the nipple (to which cause I find +that three-fourths of gun accidents are owing, having once kept a list of +those that were reported in the newspapers), I will remark that when the +cock is down, a heavy blow on its back, nay, even the jar caused by the +gun falling on the ground, will cause the cap to explode. Again if the +cock catch against the dress, or against A twig, it is liable to be +lifted, when, on being released, it will snap down upon the cap. When a +gun is at half-cock, the first of these accidents obviously cannot occur; +and, as to the second, if the cock be pulled back and let drop, it falls, +not down upon the cap, but to half-cock again, except only in the case +where the trigger is also pressed back. The objections to carrying a gun +at half-cock are, that careless people occasionally leave it on full-cock +without perceiving the difference, and that there is a probability of +weakening the main-spring, if day after day it be kept on the strain. + +Carrying Guns when Stalking Game.--In creeping after game, the gun is +always troublesome; there is no better plan than pushing it as far as the +arm can reach, then creeping up to it, and again pushing it forwards. + +Carrying Guns on Horseback.--Allow me very strongly to recommend a trial +of the following plan, even for a shooting-pony in Scotland. It is the +invention of the Namaquas. I and all my party in South Africa used it for +a year and a half, and many persons have adopted the plan in England +since I first published a description of it. Sew a bag of canvas, +leather, or hide, of such a size as to admit the butt of the gun pretty +freely. The straps that support the bag, buckle through a ring in the +pommel; the thongs by which the slope of the bag is adjusted, are +fastened round the girth, below. The exact adjustments may not be hit +upon, by an unpractised person, for some time; but, when they are once +ascertained, the thongs need never be shifted. The gun is perfectly safe: +it never comes below the armpit, even in taking a crop leap: it is pulled +out in an instant by bringing the elbow forwards in front of the gun and +then backwards, pressing it against the side; by this manner, the gun is +thrown to the outside of the arm: then, lowering the hand, catch the gun +as near the trigger-guard as you can, and lift it out of the bag: (it is +a bungling way to take out the gun whilst its barrel lies between the arm +and the body). Any sized gun can be carried in this fashion, and it +offers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting. + +I hear that some sportsmen, who were probably unacquainted with this +method, have used a bag or pocket of stiff Leather attached to the side +of the saddle, just behind the right leg; into this, when tired of +carrying the gun, they push the butt. It is said to lie there securely +and to give no trouble, the barrel passes forwards under the right arm, +and the muzzle is in front of the rider. + +[Drawing of horse, rider and gun as described above]. + +The French dragoons carry a gun in a way that is convenient for military +purposes, because it does not interfere with the immense housings that +cavalry soldiers require; but it is not so handy, it does not lie so +freely as the above, nor is it as well suited to a traveller or a +sportsman. The gun is placed butt downwards, as in the Namaqua method, +and leans backwards in the same way; but the under side of the gun, +instead of being backwards, or towards the horse's tail, Is towards his +head. The butt lies in a shallow bucket, secured by two straps fixed to +the front of the saddle; another strap, leading from the pommel, and +passing over the right thigh of the rider, is hitched round the barrel of +the gun, and has to be unbuckled and cast off when the gun is taken out. + +All ways of carrying the gun with its muzzle downwards, are very +objectionable; since the jolting tends to dislodge the charge; if it be +considerably dislodged, the gun will probably burst, on being fired. +Also, a very little shaking, when the muzzle is downwards, will shake the +powder out of the nipple, and therefore, a gun, so carried, will +constantly miss fire. + +At Night, to dispose of Guns.--A gun is a very awkward thing to dispose +of at night. It has occurred more than once that a native servant has +crept up, drawn away the gun of his sleeping master, and shot him dead. +The following appears to me an excellent plan:--"When getting sleepy, you +return your rifle between your legs, roll over, and go to sleep. Some +people may think this is a queer place for a rifle; but, on the contrary, +it is the position of all others where utility and comfort are most +combined. + +[Sketch of man and gun as described]. + +The butt rests on the arm, and serves as a pillow for the head; the +muzzle points between the knees, and the arms encircle the lock and +breech, so that you have a smooth pillow, and are always prepared to +start Up armed at a moment's notice." (Parkyns' 'Abyssinia.') The longer +the gun, the more secure is the sleeper from accident. The sketch is not +quite accurate, for, in practice, the weight of the gun is never allowed +to rest so entirely on the arm, as it is here represented: if it did so, +the arm would soon be numbed. The gun-stock may be a little bolstered up +if desired, to avoid any troublesome pressure on the arm. + +Cleaning Guns.--A bit of rag does as well as tow, and can be used over +and over again. A top furnished with a sponge, to screw to the cleaning +rod, is convenient. "A leaded barrel must be cleaned with fine sand." +(Hawker.) Quicksilver, if it be at hand, will dissolve out the lead at +once. + + + +GUN-FITTINGS AND AMMUNITION. + + +Powder-flask.--The flask that is carried in the pocket may be small, if +roomy; a large one, in reserve, being kept in a bag, at the front of the +saddle. + +To reduce bulges in a metal powder-flask, fill it up with Indian corn, or +dry peas, of any other sort of hard grain; then pour water into it, and +screw down the lid tightly. The grain will swell, at first slowly and +then very rapidly, and the flask will resume its former dimensions, or +burst if it is not watched. Peas do not begin to swell for a couple of +hours or more. + +Powder-horn, to make.--Saw off the required length from an ox's horn, +flatten it somewhat by heat (see "Horn"), fit a wooden bottom into it, +caulk it well, and sew raw hide round the edge to keep all tight. The +mouth must be secured by a plug, which may be hollowed to make a charger. +Pieces of cane of large diameter, and old gunpowder canisters, sewn up in +hide, make useful powder-flasks. + +Percussion Caps.--Caps may be carried very conveniently by means of a +ring, with two dozen nipple-shaped beads, made of some metal, strung upon +it; each bead being intended to be covered by a percussion-cap. The beads +are cleft down the middle, which gives them a slight springiness, that +more effectually secures the caps that are placed upon them: the ring is +tied by a thong to the belt or button-hole. It is very Difficult, without +this contrivance, to keep caps free from sand, crumbs, and dirt, yet +always at hand when required. I can confidently recommend it, though as +it is old-fashioned and not well suited for sportsmen in England, it is +rarely to be met with. Spring cap holders are, I am sure, too delicate +for rough travel. + +To protect Caps from the Rain.--Before stalking, or watching at night in +rainy weather, wax or grease the edge of the cap as it rests on the +nipple: it will thus become proof against water and damp air. Some +persons carry a piece of grease with them, when shooting in wet weather, +and with it they smear the top of the nipple after each loading, before +putting on the fresh cap. It is said that the grease does not prevent the +full action of the cap upon the powder. A sportsman has recommended to me +a couple of well-marked caps, into the heads of which small wads of cork +have been fitted; he uses them for loaded guns that are to be laid by for +some hours or days. A broad leaf wrapped loosely round the lock of a gun, +will protect it during a heavy shower. + +Substitute for Caps.--When the revolution in Spain in 1854 began, "there +was a great want of percussion caps; this the insurgents supplied by +cutting off the heads of lucifer-matches and sticking them into the +nipples. The plan was found to answer perfectly." (Times, July 31.) + +Gun-pricker.--I am indebted for the following plan, both for clearing +the touchhole, and also for the rather awkward operation of pricking down +fresh gunpowder into it, to an old sportsman in the Orkney Island of +Sanday. He takes a quill, and cuts off a broad ring from the large end of +it; this is pushed over the small end of the quill, and lies securely +there. Next, he cuts a wooden plug to fit the quill; into the plug, the +pricker is fixed. + +[Sketch of gun-pricker as described]. + +The whole affair goes safely in the pocket; the quill acting as a sheath +to the sharp pricker. Now, when powder has to be pricked down the nipple, +the "broad ring" is slipped off the quill and put on the nipple, which it +fits; powder is poured into it, and the required operation is easily +completed. This little contrivance, which is so simple and Light, lasts +for months, and is perfectly effective. I have tried metal holders, but I +much prefer the simple quill, on account of its elasticity and lightness. +A little binding with waxed thread, may be put on, as shown in the +sketch, to prevent the quill from splitting. + +Wadding.--The bush affords few materials from which wadding can be made; +some birds' nests are excellent for the purpose. I am told that a dry +hide will not serve as materials for wads. + +Flints.--According to Ure's Dictionary, the best stones to choose for +making gun-flints are those that are not irregular in shape; they should +have, when broken, a greasy lustre, and be particularly smooth and +fine-grained; the colour is of no importance, but it should be uniform in +the same lump; and the more transparent the stones the better. Gun-flints +are made with a hammer, and a chisel of steel that is not hardened. The +stone is chipped by the hammer alone into pieces of the required +thickness, which are fashioned by being laid upon the fixed chisel, and +hammered against it. It takes nearly a minute for a practised workman to +make one gun-flint. + +Gunpowder.--To carry Gunpowder.--Wrap it up in flannel or leather, not +in paper, cotton, or linen; because these will catch fire, or smoulder +like tinder, whilst the former will do neither the one nor the other. +Gunpowder carried in a goat-skin bag, travels very safely. Mr. Gregory +carried his in the middle of his flour; each flour-bag (see p. 69), +during his North Australian expedition, had a tin of gunpowder in the +middle of it. + +To make Gunpowder.--It is difficult to make good gunpowder, but there is +no skill required in making powder that will shoot and kill. Many of the +negroes of Africa, make it for themselves--burning the charcoal, +gathering saltpetre from salt-pans, and buying the sulphur from trading +caravans: they grind the materials on a stone. In Chinese Tartary and +Thibet, every peasant manufactures it for himself. + +To make 8 lbs. of gunpowder, take 1 lb. of charcoal, 1 lb. of sulphur, +and 6 lbs. of saltpetre. These proportions should be followed as +accurately as possible. Each of the three materials must be pounded into +powder separately, and then all mixed together most thoroughly. The +mixture must have a little water added to it, Enough to make it bind into +a stiff paste (about one-tenth part, by measure, of water is sufficient; +that is to say, one cupful of water to ten cupfuls of the mixed powder). +The paste must be well kneaded together, with one stone on another, just +as travellers usually make meal or grind coffee. It should then be +wrapped up to a piece of canvas, or a skin, and pressed, with as heavy a +pressure as can be obtained, to condense it. Next, the cake is squeezed +and worked against a sieve made of parchment, in which the holes have +been burnt with a red-hot wire, and through which the cake is squeezed in +grains. These grains are now put into a box, which is well shaken about, +and in this way the grains run each other smooth. The fine dust that is +then found mixed with the grains, must be winnowed away; lastly the +grains are dried. + +Recapitulation.--1. Pound the ingredients separately. @. Mix them. 3. +Add a little water, and knead the mass. 4. Press it. 5. Rub the mass +through a sieve. 6. Shake up the grains in a box. 7. Get rid of the dust. +8. Dry the grains. + +The ingredients should be used as pure as they can be obtained. For +making a few charges of coarse powder, the sieve may be dispensed with: +in this case, roll the dough into long pieces of the thickness of a pin; +lay several of these side by side, and mince the whole into small grains; +dust with powder, to prevent their sticking together: and then proceed as +already described. + +To procure good Charcoal.--Light woods that give a porous charcoal, are +the best;--as poplar, alder, lime, horse-chestnut, willow, hazel-nut, and +elder. It should be made with the greatest care, and used as soon as +possible afterwards: it is the most important ingredient in gunpowder. + +Sulphur.--The lumps must be melted over a gentle fire; the pot should +then be put in a heap of hot sand, to give the impurities time to settle, +before it cools into a mass. When this has taken place, the bottom part +must be broken off and put aside as unfit for making gunpowder, and the +top part alone used. Flower of sulphur is quite pure. + +Saltpetre.--Dissolve the saltpetre that you wish to purify, in an equal +measure of boiling water; a cupful of one to a cupful of the other. +Strain this solution, and, letting it cool gradually, somewhat less than +three-fourths of the nitre will separate in regular crystals. Saltpetre +exists in the ashes of many plants, of which tobacco is one; it is also +found copiously on the ground in many places, in saltpans, or simply as +an effloresence. Rubbish, such as old mud huts, and mortar, generally +abounds with it. (It is made by the action of the air on the potash +contained in the earths.) The taste, which is that of gunpowder, is the +best test of its presence. To extract it, pour hot water on the mass, +then evaporate and purify, as mentioned above. + +Rocket Composition consists of gunpowder 16 parts, by Weight; charcoal, 3 +parts. Or, in other words, of nitre, 16 parts; charcoal 7 parts; sulphur, +4 parts. It must not be forgotten that when rockets are charged with the +composition, a hollow tube must be left down their middle. + +Blue Fire.--4 parts gunpowder meal; 2 parts nitre, 3 parts sulphur; 3 +parts zinc. + +Bengal Fire.--7 parts nitre; 2 parts sulphur; 1 part antimony. + +Bullets--Sportsmen, fresh from England, and acknowledged as good shots +at home, begin by shooting vilely with balls at large game. They must not +be discouraged at what is a general rule, but be satisfied that they will +soon do themselves justice. + +Alloy.--Common bullets of lead, whether round or conical, are far +inferior to those of hard alloy; for the latter penetrate much more +deeply, and break bones, instead of flattening against them. A mixture of +very little tin, or pewter (which is lead and tin), with lead, hardens +it: we read of sportsmen melting up their spoons and dishes for this +purpose. A little quicksilver has the same effect. Sir Samuel Baker, who +is one of the most experienced sportsmen both in Ceylon and in Africa, +latterly used a mixture of nine-tenths lead and one-tenth quicksilver for +his bullets. He says, "This is superior to all [other] mixtures for that +purpose, as it combines hardness with extra weight; the lead must be +melted in a pot by itself to a red heat, and the proportion of +quicksilver must be added a ladleful at a time, and stirred quickly with +a piece of iron just in sufficient quantity to make three or four +bullets. If the quicksilver is subjected to red heat in the large +leadpot, it will evaporate." Proper alloy, or spelter, had best be +ordered at a gun-maker's shop, and taken from England instead of lead: +different alloys of spelter vary considerably in their degree of +hardness, and therefore more than one specimen should be tried. + +Shape of Bullets.--Round iron bullets are worthless, except at very +close quarters, on account of the lightness of the metal: for the +resistance of the air checks their force extremely. Whether elongated +iron bullets would succeed, remains to be Tried. Some savages--as, for +instance, those of Timor--when in want of bullets, use stones two or +three inches long. Some good sportsmen insist on the advantage, for +shooting at very close quarters, of cleaving a conical bullet nearly down +to its base, into four parts; these partly separate, and make a fearful +wound. I suppose that the bullet leaves the gun with the same force as if +it were entire; and that it traverses too short a distance for the +altered form to tell seriously upon the speed: when it strikes, it acts +like chain-shot. + +Bullets, to carry.--Bullets should be carried sewn up in their patches, +for the convenience of loading, and they should not fit too tight: a few +may be carried bare, for the sake of rapid loading. + +Recovering Bullets.--When ammunition is scarce, make a practice of +recovering the bullets that may have been shot into a beast; if they are +of spelter, they will be found to have been very little knocked out of +shape, and may often be used again without recasting. + +Shot and Slugs.--Travellers frequently omit to take enough shot, which +is a great mistake, as birds are always to be found, while large game is +uncertain: besides this, shot gives amusement; and ducks, quails, and +partridges are much better eating than antelopes and buffaloes. It must +be borne in mind, that a rifle will carry shot quite well enough, on an +emergency. Probably No. 7 is the most convenient size for shot, as the +birds are likely to be tame; and also because a traveller can often fire +into a covey or dense flight of birds--and the more pellets, the more +execution. If birds are to be killed for stuffing, dust-shot will also be +wanted; otherwise, it is undoubtedly better to take only one size of +shot. + +Shot is made in manufactories, as follows:--Arsenic is added to the +lead, in the proportion of from 3 lbs. to 8 lbs. of arsenic to 1000 lbs. +of lead. The melted lead is poured through cullenders drilled with very +fine holes, and drops many feet down, into a tub of water; 100 feet fall +is necessary for manufactories in which No. 4 shot is made; 150, for +larger sorts. If the shot turns out to be lens-shaped, there has been too +much arsenic; if hollow, flattened, or tailed, there has been too little. +Pewter or tin is bad, as it makes tailed shot. The Shot are sorted by +sieves; bad shot are weeded out, by letting the shot roll over a +slightly-inclined board, then the sho that are not quite round roll off +to the side. Lastly, the shot is smoothed by being shaken up in a barrel +with a little black-lead. + +Slugs are wanted both for night-shooting and also in case of a hostile +attack. They can be made by running melted lead into reeds, and chopping +the reeds into short length; or by casting the lead in tubes made by +rolling paper round a smooth stick: whether reeds or paper be used, they +should be planted in the ground before the lead is poured in. The +temperature of the lead is regulated by taking care that a small quantity +of it remains unmelted in the ladle, at the moment of pouring out: if it +be too hot it will burn the paper. (See "Lead.") + + + +HINTS ON SHOOTING. + + +When lying down.--Loading.--Put in the powder as you best can, and ram +the bullet home, lying flat on your back, with the barrel of the gun +athwart your breast. It is easy to load in this way with cartridges. + +On Horseback.--Loading.--Empty the charge of powder from the flask into +the left hand, and pour it down the gun; then take a bullet, wet out of +your mouth, and drop it into the barrel, using no ramrod; the wet will +cake the bullet pretty firmly in its right place. + +Firing.--"In firing, do not bring the gun to your shoulder; but present +it across the pommel of the saddle, calculating the angle with your eye, +and steadying yourself momentarily by standing in the stirrups, as you +take aim." (Palliser.) In each bound of the horse, the moment when his +fore legs strike the ground is one of comparative steadiness, and is +therefore the proper instant for pulling the trigger. + +On Water.--Boat-shooting.--A landing-net should be taken in the boat, +as Colonel Hawker well advises, to pick up the dead birds as they float +on the water, while the boat passes quickly by them. + +Shooting over Water.--When shooting from a river-bank without boat or +dog, take a long light string with a stick tied to one end of it, the +other being held in the hand: by throwing The stick beyond the floating +bird, it can gradually be drawn in. The stick should be 1 1/2 or 2 feet +long, 2 inches in diameter, and notched at either end, and attached to +the hand-line by a couple of strings, each 6 feet long, tied round either +notch. Thus, the hand-line terminates in a triangle (see the figure I +have given, of a rude Stirrup), the two sides of which are of string, +with the stick for a base. A stout stick of this kind can be thrown to a +great distance; either it may be "heaved," as a sailor's Deep-sea Lead, +or it may be whirled round the head, and then let fly. + +Night-shooting.--Tie a band of white paper round the muzzle of the gun, +behind the sight. Mr. Andersson, who has had very great experience, ties +the paper, not round the smooth barrel, but over the sight and all; and, +if the sight does not happen to be a large one, he ties a piece of thick +string round the barrel, or uses other similar contrivance, to tilt up +the fore end of the paper. By this means, the paper is not entirely lost +sight of at the moment when the aim is being taken. Mr. Andersson also +pinches the paper into a ridge along the middle of the gun, to ensure a +more defined foresight. + +Nocturnal Animals.--There are a large number of night-feeding animals, +upon whose flesh a traveller might easily support himself, but of whose +existence he would have few indications by daylight observation only. The +following remarks of Professor Owen, in respect to Australia are very +suggestive:--"All the marsupial animals--and it is one of their curious +peculiarities--are nocturnal. Even the kangaroo, which is the least so, +is scarcely ever seen feeding out on the plains in broad daylight: it +prefers the early morning dawn, or the short twilight; and, above all, +the bright moonlight nights. With regard to most of the other Australian +forms of marsupial animals, they are most strictly nocturnal; so that, if +a traveller were not aware of that peculiarity, he might fancy himself +traversing a country destitute of the mammalian grade of animal life. If, +however, after a weary day's journey, he could be awakened, and were to +look out about the moonlight glade or scrub, or if he were to set traps +by night, he would probably be surprised to find how great a number of +interesting forms of mammalian animals were to Be met with, in places +where there was not the slightest appearance of them in the daytime." + +Battues.--In Sweden, where hundreds of people are marshalled, each man +has a number, and the number is chalked upon his hat. + +Scarecrows.--A string with feathers tied to it at intervals, like the +tail of a boy's kite, will scare most animals of the deer tribe, by their +fluttering; and, in want of a sufficient force of men, passes may be +closed by this contrivance. The Swedes use "lappar," viz. Pieces of +canvas, of half the height of a man, painted in glaring colours and left +to flutter from a line. + +Mr. Lloyd tells us of a peasant who, when walking without a gun, saw a +glutton up in a tree. He at once took off his hat and coat and rigged out +a scarecrow, the counterpart of himself, which he fixed close by, for the +purpose of frightening the beast from coming down; he then went leisurely +home, to fetch his gun: this notable expedient succeeded perfectly. + +Stalking-horses.--Artificial.--A stalking-horse, or cow, is made by +cutting out a piece of strong canvas into the shape of the animal, and +painting it properly. Loops are sewn in different places, through which +sticks are passed, to stretch the curves into shape: a stake, planted in +the ground serves as a buttress to support the apparatus: at a proper +height, there is a loophole to fire through. It packs up into a roll of +canvas and a bundle of five or six sticks. + +[Sketch of stalking-horse as described below]. + +Bushes are used much in the same way. Colonel Hawker made a contrivance +upon wheels which he pushed before him. The Esquimaux shoot seals by +pushing a white screen before them over the ice, on a sledge. See figure. +- (Kane.) + +Real.--Both horses and oxen can be trained to shield a sportsman: they +are said to enter into the spirit of the Thing; and to show wonderful +craft, walking round and round the object in narrowing circles, and +stopping to graze unconcernedly, on witnessing the least sign of alarm. +Oxen are taught to obey a touch on the horn: the common but cruel way of +training them is to hammer and batter the horns for hours together, and +on many days successively: they then become inflamed at the root and are +highly sensitive. + +Pan-hunting (used at salt-licks).--"Pan-hunting is a method of hunting +deer at night. An iron pan attached to a long stick, serving as a handle, +is carried in the left hand over the left shoulder; near where the hand +grasps the handle, in a small projecting stick, forming a fork on which +to rest the rifle, when firing. The pan is filled with burning +pine-knots, which, being saturated with turpentine, shed a brilliant and +constant light all around; shining into the eyes of any deer that may +come in that direction, and making them look like two balls of fire. The +effect is most curious to those unaccumstomed to it. The distance between +the eyes of the deer as he approaches, appears gradually to increase, +reminding one of the lamps of a travelling carriage." (Palliser.) + +The rush of an enraged Animal is far more easily avoided than is usually +supposed. The way the Spanish bull-fighters play with the bull, is well +known: any man can avoid a mere headlong charge. Even the speed of a +racer, which is undeniably far greater than any wild quadruped, does not +exceed 30 miles an hour or four times the speed of a man. The speed of an +ordinary horse is not more than 24 miles an hour: now even the fastest +wild beast is unable to catch an ordinary horse, except by crawling +unobserved close to his side, and springing upon him; therefore I am +convinced that the rush of no wild animal exceeds 24 miles an hour, or +three times the speed of a man. (See Measurements of the rate of an +animal's gallop, p. 37.) It is perfectly easy for a person who is cool, +to avoid an animal, by dodging to one side or other of a bush. Few +animals turn, if the rush be unsuccessful. The buffalo is an exception; +he regularly hunts a man, and is therefore peculiarly dangerous. +Unthinking persons talk of the fearful rapidity of a lion or tiger's +spring. It is not rapid at all: it is a slow movement, as must be evident +from The following consideration. No wild animal can leap ten yards, and +they all make a high trajectory in their leaps. Now, think of the speed +of a ball thrown, or rather pitched, with just sufficient force to be +caught by a person ten yards off: it is a mere nothing. The catcher can +play with it as he likes; he has even time to turn after it, if thrown +wide. But the speed of a springing animal is undeniably the same as that +of a ball, thrown so as to make a flight of equal length and height in +the air. The corollary to all this is, that, if charged, you must keep +cool and watchful, and your chance of escape is far greater than +non-sportsmen would imagine. The blow of the free paw is far swifter than +the bound. + +Dogs kept at bay.--A correspondent assures me that "a dog flying at a +man may be successfully repelled by means of a stout stick held +horizontally, a hand at each end, and used to thrust the dog backwards +over, by meeting him across the throat or breast. If followed by a blow +on the nose, as the brute is falling, the result will be sooner +attained." + +A watch-dog usually desists from flying at a stranger when he seats +himself quietly on the ground, like Ulysses. The dog then contents +himself with barking and keeping guard until his master arrives. + +Hiding Game.--In hiding game from birds of prey, brush it over, and they +will seldom find it out; birds cannot smell well, but they have keen +eyes. The meat should be hung from an overhanging bough; then, if the +birds find it out, there will be no place for them to stand on and tear +it. Leaving a handkerchief or a short to flutter from a tree, will scare +animals of prey for a short time. (See "Scarecrows."_ + +Tying up your Horse.--You may tie your horse, on a bare plain, to the +horns of an animal that you have shot, while you are skinning him, but it +is better to hobble the horse with a stirrup-leather. (See +"Shooting-horse.") + +Division of Game.--Some rules are necessary in these matters, to avoid +disputes, especially between whites and natives; and therefore the custom +of the country must be attended to. But it is a very general and +convenient rule (though, like all fixed rules, often unfair) that the +animal should belong to the Man who first wounded him, however slight the +wound might have been; but that he or they who actually killed the +animal, should have a right to a slice of the meat: it must however, be +understood, that the man who gave the first wound should not +thenceforward withdraw from the chase; if he does so, his claim is lost. +In America the skin belongs to the first shot, the carcase is divided +equally among the whole party. Whaling crews are bound by similar +customs, in which nice distinctions are made, and which have all the +force of laws. + +Duck-shooting.--Wooden ducks, ballasted with lead, and painted, may be +used at night as decoy-ducks; or the skins of birds already shot, may be +stuffed and employed for the same purpose. They should be anchored in the +water, or made fast to a frame attached to the shooting-punt, and dressed +with sedge. It is convenient to sink a large barrel into the flat marsh +or mud, as a dry place to stand or sit in, when waiting for the birds to +come. A lady suggests to me, that if the sportsman took a bottle of hot +water to put under his feet, it would be a great comfort to him, and in +this I quite agree; I would take a keg of hot water, when about it. If +real ducks be used as decoy-birds, the males should be tied in one place +and the females in another, to induce them to quack. An artificial island +may be made to attract ducks, when there is no real one. + +Crocodile-shooting.--Mr. Gilby says, speaking of Egypt, "I killed +several crocodiles by digging pits on the sand-islands and sleeping a +part of the night in them; a dry shred of palm-branch, the colour of the +sand, round the hole, formed a screen to put the gun through. Their flesh +was most excellent eating--half-way between meat and fish: I had it +several times. The difficulty of shooting them was, that the falcons and +spurwing-plovers would hover round the pit, when the crocodiles +invariably took to the water. Their sight and hearing were good, but +their scent indifferent. I generally got a shot or two at daybreak after +sleeping in the pit." + +Tracks.--When the neighbourhood of a drinking-place is trodden down with +tracks, "describe a circle a little distance From it, to ascertain if it +be much frequented. This is the manner in which spoor should at all times +be sought for." (Cumming's 'Life in South Africa.') To know if a burrow +be tenanted, go to work on the same principle; but, if the ground be +hard, sprinkle sand over it, in order to show the tracks more clearly. It +is related in the Apocrypha, that the prophet Daniel did this, when he +wished to learn who it really was who every night consumed the meat which +was placed before the idol of Bel, and which the idol itself was supposed +to eat: he thus discovered that the priests and their families had a +secret door by which they entered the temple; and convinced the king of +the matter, by showing him their footprints. + +Carrying Game.--To carry small Game, as Fallow Deer.--Make a long slit +with your knife between the back sinew and the bone of both of the +hind-legs. Cut a thick pole of wood and a stout wooden skewer 8 inches +long. Now thrust the right fore-leg through the slit in the left hind +one, and then the left fore-leg through the slit in the right hind one, +and holding these firmly in their places, push the skewer right through +the left fore-leg, so as to peg it from drawing back. Lastly run the pole +between the animal's legs and its body, and let two men carry it on their +shoulders, one at each end of the pole; or, if a beast of burden be at +hand, the carcase is in a very convenient shape for being packed. In +animals whose back sinew is not very prominent, it is best to cross the +legs as above, and to lash them together. Always take the bowels out of +game, before carrying it; it is so much weight saved. "I rode out +accompanied by an after-rider, and shot two springboks, which we bore to +camp secured on our horses behind our saddles, by passing the buckles of +the girths on each side through the fore and hind legs of the antelopes, +having first performed an incision between the bone and the sinews with +the couteau de chasse, according to colonial usage." (Cumming's 'Life in +South Africa.') "After he had skinned and gutted the animal, he cut away +the flesh from the bones, in one piece, without separating the limbs, so +as to leave suspended from the tree merely the skeleton of the deer. +This, it appeared, was the Turkish fashion in use upon long Journeys, in +order to relieve travellers from the useless burden of bones." (Huc's +'Tartary.') See also the section on "Heavy weights, to raise and carry," +especially Mr. Wyndham's plan. + +To float carcases of Game across a river.--Sir S. Baker recommends +stripping off the skin of the animal, as though it were intended to make +a water-skin of it: putting a stone up the neck end of the skin; thus +forming a water-tight sack, open at one end only. All the flesh is now to +be cut off the bones, and packed into the sack; which is then to be +inflated, and secured by tying up the open end. The skin of a large +antelope thus inflated, will not only float the whole of the flesh, but +will also support several swimmers. + +"To carry Ivory on pack-animals, the North African traders use nets, +slinging two large teeth on each side of an ass. Small teeth are wrapped +up in skins and secured with rope." (Mungo Park.) + +Setting a gun as a spring-gun.--General Remarks.--The string that goes +across the pathway should be dark coloured, and so fine that, if the +beast struggles against it, it should break rather than cause injury to +the gun. I must however, add, that in the numerous cases in which I have +witnessed or heard of guns being set with success, for large beasts of +prey, I have never known of injury occurring to the gun. The height of +the muzzle should be properly arranged with regard to the height of the +expected animal; thus, the heart of a hyena is the height of a man's knee +above the ground; that of a lion, is a span higher. The string should not +be tight, but hang in a bow, or the animal will cause the gun to go off +on first touching the string, and will only receive a flesh-wound across +the front of his chest. + +1st Method.--The annexed sketch (p. 258) explains the method I have +described in previous editions of this book. The stock is firmly lashed +to a tree, and the muzzle to a stake planted in the ground. A +"lever-stick," 8 inches long, is bound across the grip of the gun so as +to stand upright; but it is not bound so tightly as to prevent a slight +degree of movement. The bottom of the "lever-stick" is tied to the +trigger, and the top of it to a long, fine, dark-coloured string, which +is passed through the empty ramrod tubes, and is fixed to a tree on the +other side of the pathway. It is evident that when a beast breasts this +string, the trigger of the gun will be pulled. + +[Sketch of man setting up gun to be fired as above]. + +1nd Method.--I have, however, been subsequently informed of a better +plan of adapting the "lever-stick." It is shown in the accompanying +diagram (below). The fault of the previous plan, is the trouble of tying +the string to the trigger; since the curvature is usually such as to make +it a matter of some painstaking to fix it securely. A, B, C, is the +"lever-stick." Notch it deeply at A, where it is to receive the trigger; +notch it also at B, half an inch from A; and at C, 5 inches or so from B. +In lashing B to the grip of the stock at D, the firmer you make the +lashing, the better. If D admit of any yielding movement, on C being +pulled, the gun will not go off, either readily or surely; as will easily +be seen, on making experiment. + +[Sketch of rifle with stick rigged as above]. + +3rd Method.--I am indebted to Captain J. Meaden for the following +account of the plan used in Ceylon for setting a spring gun for +leopards:-- + +"Remove the sear, or tie up the trigger. Load the gun, and secure it at +the proper height from the ground. Opposite the muzzle of the gun, or at +such distance to the right, or left, as may be required, fasted the end +of a black string, or line made of horsehair or fibre, and pass it across +the path to the gun. Fasten the other end to a stake, long enough to +stand higher than the hammer. Stick the end of the stake slightly in the +ground, and let it rest upright against the lock projection, the black +line being fastened nearly at that height. Pass round the small of the +stock a loop of single or double string. Take a piece of stick 6 or 8 +inches long, pass through the loop, and twist tourniquet fashion until +the loop is reduced to the required length. Raise the hammer carefully, +and pass the short end of the lever-stick, from the inner to the outer +side, over the comb, and let the long end of the lever rest against the +stake: the pressure of the hammer will keep the lever steady against the +stake. To prevent the lower end of the stake flying out, from the +pressure of the lever on the upper part, place a log or stone against the +foot. + +"An animal pushing against the black string, draws the upper end of the +stake towards the muzzle, until the lever is disengaged and releases the +hammer. + +"In laying the long arm of the lever against the stake sufficient play +must be allowed for the contraction of the black string, when wet by dew +or rain. + +"If a double gun is set, two stakes and two levers will be required. The +stakes to be connected above and below the gun, by cross sticks. The +levers must be passed round the combs the opposite way, to allow of the +long arms pressing outwards from the gun, and enable the levers to +disengage without entangling. + +"The carcase or live bait must be hedged round, and means adopted to +guide the leopard across the string, by running out a short hedge on one +side. In this case the black line to be set taut, and some 4 inches from +the line of fire. The breast than catches the string, and the push +releases the hammer when the muzzle is in line with the chest. + +"On this principle, two or more guns can be set, slightly varying in +elevation, to allow of one barrel at least being effective." + +Bow and Arrow set for Beasts.--The Chinese have some equivalent +contrivance with bows and arrows. M. Huc tells us that a simply +constructed machine is sold in the shops, by which, when sprung, a number +of poisoned arrows are fired off in succession. These machines are +planted in caves of sepulture, to guard them from pillage. They use +spring-guns, and used to have spring-bows in Sweden, and in many other +countries. + +Knives.--Hunting-knife.--A great hunting-knife is a useless +encumbrance: no old sportsman or traveller cares to encumber himself with +one; but a butcher's knife, carried in a sheath, is excellent, both from +its efficient shape, the soft quality of The steel, its lightness, and +the strong way in which the blade is set in the haft. + +Pocket-knife.--If a traveller wants a pocket-knife full of all kinds of +tools, he had best order a very light one of 2 3/4 inches long, in a +tortoise-shell handle, without the usual turnscrew at the end. It should +have a light "picker" to shut over its back; this will act as a +strike-light, and a file also, if its under surface be properly +roughened. Underneath the picker, there should be a small triangular +borer, for making holes in leather, and a gimlet. The front of the knife +should contain a long, narrow pen-blade of soft steel; a cobbler's awl, +slightly bent; and a packing-needle with a large eye, to push thongs and +twine through holes in leather. Between the tortoise-shell part of the +handle and the metal frame of the knife, should be a space to contain +three flat thin pieces of steel, turning on the same pivot. The ends of +these are to be ground to form turnscrews of brass instruments: when this +excellent contrivance is used, it must be opened out like the letter T, +the foot of which represents the turnscrew in use and the horizontal part +represents the other two turnscrews, which serve as the handle. It may be +thought advisable to add a button-hook, a corkscrew, and a large blade; +but that is not my recommendation, because it increases the size of the +knife and makes it heavy; now a heavy knife is apt to be laid by, and not +to be at hand when wanted, while a light knife is a constant pocket +companion. + +Sheath Knives, to carry.--They are easily carried by half-naked, +pocketless savages, by attaching the sheaths to a leather-loop, through +which the left forearm and elbow are to be passed. A swimmer can easily +carry a knife in this way; otherwise he holds it between his teeth. + +Substitutes for Knives.--Steel is no doubt vastly better than iron, but +it is not essential for the ordinary purposes of life; indeed, most +ancient civilized nations had nothing better than iron. Any bit of good +iron may be heated as hot as the camp-fire admits; hammered flat, lashed +into a handle, and sharpened on a stone. A fragment of flint or obsidian +may be made fast to a handle, to be used as a carpenter cuts paper With a +chisel; namely, by holding it dagger-fashion, and drawing it over the +skin or flesh which he wishes to cut. Shells are sometimes employed as +substitutes for knives, also thin strips of bamboo, the sharp edges of +which cut meat easily. (See "Sharpening Tools.") + +Night-glass.--Opera-glasses are invaluable as night-glasses, for, by +their aid, the sight of man is raised nearly to a par with that of +night-roving animals; therefore, a sportsman would find them of great +service when watching for game at night. A small and inexpensive glass is +as useful for this purpose as a large one; but there is a considerable +difference between the clearness of different opera-glasses. + + + +OTHER MEANS OF CAPTURING GAME. + + +General Remarks.--A trapper will never succeed, unless he thoroughly +enters into the habits of life and mind of wild animals. He must ever +bear in mind how suspicious they are; how quickly their eye is caught by +unusual traces; and, lastly, how strong and enduring a taint is left by +the human touch. Our own senses do not make us aware of what it is +disagreeable enough to acknowledge, that the whole species of man yields +a powerful and wide-spreading emanation, that is utterly disgusting and +repulsive to every animal in its wild state. It requires some experience +to realise this fact: a man must frequently have watched the heads of a +herd of far distant animals, tossed up in alarm the moment that they +catch his wind; he must have observed the tracks of animals--how, when +they crossed his path of the preceding day, the beast that made the +tracks has stopped, scrutinised, and shunned it--before he can believe +what a Yahoo he is among the brute creation. No cleanliness of the +individual seems to diminish this remarkable odour: indeed, the more +civilised the man, the more subtle does it appear to be; the touch of a +game-keeper scares less than that of the master, and the touch of a negro +or bushman less than that of a traveller from Europe. + +If a novice thinks he will trap successfully by such artless endeavours +as putting a bait on the plate of a trap that is covered over with moss, +or by digging a pitfall in the middle of a wild beast's track, he is +utterly mistaken. The bait Should be thrown on the ground, and the trap +placed on the way to it; then the animal's mind, being fixed on the meat, +takes less heed of the footpath. Or a pitfall should be made near the +main path; this being subsequently stopped by boughs, causes the animal +to walk in the bushes, and to tumble into the covered hole. The slightest +thing diverts an animal's step: watch a wild beast's path across a forest +--little twigs and tufts of grass will be seen to have changed its +course, and caused it to curve. It is in trifles of this sort that the +trapper should look for auxiliaries. After setting traps, Mr. St. John +recommends the use of a small branch of a tree; first, to smooth the +ground, and then, having dipped it in water, to sprinkle the place: this +entirely obliterates all foot-marks. + +Springes.--General Remarks.--Harden the wood of which the mechanism has +to be made, by means of fire; either baking it in hot sand or ashes, or +otherwise applying heat to a degree just short of charring its surface. +The mechanism will then retain the sharpness of its edges under a +continuance of pressure, and during many hours of wet weather. The +slighter the strain on the springe, the more delicately can its mechanism +be set. + +Nooses.--Catgut (which see) makes better nooses than string, because it +is stiff enough to keep in shape when set: brass wife that has been +heated red-hot, is excellent; for it has no tendency whatever to twist, +and yet is perfectly pliable. Fish-hooks are sometimes attached to +springes; sometimes a tree is bent down and a strong cord is used for the +noose, by which large animals are strangled up in the air, as leopards +are in Abyssinia. A noose may be set in any place where there is a run; +it can be kept spread out, by thin rushes or twigs set crosswise in it. +If the animal it is set for can gnaw, a heavy stone should be loosely +propped up, which the animal in its struggles may set free, and by the +weight of which it may be hung up and strangled. It is a very convenient +plan for a traveller who has not time to look for runs, to make little +hedges across a creek, or at right angles to a clump of trees, and to set +his snares in gaps left in these artificial hedges. On the same +principle, artificial islands of piles and faggots Are commonly made in +lakes that are destitute of any real ones, in order that they may become +a resort of wild-fowl. + +Javelins.--Heavy poisoned javelins, hung over elephant and hippopotamus +paths, and dropped on a catch being touched, after the manner of a +springe, are used generally in Africa. They sometimes consist of a "sharp +little assegai, or spike, most thoroughly poisoned, and stuck firmly into +the end of a heavy block of thornwood, about four feet long and five +inches in diameter. This formidable affair is suspended over the centre +of a sea-cow path, at about thirty feet from the ground, by a bark cord, +which passes over a high branch of a tree, and thence, by a peg, on one +side of a path beneath." (Gordon Cumming.) + +Trigger.--Where a trigger has to release a strong spring, an arrangement +on the principle of a figure of 4 trap is, I believe, the most delicate; +the standard may be a branch or the stock of a tree; and the other pieces +should be hardened by fire. + +Pitfalls.--Very small pitfalls, with sharpened stakes, planted inside +them, that have been baked hard by the fire and well poisoned, are easily +to be set, but they are very dangerous to man and beast. In preparing a +pitfall for animals of prey, it is usual to ascertain whether they are +deep enough, by putting in a large dog; if he cannot get out, it is very +unlikely that any wild beast can. (See "Trous de loup," p. 312.) + +Pitfalls are often dug in great numbers, near frequented watering-places, +to which numerous intersecting paths lead: by stopping up particular +paths, the pitfalls can be brought separately into use; therefore, those +pitfalls need never be employed in which animals have been freshly +killed, and where the smell of blood would scare the game. It is +difficult to prevent the covers of pitfalls becoming hollow: the only way +is to build the roofs in somewhat of an arch, so as to allow for +subsidence. If a herd of animals be driven over pitfalls, some are sure +to be pushed in, as the crush makes it impossible for the beasts, however +wary, to pick their way. + +Uganda Thorn-wreath.--Captain Grant found a very ingenious contrivance +in use in Uganda, in Africa. Two small Stout hoops of equal diameter, +made of wood fully an inch in thickness, were lashed one above the other; +long acacia thorns were interposed, forming the spokes of a wheel of +which the hoops formed the rim. The bases of the thorns were nipped +between the hoops; and their points radiated towards the centre. A great +many thorns were used, so that the appearance was that of a wheel without +a nave, whose spokes were so close together that they touched each other, +and, as thorns taper from base to point, the spokes touched one another +along their whole length, from circumference to centre. This apparatus is +always made with great neatness. It is laid over a hole 18 inches deep, +dug in the beast's path, and the noose of a cord, of which the other end +is secured to a log, is laid closely within the upper hoop. When the +beast treads on the apparatus, he crashes through the thorns, but, on +withdrawing his foot from the hole, the wreath clings to his fetlock like +a ruff, and prevents the noose from slipping off. Thus there is time for +the noose to become firmly jammed during the struggles of the beast. Of +course, the trapper artfully bushes the path, so as to induce him to step +full upon the trap. He sets a great many of them, and they require no +looking after. The diameter of the hoops is made proportionate to the +size of the beast for which they are intended. Six inches interior +diameter was the size used for buffalo and hartebeest. + +Traps.--Steel traps should never be tied fast, or the captured animal +may struggle loose, or even gnaw off his leg. It is best to cut small +bushes, and merely to secure the traps to their cut ends. Steel traps are +of but little use to a traveller. + +Hawks are trapped by selecting a bare tree, that stands in an open space: +its top is sawn off level, and a trap is put upon it: the bait is laid +somewhere near, on the ground: the bird is sure to visit the pole, either +before or after he has fed. + +Poison.--Savages frequently poison the water of drinking-places, and +follow, capture, and eat the poisoned animals. Nux vomica or strychnine +is a very dangerous poison to use, but it affords the best means of +ridding a neighbourhood of noxious beasts and birds: if employed to kill +beasts, put it in the belly; if, birds, in the eye, of the bait. Meat for +killing Beasts should be set after nightfall; else the crows and other +birds will be sure to find it out, and eat it up before the beasts have +time to discover it. It would be unsafe to eat an animal killed with +strychnine, on account of the deadliness of the poison. + +The Swedes put fulminating-powder in a raw shankbone, and throw it down +to the wolves; when one of these gnaws and crunches it, it blows his head +to atoms. + +Poisoned Bullets.--I take the following extract from 'Galignani's +Messenger:'--"A new method of catching whales is now being tried with +considerable success, science having contributed to its discovery. Our +readers are well aware of the deadly effects of the Indian poison called +wurare, or woorali, concerning which we have often had occasion to record +the most interesting experiments, especially in mentioning the attempts +made to use it as a specific for lockjaw, its peculiar action consisting +in relaxing the muscular system. Strychnine is a poison producing the +contrary effect, the excessive contraction of that system, or, in other +words, tetanus, or lockjaw. It is a curious fact that by the conjunction +of these two agents, so diametrically opposite in their effects, a poison +is obtained that will kill almost instantly if only administered in the +dose of half a milligramme per kilogramme of the animal to be subjected +to its action, provided its weight do not exceed ten kilogrammes. If +larger, the dose must be proportionally increased. M. Thiercelin, the +inventor of this poison, composes it by mixing a salt of strychnine with +one-twentieth of woorali. To apply it to whale fishing, he makes the +compound up into cartridges of thirty grammes (an ounce) each, which is +enough to kill an animal of 60,000 kilogrammes weight. Each cartridge is +imbedded in the gunpowder contained in an explosive shell which is fired +off on the whale. In a late whaling voyage ten whales received such +missiles, and all died within from four to eighteen minutes after the +infliction of the wound. Out of these ten whales, six were cut up for +their blubber and whalebone. Their remains were handled by careless men, +who frequently had scratches and sores on their skin, and yet not one of +them suffered the slightest injury, a circumstance which Shows that the +poison cannot be transmitted from the fish to the men. Its poisonous +action on the whale is, however, so great that practically the dose will +have to be diminished, so that the death of the creature may not be so +sudden. We should not forget to state that two out of the ten whales +above mentioned were lost by one of the many accidents incident to +whaling, and that two others were of a kind that is not worth fishing +for." + +Poisoned Arrows.--Arrows are most readily poisoned by steeping a thread +in the juice, and wrapping it round the barbs. Serpents' venom may always +be used with effect. + +Bird-lime can be made from the middle bark of most parasitic plants, that +is to say, those that grow like mistletoe, out of the boughs of other +trees. Holly and young elder shoots also afford it. The bark is boiled +for seven or eight hours, till quite soft, and is then drained of its +water and laid in heaps, in pits dug in the ground, where it is covered +with stones and left for two or three weeks to ferment; but less time is +required, if the weather be hot. It is watered from time to time, if +necessary. In this way, it passes into a mucilaginous state; and is then +pounded into a paste, washed in running water, and kneaded till it is +free from dirt and chips. Lastly, it is left for four or five days in +earthen vessels, to ferment and purify itself, when it becomes fit for +use. It ought to be greenish, sour, gluey, stringy, and sticky. It +becomes brittle when dry, and may be powdered; but, on being wetted, it +becomes sticky again. (Ure's Dictionary.) + +Vast flocks of birds frequent the scattered watering-places of dry +countries at nightfall and at daybreak: by liming the sedges and bushes +that grow about them, numbers of birds could be caught. + +Crows may be killed by twisting up a piece of paper like an extinguisher, +dropping a piece of meat in it, and smearing its sides with bird-lime. +When the bird pokes his head in, his eyes are gummed up and blinded; and +he towers upwards in the air, whence he soon falls down exhausted, and, +it may be, dead with fright. (Lloyd.) Fish-hooks, baited with meat, are +good to catch these sorts of birds. + +Catching with the Hand.--Ducks.--We hear of Hindoos who, taking +advantage of the many gourds floating on their waters, put one of them on +their heads, and wade in among wild ducks; they pull them down, one after +another, by their legs, under water; wring their necks, and tie them to +their girdle. But in Australia, a swimmer binds grass and rushes, or +weeds, round his head; and takes a long fishing-rod, with a slip noose +working over the pliant twig that forms the last joint of the rod. When +he comes near, he gently raises the end, and, putting the noose over the +head of the bird, draws it under water to him. He thus catches one after +another, and tucks the caught ones in his belt. A windy day is generally +chosen, because the water is ruffled. (Eyre.) + +Condors and Vultures are caught by spreading a raw ox-hide, under which a +man creeps, with a piece of string in his hand, while one or two other +men are posted in ambush close by, to give assistance at the proper +moment. When the bird flies down upon the bait, his legs are seized by +the man underneath the skin, and are tied within it, as in a bag. All his +flapping is then useless; he cannot do mischief with his claws, and he is +easily overpowered. + +Bolas.--The bolas consists of three balls, composed either of lead or +stone; two of them are heavy, but the third is rather lighter: they are +fastened to long elastic strings, made of twisted sinews, and the ends of +the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the lightest of the +three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a wide circle above +his head; then taking his aim, at the distance of about fifteen or twenty +paces, he lets go the hand-ball; all the three balls whirl in a circle, +and twine round the object aimed at. The aim is usually taken at the +hind-legs of the animals, and, the cords twisted round them, they become +firmly bound. It requires great skill and long practice to throw the boas +dexterously, especially when on horseback. A novice in the art incurs the +risk of dangerously hurting either himself or his horse, by not giving +the balls the proper swing, or by letting go the hand-ball too soon. +(Tschudi's 'Peru.') + +Lasso.--It is useless that I should enter into details about making and +wielding the lasso, for it is impossible to become Moderately adept in +its use, without months of instruction and practice. + +Amstringing.--Animals are hamstrung by riding at them, armed with a sort +of spear; the blade of which is fixed at right angles to the shaft, and +has a cutting edge. + +Hawking is a disappointing pursuit, owing to the frequent loss of hawks; +and can hardly be carried on except in a hawking country, where the +sportsman has a better chance than elsewhere, both of recovering and +replacing them; it is impracticable except where the land is open and +bare; and it is quite a science. There are some amateurs who will not +hear a word of disparagement about their hawks, but the decided +impression that I bear away with me from all I have learnt, is, that the +birds are rarely affectionate or intelligent. + + + +FISHING. + + +Fishing-tackle.--Fish-hooks are made of iron, not steel, wire. While the +piece of wire is straight, it is laid along a little groove in a block of +wood, and there barbed by the stroke of a chisel, slantwise across it. +The other end is flattened by a tap of the hammer, or roughened, that it +may be held by the whipping; then the point is sharpened by a file, and +finished on a stone. The proper curvature is next given, and then the +hook is case-hardened (see "Case-hardening"); lastly, the proper temper +is given, by heating the hook red-hot, and quenching it in grease. + +A traveller should always take a few hooks with him: they should be of +the very small and also of the middling-sized sorts; he might have a +dozen of each sort whipped on to gut; and at least a couple of +casting-lines, with which to use them: also several dozens of tinned iron +fish-hooks, of various sizes, such as are used at sea; and plenty of +line. + +Fishing-lines.--Twisted sinews will make a fishing-line. To make a +strong fine line, unravel a good silk handkerchief, and twist the threads +into a whipcord. (See also "Substitutes for String.") + +Gut is made from silkworms; but the scrapings of the membrane in the +manufacture of catgut (see "Sinew-thread") Make a fine, strong, and +somewhat transparent thread: twisted horsehair can almost always be +obtained: and boiling this in soap-lees, takes away its oiliness. + +Shoemakers' Wax is made by boiling together common resin and any kind of +soft grease, which does not contain salt, such as oil or butter. A sixth +or seventh part of pitch makes it more tough, but it is not absolutely +necessary for making the wax. Try if the quantity of grease is sufficient +by dipping the stick with which the wax is stirred, into water to cool +it. When the wax is supposed to be successfully made, pour it into water, +then taking it out while yet soft, pull it and stretch it with your wet +hands as much as it will bear; do this over and over again, after dipping +it in lukewarm water, till it is quite tough. Wax is used of different +degrees of hardness, according as the weather is warm or cold. + +Reel. If you have no reel, make a couple of gimlet-holes, six inches +apart, in the butt of your rod, at the place where the reel is usually +clamped; drive wooden pegs into these, and wind your spare line round +them, as in fig. 1. + +[Fig 1: illustration as described above]. + +The pegs should not be quite square with the butt, but should slope a +little, each away from the other, that the line may be better retained on +them. + +{Fig. 2 and Fig 3--line as described below]. + +A long line is conveniently wound on a square frame, as shown in the +annexed sketch (fig. 2); and a shorter line, as in fig. 3. + +If you have no equivalent for a reel, and if your tackle is slight, and +the fish likely to be large, provide yourself with A bladder or other +float; tie it to the line, and cast the whole adrift. + +Trimmers are well known, and are a convenient way of fishing the middle +of a pool, with only a short line. Anything will do for the float--a +bladder or a bottle is very good. + +To recover a lost Line, make a drag of a small bushy tree with plenty of +branches, that are so lopped off as to leave spikes on the trunk. This is +to be weighted with a stone, and dragged along the bottom. + +Otters.--What is called "an otter" is useful to a person on the shore of +a wide river or lake which he has no other means of fishing: it is a very +successful at first, but soon scares the fish; therefore it is better +suited to a traveller than to an ordinary sportsman. It is made as +follows:--A board of light wood, fourteen inches long and eight inches +high, or thereabouts, is heavily weighted along its lower edge, so as to +float upright in the water; a string like the bellyband of a kite, and +for the same purpose, is fastened to it; and to this belly-band the end +of a line, furnished with a dozen hooks at intervals, is tied. As the +fisherman walks along the bank, the otter runs away from him, and carries +his line and hooks far out into the stream. It is very convenient to have +a large hand-reel to wind and unwind the line upon; but a forked stick +will do very well. + +Boat fishing.--In fishing with a long ground-line and many hooks, it is +of importance to avoid entanglements; make a box in which to coil the +line, and a great many deep saw-cuts across the sides, into which the +thin short lines, to which the hooks are whipped, may be jammed. + +Fishermen who do not use oars, but paddles, tie a loop to their line: +they put their thumb through the loop, and fish while they paddle. + +To see Things deep under Water, such as dead seals, use a long box or +tube with a piece of glass at the lower end; this removes entirely the +glare of the water and the effects of a rippled surface. Mr. Campbell, of +Islay, suggests that a small glass window might be let into the bottom of +the boat: Plate-glass would be amply strong enough. (See +"Water-spectacles.") + +Nets.--A small square net may be best turned to account by sinking it in +holes and other parts of a river which fish frequent; throwing in bait to +attract them over it; and then hauling up suddenly. The arrangement shown +in the figure is very common. A seine net may be furnished with bladder +for floats, or else with pieces of light wood charred to make them more +buoyant. The hauling-ropes may be made of bark steeped for three weeks, +till the inner bark separates from the outer, when the latter is twisted +into a rope. (Lloyd.) Wherever small fish are swimming in shoals near the +surface, there the water is sure to be rippled. + +[Sketch of net arrangement as described]. + +Spearing Fish.--The weapon used (sometimes called the "grains") is +identical with Neptune's or Britannia's trident, only the prongs should +be more numerous and be placed nearer together, in order to catch small +fish: the length of the handle gives steadiness to the blow. In spearing +by torchlight, a broad oval piece of bark is coated with wet mud, and in +it a blazing fire is lighted. It is fixed on a stage, or it is held in +the bow of the boat, so high as to be above the spearman's eyes. He can +see everything by its light, especially if the water be not above four +feet deep, and the bottom sandy. But there are not many kinds of wood +that will burn with a sufficiently bright flame; the dry bark of some +resinous tree is often used. If tarred rope can be obtained, it may +simply be wound round a pole fixed in the bow of the boat, and lighted. +Fish can also be shot with a bow and a barbed arrow, to which a string is +attached. + +Intoxicating Fish.--Lime thrown into a pond will kill the fish; and the +similar but far more energetic properties of Cocculus Indicus are well +known. Throughout tropical Africa and in South America, the natives catch +fish by poisoning them. Dams are made, which, when the river is very low, +Enclose deep pools of water with no current; into these the poison is +thrown: it intoxicates the fish, which float and are taken by the hand. + +Otters, Cormorants, and Dogs.--Both otters and cormorants are trained to +catch fish for their masters; and dogs are trained by the Patagonians to +drive fish into the nets, and to frighten them from breaking loose when +the net is being hauled in. Cormorants, in China, fish during the winter +from October to May, working from 10 A.M. to 5 P.M., at which hour their +dinner is given to them. When they fish, a straw tie is put round their +necks, to keep them from swallowing the fish, but not so tight as to slip +down and choke them. A boat takes out ten or twelve of these birds. They +obey the voice: if they are disobedient, the water near them is struck +with the back of the oar; as soon as one of them has caught a fish, he is +called to the boat, and the oar is held out for him to step upon. It +requires caution to train a cormorant, because the bird has a habit, when +angry, of striking with its beak at its instructor's eye with an +exceedingly rapid and sure stroke. + + + +SIGNALS. + + +Colomb and Bolton's flashing signals, adopted in our Army and Navy, and +used in many other countries as well, are eminently suited to the wants +of an expedition. Anything may be used for signalling, that appears and +disappears, like a lantern, or an opened and closed umbrella, or that +moves, as a waved flag or a person walking to and fro on the crest of a +hill against the sky. Sound also can be employed, as long and short +whistles. Their use can be thoroughly taught in two hours, and however +small the practice of the operators, communication, though slow, is +fairly accurate, while in practised hands its rapidity is astonishing. +The proportion of time occupied by the flashes and intervals is as +follows. (I extract all the rest of the article from the pamphlet +published by the inventors of the system.) + +Flashing Signals, with Flags.--Supposing the short flash to be half a +second in duration, the long flash should be fully a second and a half. +The interval between the flashes forming a figure should be equal to a +short flash, and the interval between two figures should be equal to a +long flash. After the last figure of the signal is finished, there should +be a pause equal to at least one-third of the time taken up by the +figures. After this pause, the signal should be again repeated with the +same measured flashes and intervals, and so continued until answered by +all to whom it is addressed. + +[Example of Morse code]. + +Care must be taken never to commence a fresh signal before the answers to +the last have ceased; and signals are never to be answered until their +repetitions have been observed a sufficient number of times to make an +error impossible. + +[Fig. 1 and Fig 2--sketch of signalling with flags as described below]. + +The signalman may work from left to right, or from right to left, as +shown in figs. 1 and 2, according to convenience and the direction of the +wind. To make a short flash, the flag is waved from a to b, and back to +the normal position a. To make a long flash, the flag is waved from a to +c, and back to the normal position a. + +The numerals 1 to 5 are, therefore, denoted by one to five waves of the +flag from a to b, recovering to a. + +The numeral 6 by a wave from a to c, recovering to a. The numeral 7 by a +wave from a to b, back to a, and then to c, recovering to the normal +position a. The numeral 8 is denoted by a wave from a to c, back to a, +and then to b, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 9 is +denoted by two waves from a to b, and one from a to c. The numeral 0 by +one wave from a to c, recovering again to a, and then two waves from a to +b. The other signs are made in the same manner, so that a short motion +shall always represent a short flash, and a long motion a long flash. + +On the completion of the motions required for each sign, the flag must +always be brought to the position a. When the word, or group of figures, +is completed, the flag may be lowered in front of the body. + +In receiving a message, the flag should always be kept in the position a, +except when answering. + +In waving the flag, the point of the staff should be made to describe a +figure of 8 in the air to keep the flag clear. + +Each signal party must consist of not less than two men, whose duties +will be as follows:-- + +In receiving messages: No. 1 works the flag for answering, etc., and +refers to the code for the interpretation of the numbers received, and +calls out the words to No. 2. No. 2 fixes the telescope and reads from +the distant station, calling out the numbers as they are made for the +information of No. 1, and writes down the numbers and meaning thereof. + +Suppose station "A" in communication with station "B":--No. 1 at "A" on +being told by No. 2 that "B" is about to send a message, takes up his +position at attention, holding the flag over the left arm and under the +right, or vice versa across his body, according to the wind, with the +code book in his hand. No. 2 fixes his eyes on the glass, and on +receiving the numbers from "B" calls them out to No. 1, who ascertains +their meaning from the code, and gives the words to No. 2, who writes +them down in his book, and then placing his eye to the glass, tells No. 1 +to make the answer. No. 2 does not, however, direct the answer to be made +until he is sure of the correctness of the signal received. + +Flashing Alphabet, for Use without a Code.--The following alphabet, +etc., can be used under circumstances when it is not convenient or +possible to have recourse to the Signal Book, and forms in itself a +perfect telegraphic system, necessarily somewhat slow in its application, +but having the great advantage of requiring very little previous +knowledge and practice to work with correctness. The symbols and numbers +expressing the alphabet are identical with those forming the alphabet in +the Signal Book. + +[Chart with code signals]. + +All particulars as to the machines and lanterns used in the Service, for +making these flashing signals, and the code, can be procured at W. Nunn and +Co.'s Army and Navy Lamp and Signal Works, 65, George Street East, +London, E. + +Reflecting the Sun with a Mirror.--To attract the notice of a division +of your party, five or even ten miles off, glitter a bit of looking-glass +in the sun, throwing its flash towards where you expect them to be. It is +quite astonishing at how great a distance the gleam of the glass will +catch the sharp eyes of a bushman who has learnt to know what it is. It +is now a common signal in the North American prairies. (Sullivan.) It +should be recollected that a passing flash has far less briliancy than +one that dwells for an appreciable time on the retina of the observer; +therefore the signaller should do all he can to steady his aim. I find +the steadiest way of holding the mirror is to rest the hand firmly +against the forehead, and to keep the eyes continually fixed upon the +same distant object. The glare of the sun that is reflected from each +point of the surface of a mirror forms a cone of light whose vertical +angle is constant, and equal to that subtended by the sun. Hence when a +flash is sent to a distant place, the size of the mirror is of no +appreciable importance in affecting the size of the area over which the +flash is visible. That area is the section of the fasciculus of cones +that proceed from each point of the mirror, which, in the case we have +supposed, differs immaterially from the cone reflected from a single +point. Hence, if a man watches the play of the flash from his mirror upon +a very near object, it will appear to him of the shape and size of the +mirror; but as he retreats from the object, the edges of the flash become +rounded, and very soon the flash appears a perfect circle, of precisely +the same apparent diameter as the disc of the sun: it will, in short, +look just like a very faint sun. The signaller has to cause this disc of +light to cover the person whose notice he wishes to attract. I will +proceed to show how he can do so; but in the mean time it will be evident +that a pretty careful aim is requisite, or he will fail in his object. +The steadiness of his aim must be just twice as accurate, neither more +nor less, as would suffice to point a rifle at the sun when it was +sufficiently obscured by a cloud to bear being looked at: for the object +of the aim is of the same apparent size, but a movement of a mirror +causes the ray reflected from it to move through a double angle. + +The power of these sun-signals is extraordinarily great. The result of +several experiments that I made in England showed that the smallest +mirror visible under atmospheric conditions such that the signaller's +station was discernible, but dim, subtended an angle of only one-tenth of +a second of a degree. It is very important that the mirror should be of +truly plane and parallel glass, such as instrument-makers procure; the +index glass of a full-sized sextant is very suitable for this purpose: +there is a loss of power when there is any imperfection in the glass. A +plane mirror only three inches across, reflects as much of the sun as a +globe of 120 feet diameter; it looks like a dazzling star at ten miles' +distance. + +To direct the flash of the Mirror.--There are makeshift ways of +directing the flash of the mirror; as, by observing its play on an object +some paces off, nearly in line with the station it is wished to +communicate with. In doing this, two cautions are requisite: first, the +distance of the object must be so large compared to the diameter of the +mirror that the play of the flash shall appear truly circular and exactly +like a faint sun (see preceding paragraph): secondly, be careful to bring +the eye to the very edge of the mirror; there should be as little +"dispart" as possible, as artillerymen would say. Unless these cautions +be attended to very strictly, the flash will never be seen at the distant +station. + +[Sketch of arrangement as described below]. + +An object, in reality of a white colour but apparently dark, owing to its +being shaded, shows the play of a mirror's flash better than any other. +The play of a flash, sent through an open window, on the walls of a room, +can be seen at upwards of 100 yards. It is a good object by which to +adjust my hand heliostat, which I describe below. Two bits of paper and a +couple of sticks, arranged as in the drawing, serve pretty well to direct +a flash. Sight the distant object through the holes in the two bits of +paper, A and B, at the ends of the horizontal stick; and when you are +satisfied that the stick is properly adjusted and quite steady, take your +mirror and throw the shadow of A upon B, and further endeavour to throw +the white speck in the shadow of A, corresponding to its pin-hole in it, +through the centre of the hole in B. Every now and then lay the mirror +aside, and bend down to see that A B continues to be properly adjusted. + +Hand Heliostat.--Some years ago, I took great pains to contrive a +convenient pocket instrument, by which a traveller should be able to +signal with the sun, and direct his flash with certainty, in whatever +direction he desired. I did so in the belief that a signalling power of +extraordinary intensity could thus be made use of; and, I am glad to say, +I succeeded in my attempt. I at last obtained a pretty pocket instrument, +the design of which I placed in the hands of Messrs. Troughton and Simms; +and upon the earlier models of which I read a paper before the British +Association in 1858. I called it a "hand heliostat." I always carry one +when I travel, for it is a continual source of amusement. The instrument +is shown in fig. 1 (p. 280), and its principle is illustrated by fig. 2. +The scale is about 2/3. + +E is the eye of the signaller; M the mirror; and L, S, fig. 2, a tube +containing at one end, L, a lens, and at the other, S, a screen of white +porcelain or unpolished ivory, placed at the exact solar focus of L: a +shade, K, with two holes in it, is placed before L. Let R, r, be portions +of a large pencil of parallel rays, proceeding from any one point on the +sun's surface, and reflected from the mirror, as R' r' (fig. 2). R' +impinges upon the lens, L, through one of the holes in K, and R' goes +free toward some distant point, O. Those that impinge on the lens will be +brought to a focus on S, where a bright speck of light might be seen. +This speck radiates light in all direction; some of the rays, proceeding +from it, impinge on the lens at the other hole in the shade K, as shown +in fig. 2, and are reduced by its agency to parallelism with r' and R', +that is, with the rays that originally left the mirror: consequently E, +looking partly at the edge of the lens, and partly into space, sees a +bright speck of light in the former, coincident with the point O in the +latter. + +[Fig 1 and Fig 2, as described in the text]. + +What is true for one point in the sun's disc, is true for every point in +it. Accordingly, the signaller sees an image of the sun, and not a mere +speck of light, in the lens; and the part of the landscape which that +image appears to overlay, is precisely that part of it over which the +flash from his mirror extends; or, in other words, it is that from any +point of which a distant spectator may see some part or other of the +sun's disc reflected in the mirror. There is no difficulty in signalling +when the sun is far behind the back, if the eye-tubes are made to pull +out to a total length of five inches, otherwise the shadow of the head +interferes. For want of space, the drawing represents the tubes as only +partly drawn out. The instrument is perfectly easy to manage, and letters +can be signalled by flashes. Its power is perfectly marvellous. On a day +so hazy that colours on the largest scale--such as green fields and white +houses--are barely distinguishable at seven miles' distance, a +looking-glass no larger than the finger-nail transmits its signals +clearly visible to the naked eye. + +I have made a makeshift arrangement on the principle of my heliostat, +using the object glass of an opera-glass for the lens, and an ordinary +looking-glass: the great size and short focus of the object glass is a +great convenience when using a mirror with a wide frame. + +Professor W. H. Miller, the Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, has +since invented a yet more compact method of directing the flash, which he +has described in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1865. It +consists of a plate of silvered glass, one of whose rectangular corners +is accurately ground and polished. On looking into the corner when the +glass is properly held an image of the sun is seen, which overlays the +actual flash. Beautifully simple as this instrument is, I do not like it +so much as my own, for the very fact of its requiring no "setting" is its +drawback. With mine, when the image of the sun is lost it is immediately +found again by simply rotating the instrument on its axis; but with +Professor Miller's the image must be felt for wholly anew. + +Fire Signals.--Fire-beacons, hanging up a lantern, or setting fire to an +old nest high up in a tree, serve as night-signals; but they are never to +be depended on without previous concert, as bushes and undulations of the +ground will often hide them entirely. The sparks from a well-struck flint +and steel can be seen for much more than a mile. + +Smoke Signals.--The smoke of fires is seen very far by day; and green +wood and rotten wood make the most smoke. It is best to make two fires +100 yards apart, lest your signalling should be mistaken for an ordinary +fire in the bush. These double fires are a very common signal to vessels +in the offing, on the African coast. + +Other Signals.--By Sight.--A common signal for a distant scout is, that +he should ride or walk round and round in a circle from right to left, or +else in one from left to right. + +Mr. Parkyns, speaking of Abyssinia, describes the habits of a caste of +robbers in the following words:--"At other times they will lie concealed +near a road, with scouts in every direction on the look-out; yet no one +venturing to speak, but only making known by signs what he may have to +communicate to his companions or leader. Thus he will point to his ear +and foot on hearing footsteps, to his eyes on seeing persons approach, or +to his tongue if voices be audible; and will also indicate on his fingers +the numbers of those coming, describing also many particulars as to how +many porters, beasts of burden or for riding, there may be with the +party." + +A kite has been suggested as a day signal; and also a kite with some kind +of squib, let off by a slow-light and attached to its tail, as one by +night. (Colonel Jackson.) + +Sound.--Whistling through the fingers can be heard at considerable +distances: the accomplishment should be learnt. Cooing in the Australian +fashion, or jvdling in that of the Swiss, are both of them heard a long +way. The united holloa of many voices, is heard much further than +separate cries. The cracking of a whip has a very penetrating sound. + +Smells.--An abominable smell arrests the attention at night. + +Letters carried by Animals.--In short reconnoitring expeditions made by a +small detachment from a party, the cattle or dogs are often wild, and run +home to their comrades on the first opportunity; in the event of not +being able to watch them, owing to accident or other cause, advantage may +be taken of their restlessness, by tying a note to one of their necks, +and letting them go and serve as postmen, or rather as carrier-pigeons. + + + +BEARINGS BY COMPASS, SUN, ETC. + + +Pocket Compass.--A pocket compass should not be too small; if one of the +little toy compasses be carried in the pocket, it should be as a reserve, +and not for regular use. A toy compass will of course tell N. from +N.N.E., and the like; and that may be very useful information, but the +traveller will find that he constantly needs more precise directions. He +doubts the identity of some hill or the destination of some path, and +finds on referring to his map, that the difference of bearing upon which +he must base his conclusion, is small: he therefore requires a good sized +compass, to determine the bearing with certainty. One from 1 1/2 to 2 +inches in diameter is practically the best. It should have plenty of +depth, so that the card may traverse freely, even when the instrument is +inclined: it should be light in weight, that it may not be easily jarred +by a blow; the catch that relieves the card, when the instrument is +closed, should be self-acting and should act well: lastly the movements +of the needle should be quick; one that makes slow oscillations should be +peremptorily refused, whatever its other merits may be: the graduation of +the degrees on the card should be from 0 degrees to 360 degrees, North +being 0 degrees and East 90 degrees. I wish some optician would make +aluminum cards. The material can be procured as foil, like tinfoil. It +can then be stamped and embossed, in which case it retains its shape +perfectly, but I cannot satisfy myself as to a good pattern, nor do I see +how to make the North and South halves of the disc sufficiently different +in appearance. + +Compass for use at night.--The great majority of compasses are well-nigh +useless in the dark, that is, when it is most important to be able to +consult them. They are rarely so constructed, that the difference between +the north and south sides is visible by moonlight or by the light of a +cigar or piece of tinder. The more modern contrivances are very +effective; in these the southern half of the compass card is painted +black, the northern being left white. With a very faint light, this +difference can be appreciated. In compasses consisting simply of a +needle, the north end of the needle should have a conspicuous arrow-head. +It is extraordinary how much the power of seeing a compass or a watch at +night is increased by looking nearly at it through a magnifying-glass. +Thus, young people who can focus their vision through a wide range may be +observed poring with their eyes close to their books when the light +wanes. So again, at night-time, a placard, even in large type, is +illegible at a short distance, but easily read on approaching it. It +seems, in order that a faint image on the retina should be appreciated by +the nerves of sight, that image must have considerable extent. + +Moonlight or the light of a cigar may be condensed on the compass by a +burning glass, or other substitute for it. (See "Burning Glass.") + +True and Magnetic Bearings.--The confusion between true and magnetic +bearings is a continual trouble, even to the most experienced travellers. +Sir Thomas Mitchell's exploring party very nearly sustained a loss by +mistaking the one for the other. I recommend that the points of the +compass, viz. North, N.N.E., etc., should be solely used for the +traveller for his true bearings; and the degrees, as 25 degrees (or N. 25 +degrees E.), for his magnetic. There would then be no reason why the two +nomenclatures should interfere with one another, for a traveller's +recollection of the lay of a country depends entirely upon true +bearings--or sunrise, sunset, and the stars--and is expressed by North, +N.N.E., etc.; but his surveying data which find no place in his memory, +but are simply consigned to his note-book, are necessarily registered in +degrees. To give every facility for carrying out this principle, a round +of paper should be pasted in the middle of the traveller's pocket-compass +card, just large enough to hide the ordinary rhumbs, but leaving +uncovered the degrees round its rim. On this disk of paper the points of +the compass (true bearings) should be marked so as to be as exact as +possible for the country about to be visited. + +Errors in Magnetic Bearings.--The compass-needle is often found to be +disturbed, and sometimes apparently bewitched, when laid upon hill-tops; +even when they consist of bare masses of granite. The disturbance is +easily accounted for by the hornblende in the granite, or by other +iron-bearing rocks. Explorers naturally select hills as their points of +triangulation; but compass observations on hill-tops, if unchecked by a +sextant observation of the sun's bearings, are never so reliable as those +taken on a plain. + +[Sketch of card as described on following pages]. + +Bearings by Sun and Stars.--It requires very great practice to steer well +by stars, for, on an average, they change their bearings even faster than +they change their altitudes. In tropical countries, the zodiacal stars - +as Orion and Antares--give excellent east and west points. The Great +Bear is useful when the North Pole cannot be seen, for you may calculate +by the eye whereabout it would be in the heavens when the "pointers" were +vertical, or due north; and the Southern Cross is available in precisely +the same way. The true North Pole is about 1 1/2 degree or 3 diameters of +the full moon, apart from the Pole star; and its place is on a line +between the Pole Star and the Great Bear. An almanac, calculated to show +the bearing, and the times of moonrise and moonset, for the country to be +travelled over, as well as those of sunrise and sunset, would be a very +great convenience; it would be worth while for a traveller accustomed to +such calculations to make one for himself. + +Diagram.--The diagram (preceding page) is intended to be traced in lines +of different colours, when it will be found to be far less confused than +at present. + +Its object is to enable a traveller to use the sun, both as a rude watch +and as a compass. The diagram is calculated for the latitude of London, +but will do with more or less accuracy for the whole of England. A +traveller going to other countries may easily draw up one for himself, +and on a larger scale if he prefers it, by using the Azimuth tables and +the Horary tables of Lynn. + +The diagram represents, 1st, circles of equal altitudes; 2ndly, the path +of sun, stars, etc., for each 10th degree of declination; 3rdly, the hour +angles, all projected down upon--4thly--the level compass card. + +Thus, six circles are drawn round the centre of the compass card at equal +distances apart, each ring between them representing a space of 15 +degrees in altitude. + +The following angles were then calculated for each 10th degree of +declination in turns, viz.:--The height of the sun, etc., when above the +horizon at each point of the compass. 2ndly, the bearing of the sun at +each consecutive hour. These points were dotted out; and, by joining the +several sets of them, the drawing was made. + +The broken lines which diverge in curves from P are hour lines; those +which surround P in more or less complete ovals, are the paths of the sun +and stars, for each 10th degree of declination; the prominent line +running from E. round to W. being its path when on the Equator. + +The diagram, when it is traced out for use, should have the names of the +months written in coloured ink on either side of the south line at places +corresponding to the declination of the sun during those months: viz.:-- + +January S. 23 degrees to S. 17 degrees +February S. 17 " S. 8 +March S. 7 " N. 4 +April N. 5 " N. 15 +May N. 15 " N. 22 +June N. 22 " N. 23 +July N. 23 " N. 18 +August N. 18 " N. 8 +September N. 8 " S. 3 +October S. 3 " S. 14 +November S. 15 " S. 22 +December S. 22 " S. 23 + +To use the card.--Draw a broad pencil line, which may afterwards be +rubbed out, corresponding to the date of travel, and there will be no +further confusion. + +Then, to know what o'clock it is, "span out" (see "Spanning") roughly the +altitude of the sun. The point in the diagram where the altitude so +obtained crosses the pencil mark, corresponds to the position of the sun. +The hour is then read off; and the compass bearings on the diagram are +adjusted by holding it level, and turning it round until a line, drawn +from its centre through the point in question, points towards the sun. As +to the moon or a star, if its declination be unknown, but its bearing and +altitude being given, its declination and path may be found, and +therefore the time since its rising or before its setting; a most useful +piece of information to a traveller. Watches break, and compasses cannot +be used on horseback without stopping, and therefore a diagram of this +description, of which any number of copies can be traced out, may be of +use for rough purposes. + +Other Signs of Direction.--Bearings by the Growth of Trees.--In exposed +situations and near the sea, the growth of trees is rarely symmetrical; +they betray by their bent heads and stunted branches the direction of the +prevalent influences most adverse to their growth. This direction is +constant over wide districts in a flat country, but cannot be equally +relied upon in a hilly one, where the mountains and valleys affect the +conditions of shade and shelter, and deflect the course of the wind. + +Moss grows best where there is continuous damp, therefore it prefers that +side of a tree which affords the most suitable combination of exposure to +damp winds and shelter from the sun. When the winds do not differ +materially in dampness, the north side of the forest trees are the most +thickly covered with moss. + +Bearings by the shape of Ant-hills.--That most accurate observer, Pierre +Huber, writes as follows concerning the nests of the yellow ants, which +are abundantly to be found in the Swiss Alps and in some other +mountainous countries. It must be recollected, in reading his statement, +that the chief occupation of ants is to move their eggs and larvae from +one part of the nest to another, to ensure them a warm and equable +temperature; therefore, it is reasonable to expect that the nests of ants +should be built on a uniform principle as regards their shape and aspect. +Huber says "they serve as a compass to mountaineers when they are +surrounded by thick mists, or have lost their way during the night; they +do so in the following manner:--The ant-hills (of the yellow ants), +which are by far more numerous and more high in the mountains than +anywhere else, are longer than they are broad, and are of a similar +pattern in other respects. Their direction is invariably from east to +west. Their highest point and their steepest side are turned towards the +point of sunrise in the winter-time (au levant d'hiver), and they descend +with a gradual slope in the opposite direction. I have verified these +experiences of the shepherds upon thousands of ant-hills, and have found +a very small number of exceptions; these occurred only in the case where +the ant-hills had been disturbed by men or animals. The ant-hills do not +maintain the constancy of their form in the lowlands, where they are more +exposed to such accidents." + +Ripple-marks on Snow or Sand.--The Siberians travel guided by the ripples +in the snow, which run in a pretty fixed direction, owing to the +prevalence of a particular wind. The ripples in a desert of sand are +equally good as guides; or the wind itself, if it happens to be blowing, +especially to a person pushing through a tangled belt of forest. Before +leaving a well-known track, and striking out at night into the broad open +plain, notice well which way the wind blows as regards the course you are +about to pursue. + +Flight of Birds.--I have read somewhere that in the old days coasting +sailors occasionally took pigeons with them, and when they had lost their +bearings they let one fly, which it did at once to the land. + +To follow a Track at Night.--Where the track is well marked, showers of +sparks, ably struck with a flint and steel, are sufficient to show it, +without taking the pains of making a flame. + +Smell of an Old Track.--The earth of an old and well-trodden road has a +perceptible smell, from the dung and trampling of animals passing over +it, especially near to encampments. It is usual at night, when a guide +doubts whether or no he is in the track, to take up handfuls of dirt and +smell it. It is notorious that cattle can smell out a road. + + + +MARKS FOR THE WAY-SIDE. + + +Marks on Trees--Cutting Marks.--A very excellent "tree-line" is made by +cutting deep notches in a line of trees, starting from some conspicuous +object, so that the notches will face the men that are to be guided by +it: the trees must be so selected that three, or at least two of them, +are in sight at once. The notch or sliced bark of a tree is called a +"blaze" in bush language. These blazed trees are of much use as +finger-posts on a dark night. They are best made by two persons; one +chipping the trees on his right, and the other those on his left. If the +axes are quite sharp, they only need to be dropped against the tree in +order to make the chip. Doing so, hardly retards a person in his walking. +Another way more suitable to some kinds of forests, is to strike the +knife into the left side of the tree, to tear down a foot of bark, and to +leave the bark hanging, for a double extent of white surface is shown in +this way. Also, to break down tops of saplings and leave them hanging: +the undersides of the leaves being paler than the upper, and the +different lines of the reversed foliage make a broken bush to look +unnatural among health trees, and it quickly arrests the attention. If +you want a tree to be well-scored or slashed, so as to draw attention to +it without fail, fire bullets into it, as into a mark, and let the +natives cut them out in their own way, for the sake of the lead. They +will effect your purpose admirably, without suspecting it. + +Stamping Marks on Trees.--The keepers of some of the communal forests in +Switzerland are provided with small axes, having the back of the axe-head +worked into a large and sharp die, the impression of the die being some +letter or cipher indicating the commune. When these foresters wish to +mark a tree, they give it first a slice with the edge of the axe, and +then (turning the axe) they deal it a heavy blow with the back of the +axe-head. By the first operation they prepare a clean surface for their +mark; and, by the second, they stamp their cipher deeply into the wood. + +Branding Trees.--Some explorers take branding irons, and use them to mark +each of their camping-places with its number. This is especially useful +in Australian travel, where the country is monotonous, and there are few +natives to tell the names of places. + +Faggot hung to a Tree.--A bundle of grass or twigs about 2 feet long, +slung by its middle athwart a small tree, at the level of the eye, by the +side of a path, is well calculated to catch the attention. Its lines are +so different to those seen elsewhere in the forest, that it would be +scarcely possible to overlook it. + +Boat or Canoe Routes through lakes well studded with islands, can be well +marked by trimming conspicuous trees until only a tuft of branches is +left at the top. This is called, in the parlance of the "Far West," a +"lopstick." + +Wooden Crosses.--A simple structure like fig. 1 is put together with a +single nail or any kind of lashing. It catches the attention immediately. + +[Fig. 1. Sketch of cross as described]. + +Marks with Stones.--Marks cut on Stone.--I have observed a very simple +and conspicuous permanent mark used in forest-roads, as represented in +fig. 2. The stone is 8 inches above ground, 3 1/2 wide, 8 inches long: +the mark is black and deeply cut. An arrow-head may be chiselled in the +face of a rock and filled with melted lead. With a small "cold" chisel, 3 +inches long and 1/4 inch wide, a great deal of stone carving may be +readily effected. + +[Sketch of stone with incised cross]. + +Piles of Stones.--Piles of stones are used by the Arabs in their deserts, +and in most mountain-tracts. "An immense length of the road, both in the +government of the Don Cossacks and in that of Tambov, is marked out on a +gigantic scale by heaps of stones, varying from 4 to 6 feet high. These +are visible from a great distance; and it is very striking to see the +double row of them indicating the line of route over the Great Steppe - +undulations which often present no other trace of the hand of man." +(Spottiswoode.) + +[Sketch of piled stones]. + +Gipsy Marks.--When gipsies travel, the party that goes in advance leaves +marks at cross-roads, in order to guide those who follow. These marks are +called "patterans;" there are three patterans in common use. One is to +pluck three large handfuls of grass and to throw them on the ground, at a +short distance from one another, in the direction taken; another is, to +draw a cross on the ground, with one arm much longer than the rest, as a +pointer--a cross is better than any other simple mark, for it catches +many different lights. (In marking a road, do not be content with marking +the dust--an hour's breeze or a shower will efface it; but take a +tent-peg, or sharpened stick, and fairly break into the surface, and your +mark will be surprisingly durable.) The third of the gipsy patterans is +of especial use in the dark: a cleft stick is planted by the road-side, +close to the hedge, and in the cleft, is an arm like a signpost. The +gipsies feel for this at cross-roads, searching for it on the left-hand +side. (Borrow's 'Zincali.') A twig, stripped bare, with the exception of +two or three leaves at its end, is sometimes laid on the road, with its +bared end pointing forwards. + +Other similar marks of direction and locality, in use in various parts of +the world are as follows:--Knotting twigs; breaking boughs, and letting +them dangle down; a bit of white paper in a cleft stick; spilling water, +or liquid of any kind, on the pathway; a litter made of paper torn into +small shreds, or of a stick cut into chips, or of feathers of a bird; a +string, with papers knotted to it, like the tail of a boy's kite--tie a +stone to the end of it, and throw it high among the branches of a tree. + +Paint.--Whitewash (which see), when mixed with salt, or grease, or glue +size, will stand the weather for a year or more. It can be painted on a +tree or rock: the rougher the surface on which it is painted, the longer +will some sign of it remain. + +Black for Inscriptions is made by mixing lamp-black (which see) with some +kind of size, grease, wax, or tar. Dr. Kane, having no other material at +hand, once burnt a large K with gunpowder on the side of a rock. It +proved to be a durable and efficient mark. When letters are chiselled in +a rock, they should be filled with black to make them more conspicuous. + +Blood leaves a mark of a dingy hue, that remains long upon a +light-coloured, absorbent surface, as upon the face of sandy rocks. + + + +ON FINDING THE WAY. + + +Recollection of a Path.--It is difficult to estimate, by recollection +only, the true distances between different points in a road that has been +once travelled over. There are many circumstances which may mislead, such +as the accidental tedium of one part, or the pleasure of another; but +besides these, there is always the fact, that, in a long day's journey, a +man's faculties of observation are more fresh and active on starting than +later in the day, when from the effect of weariness, even peculiar +objects will fail to arrest his attention. Now, as a man's recollection +of an interval of time is, as we all know, mainly derived from the number +of impressions that his memory has received while it was passing, it +follows that, so far as this cause alone is concerned, the earlier part +of his day's journey will always seem to have been disproportionately +long compared to the latter. It is remarkable, on taking a long +half-day's walk, and subsequently returning, after resting some hours, +how long a time the earlier part of the return journey seems to occupy, +and how rapidly different well-remembered points seem to succeed each +other, as the traveller draws homewards. In this case, the same cause +acts in opposite directions in the two journeys. + +To Walk in a Straight Line through Forests.--Every man who has had +frequent occasion to find his way from one place to another in a forest, +can do so without straining his attention. Thus, in the account of Lord +Milton's travels, we read of some North American Indians who were +incapable of understanding the white man's difficulty in keeping a +straight line; but no man who has not had practice can walk through trees +in a straight line, even with the utmost circumspection. + +After making several experiments, I think the explanation of the +difficulty and the way of overcoming it are as follows:--If a man walks +on a level surface, guided by a single conspicuous mark, he is almost +sure not to travel towards it in a straight line; his muscular sense is +not delicate enough to guard him from making small deviations. If, +therefore, after walking some hundred yards towards a single mark, on +ground that preserves his track, the traveller should turn round, he will +probably be astonished to see how sinuous his course has been. However, +if he take note of a second mark and endeavour to keep it strictly in a +line with the first, he will easily keep a perfectly straight course. But +if he cannot find a second mark, it will not be difficult for him to use +the tufts of grass, the stones, or the other accidents of the soil, in +its place; they need not be precisely in the same line with the mark, but +some may be on the right and some on the left of it, in which case, as he +walks on the perspective of their change of position will be symmetrical. +Lastly, if he has not even one definite mark, but is walking among a +throng of forest trees, he may learn to depend wholly on the symmetry of +the changes of perspective of the trees as a guide to his path. He will +keep his point of sight unchanged and will walk in its direction, and if +he deviates from that direction, the want of symmetry in the change of +perspective on either side of the point on which he wishes to walk, will +warn him of his error. The appreciation of this optical effect grows +easily into a habit. When the more distant view happens to be shut out, +the traveller must regain his line under guidance similar to that by +which a sailor steers who only looks at his compass at intervals--I mean +by the aspect of the sky, the direction of the wind, and the appearance +of the forest, when it has any peculiarity of growth dependent on +direction. The chance of his judgment being erroneous to a small extent +is the same on the right hand as on the left, consequently his errors +tend to compensate each other. I wish some scientific traveller would +rigidly test the powers of good bushmen and find their "probable" angular +deviation from the true course under different circumstances. Their line +should be given to them, and they should be told to make smokes at +intervals. The position of these smokes could be easily mapped out by the +traveller. + +The art of walking in a straight line is possessed in an eminent degree +by good ploughmen. They always look ahead, and let the plough take care +of itself. + +To find the way down a Hill-side.--If on arriving at the steep edge of a +ridge, you have to take the caravan down into the plain, and it appears +that a difficulty may arise in finding a good way for it; descend first +yourself, as well as you can, and seek for a road as you climb back +again. It is far more easy to succeed in doing this as you ascend, than +as you descend: because when at the bottom of a hill, its bold bluffs and +precipices face you, and you can at once see and avoid them: whereas at +the top, these are precisely the parts that you overlook and cannot see. + +Blind Paths.--Faintly-marked paths over grass (blind paths) are best seen +from a distance. + +Lost in a Fog.--Napoleon, when riding with his staff across a shallow arm +of the Gulf of Suez, was caught in a fog: he utterly lost his way, and +found himself in danger. He there-upon ordered his staff to ride from +him, in radiating lines, in all directions, and that such of them as +should find the water to become more shallow, should shout out. + +Mirage.--When it is excessive, it is most bewildering: a man will often +mistake a tuft of grass, or a tree, or other most dissimilar object, for +his companion, or his horse, or game. An old traveller is rarely deceived +by mirage. If he doubts, he can in many cases adopt the following hint +given by Dr. Kane: "Refraction will baffle a novice, on the ice; but we +have learned to baffle refraction. By sighting the suspected object with +your rifle at rest, you soon detect motion." + +Lost Path.--If you fairly lose your way in the dark, do not go on +blundering hither and thither till you are exhausted; but make as +comfortable bivouac as you can, and start at daybreak fresh on your +search. + +The bank of a watercourse, which is the best of clues, affords the worst +of paths, and is quite unfit to be followed at night. The ground is +always more broken in the neighbourhood of a river than far away from it; +and the vegatation is more tangled. Explorers travel most easily by +keeping far away from the banks of streams; because then they have fewer +broad tributaries and deep ravines to cross. + +If in the daytime you find that you have quite lost your way, set +systematically to work to find it. At all event, do not make the matter +doubly perplexing by wandering further. Mark the place very distinctly +where you discover yourself at fault, that it may be the centre of your +search. Be careful to ride in such places as will preserve your tracks. +Break twigs if you are lost in a woodland: if in the open country, drag a +stick to make a clear trail. Marks scratched on the ground to tell the +hour and day that you passed by, will guide a relieving party. A great +smoke is useful for the same purpose and is visible for a long distance. +(See "Signals.") + +A man who loses himself, especially in a desert, is sadly apt to find his +presence of mind forsake him, the sense of desolation is so strange and +overpowering; but he may console himself with the statistics of his +chance of safety--viz., that travellers, though constantly losing their +party, have hardly ever been known to perish unrelieved. + +When the lost traveller is dead beat with fatigue, let him exert a strong +control over himself, for if he gives way to terror, and wanders wildly +about hither and thither, he will do no good and exhaust his vital powers +much sooner. He should erect some signal--as conspicuous a one as he +can--with something fluttering upon it, sit down in the shade, and, +listening keenly for any sound of succour, bear his fate like a man. His +ultimate safety is merely a question of time, for he is sure to be +searched for; and, if he can keep alive for two or three days, he will, +in all probability, be found and saved. (To relieve thirst, p. 223; +hunger, p. 197) + +Theory.--When you discover you are lost, ask yourself the following three +questions: they comprise the ABC of the art of pathfinding, and I will +therefore distinguish them by the letters A, B, and C respectively:--A. +What is the least distance that I can with certainty specify, within +which the caravan-path, the river, or the sea-shore, that I wish to +regain, lies? B. What is the direction, in a vague general way, towards +which the path or river runs, or the sea-coast tends? C. When I last left +the path, did I turn to the left or to the right. + +As regards A, calculate coolly how long you have been riding or walking, +and at what pace, since you left your party; subtract for stoppages and +well-recollected zigzags; allow a mile and a half per hour for the pace +when you have been loitering on foot, and three and a half when you have +been walking fast. Bear in mind that occasional running makes an almost +inappreciable difference; and that a man is always much nearer to the +lost path, than he is inclined to fear. + +As regards B, if the man knows the course of the path to within eight +points of the compass (or one-fourth of the whole horizon), it is a great +gain; or even if he knows B to within twelve points, say 120 degrees, or +one-third of the whole horizon, his knowledge is available. For instance, +let us suppose a man's general idea of the run of the path to be, that it +goes in a northerly and southerly direction: then if he is also positive +that the path does not deviate more than to the N.E. on the one side of +that direction, or to the N.W. on the other, he knows the direction to +within eight points. Similarly he is sure to twelve points, if his +limits, on either hand, are E.N.E. and W.N.W. respectively. + +C requires no further explanation. + +Now, if a man can answer all three questions, A, B, to within eight +points of the compass, and C, he is four and a half times as well off as +if he could only answer A; as will be seen by the following +considerations. A knowledge of B in addition to A, is of only one-third +the use that it would be if C also were known. + +1. Let P (fig. 1) be the point where the traveller finds himself at +fault, and let P D to be a distance within which the path certainly lies; +then the circle, E D F, somewhere cuts the path, and the traveller +starting from P must first go to D, and then make the entire circuit, D E +H F D, before he has exhausted his search. This distance of P D + D E H F +D = P D + 6 P D nearly, = 7 P D altogether, which gives the length of +road that the man must be prepared to travel over who can answer no other +than the question A. Of course, P D may cut the path, but I am speaking +of the extreme distance which the lost man may have to travel. + +[Sketch as described above]. + +Supposing that question B can be answered as well as question A, an that +the direction of the line of road lies certainly within the points of the +compass, P S and P R. Draw the circumscribing parallelogram, G L H E M, +whose sides are respectively parallel to P S and P R. Join L M. By the +conditions of this problem, the path must somewhere cut the circle E D F; +and since L M cuts L H, which is a tangent to it, it is clear it must cut +every path--such as a a, parallel to L H, or to P R--that cuts the +circle. Similarly, the same line, L M, must cut every path parallel to P +S, such as b b. Now if L M cuts every path that is parallel to either of +the extreme directions, P R or P S, it is obvious that it must also cut +every path that is parallel to an intermediate direction, such as c c, +but + +PL = PH/cos HPL = PD/cos 1/2 RPS; + +The consequence of which is that P L exceeds P D by one-sixth, one-half +as much again, or twice as much again, according as R P S = 60 degrees, +90 degrees degrees, or 140 degrees. + +The traveller who can only answer the questions A and B, but not C, must +be prepared to travel from P to L, and back again through P to M, a +distance equal to 3 P L. If, however, he can answer the question C, he +knows at once whether to travel towards L or towards M, and he has no +return journey to fear. At the worst, he has simply to travel the +distance P L. + +The probable distance, as distinguished from the utmost possible distance +that a man may have to travel in the three cases, can be calculated +mathematically. It would be out of place here to give the working of the +little problem, but I append the rough numerical results in a table. + +[Table as referred to above]. + +The epitome of the whole is this:--1. If you can only answer the question +A, you must seek for the lost path by the tedious circle plan; or, what +is the same, and a more manageable way of setting to work, by travelling +in an octagon, each side of which must be equal to four-fifths of P D. +(See fig. 2.) + +[Fig. 2]. + +That is to say, look at your compass and start in any direction you +please; we will say to the south, as represented in the drawing. Travel +for a distance, P D; then supposing you have not crossed the path, turn +at right angles, and start afresh--we will suppose your present +direction to be west--travel for a distance 4/10 of P D, which will take +you to 1; then turn to the N.W. and travel for a distance 8/10 of P D, +which will take you to 2; then to the N. for a similar distance, which +will take you to 3; and so on, till the octagon has been completed. If +you know B to eight points, and not C, adopt the L M system; also, if you +know A and C, and B to within thirteen points (out of the sixteen that +form the semicircle), you may still adopt the L M system; but not +otherwise. A rough diagram scratched on the ground with a stick would +suffice to recall the above remarks to a traveller's recollection. + + + +CACHES AND DEPOTS. + + +Caches.--It is easy enough to choose a spot, which you yourself shall +again recognise, for digging a hole, where stores of all kinds may be +buried against your return: neither is it difficult to choose one, so +that you may indicate its position to others, or else leave it to a party +who are travelling in concert, to find it out for themselves. But +excessive caution in the mode of depositing the stores is, in every case, +required, as hungry and thieving natives keep watch on all the movements +of a party; they follow their tracks and hunt over their old +camping-places, in search of anything there may be to pick up. And +hyenas, wolves, wild dogs, and all kinds of prowling animals, guided by +their sharp scent, will soon scratch up any provisions that are buried +carelessly, or in such a way as to taint the earth. + +The natives in Ceylon, when they wish to make a depot of game, jerk it, +put the dry meat into the hollow of a tree, fill up the reservoir with +honey, and plaster it over with clay. + +Some dried plants of M. Bourgeau, the botanist attached to Captain +Palliser's expedition to the Rocky Mountains, remained underground for +ten months without injury. + +Newly disturbed Ground sinks when Wetted.--If a cache be made in dry +weather, and the ground be simply levelled over it, the first heavy rain +will cause the earth to sink, and will proclaim the hidden store to an +observant eye. Soldiers, in sacking a town, find out hastily-buried +treasures by throwing a pailful of water over any suspected spot: if the +ground sinks, it has surely been recently disturbed. + +Best place for a Cache.--The best position to choose for a cache is in a +sandy or gravelly soil, on account of its dryness and the facility of +digging. Old burrows, or the gigantic but abandoned hills of white ants, +may be thought of, if the stores are enclosed in cases of painted tin: +also clefts in rocks: some things can be conveniently buried under water. +The place must be chosen under circumstances that admit of your effacing +all signs of the ground having been disturbed. A good plan is to set up +your tent and to dig a deep hole in the floor, depositing what you have +to bury wrapped in an oil-cloth, in an earthen jar, or in a wooden +vessel, according to what you are able to get. It must be secure against +the attacks of the insects of the place: avoid the use of skins, for +animals will smell and dig them out. Continue to inhabit the tent for at +least a day, well stamping and smoothing down the soil at leisure. After +this, change the position of the tent, shifting the tethering-place or +kraal of your cattle to where it stood. They will speedily efface any +marks that may be left. Travellers often make their fires over the holes +where their stores are buried; but natives are so accustomed to suspect +fireplaces, that this plan does not prove to be safe. During summer +travel, in countries pestered with gnats, a smoke fire for the horses +(that is, a fire for keeping off flies), made near the place, will +attract the horses and cause them to trample all about. This is an +excellent way of obliterating marks left about the cache. + +Hiding Small Things.--It is easy to make a small cache by bending down a +young tree, tying your bundle to the top, and letting it spring up again. +A spruce-tree gives excellent shelter to anything placed in its branches. +(See also what is said on "Burying Letters," p. 303.) + +Hiding Large Things.--Large things, as a wagon or boat, must either be +pushed into thick bushes or reeds and left to chance, or they may be +buried in a sand drift or in a sandy deposit by a river side. A small +reedy island is a convenient place for such caches. + +Double Caches.--Some persons, when they know that their intentions are +suspected, make two caches: the one with a few things buried in it, and +concealed with little care; the other, containing those that are really +valuable, and very artfully made. Thieves are sure to discover the first, +and are likely enough to omit a further search. + +To find your Store again, you should have ascertained the distance and +bearing, by compass, of the hole from some marked place--as a tree--about +which you are sure not to be mistaken; or from the centre of the place +where your fire was made, which is a mark that years will not entirely +efface. If there be anything in the ground itself to indicate the +position of the hole, you have made a clumsy cache. It is not a bad plan, +after the things are buried, and before the tent is removed, to scratch a +furrow a couple of inches deep, and three or four feet long, and picking +up any bits of stick, reeds, or straw, that may be found at hand lying +upon the ground, to place them end to end in it. These will be easy +enough to find again by making a cross furrow, and when found will lead +you straight above the depot. They would never excite suspicion, even if +a native got hold of them; for they would appear to have been dropped or +blown on the ground by chance, not seen and trampled in. Mr. Atkinson +mentions an ingenious way by which the boundaries of valuable mining +property are marked in the Ural, a modification of which might serve for +indicating caches. A trench is dug and filled with charcoal beat small, +and then covered over. The charcoal lasts for ever, and cannot be +tampered with without leaving an unmistakable mark. + +Secreting Jewels.--Before going to a rich but imperfectly civilised +country, travellers sometimes buy jewels and bury them in their flesh. +They make a gash, put the jewels in, and allow the flesh to grow over +them as it would over a bullet. The operation is more sure to succeed if +the jewels are put into a silver tube with rounded ends, for silver does +not irritate. If the jewels are buried without the tube, they must have +no sharp edges. The best place for burying them is in the left arm, at +the spot chosen for vaccination. A traveller who was thus provided would +always have a small capital to fall back upon, though robbed of +everything he wore. + +A Chain of gold is sometimes carried by Arabs, who sew it in dirty +leather under their belt. They cut off and sell a link at a time. +(Burton) + +The gun-stock is a good receptacle for small valuables. Unscrew the +heel-plate and bore recesses; insert what you desire, after wrapping it +tightly in cloth and plugging it in; then replace the heel-plate. (Peal.) + +Depositing Letters.--To direct Attention to the Place of Deposit.--When +you make a cache in an inhabited land, for the use of a travelling party +who are ignorant of your purpose, there is of course some difficulty in +ensuring that their attention should be directed to the place, but that +the natives should have no clue to it. If you have means of gashing, +painting or burning characters, something of this sort (see fig.), they +will explain themselves. + +[Sketch of direction plate]. + +Savages, however, take such pains to efface any mark they may find left +by white men, entertaining thoughts like those of Morgiana in the +'Arabian Nights' tale of the Forty Thieves, that it would be most +imprudent to trust to a single mark. A relief party should therefore be +provided with a branding-iron and moveable letters, and with paints, and +they should mark the tree in many places. A couple of hours spent in +doing this would leave more marks than the desultory efforts of roving +savages would be likely to efface. A good sign to show that Europeans +have visited a spot is a saw mark (no savages use saws): it catches the +eye directly. + +A system occasionally employed by Arctic expeditions, of making a cache +10 feet true north (and not magnetic north) from the cairn or mark, +deserves to be generally employed, at least with modifications. Let me +therefore suggest, that persons who find a cairn built of a tree marked, +so as to attract notice, and who are searching blindly in all directions +for further clue, should invariably dig out and examine that particular +spot. The notice deposited there may consist of no more than a single +sentence, to indicate some distant point as the place where the longer +letter is buried. I hope it will be understood, that the precaution of +always burying a notice 10 feet true north of the cairn mark is proposed +as additional to and not in the place of other contrivances for giving +information. There will often arise some doubt as to the exact point in +the circumference of the cairn or mark whence the 10 feet measurement +should be made. This is due to the irregularity of the bases of all such +marks. Therefore, when searching for letters, a short trench, running to +the north, will frequently have to be dug, and not a mere hole. I should +propose that the short notice be punched or pricked on a thin sheet of +lead, made by pouring two or three melted bullets on a flat stone, and +that the plate so made and inscribed should be rolled up and pushed into +a hole bored or burnt through the head of a large tent peg. The peg could +be driven deeply in the ground, quite out of sight, without disturbing +the surrounding earth. It might even suffice to pick up a common stone +and to scratch or paint upon it what you had to say, and to leave it on +the ground, with its written face downwards, at the place in question. + +To secure Buried Letters from Damp.--They may be wrapped in waxed cloth +or paper, if there be no fear of the ravages of insects. Lead plate is +far more safe: it can be made easily enough by a traveller out of his +bullets. (See "Lead.") A glass bottle (with something that insects cannot +eat, such as lead-plate, sealing-wax or clay, put carefully over the +cork) or an earthen jar may be used. The quill of a large feather will +hold a long letter, if it is written in very small handwriting and on +thin paper, and it will preserve it from the wet. After the letter has +been rolled up and inserted in the quill, the open end of the latter may +be squeezed flat between two stones, heated sufficiently to soften the +quill (see "Horn") but not so hot as to burn it, and then, for greater +security against wet, the end of the quill should be twisted tight. Wax +affords another easy means of closing the quill. + +Picture-writing.--A very many excellent bushrangers are unable to read, +rude picture-writing is often used by them, especialy in America. The +figure of a man with a spear or bow, drawn as a child would draw, stands +for a savage; one with a hat or gun for a European; horses, oxen, and +sheep are equally to be drawn; lines represent numbers, and arrow-heads +direction. Even without more conventional symbols, a vast deal may be +expressed by rude picture-writing. + +Reconnoitring Barren Countries by help of Porters and Caches.--The +distance to which an explorer can attain in barren countries depends on +the number of days' provisions that he can carry with him. Half of his +load supports him on his way out, the other half on his way home. But if +he start in company with a laden porter, he may reserve his own store and +supply both himself and the porter from the pack carried by the latter. +When half of this is consumed, the other half may be divided into two +equal portions. The one is retained by the porter who makes his way back +to camp, consuming it as he goes, and the other is cached (see "Caches") +for the sustenance of the traveller on his return journey. This being +arranged, the traveller can start from the cache with his own load of +provisions untouched, just as he would have started from the camp if he +had had no porter to assist him. It is evident a process of this +description might be frequently repeated; that a large party of porters +might start, and by a system of successive subdivisions, they could +enable the traveller to reach a position many days' journey distant from +his camp, with his own load of provisions and with other food placed in a +succession of caches, for the supply of his wants all the way home again. +The principle by which this may be effected without waste, is to send +back at each successive step the smallest detachment competent to travel +alone, and to do this as soon as one half of their load of food has been +consumed by the whole party. Then, the other half is to be divided into +two portions; one consisting of rations to supply the detachment back to +the previous cache, whence their journey home has been provided for, the +other portion to be buried, to supply rations for the remainder of the +party, when they shall have returned (either all together or else in +separate and successive detachments) back to the previous cache, whence +their journey home has also been provided for. An inspection of the Table +which I annex (p. 307) makes details unnecessary. The dotted lines show +how the porters who first return may be dispatched afresh as relief +parties. I give, in the table, a schedule of the three most important +cases. In these the regular supply of two meals per diem, and a morning +and an afternoon journey, are supposed. I wrote a paper on this subject, +which is published in the 'Royal Geographical Society's Proceedings,' +vol. ii., to which I refer those who care to inquire further into the +matter. Cases where each man or horse carries a number of rations +intermediate to those specified in the Table, are, perhaps, too +complicated for use without much previous practice. It would be easy for +a leader to satisfy himself that he was making no mistake, and to drill +his men to any one of the tabulated cases, by painting a row of sticks, +50 yards apart, to represent the successive halting-places of his +intended journey, and by making his men go through a sham rehearsal of +what they would severally have to do. Then each man's duties could be +written down in a schedule and all possibility of mistake be avoided. + +The Table represents the proceedings of four men (or horses and men), who +leave camp. Two turn back at P1, one more turns back at P2, and the +remaining man pushes on to P3. Food has been cached for him both at P2 +and P1; but to make matters doubly sure, a relief party, as shown by the +dotted line, can be sent to meet him at P2. + +In Case A, each man carries 1 1/2 day's rations. + " B. " (or horse) " 3 1/2 days' rations for + himself (and drivers). + " C. each man (or horse) carries 5 1/2 days' rations for + himself (and drivers). + +We will take the case C as an example. The figures that refer to it are +in the lines adjacent to the letter C in the Table. They are those in the +uppermost line, and also those in the line up the left-hand side of the +diagram, and they stand for days' journey and for days respectively. P1 +is reached after 1 1/2 day's travel, P2 after 3 days, P3 after 6 days +from camp. The entire party might consist of 5 men, 2 carts (one a very +light one), and four horses, together with one saddle and bridle. The +heavier cart and 2 men and 2 horses would turn back at P1. One of the two +horses of the second cart would be saddled and ridden back by a third man +from P2; and, finally, the remaining cart, single horse, and 2 men, would +turn back, after 6 days, from P3.--The relief party would +originallyconsist of the first cart and 3 horses. On arriving at P1, a +horse and man would be sent back. At P2 it would have more than enough +spare rations to admit of its waiting two whole days for the exploring +cart, if it were necessary to do so. + +[Full page diagram as described above]. + +It will be seen from the Table that as 6 days' journey is the limit to +which C can explore, so 4 days' journey is the limit for B, and 2 days +for A. But where abundance of provision is secured at P2 by means of a +relief party, the explorers might well make an effort and travel on half +rations to a greater distance than the limits here assigned. + + + +MANAGEMENT OF SAVAGES. + + +General Remarks.--A frank, joking, but determined manner, joined with an +air of showing more confidence in the good faith of the natives than you +really feel, is the best. It is observed, that a sea-captain generally +succeeds in making an excellent impression on savages: they thoroughly +appreciate common sense, truth, and uprightness; and are not half such +fools as strangers usually account them. If a savage does mischief, look +on him as you would on a kicking mule, or a wild animal, whose nature is +to be unruly and vicious, and keep your temper quite unruffled. Evade the +mischief, if you can: if you cannot, endure it; and do not trouble +yourself overmuch about your dignity, or about retaliating on the man, +except it be on the grounds of expediency. There are even times when any +assumption of dignity becomes ludicrous, and the traveller must, as Mungo +Park had once to do, "lay it down as a rule to make himself as useless +and as insignificant as possible, as the only means of recovering his +liberty." + +Bush Law.--It is impossible but that a traveller must often take the law +into his own hands. Some countries, no doubt, are governed with a strong +arm by a savage despot; to whom or to whose subordinates appeals must of +course be made; but, for the most part, the system of life among savages +is-- + +"The simple rule, the good old plan-- +That they should take, who have the power; +And they should keep, who can." + +Where there is no civil law, or any kind of substitute for it, each man +is, as it were, a nation in himself; and then the traveller ought to be +guided in his actions by the motives that influence nations, whether to +make war or to abstain from it, rather than by the criminal code of +civilised countries. The traveller must settle in his own mind what his +scale of punishments should be; and it will be found a convenient +principle that a culprit should be punished in proportion to the quantity +of harm that he has done, rather than according to the presumed +wickedness of the offence. Thus, if two men were caught, one of whom had +stolen an ox, and the other a sheep, it would be best to flog the first +much more heavily than the second; it is a measure of punishment more +intelligible to savages than ours. The principle of double or treble +restitution, to which they are well used, is of the same nature. If all +theft be punished, your administration will be a reign of terror; for +every savage, even your best friends, will pilfer little things from you, +whenever they have a good opportunity. Be very severe if any of your own +party steal trifles from natives: order double or treble restitution, if +the man does not know better; and, if he does, a flogging besides, and +not in place of it. + +Seizing Food.--On arriving at an encampment, the natives commonly run +away in fright. If you are hungry, or in serious need of anything that +they have, go boldly into their huts, take just what you want, and leave +fully adequate payment. It is absurd to be over-scrupulous in these +cases. + +Feast-Days.--Interrupt the monotony of travel, by marked days, on which +you give extra tobacco and sugar to the servants. Avoid constant good +feeding, but rather have frequent slight fasts to ensure occasional good +feasts; and let those occasions when marked stages of your journey have +been reached, be great gala-days. Recollect that a savage cannot endure +the steady labour that we Anglo-Saxons have been bred to support. His +nature is adapted to alternations of laziness and of severe exertion. +Promote merriment, singing, fiddling, and so forth, with all your power. +Autolycus says, in 'A Winter's Tale'-- + +"Jog on, jog on, the foot-path way, +Merrily bent the stils-a: +A merry heart goes all the day, +Your sad tires in a mile-a." + +Flogging.--Different tribes have very different customs in the matter of +corporal punishment: there are some who fancy it a disgrace and a serious +insult. A young traveller must therefore be discriminating and cautious +in the licence he allows to his stick, or he may fall into sad trouble. + +Kindliness of Women--Wherever you go, you will find kindheartedness +amongst women. Mungo Park is fond of recording his experiences of this; +but I must add that he seems to have been an especial favourite with the +sex. The gentler of the two sexes is a "teterrima causa belli." + +When you wish a Savage to keep count, give him a string of beads. The +boxes and parcels that are sent by the overland route are, or were, +counted in this way by an Arab overseer. He was described as having a +cord with great beads strung on it, and the end of the cord was thrown +over his shoulder. As each box passed him, he jerked a bead from the fore +part of the cord to the back part of it, over his shoulder. + +Drawing Lots.--It is often necessary to distribute things by lot. Do it +by what children call "soldiering:" One stands with his back to the rest' +another, pointing to the portions in succession, calls out "Who is to +have this?" To which the first one replies by naming somebody, who at +once takes possession. + + + +HOSTILITIES. + + +To Fortify a Camp.--Forts at opposite Corners.--Explorers have frequent +occasion to form a depot: either a few men are left in charge of the +heavy luggage, while the rest of the party ride on a distant +reconnoitring expedition; or else the whole party may encamp for weeks, +until the state of the season, or other cause, permits further travel. In +either case, a little forethought and labour will vastly increase the +security of the depot against hostile attempts. For instance, it should +be placed at least 200 yards from any cover, or commanding heights; if +the ground on which it stands have any features of strength about it, as +being near the side of a stream, or being on a hill, so much the better; +the neighbourhood of shingle prevents persons from stealing across +unheard; and, finally, the camp should be fortified. Now the principle of +fortification best suited to a small party, is to form the camp into a +square, and to have two projecting enclosures at opposite corners, where +all the men who have guns may place themselves to fire on the assailants. +It will be seen by the sketch, how completely the guns in each enclosure +can sweep the edges as well as the whole of the environs of the camp. + +[Sketch of camp with fortifications]. + +A square is better than a round for the projecting enclosures, as it +allows more men to use their guns at the same time on the same point; but +it is so convenient to make the walls of the enclosure serve as sidings +for the tents, that it is perhaps best to allow the size and shape of the +tent to determine those of the enclosures. A square of nine or ten feet, +inside measurement, is amply sufficient for three guns or archers. The +parapets can be built of large stones. A travelling party rarely carries +spades, but when they have them, the parapet may be formed of the earth +thrown up by digging a trench outside it; the common calculation is, +that, with good tools, a labourer can dig one cubic yard of earth an +hour, and can continue working for eight hours in the day. The parapet +should be raised four feet above the ground, as that is the most +convenient height to fire from when standing; and it is high enough to +shield a person kneeling down to load. Upon this parapet, large stones +should be laid, having loop-holes between them, and above the stones the +tent may be pitched; its pole being lengthened by lashing apiece of wood +to it, or by cutting a fresh pole altogether. It will make a high roof to +the enclosure, and will complete a comfortable abode. We have thus a +square enclosed camp for the cattle, the wagons, and the natives of the +party; and, at opposite corners of it, two fortified houses: one of which +would naturally be inhabited by the leaders of the party; and the other, +either by the storekeeper, or by the white servants generally + +Trous de Loup are holes, with sharp stake driven in the bottom of each of +them (see "Pitfalls," p. 264) with the pointed end upwards. The South Sea +Islanders use them in multitudes to prevent the possibility of an enemy's +approach at night, otherwise than along the narrow paths that lead to +their villages: if a man deviates from a path, he is sure to stumble into +one of these contrivances, and to be lamed. The holes need not exceed one +foot in diameter; and the stake may be a stick no thicker than the little +finger, and yet it will suffice to maim an ill-shod man, if its point be +baked hard. A traveller could only use these pitfalls where, from the +circumstances of the case, there was no risk of his own men, cattle, or +dogs falling into them. + +Weapons, to resist an Attack.--Unless your ammunition is so kept as to be +accessible in the confusion of an attack, the fortifications I have just +described would be of little service. If the guns are all, or nearly all, +of the same bore, it is simple enough to have small bags filled with +cartridges, and also papers with a dozen caps in each. Buck-shot and +slugs are better than bullets, for the purposes of which we are speaking. +Bows and arrows might render good service. The Chinese, in their junks, +when they expect a piratical attack, bring up baskets filled with stones +from the ballast of the ship, and put them on deck ready at hand. They +throw them with great force and precision: the idea is not a bad one. +Boiling water and hot sand, if circumstances happened to permit their +use, are worth bearing in mind, as they tell well on the bodies of naked +assailants. In close quarters, thrust, do not strike; and recollect that +it is not the slightest use to hit a negro on the head with a stick, as +it is a fact that his skull endures a blow better than any other part of +his person. In picking out the chiefs, do not select the men that are the +most showily ornamented, for they are not the chiefs; but the biggest and +the busiest. A good horseman will find a powerful weapon at hand by +unhitching his stirrup leather and attached stirrup from the saddle. I +know of a case where this idea saved the rider. + +Rockets.--Of all European inventions, nothing so impresses and terrifies +savages as fireworks, especially rockets. I cannot account for the +remarkable effect they produce, but in every land, it appears to be the +same. A rocket, judiciously sent up, is very likely to frighten off an +intended attack and save bloodshed. If a traveller is supplied with any +of these, he should never make playthings of them, but keep them for +great emergencies. + +Natives forbidden to throng the Camp.--Have a standing rule that many +natives should never be allowed to go inside your camp at the same time: +for it is everywhere a common practice among them, to collect quietly in +a friendly way, and at a signal to rise en masse and overpower their +hosts. Even when they profess to have left their arms behind, do not be +too confident: they are often deposited close at hand. Captain Sturt +says, that he has known Australian savages to trail their spears between +their toes, as they lounged towards him through the grass, professedly +unarmed. + +Keeping Watch.--Head near the ground.--When you think you hear anything +astir, lie down and lay your ear on the ground. To see to the best +advantage, take the same position; you thus bring low objects in bold +relief against the sky. Besides this, in a wooded country, it is often +easy to see far between the bare stems of the trees, while their +spreading tops shut out all objects more than a few yards off. Thus, a +dog or other small animal usually sees a man's legs long before he sees +his face. + +Opera-glass.--An opera-glass is an excellent night glass, and at least +doubles the clearness of vision in the dark (0p. 284). + +Ear-trunpet.--I should be glad to hear that a fair trial had been also +given by a traveller to an ear-trumpet. + +Watchfulness of Cattle.--Cattle keep guard very well: a stranger can +hardly approach a herd of oxen, without their finding him out; for +several of them are always sure to be awake and watchful. The habits of +bush life make a traveller, though otherwise sound asleep, start up +directly at a very slight rustle of alarm among his cattle. + +Of Wild Birds and Beasts.--Scared birds and beasts often give +useful warning. + +Smell of Negro.--A skulking negro may sometimes be smelt out like a fox. + +Dahoman Night-watch.--The Dahomans, the famous military nation of N.W. +Africa, have an odd method of dividing their watches by night, but "which +is generally managed very correctly. At each gate of a stockaded town, is +posted a sentry, who is provided with a pile of stones, the exact number +of which has been previously ascertained. The night is divided into four +watches; during each watch the sentry removes the pile of stones, one by +one, at a measured pace, from one gate to another, calling out at each +tenth removal: when all are removed, the watch is relieved."--Forbes. + +Setting a common Gun as an Alarm-gun.--The gun may be loaded with bullet, +or simply with powder, or only with a cap: even the click of the hammer +may suffice to awaken attention. For the ways of setting it, see p. 257. + +Prairie set on Fire.--This is often done as a means of offence. But when +the grass is short (lower than the knee), the strip of it on fire, at the +same moment, does not exceed 12 feet in width; therefore if a belt of +grass of 12 feet in width be destroyed in advance of the line of fire, +the conflagration will be arrested as soon as it reaches that belt. The +fire will be incapable of traversing the interval narrow though it be, +where there is a total absence of fuel to feed it. Travellers avail +themselves of this fact in a very happy manner, when a fire in the +prairie is advancing towards them, by burning a strip of grass, to the +windward of their camp, of 12 feet in breadth; beating down the blaze +with their blankets wherever it would otherwise extend too widely. Behind +this easily constructed line of defence, the camp rests in security, and +the adjacent grass remains uninjured for the use of the cattle. If, +however, the wind is high and sparks are drifted for some distance beyond +the belt of fire, this method is insufficient: two lines of defence +should then be constructed. + +Tricks upon Robbers.--It is perhaps just worth while to mention a trick +that has been practised in most countries, from England to Peru. A +traveller is threatened by a robber with a gun, and ordered to throw +himself on the ground, or he will be fired at. The traveller taking a +pistol from his belt, shouts out, "If this were loaded you should not +treat me thus!" and throws himself on the ground as the robber bids him. +There he lies till the robber, in his triumph, comes up for his booty; +when the intended victim takes a quick aim and shoots him dead--the +pistol being really loaded all the time. I have also heard of an incident +in the days of Shooter's Hill, in England, where a ruffian waylaid and +sprang upon a traveller, and holding a pistol to his breast, summoned him +for the contents of his pocket. The traveller dived his hand into one of +them, and, silently cocking a small pistol that lay in it, shot the +robber dead, firing out through the side of the pocket. + +Passing through a Hostile Country.--How to encamp.--A small party has +often occasion to try to steal through a belt of hostile country without +being observed. At such times, it is a rule never to encamp until long +after sun-down, in order that people on your track may be unable to +pursue it with ease. If you are pursuing a beaten path, turn sharp out of +it, when you intend to encamp, selecting a place for doing so where the +ground is too hard to show footprints; then travel away for a quarter of +an hour, at least. Lastly, look out for a hollow place, in the midst of +an open flat. Never allow hammering of any kind in your camp, nor loud +talking; but there is no danger in lighting a small fire, if reasonable +precautions be taken, as a flame cannot be seen far through bushes. Keep +a strict watch all night: the watchers should be 100 yards out from camp, +and should relieve one another, every two hours at least. Enough animals +for riding, one for each man, should always be tied up, in readiness for +instant use. + +When riding alone.--A person who is riding a journey for his life, sleeps +most safely with his horse's head tied short up to his wrist. The horse, +if he hears anything, tosses his head and jerks the rider's arm. The +horse is a careful animal, and there appears to be little danger of his +treading on his sleeping master. + +[Sketch of horse tethered as above]. + +The Indians of South America habitually adopt this plan, when +circumstances require extreme caution (see fig.) + +To prevent your Horse from neighing.--If a troop of horsemen pass near +your hiding-place, it may be necessary to clutch your steed's muzzle with +both hands, to prevent his neighing. + +Hurried retreat of a Party.--When a party, partly of horsemen and partly +of footmen, are running away from danger as hard as they can, the footmen +lay hold of the stirrup-leathers of the riders, to assist them. (See +"Litters for the Wounded," p. 23.) + +Securing Prisoners.--To take a strong man Prisoner singlehanded, threaten +him with your gun, and compel him to throw all his arms away; then, +marching him before you some little distance, make him lie flat on his +face and put his hands behind him. Of course he will be in a dreadful +fright, and require reassuring. Next take your knife, put it between your +teeth, and, standing over him, take the caps off your gun, and lay it +down by your side. Then handcuff him, in whatever way you best can. The +reason of setting to work in this way is, that a quick supple savage, +while you are fumbling with your strings, and bothered with a loaded gun, +might easily spring round, seize hold of it, and quite turn the tables +against you. But if the gun had no caps on, it would be of little use in +his hands, except as a club; and also, if you had a knife between your +teeth, it would be impossible for him to free himself by struggling, +without exposing himself to a thrust from it. + +Cord to be well stretched.--It is an imperfect security to tie an +ingenious active man, whose hands and feet are small, unless the cord or +whatever else you may use, had been thoroughly well stretched. Many +people have exhibited themselves for money, who allowed themselves to be +tied hand and foot and then to be put into a sack, whence they emerged +after a few minutes, with the cords in a neat coil in their hands. The +brothers Davenport were notorious for possessing this skill. They did not +show themselves for half-pence at country fairs; but, by implying that +they were set free by supranatural agencies, they held fashionable +seances in London and created an immense sensation a few years ago. Two +of these exhibitors were tied, face to face in a cupboard, respectively +by two persons selected by the audience. The latter inspected one +another's knots as well as they could, and on their expressing themselves +satisfied, the doors of the cupboard were closed, the lights of the room +were kept low for 5 or 10 minutes, until a signal was made by the +exhibitors from within the cupboard; then in a blaze of gas light the +doors were opened from within and out walked the two men, leaving the +ropes behind them. After this, they tied themselves in their own knots; +and under those easy conditions a number of so-called spiritual +manifestations took place, which I need not here describe; the real +curiosity of the exhibition being that which I have just explained. These +exhibitions continued for months; but at length two nautical gentlemen +insisted on using their own cord, which they had previously well +stretched, and this proceeding utterly baffled the Davenports. +Thenceforward wherever the Davenports showed themselves, the nautical +gentlemen appeared also, appealing to the audience to elect them to tie +the hands of the exhibitors. In this way, they fairly exposed the +pretensions of the Davenports, and drove them from England. Once I was +proposed by an audience to tie the hands. I did my best, and I also +scrutinised my colleague's knot, as well as the confined place in which +the exhibitors were tied, permitted. The cord we had to use was perhaps a +little too thick, but it was supple and strong, and I was greatly +surprised at the ease with which the Davenports disembarrassed +themselves. They were not more than 10 minutes in getting free. Of course +if either of the exhibitors could struggle loose, he would assist his +colleague. It therefore struck me as an exceedingly ingenious idea of the +Davenports, to have two persons, and not one person, to tie them. I +considered it was very improbable that a person taken at hap-hazard +should be capable of tying his man securely; and it was evident that the +improbability would be increased in a duplicate ratio, that both persons +should be capable. Thus if it be 20 to 1 against any one person's having +sufficient skill, it is (20 by 20 or) 400 to 1 against both the persons, +who might be selected to tie the Davenports, being able to do so +effectively. As I have already said, the opportunity that was afforded to +each of scrutinising the work of the other, was worth very little, +because of the dark and confined space in which the exhibitors sat. + +Tying the Hands.--To tie a man's hands behind his back, take a +handkerchief, it is the best thing; failing that, a thin cord. It is +necessary that its length should not be less than 2 feet, but 2 feet 6 +inches is the right length; for a double tie, it should be 3 feet 6 +inches. Compel him to lay his hands as in the sketch, and, wrapping the +cord once (or twice if it be long enough) round the arms, pretty tightly, +pass the longest end in between the arms as shown in the figure, and tie +quite tightly. If you are quick in tying the common "tom-fool's knot," +well known to every sailor, it is still better for the purpose. Put the +prisoner's hands one within each loop, then draw tightly the running +ends, and knot them together. + +[Sketch of hands tied as above]. + +Tying the Thumbs.--To secure a prisoner with the least amount of string, +place his hands back to back, behind him, then tie the thumbs together, +and also the little fingers. Two bits of thin string, each a foot long, +will thoroughly do this. But if you have not any string at hand, cut a +thong from his leathern apron, or tear a strip from you own linen. + +[Sketch of person with bound hands]. + +Strait-Waistcoats.--A strait-waistcoat is the least inconvenient mode of +confinement, as the joints of the prisoner are not cut by cords. A +makeshift for one is soon stitched together, by stitching a piece of +canvas into the shape of a sleeve, and sewing one end of this to one cuff +of a strong jacket, and the other end to the other cuff; so that, instead +of the jacket having two sleeves, it has but one long one. The jacket is +then put on in the usual way, and buttoned and sewn in front. In a proper +strait-waistcoat, the opening is behind and the sleeves in front; it +laces up behind. + +[Sketch of man in waistcoat]. + +Tying up a Prisoner for the night.--If a man has to be kept prisoner all +night, it is not sufficient to tie his hands, as he will be sure to watch +his time and run away. It is therefore necessary to tie them round a +standing tree, or a heavy log of wood. A convenient plan is to fell a +large forked bough, and to make the man's arms fast round one of the +branches. It is thus impossible for him to slip away, as the fork on one +side, and the bushy top of the branch on the other, prevent his doing so; +and, notwithstanding his cramped position, it is quite possible for him +to get sleep. + +Files of Prisoners.--When several men have to be made fast and marched +away, the usual method of securing them is to tie them, one behind +another, to a long pole or rope. + +In marching off a Culprit, make him walk between two of your men, while a +third carrying a gun, walks behind him. If riding alone, tie the +prisoner's hands together, and, taking your off-stirrup leather (for want +of a cord), pass it round his left arm, and round your horse's girth, and +buckle it. The off-stirrup leather is the least inconvenient one to part +with, on account of mounting, and the prisoner is under your right hand. + +Tying on Horseback.--In cases where a prisoner has to be secured and +galloped off, there are but two ways: either putting him in the saddle +and strapping his ankles together under the horse's belly--in which +case, if he be mad with rage, and attempts to throw himself off, the +saddle must turn with him; or else securing him Mazeppa-fashion--when +four loops are passed, one round each leg of the horse, and to each of +these is tied one limb of the prisoner, as he lies with his back against +that of the horse; a surcingle is also passed round both horse and man. +It is, of course, a barbarous method, but circumstances might arise when +it would be of use. + +Proceedings in case of Death.--If a man of the party dies, write down a +detailed account of the matter, and have it attested by the others, +especially if accident be the cause of his death. If a man be lost, +before you turn away and abandon him to his fate, call the party formally +together, and ask them if they are satisfied that you have done all that +was possible to save him, and record their answers. After death, it is +well to follow the custom at sea--i.e. to sell by auction all the dead +man's effects among his comrades, deducting the money they fetch from the +pay of the buyers, to be handed over to his relatives on the return of +the expedition. The things will probably be sold at a much higher price +than they would elsewhere fetch, and the carriage of useless lumber is +saved. Any trinkets he may have had, should of course be sealed up and +put aside, and not included in the sale: they should be collected in +presence of the whole party, a list made of them, and the articles at +once packed up. In committing the body to the earth, choose a well-marked +situation, dig a deep grave, bush it with thorns, and weight it well over +with heavy stones, as a defence against animals of prey. + + + +MECHANICAL APPLIANCES. + + +To Raise and Move a Heavy Body.--On Land.--Lever up its ends alternately, +and build underneath them when they are lifted up. After a sufficient +height has been gained, build a sloping causeway down to the place to +which the mass has to be moved, and along which it may be dragged, with +the assistance of rollers and grease. If the mass be too awkwardly shaped +to admit of this, burrow below it; pass poles underneath it, and raise +the ends of the poles alternately. Mr. Williams, the well-known +missionary of the South Sea Islands, relates how his schooner of from +seventy to eighty tons had been driven by a violent hurricane and rising +of the sea, on one of the islands near which she was anchored, and was +lodged several hundred yards inland; and thus describes how he got her +back:--"The method by which we contrived to raise the vessel was +exceedingly simple, and by it we were enabled to accomplish the task with +great ease. Long levers were passed under her keel, with the fulcrum so +fixed as to give them an elevation of about forty-five degrees. The ends +of these were then fastened together with several cross-beams, upon which +a quantity of stones were placed; the weight of which gradually elevated +one end of the vessel, until the levers reached the ground. Propping up +the bow thus raised, we shifted our levers to the stern, which was in +like manner elevated; and, by repeating this process three or four times, +we lifted her in one day entirely out of the hole (which she had worked +for herself, and which was about four feet deep). The bog that lay +between her and the sea was then filled up with stones, logs of wood were +laid across it, rollers were placed under the vessel, the chain cable +passed round her; and, by the united strength of about 2000 people, she +was compelled to take a short voyage upon the land, before she floated in +her pride on the sea." + +In some cases, the body of a cart may be taken down, and deep ruts having +been dug on each side of the mass, the vehicle can be backed, till the +axletree comes across it; then, after lashing and making fast, the sand +can be shovelled from below the mass, which will hang suspended from the +axletree, and may be carted away. Or a sledge may be built beneath the +mass by burrowing below it and thrusting the poles beneath it. Then the +remainder of the intervening sand can be shovelled away, and the mass, +now resting directly upon the sledge, can be dragged away by a team of +cattle. + +A sarcophagus of immense weight was raised from out of a deep recess into +which it had been fitted pretty closely, at the end of a long narrow +gallery in an Egyptian tomb, where there was no room for the application +of tackle or other machinery, by the simple expedient of slightly +disturbing it in its place and sifting sand into the narrow interval +between its sides and the recess. This process was repeated continually: +the sand settled below the bottom of the sarcophagus, which gradually +rose out of the hole in which it had lain. The principle of this piece of +engineering was borrowed, I suppose, from observing that whenever a mass +of sand and stones is shaken together, the stones invariably rise out of +the sand, the biggest of them always forming the highest layer. + +Expansive Power of Wetted Seeds.--Admiral Sir E. Belcher read a curious +paper before the British Association in 1866, showing the remarkable +power to be obtained by filling tubes with peas or other seed, allowing +the weight to rest upon the surface of the peas through the medium of a +rude piston. When the peas were wetted they swelled upwards with +considerable force. A pint of peas placed in a tube of a diameter that +was not expressed in the newspaper report, from which I take this +account, lifted 60 lbs. through a height of one inch in twenty-four +hours. The Admiral proposed to fix a number of tubes side by side in a +frame below the mass to be lifted, preferring to use zinc tubes of from +two or three inches in diameter, and of about one foot high. Thus, in the +small space of a cubic foot, a large number of tubes (thirty-six in the +one case, sixteen in the other) could be made to act simultaneously; the +force of the stroke could be increased by arranging a number of frames +side by side, or the length of the stroke could be increased by building +the frames in a series one above the other. I have elsewhere described +how wetted seeds may be used to restore the shape of a battered flask +either for holding water or gunpowder (pp. 230). + +Parbuckling.--A round log or a barrel should be rolled, not dragged; and +many irregularly-shaped objects may have bundles of faggots lashed round +them, by which they become barrel-shaped and fit to be rolled. In these +cases, parbuckling doubles the ease of rolling them; one or more ropes +have one of each of their ends made fast in the direction to which the +log has to be rolled, while the other is carried underneath the log, +round it, and back again. By pulling at these free ends, the log will be +rolled on. An equivalent plan, and in some cases a more practicable one, +is to make fast one end of the rope to the log itself; then, winding the +rope two or three times round it, like cotton on a reel, to haul at the +free end as before. Horses can be used, as well as men, for this work. + +[Sketch of man pulling log]. + +Accumulation of Efforts.--South American Indians are said to avail +themselves of their forest trees, and of the creepers which stretch from +branch to branch, in moving very heavy weights, as in lifting a log of +timber up on a stage to be sawn, in the following ingenious manner. The +labourer gets hold of one of these creepers that runs from the top boughs +of a tree in the direction in which he wants to move his log, and pulling +this creeper home with all his force, bending down the bough, he attaches +it to the log; then he goes to another creeper and does the same with +that; and so on until he has accumulated strain of many bent boughs, +urging the log forward and of sufficient power to move it. + +Short cords of india-rubber with a hook at either end, are sold under the +name of "accumulators." It is proposed that each of these should be +stretched and hooked by one of its ends to a fixed ring, and by the +other, to the body to be moved; by applying a number of these, in +succession, an immense accumulation of force can be obtained. + +Levers.--A piece of green wood has insufficient strength to be used as a +crowbar; it must first be seasoned. (See "Green Wood, to season.") + +Other Means of Raising Weights.--I do not propose to take space by +describing jacks, ordinary pulleys, differential pulleys, Chinese +windlasses, and the like. It is sufficient that I should recall them by +name to the traveller's recollection; for if he has access to any of +these things he is probably either a sailor or engineer and knows all +about them, or he is in a land where mechanical appliances are +understood. + +To raise Weights out of Water.--If the mass should lie below water, a +boat may be brought over it and sunk to its gunwales; then, after making +fast to it, the boat can be baled and the thing floated away. A raft +weighted with stones will serve the same purpose. In some cases a raft +may be built round the mass during low water; then the returning tide or +the next flush of the stream will float it away. + +"Although from its bulk several men might be puzzled to lift a cow-fish +from the water when dead, yet one single Indian will stow the largest in +his montaria without assistance. The boat is sunk under the body, and +rising, the difficult feat is accomplished." (Edwards' 'Amazon.') + +The huge blocks of marble quarried at Carrara are shipped in the small +vessels of the country, as follows:--at low water the vessel is buried +bodily in the sand, and a temporary railway laid down from the quarry to +withinside of it. Along this the blocks are conveyed, and, when deposited +in the vessel, the sand is dug away from under them, and they settle down +in its hold, and the ship floats away at the returning tide. + + + +KNOTS. + + +Elementary Knots.--The three elementary knots which every one should know +are here represented--viz., the Timber-hitch, the Bowline, and the +Clove-hitch. (See also "Knots," p. 49; "Malay hitch," p. 147.) + +Timber-hitch.--The virtues of the timber-hitch (fig. 1, p. 326) are, +that, so long as the strain upon it is kept up, it will hold fast; when +the strain is taken off, it can be cast loose immediately. A timber-hitch +had better have the loose end twisted more than once, if the rope be +stiff. + +Bowline.--The bowline (fig. 2) makes a knot difficult to undo; with it +the ends of two strings are tied together, or a loop made at the end of a +single piece of string, as in the drawing. For slip nooses, use the +bowline to make the draw-loop. When tying a bowline, or any other knot +for temporary purposes, insert a stick into the knot before pulling +tight. The stick will enable you, at will, to untie the knot--to break +its back, as the sailors say--with little difficulty. A bowline is +firmer, if doubled; that is, if the free end of the cord be made to wrap +round a second time. + +[3 fig of knots tied as described]. + +Clove-hitch.--The clove-hitch (fig. 3) binds with excessive force, and by +it, and it alone, can a weight be hung to a perfectly smooth pole, as to +a tent-pole. A kind of double clove-hitch is generally used, but the +simple one suffices, and is more easily recollected. A double clove-hitch +is firmer than a single one; that is, the rope should make two turns, +instead of one turn, round the pole beneath the lowest end of the cord in +the figure. (See"Tent-poles, to tie things to.") + +Knots at End of Rope.--To make a large knot at the end of a piece of +string, to prevent it from pulling through a hole, turn the end of the +string back upon itself, so as to make it double, and then tie a common +knot. The string may be quadrupled instead of doubled, if required. + +Toggle and Strop.--This is a tourniquet. A single or a double band is +made to enclose the two pieces of wood it is desired to lash together; +then a stick is pushed into the band and forcibly twisted round. The band +should be of soft material, such as the strands of a rope that has been +picked to pieces for that purpose: the strands must each of them, be +untwisted and well rubbed with a stick to take the kink out of them, and +finally twisted in a direction opposite to their original one. + +[Sketch of knot as described]. + +To sling a Jar.--Put it in a handkerchief or a net. + +To tie a Parcel on the back, like a Knapsack.--Take a cord 10 feet long, +double it, and lay the loop end upon a rock or other convenient +elevation; then place the object to be carried upon the cord, taking care +that the loop is so spread out as to admit of its ultimately enclosing +the object with a good hold and balance. Next pass the free ends of the +cord over the object and through the loop; then, bringing your shoulder +to a level with the package, draw the free ends of the cords over your +right shoulder: the cords will by this time have assumed the appearance +shown in the sketch. + +[Sketch of cords as described]. + +Now pass the left arm between the left-hand cord and the package at B, +and the right arm between the right-hand cord and the package at C. +Lastly, draw the cords tight, and the object will be found to be fastened +on to your back like a knapsack. A gun may be passed between the cords +and the top of the object. This is a capital method of carrying a load of +game over a broken country, where at least one hand is required to be +free. I am indebted to Mr. F. M. Wyndham for a knowledge of it: he found +it frequently in use in Norway. In hot countries the plan would not be so +convenient, as the heat of a soft package strapped closely to the back is +very oppressive. + + + +WRITING MATERIALS. + + +Paper.--Its Numerous Applications.--Captain Sherard Osborn, in writing of +the Japanese, says:--"It was wonderful to see the thousand useful as well +as ornamental purposes to which paper was applicable in the hands of +these industrious and tasteful people. Our papier-mache manufacturers, as +well as the Continental ones, should go to Yeddo to learn what can be +done with paper. With the aid of lacker varnish and skilful painting, +paper made excellent trunks, tobacco bags, cigar cases, saddles, +telescope cases, the frames of microscopes; and we even saw and used +excellent water-proof coats made of simple paper, which did keep out the +rain, and were as supple as the best macintosh . . . . . The inner walls +of many a Japanese apartment are formed of paper, being nothing more than +painted screens; their windows are covered with a fine translucent +description of the same material; it enters largely into the manufacture +of nearly everything in a Japanese household, and we saw what seemed +balls of twine, which were nothing but long shreds of tough paper rolled +up. . . . In short, without paper, all Japan would come to a dead lock." + +Sizing Paper.--The coarsest foreign paper can be sized, so as to prevent +its blotting when written on, by simply dipping it in, or brushing it +well over with, milk and water, and letting it dry. A tenth part of milk +is amply sufficient. Messrs. Huc and Gabet inform us that this is the +regular process of sizing, as used by paper-makers in Thibet. + +Substitutes for Paper are chips of wood, inner bark of trees, calico and +other tissues, lead plates, and slaty stone. I knew an eminent engineer +who habitually jotted his pencil memoranda on the well-starched wristband +of his left shirt-sleeve, pushing back the cuff of his coat in order to +expose it. The natives in some parts of Bengal, when in the jungle, write +on any large smooth leaf with the broken-off moist end of a leaf-stalk or +twig of any milky sap-producing tree. They then throw dust upon it, which +makes the writing legible. If the leaf be so written upon, the writing is +imperceptible until the dust is sprinkled. This plan might, therefore, be +of use for concealed writing. A person could write on the leaf without +detaching it from the tree. (See Sympathetic Ink.") + +Prepared Paper, for use with pencils of metallic lead (see "Pencils"), is +made by rubbing a paste of weak glue and bones burnt to whiteness and +pounded, on the surface of the paper. + +Waxed Paper is an excellent substitute for tin-foil, for excluding the +air and damp from parcels. It is made by spreading a sheet of writing +paper on a hot plate or stone and smearing it with wax. A hot flat-iron +is convenient for making it. + +Carbonised Paper, for tracing or for manifold writing, is made by rubbing +a mixture of soap, lampblack, and a little water on the paper, and, when +dry, wiping off as much as possible with a cloth. + +Tracing Designs.--Transparent tracing-paper can hardly be made by a +traveller, unless he contents himself with the use of waxed paper; but he +may prick out the leading points of his map or other design, and laying +the map on a sheet of clean paper, charcoal or other powder that will +leave a stain, it can be rubbed through. + +Book-binding.--Travellers' unbound books become so terribly dilapidated, +that I think it well to give a detailed description of a method of +book-binding which a relative of mine has adopted for many years with +remarkable success, and to a great extent. The books are not +tidy-looking, but they open flat and never fall to pieces. Take a cup of +paste; a piece of calico or other cloth, large enough to cover the back +and sides of the book; a strip of strong linen--if you can get it, if +not, of calico--to cover the back; and abundance of stout cotton or +thread. 1st. Paste the strip of linen down the back, and leave the book +in the sun or near a fire--but not too near it--to dry, which it will do +in half a day. 2ndly. Open the book and look for the place where the +stiching is to be seen down the middle of the pages, or, in other words, +for the middle of the sheets; if it be an 8vo. book it will be at every +16th page, if a 12mo. at every 24th page, and so on: it is a mere matter +of semi-mechanical reckoning to know where each succeeding stitching is +to be found; in this volume the stitching is at pages 216, +etc., the interval being 16 pages. Next take the cotton and wind it in +between the pages where the stitching is, and over the back round and +round, beginning with the first sheet, and going on sheet after sheet +until you have reached the last one. 3rdly. Lay the book on the table +back upwards, daub it thoroughly with paste, put on the calico cover as +neatly as you can, and set it to dry as before; when dry it is complete. + +Other Materials for Writing.--Quills and other Pens.--Any feather that is +large enough, can be at once made into a good writing-quill. It has only +to be dipped in hot sand, which causes the membrane inside the quill to +shrivel up, and the outside membrane to split and peel off: a few +instants are sufficient to do this. The proper temperature of the sand is +about 340 degrees. The operation may be repeated with advantage two or +three times. Reeds are in universal use throughout the East for writing +with ink. Flat fish-bones make decent pens. + +Pencil.--Lead pencils were literally made of the metal lead in former +days; and there are some parts of the world, as in Arabia, where they are +still to be met with. A piece of lead may be cast into a serviceable +shape in the method described under "Lead," and will make a legible mark +upon ordinary paper. Lead is the best material for writing in note-books +of "Prepared Paper) (which see). A better sort of pencil for general use +is made by sawing charcoal into narrow strips, and laying them in melted +wax to drench for a couple of days, they are then ready for use. + +Paint brushes.--Wash the bit of tail or skin, whence the hair is to be +taken, in ox-gall, till it is quite free from grease. Then snip off the +hairs close to the skin, put them points downwards resting in a box, and +pick out the long hairs. After a sufficient quantity have been obtained +of about the same length, a piece of string is knotted tightly round +them, and pulled firm with the aid of two sticks. Then a quill, that has +been soaked in water for a day in order to soften it, is taken, and the +pinch of hair is put into the large end of the quill, points forward, and +pushed right through to the other end with a bit of stick, and so the +brush is made. The chinese paint-brush is a feather--a woodcock's feather +is often used. Feather, like hairs, must be washed in ox-gall. + +Ink.--Excellent writing-ink may be made in the bush. The readiest way of +making it is to blacken sticks in the fire and to rub them well in a +spoonful of milk till the milk becomes quite black. Gunpowder or +lamp-soot will do as well as the burnt stick; and water, with the +addition of a very little gum, glue, or fish-glue (isinglass) is better +than the milk, as it will not so soon turn sour. Indian ink is simply +lamp-soot and some kind of glue: it is one of the best of inks. If pure +water be used, instead of gum or glue and water, the writing will rub out +very easily when dry, the use of the milk, gum, or glue being to fix it: +anything else that is glutinous will serve as well as these. Strong +coffee, and many other vegetable products, such as the bark of trees +boiled in water, make a mark which is very legible and will not rub. +Blood is an indifferent substitute for ink. To make 12 gallons of good +common writing-ink, use 12 lbs. of nut-galls, 5 lbs. of green sulphate of +iron, 5 lbs. of gum, and 12 gallons of water. (Ure.) + +Lampblack.--Hold a piece of metal, or even a stone, over a flaring wick +in a cup of oil, and plenty of soot will collect. + +Sympathetic Ink.--Nothing is better or handier than milk. The writing is +invisible until the paper is almost toasted in the fire, when it turns a +rich brown. The juice of lemons and many other fruits may also be used. +(See "Substitutes for Paper.") + +Gall of Animals, or Ox-gall to purify.--To make ink or paint take upon +greasy paper, a very little ox-gall should be mixed with it. It is very +important to know this simple remedy, and I therefore extract the +following information from Ure's 'Dictionary.' I have often practised it. +"Take it from the newly-killed animal, let it settle for 12 or 15 hours +in a basin, pour the liquid off the sediment into an earthenware pot, and +set the pot into a pan of water kept boiling until the gall-liquid +becomes somewhat thick. Then spread it on a dish and place it before the +fire till nearly dry. In this state it may be kept, without any looking +after, for years. When wanted, a piece the size of a pea should be +dissolved in water. Ox-gall removes all grease-spots from clothes, etc." + +Wafers, Paste, and Gum.--Wafers.--The common wafers are punched out of a +sheet made of a paste of flour and water that has suddenly been baked +hard. Gum wafers are punched out of a sheet made of thick gum and water +poured on a slightly-greased surface (a looking-glass for example), +another greased glass having been put on the top of the gum to make it +dry even. + +Paste should be made like arrowroot, by mixing the flour in a minimum of +cold water, and then pouring a flush of absolutely boiling water upon it. +It is made a trifle thicker and more secure from insects by the addition +of alum. Corrosive sublimate is a more powerful protection against +insects, but is by no means an absolute safeguard, and it is dangerous to +use. + +Gum.--The white of eggs forms a substitute for gum. Some sea-weeds yield +gum. (See also "Glue," "Isinglass," and "Sealing-wax Varnish.") + +Signets.--Many excellent and worthy bushmen have the misfortune of not +knowing how to write: should any such be placed in a post of confidence +by an explorer, it might be well that he should cut for himself a signet +out of soft stone--such as the europeans of bygone generations, and the +Turks of the last one, very generally employed. A device is cut on the +seal; before using it, the paper is moistened with a wet finger, and the +ink is dabbed over the ring with another; the impression is then made, +using the ball of the thumb for a pad. + +Sealing-wax Varnish.--Black or red sealing-wax, dissolved in spirits of +wine, makes a very effective stiff and waterproof varnish, especially for +boxes of paper or cardboard. It might be useful in keeping some iron +things from rust: it is the same material that is used to cover toy +magnets. When made stiff it is an excellent cement for small articles. +Opticians employ it for many of these purposes. I have also used it as a +paint for marking initials on luggage, cutting out the letters in paper +and dabbing the red stuff through. + +Small Boxes for Specimens.--Cut the side of a cigar-box, or a strip of +pasteboard, half through in three places, add two smaller pieces like +wings, one on each side, by means of a piece of gummed paper overlapping +them, as in the picture. + +[Sketch of box unfolded and folded]. + +Any number of these may be carried like the leaves of a book, and when a +box is wanted they may be bent into shape, and by the adherence of the +moistened gum-paper, can be made into a box at a moment's notice. The +shaded border of the figure represents the gummed paper. Quills make +convenient receptacles for minute specimens. They should be dressed (see +"Quills"), and may be corked with a plug of wood or wax, or, for greater +security, a small quill may be pushed, mouth forward, into a larger one, +as into a sheath. + + + +TIMBER. + + +Green Wood.--To season Wood.--Green wood cannot be employed in carpentry, +as it is very weak; it also warps, cracks, and becomes rotten: wood dried +with too great a heat loses its toughness as well as its pliability: it +becomes hard and brittle. Green wood is seasoned by washing out the sap, +and then drying it thoroughly. The traveller's way of doing this by one +rapid operation, is to dig a long trench and make a roaring fire in it; +when the ground is burning hot, sweep the ashes away, deluge the trench +with boiling water; and in the middle of the clouds of steam that arise, +throw in the log of wood, shovel hot earth over it, and leave it to steam +and bake. A log thick enough to make an axletree may thus be somewhat +seasoned in a single night. The log would be seasoned more thoroughly if +it were saturated with boiling water before putting it into the trench; +that can be done by laying it in a deep narrow puddle, and shovelling hot +stones into the water. All crowbars, wagon-lifters, etc., should be +roughly seasoned as green wood is far too weak for such uses. The regular +way of seasoning is to leave the timber to soak for a long time in water, +that the juices may be washed out. Fresh water is better for this purpose +than salt; but a mineral spring, if it is warm is better than cold fresh +water. Parties travelling with a wagon ought to fell a little timber on +their outward journey, and leave it to season against their return, in +readiness to replace strained axletrees, broken poles, and the like. They +might, at all events, cut a ring round through the bark and sap-wood of +the tree, and leave it to discharge its juices, die, and become +half-seasoned as it stands. + +To bend Wood.--If it is wished to bend a rod of wood, or to straighten it +if originally crooked, it must be steamed, or at least be submitted to +hot water. Thus a rod of green wood may be passed through the ashes of a +smouldering fire and, when hot, bent and shaped with the hand; but if the +wood be dry it must first be thoroughly soaked in a pond or puddle. If +the puddle is made to boil by shovelling in hot stones, as described in +the last paragraph, the stick will bend more easily. the long straight +spears of savages are often made of exceedingly crooked sticks, +straightened in the ashes of their camp fires. A thick piece of wood may +be well swabbed with hot water, forcibly bent, as far as can be safely +done, tied in position and steamed, as if for the purpose of seasoning +(see last paragraph), in a trench; after a quarter of an hour it must be +taken out, damped afresh if necessary, bent further, and again returned +to steam--the process being repeated till the wood has attained the shape +required; it should then be left in the trench to season thoroughly. The +heads of dog-sledges, and the pieces of wood used for the outsides of +snow-shoes, are all bent by this process. + +Carpenters' Tools.--Tools of too hard steel should not be taken on a +journey; they splinter against the dense wood of tropical countries, and +they are very troublesome to sharpen. The remedy for over-hardness is to +heat them red-hot; retempering them by quenching in grease. A small iron +axe, with a file to sharpen it, and a few awls, are (if nothing else can +be taken) a very useful outfit. + +As much carpentry as a traveller is likely to want can be effected by +means of a small axe with a hammer-head, a very small single-handed adze, +a mortise-chisel, a strong gouge, a couple of medium-sized gimlets, a few +awls, a small Turkey-hone, and a whetstone. If a saw be taken, it should +be of a sort intended for green wood. In addition to these, a small tin +box full of tools, all of which fit into a single handle, is very +valuable; many travellers have found them extremely convenient. There is +a tool-shop near the bottom of the Haymarket and another in the Strand +near the Lowthier Arcade, where they can be bought; probably also at +Holtzapfel's in Trafalgar Square. The box that contains them is about six +inches long by four broad and one deep; the cost is from 20s. to 30s. +Lastly, a saw for metals, a few drills, and small files, may be added +with advantage. It is advisable to see that the tools are ground and set +before starting. A small "hard chisel" of the best steel, three inches +long, a quarter of an inch wide, and three-eighths thick--which any +blacksmith can make--will cut iron, will chisel marks on rocks, and be +useful in numerous emergencies. + +Sharpening Tools.--A man will get through most work with his tools, if he +stops from time to time to sharpen them up. The son of Sirach says, +speaking of a carpenter--"If the iron be blunt, and he do not whet the +edge, then must he put to more strength; but wisdom is profitable to +direct."--Ecclesiasticus. A small fine file is very effectual in giving +an edge to tools of soft steel. It is a common error to suppose that the +best edge is given by grinding the sides of the tool until they meet at +an exceedingly acute angle. Such an edge would have no strength, and +would chip or bend directly. The proper way of sharpening a tool, is to +grind it until it is sufficiently thin, and then to give it an edge whose +sides are inclined to one another, about as much as those of the letter +V. The edge of a chisel is an obvious case in point; so also is the edge +of a butcher's knife, which is given by applying it to the steel at a +considerable inclination. A razor has only to cut hairs, and will +splinter if used to mend a pen, yet even a razor is shaped like a wedge, +that it may not receive too fine an edge when stropped with its face flat +upon the hone. + +Nails, Substitutes for.--Lashings of raw hide supersede nails for almost +every purpose. It is perfectly marvellous how a gunstock, that has been +shattered into splinters, can be made as strong again as ever, by means +of raw hide sewn round it and left to dry; or by drawing the skin of an +ox's leg like a stocking over it. It is well to treat your bit of skin as +though parchment (which see) were to be made of it, burying the skin and +scraping off the hair, before sewing it on, that it may make no eyesore. +Tendons, or stout fish-skin such as shagreen, may also be used on the +same principle. An axle-tree, cracked lengthwise, can easily be mended +with raw hide; even a broken wheel-tire may be replaced with rhinoceros +or other thick hide; if the country to be travelled over be dry. + +Sketch of lathe as described below]. + +Lathes may be wanted by a traveller, because the pulleys necessary for a +large sailing-boat, and the screw of a carpenter's bench, cannot be made +without one. The sketch will recall to mind the original machine, now +almost forgotten in England, but still in common use on the Continent. It +is obvious that makeshift contrivances can be set up on this principle, +two steady points being the main things wanted. A forked bough suffices +for a treadle. A very common Indian lathe consists of two tent-pegs, two +nails for the points; a leather thong, and some makeshift hand-rest; +neither pole nor treadle is used, but an assistant takes one end of the +thong in one hand, and the other end in the other hand, and hauls away in +a see-saw fashion. For turning hollows, a long spike is used instead of a +short point: then, a hole is bored into the wood to the depth of the +intended hollow, and the spike is pushed forward until it abuts against +the bottom of the hole. One form of lathe is simplicity itself: two thick +stakes are driven in the ground, so far apart as to include the object to +be turned; a cross piece is lashed to them (by a creeper cut out of the +jungle), for the double purpose of holding them together, and of serving +as a rest for the gouge. The object is turned with a thong, as already +described. + +Charcoal, Tar, and Pitch.--Charcoal.--Dig a hole in the earth, or choose +some gigantic burrow, or old well, and fill it with piles of wood, +arranging them so as to leave a kind of chimney down the centre: the top +of the hole is now to be covered over with sods excepting the chimney, +down which a brand is dropped to set fire to the wood. The burning should +be governed by opening or shutting the chimney-top with a flat stone; it +should proceed very gradually, for the wood ought to smoulder, and never +attain to a bright red heat: the operation will require from two days to +a week. The tarry products of the wood drain to the bottom of the well. + +Tar is made by burning larch, fir, or pine, as though charcoal had to be +made; dead or withered trees, and especially their roots, yield tar most +copiously. A vast deal is easily obtained. It collects at the bottom of +the pit, and a hole with smooth sides should be dug there, into which it +may drain. For making tar on a smaller scale:--ram an iron pot full of +pine wood; reverse it and lay it upon a board pierced with a hole one +inch in diameter; then prop the board over another pot buried in the +earth. Make all air-tight with wet clay round the upper pot and board, +covering the board, but exposing the bottom of the reversed pot. Make a +grand fire above and round the latter, and the tar will freely drop. It +will be thin and not very pure tar, but clean, and it will thicken on +exposure to the air. + +Pitch is tar boiled down. + +Turpentine and Resin.--Turpentine is the juice secreted by the pine, fir, +or larch tree, in blisters under the bark; the trees are tapped for the +purpose of obtaining it. Resin is turpentine boiled down. + + + +METALS. + + +Fuel for Forge.--Dry fuel gives out far more heat than that which is +damp. As a comparison of the heating powers of different sorts of fuel, +it may be reckoned that 1 lb. of dry charcoal will raise 73 lbs. of water +from freezing to boiling; 1 lb. of pit coal, about 60 lbs.; and 1 lb. of +peat, about 30 lbs. Some kinds of manure-fuel give intense heat, and are +excellent for blacksmith's purposes: that of goats and sheep is the best; +camels' dung is next best, but is not nearly so good; then that of oxen: +the dung of horses is of little use, except as tinder in lighting a fire. + +Bellows.--It is of no use attempting to do blacksmith's work, if you have +not a pair of bellows. These can be made of a single goat-skin, of +sufficient power, in skilful hands, to raise small bars of iron to a +welding heat. The boat's head is cut off close under the chin, his legs +at the knee-joint, and a slit is made between the hind legs, through +which the carcase is entirely extracted.After dressing the hide, two +strongish pieces of wood are sewn along the slit, one at each side, just +like the ironwork on each side of the mouth of a carpet-bag, and for the +same purpose, i.e. to strengthen it: a nozzle is inserted at the neck. To +use this apparatus, its mouth is opened, and pulled out; then it is +suddenly shut, by which means the bellows are made to enclose a bagful of +air; this, by pushing the mouth flat home, is ejected through the nozzle. +These bellows require no valve, and are the simplest that can be made: +they are in use throughout India. The nozzle or tube to convey the blast +may be made of a plaster of clay or loam, mixed with grass, and moulded +round a smooth pole. + +Metals, to work.--Iron Ore is more easily reduced than the ore of any +other metal: it is usually sufficient to throw the ore into a +charcoal-fire and keep it there for a day or more, when the pure metal +will begin to appear. + +Welding Composition for iron or steel, is made of borax 10 parts, sal +ammoniac 1 part; to be melted, run out on an iron plate, and, when cold, +pounded for use. + +Cast Steel.--A mixture of 100 parts of soft iron, and two of lamp-soot, +melts as easily as ordinary steel--more easily than iron. This is a ready +way of making cast-steel where great heat cannot be obtained. + +Case-hardening is the name given to a simple process, by which the +outside of iron may be turned into steel. Small tools, fish-hooks, and +keys, etc., are usually made of iron; they are fashioned first, and +case-hardened afterwards. There are good reasons for this: first, because +it is the cheapest way of making them; and secondly, because while steel +is hard, iron is tough; and anything made of iron and coated with steel, +combines some of the advantages of both metals. The civilised method of +case-hardening, is to brighten up the iron and to cover it with prussiate +of potash, either powdered or made into a paste. The iron is then heated, +until the prussiate of potash has burned away: this operation is repeated +three or four times. Finally, the iron, now covered with a thin layer of +steel, is hardened by quenching it in water. In default of prussiate of +potash, animal or even vegetable charcoal may be used, but the latter is +a very imperfect substitute. To make animal charcoal, take a scrap of +leather, hide, hoof, horn, flesh, blood--anything, in fact, that has +animal matter in it; dry it into hard chips like charcoal, before a fire, +and powder it. Put the iron that is to be case-hardened, with some of +this charcoal round it, into the midst of a lump of loam. This is first +placed near the fire to harden, and then quite into it, where it should +be allowed to slowly attain a blood-red heat, but no higher. Then, break +open the lump, take out the iron, and drop it into water to harden. + +Lead is very useful to a traveller, for he always has bullets, which +furnish the supply of the metal, and it is so fusible that he can readily +melt and cast it into any required shape; using wood, or paper, partly +buried in the earth, for his mould. If a small portion of the lead remain +unmelted in the ladle, the fluid is sure not to burn the mould. By +attending to this a wooden mould may be used scores of times. + +[Sketches as described below]. + +Fig. 1 shows how to cast a leaden plate, which would be useful for +inscriptions, for notices to other parties. If minced into squares, it +would make a substitute for slugs. The figure represents two flat pieces +of wood, enclosing a folded piece of paper, and partly buried in the +earth the lead is to be poured into the paper. + +To make a mould for a pencil, or a rod which may be cut into short +lengths for slugs, roll up a piece of paper as shown in fig. 2, and bury +it in the earth: reeds, when they are to be obtained, make a stronger +mould than paper. + +To cast a lamp, a bottle, or other hollow article, use a cylinder of +paper, buried in the ground, as in fig. 3, and hold a stick fast in the +middle, while the lead is poured round. + +Loose, shaky articles often admit of being set to rights, by warming the +joints and pouring a little melted lead into the cracks. + +Tin.--Solder for tin plates, is made of one or two parts of tin, and one +of lead. Before soldering, the surfaces must be quite bright and close +together; and the contact of air must be excluded during the operation, +else the heat will tarnish the surface and prevent the adhesion of the +solder: the borax and resin commonly in use, effect this. The best plan +is to clean the surfaces with muriatic acid saturated with tin: this +method is invariably adopted by watchmakers and opticians, who never use +borax and resin. The point of the soldering-tool must be filed bright. + +Copper, to tin.--Clean the copper well with sandstone; heat it, and rub +it with sal-ammoniac till it is quite clean and bright; the tin, with +some powdered resin, is now placed on the copper, which is made so hot as +to melt the tin, and allow it to be spread over the surface with a bit of +rag. A very little tin is used in this way: it is said that a piece as +big as a pea, would tin a large saucepan; which is at the rate of twenty +grains of tin to a square foot of copper. + + + +LEATHER. + + +Raw Hides.--Dressing Hides.--Skins that have been dressed are essential +to a traveller in an uncivilised country, for they make his +packing-straps, his bags, his clothes, shoes, nails, and string, +therefore no hide should be wasted. There is no clever secret in dressing +skins: it is hard work that they want, either continual crumpling and +stretching with the hands, or working and trampling with the feet. To +dress a goat-skin will occupy one person for a whole day, to dress an +ox-hide will give hard labour to two persons for a day and a half, or +even for two days. It is best to begin to operate upon the skin half an +hour after it has been flayed. If it has been allowed to dry during the +process, it must be re-softened by damping, not with water--for it will +never end by being supple, if water be used--but with whatever the +natives generally employ: clotted milk and linseed-meal are used in +Abyssinia; cow-dung by the Caffres and Bushmen. When a skin is put aside +for the night, it must be rolled up, to prevent it from becoming dry by +the morning. It is generally necessary to slightly grease the skin, when +it is half-dressed, to make it thoroughly supple. + +Smoking Hides.--Mr. Catlin, speaking of the skins used by the N. American +Indians, says that the greater part of them "go through still another +operation afterwards (besides dressing), which gives them a greater +value, and renders them much more serviceable--that is, the process of +smoking. For this, a small hole is dug in the ground, and a fire is built +in it with rotten wood, which will produce a great quantity of smoke +without much blaze, and several small poles of the proper length stuck in +the ground around it, and drawn and fastened together at the top (making +a cone), around which a skin is wrapped in form of a tent, and generally +sewed together at the edges to secure the smoke within it: within this +the skins to be smoked are placed, and in this condition the tent will +stand a day or two, enclosing the heated smoke; and by some chemical +process of other, which I do not understand, the skins thus acquire a +quality which enables them, after being ever so many times wet, to dry +soft and pliant as they were before, which secret I have never seen +practised in my own country, and for the lack of which all our dressed +skins, when once wet, are, I think, chiefly ruined." A single skin may +conveniently be smoked by sewing the edges together, so as to make a tube +of it: the lower end is tied round an iron pot with rotten wood burning +inside, the upper end is kept open with a hoop, and slung to a triangle, +as shown in the figure. + +[Sketch of hide smoking apparatus as described]. + +Tanning Hides.--Steep them in a strong solution of alum and a little +salt, for a period dependent on the thickness of the hide. The gradual +change of the hide into tanned leather is visible, and should be watched. +If desired, thehair may be removed before the operation, as described in +"Parchment;" kid gloves are made of leather that has been prepared in +this way. + +Greasing Leather.--All leather articles should be occasionally well +rubbed with fat, when used in hot, dry climates, or when they are often +wetted and dried again: it makes a difference of many hundred per cent. +in their wear. It is a great desideratum to be possessed of a supply of +fat, but it is not easy to obtain it from antelopes and other sinewy +game. The French troops adopt the following method, which Lord Lucan +copied from them, when in the Crimea:--the marrowbones of the slaughtered +animals are broken between stones; they are then well boiled, and the +broth is skimmed when cold. + +To preserve Hides in a dried State.--After the hide has been flayed from +a beast, if it is not intended to "dress" it, it should be pegged out in +the sun. If it be also rubbed over with wood-ashes, or better still with +salt, it will keep longer. Most small furs that reach the hands of +English furriers have been merely sun-dried; but large hides are usually +salted, before being shipped for Europe to be tanned. A hide that has +been salted is injured for dressing by the hand, but it is not entirely +spoiled: and therefore the following extract from Mr. Dana's 'Two Years +before the Mast' may be of service to travellers who have shot many head +of game in one place, or to those who have lost a herd of goats by +distemper. + +Salting Hides.--"The first thing is to put the hides to soak. This is +done by carrying them down at low tide, and making them fast in small +piles by ropes, and letting the tide come up and cover them. Every day we +put 25 in soak for each man, which with us make 150. There they lie 48 +hours, when they are taken out and rolled up in wheelbarrows, and thrown +into vats. These vats contain brine made very strong, being sea-water +with great quantities of salt thrown in. This pickles the hides, and in +this they lie 48 hours: the use of the sea-water into which they are +first put being merely to soften and clean them. + +"From these vats they are taken to lie on a platform 24 hours, and are +then spread upon the ground and carefully stretched and staked out, so +that they may dry smooth. After they were staked, and while yet wet and +soft, we used to go upon them with our knives, and carefully cut of all +the bad parts: the pieces of meat and fat, which would otherwise corrupt +and affect the whole if stowed away in a vessel for months, the large +flippers, the ears, and all other parts that prevent close stowage. This +was the most difficult part of our duty, as it required much skill to +take off everything necessary, and not to cut or injure the hides. It was +also a long process, as six of us had to clean 150; most of which +required a great deal to be done to them, as the Spaniards are very +careless in skinning their cattle. Then, too, as we cleaned them while +they were staked out, we were obliged to kneel down upon them, which +always gives beginners the back-ache. The first day I was so slow and +awkward that I only cleaned eight; at the end of a few days I doubled my +number, and in a fortnight or three weeks could keep up with the others, +and clean my proportion--twenty-five." + + + +CORD, STRING, THREAD. + + +General Remarks.--I have spoken of the strength of different cords in +"Alpine outfit," p. 48. All kinds of cord become exceedingly rotten in +hot, dry countries: the fishermen of the Cape preserve their nets by +steeping them occasionally in blood. Thread and twine should be waxed +before using them for sewing, whenever there is reason to doubt their +durability. + +Substitutes.--The substitutes for thread, string, and cord, are as +follows:--Thongs cut spirally, like a watch-spring, out of a piece of +leather or hide, and made pliant by working them round a stick; sinew and +catgut (pp. 346); inner bark of trees--this is easily separated by +long steeping in water, but chewing it is better; roots of trees, as the +spruce-fir, split to the proper size; woodbines, runners, or pliant +twigs, twisted together. Some seaweeds--the only English one of which I +have heard is the common olive-green weed called Chorda Filum; it looks +like a whip-thong, and sometimes grows to a length of thirty or forty +feet; when half-dried, the skin is taken off and twisted into +fishing-lines, etc. Hay-bands; horsehair ropes, or even a few twisted +hairs from the tail of a horse; the stems of numerous plants afford +fibres that are more or less effective substitutes for hemp, those that +are used by the natives of the country visited should be notices; "Indian +grass" is an animal substance attached to the ovaries of small sharks and +some other fish of the same class. + +In lashing things together with twigs, hay-bands, and the like, the way +of securing the loose ends is not by means of a knot, which usually +causes them to break, but by twisting the ends together until they +"kink." All faggots and trusses are secured in this way. + +Sewing.--Sewing Materials.--These are best carried in a linen bag; they +consist of sail needles, packed in a long box with cork wads at the ends, +to preserve their points; a sailor's palm; beeswax; twine; awls; +bristles; cobbler's wax; large bodkin; packing-needle; ordinary +sewing-needles; tailor's thimble; threads; cottons; silks; buttons; +scissors; and pins. + +Stitches.--The enthusiastic traveller should be thoroughly grounded by a +tailor in the rudiments of sewing and the most useful stitches. They are +as follows:--To make a knot at the end of the thread; to run; to stitch; +to "sew'\;" to fell, or otherwise to make a double seam; to herring-bone +(essential for flannels); to hem; to sew over; to bind; to sew on a +button; to make a button-hole; to darn; and to fine-draw. He should also +practise taking patterns of some articles of clothing in paper, cutting +them out in common materials and putting them together. He should take a +lesson or two from a saddler, and several, when on board ship, from a +sail-maker. + +Needles, to make.--The natives of Unyoro sew their beautifully prepared +goat-skins in a wonderfully neat manner, with needles manufactured by +themselves. "They make them not by boring the eye, but by sharpening the +end into a fine point and turning it over, the extremity being hammered +into a small cut in the body of the needle, to prevent it from +catching."--Sir S. Baker. + + + +MEMBRANE, SINEW, HORN. + + +Parchment--The substance which is called parchment when made from sheep +or goat skins, and vellum when from those of calves, kids, or dead-born +lambs, can also be made from any other skin. The raw hide is buried for +one or two days, till the hair comes off easily; then it is taken out and +well scraped. Next a skewer is run in and out along each of its four +sides, and strings being made fast to these skewers, the skin is very +tightly stretched; it is carefully scraped over as it lies on the +stretch, by which means the water is squeezed out; then it is rubbed with +rough stones, as pumice or sandstone, after which it is allowed to dry, +the strings by which the skewers are secured being tightened from time to +time. If this parchment be used for writing, it will be found rather +greasy, but washing it will oxgall will probably remedy this fault. (See +"Ox-gall," p. 331.) In the regular preparation of parchment, the skin is +soaked for a short time in a lime-pit before taking off the hairs, to get +rid of the grease. + +Catgut.--Steep the intestines of any animal in water for a day, peel off +the outer membrane, then burn the gut inside out, which is easily to be +done by turning a very short piece of it inside out, just as you would +turn up the cuff of your sleeve; then, catching hold of the turned-up +cuff, dip the whole into a bucket, and scoop up a little water between +the cuff and the rest of the gut. + +[Sketch of making catgut as described]. + +The weight of this water will do what is wanted: it will bear down an +additional length of previously unturned gut; and thus, by a few +successive dippings, the entire length of any amount of intestine, +however narrow it may be, can be turned inside out in a minute or two. +Having turned the intestine inside out, scrape off the whole of its inner +soft parts; what remains is a fine transparent tube, which, being twisted +up tightly and stretched to dry, forms catgut. + +Membrane Thread.--Steep the intestines of any animal in water for a day; +then peel off the outer membrane, which will come off in long strips; +these should be twisted up between the hands, and hung out to dry; they +form excellent threads for sewing skins together, or indeed for any other +purpose. + +Sinews for Thread.--Any sinews will do for making thread if the fibres +admit of being twisted or plaited together into pieces of sufficient +length. The sinews lying alongside the backbone are the most convenient, +on account of the length of their fibres. After the sinew is dried +straight strips are torn off it of the proper size; they are wetted, and +scraped into evenness by being drawn through the mouth and teeth; then, +by one or two rubs between the hand and the thigh, they become twisted +and their fibres are retained together. A piece of dried sinew is usually +kept in reserve for making thread or string. + +Glue is made by boiling down hides, or even tendons, hoofs, and horns, +for a long time, taking care that they are not charred; then drawing off +the fluid and letting it set. + +Isinglass is made readily by steeping the stomach and intestines of fish +in cold water, and then gently boiling them into a jelly: this is spread +into sheets and allowed to dry. The air-bladder of the sturgeon makes the +true isinglass. (See "Paste and Gum," p. 332.) + +Horn, Tortoiseshell, and Whalebone.--Horn is so easily worked into shape +that travellers, especially in pastoral countries, should be acquainted +with its properties. By boiling, or exposing it to heat in hot sand, it +is made quite soft, and can be moulded into whatever shape you will. Not +only this, but it can also be welded by heating and pressing two edges +together, which, however, must be quite clean and free from grease, even +the touch of the hand taints them. Sheets of horn are a well-known +substitute for glass, and are made as follows:--The horn is left to soak +for a fortnight in a pond; then it is well washed, to separate the pith; +next it is sawn lengthwise, and boiled till it can be easily split into +sheets with a chisel; which sheets are again boiled, then scraped to a +uniform thickness, and set into shape to dry. Tortoiseshell and whalebone +can be softened and worked in the same way. + + + +POTTERY. + + +TO GLAZE POTTERY.--Most savages have pottery, but few know how to glaze +it. One way, and that which was the earliest known of doing this, is to +throw handfuls of salt upon the jar when red-hot in the kiln. The reader +will doubtless call to mind the difficulties of Robinson Crusoe in making +his earthenware water-tight. + +Substitute for Clay.--In Damara land, where there is no natural material +fitted for pottery, the savages procured mud from the interior of the +white-ant hills, with which they made their pots. They were exceedingly +brittle, but nevertheless were large and serviceable for storing +provisions and even for holding water over the fire. I have seen them two +feet high. What it was that caused the clay taken from the ant-hills to +possess this property, I do not know. + +Pots for Stores and Caches.--An earthen pot is excellent for a store of +provisions or for a cache, because it keeps out moisture and insects, and +animals cannot smell and therefore do not attack its contents. + + + +CANDLES AND LAMPS. + + +Candles.--Moulds for Candles.--It is usual, on an expedition, to take tin +moulds and a ball of wick for the purpose of making candles, from time to +time, when fat happens to be abundant. The most convenient mould is of +the shape shown in the figure. The tallow should be poured in, when its +heat is so reduced that it hardly feels warm to the finger; that is, just +before setting. If this be done over-night, the candles will come out in +the morning without difficulty. But, if you are obliged to make many at a +time, then, after the tallow has been poured in, the mould should be +dipped in cold water to cool it: and then when the tallow has set, the +mould should be dipped for a moment in hot water to melt the outside of +the newly-made candle and enable it to be easily extracted. By this +method, the candles are not made so neatly as by the other, though they +are made more quickly. + +[Sketch of candle mould]. + +It is well to take, if not to make, a proper needle for putting the wicks +into the moulds. It should be a hooked piece of wire, like a crochet +needle, which catches the wick by its middle and pulls it doubled through +the hole. A stick across the mouth of the mould secures the other end. +When the tallow is setting, give an additional pull downwards. A +gun-barrel, with a cork or wad put the required distance down the barrel, +has been used for a mould. Pull the candle out by the wick after heating +the barrel. Two wads might be used; the one strongly rammed in, to +prevent the tallow from running too far, the other merely as a support +for the wick. Perhaps, even paper moulds might be used; they could be +made by gumming or pasting paper in a roll. + +Dip Candles.--Candles that are made by "dipping," gutter and run much +more than mould candles, if they have to be used as soon as made. The way +of dipping them is to tie a number of wicks to the end of a wooden +handle, so shaped that the whole affair looks much like a +garden-rake--the wicks being represented by the teeth of the rake; then +the wicks are dipped in the tallow, and each is rubbed and messed by the +hand till it stands stiff and straight; after this they are dipped all +together, several times in succession, allowing each fresh coat of tallow +to dry before another dipping. Wax candles are always made by this +process. + +Substitute for Candles.--A strip of cotton, 1 1/2 foot long, drenched in +grease, and wound spirally round a wand, will burn for half an hour. A +lump of beeswax, with a tatter of an old handkerchief run through it, +makes a candle on an emergency. + +Materials for Candles.--Tallow.--Mutton-suet mixed with ox-tallow is the +best material for candles. Tallow should never be melted over a hot fire: +it is best to melt it by putting the pot in hot sand. To procure fat, see +"Greasing Leather," p. 343. + +Wax.--Boil the comb for hours, together with a little water to keep it +from burning, then press the melted mass through a cloth into a deep +puddle of cold water. This makes beeswax. (See "Honey, to find," p. 199.) + +Candlestick.--A hole cut with the knife in a sod of turf or a potato; 3, +4, or 5 nails hammered in a circle into a piece of wood, to act as a +socket; a hollow bone; an empty bottle; a strap with the end passed the +wrong way through the buckle and coiled inside; and a bayonet stuck in +the ground, are all used as makeshift candlesticks. "In bygone days the +broad feet, or rather legs, of the swan, after being stretched and dried, +were converted into candlesticks."--Lloyd. + +Lamps.--Lamps may be made of hard wood, hollowed out to receive the oil; +also of lead. (See "Lead," p. 340.) The shed hoof of an ox or other beast +is sometimes used. + +Slush Lamp is simply a pannikin full of fat, with a rag wrapped round a +small stick planted as a wick in the middle of it. + +Lantern.--A wooden box, a native bucket, or a calabash, will make the +frame, and a piece of greased calico stretched across a hole in its side, +will take the place of glass. A small tin, such as a preserved-meat case, +makes a good lantern, if a hole is broken into the bottom, and an opening +in the side or front. Horn (see p. 347) is easily to be worked by a +traveller into any required shape. A good and often a ready makeshift for +a lantern, is a bottle with its end cracked off. This is best effected by +putting water into the bottle to the depth of an inch, and then setting +it upon hot embers. The bottle will crack all round at the level of the +top of the water. It takes a strong wind to blow out a candle stuck into +the neck inside the broken bottle. Alpine tourists often employ this +contrivance when they start from their bivouac in the cark morning. + +[Sketch of candle in bottle]. + + +ON CONCLUDING THE JOURNEY. + + +Complete your Collections.--When your journey draws near its close, +resist restless feelings; make every effort before it is too late to +supplement deficiencies in your various collections; take stock of what +you have gathered together, and think how the things will serve in +England to illustrate your journey or your book. Keep whatever is pretty +in itself, or is illustrative of your every-day life, or that of the +savages, in the way of arms, utensils, and dresses. Make careful drawings +of your encampment, your retinue, and whatever else you may in indolence +have omitted to sketch, that will possess an after-interest. Look over +your vocabularies for the last time, and complete them as far as +possible. Make presents of all your travelling gear and old guns to your +native attendants, for they will be mere litter in England, costly to +house and attractive to moth and rust; while in the country where you +have been travelling, they are of acknowledged value, and would be +additionally acceptable as keepsakes. + +Memoranda, to arrange.--Paste all loose slips of MSS. into the pages of a +blank book; and stitch your memoranda books where they are torn; give +them to a bookbinder, at the first opportunity, to re-bind and page them, +adding an abundance of blank leaves. Write an index to the whole of your +MSS.; put plenty of cross-references, insert necessary explanations, and +supplement imperfect descriptions, while your memory of the events +remains fresh. It appears impossible to a traveller, at the close of his +journey, to believe he will ever forget its events, however trivial; for +after long brooding on few facts, they will seem to be fairly branded +into his memory. But this is not the case; for the crowds of new +impressions, during a few months or years of civilised life, will efface +the sharpness of the old ones. I have conversed with men of low mental +power, servants and others, the greater part of whose experiences in +savagedom had passed out of their memories like the events of a dream. + +Alphabetical Lists.--Every explorer has frequent occasion to draw up long +catalogues in alphabetical order, whether of words for vocabularies, or +of things that he has in store: now, there is a right and a wrong way of +setting to work to make them. The wrong way is to divide the paper into +equal parts, and to assign one of them to each letter in order. The right +way is to divide the paper into parts of a size proportionate to the +number of words in the English language which begin with each particular +letter. In the first case the paper will be overcrowded in some parts and +utterly blank in others, in the second it will be equally overspread with +writing; and an ordinary-sized sheet of paper, if closely and clearly +written, will be sufficient for the drawing up of a very extended +catalogue. A convenient way of carrying out the principle I have +indicated is to take an English dictionary, and after having divided the +paper into as many equal parts as there are leaves in the dictionary, to +adopt the first word of each leaf as headings to them. It may save +trouble to my reader if I give a list of headings appropriate to a small +catalogue. We will suppose the paper to be divided into fifty-two +spaces--that is to say, into four columns and thirteen spaces in each +column--then the headings of these spaces, in order, will be as +follows:-- + + + A dul pal son + adv eve per sta + app fin ple sir + bal gin pre sur + bil hee pro tem + bre imp que tos + cap int rec tur + chi k reg umb + col lan ria une + com mac sab ven + cra mil sca wea + dec nap sha wor + dis off siz x y a + +Verification of Instruments.--On arriving at the sea-level, make daily +observations with your boiling-point thermometer, barometer, and aneroid, +as they are all subject to changes in their index-errors. As soon as you +have an opportunity, compare them with a standard barometer, compare also +your ordinary thermometer and azimuth-compass with standard instruments, +and finally, have them carefully re-verified at the Kew observatory on +your return to England. A vast deal of labour has been wholly thrown away +by travellers owing to their neglecting to ascertain the index-errors of +these instruments at the close of their journey. A careful observer ought +to have eliminated the effects of instrumental errors from his sextant +observations; nevertheless it will be satisfactory to him, and it may +clear up some apparent anomalies, to have his entire instrumental outfit +re-verified at Kew. + +Observations, to recalculate.--Send by post to England a complete copy +(always preserve the originals) of all your astronomical observations, +that they may be carefully recalculated before your return, otherwise a +long period may elapse before the longitudes are finally settled, and +your book may be delayed through the consequent impossibility of +preparing a correct map. The Royal Geographical Society has frequently +procured the re-calculation of observations made on important journeys, +at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and elsewhere. I presume that a +well-known traveller would never find a difficulty in obtaining the +calculations he might desire, through the medium of that Society, if it +was distinctly understood that they were to be made at his own cost. + +Lithograph Maps.--It may add greatly to the interest which a traveller +will take in drawing up a large and graphic route-map of his journey, if +he knows the extreme ease and cheapness with which copies of such a map +may be multiplied to any extent by a well-known process in lithography: +for these being distributed among persons interested in the country where +he has travelled, will prevent his painstaking from being lost to the +world. Sketches and bird'[S-eye views may be multiplied in the same +manner. The method to which I refer is the so-called Anastatic process; +the materials can be obtained, with full instructions, at any +lithographer's shop, and consist of autographic ink and paper. The paper +has been prepared by being glazed over with a composition, and the ink is +in appearance something like Indian ink, and used in much the same way. +With an ordinary pen, with this ink, and upon this paper, the traveller +draws his map; they are neither more nor less difficult to employ than +common stationery, and he may avail himself of tracing-paper without +danger. He has one single precaution to guard against, which is, not to +touch the paper overmuch with his bare and, but to keep a bit of loose +paper between it and the map as he draws. As soon as it is finished, the +map is taken to a lithographer, who puts it face downwards on a stone, +and passes it under his press, when every particle of ink leaves the +surface of the paper and attaches itself to the surface of the stone, +precisely as though it had originally been written there; the glaze on +the paper, which prevents the ink from soaking into it, makes this +transference more easy and complete. The stone can now be worked with, +just as a stone that has been regularly lithographed in the usual manner; +that is to say, printing ink may be rubbed over it and impressions may be +taken off in any number. It will be observed that the writing on the +paper is reversed upon the stone, and is re-reversed, or set right again, +in the impressions that are taken from it. The lithographer's charges for +furnishing autographic ink and paper, working the stone, striking off +fifty copies of a folio size, and supplying the paper (common white +paper) for the copies--in fact every expense included--need not exceed +ten shillings, and may be much less. If before drawing his map the +traveller were to go to some working lithographer and witness the +process, and make two or three experiments in a small way, he would +naturally succeed all the better. A map drawn on a large scale, though +without any pretension to artistic skill, with abundance of profile views +of prominent landmarks, and copious information upon the routes that were +explored, written along their sides, would be of the utmost value to +future travellers, and to geographers at home. + + + +INDEX. + + +Accumulators. + +Advantages of Travel. + +Agates for striking sparks. + +Agreement with Servants. + +Alarm gun. + +Alloy for bullets. + +Alkail. + +Almanack, (see "Diagram"). + +Alpenstock. + +Alphabet, signal. + +Alpine tent. + +Amadou. + +Ammunition (See GUN FITTINGS and AMMUNITION). + +Anastatic process. + +Anchors. + +Andersson, Mr. + +Angareb (bedstead). + +Angles, to measure; by means of chords. + +Animal heat. + +Anthills of white ants, as ovens; yellow ants, as signs of direction. + +Arctic see "Snow," "Esquimaux," and "Climbing and Mountaineering.". + +Arms, weapons. + +Arrows; set by a springe; to poison; to shoot fish. + +Artificial horizon. + +Ashes, for soap; for salt; for saltpetre and touchpaper; bivouac in; +in flooring; dressing skins. + +Ass; kicking, to check; braying. + +Atkinson, Mr. + +Austin, Mr. + +Autographic ink. + +Awnings, to boat; to litter; to tents. + +Axe, for marking trees; for ice; to re-temper. + +Axletree, to mend; to prepare wood for. + +Backs, sore. + +Bags for sleeping in; saddle-bags; bags carried over saddle; +on packsaddle; to tie the mouth of. + +Baines, Mr. + +Baker, Sir S. + +Baking Ball (bullet); poisoned (see "Lead"). + +Ballantyne, Mr. + +Bamboo rafts; to dig with; to cut meat; to strike sparks; +to boil water in; to hitch together. + +Barclay, Captain, of Ury. + +Bark, to strip; for boats; for water vessels; for string and +cord; for cloth. + +Barrels, as water vessels; in digging wells; to make filters; +as floats (see also "Gourd-floats,"). + +Barth, Dr. + +Basket-work boats; bucket; to protect water-bags. + +Bath, vapour; bath-glove. + +Battues, marking beaters at. + +Beach, bivouac on (see "Dateram,"). + +Beacons, fire and smoke. + +Beads, for presents and payments; as means of counting. + +Beale, Lieutenant. + +Bearings by Compass, Sun, etc.--Pocket compass; bearings by +sun and stars; other signs of direction; to follow a track at +night. + +Bedding--General remarks; vital heat; mattresses and their +substitutes; preparing the ground for bed; coverlets; pillows. + +Bedstead. + +Bees, to find hive. + +Beke, Dr. + +Belcher, Admiral Sir E. + +Bellows. + +Bells for cattle; to strings (thieves). + +Belt, life; for trousers; bundle tied to. + +Bengal fire. + +Birds, flight of, shows water; dead game; direction of unseen +coast; Food of birds wholesome to man; rank birds, to prepare, +for eating; watchfulness of; (see "Feathers," "Quills," +Shooting and Game). + +Birdlime. + +Biscuit, meat. + +Bivouac--General remarks on shelter; various methods of bivouacking; +bivouac in special localities; in hostile country; in unhealthy +countries; flies at night. + +Blacksmith's work (see Metals). + +Black paint; lampblack. + +Bladder for carrying water (see "Floats,"; Membrane). + +Blakiston, Captain, R. A. + +Blanket stocking. + +Blaze (marked trees); of fire in early morning. + +Bleeding, haemorrhage; blood-letting. + +Bligh, Captain. + +Blisters. + +Blood, in making floors; as food; as paint; as ink. + +Blue fire. + +Boats (see Rafts and Boats). Boat fire-place; routes, to mark; shipping +great weights; moving them on land; shooting from; fishing fron. + +Bogs, to cross. + +Bois de Vache (cattle-dung). + +Bolas. + +Bones, as fuel; food; to extract fat from; broken bones. + +Books, for MS.; to bind; on conclusion of journey. + +Boots. + +Borrow, Mr. + +Bougeau, Mr. + +Bows set by a spring (see Arrows). + +Box of card, to pack flat. + +Braces, for trousers; for saddlery; to weave. + +Brands, for trees; for cattle. + +Break to carriage wheels. + +Breakwater of floating spars. + +Bridges of felled trees; flying bridges. + +Bridles. + +Broken limbs. + +Brush, to make; paint-brush. + +Buccaneer. + +Bucket; pole and bucket at wells. + +Buckle. + +Bullet; poisoned (see "Lead"). + +Buoys. + +Burning down trees; hollows in wood. + +Burning-glasses. + +Bush-costume. + +Bush-laws. + +Bushing a tent. + +Butcher Butcher's knife. + +Butter; relieves thirst. + +Caches and Depots--Caches; hiding jewels; depositing letters; +reconnoitring by help of porters. + +Caesar. + +Calabash floats; water vessels. + +Calculations, to procure; blank forms. + +Calf stuffed with hay (Tulchan). + +Campbell, Mr. J., of Islay. + +Camel. + +Camp (see Bivouac, Hut, Tent)m to fortify; camp fire; baking +beneath. + +Candles and Lamps--Candles; materials for candles; candlesticks; +lamps To obtain a blaze in early morning. + +Canoe, of a log; of three planks; of reeds and fibre; of bark; +of the Rob Roy pattern; to carry on horseback. + +Canvas, life-belt; water vessels; boat; painted, for sleeping rug. + +Cap (hat); (percussion); to obtain fire from. + +Carbon paper for tracing. + +Carcass (carrion), to find; newly dead animal, warmth of. + +Card-boxes, to pack flat. + +Carpenters' tools (see "Burning down Trees,". + +Carrara, shipping heavy blocks. + +Carriages--Wagons; drays; tarring wheels; breaks and drags; +sledges; North American travel (trail); palanquins. + +Carrion. + +Carross (fur) (see). + +Cartel (bedstead). + +Carter, Alpine Outfitter. + +Case-hardening. + +Cask (see "Barrel"). + +Castings, of lead; cast-steel. + +Cats cannot endure high altitudes. + +Catgut; for nooses. + +Cattle--Weights carried by cattle; theory of loads and distances; +horses; mules; asses; oxen; cows; camels; dogs; goats and sheep; +management of horses and other cattle; intelligence of, in finding +water; smell road; keep guard; will efface cache marks; to water +cattle; to swim with; to use as messengers (see 'Horse' in "Index"). + +Cattle-dung, as fuel; as tinder; in plastering huts; in making +floors; in dressing skins. + +Catlin, Mr. + +Caulking boats; leaky water vessels. + +Caviare. + +Cerate ointment. + +Chaff, to cut, with a sickle. + +Chairs. + +Chalk to mark hats of beaters; whitwash. + +Charcoal, to make; for gun-powder; in balls (gulo); fire-place +for; used in filters; pencils made of; powdered and buried as a +mark Animal charcoal. + +Cheese, to make. + +Chill, radiation (see "Vital Heat,"; "Wet Clothes,"' and "Comfort +in Travel"). + +Chisel, cold for metals or stone. + +Chollet's dried vegetables. + +Chords, table of; table for triangulation by. + +Christison, Dr., tables on diet. + +Chronometer (see "Watch-pocket,"). + +Clay for pottery. + +Cleanliness (see "Washing Clothes,"; "Washing Oneself,"; "Warmth +of Dirt,"). + +Cliffs, to descend with ropes. + +Climbing and Mountaineering--Climbing; descending cliffs with +ropes; leaping poles and ropes; the art of climbing difficult +places; snow mountains; ropes; ice-axe; alpenstock; boots, +spectacles, and masks,--Climbing with a horse; descending +with wagons; rarefied air, effect of; mountains, coup e'air +on; magnetism of. + +Clothing--Materials; warmth of different kinds; waterproofing +and making incombustible, sewing materials; articles of dress +(caps, coats, socks, etc.); wet clothes, to dry; to keep dry; +washing clothes; soap; washing flannels; washing oneself; warmth +of dirt; bath glove and brush; Double clothing for sleeping in. + +Clove-hitch. + +Coat; to carry. + +Cold (see "Chill"). + +Collar, horse; swimming-collar. + +Colomb and Bolton's signals. + +Comfort in travel; dry clothes. + +Compass. + +Conclusion of the Journey--Completing collections; alphabetical +lists; observations re-calculated; lithographical map. + +Concrete for floors. + +Condiments. + +Condors, to trap. + +Convergence of tracks aflight, to water; to dead game; of bees +to hive. + +Cooking; utensils; fire-places; ovens; cook to be quick in making +the fire. + +Cooper, Mr. W. M. + +Copper, to cover with tin; copper boats. + +Cormorants. + +Corracles. + +Cord, String, Thread--Suibstitutes; sewing; needles, to make +(see "Ropes"). + +Corks and stoppers. + +Cot. + +Cotton, for clothing; for tinder. + +Counting, as done by savages. + +Coverlets. + +Cows. + +Crawfurd, Mr. J. + +Cresswell, Lieut., R.N. + +Crocodiles, to shoot. + +Cross, as a mark for roads. + +Crowbar. + +Crows, to destroy. + +Crupper. + +Culprits, to secure; punishment. + +Cumming, Mr. Gordon. + +Cups; to make tea in. + +Curing meat; hides. + +D's for saddle. + +Dahoman night-watch. + +Dalyell, Sir R. + +Dana, Mr. + +Dangers of travel, I. + +Darwin, Mr. + +Dateram (for tent and picket ropes). + +Davenport brothers. + +Death of one of the party. + +Decoy-ducks. + +Defence. + +Depot (see Caches and Depots). + +Dew, to collect for drinking. + +Diagram of altitudes and bearings. + +Dial, sun. + +Diarrhoea. + +Diet, theory of. + +Digging. + +Dirt, warmth of. + +Discipline. + +Diseases. + +Distances, to measure; travelled over by day; loads and distances, +theory of. + +Distilling. + +Division of game; by drawing lots. + +Doebereiner and Oelsner. + +Dogs, in harness; in fishng; in finding water; as messengers; to +keep at bay; eating snow; sheep-dogs. + +Donkey (see "Ass"). + +Douglas, Sir H. + +Down of plants as tinder. + +Drags and breaks. + +Drain to tents. + +Dray (wagon). + +Dress (see Clothing); dressing-gown. + +Drinking, when riding; from muddy puddles. + +Drowning. + +Drugs. + +Druitt, Mr. + +Dry, to keep, importance of; to dry clothes; to keep clothes dry; +small packets, when swimming; tinder in wet weather; buried letters; +dry fuel, to find; to dry meat,; +fish; eggs. + +Duck shooting. + +Dung, cattle (see "Cattle-dung"). + +Ear-trumpet. + +Ecclesiasticus. + +Echo, as a guide in steering. + +Edge of tools. + +Edgington, tents. + +Edwards, Mr. + +Eggs, to dry; white of, as gum. + +Elephants. + +Emetics. + +Encampments (see Bivouac, Hut, Tent). + +Enquiries, I (see Preparatory Enquiries). + +Esquimaux, lamp for cooking; spectacles for snow; faw meat for +scurvy; raw meat and fur bag (see "Snow"). + +Estimates (see Outfit). + +Everest, Colonel Sir G. + +Expedition (see Organizing an Expedition). + +Extract, of meat; of tea and coffee. + +Eyre, General. + +Faggot hung to gree, as a mark. + +Falconer, Mr. + +Fat (see "Grease"). + +Feast-days. + +Feathers, for bed; for mark by road-side; on string, to scare +game. + +Felt, to make. + +Ferns as food. + +Ferry, African, of calabashes; of reeds; flying bridges. + +Fever, I. + +Filters. + +Fire--General remarks; to obtain fire from the sun (burning-glasses, +reflectors); by conversion of motion into heat (flint and steel, guns, +lucifers, fire-sticks); by chemical means (spontaneous combustion); +tinder; tinder-boxes; fuel; small fuel for lighting the fire; to +kindle a spark into a flame; camp fires Burning down trees; hollows +in wood; fire-beacons; prairie on fire; first obliterate cache marks; +leave an enduring mark; heating power of fuels; blacksmithery; wet +clothes, to dry; tent, to warm; incombustible stuffs ( see "Brands"). + +Fishing--Fishing-tackle; to recover a lost line; otters; boat-fishing; +to see things under water; nets; spearing fish; intoxicating fish; +otters, cormorants, and dogs; Fish roe as food; fish, dried and pounded; +fish skin (see "Skin"); fish-hook for springes. + +Fitzroy, Admiral. + +Flags, for signals. + +Flannel; to wash. + +Flash of sun from mirror. + +Flashing signals. + +Flashing alphabet. + +Flask, battered, to mend (see). + +Fleas. + +Flies, near cattle-kraals. + +Flints; for gun; sparks used as a signal; as a light to show the +road; flint knives. + +Floats; floating powers of wood. + +Flogging. + +Floors, to make. + +Flour, nutritive value; to carry. + +Flying bridges. + +Food--Nutritive elements of food; food suitable for stores; +condiments; butcher; store-keeping; wholesome food procurable in +bush; revolting food, to save lives of starving men; +cooking utensils; fire-places for cooking; ovens; +bush-cookery. + +Forbes, Captain, R.N. + +Forbes, Professor J. + +Fords and Bridges--Fords; swamps; passing things from hand to hand; +plank roads; snow-drifts and weak ice; bridges; flying bridges. + +Forge. + +Forest as shelter; log huts; to travel in a straight line +through forests. + +Form, for log-book; calculations; for agreement with +servants. + +Fortification of camp. + +Fountains. + +Fuel; heating powers of various kinds. + +Fulminating powder in destroying wolves; percussion caps. + +Furnioture--Bed.; hammocks and cots; mosquito-nets; chairs; +table--(See also). + +Fusees, in making a fire. + +Gall (ox-gall); girth-galls; blisters. + +Game, other means of Capturing (besides shooting)--General remarks; +springes; pitfalls; traps; poison; bird-line; catching with +the hand; bolas; lasso; ham-stringing; hawking To hide from +animals of prey; division of spoils; to float across a river; +to carry Dead animals, to find; water, in paunch of. + +Garibaldi. + +Gauze, for mosquito-curtains; to make incombustible; stretched +over mercurial horizon. + +Geographical Society. + +Gilby, Mr. + +Gipsy tent; marks (patterans). + +Girths; girth-galls. + +Glass, to shape; substitute for, in mercurial horizon; to +silver; substitute for glass. + +Glaisher, Mr. + +Glaze for pottery. + +Glove (bath-glove). + +Glue. + +Goats. + +Gold, to carry. + +Gourd float; boat (makara). + +Grains (for spearing fish). + +Grant, Captain. + +Grass shutters. + +Graters. + +Grease for leather; in dressing skins; for wheels; to procure +from bones; for relieving thirst; oiling the person; butter; +olive oil, to purify. + +Gregory, Mr. + +Gul (ball of charcoal). + +Gum. + +Gun-fittings and Ammunition--Powder-flask; percussion-caps; +wadding; flints; gunpowder; bullets; shot and slug. + +Guns and Rifles--Breech-loading; best size of gun; sights, +ramrod, etc.; rust; olive-oil, to purify; injuries to gun, to +repair; guns to hang up; to carry on a journey; on horse-back; +to dispose of at night; to clean--To procure fire; to set an +alarm-gun; to support tenting. + +Gunpowder, to make; to carry; mark on stone left by flash; +in lighting a fire; in making touch-paper; substitute for salt; +fulminating powder to kill beasts; powder-flask; battered, +to mend (see). + +Gut; catgut. + +Gutta percha (see "Macintosh"). + +Guy-rope in tenting. + +Haemorrhage. + +Haggis. + +Hall, Dr. Marshall. + +Hammering, sound of. + +Hammock. + +Hamstringing. + +Handing things across a swamp. + +Handbook for Field Service. + +Handkerchief, to sling a jar; to tie the wrists. + +Hands of prisoner, to secure. + +Harness--Saddles for riding; bags; sore backs; pack-saddles; +pack-bags; art of packing; girths, stirrups, bridles, etc.; +tethers, hobbles and knee-halters; horse-collar, traces and +trek-tows. + +Hats Hawker, Colonel. + +Hawks for hawking; to trap. + +Head, Sir F. + +Hearne, Mr. + +Heat, vital; heating power of different fuels (see Fire). + +Heather in bivouac. + +Heavy bodies, to move. + +Heber, Bishop. + +Heliostat. + +Helm. + +Hides (see "Skins;" also Leather). + +Hiding-places (see Caches and Depots). + +Hills (see Climbing, etc.). + +Hitch, Malay (see Knots). + +Hobbies. + +Holes, to dig. + +Honey, to find; honey-bird. + +Hooker, Dr. + +Hooks, for walls of hut; fish-hooks; for springes. + +Horizon, artificial. + +Horn; substitute for glass; powder-horn. + +Horse; to check descent of wagon; tied to sleeping master; +to horn of dead game; picketted to a dateram; running by side +of; climbing with; descending with; in deep snow; +swimming with; carrying a gun on; loading on; tying a +prisooner on; raising water from wells; horseflesh; hair +for string; collar. + +Hostilities--To fortify a camp; weapons to resist an attack; +natives forbidden to throng the camp; keeping watch; +prairie set on fire; tricks upon robbers; passing through a +hostile country; securing prisoners; proceedings in case of +death. + +Hours' journey. + +Huber, M. + +Hue and Gabet, MM. Hunger. + +Huts--Log huts; underground huts; snow-houses; wattle and daub; +palisades; straw or reed walls; bark; mats; Malay hitch; +tarpaulin; whitewash; roofs, floors, windows. + +Ice, weak, to cross; axe; burning lens, made of. + +Incombustible stuffs. + +Index, to make. + +India-rubber (see "MacIntosh"). + +Information, preparatory, to obtain; through native women. + +Ink; autographic; sympathetic. + +Insects as food; mosquitos; flies; fleas; lice. + +Instruments for surveying; verification of; porters for; +surgical instruments. + +Interpreters. + +Intesting to carry water; as swimming-belt; to make catgut from; +membrane thread. + +Iron, ore to reduce; forge; boats. + +Isinglass. + +Ivory, to sling on pack-saddle. + +Jar, to sling. + +Jackson, Colonel. + +Javelins, set over beast paths. + +Jerked meat. + +Jewels, to secrete. + +Jourt, Kirghis. + +Kabobs. + +Kane, Dr. + +Kegs for pack-saddles. + +Keels. + +Kerkari. + +Kettle; used for distilling. + +Kite, as a signal. + +Knapsack sleeping-bag; to carry heavy weights knapsack fashion. + +Knee-halter. + +Knife. + +Knots--See also "Knots in Alpine Ropes,"; tying to tent-pole; +tent-pole, to mend; knotting neck of a bag; Malay hitch; +matting and weaving; raft fastening; leather vessels, to +mend; hide lashings; rush chairs For a place to make fast to, +see "Burning down Trees,"; "Digging Holes to plant them,"; "Dateram,". + +Kraals. + +Ladder. + +Laird, M'Gregor, Mr. + +Lamp; of lead, to cast; Esquimaux; lamp-black. + +Lantern. + +Lappar (to scare game). + +Lashings of raw hide. + +Lasso. + +Lathe. + +Laws of the bush. + +Lead; to cast. + +Leaks, to caulk, in boats; in water vessels. + +Leaping-ropes and poles. + +Leather--To dress hides; to preserve them without dressing; +greasing leather Leather clothing; tents; lashings +of raw hide; leather vessels, to repair; ropes (See +"Skins."). + +Leggings. + +Leichhardt, Dr. + +Length, measurement of. + +Letters, to deposit; carried by animals; of alphabet, to stamp +and to brand. + +Lever. + +Lice. + +Lime, to make; to poison fish; bird-lime. + +Linen clothing. + +Lines, for fishing. + +Lists of stores; of instruments; alphabetical, to make. + +Lithographic map, to make. + +Litter for the wounded; horse-litter. + +Livingstone, Dr. + +Lloyd, Mr. + +Loading guns. + +Loads and distances, theory of. + +Locusts, to cook. + +Log-book; log for a boat's speed; log-hut. + +Lopstick (to mark a road). + +Lost road; articles in sand; fishing-line, in water; to +see things lost under water. + +Lots how to draw. + +Lucan, Lord. + +Lucifer matches; for percussion caps. + +Lunars. + +Luxuries of tent-life. + +Lye (for soap). + +Lunch, Lieutenant. + +McClintock, Captain Sir L. + +Macgregor, Mr. + +Macintosh for under bedding; sleeping-bag; inflatable boats; +water vessels; gun-cover; is spoilt by grease. + +Maclear, Sir Thos. + +McWilliams, Dr. + +Madrina (of mules). + +Magnetic bearings; magntism of rocks. + +Makara (gourd-raft). + +Malaria fever. + +Malay hitch. + +Marks for the way-side--Marks in the forest; for canoe routes; +marks with stones; gipsy and other marks; paint To mark cattle +(see also "Caches,"). + +Mask for snow mountains. + +Mast, substitute for. + +Match, lucifer; sulphur. + +Mats; for tents (see "Reed huts,"). + +Mattresses; feathers for. + +Meaden, Captain J. + +Measurements--Distance travelled; of rate of movement; +tables for ditto; natural units; measurement of anagles; +chords and table of; triangulation; table for, on principle of +chords; time, measurement of. + +Meat biscuit. + +Mechanical appliances--On land; by wetted seeds; +accumulation of efforts; to raise weights out of water. + +Medicine--General remarks; drugs and instruments; bush +remedies; illnesses and accidents; little for the wounded +(see also "Palanquin,"). + +Membrane, Sinew, Horn--Parchment; cat-gut; membrane +thread; sinews for thread; glue;; isinglass; horn, +tortoise-shell and whalebone. + +Memoranda and Log-books--General remarks; pocket MS.-book; +log-book; calculation books; number of observations requiring +record Memoranda, to arrange. + +Metals--Fuel for forge; bellows; iron and steel; +case-hardening; lead, to cast; tin-plates; copper. + +Mercury to harden lead with. + +Metallic (prepared) paper. + +Miller, Professor W. H. + +Milk, to preserve; sizing paper with; used as sympathetic ink; +to milk wild cows. + +Milton, Lord. + +Mirage. + +Mirror, signalling with the sun. + +Mitchell, Sir Thomas. + +Moltke. + +Mosquito curtains; tent of. + +Moss on trees, a sign of direction. + +Mould for candles. + +Mountain (see Climbing and Mountaineering). + +Muddy water, to filter. + +Muff. + +Mule. + +Murray, Admiral Hon. C. + +Nails, substitutes for. + +Napoleon I., on bivouac. + +Natives (see "Savages"). + +Navy (British) diet. + +Needles. + +Neighing. + +Nets. + +Nettle as food. + +Niger, expedition to. + +Night, to follow a track by; shooting; night-glass; compass. + +Nocturnal animals. + +Nooses. + +Notes, to keep. + +Notices to another party. + +Number of a party; to camps. + +Nunn, W. and Co. + +Nutritive elements of food. + +Oakum, for bedding. + +Observations, number required; to procure calculation of. + +Occultations, telescopes for. + +Oil (olive) to refine (see "Grease"). + +Ointment. + +Opera glass as a night glass; supplies a burning lens; and +a lens to condense light. + +Ophthalmia. + +Organising an Expedition--Best size for party; servants' +engagement; women. + +Osborn, Captain Sherard, R.N. + +Ostrich eggs, to carry. + +Oswell, Mr. W. C. + +Otter; fishermen's board. + +Outfit--Stores for general use; for individual use; presents +and articles for payment; summary; means of transport; Outfit of medicine; +Alpine gear; sewing materials. + +Outline forms for calculations; for the log-book. + +Outrigger, to balance canoes; irons for oars. + +Ovampo camp-fires. + +Ovens. + +Owen, Professor. + +Ox; for stalking; ox-gall. + +Paces, length of; to measure rate of travel by. + +Pack saddles; kegs for; art of packing. + +Padlock to a buckled strap. + +Palliasse. + +Paint; to paint cattle; paint-brush. + +Palanquin (see "Litter,"). + +Palisades. + +Palliser, Captain J. + +Pan-hunting. + +Paper; warmth of, in coverlet. + +Parbuckling. + +Parchment. + +Park, Mungo. + +Parkyns, Mansfield, Mr. + +Party, to organise (see Organising an Expedition). + +Paste. + +Patch to a water-bag. + +Path, lost. + +Patterans (gipsy marks by road). + +Paunch of dead animal, water in. + +Payment, articles of. + +Peal, Mr. + +Peat. + +Pegs, tent; to secure tent ropes; for hooks. + +Pemmican. + +Pencils. + +Pendulum. + +Pens. + +Percussion caps. + +Pereira, Dr. + +Picketting horses in sand. + +Picture writing. + +Pillow. + +Pitch. + +Pitching a tent. + +Pitfall. + +Pith for tinder; for hats. + +Plaids in bivouac in heather; wetted, in wind. + +Planks, to sew together (see Timber); plank-roads. + +Poaching devices (see Game, Other Means, etc.). + +Poison for beasts; for fish; for stakes in pitfalls; for +arrows; for bullets; snake bites; suspicion of poison; +poisonous plants; antedotes to poison. + +Pole for tent; pole and bucket; pole star. + +Poncho. + +Portable food. + +Porters for instruments; of provisions for depots. + +Pottery--Glaze for; clay; pots for stores and caches; Pot for cooking; +to mend; substitute for; baking in; distilling from. + +Powder (see "Gunpowder"). + +Prairie on fire. + +Precautions against poison; malaria; unwholesome water; thieves. + +Preparatory Inquiries--Qualifications for a traveller; dangers of +travel; advantages; to obtain information; conditions of failure +and success; the leader; servants. + +Presents for savages. + +Preserving food. + +Pricker for gun-nipples. + +Prisoners, to secure; punishment. + +Pulley. + +Pump. + +Puna (effect of high mountain air). + +Punishment. + +Punt of hide; of tin. + +Putrid water. + +Pyrites. + +Qualifications for a traveller. + +Quicksilver, to harden lead. + +Quills, to prepare; to carry letters; to hold minute specimens. + +Quinine. + +Radiation chill. + +Rae, Dr. + +Rafts and boats--Rafts of wood; of bamboo; Boating power of +woods; burning down trees; rafts of reeds; of hide; +of gourds (Makara); rude boats; sailing; log canoe; of +three planks; inflatable indi-rubber; of basket; of reed of +fibre; of hide; corracle and fibre; of hide; corracle and +skin punt; bark boat and canoe; tin boat; boats, well built, +of various materials; boating gear; boat building; boat +management; awning--(See also "Boats."). + +Rain, to catch. + +Ramrod; to replace; probing with, for water; broken ramrod +tubes. + +Rank birds, to prepare for eating. + +Rarefied air. + +Rarey, Mr. + +Rate of movement, to measure; of swimming; theory of load, and +rate of travel. + +Rations; of water. + +Raw meat; as an antiscorbutic. + +Reconnoitring arid lands. + +Reeds, for rafts; mats; huts and fences; to weave; for +pens; as a cache (see "Bamboo"). + +Reel, substitute for. + +Reflectors, to light tinder; of sun for a signal. + +Remedies. + +Resin. + +Retreat, hurried. + +Richardson, Sir J.; Mr. + +Rifle (see Guns and Rifles). + +Right angle, to lay out. + +Rings for saddle. + +Rivers, to cross (see Fords and Bridges); their banks are bad roads. + +Road, to mark; plank-road; lost road. + +Rob Roy canoe. + +Robbers (see "Thieves"). + +Robbiboo. + +Rock, a reservoir of heat at night; magnetism of. + +Rockets. + +Roe of fish, as food. + +Roofs. + +Ropes, for descending cliffs; Alpine; of sheeting; of bark, +(see Cord, String, Thread); tying a prisooner. + +Rudder. + +Rumford, Count. + +Running, with horses. + +Rushes (see "Reeds"), for chairs. + +Rust. + +Sack (see "Rag"). + +Saddle; packsaddle; saddle as pillow; saddle bags; as +screens against wind. + +Sails to raft; sail-tent. + +Salt; given to cattle; salt-lick; salt meat; to +make; to salt hides; to prepare salt meat for cooking +(see "Sea-water"). + +Saltpetre; for gunpowder. + +Sand, sleeping in; to pitch tents or picket horses in; ripple +marks on, give sign of direction; used in raising a sarcophagus. + +Sarcophagus, raised by sand. + +Savages, management of--General remarks; bush laws; to +enable a savage to keep count; drawing lots. + +Saw mark. + +Scarecvrow. + +Scent of human touch. + +Schlagintweit, H. + +Science, preparatory information in. + +Scorpion sting. + +Scurvy. + +Sea-birds, as food--Sea-water, wetting with, a remedy for thirst; +a remedy for damp through rain; to distill. + +Seaweed as fuel; as food; as fodder; as string; to make gum; +its ashes. + +Seeds wetted, expansive force of. + +Sealing-wax varnish. + +Seamanship. + +Seasoning wood. + +Sedlitz powders. + +Servants. + +Sewing. + +Sextant, to learn the use of; glasses to re-silver. + +Shavings for bedding. + +Sheep; sheep dogs. + +Sheets used as ropes. + +Shelter from wind; from sky. + +Shingle, bivouac on. + +Shingles (wood tiles). + +Shirt sleeves, how to tuck up; writing notes upon. + +Shoes; of untanned leather, eatable; shoemakers' wax. + +Shooting, hints on--How to load; shooting in water; night +shooting; battues to mark the beaters; scarecrows; +stalking horses; pan-hunting; the rush of an enraged animal; +hiding game; tying up the shooting horse; division of +game; duck shooting; crocodileshooting; tracks; carrying game; +setting a gun as a spring-gun; bow and arrows; knives; night-glass. + +Shot; for defence. + +Shutters of grass. + +Sickness (see "Medicine"). + +Sickle, in cutting chaff. + +Sights of a gun; to replace. + +Signals--Flashing with flags; reflecting the sun with a +mirror; fire and smoke; other signals; letters carried by +animals. + +Signets. + +Sinew-thread. + +Size, for paper. + +Skins (see Leather), eatable when untanned; salting animals in their +own skins; baking them, ditto; boiling, ditto; skin +rafts; boats; water bags; lashings of raw hide; to +make glue. + +Sky, shelter from. + +Sledge. + +Sleeping-bags--Knapsack bags; Arctic bags; peasants' +sack (see also). + +Slippers. + +Slugs (shot); to cast. + +Smell of road; of water; of human touch; of a negro; +as an indication to stop. + +Smith, Archibald, Mr. + +Smith, Dr. + +Smith's work. + +Smoke signals; smoking skins;. + +Snake bites; tree snakes in boating; poison for arrows. + +Snards. + +Snow, bivouac on; huts of; hearth on; filter for muddy +water; snow does not satisfy thirst; blindness and spectacles; +drifts to cross; ripple marks to steer by; snowy mountains, +to climb. + +Soap. + +Socks. + +Solder for tin. + +Soldering (lots). + +Sore backs to horses. + +Sound, velocity of; signals by. + +Span, measure of length; of angles. + +Sparks; to strike; to make a fire from; struck as a +signal; to show the road by night. + +Spears, for fish; set over beast paths; trailed through grass +by savages; to straighten wood for. + +Specific gravities of wood. + +Spectacles for snow; for seeing under water. + +Speke, Captain. + +Spokeshave. + +Sponge, lapping up water from puddles; dew from leaves. + +Spontaneous combustion. + +Spoons. + +Spring gun; bow. + +Springes. + +Squaring (right angles to lay out). + +Stalking-horses and screens; stalking game. + +Stars for bearings. + +Starving men. + +Steels for flints; steel tools; cast steel; +case-hardening. + +Sticks, small, for lighting fires; for fire by rubbing; for +tenting purposes and substitutes; to bend or straighten. + +Still (distilling). + +Sting of scorpions and wasps. + +Stirrups. + +Stitches. + +Stockings. + +Stones, heated, to make water boil; as weapons of defence; as +marks by roadside; to chisel marks upon. + +Stool. + +Stoppers. + +Stores, lists of; store-keeping. + +Strait-waistcoat. + +Straw, to work; straw walls. + +Stretchers. + +String. + +Strychnine. + +Stuffy bedding. + +Sturt, Captain. + +Sulphur matches; for gun-powder. + +Sunrise and sunset, diagram. + +Sun signals; solar bearings. + +Surveying Instruments. + +Swag. + +Swamps. + +Swimming--Rate of swimming; learning to swim; to support +those who cannot swim; landing through breakers; floats; +African swimming ferry; swimming with parcels; with horses; +taking a wagon across a river; water spectaacles;--Swimming with +carcass of game; with sheath knife. + +Swivels for tether ropes. + +Sympathetic ink. + +Syphons, to empty water vessels. + +Tables and chairs. + +Tables, of diet; of outfit; for rate of movement; of chords; +for triangulation by chords. + +Tallow for candles (see "Grease"). + +Tanks for wagons. + +Tar; tarpaulin; tarring wheels. + +Tawing hides. + +Taylor, Mr. + +Tea, theory of making. + +Temper, good. + +Temper of steel, to reduce. + +Tents--General remarks; materials for making them; large +tents; smalltents; pitching tents; tent poles; tying +things to them; to warm tents; permanent camp; to search +for things lost in the sand; precautions against thieves--Awning, +to litter; to boat; sail tent; tent and sleeping bag; gipsy tent. + +Tethers. + +Thatch. + +Theory of finding a lost path; of fords; of fountains; of +loads and distances; of nutriment; of reconnoitring by help of +depots; of tea making. + +Thiercelin, M. + +Thieves, hedge round tent; tricks upon (see Hostilities). + +Thirst (see Water for Drinking). + +Thorn-wreath in noosing animals. + +Thread. + +Thumbs, to tie. + +Tiller. + +Timber--Green wood, to season; to bend wood; carpenters' +tools; sharpening tools; nails, substitutes for; lathe; +charcoal, tar, and pitch; turpentine and resin--See also "Trees."). + +Tiimber-hitch (knot). + +Time, to measure; journey measured by. + +Tin; tin boat. + +Tinder; tinder-boxes. + +Toggle and strop. + +Toilet in travel. + +Tools. + +Toothache. + +Tortoiseshell. + +Touchwood; touch-paper. + +Tourniquet. + +Tow rope, to fix. + +Traces (harness). + +Tracing designs. + +Tracks, convergence of, towards water; towards dead game; to +prepare ground to receive tracks; to obliterate tracks. + +Transport, means of. + +Trapping. + +Travail (North America). + +Travel, rate of. + +Trees (see Timber), as shelter; to mark; to fell with fire; +to hollow with fire; as signs of neighbouring water; to +climb; to steer by; to make caches in; boughs bent as +accumulators; bark to strip; tree-bridges. + +Trektows (traces). + +Triangulation; table for, by chords. + +Trenches, for cooking. + +Trimmers. + +Trous de loup. + +Trowsers. + +Tschudi, Dr. + +Tulchan bishops. + +Turf screen against wind. + +Turnscrew in pocket-knife. + +Turpentine. + +Turtle, water in its pericardium. + +Tylor, Mr. + +Tyndall, Professor. + +Uganda thorn-wreath. + +Ulysses. + +Underground huts. + +Units of length. + +Ure's Dictionary. + +Vapour baths. + +Varnish of sealing-wax. + +Vavasour, Lady. + +Vegetables, Chollet's. + +Vegetation indicates water. + +Verification of instruments. + +Vermin on the person. + +Vessels to carry water, small; large. + +Vice in horses; in oxen. + +Virgil. + +Vital heat. + +Vraic (see "Seaweed"). + +Vulture trapping. + +Wadding. + +Wafers,. + +Wagons; to take across a river; axle-tree, to repair. + +Waistcoat; strait-waistcoat. + +Wakefulness. + +Walls; of snow; of straw or reeds. + +Washing clothes; oneself. + +Watch, pocket for; watch-glass as a burning lens; cover as a +reflector. + +Watching. + +Water for Drinking--General remarks; signs of the +neighbourhood of water; pools of water; fountains; wells; +snow-water; distilled water; occasional means of quenching +thirst; to purify water that is muddy or putrid; thirst, to +relieve; small water-vessels; kegs and tanks; to raise +water from wells for cattle--To see things under water; +shooting by waterside; floating game across water; raising +heavy bodies out of water; banks of watercourse a bad pathway; +bivouac by water; water causes earth over caches to sink; +waterproofing. + +Wattle and daub. + +Wax, bee-hives, to find; waxed paper; wax candles; +shoemakers' wax. + +Way, to find--Recollection of a path; to walk in a straight +line through forest; to find the best way down a hill-side; +blind paths; lost in a fog; mirage; lost path; +theory. + +Weapons of defence. + +Weaving mats; girths. + +Webbing. + +Weber, Dr. + +Weights drawn and carried by cattle; theory of, and distances; +heavy weights, to move; to carry. + +Welding iron. + +Wells; dry, used as sleeping places. + +Wet clothes, to dry (see "Dry"). + +Whalebone. + +Wheels, to tar and grease; tire made of hide. + +Whistle. + +Whitewash. + +Whymper, Mr. + +Williams, Rev. Mr. + +Wind, shelter from; as a guide. + +Women, strength of; kindliness of. + +Wood (see Timber and Trees) shavings for bed; fire-wood Wooden +cups for tea; shingles for roof. + +Woolley, Mr. + +Wounded persons, to carry. + +Wrangel, Admiral. + +Writing Materials--Paper; bookbinding; pens and +paint-brushes; ink; ox-gall; wafers, paste, and gum; +signets; sealing-wax varnish; small boxes for specimens; +Letters, to deposit en cache; writing in the dark; on +horseback. + +Wyndham, Mr. F. M. + +Zemsemiyah + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Art of Travel, by Francis Galton + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF TRAVEL *** + +***** This file should be named 14681.txt or 14681.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/4/6/8/14681/ + +Produced by Amy Zelmer + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |